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Freeman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Historical Geography of Europe. - Vol. I.—Text - -Author: Edward A. Freeman - -Release Date: February 11, 2020 [EBook #61375] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY I *** - - - - -Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="chap" /><div class="chap"> - -<div class="all"> - -<h1>THE<br /> -<br /> -HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE<br /> -<br /> -VOL. I.</h1> - - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - - -<p class="center"> -LONDON: PRINTED BY<br /> -SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE<br /> -AND PARLIAMENT STREET -</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p class="center"> -THE<br /> -<br /> -<span class="xx-largetext">HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY</span><br /> -<br /> -OF<br /> -<br /> -<span class="xx-largetext">EUROPE</span></p> - -<p class="p2 center">BY<br /> -<br /> -<span class="largetext">EDWARD A. FREEMAN, D.C.L., LL.D.</span><br /> -<br /> -HONORARY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, OXFORD</p> - -<p class="p2 center">IN TWO VOLUMES</p> - -<p class="p2 center"><span class="largetext"><i>VOL. I.—TEXT</i></span></p> - -<p class="p2 center">LONDON<br /> -LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.<br /> -1881<br /> -<br /> -<i>All rights reserved</i> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</a></h2> - - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is now several years since this book was begun. It -has been delayed by a crowd of causes, by a temporary -loss of strength, by enforced absence from England, by -other occupations and interruptions of various kinds. -I mention this only because of the effect which I fear -it has had on the book itself. It has been impossible -to make it, what a book should, if possible, be, the -result of one continuous effort. The mere fact that the -kindness of the publishers allowed the early part to be -printed some years back has, I fear, led to some -repetition and even contradiction. A certain change -of plan was found unavoidable. It proved impossible -to go through the whole volume according -to the method of the earlier chapters. Instead of -treating Europe as a whole, I found it needful to divide -it into several large geographical groups. The result -is that each of the later chapters has had to go over -again some small amount of ground which had been -already gone over in the earlier chapters. In some -cases later lights have led to some changes of view -or expression. I have marked these, as far as I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">{i}</a></span> -could, in the Additions and Corrections. If in any -case I have failed to do so, the later statement is the -one which should be relied on.</p> - -<p>I hope that I have made the object of the work -clear in the Introductory Chapter. It is really a very -humble one. It aims at little more than tracing out -the extent of various states at different times, and at -attempting to place the various changes in their due -relation to one another and to their causes. I am not, -strictly speaking, writing history. I have little to do -with the internal affairs of any country. I have looked -at events mainly with reference to their effect on the -European map. This has led to a reversal of what to -many will seem the natural order of things. In a -constitutional history of Europe, our own island would -claim the very first place. In my strictly geographical -point of view, I believe I am right in giving it the last.</p> - -<p>I of course assume in the reader a certain elementary -knowledge of European history, at least as -much as may be learned from my own General Sketch. -Names and things which have been explained there I -have not thought it needful to explain again. I need -hardly say that I found myself far more competent to -deal with some parts of the work than with others. -No one can take an equal interest in, or have an -equal knowledge of, all branches of so wide a subject. -Some parts of the book will represent real original -research; others must be dealt with in a far less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">{ii}</a></span> -thorough way, and will represent only knowledge got -up for the occasion. In such cases the reader will -doubtless find out the difference for himself. But -I have felt my own deficiencies most keenly in the -German part. No part of European history is to me -more attractive than the early history of the German -kingdom as such. No part is to me less attractive than -the endless family divisions and unions of the smaller -German states.</p> - -<p>In the Slavonic part I have found great difficulty -in following any uniform system of spelling. I consulted -several Slavonic scholars. Each gave me advice, -and each supported his own advice by arguments -which I should have thought unanswerable, if I had -not seen the arguments in support of the wholly different -advice given me by the others. When the teachers -differ so widely, the learner will, I hope, be forgiven, -if the result is sometimes a little chaotic. I have tried -to write Slavonic names so as to give some approach to -the sound, as far as I know it. But I fear that I have -succeeded very imperfectly.</p> - -<p>In such a crowd of names, dates, and the like, there -must be many small inaccuracies. In the case of the -smaller dates, those which do not mark the great -epochs of history, nothing is easier than to get wrong -by a year or so. Sometimes there is an actual difference -of statement in different authorities. Sometimes there -is a difference in the reckoning of the year. For<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">{iii}</a></span> -instance, In what year was Calais lost to England? -We should say 1558. A writer at the time would say -1557. Then again there is no slip of either pen or -press so easy as putting a wrong figure, and, except in -the case of great and obvious dates, or again when the -mistake is very far wrong indeed, there is no slip of pen -or press so likely to be passed by in revision. And again -there is often room for question as to the date which -should be marked. In recording a transfer of territory -from one power to another, what should be the date -given? The actual military occupation and the formal -diplomatic cession are often several years apart. Which -of these dates should be chosen? I have found it hard -to follow any fixed rule in such matters. Sometimes -the military occupation seems the most important point, -sometimes the diplomatic cession. I believe that in -each case where a question of this sort might arise, I -could give a reason for the date which has been chosen; -but here there has been no room to enter into discussions. -I can only say that I shall be deeply thankful -to any one who will point out to me any mistakes or -seeming mistakes in these or any other matters.</p> - -<p>The maps have been a matter of great difficulty. -I somewhat regret that it has been found needful to -bind them separately from the text, because this looks -as if they made some pretensions to the character of -an historical atlas. To this they lay no claim. They -are meant simply to illustrate the text, and in no way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">{iv}</a></span> -enter into competition either with such an elaborate -collection as that of Spruner-Menke, or even with -collections much less elaborate than that. Those maps -are meant to be companions in studying the history of the -several periods. Mine do not pretend to do more than -to illustrate changes of boundary in a general way. It -was found, as the work went on, that it was better on -the whole to increase the number of maps, even at the -expense of making each map smaller. There are disadvantages -both ways. In the maps of South-Eastern -Europe, for instance, it was found impossible to show -the small states which arose in Greece after the Latin -conquest at all clearly. But this evil seemed to be -counterbalanced by giving as many pictures as might be -of the shifting frontier of the Eastern Empire towards -the Bulgarian, the Frank, and the Ottoman.</p> - -<p>In one or two instances I have taken some small -liberties with my dates. Thus, for instance, the map of -the greatest extent of the Saracen dominion shows all -the countries which were at any time under the Saracen -power. But there was no one moment when the -Saracen power took in the whole extent shown in the -map. Sind and Septimania were lost before Crete and -Sicily were won. But such a view as I have given -seemed on the whole more instructive than it would -have been to substitute two or three maps showing the -various losses and gains at a few years’ distance from -one another.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">{v}</a></span></p> - -<p>I have to thank a crowd of friends, including some -whom I have never seen, for many hints, and for much -help given in various ways. Such are Professor Pauli -of Göttingen, Professor Steenstrup of Copenhagen, -Professor Romanos of Corfu, M. J.-B. Galiffe of -Geneva, Dr. Paul Turner of Budapest, Professor A. W. -Ward of Manchester, the Rev. H. F. Tozer, Mr. -Ralston, Mr. Morfill, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and my -son-in-law Arthur John Evans, whose praise is in all -South-Slavonic lands.</p> - -<p> -<span class="smcap ml2">Somerleaze, Wells:</span><br /> -<span class="ml4"><i>December 16, 1880.</i></span> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">{vi}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h2> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">INTRODUCTION.</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right" class="td_page_col">PAGE</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Definition of Historical Geography</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Its relation to kindred studies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1-2</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Distinction between geographical and political names</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3-5</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>Geographical Aspect of Europe.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Boundaries of Europe and Asia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_5">5-6</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">General geography of the two continents—the great peninsulas</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6-7</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>Effects of Geography on History.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Beginnings of history in the southern peninsulas—characteristics -of Greece and Italy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7-8</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance and extent of the Roman dominion; the Mediterranean lands, Gaul, and Britain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8-9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effects of the geographical position of Germany, France, -Spain, Scandinavia, Britain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_9">9-10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effect of geographical position on the colonizing powers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Joint working of geographical position and national character</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>Geographical Distribution of Races.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Europe an Aryan continent—non-Aryan remnants and -latter settlements</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fins and Basques</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Order of Aryan settlements; Greeks and Italians</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Celts, Teutons, Slaves, Lithuanians</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_14">14-15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Displacement and assimilation among the Aryan races</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Intrusion of non-Aryans; Saracens</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Turanian intrusions; Bulgarians; Magyars; Ottomans; -differences in their history</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">{vii}</a></span></td></tr> - - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER II.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Eastern or Greek Peninsula.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Geographical and historical characteristics of the Eastern, -Greek, or Byzantine peninsula</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_18">18-19</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Its chief divisions; Thrace and Illyria; their relations to -Greece</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19-20</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greece Proper and its peninsulas</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20-21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Peloponnêsos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>Insular and Asiatic Greece.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of <i>Continuous Hellas</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Islands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Asiatic Greece</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22-23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>Ethnology of the Eastern Peninsula.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Greeks and the kindred races</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Illyrians, Albanians, or Skipetar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Inhabitants of Epeiros, Macedonia, Sicily, and Italy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Pelasgians</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24-25</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Greek Nation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>Earliest Geography of Greece and the Neighbouring Lands.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Homeric Greece: its extent and tribal divisions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25-27</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Use of the name <i>Epeiros</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The cities: their groupings unlike those of later times; -supremacy of Mykênê</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of Greek colonization in Homeric times</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Asiatic catalogue</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Probable kindred of all the neighbouring nations</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Phœnician and Greek settlements in the islands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>Change from Homeric to Historic Greece.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Changes in Peloponnêsos; Dorian and Aitolian settlements</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Later divisions of Peloponnêsos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29-30</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Change in Northern Greece; Thessaly</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Akarnania and the Corinthian colonies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Foundation and destruction of cities</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 6. <i>The Greek Colonies.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Ægæan and Asiatic colonies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32-33</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Early greatness of the Asiatic cities; Milêtos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">{viii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Their submission to Lydians and Persians</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32-33</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Thracian colonies; abiding greatness of Thessalonikê -and Byzantion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">More distant colonies; Sicily, Italy, Dalmatia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33-34</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Parts of the Mediterranean not colonized by the Greeks; -Phœnician settlements; struggles in Sicily and -Cyprus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_34">34-35</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greek colonies in Africa, Gaul, and Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Colonies on the Euxine; abiding greatness of Cherson and -Trebizond</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Beginning of the artificial Greek nation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 7. <i>Growth of Macedonia and Epeiros.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Growth of Macedonia; Philip; Alexander and the Successors; -effects of their conquests</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Epeiros under Pyrrhos; Athamania</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Macedonian kingdoms; Egypt; Syria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Independent states in Asia; Pergamos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Asiatic states; advance of Greek culture</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Free cities; Hêrakleia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Sinôpê; Bosporos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 8. <i>Later Geography of Independent Greece.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Confederations; Achaia, Aitolia; smaller confederations</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Macedonian possessions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">First Roman possessions east of the Hadriatic</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Progress of Roman conquest in Macedonia and Greece</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Special character of Greek history</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER III.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Meanings of the name Italy; its extent under the Roman -commonwealth</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Characteristics of the Italian peninsula; the great islands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Inhabitants of Italy and Sicily.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Ligurians and Etruscans</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Italian nations; Latins and Oscans</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45-46</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Other nations; Iapygians; Gauls; Veneti; use of the name -<i>Venetia</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46-47</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greek colonies in Italy; Kymê and Ankôn</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The southern colonies; their history</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47-48</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">{ix}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Inhabitants of Sicily; Sikanians and Sikels</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Phœnician and Greek settlements; rivalry of Aryan and -Semitic powers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_48">48-49</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>Growth of the Roman Power in Italy.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gradual conquest of Italy; different positions of the Italian -states</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Origin of Rome; its Latin element dominant</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49-50</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Early Latin dominion of Rome</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Veii; more distant wars</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Incorporation of the Italian states</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50-51</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>The Western Provinces.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Nature of the Roman provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Eastern and Western provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">First Roman possessions in Sicily; conquest of Syracuse</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">State of Sicily; its Greek civilization</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Sardinia and Corsica</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_53">53-54</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Cisalpine Gaul</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54-55</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Liguria; Venetia; Istria; foundation of Aquileia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Spain; its inhabitants; Iberians; Celts; Greek and Phœnician -colonies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_55">55-56</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest and Romanization of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56-57</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Transalpine Gaul; the Province</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests of Cæsar; threefold division of Gaul</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57-58</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Boundaries of Gaul purely geographical; survival of nomenclature</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57-58</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Roman Africa; restoration of Carthage</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58-60</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>The Eastern Provinces.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Contrast between the Eastern and Western provinces; Greek -civilization in the East</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Distinctions among the Eastern provinces; boundary of -Tauros</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60-61</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Illyrian provinces; kingdom of Skodra; conquest of -Dalmatia and Istria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62-63</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The outlying Greek lands: Crete, Cyprus, Kyrênê</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Asiatic provinces; province of Asia; Mithridatic War; -independence of Lykia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Syria; Palestine</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rome and Parthia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Egypt; the Roman Peace</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">{x}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>Conquests under the Empire.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests from Augustus to Nero; incorporation of vassal -kingdoms</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66-67</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Attempted conquest of Germany; frontiers of Rhine and -Danube; conquests on the Danube</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67-68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Attempt on Arabia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Annexation of Thrace and Byzantion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Britain; the wall</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests of Trajan; his Asiatic conquests surrendered by -Hadrian</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Arabia Petræa</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Dacia; change of the name</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70-71</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Roman, Greek, and Oriental parts of the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> - - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER IV.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Later Geography of the Empire.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Changes under the Empire; loss of old divisions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New divisions of Italy under Augustus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Division of the Empire under Diocletian</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74-75</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The four Prætorian Prefectures</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Prefecture of the East; its character</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75-76</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Its dioceses; the East; Egypt, Asia, Pontos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Diocese of Thrace; provinces of Scythia and Europa</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76-77</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Great cities of the Eastern prefecture</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Prefecture of Illyricum; position of Greece</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77-78</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia; province of Achaia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Prefecture of Italy; its extent</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Dioceses of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa; greatness of Carthage</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Prefecture of Gaul</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Diocese of Spain; its African territory</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Dioceses of Gaul and Britain; province of Valentia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79-80</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>The Division of the Empire.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Change in the position of Rome</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Division of the Empire, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 395</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rivalry with Parthia and Persia inherited by the Eastern -Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81-82</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Teutonic invasions; no Teutonic settlements in the East</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82-83</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">{xi}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>The Teutonic Settlements within the Empire.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Wandering of the Nations</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New nomenclature of the Teutonic nations</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_83">83-84</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Warfare on the Rhine and Danube; Roman outposts beyond -the rivers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Teutonic confederations; Marcomanni; Quadi</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84-85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Franks, Alemans, Saxons; Germans within the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_85">85-86</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Beginning of national kingdoms</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of the Western provinces of Rome</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Settlements within the Empire by land and by sea</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Franks, Burgundians, Goths, Vandals</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87-88</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Early history of the Goths</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_88">88-89</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The West-Gothic kingdom in Gaul and Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89-90</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Alans, Suevi, Vandals; the Vandals in Africa</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89-90</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Franks; use of the name <i>Francia</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Alemans, Thuringians; Low-Dutch tribes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Frankish dominions; Roman Germany Teutonized -afresh; peculiar position of the Franks</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91-93</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Celtic remnant in Armorica or Britanny</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Burgundians; various uses of the name <i>Burgundy</i>; -separate history of Provence</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93-94</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Inroads of the Huns; battle of Châlons; origin of Venice</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Nominal reunion of the Empire in 476</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Reigns of Odoacer and Theodoric</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94-95</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>Settlement of the English in Britain.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Withdrawal of the Roman troops from Britain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Special character of the English Conquest of Britain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Low-Dutch settlers, Angles, Saxons, Jutes; origin of -the name <i>English</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Welsh and Scots</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>The Eastern Empire.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of the two Empires; no Teutonic settlements -in the Eastern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Tetraxite Goths</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rivalry with Parthia continued under the revived Persian -kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98-99</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Position of Armenia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Momentary conquests of Trajan</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests of Marcus, Severus, and Diocletian; cessions of -Jovian</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Division of Armenia; Hundred Years’ Peace</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Summary</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101-102</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">{xii}</a></span></td></tr> - - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER V.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Reunion of the Empire.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Continued existence of the Empire; position of the Teutonic -kings</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of the Empire at the accession of Justinian</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests of Justinian; their effects</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104-106</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Provence ceded to the Franks</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>Settlement of the Lombards in Italy.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Early history of the Lombards; Gepidæ, Avars</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106-107</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Possibility of Teutonic powers on the Danube</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lombard conquest of Italy; its partial nature; territory -kept by the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107-108</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>Rise of the Saracens.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of the Spanish province by the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Wars of Chosroes and Heraclius</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extension of Roman power on the Euxine</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109-110</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relation of the Arabs to Rome and Persia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union of the Arabs under Mahomet; renewed Aryan and -Semitic strife</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of the Eastern and African provinces of Rome</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Saracen conquest of Persia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Spain; Saracen province in Gaul</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111-112</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effects of the Saracen conquests; distinction between the -Latin, Greek, and Eastern provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greatest extent of Saracen provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of Septimania</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>Settlements of the Slavonic Nations.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Movements of the Slaves; Avars, Magyars, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113-114</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Geographical separation of the Slaves</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Analogy between Teutons and Slaves</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Slavonic settlements under Heraclius; the Dalmatian cities; -displacement of the Illyrians</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Slavonic settlements in Greece</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115-116</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Settlement of the Bulgarians</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Curtailment of the Empire; moral influence of Constantinople</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116-117</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">{xiii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>The Transfer of the Western Empire to the Franks.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests of the Franks in Germany and Gaul</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_117">117-119</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Their position in Germany, Northern Gaul, and Southern -Gaul</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_119">119-120</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Division of the Frankish dominion; Austria and Neustria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120-121</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Use of the name <i>Francia</i>; Teutonic and Latin <i>Francia</i>; -modern forms of the name</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Karlings; their conquests; German character of their -power</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121-122</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The great powers of the eighth century: Romans, Franks, -Saracens</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Character of the Caliphate; its divisions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations between the Franks and the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lombard conquest of the Exarchate</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of the Lombards by Charles the Great; he holds -Lombardy as a separate kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">His Roman title of Patrician</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123-124</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effects of his Imperial coronation; final division of the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The two Empires become severally German and Greek; their -separation and rivalry</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124-125</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The two Empires and the two Caliphates</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125-126</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of the Carolingian Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Saxony; dealings with Scandinavia; frontier of -the Eider</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126-127</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations with the Slaves; overthrow of the Avars</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Spanish March</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Divisions of the Empire; kingdoms of Aquitaine and -Italy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Use of the names <i>Francia</i>, <i>Gallia</i>, <i>Germania</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 6. <i>Northern Europe.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lands beyond the Empire: Scandinavia and Britain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Stages of English Conquest in Britain; Teutonic and Celtic -states</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_129">129-130</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Supremacy of Wessex</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Denmark; Norway; Sweden</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130-131</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Different directions of the Scandinavian settlements</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Summary</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131-133</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Religious changes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Note on the Slavonic settlements</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">{xiv}</a></span></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER VI.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Division of the Frankish Empire.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Break-up of the Frankish power; origin of the states of -modern Europe</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdoms of Italy and Aquitaine</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Division of 817</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union of Neustria and Aquitaine; first glimpses of modern -France</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Division of Verdun; Eastern and Western <i>Francia</i>; <i>Lotharingia</i>; -the Western Kingdom or Karolingia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Middle Kingdom or <i>Burgundy</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union under Charles the Fat; division on his deposition</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">No formal titles used; various names for the German -Kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Connexion between the German Kingdom and the Roman -Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of the German Kingdom; its duchies and <i>marks</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139-140</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lotharingia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140-141</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of the Western Kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Its great fiefs; Aquitaine; France; Normandy cut off from -France</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Origin of the French kingdom and nation; union of the -duchy of France with the Western kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New use of the word <i>France</i>; title of <i>Rex Francorum</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_143">143-144</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Paris the kernel of France</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Various uses of the name <i>Burgundy</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The French Duchy; the Middle Kingdom; Transjurane -and Cisjurane Burgundy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144-145</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Great cities of the Burgundian kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Separation of Burgundy from the Frankish kingdom; its -union with Germany</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_145">145-146</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Its later history; mainly swallowed up by France, but -partly represented by Switzerland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdom of Italy; its extent; separate principalities</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_146">146-147</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Italy represents the Lombard kingdom; Milan its capital</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Abeyance of the Western Empire; its restoration by Otto -the Great; the three Imperial kingdoms</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_147">147-148</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rivalry between France and the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">{xv}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>The Eastern Empire.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rivalry of the Eastern and Western Empires and Churches; -Greek character of the Eastern Empire; fluctuations in -its extent</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The <i>Themes</i>; Asiatic Themes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_149">149-151</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The European Themes; Hellas; Lombardy; Sicily</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_151">151-152</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Older Greek names supplanted by new ones</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Character of the European and Asiatic dominion of the Empire; -its supremacy by sea</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Losses and gains; Crete; Sicily; Italy; Dalmatia; Greece; -Syria; Bulgaria; Cherson</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152-153</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greatness of the Empire under Basil the Second</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>Origin of the Spanish Kingdoms.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Special position of Spain; the Saracen conquest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_153">153-154</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Growth of the Christian states</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154-155</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Castile; Aragon; Portugal</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Break-up of the Western Caliphate</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>Origin of the Slavonic States.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Slavonic and Turanian invasions of the Eastern Empire; -Bulgarians; Magyars; Great Moravia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156-157</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Special character of the Hungarian kingdom; effects of its -religious connexion with the West</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Northern and Southern Slaves split asunder by the -Magyars</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The South-eastern Slaves</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The North-western Slaves; Bohemia; Poland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Special position of Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>Northern Europe.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Scandinavian settlements</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159-160</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Growth of the kingdom of England</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Danish invasions; division between Ælfred and Guthrum; -Bernicia; Cumberland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Second West-Saxon advance; Wessex grows into England; -submission of Scotland and Strathclyde; Cumberland -and Lothian</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Use of the Imperial titles by the English kings; Northern -Empire of Cnut; England finally united by the Norman -Conquest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162-163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Summary</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_163">163-165</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">{xvi}</a></span></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER VII.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Permanence of ecclesiastical divisions; they preserve earlier -divisions; case of Lyons and Rheims</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_166">166-167</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Patriarchates, Provinces, Dioceses</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Bishoprics within and without the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">167-168</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Great Patriarchates.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Patriarchates suggested by the Prefectures</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168-169</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Later Patriarchates</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_169">169-170</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Italy.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Great numbers and smaller importance of the Italian -bishoprics</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rivals of Rome; Milan, Aquileia, Ravenna</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The immediate Roman province; other metropolitan sees</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171-172</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Gaul and Germany.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gaulish and German dioceses</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Provinces of Southern Gaul; position of Lyons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_172">172-173</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New metropolitan sees; Toulouse, Alby, Avignon, Paris; -comparison of civil and ecclesiastical divisions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Provinces of Northern Gaul and Germany; history of Mainz</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178-179</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The archiepiscopal electors; other German provinces; Salzburg, -Bremen, Magdeburg</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_176">176-177</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Modern arrangements in France, Germany, and the Netherlands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Spain.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Peculiarities of Spanish ecclesiastical geography; effects of -the Saracen conquest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gothic and later dioceses; neglect of the Pyrenæan barrier</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178-179</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of the British Islands.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Analogy between Britain and Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Tribal nature of the Celtic episcopate</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179-180</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Scheme of Gregory the Great; the two English provinces; -relation of Scotland to York</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_180">180-181</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">{xvii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Foundation of the English sees; territorial bishoprics</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Canterbury and its suffragan; effects of the Norman Conquest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181-182</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Province of York; Scotland and Ireland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182-183</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 6. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Northern and Eastern Europe.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Scandinavian provinces; Lund, Upsala, Trondhjem</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Poland and neighbouring lands; Gnezna, Riga, Leopol</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">184-185</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Provinces of Hungary and Dalmatia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER VIII.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The German Kingdom; its relation to the Western Empire; -falling off of Italy and Burgundy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_188">188-190</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of territory by the German kingdom; its extension to -the north-east</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190-191</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Geographical contrast of the earlier and the later Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Kingdom of Germany.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Changes of boundaries and nomenclature in Germany; -Saxony; Bavaria; Austria; Burgundy; Prussia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_191">191-192</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of the Kingdom; fluctuations of its western boundary; -Lorraine; Elsass; the left bank of the Rhine</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_192">192-194</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fluctuations on the Burgundian frontier; union of Burgundy -with the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Frontier of Germany and Italy; union of the crowns</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Northern and eastern advance of the Empire; the <i>marks</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Hungarian frontier; marks of Austria, Carinthia, and Carniola</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Danish frontier; Danish mark; boundary of the Eider</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Slavonic frontier</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Saxon mark; Slavonic princes of Mecklenburg, -Lübeck; the Hansa</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198-199</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Marks of Brandenburg, Lausitz, and Meissen</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Bohemia and Moravia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Polish frontier; Pomerania, Silesia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Germanization of the Slavonic lands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_200">200-201</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Internal geography; growth of the principalities</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Growth of the marchlands; Brandenburg or Prussia, and -Austria; analogies elsewhere</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Decline of the duchies; end of the <i>Gauverfassung</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_202">202</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">{xviii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Growth of the House of Austria; separation of Switzerland -and the Netherlands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Circles</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Powers holding lands within and without the Empire; -Austria; Sweden; Brandenburg and Prussia; Hannover -and Great Britain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203-204</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Dissolution of the kingdom; the Confederation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greatness of Prussia and Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The new Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Germany under the Saxon and Frankish kings; vanishing -of Francia; analogy of Wessex</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_205">205-206</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Changes in the twelfth century; beginning of Brandenburg -and Austria; the duchies and the circles</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_206">206-207</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Duchy of Saxony; its divisions and growth</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Break-up of the duchy; Westfalia; the new Saxony</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Duchy of Brunswick; electorate and kingdom of Hannover</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The new Saxony; Lauenburg; the Saxon Electorate</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_208">208-209</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The North Mark of Saxony or Mark of Brandenburg</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">House of Hohenzollern; union of Brandenburg and Prussia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advances in Pomerania, Westfalia, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">German character of the Prussian state; its contrast with -Austria; use of the name <i>Prussia</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_210">210-211</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Silesia; Polish acquisitions of Prussia; East -Friesland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_211">211-212</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Saxon Possessions of Denmark and Sweden</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_212">212-213</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Free cities of Saxony; the Hansa; the cities and the -bishoprics</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_213">213-214</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Duchy of <i>Francia</i>; held by the bishops of Würzburg; the -Franconian circle</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Rhenish circles; Hessen; Bamberg; Nürnberg; the -ecclesiastical states on the Rhine</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_214">214-215</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Palatinate of the Rhine; Upper Palatinate</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Bavaria; its relations towards the Palatinate and towards -Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Archbishopric of Salzburg</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lotharingia; falling off from the Empire; the later Lorraine -and Elsass</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Swabia; ecclesiastical powers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Swabian lands of the Confederates</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Baden and Württemberg</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Circle of Austria; house of Habsburg</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of its German lands; Tyrol; Elsass; loss of Swabian -lands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Bohemia and its dependencies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_217">217</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">{xix}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Trent and Brixen</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Circle of Burgundy; not purely German; its origin</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>The Confederation and Empire of Germany.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Germany changes from a kingdom to a confederation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The <i>Bund</i>; the new Confederation and Empire; the Empire -still federal</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Wars of the French Revolution; loss of the left bank of the -Rhine</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Suppression of free cities and ecclesiastical states; new -electorates</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Peace of Pressburg; new kingdoms; cessions made by Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Title of ‘Emperor of Austria;’ Confederation of the Rhine; -end of the Western Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">German territories of Denmark and Sweden</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_221">221-222</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Losses of Prussia and Austria; French annexations</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdoms of Saxony and Westfalia; Grand duchy of -Frankfurt</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Germany wiped out of the map</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Losses of Prussia; Danzig; duchy of Warsaw</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_222">222-223</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The German Confederation; princes holding lands within -and without the Confederation; kingdom of Hanover</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Increase of Prussian territory; dismemberment of Saxony</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lands recovered by Austria; German possessions of Denmark -and the Netherlands; Sweden withdraws from -Germany</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_224">224-225</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of Prussia and Austria; Hannover</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg; other German -states; the free cities; Lüttich passes to Belgium</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_226">226-227</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Revival of German national life</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Affairs of Luxemburg</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_228">228-229</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">War of Sleswick and Holstein; the duchies ceded to -Austria and Prussia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">War of 1866; North German Confederation; exclusion of -Austria; great advance of Prussia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_228">228-229</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">War with France; the new German Empire; recovery of -Elsass-Lothringen</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_229">229-230</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of the old kingdom and the new Empire; name -of <i>Prussia</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_230">230-231</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>The Kingdom of Italy.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Small geographical importance of the kingdom; changes on -the Alpine frontier</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_231">231-232</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Case of Trieste</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_233">233</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">{xx}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Apulia, Sicily, Venice, no part of the kingdom; their relation -to the Eastern Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_233">233-234</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Special history of the house of Savoy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of the kingdom; Neustria and Austria; Æmilia, -Tuscany; Romagna</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_234">234-235</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lombardy proper; the marches</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of Germany and Italy; the commonwealths, the -tyrants, the Popes; four stages of Italian history</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_235">235-236</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Northern Italy; the Marquesses of Montferrat; the Lombard -cities; the Veronese march</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_236">236-238</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Central Italy; Romagna and the march of Ancona; the -Tuscan commonwealths; Pisa and Genoa; Rome and -the Popes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_238">238-239</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The tyrannies; Spanish dominion: practical abeyance of the -Empire in Italy; Imperial and Papal fiefs</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_239">239-240</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Palaiologoi at Montferrat; house of Visconti at Milan; the -duchy of Milan; its dismemberment; duchy of Parma -and Piacenza</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_240">240-242</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Land power of Venice</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_242">242-243</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Other principalities; duchy of Mantua, of Ferrara and -Modena; difference in their tenure</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_243">243-244</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Romagna; Bologna; Urbino; advance of the Popes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Tuscan cities; Lucca; rivalry of Pisa and Genoa; Siena; -Florence</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Duchy of Florence; grand duchy of Tuscany</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>The Later Geography of Italy.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The kingdom practically forgotten; position of Charles the -Fifth</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Italy a geographical expression; changes in the Italian -states</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_246">246-247</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Dominion of the two branches of the house of Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Italy mapped into larger states; exceptions at Monaco and -San Marino</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Venice; Milan Spanish and Austrian; its dismemberment -in favour of Savoy; end of Montferrat and Mantua</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_248">248-249</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Parma and Piacenza; separation of Modena and Ferrara; -Genoa and Lucca; Grand Duchy of Tuscany; advance -of the Popes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Norman kingdom of Sicily; Benevento</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Two Sicilies; their various unions and divisions; -their relations to the houses of Austria, Savoy and -Bourbon</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_250">250-251</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Use of the name <i>Sardinia</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_251">251</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">{xxi}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Wars of the French Revolution; the new republics; Treaty -of Campo Formio; Piedmont joined to France</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_251">251-253</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Restoration of the Pope and the King of the Two Sicilies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The French kingdoms; Etruria; Italy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Various annexations; Rome becomes French; Murat King -of Naples</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_253">253-254</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Italy under French dominion; revival of the Italian name</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_254">254-255</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Settlement of 1814-1815; the princes restored, but not the -commonwealths</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Austrian kingdom of Lombardy and Venice; Genoa annexed -by Piedmont</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_255">255-256</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The smaller states; the Papal states; Kingdom of the Two -Sicilies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union of Italy comes from Piedmont; earlier movements; -war of 1859; Kingdom of Italy: Savoy and Nizza -ceded to France</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_257">257-258</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Recovery of Venetia and Rome; parts of the kingdom not -recovered</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Freedom of San Marino</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>The Kingdom of Burgundy.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union of Burgundy with Germany; dying out of the kingdom; -chiefly swallowed up by France, but represented -by Switzerland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_258">258-259</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Boundaries of the kingdom; fluctuation; Romance tongue -prevails in it</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of the Burgundian Palatinate; Besançon; Montbeliard</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Lesser Burgundy; partly German</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Dukes of Zähringen; the ecclesiastical states; the free -cities; the free lands; growth of the Old League of -High Germany</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Growth of Savoy; Burgundian possessions of its counts</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">States between the Palatinate and the Mediterranean; Bresse -and Bugey; principalities and free cities</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">County of Provence; its connexion with France</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_263">263-264</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Progress of French annexation: 1310-1791: Lyons; the -Dauphiny: Vienne; Valence; Provence; Avignon and -Venaissin</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_264">264-265</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Nizza</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of Orange</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_265">265-266</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">States which have split off from the Imperial kingdoms: -Switzerland; Savoy; the duchy of Burgundy by Belgium -and the Netherlands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_266">266-267</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">{xxii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Austrian power; its position as a marchland; its union -with Hungary; its relation to Eastern Europe</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_267">267-268</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 6. <i>The Swiss Confederation.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">German origin of the Confederation; popular errors; sketch -of Swiss history</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_268">268-270</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Three Lands; the cities: Luzern, Zürich, Bern; the -Eight Ancient Cantons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Allies and subjects; dominion of Zürich and Bern; conquests -from Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_270">270-271</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Italian conquests; first conquests from Savoy; League of -Wallis</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_271">271-272</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Thirteen Cantons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">League of Graubünden; further Italian and Savoyard conquests</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_272">272-273</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of Geneva; territory restored to Savoy; division of -Gruyères</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_273">273-274</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Allied States; Neufchâtel; Constanz</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Confederation independent of the Empire; its position -as a middle state</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_274">274-275</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Wars of the French Revolution; Helvetic Republic; freedom -of the subject lands; annexations to France</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_275">275-276</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Act of Mediation; the nineteen cantons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The present Swiss Confederation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of Neufchâtel</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 7. <i>The State of Savoy.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Position and growth of Savoy; three divisions of the Savoyard -lands; popular confusions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_277">277-278</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Savoyard power originally Burgundian; Maurienne; -Aosta</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">First Italian possessions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Burgundian advance; lands north of the lake</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_280">280-281</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations to Geneva, France, and Bern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_281">281-282</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Acquisition of Nizza</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Italian advance of Savoy; principally of Achaia, of Piedmont; -Saluzzo</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_283">283-284</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Savoy a middle state</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">French influence and occupation; decline of Savoy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of lands north of the lake; further losses to Bern and -her allies; recovery of the lands south of the lake; -the Savoyard power becomes mainly Italian</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Savoy falls back in Burgundy and advances in Italy; history -of Saluzzo; finally acquired in exchange for Bresse, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_287">287</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">{xxiii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Duchy of Savoy annexed to France; restored; annexed again</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">French annexation of Nizza; Aosta the one Burgundian -remnant</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Savoyard advance in Italy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 8. <i>The Duchy of Burgundy and the Low Countries.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Position of the Valois dukes as a middle power; result of -their twofold vassalage</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Schemes of a Burgundian kingdom; their final effects; -Belgium and the Netherlands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_290">290-291</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of the duchy of Burgundy; its union with Flanders, -Artois, and the county of Burgundy; relations to France -and the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_292">292-293</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Netherlands; the counts of Flanders; their Imperial fiefs</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Holland and Friesland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Brabant; Hainault; union of Holland and Hainault</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Common points in all these states; the great cities; Romance -and Teutonic dialects</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_294">294-295</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">South-western states; Liége; Luxemburg; Limburg; duchy -of Geldern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Middle position of these states; French influence; union -under the Burgundian dukes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance under Philip the Good; Namur, Brabant, and -Limburg, Holland and Hainault</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_296">296-297</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The towns on the Somme; Flanders and Artois released -from homage</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_297">297-298</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Philip’s last acquisition of Luxemburg; advance under -Charles the Bold and Charles the Fifth; union of the -Netherlands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Netherlands pass to Spain; war of independence; its -imperfect results</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Seven United Provinces; their independence of the -Empire; their colonies; lack of a name; use of the -word <i>Dutch</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_299">299-300</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Spanish Netherlands; English possession of Dunkirk; -advance of France; the Spanish Netherlands pass to -Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Annexation by France; kingdom of Holland; all the Burgundian -possessions French</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdom of the Netherlands; Liége incorporated; relation -of Luxemburg to Germany</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Division of the Netherlands and Belgium; separation of -Luxemburg from Germany</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">General history and result of the Burgundian power</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_303">303-304</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">{xxiv}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 9. <i>The Dominions of Austria.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Origin of the name <i>Austria</i>; anomalous position of the -Austrian power; the so-called ‘Empire’ of Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_305">305-307</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The <i>Eastern Mark</i>; becomes a duchy; division of Carinthia; -union of Austria and Styria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_307">307-308</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">County of Görz</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Austria, &c., annexed by Bohemia; great power of Ottokar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">House of Habsburg; their Swabian and Alsatian lands; -their loss</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_309">309-311</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">King Rudolf; break-up of the power of Ottokar; Albert -duke of Austria and Styria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations between Austria and the Empire; division of the -Austrian dominions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_311">311-312</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Acquisition of Carinthia and Tyrol; commendation of -Trieste; loss of Thurgau</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_312">312-313</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Austrian kings and emperors; possessions beyond the -Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_313">313-315</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union with Bohemia and Hungary</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_314">314-317</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Consequences of the union with Hungary; slow recovery -of the kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Acquisition of Görz; advance towards Italy; Austrian -dominion and influence in Italy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Connexion of Austria and Burgundy; the Austrian Netherlands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_318">318-319</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of Elsass; of Silesia; acquisition of Poland; -Dalmatia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Position and dominions of Maria Theresa</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_320">320-321</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New use of the name <i>Austria</i>; the Austrian ‘Empire’ -in 1811</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_321">321-322</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Misuse of the Illyrian name</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Austria in 1814-1815; recovery of Dalmatia; annexation -of Ragusa; of Cracow</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_322">322-323</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Separation from Hungary; reconquest; the ‘Austro-Hungarian -Monarchy;’ Bosnia, Herzegovina, Spizza</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_323">323-324</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER IX.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Origin and growth of France; comparison with Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">How far Karolingia split off from the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">France a nation as well as a power</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_326">326-327</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Use of the name of <i>France</i>; its dukes acquire the western -kingdom; extent of their dominion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_327">327-328</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">{xxv}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Two forms of annexation; first, of fiefs of the crown; -secondly, of lands beyond the kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Distinctions among the fiefs; the great vassals; Normandy; -Britanny</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Twelve Peers; different position of the bishops in Germany -and Karolingia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_328">328-329</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>Incorporation of the Vassal States.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The duchy of France in 987; the King cut off from the sea</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_329">329-330</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The neighbouring states; position of the Parisian kings</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The kings less powerful than the dukes; advantages of their -kingship; first advances of the kings</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The House of Anjou; gradual union of Normandy, Anjou, -Maine, Aquitaine, and Gascony</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_331">331-333</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Acquisition of continental Normandy, Anjou, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_333">333-334</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The English kings keep Aquitaine and insular Normandy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Sudden greatness of France</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fiefs of Aragon in Southern Gaul; counts of Toulouse and -Barcelona</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_334">334-335</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effects of the Albigensian war; French annexations; -Roussillon and Barcelona freed from homage</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Languedoc</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Other annexations of Saint Lewis</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_335">335-336</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Annexation of Champagne; temporary possession of Navarre</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_336">336-337</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Hundred Years’ War; relations between France and -Aquitaine; momentary possession of Aquitaine by -Philip the Fair</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Peace of Bretigny; Aquitaine and other lands freed from -homage</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_337">337-338</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Peace of Troyes; momentary union of the French and -English crowns</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Final annexation of Aquitaine; beginning of the modern -French kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_338">338-339</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Growths of the Dukes of Burgundy; the towns on the Somme; -momentary annexation of Artois and the County of -Burgundy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_339">339-340</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Annexation of the duchy of Burgundy; Flanders and Artois -released from homage; analogy with Aquitaine</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_340">340-343</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>Foreign Annexations of France.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations between France and England; Boulogne; Dunkirk</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_341">341-342</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">{xxvi}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations between France and Spain; Roussillon; Navarre; -Andorra</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_342">342-343</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance at the cost of the Imperial kingdoms, first Burgundy, -then Germany</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effect of the Burgundian conquests of France; relations with -Savoy and Switzerland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of the <i>Langue d’oc</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">French dominion in Italy; slight extent of real annexation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_345">345-346</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">French annexations from Germany; the Three Bishoprics; -effect of isolated conquests</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">French acquisitions in Elsass; France reaches and passes the -Rhine; increased isolation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_347">347-348</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Temporary annexation of Bar; annexation of Roussillon; -advance in the Netherlands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_348">348-349</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Annexation of Franche Comté and Besançon; seizure of -Strassburg; annexation of Orange</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_349">349-350</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Annexation of Lorraine; thorough incorporation of French -conquests; effect of geographical continuity</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_350">350-351</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Purchase of Corsica; its effects; birth of Buonaparte</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_351">351-352</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>The Colonial Dominion of France.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">French colonies in North America; Acadia; Canada; -Louisiana</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Colonial rivalry of France and England; English conquest -of Canada</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">French West India Islands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The French power in India; Bourbon and Mauritius</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_353">353-354</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>Acquisitions of France during the Revolutionary Wars.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Distinction between the Republican and ‘Imperial’ Conquests</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_355">355-356</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">First class of annexations; Avignon, Mülhausen, Montbeliard; -Geneva; bishopric of Basel</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Second zone; traditions of Gaul and the Rhine; Netherlands; -Savoy, &c.; feelings of Buonaparte towards Switzerland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_355">355-356</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Character of Buonaparte’s conquests; dependent and incorporated -lands; division of Europe between France and -Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_356">356-357</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The French power in 1811</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_357">357-358</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Arrangements of 1814-1815</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_358">358-359</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Later changes; annexation of Savoy, Nizza, and Mentone; -loss of Elsass and Lorraine</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_359">359</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">{xxvii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Losses among the colonies; independence of Hayti; sale of -Louisiana</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_359">359-360</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Algeria; character of African conquests</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER X.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE EASTERN EMPIRE.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of the Eastern and Western Empires; the Western -falls to pieces from within; the Eastern is broken to -pieces from without</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_362">362-363</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Tendencies to separation in the Eastern Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Closer connexion of the East with the elder Empire; retention -of the Roman name; <i>Romania</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_363">363-364</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Importance of the distinction of races in the East</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_364">364</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The original races; Albanians, Greeks, Vlachs</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_364">364</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Slavonic settlers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_364">364</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Turanian invasions from the North; Bulgarians, Magyars, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Saracens</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Seljuk and Ottoman Turks; comparison of Bulgarians, -Magyars, and Ottomans</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Eastern Empire became nearly conterminous with the -Greek nation; reappearance of the other original races</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Latin Conquest, and the revived Byzantine Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_366">366-367</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">States which arose out of the Empire or on its borders; -Sicily; Venice; Bulgaria; Hungary; Asiatic powers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_367">367-368</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Distinction between conquest and settlement</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_368">368</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>Changes in the Frontier of the Empire.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Power of revival in the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Western possessions of the Empire; losses in the islands; -advance in the mainland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of Sardinia; gradual loss and temporary partial recovery -of Sicily</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_369">369-370</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fluctuations of the Imperial power in Italy; the Normans</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_370">370-371</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss and recovery of Crete and Cyprus; separation of -Cyprus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_371">371-372</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Summary of the history of the great islands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_372">372-373</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations to the Slavonic powers; three Slavonic groups</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Bulgarian migrations; White Bulgaria; the first Bulgarian -kingdom south of the Danube</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_373">373-374</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Use of the Bulgarian name</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_374">374</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The slaves of Macedonia, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_375">375</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations between the Empire and the Bulgarian kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_375">375</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">{xxviii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Recovery of Macedonia and Greece; use of the name -<i>Hellênes</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_375">375-376</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Servia, Croatia, and Dalmatia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_376">376</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greatest extent of the first Bulgarian kingdom under -Simeon</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_376">376-377</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">First conquest of Bulgaria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_377">377</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Second Bulgarian kingdom under Samuel; second conquest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_377">377-378</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Venice and Cherson</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Asiatic conquests; annexation of Armenia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_378">378-379</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New enemies; Magyars; Turks</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Revolt of Servia; loss of Belgrade</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of the Seljuk Turks; Sultans of <i>Roum</i>; loss of -Antioch</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_379">379-380</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Normans advance; loss of Corfu and Durazzo</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_380">380</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Revival under John and Manuel, Komnênos; recovery of lands -in Asia and Europe</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_381">381</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Splitting off of distant possessions; loss of Dalmatia; Latin -Kingdom of Cyprus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_381">381</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Third Bulgarian kingdom; the Empire more thoroughly -Greek</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_382">382</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Latin conquest of Constantinople; Act of Partition</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Latin Empire of Romania</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_383">383-384</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Latin kingdom of Thessalonikê</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_384">384-385</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Despotat of Epeiros; Greek Empire of Thessalonikê; their -separation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_385">385</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Empire of Trebizond; loss of its western dominion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The old Empire continued in the Empire of Nikaia; its advance -in Europe and Asia; recovery of Constantinople</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_386">386-387</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss in Asia and advance in Europe; recovery of Peloponnêsos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_387">387-388</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance in Macedonia and Epeiros</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_388">388</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Losses in Asia; Knights of Saint John; advance of the Turks</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Losses towards Servia and Bulgaria; conquests of Stephen -Dushan</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_389">389-390</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fragmentary dominion of the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_390">390</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of the Turks in Europe; loss of Hadrianople; loss -of Philadelphia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_390">390</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Recovery of territory after the fall of Bajazet</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_390">390-391</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Turkish conquest of Constantinople; of Peloponnêsos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_391">391</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">States which grew out of the Empire; Slavonic, Hungarian, -and Rouman; Greek; Latin; Turkish</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_391">391-393</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>The Kingdom of Sicily.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Norman Power in Italy and Sicily; its relations to the -Eastern and Western Empires</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_393">393</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix">{xxix}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of the Normans in Italy; Aversa and Capua; -duchy of Apulia; Robert Wiscard in Epeiros</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_394">394-395</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Norman conquest of Sicily</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Roger King of Sicily; his conquests in Italy, Corfu, and -Africa</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_395">395-396</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Eastern dominion of the two Sicilian crowns; kingdom of -Margarito</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_396">396-397</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Acre; Malta</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_398">398</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>The Crusading States.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison between Sicily and the crusading states</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_398">398</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Jerusalem; Cyprus; Armenia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_399">399</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of the Kingdom of Jerusalem; other Latin states in -Syria; loss and recovery of Jerusalem, final loss; loss -of Acre</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_399">399-400</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdom of Cyprus; its relations to Jerusalem and Armenia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_401">401</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Frank principalities in Greece; possessions of the maritime -commonwealths</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_401">401-402</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>The Eastern Dominion of Venice and Genoa.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The historic position of Venice springs from her relation to -the Eastern Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_402">402-403</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Connexion of her Greek and Dalmatian rule</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison between Venice and Sicily</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Her share in the Act of Partition compared with her real -dominion; her main position Hadriatic</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_403">403-405</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Venetian possessions not assigned by the partition; Crete; -Cyprus; Thessalonikê</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_404">404</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Taking of Zara in the fourth crusade</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations of the Dalmatian cities to Servia, Croatia, Venice, -Hungary, and the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_405">405-407</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Pagania</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_406">406</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Magyar Kingdom of Croatia; struggles between Venice and -Hungary</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Independence of Ragusa; Polizza</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of Corfu</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_408">408</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Venetian posts in Peloponnêsos: history of Euboia; loss -of the Ægæan islands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_409">409</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of Venice and Dalmatia, Peloponnêsos, and the -Western islands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_410">410</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Venice the champion against the Turk; losses of Venice; -fluctuations in the Western Islands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_410">410-412</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest and loss of Peloponnêsos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_412">412</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Frontier of Ragusa</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_412">412</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx">{xxx}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Venetian fiefs; history of the duchy of Naxos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_413">413</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Possessions of Genoa; Galata; her dominions in the Euxine</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_413">413-414</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Genoese fiefs; Lesbos; Chios; the Maona</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Revolutions of Rhodes; knights of Saint John; their removal -to Malta; revolutions of Malta</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_414">414-415</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>The Principalities of the Greek Mainland.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greek and Latin states; use of the name <i>Môraia</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_415">415-416</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lordship and duchy of Athens; the Catalans; the later -dukes; Ottoman conquest; momentary Venetian occupations</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_416">416-417</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Salôna and Bodonitza</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_417">417</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Principality of Achaia; recovery of Peloponnesian lands by -the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_417">417-418</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Angevin overlordship in Achaia; dismemberment of the -principality</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Patras under the Pope</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests of Constantine Palaiologos</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Turkish conquest of Peloponnêsos; independence of Maina</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_419">419</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Revolutions of Epeiros; dismemberment of the despotat; -recovery of Epeiros by the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_419">419</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Servian conquests; beginning of the Albanian power; kings -of the house of Thopia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_419">419-420</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Servian dynasty in southern Epeiros; kingdom of Thessaly; -Turkish conquest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_420">420</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Buondelmonti in Northern Epeiros; history of the -house of Tocco; <i>Karlili</i>; effects of their rule</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_420">420-421</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Turkish conquest of Albania; revolt of Scanderbeg; Turkish -reconquest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Empire of Trebizond; its relations to Constantinople</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_422">422</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Turkish conquest of Trebizond; of Perateia or Gothia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_422">422-423</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 6. <i>The Slavonic States.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effects of the Latin conquest on the Slavonic states</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_423">423</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of Servia and Bulgaria; extent of Servia; its -relation to the Empire; conquest by Manuel Komnênos; -Servia independent</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_423">423-424</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations towards Hungary; shiftings of Rama or Bosnia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_424">424-425</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Southern advance of Servia; Empire of Stephen Dushan</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_425">425</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Break-up of the Servian power; the later Servian kingdom; -conquests and deliverances of Servia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_426">426</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdom of Bosnia; loss of Jayce; duchy of Saint Saba or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxi" id="Page_xxxi">{xxxi}</a></span> -Herzegovina; Turkish conquest of Bosnia; of Herzegovina</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_426">426-427</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Balsa at Skodra; loss of Skodra; beginning of Tzernagora -or Montenegro</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_428">428</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of Zabljak; establishment of Tzetinje</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_428">428</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Vladikas; the lay princes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Montenegrin conquests and losses</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_428">428-429</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greatest extent of the third Bulgarian kingdom; its decline; -shiftings of the frontier towards the Empire; -Philippopolis</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_429">429-430</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Break-up of the kingdom; principality of Dobrutcha; -Turkish conquest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_430">430-431</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 7. <i>The Kingdom of Hungary.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Character and position of the Hungarian kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_431">431-432</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Great Moravia overthrown by the Magyars; their relations -to the two Empires</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_432">432-433</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The two Chrobatias separated by the Magyars; their geographical -position</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_433">433-434</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdom of Hungary; its relations to Croatia and Slavonia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_434">434</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Transsilvania or Siebenbürgen; origin of the name; German -and other colonies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Origin of the Roumans; their northern migration</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_435">435-436</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rouman element in the third Bulgarian kingdom; occupation -of the lands beyond the Danube; Great and Little -Wallachia; Transsilvania; Moldavia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_436">436-437</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests of Lewis the Great; Dalmatia; occupation of -Halicz and Vladimir; pledging of Zips</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Turkish invasion; disputes for Dalmatia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Reign of Matthias Corvinus; extension of Hungary east -and west</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Loss of Belgrade; the Austrian kings; Turkish conquest -of Hungary; fragment kept by the Austrian kings; -their tribute to the Turk; the Rouman lands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_438">438-439</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Recovery of Hungary from the Turk; peace of Carlowitz; -of Passarowitz; losses at the peace of Belgrade</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_439">439-440</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Galicia and Lodomeria; Bukovina; Dalmatia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_440">440-441</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Annexation of Spizza; administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina; -renewed vassalage to the Turk</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_440">440-441</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 8. <i>The Ottoman Power.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Ottoman Turks; special character of their invasion; -contrast with other Turanian invasions; comparison -with the Saracens in Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_442">442-443</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxii" id="Page_xxxii">{xxxii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of the Ottoman dominions with the Eastern -Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effects of the Mongolian invasion; origin of the Ottomans; -their position in Europe and Asia; break-up and reunion -of their dominion; its permanence</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_443">443-444</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of the Ottomans in Asia; in Europe; dominion of -Bajazet</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_444">444-445</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Victory of Timour; reunion of the Ottoman power under -Mahomet the First</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_445">445-446</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Mahomet the Second; taking of Constantinople; extent of -his dominion; taking of Otranto</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_446">446</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Syria and Egypt</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_447">447</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Reign of Suleiman; his conquests; Hungary; Rhodes; -Naxos; his African overlordship</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_447">447</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Cyprus; decline of the Ottoman power</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_447">447-448</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greatest extent of the Ottoman power; Crete and Podolia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_448">448</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Ottoman loss of Hungary; loss and recovery of Peloponnêsos; -Bosnia and Herzegovina; union of inland and maritime -Illyria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_448">448</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">English vassalage in Cyprus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_449">449</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations between Russia and the Turk; Azof; Treaty of -Kainardji; Crim; Jedisan; Bessarabia; shiftings of -the Moldavian frontier</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_449">449-450</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 9. <i>The Liberated States.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lands liberated from the Turk; comparison of Hungary -with Greece, Servia, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_450">450</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Servian people the first to revolt</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_450">450</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Ionian Islands the first liberated state; the Septinsular -Republic; overlordship of the Turk</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_451">451</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Venetian outposts given to the Turk; surrender of -Parga; last Ottoman encroachment</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_451">451</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Ionian Islands under British protection</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_451">451</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Greek War of Independence; extent of the Greek nation; -extent of the liberated lands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_451">451-452</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdom of Greece; addition of the Ionian Islands; promised -addition in Thessaly and Epeiros</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_452">452</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">First deliverance and reconquest of Servia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Second deliverance; Servia a tributary principality</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_452">452-453</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Withdrawal of Turkish garrisons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Independence and enlargement of Servia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fourfold division of the Servian nation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Rouman principalities; union of Wallachia and Moldavia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_453">453</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiii" id="Page_xxxiii">{xxxiii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Independence and new frontier of Roumania</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_453">453-454</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Deliverance of part of Bulgaria; the Bulgaria of San -Stefano</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_454">454</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Treaty of Berlin; division of Bulgaria into free, half-free, -and enslaved</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_454">454-455</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Principality of Bulgaria; Eastern Roumelia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_454">454</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">General survey</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_455">455-460</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Note on M. Sathas</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_460">460-461</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER XI.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE BALTIC LANDS.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lands beyond the two Empires; the British islands; Scandinavia; -Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_462">462-463</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><i>Quasi</i>-imperial position of certain powers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_462">462-463</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of Scandinavia and Spain; of Aragon and -Sweden</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_463">463-464</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Eastern and Western aspect of Scandinavia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_464">464</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">General view of the Baltic lands; the Northern Slavonic -lands, their relations to Germany and Hungary</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_465">465</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Characteristics of Poland and Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_465">465</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The primitive nations, Aryan and non-Aryan</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_455">455-466</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Central position of the North-Slavonic lands; barbarian -neighbours of Russia and Scandinavia; Russian conquest -and colonization by land</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_467">467</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relation of the Baltic lands to the two Empires; Norway -always independent; relations of Sweden and Denmark -to the Western Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_467">467</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Western Empire and the West-Slavonic lands; relations -of Poland to the Western Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_467">467</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations of Russia to the Eastern Church and Empire; -Imperial style of Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_468">468</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Scandinavian Lands after the Separation of the Empires.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Baltic still mainly held by the earlier races; formation -of the Scandinavian kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_468">468-499</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Formation of the Danish kingdom; its extent; frontier of -the Eider; the Danish march</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_469">469</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Use of the name <i>Northmen</i>; formation of the kingdom of -Norway</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_469">469-470</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Swedes and Gauts; the Swedish kingdom</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_470">470</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Its fluctuations towards Norway and Denmark; its growth -towards the north</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_470">470</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiv" id="Page_xxxiv">{xxxiv}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Western conquests and settlements of the Danes and Northmen</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_471">471</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Settlements in Britain and Gaul</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_471">471</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Settlements in Orkney, Man, Iceland, Ireland, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_471">471</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Expeditions to the East; Danish occupation of Samland; -Jomsburg</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_471">471</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Swedish conquest of Curland; Scandinavians in Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_472">472</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>The Lands East and South of the Baltic at the Separation -of the Empires.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Slaves between Elbe and Dnieper; their lack of sea-board</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_472">472-473</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdom of Samo; Great Moravia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_473">473</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Four Slavonic groups</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_473">473-474</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Polabic group; Sorabi, Leuticii, Obotrites; their relations to -the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_474">474-475</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Early conquest of the Sorabi; marks of Meissen and Lusatia; -long resistance of the Leuticians; takings of Branibor; -mark of Brandenburg</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_475">475-476</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Mark of the Billungs; kingdom of Sclavinia; house of Mecklenburg; -relations to Denmark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_476">476</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Bohemia and Moravia; their relations to Poland, Hungary, -and Germany</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_477">477</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Polish kingdom; its relations to Germany; rivalry of -Poland and Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_478">478</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lechs or Poles; their various tribes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_478">478</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Beginning of the Polish state; its conversion and relations -to the Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_479">479</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests of Boleslaf; union of the Northern Chrobatia with -Poland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_479">479</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Polish state survives, though divided</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_479">479-480</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Relations of Russia to the Eastern Church and Empire; -Russia created by the Scandinavian settlement; origin -of the name</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_480">480</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">First centre at Novgorod; Russian advance; union of the -Eastern Slaves</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_481">481</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Second centre at Kief; the princes become Slavonic; attacks -on Constantinople and Cherson</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_481">481-482</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests on the Caspian; isolation of Russia; Russian lands -west of Dnieper</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Russian principalities; supremacy of Kief</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Supremacy of the northern Vladimir; commonwealths of -Novgorod and Pskof; various principalities; kingdom -of Halicz or Galicia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_483">483</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxv" id="Page_xxxv">{xxxv}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Cuman power; Mongol invasion; Russia tributary to -the Mongols; Russia represented by Novgorod</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_483">483-484</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The earlier races; Finns in Livland and Esthland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_484">484</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Lettic nations; Lithuania; Prussia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_484">484</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Survey in the twelfth century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_485">485</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>German Dominion on the Baltic.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Time of Teutonic conquest on the Baltic; comparison of -German and Scandinavian influence; German influence -the stronger</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_485">485-486</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Beginning of Swedish conquest in Finland; German conquest -in Livland; its effect on Lithuania and Russia; the -Military orders</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_487">487</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Polish gains and losses</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_487">487</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Character of the <i>Hansa</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_487">487</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Temporary Swedish possession of Scania; union of Calmar; -division and reunion; abiding union of Denmark and -Norway</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_487">487-488</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union of Iceland with Norway; loss of the Scandinavian -settlements in the British isles</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_488">488</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Swedish advance in Finland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_488">488</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Temporary greatness of Denmark, settlement of Esthland; -conquest of Sclavinia; Danish advance in Germany; -Holstein, &c.; long retention of Rügen</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_488">488-490</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Duchy of South-Jutland or Sleswick; its relations to Denmark -and Holstein; royal and ducal lines; conquest -of Ditmarschen</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_490">490-491</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effect of the Danish advance on the Slavonic lands; western -losses of Poland; Pomerania; Silesia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_491">491-492</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Kingdom of Bohemia; dominion of Ottocar; the Luxemburg -kings</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_492">492-493</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Annexation of Silesia and Lusatia; territory lost to Matthias -Corvinus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_493">493</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union with Austria; later losses</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_493">493</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">German corporations; the Hansa; its nature; not strictly -a territorial power</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_494">494-495</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Military Orders; Sword-brothers and Teutonic -knights; their connexion with the Empire; effects of -their rule</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_495">495</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Sword-brothers in Livland and Esthland; extent of -their dominion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_495">495-496</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Teutonic order in Prussia; union with the Sword-brothers;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvi" id="Page_xxxvi">{xxxvi}</a></span> -acquisition of Culm, Pomerelia, Samogitia, -Gotland; the New Mark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_496">496</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Losses of the order; cession of Pomerelia and part of Prussia -to Poland; the remainder a Polish fief</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_496">496-497</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of Christianity; Lithuania the last heathen power; -its great advance</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_497">497-498</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Consolidation of Poland; conquests of Casimir the Great; -shiftings of Red Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_498">498</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union of Poland and Lithuania; recovery of the Polish -duchies; Lithuanian advance; closer union</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_498">498-499</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Revival of Russia; power of Moscow; name of <i>Muscovy</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_499">499-500</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Break-up of the Mongol power; the Khanats of Crim, Kazan, -Siberia, Astrakhan</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_501">501</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Deliverance of Russia; Crim dependent on the Turk</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_501">501</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of Moscow; annexation of Novgorod, &c.; Russia -united and independent</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_501">501</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Survey at the end of the fifteenth century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_502">502</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>The Growth of Russia and Sweden.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Growth of Russia; creation of Prussia; temporary greatness -of Sweden</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_503">503</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Separation of the Prussian and Livonian knights; duchy of -Prussia; union of Prussia and Brandenburg; Prussia -independent of Poland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_503">503-504</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fall of the Livonian knights; partition of their dominions; -duchy of Curland; shares of Denmark, Sweden, Poland, -and Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_504">504</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greatest Baltic extent of Poland and Lithuania; union of -Lublin</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_505">505</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of Russia; its order; the Euxine reached last</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_505">505-506</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Recovery of Russian lands from Lithuania; Polish conquest -of Russia; second Russian advance; Peace of Andraszovo; -recovery of Kief</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_506">506</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Russian superiority over the Cossacks; Podolia ceded to the -Turk</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_506">506-507</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of Swedish and Russian advance</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_507">507</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance under and after Gustavus Adolphus; conquests -from Russia and Poland; Ingermanland; Livland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_507">507-508</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquests from Denmark and Norway; Dago and Oesel; -Scania, &c.; restoration of Trondhjem</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_508">508-509</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fiefs of Sweden within the Empire; Pomerania; Bremen and -Verden</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_509">509</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fluctuations in the duchies; Danish possession of Oldenburg</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_509">509</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvii" id="Page_xxxvii">{xxxvii}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Sweden after the peace of Oliva</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_510">510</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Eastern advance of Russia; Kasan and Astrakhan; Siberia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_511">511</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>The Decline of Sweden and Poland.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Decline of Sweden; extinction of Poland; kingdom of -Prussia; empire of Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_511">511-512</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Russia on the Baltic; conquest of Livland, &c.; foundation -of Saint Petersburg; advance in Finland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_512">512</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">German losses of Sweden: Bremen, Verden, part of -Pomerania</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_513">513</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union of the Gottorp lands and Denmark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_513">513</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">First partition of Poland; recovery of lost lands by Russia; -geographical union of Prussia and Brandenburg; Polish -and Russian lands acquired by Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_513">513-514</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Second partition: Russian and Prussian shares</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_514">514</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Third partition: extinction of Poland and Lithuania</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_514">514-515</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">No strictly Polish territory acquired by Russia; the old -Poland passes to Prussia, Chrobatia to Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_515">515</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Russian advance on the Euxine, Azof; Crim; Jedisan</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_515">515-516</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Temporary Russian advance on the Caspian; superiority -over Georgia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_516">516</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Survey at the end of the eighteenth century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_517">517</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 6. <i>The Modern Geography of the Baltic Lands.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effects of the fall of the Empire; incorporation of the German -lands of Sweden and Denmark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_518">518</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Russian conquest of Finland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_518">518</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union of Sweden and Norway; loss of Swedish Pomerania</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_518">518-519</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Denmark enters the German Confederation for Holstein and -Lauenburg; loss of these duchies and of Sleswick</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_519">519</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Polish losses of Prussia; commonwealth of Danzig; Duchy -of Warsaw</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_519">519-520</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Polish territory recovered by Prussia; Russian kingdom of -Poland; commonwealth of Cracow; its annexation by -Austria</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_520">520</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fluctuation on the Moldavian border</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_521">521</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Russian advance in the Caucasus and on the Caspian</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_521">521</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance in Turkestan and Eastern Asia; extent and character -of the Russian dominion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_522">522-523</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Russian America</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_523">523</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Final survey of the Baltic lands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_523">523-524</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxviii" id="Page_xxxviii">{xxxviii}</a></span></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER XII.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Analogy between Spain and Scandinavia; slight relation of -Spain with the Empire; break between its earlier and -later history</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_525">525</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Comparison of Spain and the Eastern Empire; the Spanish -nation formed by the Saracen wars; analogy between -Spain and Russia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_525">525-526</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of West-Gothic and Saracen dominions; two centres -of deliverance, native and Frankish</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_526">526-527</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal; use of the phrase -‘Spain and Portugal’</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_527">527-528</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Navarre</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_528">528</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Foundation of the Spanish Kingdoms.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Beginning of the kingdom of Leon</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_529">529</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Ommiad emirate; the Spanish March; its divisions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_529">529</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Navarre under Sancho the Great</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_529">529-530</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Break-up of the kingdom of Navarre, and of the Ommiad -caliphate; small Mussulman powers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_530">530</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Invasion of the Almoravides; use of the name <i>Moors</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_530">530</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New kingdoms: Castile, Aragon, and Sobrarbe; union of -Aragon and Sobrarbe</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_530">530</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Shiftings of Castile, Leon, and Gallicia; final union; Castilian -Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_531">531</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Decline of Navarre; growth of Aragon; union of Aragon -and Barcelona; end of French superiority</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_531">531</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">County and kingdom of Portugal</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_532">532</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of Castile; taking of Toledo; checked by the -Almoravides</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_532">532</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of Aragon; taking of Zaragoza</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_532">532</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of Portugal; taking of Lisbon</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_533">533</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Second advance of Castile; invasion of the Almohades; -their decline</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_533">533</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of Aragon and Portugal</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_533">533</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Final advance of Castile; kingdom of Granada; Gibraltar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_534">534</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Geographical position of the Spanish kingdoms</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_534">534-535</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Title of ‘King of Spain;’ the lesser kingdoms</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_535">535-536</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>Growth and Partition of the Great Spanish Monarchy.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Little geographical change in the peninsula; territories -beyond the peninsula; the great Spanish Monarchy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_536">536</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxix" id="Page_xxxix">{xxxix}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conquest of Granada; end of Mussulman rule</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_536">536-537</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Union of Castile and Aragon; loss, recovery, and final loss of -Roussillon; annexation and separation of Portugal</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_537">537-538</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gibraltar and Minorca</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_537">537</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance of Aragon beyond the peninsula; union with the -Sicilies and Sardinia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_538">538</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extension of Castile dominion; the Burgundian inheritance; -duchy of Milan</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_539">539</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extent of the Spanish Monarchy; loss of the United Netherlands; -lands lost to France</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_539">539</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Partition of the Spanish Monarchy; later relations with the -Sicilies; duchy of Parma</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_539">539-540</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>The Colonial Dominion of Spain and Portugal.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Character of the outlying dominion of Portugal</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_540">540</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">African conquests of Portugal; kingdom of Algarve beyond -the Sea; Ceuta, Tangier</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_541">541</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Advance in Africa and the islands; Cape of Good Hope; -dominion in India and Arabia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_541">541-542</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Settlement and history of Brazil; the one American monarchy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_542">542</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Division of the Indies between Spain and Portugal; African -and insular dominion of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_542">542-543</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">American dominions of Spain; revolutions of the Spanish -colonies; two Empires of Mexico</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_543">543-544</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Spanish West Indies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_544">544</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">CHAPTER XIII.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2">THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Isolation and independence of Britain; late Roman conquest -and early loss; Britain another world and Empire</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_545">545</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Shiftings of the Celtic and Teutonic kingdoms; little geographical -change in later times</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_546">546</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">English settlements beyond sea; new English nations</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_547">547</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 1. <i>The Kingdom of Scotland.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greatness of Scotland due to its English elements; two English -kingdoms in Britain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_548">548</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Use of the Scottish name</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_549">549</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Analogy with Switzerland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_549">549</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The three elements in the later Scotland; English, British, -Irish; Lothian, Strathclyde, Scotland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_549">549</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xl" id="Page_xl">{xl}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Picts; their union with the Scots; Scottish Strathclyde; -Galloway</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_550">550</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Scandinavian settlements; Caithness and Sutherland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_550">550</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">English supremacy; taking of Edinburgh; grants of Cumberland -and Lothian</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_550">550-551</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Difference of tenure gradually forgotten</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_551">551</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Effects of the grant of Lothian; shiftings of Cumberland, -Carlisle, and Northumberland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_551">551-552</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Boundary of England and Scotland; relations between the -kingdoms</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_552">552</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Struggle with the Northmen; recovery of Caithness, Galloway, -and the Sudereys</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_553">553</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of Man; of Orkney</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_553">553</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 2. <i>The Kingdom of England.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Changes of boundary toward Wales; conquests of Harold</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_553">553</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Norman conquest of North Wales</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_554">554</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Princes of North Wales; English conquest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_554">554</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The principality of Wales; full incorporation with -England</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_554">554-555</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The English shires; two classes of shires; ancient principalities; -shires mapped out in the tenth century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_555">555</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The new shires; Cumberland, Westmoreland, Lancashire, -Rutland</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_555">555-556</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 3. <i>Ireland.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Ireland the first Scotland; its provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_556">556</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Settlements of the Ostmen; increasing connexion with England; -the English conquest; fluctuations of the Pale</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_556">556-557</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lordship and kingdom of Ireland; its relations to England -and Great Britain</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_557">557</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 4. <i>Outlying European Possessions of England.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Norman Islands; Aquitaine, Calais, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_558">558</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Outposts and islands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_558">558</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greek possessions; the Ionian Islands; Cyprus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_558">558-559</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 5. <i>The American Colonies of England.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The United States of America</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_559">559</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">First English settlements; Virginia; the New England -States; Maryland; Carolina</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_559">559-561</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Settlements of the United Provinces and Sweden; New -Netherlands; New Sweden; New York</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_561">561</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Jerseys; Pennsylvania; Delaware; Georgia</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_561">561-562</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xli" id="Page_xli">{xli}</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The thirteen Colonies; their independence</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_562">562</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Nova Scotia; Canada; Louisiana; Florida</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_562">562-563</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">A new English nation formed; lack of a name; use of the -name <i>America</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_563">563-564</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Second English nation in North America; the Canadian -confederation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_564">564</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The West India Islands, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_565">565</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" class="row_space">§ 6. <i>Other Colonies and Possessions of England.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Australian colonies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_565">565-566</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The South-African colonies</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_566">566</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Europe extended by colonization; contrast with barbaric -dominion; Empire of India</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_567">567</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Summary</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_568">568-569</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_571">571</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlii" id="Page_xlii">{xlii}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="ADDITIONS_AND_CORRECTIONS" id="ADDITIONS_AND_CORRECTIONS">ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.</a></h2> - -<p>[Transcriber’s note: These additions and corrections have not been made in this -electronic version of the text. Page numbers and line numbers reflect the pagination -of the original text and may not reflect the structure of this version.]</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_19">P. 19</a>, l. 10. Latterly the name <i>Balkan Peninsula</i> has come -into more general use.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_38">P. 38</a>, side-note. For ‘Cities of independent state’ read -‘Growth of independent states.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_41">P. 41</a>, l. 10 from bottom. This is true in a rough practical -way. But when I wrote this, I hardly took in the fact that not -a few Greek cities, though practically subject to the Empire, were -not finally incorporated with it till ages later, perhaps never formally -incorporated at all.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_55">P. 55</a>, l. 7. For ‘south-east’ read ‘south-west.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_55">P. 55</a>, l. 8. For ‘north-west’ read ‘north-east.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_71">P. 71</a>. When I wrote this, I had not taken in the true history -of the Rouman people. See below, <a href="#Page_435">p. 435</a>.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_88">P. 88</a>, l. 14. Since this was written, I wrote the article -‘Goths,’ in the Encyclopædia Britannica, where I have gone rather -more fully into their history from later and minuter study.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_90">P. 90</a>, l. 4 from the bottom. I believe the existence of a -<i>Gothia</i> by that name in Spain is a little doubtful. As to the -<i>Gothia</i> in Gaul, otherwise <i>Septimania</i>, and the other <i>Gothia</i> in -the Tauric Chersonêsos, there is no doubt.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_105">P. 105</a>, l. 14 from bottom. I believe however that the coins of -some of the Provençal cities point to a retention of allegiance to -the Empire much later. Still there is no doubt as to the formal -cession.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_115">P. 115</a>, l. 5 from bottom. I now see no reason to believe in any -Albanian migrations into Greece till long afterwards. But I -still have no doubt that the Albanians strictly represent the old -Illyrians.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_119">P. 119</a>. Dele side-note, ‘The cession of Gaulish possessions.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_126">P. 126</a>, l. 6. For ‘<i>the</i> great Mahometan powers’ read ‘<i>the two</i> -great Mahometan powers.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_138">P. 138</a>, l. 9. Dele ‘much as.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_154">P. 154</a>. The growth of the Christian states in Spain will be -found more fully and accurately given in the specially Spanish -chapter, <a href="#CHAPTER_XII">Chapter XII</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xliii" id="Page_xliii">{xliii}</a></span></p> - -<p><a href="#Page_156">P. 156</a>, l. 4. It will be at once seen that this was written before -the events of 1877-8. The later changes in these lands will -be found described in <a href="#CHAPTER_X">Chapter X</a>.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_167">P. 167</a>, l. 10. For ‘division’ read ‘divisions.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_172">P. 172</a>, side-note. For ‘province’ read ‘provinces.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_180">P. 180</a>, side-note. For ‘schemes’ read ‘scheme.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_189">P. 189</a>, l. 12. For ‘were’ read ‘some were.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_216">P. 216</a>, side-note. For ‘ecclesiastical towns’ read ‘ecclesiastical -powers.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_221">P. 221</a>, side-note. For ‘kingdom’ read ‘kingdoms.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_258">P. 258</a>, l. 14. I was here speaking purely geographically, before -much, if anything, had been heard of the cry of <i>Italia irredenta</i>. -How far I go with that cry, how far not, I have explained -in Historical Essays, Third Series, p. 206.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_261">P. 261</a>, l. 1. For ‘Montbeilliard,’ read ‘Montbeliard.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_263">P. 263</a>, side-note. For ‘Burgundian possession of its county’ -read ‘Burgundian possessions of its counts.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_267">P. 267</a>, l. 1. For ‘maps’ read ‘map.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_288">P. 288</a>, l. 11 from bottom. For ‘High and Low Savoy’ read -‘Savoy and High Savoy.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_300">P. 300</a>, side-note. For ‘1662’ read ‘1663.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_306">P. 306</a>, l. 8. At present it would seem that this mysterious -name takes in all those kingdoms, counties, lordships, &c., which -are held by the Archduke of Austria, and which do not form part -of the kingdom of Hungary and its <i>partes annexæ</i>. For these I -have elsewhere, according to an old analogy, suggested the more -intelligible name of <i>Nungary</i>.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_319">P. 319</a>, l. 3. That is Philip ‘the Handsome,’ son of Maximilian -and father of Charles the Fifth.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_334">P. 334</a>, l. 9. Aquitaine, the inheritance of Eleanor, did not -come under the forfeiture of the fiefs actually held by John.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_340">P. 340</a>, l. 4 from bottom. Roussillon is another case of a land -freed from homage and afterwards annexed as a foreign conquest.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_369">P. 369</a>, l. 17. For ‘farther’ read ‘further.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_389">P. 389</a>, side-note. For ‘conquest’ read ‘conquests of.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_408">P. 408</a>, side-note. For ‘final’ read ‘first.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_413">P. 413</a>, side-note. For ‘possession of Venetian cities’ read -‘possessions of Venetian families.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_429">P. 429</a>, l. 15. Since this was printed, Dulcigno has been restored -to Montenegro, in exchange for some inland Albanian -territory given back to the Turk. The formation of the Albanian -League is not unlikely to affect the geography of Herzegovina; -but no change has yet (January 1881) taken place which can be -shown on the map.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xliv" id="Page_xliv">{xliv}</a></span></p> - -<p><a href="#Page_441">P. 441</a>, l. 8. How unpleasant this truth is felt to be in certain -quarters, is shown by a small incident of last year. I sent a set -of manuscript maps of Dalmatia to Mr. Arthur Evans for his -suggestions. Those maps vanished in the Imperial, Royal, and -Apostolic post-office, and never reached his address at Ragusa. -If therefore the revolutions of Dalmatian geography are less -accurately marked in this book than they should be, the fault is -not mine. In Imperial, Royal, and Apostolic quarters it is -doubtless inconvenient to allow any memory of days when free -Ragusa had not bowed to any self-styled Emperor, either from -Corsica or from Lorraine, or of still later days when free Tzernagora -reached to her own sea at Cattaro. Those who have made it -their business to filch the substance may naturally enough think -it their business to filch the picture also.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_450">P. 450</a>, l. 5 from bottom. It is quite accurate to say that the -Turk has never ruled at Tzetinje. It is perfectly true that the -Turk has more than once harried Montenegro and Tzetinje itself; -the Turk has professed to consider the land as included in a -pashalik; but Montenegro has never been a regularly and avowedly -tributary state, as Servia and Roumania were, as free Bulgaria -is still.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_452">P. 452</a>, l. 7 from bottom. The promises of Europe on this -head still remain unfulfilled (January 1881). It is hardly -needful to notice the diplomatic quibble that the European order -for the liberation of these lands was not contained in the document -strictly called the Treaty of Berlin, but in another paper -signed at the same time and place. The order has been renewed -during the present year at the Second Berlin Conference.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_492">P. 492</a>, side-note. For ‘and’ read ‘under.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_529">P. 529</a>, l. 9 from bottom. For ‘western’ read ‘eastern.’</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_554">P. 554</a>, side-note. For ‘Northerners,’ read ‘Northmen.’</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">{1}</a></span></p> - - -<h2><a name="HISTORICAL_GEOGRAPHY" id="HISTORICAL_GEOGRAPHY">HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY -OF EUROPE.</a></h2> - - - -<hr class="chap" /></div> - -<div class="main"> - -<div class="chap"> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">INTRODUCTION.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Definition -of Historical -Geography.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The work</span> which we have now before us is to trace -out the extent of territory which the different states -and nations of Europe and the neighbouring lands have -held at different times in the world’s history, to mark -the different boundaries which the same country has -had, and the different meanings in which the same name -has been used. It is of great importance carefully to -make these distinctions, because great mistakes as to the -facts of history are often caused through men thinking -and speaking as if the names of different countries, say -for instance England, France, Burgundy, Austria, have -always meant exactly the same extent of territory. Historical -geography, in this sense, differs from physical -geography which regards the natural features of the -earth’s surface. It differs also from studies like ethnology -and comparative philology, which have to do directly -with the differences between one nation and another, with -their movements from one part of the world to another, -and with the relations to be found among the languages -spoken by them. But, though it is distinct from these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">{2}</a></span> -studies, it makes much use of them. For the physical -geography of a country always has a great effect upon -its political history, and the dispersions and movements -of different nations are exactly those parts of history -which have most to do with fixing the names and the -boundaries of different countries at different times. -<i>England</i>, for instance, is, in strictness, the land of the -English wherever they may settle, whether in their -old home on the European continent, or in the isle of -Britain, or in New England beyond the Ocean. But -the extent of territory which was in this way to become -England was largely determined by the physical circumstances -of the countries in which the English -settled. And the history of the English nation has -been influenced, above all things, by the fact that the -great English settlement which has made the English -name famous was made in an island. But, when -England had become the name of a distinct political -dominion, its meaning was liable to change as that -dominion advanced or went back. Thus the borders -of England and Scotland have greatly changed at -different times, and forgetfulness of this has led to -many misunderstandings in reading the history of -the two countries. And so with all other cases of the -kind; the physical nature of the country, and the settlements -of the different nations which have occupied it, -have always been the determining causes of its political -divisions. But it is with the political divisions that -historical geography has to deal in the first place. -With the nature of the land, and with the people who -occupy it, it has to deal only so far as they have influenced -the political divisions. Our present business -in short is, first to draw the map of the countries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">{3}</a></span> -with which we are concerned as it appeared after each -of the different changes which they have gone through, -and then to point out the historical causes which have -led to the changes on the map. In this way we shall -always see what was the meaning of any geographical -name at any particular time, and we shall thus avoid -mistakes, some of which have often led to really important -practical consequences.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Distinction -of Geographical -and Political -Names.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>From this it follows that, in looking at the geography -of Europe for our present purpose, we must look first -at the land itself, and then at the nations which occupy -it. And, in so doing, it may be well first of all -to distinguish between two kinds of names which we -shall have to use. Some names of countries are strictly -geographical; they really mean a certain part of the -earth’s surface marked out by boundaries which cannot -well be changed. Others simply mean the extent of -country which is occupied at any time by a particular -nation, and whose boundaries may easily be changed. -Thus <i>Britain</i> is a strictly geographical name, meaning -an island whose shape and boundaries must always be -nearly the same. <i>England</i>, <i>Scotland</i>, <i>Wales</i>, are names -of parts of that island, called after different nations -which have settled in it, and the boundaries of all of -which have differed greatly at different times. <i>Spain</i> -again is the geographical name of a peninsula which is -almost as well marked out by nature as the island of -Britain. <i>Castile</i>, <i>Aragon</i>, <i>Portugal</i>, are political names -of parts of the peninsula of Spain. They are the names -of states whose boundaries have greatly varied, and -which have sometimes formed separate governments -and sometimes have been joined together.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> <i>Gaul</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">{4}</a></span> -again is the geographical name of a country which -is not so clearly marked out all round by nature as -the island of Britain and the peninsula of Spain, but -which is well marked on three sides, to the north, -south, and west. Within the limits of Gaul, names like -<i>France</i>, <i>Flanders</i>, <i>Britanny</i>, <i>Burgundy</i>, and <i>Aquitaine</i>, -are political names of parts of the country, whose limits -have varied as much at different times as those of the -different parts of Britain and Spain. This is the difference -between strictly geographical names which do not -alter and political names which do alter. No doubt -<i>Gaul</i> and <i>Britain</i> were in the beginning political names, -names given to the land from those who occupied it, -just as much as the names <i>France</i> and <i>England</i>. But -the settlements from which those lands took the names -of Gaul and Britain took place long before the beginning -of trustworthy history, while the settlements from -which parts of those lands took the names of France -and England happened in times long after trustworthy -history began, and for which we are therefore ready -with dates and names. Thus Gaul and Britain are the -oldest received names of those lands; they are the -names which those lands bore when we first hear -of them. It is therefore convenient to keep them -in use as strictly geographical names, as always meaning -that part of the earth’s surface which they meant -when we first hear of them. In this book therefore, -<i>Gaul</i>, <i>Britain</i>, <i>Spain</i>, and other names of the same kind,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">{5}</a></span> -will always be used to mean a certain space on the -map, whoever may be its inhabitants, or whatever -may be its government, at any particular time. But -names like <i>France</i>, <i>England</i>, <i>Castile</i>, will be used to -mean the territory to which they were politically applied -at the time of which we may be speaking, a territory -which has been greater and less at different times. -Thus, the cities of Carlisle and Edinburgh have always -been in <i>Britain</i> since they were built. They have -sometimes been in <i>England</i> and sometimes not. The -cities of Marseilles, Geneva, Strassburg, and Arras have -always been in <i>Gaul</i> ever since they were built. -They have sometimes been in <i>France</i> and sometimes -not, according to political changes.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>Geographical Aspect of Europe.</i></h3> - -<p>Our present business is with the Historical Geography -of Europe, and with that of other parts of the world -only so far as they concern the geography of Europe. -But we shall have to speak of all the three divisions -of the Old World, Europe, Asia, and Africa, in those -parts of the three which come nearest to one another, -and in which the real history of the world begins. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Mediterranean Lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These are those parts of all three which lie round the -Mediterranean sea, the lands which gradually came to -form the Empire of Rome. In these lands the boundaries -between the three great divisions are very easily marked. -Modern maps do not all place the boundary between -Europe and Asia at the same point; some make the -river Don the boundary and some the Volga. But -this question is of little importance for history. In the -earliest historical times, when we have to do only with -the countries round the Mediterranean sea, there can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">{6}</a></span> -be no doubt how much is Europe and how much is -Asia and Africa. Europe is the land to the north of -the Mediterranean sea and of the great gulfs which -run out of it. If an exact boundary is needed in the barbarous -lands north of the Euxine, the Tanais or Don is -clearly the boundary which should be taken. In all these -lands the Mediterranean and its gulfs divide Europe from -Asia. But the northern parts of the two continents really -form one geographical whole, the boundary between -them being one merely of convenience. A vast central -mass of land, stretching right across the inland parts of -the two continents, sends forth a system of peninsulas -and islands, to the north and south. And it is in the -peninsular lands of Europe that European history begins.</p> - -<p>Alike in Europe and in Asia, the southern or peninsular -part of the continent is cut off from the central -mass by a mountain chain, which in Europe is nearly unbroken. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The peninsulas -of -Europe and -Asia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus the southern part of Europe consists of -the three great peninsulas of <i>Spain</i>, <i>Italy</i>, and what -we may, in a wide sense, call <i>Greece</i>. These answer -in some sort to the three great Oceanic peninsulas of -Asia, those of <i>Arabia</i>, <i>India</i>, and <i>India</i> beyond the -<i>Ganges</i>. But the part of Asia which has historically -had most to do with Europe is its Mediterranean peninsula, -the land known as <i>Asia Minor</i>. In the northern -part of each continent we find another system of -great gulfs or inland seas; but those in Asia have -been hindered by the cold from ever being of any -importance, while in Europe the Baltic sea and the -gulfs which run out of it may be looked on as forming -a kind of secondary Mediterranean. We may thus -say that Europe consists of two insular and peninsular -regions, north and south, with a great unbroken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">{7}</a></span> -mass of land between them. But there are some parts -of Europe which seem as it were connecting links between -the three main divisions of the continent. Thus -we said that the three great peninsulas are cut off -from the central mass by a nearly unbroken mountain -chain. But the connexion of the central peninsula, -that of Italy, with the eastern one or Greece, is far -closer than its connexion with the western one, or -Spain. Italy and Spain are much further apart than -Italy and Greece, and between the Alps and the Pyrenees -the mountain chain is nearly lost. We might -almost say that a piece of central Europe breaks through -at this point and comes down to the Mediterranean. -This is the south-eastern part of Gaul; and Gaul may in -this way be looked on as a land which joins together the -central and the southern parts of Europe. But this is -not all; in the north-western corner of Europe lies that -great group of islands, two large ones and many small, -of which our own Britain is the greatest. The British -islands are closely connected in their geography and -history with Gaul on one side, and with the islands -and peninsulas of the North on the other. In this way -we may say that all the three divisions of Europe are -brought closely together on the western side of the -continent, and that the lands of Gaul and Britain are -the connecting links which bind them together.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>Effect of Geography on History.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of history -in the -European -peninsulas.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Now this geographical aspect of the chief lands of -Europe has had its direct effect on their history. We -might almost take for granted that the history of Europe -should begin in the two more eastern among the three -great southern peninsulas. Of these two, Italy and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">{8}</a></span> -Greece, each has its own character. Greece, though it -is the part of Europe which lies nearest to Asia, is in a -certain sense the most European of European lands. -The characteristic of Europe is to be more full of peninsulas -and islands and inland seas than the rest of the Old -World. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Characteristics -of -Greece;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And Greece, the peninsula itself and the neighbouring -lands, are fuller of islands and promontories -and inland seas than any other part of Europe. On -the other hand, Italy is the central land of all southern -Europe, and indeed of all the land round the Mediterranean. -It was therefore only natural that Greece -should be the part of Europe in which all that is most -distinctively European first grew up and influenced other -lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And so, if any one land or city among the Mediterranean -lands was to rule over all the rest, it is in Italy, -as the central land, that we should naturally look for -the place of dominion. The destinies of the two peninsulas -and their relations to the rest of the world were -thus impressed on them by their geographical position.</p> - -<p>If we turn to recorded history, we find that it is only -a working out of the consequences of these physical facts. -Greece was the first part of Europe to become civilized -and to play a part in history; but it was Italy, and in -Italy it was its most central city, Rome, which came to -have the dominion over the civilized world of early -times—that is, over the lands around the Mediterranean. -These two peninsulas have, each in its own -way, ruled and influenced the rest of Europe as no -other parts have done. All the other parts have been, -in one way or another, their subjects or disciples. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -the Roman -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -effect of the geographical position of these countries is -also marked in the stages by which Rome advanced -to the general dominion of the Mediterranean lands.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">{9}</a></span> -She first subdued Italy; then she had to strive for -the mastery with her great rival Carthage, a city -which held nearly the same central position on the -southern coast of the Mediterranean which she herself -did on the northern. Then she subdued, step by step, -the peninsulas on each side of her and the other coast -lands of the Mediterranean—European, Asiatic, and -African. Into the central division of Europe she did not -press far, never having any firm or lasting dominion -beyond the Rhine and the Danube. Into Northern Europe, -properly so called, her power never reached at all. -But she subdued the lands which we have seen act as -a kind of connecting link between the different parts of -Europe, namely Gaul and the greater part of Britain. -Thus the Roman Empire, at its greatest extent, consisted -of the lands round the Mediterranean, together -with Gaul and Britain. For the possession of the Mediterranean -land would have been imperfect without the -possession of Gaul, and the possession of Gaul naturally -led to the possession of Britain.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of -the geographical -position of<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In this way the early history of Greece and Italy, -and the formation of the Roman Empire, were affected -by the geographical character of the countries themselves. -The same was the case with the other European -lands when they came to share in that importance which -once belonged to Greece and Italy only. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Germany,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus Germany, -as being the most central part of Europe, came -at one time to fill something like the same position -which Italy had once held. It came to be the country -which had to do with all parts of Europe, east, west, -north, and south, and even to be a ruler over some of -them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>France,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -So, as France became the chief state of Gaul, it -took upon it something like the old position of Gaul as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">{10}</a></span> -a means of communication between the different parts -of Western Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spain and -Scandinavia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, as the Scandinavian -and Spanish peninsulas are both cut off in such a marked -way from the mainland of Europe, each of them has -often formed a kind of world of its own, having much -less to do with other countries than Germany, France, -and Italy had. The same was for a long time the case -with our own island. Britain was looked on as lying -outside the world.</p> - -<p>Thus the geographical position of the European -lands influenced their history while their history was -still purely European. And when Europe began to send -forth colonies to other continents, the working of geographical -causes came out no less strongly. Thus the -position of Spain on the Ocean led Castile and Portugal -to be foremost among the colonizing nations of Europe. -For the same reason, our own country was one of the -chief in following their example, and so was France also -for a long time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The colonizing -powers.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Holland too, when it rose into importance, -became a great colonizing power, and so did Denmark -and Sweden to some extent. But an Italian colony -beyond the Ocean was never heard of, nor has there -ever been a German colony in the same sense in which -there have been Spanish and English colonies. Meanwhile, -the north-eastern part of Europe, which in early -times was not known at all, has always lagged behind -the rest, and has become of importance only in later -times. This is mainly because its geographical position -has almost wholly cut it off both from the Mediterranean -and from the Ocean.</p> - -<p>Thus we see how, in all these ways, both in -earlier and in later times, the history of every country -has been influenced by its geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Influence -of national -character.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -No doubt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">{11}</a></span> -the history of each country has also been largely -influenced by the disposition of the people who have -settled in it, by what is called the national character. -But then the geographical position itself has often -had something to do with forming the national character, -and in all cases it has had an influence upon -it, by giving it a better or a worse field for working -and showing itself. Thus it has been well said that -neither the Greeks in any other country nor any -other people in Greece could have been what the -Greeks in Greece really were. The nature of the -country and the nature of the people helped one -another, and caused Greece to become all that it was -in the early times of Europe. It is always useful to -mark the points both of likeness and unlikeness of the -different nations whose history we study. And of this -likeness and unlikeness we shall always find that the -geographical character, though only one cause out of -several, is always one of the chief causes.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>Geographical Distribution of Races.</i></h3> - -<p>Our present business then is with geography as influenced -by history, and with history as influenced by -geography. With ethnology, with the relations of nations -and races to one another, we have to deal only -so far as they form one of the agents in history. And -it will be well to avoid, as far as may be, all obscure -or controverted points of this kind. But the great results -of comparative philology may now be taken for -granted, and a general view of the geographical disposition -of the great European races is needful as an -introduction to the changes which historical causes have -wrought in the geography of the several parts of Europe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">{12}</a></span></p> - -<p>In European ethnology one main feature is that -the population of Europe is, and from the very beginnings -of history has been, more nearly homogeneous, -at least more palpably homogeneous, than that of any -other great division of the world. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Europe an -Aryan -continent.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Whether we look -at Europe now, or whether we look at it at the earliest -times of which we have any glimmerings, it is pre-eminently -an Aryan continent. Everything non-Aryan -is at once marked as exceptional. We cannot say -this of Asia, where, among several great ethnical elements, -none is so clearly predominant as the Aryan -element is in Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Non-Aryan -remnants.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There are in Europe non-Aryan -elements, both earlier and later than the Aryan settlement; -but they have, as a rule, been assimilated to the -prevailing Aryan mass. The earlier non-Aryan element -consists of the remnants which still remain of -the races which the Aryan settlers found in Europe, -and which they either exterminated or assimilated to -themselves. The later elements consist of non-Aryan -races which have made their way into Europe within -historical times, in whose case the work of assimilation -has been much less complete. It follows almost naturally -from the position of Europe that the primæval -non-Aryan element has survived in the west and in the -north, while the later or intrusive non-Aryan element -has made its way into the east and the south. In -the mountains of the western peninsula, in the border -lands of Spain and Gaul, the non-Aryan tongue -of the <i>Basque</i> still survives. In the extreme north -of Europe the non-Aryan tongue of the <i>Fins</i> and -<i>Laps</i> still survives. The possible relations of these -tongues either to one another or to other non-Aryan -tongues beyond the bounds of Europe is a question of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">{13}</a></span> -purely philological concern, and does not touch historical -geography. But historical geography is touched -by the probability, rising almost to moral certainty, -that the isolated populations by whom these primitive -tongues are still spoken are mere remnants of the primitive -races which formed the population of Europe at -the time when the Aryans first made their way into -that continent. Everything tends to show that the -<i>Basques</i> are but the remnant of a great people whom -we may set down with certainty as the præ-Aryan -inhabitants of Spain and a large part of Gaul, and -whose range we may, with great probability, extend -over Sicily, over part at least of Italy, and perhaps as far -north as our own island. Their possible connexion with -the early inhabitants of northern Africa hardly concerns -us. The probability that they were themselves preceded -by an earlier and far lower race concerns us not at -all. The earliest historical inhabitants of south-western -Europe are those of whom the Basques are the surviving -remnant, those who, under the names of <i>Iberians</i> -and <i>Ligurians</i>, fill a not unimportant place in -European history.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Order of -the Aryan -settlement.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>When we come to the Aryan settlements, we cannot -positively determine which among the Aryan races of -Europe were the earliest settlers in point of time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greeks and -Italians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great race which, in its many sub-divisions, contains -the <i>Greeks</i>, the <i>Italians</i>, and the nations more -immediately akin to them, are the first among the -European Aryans to show themselves in the light of -history; but it does not necessarily follow that -they were actually the first in point of settlement. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Celts.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It may be that, while they were pressing through -the Mediterranean peninsulas and islands, the <i>Celts</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">{14}</a></span> -were pressing their way through the solid central -land of Europe. The Celts were clearly the vanguard -of the Aryan migration within their own range, the -first swarm which made its way to the shores of -the Ocean. Partially in Spain, more completely in -Gaul and the British Islands, they displaced or assimilated -the earlier inhabitants, who, under their pressure -and that of later conquerors, have been gradually -shut up in the small mountainous region which they -still keep. Of the Celtic migration we have no historical -accounts, but all probability would lead us to -think that the Celts whom in historic times we find -on the Danube and south of the Alps were not emigrants -who had followed a backward course from the -great settlement in Transalpine Gaul, but rather detachments -which had been left behind on the westward -journey. Without attempting to settle questions as to -the traces of Celtic occupancy to be found in other -lands, it is enough for our purpose that, at the beginnings -of their history, we find the Celts the chief -inhabitants of a region stretching from the Rubico to -the furthest known points of Britain. Gaul, Cisalpine -and Transalpine, is their great central land, though -even here they are not exclusive possessors; they share -the land with a non-Aryan remnant to the south-west, -and with the next wave of Aryan new-comers to the -north-east.</p> - -<p>The settlements of these two great Aryan races -come before authentic history. After them came the -<i>Teutonic</i> races, who pressed on the Celts from the east; -and in their wake, to judge from their place on the -map, must have come the vast family of the <i>Slavonic</i> -nations. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Teutons -and Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the migrations of the Teutons and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">{15}</a></span> -Slaves come, for the most part, within the range of -recorded history. Our first glimpse of the Teutons -shows them in their central German land, already -occupying both sides of the Rhine, though seemingly -not very old settlers on its left bank. The long -wanderings of the various Teutonic and Slavonic -tribes over all parts of central Europe, their settlements -in the southern and western lands, are all -matters of history. So is the great Teutonic settlement -in the British islands, which partly exterminated, -partly assimilated, their Celtic inhabitants, so as to -leave them as mere a remnant, though a greater remnant, -as they themselves had made the Basques. And, -as the process which made the north-western islands -of Europe Teutonic is a matter of history, so also -are the later stages of the process which made -the northern peninsulas Teutonic. But it is only the -later stages which are historical; we know that in -the strictly Scandinavian peninsula the Teutonic invaders -displaced non-Aryan Fins; we have only to guess -that in the Cimbric Chersonêsos they displaced Aryan -Celts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lithuanians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But beyond the Teutons and Slaves lies yet -another Aryan settlement, one which, in a purely philological -view, is the most interesting of all, the small and -fast vanishing group which still survives in <i>Lithuania</i> and -the neighbouring lands. Of these there is historically -really nothing to be said. On the eastern shores of the -Baltic we find people whose tongue comes nearer than -any other European tongue to the common Aryan -model; but we can only guess alike at the date when -they came thither and at the road by which they came.</p> - -<p>These races then, Aryan and non-Aryan, make up -the immemorial population of Europe. The remnants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">{16}</a></span> -of the older non-Aryan races, and the successive waves -of Aryan settlement, are all immemorial facts which we -must accept as the groundwork of our history and our -geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Movements -among the -Aryan -races.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They must be distinguished from other -movements which are strictly matters of written history, -both movements among the Aryan nations themselves -and later intrusions of non-Aryan nations. Thus the -Greek colonies and the conquests of the Hellenized -Macedonians Hellenized large districts of Europe, -Asia, and Africa, partly by displacement, partly by -assimilation. The conquests of Rome, and the Teutonic -settlements within the Roman Empire, brought about -but little in the way of displacement, but a great deal -in the way of assimilation. The process indeed was -opposite in the two cases. The Roman conqueror -assimilated the conquered to himself; the Teutonic -conqueror was himself assimilated by those whom -he conquered. Britain and the Rhenish and Danubian -lands stand out as marked exceptions. The Slavonic -settlements in the East wrought far more of displacement -than the Teutonic settlements in the West. Vast -regions, once Illyrian or Thracian—that is, most likely, -more or less nearly akin to the Greeks—are now -wholly Slavonic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later intrusion -of -Non-Aryan -races.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly come the incursions on European -lands made by non-Aryan settlers in historic times. -Their results have been widely different in different -cases. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Semitic.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Semitic <i>Saracens</i> settled in Spain and -Sicily, bringing with them and after them their African -converts, men possibly of originally kindred race with -the first inhabitants both of the peninsula and of the -island. These non-Aryan settlers have vanished. The -displacement of large bodies of them is a fact of comparatively -recent history, but it can hardly fail that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">{17}</a></span> -some degree of assimilation must also have taken place. -Then come the settlements, chiefly in eastern Europe, -of those whom for our purpose it is enough to group -together as the Turanian nations. The <i>Huns</i> of Attila -have left only a name. The more lasting settlement -of the <i>Avars</i> has vanished, how far by displacement, -how far by assimilation, it might be hard to say. <i>Chozars</i>, -<i>Patzinaks</i>, a crowd of other barbarian races, -have left no sign of their presence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Turanian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>Bulgarians</i>, -originally Turanian conquerors, have been assimilated -by their Slavonic subjects. The Finnish <i>Magyars</i> -have received a political and religious assimilation; -their kingdom became a member of the commonwealth -of Christian Europe, though they still keep -their old Turanian language. The latest intruders -of all, the <i>Ottoman Turks</i>, still remain as they were -when they first came, aliens on Aryan and Christian -ground. But here again is a case of assimilation -the other way; the Ottoman Turks are an artificial -nation which has been kept up by the constant incorporation -of European renegades who have thrown -aside the speech, the creed, and the civilization of -Europe.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">{18}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Eastern or Greek Peninsula.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Characteristics -of the -Eastern -peninsula.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Historical Geography of Europe, if looked at in -chronological order, must begin with the most eastern -of the three peninsulas of Southern Europe. Here the -history of Europe, and the truest history of the world, -began. It was in the insular and peninsular lands between -the Ionian and Ægæan seas that the first steps -towards European civilization were taken; it is there -that we see the first beginnings of art, science, and -political life. But Greece or <i>Hellas</i>, in the strict sense -of the name, forms only a part of the lands which -must be looked on as the great Eastern peninsula. -It is however its leading and characteristic portion. -As the whole peninsular land gradually tapers southwards -from the great mass of central Europe, it becomes -at each stage more and more peninsular, and -it also becomes at each stage more and more Greek. -Greece indeed and the neighbouring lands form, -as was long ago remarked by Strabo,<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> a series of -peninsulas within peninsulas. It is not easy to find<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">{19}</a></span> -a name for the whole region, as it stretches far beyond -any limits which can be given to Greece in any age of -the world or according to any use of the name. But -the whole land seems to have been occupied by nations -more or less akin to the Greeks. The history of those -nations chiefly consists of their relations to the Greeks, -and all of them were brought more or less within the -range of Greek influences. We may therefore not -improperly call the whole land, as opposed to Italy -and Spain, the <i>Greek</i> peninsula. It has also been -called the <i>Byzantine peninsula</i>, as nearly answering to -the European part of the Eastern division of the Roman -Empire, when its seat of government was at Byzantion, -Constantinople, or New Rome.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its chief -divisions.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Taking the great range of mountains which divides -southern from central Europe as the northern -boundary of the eastern or Greek peninsula, it may be -said to take in the lands which are cut off from the -central mass by the <i>Dalmatian Alps</i> and the range of -<i>Haimos</i> or <i>Balkan</i>. It is washed to the east, west, or -south, by various parts of the Mediterranean and its -great gulf the Euxine. But the northern part of this -region, all that lies north of the Ægæan Sea, taking -in therefore the whole of the Euxine coast, still keeps -much of the character of the great central mass of -Europe, and forms a land intermediate between that -and the more strictly peninsular lands to the south. -Still the boundary is a real one, for all the lands south -of this range have come more or less within Greek -influences, and have played their part in Grecian history. -But when we get beyond the mountains, into -the valley of the Danube, we find ourselves in lands -which, excepting a few colonies on the coast, have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">{20}</a></span> -hardly at all come under Greek influences till quite -modern times. This region between Haimos and the -more strictly Greek lands takes in <i>Thrace</i>, <i>Paionia</i>, -and <i>Illyria</i>. Of these, Thrace and Illyria, having a -sea coast, received many Greek colonies, especially on -the northern coast of the Ægæan and on the <i>Propontis</i> -or Sea of Marmora. The Thracian part of this region, -as bordering on these more distinctly Grecian seas, -became more truly a part of the Grecian world than -the other lands to the west of it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Thrace and -Illyria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Yet geographically -Thrace is more widely cut off from Greece than Illyria is. -For there is no such great break on the western shore -of the great peninsula as that which, on the eastern side, -marks the point where we must draw the line between -Greece and its immediate neighbours and the lands to -the north of them. This is at the point where a peninsula -within a peninsula breaks off to the south, comprising -<i>Greece</i>, <i>Macedonia</i>, and <i>Epeiros</i>. There is here -no very special break on the Illyrian coast, but the -Ægæan coast of Thrace is fenced in as it were at its two -ends, to the east by the long narrow peninsula known -specially as the <i>Chersonêsos</i>, and to the west by the group -of peninsulas called <i>Chalkidikê</i>. These have nothing -answering to them on the Illyrian side beyond the -mere bend in the coast above Epidamnos. This last -point however marks the extent of the earlier Greek -colonization in those regions, and which has become -a still more important boundary in later times.</p> - -<p>Beyond Chalkidikê to the west, the specially -Greek peninsula projects to the south, being itself -again composed of peninsulas within peninsulas. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greece -proper and -its peninsulas.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -<i>Ambrakian Gulf</i> on the west and the <i>Pagasaian</i> on -the east again fence off a peninsula to the south, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">{21}</a></span> -which the more purely Greek lands are fenced off -from <i>Macedonia</i>, <i>Epeiros</i>, and <i>Thessaly</i>. Within this -peninsula again another may be marked off by a line -drawn from <i>Thermopylai</i> to the <i>Corinthian</i> gulf near -Delphoi. This again shuts out to the east <i>Akarnania</i>, -<i>Aitolia</i>, and some other of the more backward divisions -of the Greek name. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peloponnêsos.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus <i>Phôkis</i>, <i>Boiôtia</i>, and -<i>Attica</i> form a great promontory, from which Attica -projects as a further promontory to the south-east, -while the great peninsula of <i>Peloponnêsos</i>—itself made -up on its eastern and southern sides of smaller -peninsulas—is joined on by the narrow isthmus of -Corinth. In this way, from Haimos to <i>Tainaros</i>, the -land is ever becoming more and more broken up by -greater or smaller inlets of the sea. And in proportion -as the land becomes more strictly peninsular, it also -becomes more strictly Greek, till in Peloponnêsos we -reach the natural citadel of the Greek nation.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>Insular and Asiatic Greece.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Continuous -Hellas.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Greece Proper then, what the ancient geographers -called <i>Continuous Hellas</i> as distinguished from the Greek -colonies planted on barbarian shores, is, so far as it is -part of the mainland, made up of a system of peninsulas -stretching south from the general mass of eastern Europe. -But the neighbouring islands equally form a part of -continuous Greece; and the other coasts of the Ægæan, -Asiatic as well as Thracian, were so thickly strewed -with Greek colonies as to form, if not part of continuous -Greece, yet part of the immediate Greek world. The -western coast, as it is less peninsular, is also less insular, -and the islands on the western side of Greece did not -reach the same importance as those on the eastern side.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">{22}</a></span> -Still they too, the Ionian islands of modern geography, -form in every sense a part of Greece. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the north of -<i>Korkyra</i> or <i>Corfu</i> there are only detached Greek -colonies, whether on the mainland or in the islands; -but all the islands of the Ægæan are, during historical -times, as much part of Greece as the mainland; and -one island on each side, <i>Leukas</i> on the west and the -greater island of <i>Euboia</i> on the east, might almost be -counted as parts of the mainland, as peninsulas rather -than islands. To the south the long narrow island of -<i>Crete</i> forms a sort of barrier between Greek and barbarian -seas. It is the most southern of the purely -Greek lands. <i>Sicily</i> to the east and <i>Cyprus</i> to the -west received many Greek colonies, but they never -became purely Greek in the same way as Crete and the -islands to the north of it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Asiatic -Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But, besides the European peninsulas and the islands, -part of Asia must be looked on as forming part of the immediate -Greek world, though not strictly of continuous -Greece. The peninsula known as <i>Asia Minor</i> cannot be -separated from Europe either in its geography or in its -history. With its central mass we have little or nothing -to do; but its coasts form a part of the Greek world, and -its Ægæan coast was only less thoroughly Greek than -Greece itself and the Greek islands. It would seem that -the whole western coast of Asia Minor was inhabited by -nations which, like the European neighbours of Greece, -were more or less nearly akin to the Greeks. And the -Ægæan coast of Asia is almost as full of inlets of the -sea, of peninsulas and promontories and islands near to -the shore, as European Greece itself. All these shores -therefore received Greek colonies. The islands and -the most tempting spots on the mainland were occupied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">{23}</a></span> -by Greek settlers, and became the sites of Greek cities. -But Greek influence never spread very far inland, and -even the coast itself did not become so purely Greek -as the islands. When we pass from the Ægæan coast -of Asia to the other two sides of the peninsula, -to its northern coast washed by the Euxine and its -southern coast washed by the Mediterranean, we -have passed out of the immediate Greek world. -Greek colonies are found on favourable spots here -and there; but the land, even the coast as a whole, is -barbarian.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>Ethnology of the Eastern Peninsula.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Greeks -and the -kindred -races.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The immediate Greek world then as opposed to -the outlying Greek colonies, consists of the shores -of the Ægæan sea and of the peninsulas lying between -it and the Ionian sea. Of this region a great part -was exclusively inhabited by the Greek nation, while -Greek influences were more or less dominant throughout -the whole. But it would further seem that the -whole, or nearly the whole, of these lands were inhabited -by races more or less akin to the Greeks. -They seem to have been races which had a good -deal in common with the Greeks, and of whom -the Greeks were simply the foremost and most fortunate, -their higher developement being doubtless greatly -favoured by the geographical nature of the country -which they occupied. But a distinction must be drawn -between the nearer and the more remote neighbours -of Greece. It is hardly necessary for our present purpose -to determine whether the Greeks had or had not -any connexion with Thracians, European or Asiatic, with -Phrygians and Lydians, and other neighbouring nations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">{24}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Nations -more remote, -but -probably -kindred.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All these were in Greek eyes simply Barbarians, but -modern scholarship has seen in them signs of a kindred -with the Greek nation nearer than the share of both -in the common Aryan stock. We need not settle here -whether all the inhabitants of the geographical district -which we have marked out were, or were not, kinsmen -in this sense; but with some among them the question -assumes a deeper interest and a nearer approach to -certainty. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Illyrians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great Illyrian race, of whom the -Albanians or <i>Skipetars</i> are the modern representatives, -a race which has been so largely displaced by -Slaves at one end and assimilated by Greeks at the -other, can hardly fail to have had a nearer kindred with -the Greeks than that which they both share with Celts -and Teutons. When we come to the lands which are -yet more closely connected with Greece, both in geographical -position and in their history, the case becomes -clearer still. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Epeiros, -Macedonia, -Sicily and -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We can hardly doubt of the close connexion -between the Greeks and the nations which -bordered on Greece immediately to the north in -Epeiros and Macedonia, as well as with some at -least of those which they found occupying the opposite -coasts of the Ægæan, as well as in Sicily -and Italy. The Greeks and Italians, with the nations -immediately connected with them, clearly belong to -one, and that a well marked, division of the Aryan -family. Their kindred is shown alike by the evidence -of language and by the remarkable ease with -which in all ages they received Greek civilization. -Into more minute inquiries as to these matters it -is hardly our province to go here. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pelasgians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is perhaps -enough to say that the <i>Pelasgian</i> name, which has -given rise to so much speculation, seems to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">{25}</a></span> -been used by the Greeks themselves in a very -vague way, much as the word <i>Saxon</i> is among ourselves. -It is therefore dangerous to form any theories -about the matter. Sometimes the Pelasgians seem to -be spoken of simply as <i>Old-Hellênes</i>, sometimes as a -people distinct from the Hellênes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Greek -nation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Whether the Hellênes, -on their entering into Greece, found the land -held by earlier inhabitants, whether Aryan or non-Aryan, -is a curious and interesting speculation, but one -which does not concern us. It is enough for our -purpose that, as far back as history or even legend can -carry us, we find the land in the occupation of a branch -of the Aryan family, consisting, like all other nations, -of various kindred tribes. It is a nation which is as -well defined as any other nation, and yet it shades off, -as it were, into the other nations of the kindred stock. -Clearly marked as Greek and Barbarian are from the -beginning, there still are frontier tribes in Epeiros and -Macedonia which must be looked on as forming an -intermediate stage between the two classes, and which -are accordingly placed by different Greek writers sometimes -in one class and sometimes in the other.</p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>The Earliest Geography of Greece and the Neighbouring Lands.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Homeric -map of -Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Our first picture of Greek geography comes from -the Homeric catalogue. Whatever may be the historic -value of the Homeric poems in general, it is clear that -the catalogue in the second book of the Iliad must represent -a real state of things. It gives us a map of Greece -so different from the map of Greece at any later time -that it is inconceivable that it can have been invented -at any later time. We have in fact a map of Greece at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">{26}</a></span> -a time earlier than any time to which we can assign -certain names and dates. Within the range of Greece -itself the various Greek races often changed their -settlements, displacing or conquering earlier Greek -settlers; and the different states which they formed -often changed their boundaries by bringing other -states into subjection or depriving them of parts of -their territory. The Homeric catalogue gives us a -wholly different arrangement of the various branches -of the nation from any that we find in the Greece of -historic times. The <i>Dorian</i> and <i>Ionian</i> names, which -were afterwards so famous, are hardly known; the -name of <i>Hellênes</i> itself belongs only to a small district. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tribal divisions -of -Homeric -Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The names for the whole people are <i>Achaians</i>, <i>Argeians</i> -(<i>Argos</i> seeming to mean all Peloponnêsos), and -<i>Danaoi</i>, the last a name which goes quite out of use -in historic times. The boundary of Greece to the west -is narrower than it was in later times. The land called -<i>Akarnania</i> has not yet got that name, if indeed it was -Greek at all. It is spoken of vaguely as <i>Epeiros</i> or -the mainland,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and it appears as part of the possessions -of the king of the neighbouring islands, <i>Kephallênia</i> -and <i>Ithakê</i>. The islands to the north, <i>Leukas</i> and <i>Korkyra</i>, -were not yet Greek. The <i>Thesprotians</i> in Epeiros -are spoken of as a neighbouring and friendly -people, but they form no part of the Greek nation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">{27}</a></span> -The <i>Aitolians</i> appear as a Greek people, and so do -most of the other divisions of the Greek nation, only -their position and relative importance is often different -from what it was afterwards. Thus, to mention a few -examples out of many, the <i>Lokrians</i>, who, in historic -times, appear both on the sea of Euboia and on the -Corinthian gulf, appear in the catalogue in their -northern seats only.</p> - -<p>When we turn from tribes to cities, the difference -is still greater. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Groupings -of cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The cities which held the first place in -historic times are not always those which are greatest -in the earlier time, and their grouping in federations or -principalities is wholly unlike anything in later history. -Thus in the historic <i>Boiotia</i> we find <i>Orchomenos</i> as -the second city of a confederation of which <i>Thebes</i> -is the first. In the catalogue Orchomenos and the -neighbouring city <i>Aspledôn</i> form a separate division, -distinct from Boiôtia. Euboia forms a whole; and, -what is specially to be noticed, <i>Attica</i>, as a land, -is not mentioned, but only the single city of <i>Athens</i>, -with <i>Salamis</i> as a kind of dependency. Peloponnêsos -again is divided in a manner quite different from -anything in later times. The ruling city is <i>Mykênê</i>, -whose king holds also a general superiority over -all Hellas, while his immediate dominion takes in -<i>Corinth</i>, <i>Kleônai</i>, <i>Sikyôn</i>, and the whole south coast of -the Corinthian Gulf, the <i>Achaia</i> of later times. The -rest of the cities of the Argolic peninsula are grouped -round <i>Argos</i>. Northern Greece again is divided into -groups of cities which answer to nothing in later times. -And its relative importance in the Greek world is -clearly far greater than it was in the historic period.</p> - -<p>The catalogue also helps us to our earliest picture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">{28}</a></span> -of the northern and eastern coasts of the Ægæan and -of the Ægæan islands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -Greek colonization.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We see the extent which Greek -colonization had already made. It had as yet taken -in only the southern islands of the Ægæan. <i>Crete</i> was -already Greek; so were <i>Rhodes</i>, <i>Kôs</i>, and the neighbouring -islands; but these last are distinctly marked -as new settlements. The coast of Asia and the northern -islands are still untouched, except through the events of -the Trojan war itself, in which the Greek conquest of -<i>Lesbos</i> is distinctly marked. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Asiatic -Catalogue.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Asia, besides <i>Trojans</i> -and <i>Dardanians</i>, we find <i>Pelasgians</i> as a distinct -people, as also <i>Paphlagonians</i>, <i>Mysians</i>, <i>Phrygians</i>, -<i>Maionians</i>, <i>Karians</i>, and <i>Lykians</i>. We find in short -the nations which fringe the whole Ægæan coast of -Asia and the south-western coast of the Euxine. In -Europe again we have Thracians and Paionians, names -familiar in historic times, and whose bearers seemingly -occupied nearly the same lands which they do in later -times. The presence of Thracians in Asia is implied -rather than asserted. The <i>Macedonian</i> name is not -found. The northern islands of the Ægæan are mentioned -only incidentally. Everything leaves us to believe -that the whole region, European and Asiatic, to which -we are now concerned, was, at this earliest time of -which we have any glimpses, occupied by various races -more or less closely allied to each other. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Phœnician -and Greek -settlements -in the islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The islands -were largely Karian, but the <i>Phœnicians</i>, a Semitic -people from the eastern coast, seem to have planted -colonies in several of the Mediterranean islands. But -Karians and Phœnicians had now begun to give way to -Greek settlements. The same rivalry in short between -Greeks and Phœnicians must have gone on in the earliest -times in the islands of the Ægæan which went on in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">{29}</a></span> -historical times in the greater islands of Cyprus and -Sicily.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>Change from Homeric to Historic Greece.</i></h3> - -<p>The state of things which is set before us in the -catalogue was altogether broken up by later changes, -but changes which still come before the beginnings of -contemporary history, and which we understand chiefly -by comparing the geography of the catalogue with the -geography of later times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes in -Peloponnêsos.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -According to received tradition, -a number of <i>Dorian</i> colonies from Northern -Greece were gradually planted in the chief cities of -Peloponnêsos, and drove out or reduced to subjection -their older <i>Achaian</i> inhabitants. Mykênê from this time -loses its importance; Argos, Sparta, Corinth, and Sikyôn -become Dorian cities; and Sparta gradually wins the -dominion over all the towns, whether Dorian or Achaian, -within her immediate dominion of Lakonia. To the west -of Lakonia arises the Dorian state of <i>Messênê</i>, which is -the name only of a district, as there was as yet no -city so called. As part of the same movement, an -Aitolian colony is said to have occupied <i>Êlis</i> on the -west coast of Peloponnêsos. Elis again was at this -time the name of a district only; the cities both of -Messênê and Êlis are of much later date. First Argos, -and then Sparta, rises to a supremacy over their fellow-Dorians -and over the whole of Peloponnêsos. Historical -Peloponnêsos thus consists (i) of the cities, chiefly -Dorian, of the Argolic <i>Aktê</i> or peninsula, together with -<i>Corinth</i> on the Isthmus and <i>Megara</i>, a Dorian outpost -beyond the Isthmus; (ii) of <i>Lakonikê</i>, the district immediately -subject to Sparta, with a boundary towards -Argos which changed as Sparta advanced and Argos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">{30}</a></span> -went back; (iii) of <i>Messênê</i>, which was conquered by -Sparta before the age of contemporary history, and was -again separated in the fourth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>; (iv) of <i>Elis</i>, -with the border-districts between it and Messênê; (v) -of the <i>Achaian</i> cities on the coast of the Corinthian -Gulf; (vi) of the inland country of <i>Arkadia</i>. The -relations among these districts and the several cities -within them often fluctuated, but the general aspect of -the map of Peloponnêsos did not greatly change from -the beginning of the fifth century to the later days of -the third.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes in -Northern -Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>According to the received traditions, migrations of -the same kind took place in Northern Greece also between -the time of the catalogue and the beginning of -contemporary history. Thus Thessaly, whose different -divisions form a most important part of the catalogue, is -said to have suffered an invasion at the hands of the half -Hellenic <i>Thesprotians</i>. They are said to have become -the ruling people in Thessaly itself, and to have held a -supremacy over the neighbouring lands, including the -peninsula of Magnêsia and the Phthiôtic Achaia. It is -certain that in the historical period Thessaly lags in the -back ground, and that the true Hellenic spirit is much -less developed there than in other parts of Greece. There -is less reason to accept the legend of a migration out of -Thessaly into Boiôtia; but in historic times Orchomenos -no longer appears as a separate state, but is the second -city of the Boiotian confederacy, yielding the first place -to Thebes with great unwillingness. The Lokrians -also now appear on the Corinthian gulf as well as on -the sea of Euboia. And the land to the west of Aitôlia, -so vaguely spoken of in the catalogue, has become the -seat of a Greek people under the name of <i>Akarnania</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">{31}</a></span> -The Corinthian colonies along this coast, the city of -<i>Ambrakia</i>, the island or peninsula of <i>Leukas</i>, the -foundation of which is placed in the eighth century -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, come almost within the time of trustworthy -history. They are not Greek in the catalogue; they -are Greek when we first hear of them in history. -Ambrakia forms the last outpost of continuous Hellas -towards the north-west; beyond that are only outlying -settlements on the Illyrian coasts and islands.</p> - -<p>These changes in the geography of continental -Greece, both within and without Peloponnêsos, make -the main differences between the Greece of the Homeric -catalogue and the Greece of the Persian and -Peloponnesian wars. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes in -later times.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the sixth, fifth, and fourth -centuries before Christ there were constant changes in -political relations of the Greek states to one another; -but there were not many changes which greatly affected -the geography. Cities were constantly brought in subjection -to one another, and were again relieved from -the yoke. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 370-369.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the course of the fourth century two new -Peloponnesian cities, <i>Messênê</i> and <i>Megalopolis</i>, were -founded. In Boiotia again, <i>Plataia</i> and <i>Orchomenos</i> -were destroyed by the Thebans, and Thebes itself was -destroyed by Alexander, but these were afterwards -rebuilt. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 468.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Peloponnêsos Mykênê was destroyed by -the Argeians, and never rebuilt. But most of these -changes do not affect geography, as they did not involve -any change in the seats of the great divisions -of the Greek name. The only exception is that of -the foundation of <i>Messênê</i>, which was accompanied by -the separation of the old Messenian territory from -Sparta, and the consequent establishment of a new or -restored division of the Greek nation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">{32}</a></span></p> - - -<h3>§ 6. <i>The Greek Colonies.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Ægæan -colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It must have been in the time between the days represented -by the catalogue and the beginnings of contemporary -history, that most of the islands of the Ægæan -became Greek, and that the Greek colonies were planted -on the Ægæan coast of Asia. We have seen that the -southern islands were already Greek at the time of the -catalogue, while some of the northern ones, <i>Thasos</i>, -<i>Lêmnos</i>, and others, did not become Greek till times to -which we can give approximate dates, from the eighth -to the fifth centuries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonies -in Asia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During this period, at some time -before the eighth century, the whole Ægæan coast of -Asia had become fringed with Greek cities, <i>Dorian</i> to -the south, <i>Aiolian</i> to the north, <i>Ionian</i> between the -two. The story of the Trojan war itself in the land -is most likely a legendary account of the beginning of -these settlements, which may make us think that the -Greek colonization of this coast began in the north, in -the lands bordering on the Hellespont. At all events, -by the eighth century these settlements had made the -Asiatic coast and the islands adjoining it a part, and a -most important part, not only of the Greek world, but -we may almost say of Greece itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their early -greatness.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Ionian cities, -above all, <i>Smyrna</i>, <i>Ephesos</i>, <i>Milêtos</i>, and the islands of -<i>Chios</i> and <i>Samos</i>, were among the greatest of Greek -cities, more flourishing certainly than any in European -Greece. Milêtos, above all, was famous for the number -of colonies which it sent forth in its own turn. But, if -their day of greatness came before that of the European -Greeks, they were also the first to come under -the power of the Barbarians. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lydian and -Persian -conquests.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the course of the fifth -century the Greek cities on the continent of Asia came -under the power, first of the <i>Lydian</i> kings and then of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">{33}</a></span> -their <i>Persian</i> conquerors, who subdued several of the -islands also. It was this subjection of the Asiatic -Greeks to the Barbarians which led to the Persian -war, with which the most brilliant time in the history -of European Greece begins. We thus know the Asiatic -cities only in the days of their decline. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonies in -Thrace.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The coasts of -Thrace and Macedonia were also sprinkled with Greek -cities, but they did not lie so thick together as those -on the Asiatic coast, except only in the three-fingered -peninsula of <i>Chalkidikê</i>, which became a thoroughly -Greek land. Some of these colonies in Thrace, as -<i>Olynthos</i> and <i>Potidaia</i>, play an important part in Greek -history, and two among them fill a place in the history -of the world. <i>Thermê</i>, under its later name of <i>Thessalonikê</i>, -has kept on its importance under all changes -down to our own time. And <i>Byzantion</i>, on the Thracian -Bosporos, rose higher still, becoming, under the -form of <i>Constantinople</i>, the transplanted seat of the -Empire of Rome.</p> - -<p>The settlements which have been thus far spoken of -may be all counted as coming within the immediate -Greek world. They were planted in lands so near to -the mother-country, and they lay so near to one another, -that the whole country round the Ægæan may be -looked on as more or less thoroughly Greek. Some -parts were wholly Greek, and everywhere Greek influences -were predominant. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>More distant -colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, during this same period -of distant enterprise, between the time of the Homeric -catalogue and the time of the Persian War, many Greek -settlements were made in countries much further off -from continuous Greece. All of course came within -the range of the Mediterranean world; no Greek ever -passed through the Straits of Hêraklês to found settlements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">{34}</a></span> -on the Ocean. But a large part of the coast -both of the Mediterranean itself and of the Euxine -was gradually dotted with Greek colonies. These outposts -of Greece, unless they were actually conquered -by barbarians, almost always remained Greek; they kept -their Greek language and manners, and they often spread -them to some extent among their barbarian neighbours. -But it was not often that any large tract of country -in these more distant lands became so thoroughly -Greek as the Ægæan coast of Asia became. We may -say however that such was the case with the coast of -Sicily and Southern Italy, where many Greek colonies -were planted, which will be spoken of more fully in -another chapter. All Sicily indeed did in the end really -become a Greek country, though not till after its conquest -by the Romans. But in Northern and Central -Italy, the Latins, Etruscans, and other Italian nations -were too strong for any Greek colonies to be made in -those parts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonies in -the Hadriatic.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the other side of the Hadriatic, Greek -colonies had spread before the Peloponnesian war as -far north as <i>Epidamnos</i>. The more northern colonies -on the coast and among the islands of Dalmatia, the -Illyrian <i>Epidauros</i>, <i>Pharos</i>, <i>Black Korkyra</i>, and others, -were among the latest efforts of Greek colonization in -the strict sense.</p> - -<p>In other parts of the Mediterranean coasts the -Greek settlements lay further apart from each other. -But we may say that they were spread here and there -over the whole coast, except where there was some -special hindrance to keep the Greeks from settling. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Phœnician -colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus, in a great part of the Mediterranean the -Phœnicians had got the start of the Greeks, both in -their own country on the coast of Syria, and in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">{35}</a></span> -colonies sent forth by their great cities of Tyre and -Sidon. The Phœnician colonists occupied a large part -of the western half of the southern coast of the -Mediterranean, where lay the great Phœnician cities of -<i>Carthage</i>, <i>Utica</i>, and others. They had also settlements -in Southern Spain, and one at least outside the straits -on the Ocean. This is <i>Gades</i> or <i>Cadiz</i>, which has kept -its name and its unbroken position as a great city from -an earlier time than any other city in Europe. The -Greeks therefore could not colonize in these parts. -In the great islands of Sicily and Cyprus there were -both Phœnician and Greek colonies, and there was a -long struggle between the settlers of the two nations. -In Egypt again, though there were some Greek settlers, -yet there were no Greek colonies in the strict sense. -That is, there were no independent Greek commonwealths. -Thus the only part of the southern coast of -the Mediterranean which was open to Greek colonization -was the land between Egypt and the dominions of -Carthage. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greek colonies -in -Africa, -Gaul, and -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In that land accordingly several Greek -cities were planted, of which the chief was the famous -<i>Kyrênê</i>. On the southern coast of Gaul arose the -great Ionian city of <i>Massalia</i> or <i>Marseilles</i>, which also, -like the Phœnician Gades, has kept its name and its -prosperity down to our own time. Massalia became the -centre of a group of Greek cities on the south coast of -Gaul and the east coast of Spain, which were the means -of spreading a certain amount of Greek civilization in -those parts.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonies on -the Euxine.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Besides these settlements in the Mediterranean itself, -there were also a good many Greek colonies on the -western, northern, and southern coasts of the Euxine, of -which those best worth remembering are the city of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">{36}</a></span> -<i>Chersonêsos</i> in the peninsula called the <i>Tauric Chersonêsos</i>, -now Crimea, and <i>Trapezous</i> on the southern -coast. These two deserve notice as being two most -abiding seats of Greek influence. Chersonêsos, under -the name of <i>Cherson</i>, remained an independent Greek -commonwealth longer than any other, and Trapezous or -<i>Trebizond</i> became the seat of Greek-speaking Emperors, -who outlived those of Constantinople. Speaking generally -then, we may say that, in the most famous times of -European Greece, in the time of the Persian and Peloponnesian -wars, the whole coast of the Ægæan was part -of the immediate Greek world, while in Sicily and -Cyprus Greek colonies were contending with the Phœnicians, -and in Italy with the native Italians. Massalia -was the centre of a group of Greek states in the north-west, -and Kyrênê in the south, while the greater part -of the coast of the Euxine was also dotted with Greek -cities here and there. In most of these colonies the -Greeks mixed to some extent with the natives, and -the natives to some extent learned the Greek language -and manners. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of the artificial -Greek -nation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We thus get the beginning of what we -call an artificial Greek nation, a nation Greek in -speech and manners, but not purely Greek in blood, -which has gone on ever since.</p> - - -<h3>§ 7. <i>Growth of Macedonia and Epeiros.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -Macedonia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But while the spread of the Greek language and -civilization, and therewith the growth of the artificial -Greek nation, was brought about in a great degree -by the planting of independent Greek colonies, it was -brought about still more fully by events which went -far to destroy the political independence of Greece -itself. This came of the growth of the kindred nations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">{37}</a></span> -to the north of Greece, in Macedonia and Epeiros. The -Macedonians were for a long time hemmed in by the -barbarians to the north and west of them and by the -Greek cities on the coast, and they were also weakened -by divisions among themselves. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reign of -Philip, <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> -360-336.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But when the whole -nation was united under its great King Philip, Macedonia -soon became the chief power in Greece and the -neighbouring lands. Philip greatly increased his dominions -at the expense of both Greeks and barbarians, -especially by adding the peninsulas of Chalkidikê to his -kingdom. But in Greece itself, though he took to himself -the chief power, he did not actually annex any of -the Greek states to Macedonia, so that his victories there -do not affect the map. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Alexander, -336-323.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -His yet more famous son Alexander, -and the Macedonian kings after him, in like -manner held garrisons in particular Greek cities, and -brought some parts of Greece, as Thessaly and Euboia, -under a degree of Macedonian influence which hardly -differed from dominion; but they did not formally -annex them. The conquests of Alexander in Asia -brought most of the Greek cities and islands under -Macedonian dominion, but some, as Crete, Rhodes, -Byzantion, and <i>Hêrakleia</i> on the Euxine, kept their -independence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Epeiros -under Pyrrhos, -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> -295-272.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile Epeiros became united -under the Greek kings of <i>Molossis</i>, and under Pyrrhos, -who made Ambrakia his capital, it became a powerful -state. And a little kingdom called <i>Athamania</i>, thrust -in between Epeiros, Macedonia, and Thessaly, now -begins to be heard of.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Macedonian -kingdoms -in Asia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The conquests of Alexander in Asia concern us only -so far as they called into being a class of states in Western -Asia, all of which received a greater or less share of -Hellenic culture, and some of which may claim a place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">{38}</a></span> -in the actual Greek world. By the division of the empire -of Alexander after the battle of Ipsos, <i>Egypt</i> became -the kingdom of Ptolemy, with whose descendants -it remained down to the Roman conquest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 301.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The civilization -of the Egyptian court was Greek, and Alexandria -became one of the greatest of Greek cities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Egypt -under the -Ptolemies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Moreover -the earlier kings of the Ptolemaic dynasty held various -islands in the Ægæan, and points on the coast of Asia -and even of Thrace, which made them almost entitled -to rank as a power in Greece itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Seleukid -dynasty.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great Asiatic -power of Alexander passed to <i>Seleukos</i> and his descendants. -The early kings of his house ruled from the Ægæan -to the Hyphasis, though this great dominion was at all -times fringed and broken in upon by the dominions of -native princes, by independent Greek cities, and by the -dominions of other Macedonian kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Circa <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> -256.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But in the third -century their dominion was altogether cut short in the -East by the revolt of the Parthians in northern Persia, -by whom the eastern provinces of the Seleukid kingdom -were lopped away. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 191-181.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And when Antiochos the Great -provoked a war with Rome, his dominion was cut -short to the West also. The Seleukid power now shrank -up into a local kingdom of <i>Syria</i>, with Tauros for its -north-western frontier.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cities of independent -state in -Asia Minor.<br /> -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 283.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>By the cutting short of the Seleukid kingdom, room -was given for the growth of the independent states -which had already sprung up in Asia Minor. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pergamos.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom of <i>Pergamos</i> had already begun, and the -dominions of its kings were largely increased by the -Romans at the expense of Antiochos. Pergamos might -count as a Hellenic state, alongside of Macedonia and -Epeiros. But the other kingdoms of Asia Minor, <i>Bithynia</i>, -<i>Kappadokia</i>, <i>Paphlagonia</i>, and <i>Pontos</i>, the kingdom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">{39}</a></span> -of the famous Mithridates, must be counted as -Asiatic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spread of -Hellenic -culture.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Hellenic influence indeed spread itself far -to the East. Even the Parthian kings affected a certain -amount of Greek culture, and in all the more western -kingdoms there was a greater or less Greek element, -and in several of them the kings fixed their capitals in -Greek cities. Still in all of them the Asiatic element -prevailed in a way in which it did not prevail at Pergamos. -Meanwhile other states, either originally Greek -or largely Hellenized, still remained East of the Ægæan. -Thus, at the south-western corner of Asia Minor, <i>Lykia</i>, -though seemingly less thoroughly Hellenized than some -of its neighbours, became a federal state after the -Greek model. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Seleukeia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Far to the East, <i>Seleukeia</i> on the Tigris, -whether under Syrian or Parthian overlordship, kept -its character as a Greek colony, and its position as what -may be called a free imperial city. Further to the -West other more purely Greek states survived. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hêrakleia.<br /> -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 188.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Pontic <i>Hêrakleia</i> long remained an independent Greek -city, sometimes a commonwealth, sometimes under -tyrants; and <i>Sinôpê</i> remained a Greek city till it became -the capital of the kings of Pontos. On the north of the -Euxine, <i>Bosporos</i> still remained a Greek kingdom.</p> - - -<h3>§ 8. <i>The later Geography of Independent Greece.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later political -divisions -of -Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The political divisions of independent Greece, in the -days when it gradually came under the power of Rome, -differ almost as much from those to which we are used -during the Persian and Peloponnesian wars, as these last -differ from the earlier divisions in the Homeric catalogue. -The chief feature of these times was the power -which was held, as we have before seen, by the Macedonian -kings, and the alliances made by the different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">{40}</a></span> -Greek states in order to escape or to throw off their -yoke. The result was that the greater part of Greece -was gradually mapped out among large confederations, -much larger at least than Greece had ever seen before. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Achaian -League, -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 280.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The most famous of these, the League of <i>Achaia</i>, -began among the old Achaian cities on the south of -the Corinthian Gulf. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 191.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It gradually spread, till it -took in the whole of Peloponnêsos, together with -Megara and one or two outlying cities. Thus Corinth, -Argos, Elis, and even Sparta, instead of being distinct -states as of old, with a greater or less dominion over -other cities, were now simply members of one federal -body. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Aitolian -League.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Northern Greece the League of <i>Aitolia</i> now -became very powerful, and extended itself far beyond -its old borders. Akarnania, Phôkis, Lokris, and -Boiôtia formed Federal states of less power, and so -did <i>Epeiros</i>, where the kings had been got rid of, and -which was now reckoned as a thoroughly Greek state. -The Macedonian kings held different points at different -times: Corinth itself for a good while, and Thessaly and -Euboia for longer periods, might be almost counted as -parts of their kingdom.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Roman interference -in Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This was the state of things in Greece at the -time when the Romans began to meddle in Greek and -Macedonian affairs, and gradually to bring all these -countries, like the rest of the Mediterranean world, -under their power. But it should be remarked that -this was done, as the conquests of the Romans always -were done, very gradually. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 229.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First the island of Korkyra -and the cities of Epidamnos and Apollônia on -the Illyrian coast became Roman allies, which was always -a step to becoming Roman subjects. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 205.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Romans -first appeared in Greece itself, as allies of the Aitolians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">{41}</a></span> -but by the Peace of Epeiros Rome obtained no -dominion in Greece, and merely some increase of her -Illyrian territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 200-197.<br /> -Progress of -Roman -conquests.<br /> -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 196.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The second Macedonian War made -Macedonia dependent on Rome, and all those parts of -Greece which had been under the Macedonian power -were declared free at its close. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 189.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the Aitolians had -joined Antiochos of Syria against Rome, -they were -made a Roman dependency. From that time Rome -was always meddling in the affairs of the Greek states, -and they may be counted as really, though not formally, -dependent on Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 169.<br /> -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 149.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After the third Macedonian -war, Macedonia was cut up into four separate commonwealths; -and at last, after the fourth, it became a -Roman province. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 146.<br /> -Remaining -free states -incorporated -by -Vespasian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -About the same time the Leagues -of Epeiros and Boiôtia were dissolved; the Achaian -League also became formally dependent on Rome, and -was dissolved for a time also. It is not certain when -Achaia became formally a Roman province; but, from -this time, all Greece was practically subject to Rome. -Athens remained nominally independent, as did Rhodes, -Byzantion, and several other islands and outlying cities, -some of which were not formally incorporated with -the Roman dominion till the time of the Emperor -Vespasian.</p> - -<p>As we go on with the geography of other countries -which came under the Roman dominion, we shall -learn more of the way in which Rome thus enlarged -her territories bit by bit. But it seemed -right to begin with the geography of Greece, and -this could not be carried down to the time when -Greece became a Roman dominion without saying something -of the Roman conquest. From <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 146 we must -look upon Greece and the neighbouring lands as being,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">{42}</a></span> -some of them formally and all of them practically, -part of the Roman dominion. And we shall not have -to speak of them again as separate states or countries -till many ages later, when the Roman dominion began -to fall in pieces. Having thus traced the geography of -the most eastern of the three great European peninsulas -down to the time when it became part of the dominion -which took in all the lands around the Mediterranean, -we will now go on to speak of the middle peninsula, -which became the centre of that dominion, namely that -of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Special -character of -Greek history.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Greece and the neighbouring lands are the -only parts of Europe which can be said to have a -history quite independent of Rome, and beginning -earlier than the Roman history. Of the other countries -therefore which became part of the Roman Empire it -will be best to speak in their relation to Italy, and, -as nearly as possible, in the order in which they came -under the Roman power.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">{43}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> second of the three great peninsulas of southern -Europe, that which lies between the other two, is that -of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Different -meanings -of the name -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The name of Italy has been used in several -meanings at different times, but it has always meant -either the whole or a part of the land which we now call -Italy. The name gradually spread itself from the extreme -south to the north.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> At the time when our -survey begins, the name did not go beyond the -long narrow peninsula itself; and indeed it hardly -took in the whole of that. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its meaning -under the -Roman -commonwealth.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the time of the -Roman commonwealth Italy did not reach beyond the -little rivers <i>Macra</i> on one side, near <i>Luna</i>, and <i>Rubico</i> -on the other side, near <i>Ariminum</i>. The land to the -north, as far as the Alps, was not counted for Italy till -after the time of Cæsar. But the Alps are the natural -boundary which fence off the peninsular land from the -great mass of central Europe; so that, looking at the -matter as a piece of geography, we may count the -whole land within the Alps as Italy. It will be at -once seen that the Italian peninsula, though so long<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">{44}</a></span> -and narrow, is by no means cut up into promontories -and smaller peninsulas as the Greek peninsula is. -Nor is it surrounded by so many islands. It is only -quite in the south, where the long narrow peninsula -splits off into two smaller ones, that the coast has at all -the character of the Greek coast, and there only in a -much slighter degree. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Italian -islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Close by this end of Italy lies -the great island of <i>Sicily</i>, whose history has always -been closely connected with that of Italy. Further off -lie the two other great islands of <i>Corsica</i> and <i>Sardinia</i>, -which in old times were not reckoned to belong to -Italy at all. Besides these there are several smaller -islands, <i>Elba</i> and others, along the Italian coast; -but they lie a good way from each other, and do not -form any marked feature in the geography. There -is nothing at all like even the group of islands off -western Greece, much less like the endless multitude, -great and small, in the Ægæan. Through the whole -length of the peninsula, like a backbone, runs the -long chain of the <i>Apennines</i>. These branch off from -the Alps in north-western Italy near the sea, and run -through the whole length of the country to the very -toe of the boot, as the Italian peninsula has been called -from its shape. From all this it follows that, though -Italy was the land which was destined in the end to -have the rule over all the rest, yet the people of Italy -were not likely to begin to make themselves a name so -early as the Greeks did. Least of all were they likely -to take in the same way to a sea-faring life, and to -plant colonies in far off lands.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Inhabitants of Italy and Sicily.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Non-Aryans -in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We seem to have somewhat clearer signs in Italy than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">{45}</a></span> -we have in Greece of the men who dwelled in the land -before the Aryans who appear as its historical inhabitants -came into it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ligurians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the coast of <i>Liguria</i>, the land on -each side of the city of Genoa, a land which was not -reckoned Italian in early times, we find people who -seem not to have been Aryan. And these Ligurians -seem to have been part of a race which was spread -through Italy and Sicily before the Aryan settlements, -and to have been akin to the non-Aryan inhabitants of -Spain and southern Gaul, of whom the Basques on each -side of the Pyrenees remain as a remnant. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Etruscans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And in historical -times a large part of Italy was held, and in -earlier times a still larger part seems to have been held, -by the <i>Etruscans</i>. These are a people about whose -origin and language there have been many theories, but -nothing can as yet be said to be certainly known. These -Etruscans, in historical times, formed a confederacy -of twelve cities in the land west of the Apennines, between -the Macra and the Tiber; and it is believed that -in earlier times they had settlements both more to the -north, on the Po, and more to the south, in Campania. -If they were a non-Aryan race, the part of the non-Aryans -in the geography and history of Italy becomes -greater than it has been in any part of Western Europe -except Spain.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Italians.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But whatever we make of the Etruscans, the rest of -Italy in the older sense was held by various branches of -an Aryan race nearly allied to the Greeks, whom we may -call the <i>Italians</i>. Of this race there were two great -branches. One of them, under various names, seems to -have held all the southern part of the western coast of -Italy, and to have spread into Sicily. Some of the tribes -of this branch seem to have been almost as nearly akin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">{46}</a></span> -to the Greeks as the Epeirots and other kindred nations -on the east side of the Hadriatic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Latins.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of this branch of the -Italian race, the most famous people were the <i>Latins</i>; -and it was the greatest Latin city, the border city of -the Latins against the Etruscans, the city of <i>Rome</i> on -the Tiber, which became, step by step, the mistress of -Latium, of Italy, and of the Mediterranean world. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Opicans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -other branch, which held a much larger part of the -peninsula, taking in the <i>Sabines</i>, <i>Æquians</i>, <i>Volscians</i>, -<i>Samnites</i>, <i>Lucanians</i>, and other people who play a -great part in the Roman history, may perhaps be classed -together as <i>Opicans</i> or <i>Oscans</i>, in distinction from the -Latins, and the other tribes allied to them. These -tribes seem to have pressed from the eastern, the Hadriatic, -coast of Italy, down upon the nations to the -south-west of them, and to have largely extended their -borders at their expense.</p> - -<p>But part of ancient Italy, and a still larger part of -Italy in the modern sense, was inhabited by nations -other than the Italians. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Iapygians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the heel of the boot were -the <i>Iapygians</i>, a people of uncertain origin, but who -seem in any case to have had a great gift of receiving -the Greek language and manners. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gauls.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And in the northern -part, in the lands which were not then counted as -part of Italy, were the <i>Gauls</i>, a Celtic people, akin -to the Gauls beyond the Alps, and whose country -was therefore called <i>Cisalpine Gaul</i> or Gaul on this -side of the Alps. They were found on both sides of the -Po, and on the Hadriatic coast they seem to have -stretched in early times almost as far south as <i>Ancona</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Veneti.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the north-east corner of Italy were yet another -people, the <i>Veneti</i>, perhaps of Illyrian origin, whose -name long after was taken by the city of <i>Venice</i>. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">{47}</a></span> -during the whole time with which we have to do, there -was no city so called, and the name of <i>Venetia</i> is always -the name of a country.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greek colonies -in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>All these nations we may look on as the original -inhabitants of Italy; that is, all were there before anything -like contemporary history begins.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> But besides -these original nations, there were in one part of Italy -many Greek colonies, and also in the island of Sicily. -Some cities of Italy claimed to be Greek colonies, without -any clear proof that they were so. But there seems -no reason to doubt that <i>Kymê</i> or <i>Cumæ</i> on the western -coast of Italy, and <i>Ankôn</i> or <i>Ancona</i> on the Hadriatic, -were solitary Greek colonies far away from any other -Greek settlements. Cumæ, though so far off, is said to -have been the earliest Greek colony in Italy. But -where the Greeks mainly settled was in the two lesser -peninsulas, the heel and the toe of the boot, into which -the great peninsula of Italy divides at its southern end. -Here, as was before said, there is a nearer approach to -the kind of coast to which the Greeks were used at -home. Here then arose a number of Greek cities, -stretching from the extreme south almost up to Cumæ. -As in the case of the Greek cities in Asia, the time of -greatness of the Italian Greeks came earlier than that -of the Greeks in Greece itself. In the sixth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> -some of these Greek colonies in Italy, as <i>Taras</i> or -<i>Tarentum</i>, <i>Krotôn</i> or <i>Crotona</i>, <i>Sybaris</i>, and others, were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">{48}</a></span> -among the greatest cities of the Greek name. But, as -the Italian nations grew stronger, the Greek cities lost -their power, and many of them, Cumæ among them, -fell into the hands of Italian conquerors, and lost their -Greek character more or less thoroughly. Others -remained Greek till they became subject to Rome, -and the Greek speech and manners did not quite die -out of southern Italy till ages after the Christian æra.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Inhabitants -of Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The geography and history of the great island of -Sicily, which lies so near to the toe of the boot, cannot -be kept apart from those of Italy. The mainland and -the island were, to a great extent, inhabited by the same -nations. The <i>Sikanians</i> in the western part of the -island may not unlikely have been akin to the Ligurians -and Basques; but the <i>Sikels</i>, who gave their name -to the island, and who are the people with whom the -Greeks had most to do, were clearly of the Italian -stock, and were nearly allied to the Latins. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Phœnician -and Greek -colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Phœnicians -of Carthage planted some colonies in the -western and northern parts of the island, the chief -of which was the city which the Greeks called -<i>Panormos</i>, the modern capital <i>Palermo</i>. But the -western and southern sides of the triangle were full -of Greek cities, which are said to have been founded -from the eighth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> to the sixth. Several of -these, especially <i>Syracuse</i> and <i>Akragas</i> or <i>Agrigentum</i>, -were among the chief of Greek cities; and from them -the Greek speech and manners gradually spread themselves -over the natives, till in the end Sicily was reckoned -as wholly a Greek land. But for some centuries -Sicilian history is chiefly made up of struggles for -the mastery between Carthage and the Greek cities. -This was in truth a struggle between the Aryan and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">{49}</a></span> -the Semitic race, and we shall see that, many ages -after, the same battle was again fought on the same -ground.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>Growth of the Roman power in Italy.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gradual -conquest of -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The history of ancient Italy, as far as we know it, -is the history of the gradual conquest of the whole land -by one of its own cities; and the changes in its political -geography are mainly the changes which followed the -gradual bringing of the whole peninsula under the -Roman dominion. But the form which the conquests -of Rome took hindered those conquests from having -so great an effect on the map as they otherwise might -have had. The cities and districts of Italy, as they were -one by one conquered by Rome, were commonly left -as separate states, in the relation of dependent alliance, -from which most of them were step by step promoted -to the rights of Roman citizenship. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Different -positions of -the Italian -cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -An Italian city -might be a dependent ally of Rome; it might be a -Roman colony with the full franchise or a colony holding -the inferior Latin franchise; or it might have been -actually made part of a Roman tribe. All these were -very important political differences; but they do not -make much difference in the look of things on the -map. The most important of the changes which can -be called strictly geographical belong to the early days -of Rome, when there were important national movements -among the various races of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -Rome.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Rome arose -at the point of union of the three races, Latin, Oscan, -and Etruscan, and it arose from an union between the -<i>Latin</i> and <i>Oscan</i> races. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rome a -Latin city.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Two Latin and one <i>Sabine</i> -settlements seem to have joined together to form the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">{50}</a></span> -city of Rome; but the Sabine element must have been -thoroughly Latinized, and Rome must be counted as -a Latin city, the greatest, though very likely the youngest, -among the cities of Latium.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her early -Latin dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Rome, planted on a march, rose, in the way in -which marchlands often do rise, to supremacy among -her fellows. Our first authentic record of the early -commonwealth sets Rome before us as bearing rule -over the whole of Latium. This dominion she seems -to have lost soon after the driving out of the kings, -and some of her territory right of the Tiber seems -to have become Etruscan. Presently Rome appears, -no longer as mistress of Latium, but as forming one -member of a triple league concluded on equal terms -with the Latins as a body, and with the Hernicans. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars with -her neighbours.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This league was engaged in constant wars with its -neighbours of the Oscan race, the <i>Æquians</i> and <i>Volscians</i>, -by whom many of the Latin cities were taken. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>More distant -wars.<br /> -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 396.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the first great advance of Rome’s actual dominion -was made on the right bank of the Tiber, -by the -taking of the Etruscan city of <i>Veii</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 343.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Fifty years later -Rome began to engage in more distant wars; and we -may say generally that the conquest of Italy was going -on bit by bit for eighty years more. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 296.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the end -of that time, all Italy, in the older sense, was brought -in one shape or another under the Roman dominion. -The neighbouring districts, both Latin and of other -races, had been admitted to citizenship. Roman and -Latin colonies were planted in various parts of the -country; elsewhere the old cities, Etruscan, Samnite, -Greek, or any other, still remained as dependent allies -of Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Incorporation -of -the -Italian -states.<br /> -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 89.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently Rome went on to win dominion -out of Italy; but the Italian states still remained in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">{51}</a></span> -their old relation to Rome, -till the Italian allies -received the Roman franchise after the <i>Social</i> or <i>Marsian</i> -war. The <i>Samnites</i> alone held out, and they -may be said to have been altogether exterminated in -the wars of Sulla. The rest of Italy was Roman.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>The Western Provinces.</i></h3> - -<p>The great change in Roman policy, and in European -geography as affected by it, took place when Rome -began to win territory out of Italy. The relation of -these foreign possessions to the ruling city was quite -different from that of the Italian states. The foreign -conquests of Rome were made into <i>provinces</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Nature of -the Roman -Provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A province was a district which was subject to Rome, -and put under the rule of a Roman governor, which -was not done with the dependent allies in Italy. But -it must be borne in mind that, though we speak of -a province as having a certain geographical extent, -yet there might be cities within its limits whose formal -relation to Rome was that of dependent, or even -of equal, alliance. There might also be Roman and -Latin colonies, either colonies really planted or cities -which had been raised to the Roman or Latin franchise. -All these were important distinctions as regarded -the internal government of the different states; -still practically all alike formed part of the Roman -dominion. In a geographical survey it will therefore -be enough to mark the extent of the different -provinces, without attending to their political, or -more truly municipal, distinctions, except in a few -cases where they are of special importance.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Eastern -and Western -Provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The provinces then are the foreign dominions of -Rome, and they fall naturally into two, or rather three,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">{52}</a></span> -divisions. There are the provinces of the West, in which -the Romans had chiefly to contend with nations much -less civilized than themselves, and in which therefore the -provincials gradually adopted the language and manners -of their conquerors. But in the provinces to the east -of the Hadriatic, the Greek language and Greek manners -had become the language and manners of civilized -life, and their supremacy was not supplanted by those -of Rome. And in the more distant parts, as in Syria -and Egypt, the Greek civilization was a mere varnish; -the mass of the people still kept to their old manners -and languages as they were before the Macedonian -conquests. In these countries therefore the Latin tongue -and Roman civilization made but little progress. The -Roman conquests went on on both sides of the Hadriatic -at the same time, but it was to the west that they -began. The first Roman province however forms a -sort of intermediate class by itself, standing between -the eastern and the western.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This first Roman province was formed in the great -island of <i>Sicily</i>, which, by its geographical position, -belongs to the western part of Europe, while the -fact that Greek became the prevailing language in it -rather connects it with the eastern part. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First -Roman -possessions -in the -island. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 241.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Roman -dominion in Sicily began when the Carthaginian possessions -in the island were given up to Rome, as the result -of the first Punic war. But, as Hierôn of <i>Syracuse</i> -had helped Rome against Carthage, his kingdom remained -in alliance with Rome, and was not dealt with -as a conquered land. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Syracuse. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 212.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was only when Syracuse -turned against Rome in the second Punic war that it -was, on its conquest, formally made a Roman possession. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 132.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Eighty years later the condition of Sicily under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">{53}</a></span> -Roman government was finally settled, and it may be -taken as a type of the endless variety of relations in -which the different districts and cities throughout the -Roman dominions stood to the ruling commonwealth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>State of -Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The greater part of the island became simply subject; -the land was held to be forfeited to the Roman People, -and the former inhabitants held it simply as tenants on -payment of a tithe. But some cities were called free, -and kept their land; others remained in name independent -allies of the Roman People. Other cities -were afterwards raised to the Latin franchise; in -others Latin or Roman colonies were planted, and -one Sicilian city, that of <i>Messana</i>, received the full -citizenship of Rome. It must be borne in mind that -these different relations, these exceptionally favoured -cities and districts, are found, not only in Sicily, but -throughout all the provinces. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greek civilization -of -Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Sicily, by the time of -the conquest, was looked on as a thoroughly Greek -land. The Greek language and manners had now -spread themselves everywhere among the Sikels and -the other inhabitants of the island. And Sicily -remained a thoroughly Greek land, till, ages afterwards, -it again became, as it had been in the days of the Greek -and Phœnician colonies, a battle-field of Aryan and -Semitic races in the days of the Mahometan conquests.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sardinia -and Corsica.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The two great islands of <i>Sardinia</i> and <i>Corsica</i> -seem almost as natural appendages to Italy as Sicily -itself; but their history is very different. They have -played no important part in the history of the world. -The original stock of their inhabitants seems to have -been akin to the non-Aryan element in Spain and Sicily. -The attempts at Greek colonization in them were but -feeble, and they passed under the dominion, first of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">{54}</a></span> -Carthage and then of Rome, without any important -change in their condition. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 238.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These two islands became -a Roman province, which was always reckoned one of -the most worthless of provinces, in the interval between -the first and second Punic wars.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cisalpine -Gaul.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus far the Roman dominions did not reach -beyond what we should look upon as the natural -extent of the dominion of an Italian power. Indeed, -as long as Italy did not reach to the Alps, we should -say that it had not reached the natural extent of an -Italian dominion. But the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul -cannot be separated from the general conquest of -Western Europe. The Roman conquest of Gaul and -Spain, by gradually spreading the Latin language and -Roman civilization over those countries, created two -of the chief nations and languages of modern Europe. -But the process was simply the continuation of a process -which began within the borders of what we now -call Italy. Gaul within the Alps was as strictly a -foreign conquest as Spain or as Gaul beyond the Alps. -Only the geographical position of Cisalpine Gaul allowed -it to be easily and speedily incorporated with -Italy in a way which the lands beyond the Alps could -not be. The beginnings of conquest in this direction -took place after the end of the Samnite wars. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Foundation -of Sena -Gallica. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 282.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then -the colony of <i>Sena Gallica</i>, now <i>Sinigaglia</i>, was -founded on Gaulish soil, and it was presently followed -by the foundation of <i>Ariminum</i> or <i>Rimini</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Cisalpine -Gaul. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 201-191.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Roman arms were carried beyond the Po in the time -between the first and the second Punic war; -after the second Punic war, Cisalpine Gaul was thoroughly -conquered, and was secured by the foundation of many -Roman and Latin colonies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 43.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Roman and Latin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">{55}</a></span> -franchises were gradually extended to most parts of -the country, -and at last Cisalpine Gaul was formally -incorporated with Italy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Liguria and -Venetia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Closely connected with the conquest of Cisalpine -Gaul was the conquest of the other non-Italian lands -within the boundaries of modern Italy. These were -<i>Liguria</i> to the south-east of Cisalpine Gaul and <i>Venetia</i> -to the north-west. Both these lands held out longer -than Cisalpine Gaul; but by the time of Augustus they -were all, together with the peninsula of <i>Istria</i>, counted -as part of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Foundation -of Aquileia, -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 183. -<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dominion of Rome in this region -was secured at an early stage of the conquest by the -foundation of the great colony of <i>Aquileia</i>. We thus -see that, not only Venice, but Milan, Pavia, Verona, -Ravenna, and Genoa, cities which played so great a -part in the after history of Italy, arose in lands which -were not originally Italian. But we also see that Italy, -with the boundaries given to it by Augustus, took in a -somewhat larger territory to the north-east than the -kingdom of Italy does now.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The lands within the Alps may be fairly said -to have been conquered by Rome in self-defence, and -we cannot help looking on the three great islands -as natural parts of an Italian dominion. The conquests -of the Romans in lands altogether beyond their -own borders may be said to have begun in Western -Europe with the conquest of <i>Spain</i>, which began -before that of Transalpine Gaul. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Connexion -of Spain -and Gaul.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Spain and Gaul, -using the names in the geographical sense, have much -which binds them together. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Iberians in -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the borders of the -two countries traces are still left of the old non-Aryan -inhabitants who still speak the Basque language. -These represent the old <i>Iberian</i> inhabitants of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">{56}</a></span> -Spain and Gaul, who, when our history begins, stretched -as far into Gaul as the Garonne. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Celts.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the <i>Celts</i>, the -first wave of the Aryan migration in Europe, had -pressed into both Gaul and Spain; in Gaul they had, -when trustworthy history begins, already occupied by -far the greater part of the country. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greek and<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Mediterranean -coasts of Gaul and Spain were also connected together -by the sprinkling of Greek colonies along those shores, -of which <i>Massalia</i> was the head. And, beside the -primitive non-Aryan element, there was an intrusive -non-Aryan element also. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Phœnician -settlements.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In southern Spain several -Phœnician settlements had been made, the chief of -which was <i>Gades</i> or <i>Cadiz</i>, beyond the straits, the one -great Phœnician city on the Ocean. And between the -first and second Punic wars Carthage obtained a large -Spanish dominion, of which <i>New Carthage</i> or <i>Carthagena</i> -was the capital.</p> - -<p>It was the presence of these last settlements which -first brought Spain under the Roman dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First Roman -province -in -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Saguntum</i> -was an ally of Rome, and its taking by Hannibal -was the beginning of the second Punic war. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 218-206.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The campaigns of the Scipios during that war led to -the gradual conquest of the whole country. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 49.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Carthaginian -possessions first became a Roman province, -while Gades became a favoured ally of Rome, and at -last was admitted to the full Roman franchise. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 133.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, -the gradual conquest of the rest of the country -went on, till, after the taking of <i>Numantia</i>, all Spain, -except the remote tribes in the north-west, had become -a Roman possession. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final conquest. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 19.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These tribes, the <i>Cantabrians</i> -and their neighbours, were not fully subdued till the -time of Augustus. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Romanization -of -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But long before that time the -Latin language and Roman manners had been fast<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">{57}</a></span> -spreading through the country, and in Augustus’ time -southern Spain was altogether Romanized. It was -only in a small district close to the Pyrenees that -the ancient language held out, as it has done ever -since.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Transalpine -Gaul.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The conquest of Spain, owing to the connexion of -the country with Carthage, thus began while a large -part even of Cisalpine Gaul was still unsubdued. And -the Roman arms were not carried into Gaul beyond the -Alps till the conquest of Spain was pretty well assured. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 122.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The foundation of the first Roman colony at <i>Aquæ -Sextiæ</i>, the modern <i>Aix</i>, was only eleven years later -than the fall of Numantia. The Romans stepped in as -allies of the Greek city of Massalia, and, as usual, from -helping their allies they took to conquering on their -own account. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Transalpine -Province. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 125-105.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A Roman province, including the colonies -of <i>Narbonne</i> and <i>Toulouse</i>, was thus formed in the -south-eastern part of Transalpine Gaul. The advance -of Rome in this direction seems to have been checked -by the invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones, but through -that long delay Roman influences were able to establish -themselves more firmly. This part of Gaul was early -and thoroughly Romanized, and part of it still keeps, -in its name of <i>Provence</i>, the memory of its having been -the first Roman province beyond the Alps. The rest -of Gaul was left untouched till the great campaigns of -Cæsar.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Cæsar. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 58-51.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It is from Cæsar, ethnologer as well as conqueror, -that we get our chief knowledge of the country as it -was in his day. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Boundaries -of Transalpine -Gaul.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Transalpine Gaul, as a geographical -division, has well-marked boundaries in the Mediterranean, -the Alps, the Rhine, the Ocean, and the Pyrenees. -But this geographical division has never answered to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">{58}</a></span> -any divisions of blood and language. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its three -divisions, -and their -inhabitants, -Iberian, -Celtic, and -German.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Gaul in Cæsar’s -day, that is Gaul beyond the Roman province, formed -three divisions—<i>Aquitaine</i> to the south-west, <i>Celtic -Gaul</i> in the middle, and <i>Belgic Gaul</i> to the north-east. -Aquitaine, stretching to the Garonne—the name was -under Augustus extended to the Loire—was Iberian, -akin to the people on the other side of the Pyrenees: -a trace of its old speech remains in the small Basque -district north of the Pyrenees. Celtic Gaul, from the -Loire to the Seine and Marne, was the most truly Celtic -land, and it was in this part of Gaul that the modern -French nation took its rise. In the third division, -Belgic Gaul, the tribes to the east, nearer to the Rhine, -were some of them purely German, and others had been -to a great extent brought under German influences or -mixed with German elements. There was, in fact, no -unity in Gaul beyond that which the Romans brought -with them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Romanization -of -Gaul.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In seven years Cæsar subdued the whole -land, and the work of assimilation began. The Roman -language gradually displaced all the native languages, -except where Basque and Breton survive in two -corners; but in a large part of Belgic Gaul the events -of later times brought the German tongue back again. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Permanence -of the -ancient -geography.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There is no Roman province in which, among all -changes, the ancient geography has had so much effect -upon that of all later times. In southern Gaul most -of the cities still keep their old names with very little -change. But in northern Gaul the cities have mostly -taken the names of the tribes of which they were the -heads. Thus <i>Tolosa</i> is still <i>Toulouse</i>; but <i>Lutetia -Parisiorum</i> has become <i>Paris</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Roman -Africa.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The lands which we have thus gone through, Cisalpine -Gaul with Liguria and Venetia, Spain, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">{59}</a></span> -Transalpine Gaul, form a marked division in historical -geography. They are those parts of Western Europe -which Rome conquered during the time of her Commonwealth, -and they are those parts which have -mainly kept their Roman speech to this day. But these -did not make up the whole of the lands where Rome -planted her Latin speech, at least for a while. The -conquest of Britain belongs to the days of the Empire; -but Rome, during the Commonwealth, made another -conquest, which, though not in Europe, may be counted -as belonging to the Western or Latin-speaking half of -her dominion. This is the conquest of that part of -<i>Africa</i> which Rome won as the result of her wars -with Carthage. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Province of -Africa, -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 146;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The only African possession won by -Rome during the days of the Commonwealth was <i>Africa</i> -in the strictest sense, the immediate dominion of Carthage. -This became a province when the Punic wars -were ended by the destruction of Carthage. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of New -Africa, -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 49.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The neighbouring state of <i>Numidia</i>, after passing, like Carthage -itself, through the intermediate state of a dependency, -was made a province by Cæsar, being -called <i>New Africa</i>, the former African province becoming -the <i>Old</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Restoration -and greatness -of -Carthage.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Cæsar also restored the city of Carthage -as a Roman colony, and it became the chief -of the Latin-speaking cities of the Empire, second only -to Rome herself. But in Africa, just as in Britain, -the land never became thoroughly Romanized like -Gaul and Spain. The Roman tongue and laws therefore -died out in both lands at the first touch of an -invader, the English in one case and the Saracens in -the other. The strip of fertile land between the sea -on one side and the mountains and the Great Desert -on the other received, first Phœnician and then Roman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">{60}</a></span> -civilization. But neither of them could really take root -there in the way that the Roman civilization took root -in Gaul and Spain.</p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>The Eastern Provinces.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Contrast -between the -Eastern -and Western -provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Hadriatic Sea may be roughly taken as the -boundary between the Eastern and Western parts of -the Roman dominion. In the West, the Romans carried -with them not only their arms, but their tongue, -their laws, and their manners. They were not only -conquerors but civilizers. The native Iberians and -Celts adopted Roman fashions, and the isolated Greek -and Phœnician cities, like Massalia and Gades, gradually -became Roman also. East of the Hadriatic -the state of things was quite different. Here the language -and civilization of Greece had, through the -conquests of the Macedonian kings, become everywhere -predominant. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greek civilization -in -the East.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Greek was everywhere the polite and -literary language, and a certain varnish of Greek manners -had been everywhere spread. In some parts -indeed it was the merest varnish; still it was everywhere -strong enough to withstand the influence of Latin. -Sicily and Southern Italy are the only lands which have -altogether thrown away the Greek tongue, and have -taken to Latin or any of the languages formed out of -Latin. No part of the eastern half of the Roman -dominion ever became Roman in the same way as -Gaul and Spain.</p> - -<p>The whole of the lands east of the Hadriatic may -thus, as opposed to the Latin-speaking lands of the -west, be called Greek-speaking lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Distinctions -among the -Eastern -provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But there -are some wide distinctions to be drawn among them. -First, there was old Greece itself and the Greek<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">{61}</a></span> -colonies, and lands like <i>Epeiros</i>, which had become -thoroughly Greek. Secondly, there were the kingdoms, -like <i>Macedonia</i> in Europe and <i>Pergamos</i> in Asia, which -had adopted the Greek speech and manners, but which -did not, like Epeiros, become Greek in any political -sense. Thirdly, there were a number of native states, -<i>Bithynia</i> and others, whose kings also tried to imitate -Greek ways, but naturally could not do so as thoroughly -as the kings of Macedonia and Pergamos. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lands -beyond -Tauros.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Fourthly, -beyond Mount Tauros lay the kingdoms of <i>Syria</i> and -<i>Egypt</i>, which were ruled by Macedonian kings, which -contained great Greek or Macedonian cities like <i>Antioch</i> -and <i>Alexandria</i>, but where there were native languages, -and an old native civilization, which neither Greek nor -Roman influences could ever root out. We shall see -as we go on that Tauros makes a great historical boundary. -The lands on this side of it really came, though -very gradually, under the dominion of the Greek speech -and the Roman law. Beyond Mount Tauros both the -Greek and the Roman element lay merely on the surface, -and therefore those lands, like Africa, easily fell away -when they were attacked by the Saracens.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> We must -now go through such of the lands east of the Hadriatic -as were formed into Roman provinces during the time -of the Roman Commonwealth.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Illyrian -Provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But again, between the Latin and the Greek parts -of the Roman dominion there was a border land, -namely, the lands held by the great <i>Illyrian</i> race.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">{62}</a></span> -The southern parts of Illyria came within the reach -of Greek influences, and it was through the affairs of -Illyria that Rome was first led to meddle in the affairs -of Greece. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The kingdom -of -Skodra.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The use of the name <i>Illyria</i> is at all -times very vague; as a more definite meaning -as the name of a kingdom whose capital was <i>Skodra</i>, -and which, in the second half of the third century, was -a dangerous neighbour to the Greek cities and islands -on that coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 168.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This kingdom was involved in the third -Macedonian war, and came to an end at the same time. -As usual, it is not easy to distinguish how much, if -any, of the country actually became a Roman province, -and how much was left for a while in the intermediate -state of dependent alliance. But, for all practical -purposes, the Illyrian kingdom of Skodra formed -from this time a part of the Roman dominion. With -the fall of Skodra, the parts of Illyria which lay further -to the north, beyond the bounds of the Greek world, -first came into notice. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dalmatian -Wars.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Greek colonies in Dalmatia -had played their part in the first Illyrian war; -but the land itself, which was to become an outlying -fringe of Italy lying east of the Hadriatic, is now first -heard of as a distinct country formed by a separation -from the kingdom of Skodra. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 156.<br /> -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 34.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first Dalmatian -war soon followed; but it was not till after several wars -that Dalmatia became a province, and even after that -time there were several revolts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Roman -colonies in -Dalmatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before long, Dalmatia -was settled with several Roman colonies, as <i>Jadera</i> -or <i>Zara</i>, and, above all, <i>Salona</i>, which became one of -the chief cities of the Roman dominion. The neighbouring -lands of <i>Liburnia</i>, <i>Istria</i>, and the land of the -<i>Iapodes</i>, were gradually reduced during the same -period. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Istria incorporated -with Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Istria, like the neighbouring land of Venetia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">{63}</a></span> -was actually incorporated with Italy, and <i>Pola</i>, under -the name of <i>Pietas Julia</i>, became a Roman colony.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -outlying -Greek -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have already traced the process by which old -Greece and the neighbouring lands of Macedonia and -Epeiros gradually sank, first practically, and then formally, -into parts of the Roman dominion. It would be -hard to say at what particular moment many of the -Greek cities and islands sank from the relation of obedient -allies into that of acknowledged subjects. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their late -formal annexation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We have seen that some of them, as Rhodes and Byzantion, -were not formally annexed till the reign of Vespasian. -The Greek cities on the Euxine do not seem to have -been formally annexed at all till a late period of the -Eastern Empire. Other outlying Greek lands and cities -became so mixed up with the history of some of the -Asiatic kingdoms that they will come in for a mention -along with them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Crete, -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 67,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Crete</i> kept its independence to -become a nest of pirates, and to be specially conquered. -It then formed one province with the then -recent conquest of <i>Kyrênê</i>, the one great Greek settlement -in Africa, which had become an appanage of the -Macedonian kings of Egypt. The same had been the -fate of <i>Cyprus</i>, an island which had always been -partly Greek, and which had been further Hellenized -under its Macedonian kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Cyprus, -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 58.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Cyprus too became a -province. Thus, before Rome lost her own freedom, -she had become the formal or practical mistress of -all the earlier abodes of freedom. Men could not yet -foresee that a time would come when <i>Greek</i> and -<i>Roman</i> should be words having the same meaning, -and when the place and name of Rome herself should -be transferred to one of the Greek cities which Vespasian -formally reduced from alliance to bondage.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">{64}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Asiatic -Provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In Roman history one war and one conquest -always led to another, and, as the affairs of Illyria had -led to Roman interference in Greece, so the affairs of -Greece led to Roman interference in <i>Asia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 191-188.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first -war which Rome waged with <i>Antiochos</i> of Syria led to -no immediate increase of the Roman territory, but all -the Seleukid possessions on this side Tauros were divided -among the allies of Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Province -of Asia. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 133-129.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This, as usual, was the -first step towards the conquest of Asia, and it is quite -according to the usual course of things that the first -Roman province beyond the Ægæan, the province of -<i>Asia</i>, was formed of the dominions of Rome’s first and -most useful allies, the kings of Pergamos. The mission -of Alexander and his successors, as the representatives -of Western civilization against the East, now passed -into the hands of Rome. Step by step, the other lands -west of Tauros came under the formal or practical dominion -of Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bithynia. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 74.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Bithynia</i> was the first to be annexed, -and this acquisition was one of the causes which led to -the second war between Rome and the famous <i>Mithridates</i> -of <i>Pontos</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Overthrow -of Mithridates. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 64.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -His final overthrow brought a number -of other lands under Roman dominion or influence. -The Greek cities of <i>Sinôpê</i> and <i>Hêrakleia</i> obtained a -nominal freedom, and vassal kings went on reigning in -part of Pontos itself, and in the distant Greek kingdom -of <i>Bosporos</i>. Rome was now mistress of Asia Minor. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lykia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The land was divided among her provinces and her -vassal kings, save that the wise federal commonwealth -of <i>Lykia</i> still kept the highest amount of independence -which was consistent with the practical supremacy of -Rome.</p> - -<p>The Mithridatic war, which made Rome mistress of -Asia in the narrower sense, at once involved her in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">{65}</a></span> -the affairs of the further East. Tigranes of <i>Armenia</i> -had been the chief ally of Mithridates; but, though -his power was utterly humbled, no Armenian province -was added to the Roman dominion for a long -time to come. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Province -of Syria. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 64.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the remnant of the Seleukid -monarchy became the Roman province of <i>Syria</i>. As -usual, several cities and principalities were allowed -to remain in various relations of alliance and dependence -on the ruling commonwealth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Palestine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among these -we find <i>Judæa</i> and the rest of <i>Palestine</i>, sometimes -under a Roman procurator, sometimes united under -a single vassal king, sometimes parted out among various -kings and tetrarchs, as suited the momentary -caprice or policy of Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -with British -India.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In all these various relations -between the native states and the ruling city we -have a lively foreshadowing of the relations between -England and the subject and dependent princes of -India. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rome the -champion -of the West.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The conquests of Rome in these regions made her -more distinctly than ever the sole representative of the -West against the East, and these conquests presently -brought her into collision with the one power in the -known world which could at all meet her on equal -terms. She had stepped into the place of Alexander -and Seleukos so far as that all those parts of Alexander’s -Asiatic conquests which had received even -a varnish of Hellenic culture had become parts of her -dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her rivalry -with Parthia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The further East beyond the Euphrates -was again under the command of a great barbarian -power, that of <i>Parthia</i>, which had stepped into the -place of Persia, as Rome had stepped into the place of -Greece and Macedonia. Rome had now again a rival, -in a sense from which she had not had a rival since -the overthrow of Carthage and Macedonia.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">{66}</a></span></p> - -<p>One only of the Macedonian kingdoms now remained -to be gathered in. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Egypt. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 31.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The annexation of <i>Egypt</i>, -an annexation made famous by the names of Kleopatra, -Antonius, the elder and the younger Cæsar, completed -the work. Rome was now fully mistress of her own -civilized world. Her dominion took in all the lands -round the great inland sea. If, here and there, her -formal dominion was broken by a city or principality -whose nominal relation was that of alliance, the distinction -concerned only the local affairs of that city or -principality. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><i>Pax Romana.</i><span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Within the whole historic world of the -three ancient continents, the Roman Peace had begun. -Rome had still to wage wars, and even to annex provinces; -but those wars and annexations were now done -rather to round off and to strengthen the territory -which had been already gained, than in the strictest -sense to extend it.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>Conquests under the Empire.</i></h3> - -<p>At the same moment when the Roman commonwealth -was practically changed into a monarchy, the -Roman dominion was thus brought, not indeed to -its greatest extent, but to an extent of which its further -extension was only a natural completion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -under Augustus -and -Tiberius.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There -seems a certain inconsistency when we find Augustus -laying down a rule against the enlargement of -the Empire, while the Empire was, during his reign -and that of his successor, extended in every direction. -But the conquests of this time were mainly -conquests for the purpose of strengthening the frontier; -the occasional changes of this and that city -or district from the dependent to the provincial -relation, or sometimes from the provincial to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">{67}</a></span> -dependent, are now hardly worth mentioning. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Incorporation -of the -dependent -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Between -Augustus and Nero, or, at all events, between -Augustus and Vespasian, all the dependent states in -Asia and Africa, such as <i>Mauritania</i>, <i>Kappadokia</i>, -<i>Lykia</i>, and others, were finally incorporated with the -Empire to which they had long been practically subject. -These annexations can hardly be called conquests. -And it was merely finishing a work which had -been begun two hundred years before, when the small -corner of Spain which still kept its independence was -brought under the Roman power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Strengthening -of the -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The real conquests -of this time consisted in the strengthening of the European -frontier. No frontier nearer than the Rhine and -the Danube could be looked on as safe. This lesson -was easily learned; but it had also to be accompanied -by another lesson which taught that the Rhine and the -Danube, and no more distant points, were to be the -real frontiers of Rome.</p> - -<p>This brings us both to the lands which were then our -own and to the lands which became our own in after -times. During the reign of Augustus two conquests -which most nearly concern our own history were -planned, and one of them was attempted. The annexation -of the land which was to become England -was talked of; the annexation of the land which then -was England, along with the rest of the German -lands, was seriously attempted. But the conquest -of Britain was put off from the days of Augustus to -the days of Claudius. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Attempted -conquest -of Germany. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 11-<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> -9.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The attempt at the conquest -of Germany, which was deemed to have been already -carried out, was shivered when Arminius overthrew -the legions of Varus. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 19.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The expeditions of Drusus and -Germanicus into Northern Germany must have brought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">{68}</a></span> -the Roman armies into contact with our own forefathers, -for the first time, and, for several ages, for the -last time. But from this time the relations between Rome -and southern Germany begin, and constantly increase in -importance. The two great rivers were fixed as a real -frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -on the Danube.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The lands between the Alps and the Danube, -<i>Rætia</i>, <i>Vindelicia</i>, <i>Noricum</i>, <i>Pannonia</i>, with <i>Mœsia</i> on -the lower Danube, were all added to the Empire during -the reign of Augustus. These were strictly defensive -annexations, annexations made in order to remove the -dangerous frontier further from Italy. Beyond the Rhine -and the Danube the Roman possessions were mere outposts -held for the defence of the land between the two -great streams.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Attempt -on Arabia. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 24.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile, while the attempt of the conquest of -Germany came to so little, an attempt at conquest -at the other end of the world, in the <i>Arabian</i> peninsula, -came to even less. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Thrace.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It marks the policy of Rome -and the gradual nature of her advance that, while -these more distant conquests were made or attempted, -<i>Thrace</i> still retained her dependent princes, the only -land of any extent within the European dominions -of Rome which did so. But Thrace, surrounded by -Roman provinces, was in no way dangerous; it might -remain a dependency while more distant lands were -incorporated. It was not till uniformity was more -sought after, till, under Vespasian, the nominal freedom -of so many cities and principalities came to an end, -that Thrace became a province. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of Byzantion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was then that, -among her latest formal acquisitions in Europe, Rome -annexed the city which was, in the course of ages, to -take her own place and name.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Britain.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus, in the days between Augustus and Trajan,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">{69}</a></span> -the conquests which Rome actually made were mainly -of a defensive and strengthening character. To this -rule there is one and only one exception of any importance. -This is the annexation to the Roman world of -the land which was looked on as another world, the -conquest of the greater part of the Isle of <i>Britain</i>. -But Britain, though it did not come under the same -law as the defensive annexations of Rætia and Pannonia, -was naturally suggested by the annexation of -Gaul and by the visits of the first Cæsar to the island. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Claudius. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 43.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -No actual conquest however took place till the reign -of Claudius. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Agricola. -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 84.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Forty years later the Roman conquests -in Britain were pushed by <i>Agricola</i> as far as the isthmus -between the friths of Forth and Clyde, the boundary -marked by the later rampart of <i>Antoninus</i>. But the -lasting boundary of the Roman dominion in Britain cannot -be looked on as reaching beyond the line of the -southern wall of <i>Hadrian</i>, <i>Severus</i>, and <i>Stilicho</i>, between -the Solway and the mouth of the Tyne. The northern -part of Britain thus remained unconquered, and the -conquest of Ireland was not even attempted. For us -the conquest of the land which afterwards became our -own has an interest above all the other conquests of -Rome. But it is a purely geographical interest. The -British victories of Cæsar and Agricola were won, -not over our own forefathers, but over those Celtic -Britons whom our forefathers more thoroughly swept -away. The history of our own nation is still for some -ages to be looked for by the banks of the Elbe and -the Weser, not by those of the Severn and the -Thames.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Eastern -conquests -of Trajan.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Britain was the last to be won of the Western provinces -of Rome, and the first to be lost. Still it was,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">{70}</a></span> -for more than three hundred years, thoroughly incorporated -with the Empire, and its loss did not happen -till that general break-up of the Empire of which its -loss was the first stage. But between the conquest of -Britain and its loss there was a short time in which -Rome again extended her dominion in the old fashion, -both in Europe and Asia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Trajan. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 98-117.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was during the reign of -Trajan, when the Roman borders were again widely extended -in both Europe and Asia. Under him the Danube -ceased to be a boundary stream in one continent and -the Euphrates in the other. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>His Asiatic -and European -conquests.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But a marked distinction -must be drawn between his Asiatic and his European -warfare. Trajan’s Asiatic conquests were strictly momentary; -they were at once given up by his successor; -and they will be better dealt with when we speak in -another chapter of the long strife between Rome and -her Eastern rival, first Parthian and then Persian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Arabia -Petræa. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 106.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -only lasting Asiatic conquest of Trajan’s reign was not -made by Trajan himself, namely the small Roman -province in Northern <i>Arabia</i>.</p> - -<p>The European conquests of Trajan stand on another -ground. If not strictly defensive, like those of Augustus, -they might easily seem to be so. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dacia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>Dacians</i>, to -the north of the lower Danube, were really threatening -to the Roman power in those regions, and they -had dealt Rome more than one severe blow in the days -of Domitian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 106.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Trajan now formed the lands between -the Thiess and the Danube, the Dniester and the -Carpathian Mountains, into the Roman province of -<i>Dacia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 270.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last province to be won was the first -to be given up; for Aurelian withdrew from it, and -transferred its name to the Mœsian land immediately -south of the Danube. But if Dacia was in this way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">{71}</a></span> -one of the most short lived of Roman conquests, it was -in another way one of the most lasting. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later history -of -Dacia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Cut off, as it -has been for so many ages, from all Roman influences, -forming, as it has done, one of the great highways of -barbarian migration, a large part of Dacia, namely -the modern Rouman principality, still keeps its Roman -language no less than Spain and Gaul. In one way -the land is to this day more Roman than Spain or -Gaul, as its people still call themselves by the Roman -name. Dacia, in fact, though geographically belonging -to the Eastern half of the Empire, stood in the same -position as the Western provinces. Greek influences -had not reached so far north, nor was there in Dacia -any old-standing native civilization, such as there was -in Syria and Egypt. There was therefore nothing that -was at all able to hold up against Roman influences. -The land was speedily and thoroughly Romanized, and -it remains Roman in speech and name sixteen hundred -years after the withdrawal of the Roman power.</p> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Summary.<span class="sne">♦</span></span></p> - -<p>The Roman Empire was thus gradually formed -by bringing, first Italy and then the whole of the Mediterranean -lands, under the dominion of the one Roman -city. In every part of that dominion the process -of conquest was gradual. The lands which became -Roman provinces passed through various stages of alliance -and dependence before they were fully incorporated. -But, in the end, all the civilized world of those times -became Roman. Speaking roughly, three great rivers, -the Rhine, Danube, and Euphrates, formed the European -and Asiatic boundaries of the Empire. In Africa -the Roman dominion consisted only of the strip of -fertile land between the Mediterranean and the mountains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">{72}</a></span> -and deserts. Britain and Dacia, the only two -great provinces lying beyond this range, were the -last conquered and the first given up. In Western -Europe and in Africa Rome carried her language and -her civilization with her, and in those lands the Roman -speech still remains, except where it has been swept -away by Teutonic and Saracen conquests. In the -lands from the Hadriatic to Mount Tauros, which had -been brought more or less under Greek influences, the -Greek speech and civilization stood its ground, and in -those lands Greek still survives wherever it has not -been swept away by Slavonic and Turkish conquests. -In the further east, in Syria and Egypt, where there -was an old native civilization, neither Greek nor Roman -influences took real root. The differences between -these three parts of the Roman Empire, the really -Roman, the Greek, and the Oriental, will be clearly -seen as we go on.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">{73}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Later Geography of the Empire.</i></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Roman dominion, as we have seen, grew up by the -successive annexation of endless kingdoms, districts, and -cities, each of which, after its annexation, still retained, -whether as an allied province or a subject state, much of -the separate being which it had while it was independent. -The allies and subjects of Rome remained in a variety -of different relations to the ruling city, and the old -names and the old geographical boundaries were largely -preserved. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wiping out -of old -divisions -under the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, as the old ideas of the commonwealth -gradually died out, and as the power of the Emperors -gradually grew into an avowed monarchy, the political -change naturally led to a geographical change. The -Roman dominion ceased to be a collection of allied and -subject states under a single ruling city; it changed -into a single Empire, all whose parts, all whose inhabitants, -were equally subject to its Imperial head. The -old distinctions of Latins, Italians, and provincials died -out when all free inhabitants of the Empire became -alike Romans. Italy had no longer any privilege; it -was simply part of the Empire, like any other part. -The geographical divisions which had been, first independent, -then dependent states, sank into purely administrative -divisions, which might be mapped out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">{74}</a></span> -afresh at any time when it was found convenient to -do so. Italy itself, in the extended sense which the -word Italy had then come to bear, was mapped out -afresh into <i>regions</i> as early as the time of Augustus. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New division -of Italy -under Augustus.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These divisions, eleven in number, mark an epoch in -the process by which the detached elements out of -which the Roman Empire had grown were fused together -into one whole. As long as Italy was a collection -of separate commonwealths, standing in various -relations to the ruling city, there could not be any -systematic division of the country for administrative -purposes. Now that the whole of Italy stood on one -level of citizenship or of subjection, the land might -be mapped out in whatever way was most convenient. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The eleven -Regions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the eleven regions of Augustus did not work -any violent change. Old names and old boundaries -largely remained. The famous names of <i>Etruria</i>, -<i>Latium</i>, <i>Samnium</i>, <i>Umbria</i>, <i>Picenum</i>, and <i>Lucania</i> -still lived on, though not always with their ancient -boundaries. And, though all the land as far as the -Alps was now Italy, two of the divisions of Italy -kept their ancient names of <i>Gaul on this side the -Po</i> and <i>Gaul beyond the Po</i>. <i>Liguria</i> and <i>Venetia</i>, -now Italian lands, make up the remainder of Northern -Italy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Divisions -under Constantine.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Italy had thus been mapped out afresh; what was -done with Italy in the time of Augustus was done -with the whole Empire in the time of Constantine. -What Italy was in the earlier time the whole Empire -was in the later; the old distinctions had been wiped -out, and the whole of the Roman world stood ready to -be parted out into fresh divisions. Under Diocletian, the -Empire was divided into four parts, forming the realms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">{75}</a></span> -of the four Imperial colleagues of his system, the two -Augusti and their subordinate Cæsars. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division of -the Empire -under Diocletian. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 292.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Diocletian’s -system of government involved a practical degradation -of Rome from the headship of the Empire. -Augusti and Cæsars now dwelled at points where -their presence was more needed to ward off Persian -and German attacks from the frontiers; Rome was forsaken -for Nikomêdeia and Milan, for Antioch, York, -and Trier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reunion -under Constantine. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 323.<br /> -Division -between -the sons of -Theodosius. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 395.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The division between the four Imperial -colleagues lasted under another form after the Empire -was re-united under Constantine, -and it formed the -groundwork of the more lasting division of the Empire -into East and West, between the sons of Theodosius. -The whole Empire was now mapped out according to a -scheme in which ancient geographical names were largely -preserved, but in which they were for the most part used -in new or, at least, extended meanings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Four -Prætorian -Prefectures.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Empire was -divided into four great divisions called Prætorian <i>Prefectures</i>. -These were divided into <i>Dioceses</i>—a name -used in this nomenclature without regard to the ecclesiastical -sense which was borrowed from it—and the dioceses -again into <i>Provinces</i>. The four great prefectures -of the <i>East</i>, <i>Illyricum</i>, <i>Italy</i>, and <i>Gaul</i>, answer nearly -to the fourfold division under Diocletian; while we may -say that, in the final division, Illyricum and the East -formed the Eastern Empire, and Italy and Gaul formed -the Western. But it is only roughly that either the prefectures -or their smaller divisions answer to any of -the great national or geographical landmarks of earlier -times.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prefecture -of the East.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Prefecture of the <i>East</i> is that one among the four -which least answers to anything in earlier geography, -natural or historical. Its boundaries do not answer to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">{76}</a></span> -those of any earlier dominion, nor yet to any great -division of race or language. It stretched into all the -three continents of the old world, and took in all those -parts of the Empire which were never fully brought -under either Greek or Roman influences. But it also -took in large tracts which we have learned to look on -as part of the Hellenic world—not only lands which -had been, to a great extent, Hellenized in later times, -but even some of the earliest Greek colonies. The four -dioceses into which the Prefecture was divided formed -far more natural divisions than the Prefecture itself.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dioceses of -the East,<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Three of these were Asiatic. The first, specially called -the <i>East</i>, took in all the possessions of Rome beyond -Mount Tauros, together with Isauria, Kilikia, and the -island of Cyprus. Its eastern boundaries naturally -fluctuated according as Rome or Persia prevailed on -the Euphrates and the Tigris, fluctuations of which we -shall have again to speak more specially. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Egypt,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The diocese -of <i>Egypt</i>, besides Egypt in the elder sense, took in, -under the name of <i>Libya</i>, the old Greek land of the -Kyrenaic Pentapolis. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Asia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The diocese of <i>Asia</i>, a reminder -of the elder province of that name and of the kingdom -of Pergamos out of which it grew, took in the Asiatic -coasts of the Ægæan, together with Pamphylia, Lykia, -and the Ægæan Islands. The diocese of <i>Pontos</i>, preserving -the name of the kingdom of Mithridates, took -in the lands on the Euxine, with the fluctuating Armenian -possessions of Rome.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Diocese of -Thrace.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Besides these Asiatic lands, the Eastern Prefecture -contained one European diocese, that of <i>Thrace</i>, -which took in the lands stretching from the Propontis to -the Lower Danube. The names of two of its provinces -are remarkable. Rome now boasts of a province of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">{77}</a></span> -<i>Scythia</i>. But, among the varied uses of that name, -it has now shrunk up to mean the land immediately -south of the mouths of the Danube. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Province of -<i>Europa</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The other name -is <i>Europa</i>, a name which, as a Roman province, means -the district immediately round the New Rome. Constantine -had now fixed his capital on the site of the old -Byzantion, the site from which the city on the Bosporos -might seem to bear rule over two worlds. With -whatever motive, the name of Europe was specially -given to that corner of the Western continent where it -comes nearest to the Eastern. Nor was the name ill-chosen -for the district round the city which was so long -to be the bulwark of Europe against invading Asia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Great cities -of the -Eastern -Prefecture.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, besides the New Rome, this Prefecture, as containing -those parts of the Empire which had belonged -to the great Macedonian kingdoms, contained an unusual -proportion of the great cities of the world. Besides a -crowd of less famous places, it took in the two great -Eastern seats of Grecian culture, the most renowned -Alexandria and the most renowned Antioch, themselves -only the chief among many others cities bearing -the same names. All these, it should be remarked, -were comparatively recent creations, bearing the names -of individual men. That cities thus artificially called into -being should have kept the position which still belonged -to the great Macedonian capitals is one of the most speaking -signs of the effect which the dominion of Alexander -and his successors had on the history of the world.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prefecture -of Illyricum.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The nomenclature of the second Prefecture marks -how utterly Greece, as a country and nation, had died -out of all reckoning. The Prefecture of the Eastern -<i>Illyricum</i> answered roughly to European Greece and its -immediate neighbours. It took in the lands stretching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">{78}</a></span> -from the Danube to the southern point of Peloponnêsos. -Greece, as part of the Roman Empire, was included -under the name of the barbarian land through which -Rome was first brought into contact with Greek affairs. -She was further included under the name of the half-barbarian -neighbour who had become Greek through -the process of conquering Greece. In the system of -Prefectures, Greece formed part of Macedonia, and -Macedonia formed part of Illyricum. So low had -Greece, as a land, fallen at the very moment when her -tongue was making the greatest of all its conquests, -when a Greek city was raised to the rank of another -Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dioceses of -Macedonia -and Dacia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Illyrian Prefecture contained the two dioceses -of <i>Macedonia</i> and <i>Dacia</i>. This last name, it will be -remembered, had, since the days of Aurelian, withdrawn -to the south of the Danube. The Macedonian diocese -contained six provinces, among which, besides the familiar -and venerable names of Macedonia and Epeiros, we -find the names, still more venerable and familiar, of -<i>Thessaly</i> and <i>Crete</i>. And one yet greater name lives -on with them. <i>Hellas</i> and <i>Græcia</i> have alike vanished -from the map; but the most abiding name in Grecian -history, the theme of Homer and the theme of Polybios, -has not perished. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Province of -Achaia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among all changes, <i>Achaia</i> is there -still.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prefecture -of Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the new system Italy and Rome herself were in -no way privileged over the rest of the Empire. The -<i>Italian</i> Prefecture took in Italy itself and the lands -which might be looked on as necessary for the defence -and maintenance of Italy. It took in the defensive -conquests of the early Empire on the Upper Danube, -and it took in the granary of Italy, Africa. Its three dioceses -were <i>Italy</i>, <i>Illyricum</i>, and <i>Africa</i>. Here Illyricum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">{79}</a></span> -strangely gave its name both to a distinct Prefecture -and to one diocese of the Prefecture of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dioceses of -Italy,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Italian diocese contained seventeen provinces. The -Gaulish name has now wholly vanished from the lands -south of the Alps. The lands between the older and -the newer boundaries of Italy are now divided into -<i>Liguria</i> and <i>Venetia</i>—the former name being used in a -widely extended sense—and the new names of <i>Æmilia</i> -and <i>Flaminia</i>, provinces named after the great Roman -roads, as the roads themselves were named after Roman -magistrates. But the new Italy has spread beyond the -Alps, and reaches to the Danube. Two Rætian provinces -form part of it. Three other provinces are -formed by the three great islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and -Corsica. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Illyricum,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The diocese of the <i>Western Illyricum</i> took in -<i>Pannonia</i>, <i>Dalmatia</i>, and <i>Noricum</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Africa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The third diocese, -that of <i>Africa</i>, took in the old <i>Africa</i>, <i>Numidia</i>, and -western <i>Mauritania</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatness -of Carthage.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The union of these lands with -Italy may seem less strange when we remember that -the colony of the first Cæsar, the restored Carthage, -was the greatest of Latin-speaking cities after Rome -herself.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prefecture -of Gaul.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The fourth Prefecture took in the Roman dominions -in Western Europe, the great Latin-speaking provinces -beyond the Alps. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Diocese of -Spain; its -African -territory.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among the seven provinces of <i>Spain</i> -are reckoned, not only the Balearic islands, a natural -appendage to the Spanish peninsula, but a small part -of the African continent, the province of <i>Tingitana</i>, -stretching from the now Italian Africa to the Ocean. -This was according to the general law by which, in -almost all periods of history, either the masters of Spain -have borne rule in Africa or the masters of Africa have -borne rule in Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Diocese of -Gaul;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The diocese of <i>Gaul</i>, with its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">{80}</a></span> -seventeen provinces, keeps, at least in name, the -boundaries of the old Transalpine land. It still numbers -the two Germanies west of the Rhine among -its provinces. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Britain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The five provinces of the diocese of -<i>Britain</i> took in, at the moment when the Empire was -beginning to fall asunder, a greater territory than -Rome had held in the island in the days of her -greatest power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Province of -Valentia. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 367.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The exploits of the elder Theodosius, -who drove back the Pict by land and the Saxon by -sea, for a moment added to the Empire a province -beyond the wall of Antoninus, which, in honour of the -reigning Emperors Valentinian and Valens, received the -name of <i>Valentia</i>.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>The Division of the Empire.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Change in -the position -of Rome.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The mapping out of the Empire into Prefectures, -and its division between two or more Imperial colleagues, -led naturally to its more lasting division into -what were practically two Empires. The old state -of things had altogether passed away. Rome was -no longer the city ruling over subject states. From -the Ocean to the Euphrates all was alike, if not Rome, -at least <i>Romania</i>; all its inhabitants were equally Romans. -But to be a Roman now meant, no longer to be -a citizen of a commonwealth, but to be the subject of an -Emperor. The unity of the Empire was not broken -by the division of its administration between several -Imperial colleagues; but Rome ceased to be the only -Imperial dwelling-place, and, from the latter years of -the third century, it ceased to be an Imperial dwelling-place -at all. As long as Rome held her old place, no -lasting division, nothing more than an administrative -partition among colleagues, could be thought of. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">{81}</a></span> -could be no division to mark on the map. But, when -the new system had fully taken root at the end of the -fourth century, we come to a division which was comparatively -lasting, one which fills an important place in -history, and which is capable of being marked on the -map. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division of -the Empire -between the -sons of -Theodosius. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 395.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the death of Theodosius the Great, the -Empire was divided between his two sons, Arcadius -taking the Eastern provinces, answering nearly to the -Prefectures of the East and of Illyricum, while Honorius -took the Western provinces, the Prefectures of Italy and -Gaul. Through the greater part of the fifth century, -the successors of Arcadius and of Honorius formed -two distinct lines of Emperors, of whom the Eastern -reigned at Constantinople, the Western most commonly -at Ravenna. But as the dominions of each prince were -alike Roman, the Eastern and Western Emperors were -still looked on in theory as Imperial colleagues charged -with the administration of a common Roman dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Practically -two Empires.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Practically however the dominions of the two Emperors -may be looked on as two distinct Empires, the -Eastern having its seat at the New Rome or Constantinople, -while the Western had its seat more commonly -at Ravenna than at the Old Rome.</p> - -<p>This division of the Empire is the great political -feature of the fifth century; but the fate of the two -Empires was widely different. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Enemies of -Rome.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From the very beginning -of the Empire, Rome had had to struggle with -two chief enemies, in the East and in the West, in -Europe and in Asia, the nature of whose warfare was -widely different. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivalry -with Parthia -and -Persia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the East she had, first the Parthian -and then the regenerate Persian, as strictly a rival -power on equal terms. This rivalry went on from the -moment when Rome stepped into the place of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">{82}</a></span> -Seleukids till the time when Rome was cut short, and -Persia overthrown, by the Saracenic invasions. But, -except during the momentary conquests of Trajan and -during the equally momentary alternate conquests of -Rome and Persia in the seventh century, the whole -strife was a mere border warfare which did not threaten -the serious dismemberment of either power. This and -that fortress was taken and retaken; this and that -province was ceded and ceded back again; but except -under Trajan and again under Chosroes and Heraclius, -the existence and dominion of neither power was ever -seriously threatened. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivalry -with Persia -passes on to -the Eastern -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Eastern Empire naturally -inherited this part of the calling of the undivided -Empire, the long strife with Persia.</p> - -<p>At the other end of the Empire, the enemy was of -quite another kind. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Teutonic -incursions -in the -Western -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The danger there was through the -incursions of the various Teutonic nations. There was -no one Teutonic power which could be a rival to Rome -in the same sense in which Persia was in the East; -but a crowd of independent Teutonic tribes were -pressing into the Empire from all quarters, and were -striving to make settlements within its borders. The -task of resisting these incursions fell of course to the -Western Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>No Teutonic -settlements -in -the Eastern -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Eastern Empire indeed was -often traversed by wandering Teutonic nations; but no -permanent settlements were made within its borders, -no dismemberment of its provinces capable of being -marked on the map was made till a much later time. -But the Western Empire was altogether dismembered -and broken in pieces by the settlement of the Teutonic -nations within it. The geographical aspects of the two -Empires during the fifth century are thus strikingly -unlike one another; but each continues one side of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">{83}</a></span> -history of the undivided Empire. It will therefore be -well to trace those two characteristic aspects of the -two Empires separately. We will first speak of the Teutonic -incursions, through which in the end the Western -Empire was split up and the states of modern Europe -were founded. We will then trace the geographical -aspect of the long rivalry between Rome and Persia in -the East.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>The Teutonic Settlements within the Empire.</i></h3> - -<p>Our subject is historical geography, and neither -ethnology nor political history, except so far as either -national migrations or political changes produce a directly -geographical effect. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Wandering -of -the Nations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great movement called -the Wandering of the Nations, and its results in the -settlement of various Teutonic nations within the -bounds of the Roman Empire, concern us now only so -far as they wrought a visible change on the map. The -exact relations of the different tribes to one another, -the exact course of the migrations which led to the -final settlement of each, belong rather to another branch -of inquiry. But there are certain marked stages in -the relations of the Empire to the nations beyond -its borders, certain marked stages in the growth and -mutual relations of those nations, which must be borne -in mind in order to explain their settlements within -the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes in -the nomenclature -of -the Teutonic -nations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It will be at once seen that the geography -and nomenclature of the German nations in -the third century is for the most part quite different -from their geography and nomenclature as we find -it in Cæsar and Tacitus. New names have come -to the front, names all of which play a part in history, -many of which remain to this day; and, with one or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">{84}</a></span> -two exceptions, the older names sink into the background. -It is therefore hardly needful to go through -the ethnology and geography of Tacitus, or to deal -with any of the controverted points which are suggested -thereby. We have to look at the German nations -purely in their relations to Rome.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Warfare on -the Rhine -and the -Danube.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have seen that the history of Rome in her -western provinces was, from an early stage of the -Empire, a struggle with the Teutonic nations on the -Rhine and the Danube. We have seen that all attempts -at serious conquest beyond those boundaries -came to nothing. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Roman -possessions -beyond -those -rivers.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Roman possessions beyond the -two great rivers were mere outposts for the better -security of the land within the rivers. The district -beyond them, fenced in by a wall and known as the -<i>Agri Decumates</i>, was hardly more than such an outlying -post on a great scale. The struggle along the -border was, almost from the beginning, a defensive -struggle on the part of Rome. We hear of Roman -conquests from the second century to the fifth; but -they are strictly defensive conquests, the mere recovery -of lost possessions, or at most the establishment of -fresh outposts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Formation -of confederacies -among the -Germans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From the moment of the first appearance -of Rome on the two rivers, the Teutonic nations -were really threatening to Rome, and the warfare of -Rome was really defensive; and from the very beginning -too a process seems to have been at work -among the German nations themselves which greatly -strengthened their power as enemies of Rome. New -nations or confederacies, bearing, for the most part, -names unknown to earlier times, begin to be far more -dangerous than the smaller and more scattered tribes -of the earlier times had been. These movements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">{85}</a></span> -among the German nations themselves, hastened by -pressure of other nations to the east of them, caused -the Teutonic attacks on the Empire to become more -and more formidable, and at last to grow into Teutonic -settlements within the Empire. But, in the course of -this process, several stages may be noticed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Marcomanni -and -Quadi.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus the -<i>Marcomanni</i> and the <i>Quadi</i> play a part in this history -from the very beginning. The Marcomanni appear in -Cæsar, and, from their name of <i>Markmen</i>, we may be -sure that they were a confederacy of the same kind as -the later confederacies of the Franks and Alemanni. -In the first and second centuries the Marcomanni are -dangerous neighbours, threatening the Empire and -often penetrating beyond its borders, and their name -appears in history as late as the fifth century. But they -play no part in the Teutonic settlements within the -Empire. They do not affect the later map; they had -no share in bringing about the changes out of which -modern Europe arose. Their importance ceases just at -the time when a second stage begins, when, in the -course of the third century, we begin to hear of those -nations or confederacies whose movements really did -affect later history and geography.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of modern -European -history.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the third and fourth centuries the history of -modern Europe begins. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The new -confederacies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We now begin to hear names -which have been heard ever since, <i>Franks</i>, <i>Alemans</i>, -<i>Saxons</i>, all of them great confederacies of German -tribes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Defensive -warfare of -Rome.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Defence against German inroads now becomes -the chief business of the rulers of Rome. The invaders -were constantly driven back; but new invaders were -as constantly found to renew their incursions. Men of -Teutonic race pressed into the Empire in every conceivable -character. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Germans -within the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides open enemies, who came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">{86}</a></span> -with the hope either of plunder or settlement, crowds -of Germans served in the Roman armies and obtained -lands held by military tenure as the reward of their -services. Their chiefs were promoted to every rank -and honour, military and civil, short of the Imperial -dignity itself. These were changes of the utmost -importance in other points of view; still they do not -directly affect the map of the Empire. Lands and -cities were won and lost over and over again; but such -changes were merely momentary; the acknowledged -boundaries of the Roman dominion were not yet -altered; it is not till the next stage that geography -begins to be directly concerned.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of national -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">This last stage begins with the early years of the -fifth century, and thus nearly coincides with the division -of the Empire into East and West. Gothic and -other Teutonic kings could now march at pleasure at -the head of their armies through every corner of the -Empire, sometimes bearing the titles of Roman officers, -sometimes dictating the choice of Roman Emperors, -sometimes sacking the Old Rome or threatening the -New. It was when these armies under their kings -settled down and formed national kingdoms within the -limits of the Empire, that the change comes to have an -effect on the map. In the course of the fifth century -the Western provinces of Rome were rent away from -her. In most cases the loss was cloaked by some Imperial -commission, some empty title bestowed on the -victorious invader; but the Empire was none the less -practically dismembered. Out of these dismemberments -the modern states of Europe gradually grew. It -will now be our business to give some account of -those nations, Teutonic and otherwise, who had an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">{87}</a></span> -immediate share in this work, passing lightly by all -questions, and indeed all nations, which cannot be said -to have had such an immediate share in it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Teutonic -Settlements -in -the West.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="p2">The nations which in the fourth and fifth centuries -made settlements in the Western provinces of Rome -fall under two chief heads; those who made their settlements -by land, and those who made them by sea. -This last class is pretty well coextensive with the -settlement of our own forefathers in Britain, which -must be spoken of separately. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlements -within the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among the others, the -nations who play an important part in the fourth and -fifth centuries are the <i>Goths</i>, the <i>Vandals</i>, the <i>Burgundians</i>, -the <i>Suevi</i>, and the <i>Franks</i>. And their settlements -again fall into two classes, those which passed -away within a century or two, and those which have -had a lasting effect on European history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Franks, -Burgundians, -Suevi,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus it -is plain at the first glance that the Franks and the -Burgundians have left their names on the modern -map. The Suevi have left their name also: but it is -now found only in their older German land; it has -vanished for ages from their western settlement. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Goths,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -name of the Goths has passed away from the kingdoms -which they founded, but their presence has affected the -history of both the Spanish and the Italian peninsulas. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Vandals.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Vandals alone, as a nation and kingdom, have -left no traces whatever, though it may be that they -have left their name to a part of one of the lands -of their sojourn. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All these nations founded kingdoms -within the Western Empire, kingdoms which at first -admitted a nominal superiority in the Empire, but -which were practically independent from the beginning. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Various -circumstances -of -their history.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the history of the several kingdoms is very different. -Some of them soon passed away altogether, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">{88}</a></span> -others became the beginnings of the great nations -of modern Europe. Gaul and Spain fell off very -gradually from the Empire. But, in the course of the -fifth century, all the nations of which we have been -speaking formed more or less lasting settlements within -those provinces. Pre-eminent among them are the great -settlements of the Goths and the Franks. Out of the -settlement of the Franks arose the modern kingdoms -of Germany and France, and out of the settlement of -the Goths arose the various kingdoms of Spain. Those -of the Burgundians, Vandals, and Suevi were either -smaller or less lasting. All of them however must be -mentioned in their order.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Migrations -of the -West-Goths.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>First and greatest come the <i>Goths</i>. It is not needful -for our purpose to examine all that history or legend -has to tell us as to the origin of the Goths, or all -the theories which ingenious men have formed on -the subject. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Defeat of -the Goths -by Claudius. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 269.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is enough for our purpose that the -Goths began to show themselves as dangerous enemies -of the Empire in the second half of the third century; -but their continuous history does not begin till -the second half of the fourth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gothic -kingdom -on the -Danube.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We then find them -forming a great kingdom in the lands north of the -Danube. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Goths driven -onwards -by -the Huns.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently a large body of them were driven -to seek shelter within the bounds of the Eastern Empire -from the pressure of the invading <i>Huns</i>. These last -were a Turanian people who had been driven from -their own older settlements by movements in the -further East which do not concern us, but who become -an important element in the history of the fifth century. -They affected the Empire, partly by actual invasions, -partly by driving other nations before them -but they made no lasting settlements within it. Nor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">{89}</a></span> -did the Goths themselves make any lasting settlement -in the Eastern Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>They cross -the Danube. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 377.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -While one part of the Gothic -nation became subject to the Huns, another part -crossed the Danube; but they crossed it by Imperial -licence, and if they took to arms, it was only to -punish the treachery of the Roman officers. Presently -we find Gothic chiefs marching at pleasure through the -dominions of the Eastern Cæsar; but they simply march -and ravage; it is not till they have got within the -boundary of the West that they found any lasting kingdoms. -In fact, the Goths, and the Teutonic tribes -generally, had no real mission in the East; to them the -East was a mere highway to the West. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Career of -Alaric. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 394-410.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The movements -of Alaric in Greece, Illyricum, and Italy, his sieges and -his capture of Rome, are of the highest historical importance, -but they do not touch geography. The Goths -first win for themselves a local habitation and a place -on the map when they left Italy to establish themselves -in the further West.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of the West-Gothic -kingdom -under -Athaulf. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 412.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Under Alaric’s successor, Athaulf, the first foundations -were laid of that great West-Gothic kingdom -which we are apt to look on as specially Spanish, but -which in truth had its first beginning in Gaul, and -which kept some Gaulish territory as long as it lasted. -But the Goths passed into those lands, not in the character -of avowed conquerors, not as founders of an -avowed Gothic state, but as soldiers of the Empire, -sent to win back its lost provinces. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Condition -of Gaul and -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Those provinces -were now occupied or torn in pieces by a crowd of -invaders, <i>Suevi</i>, <i>Vandals</i>, and <i>Alans</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Alans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These last are -a puzzling race, our accounts of whom are somewhat -contradictory, but who may perhaps be most safely set -down as a non-Aryan, or, at any rate, a non-Teutonic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">{90}</a></span> -people, who had been largely brought under Gothic -influences. But early in the fifth century they possessed -a dominion in central Spain which stretched -from sea to sea. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Suevi -in Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Their dominion passed for a few -years into the hands of the Suevi, who had already -formed a settlement in north-western Spain, and who -still kept a dominion in that corner long after the -greater part of the peninsula had become Gothic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Vandals -in -Africa. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 425.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Vandals occupied Bætica; but they presently passed into -Africa, and there founded the one Teutonic kingdom -in that continent, with Carthage to its capital, a kingdom -which took in also the great islands of the western -Mediterranean, including Sicily itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Independence -of the -Basques.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Through all these -changes the unconquerable people of the Basque and -Cantabrian mountains seem never to have fully submitted -to any conquerors; but the rest of Spain and -south-western Gaul was, before half of the fifth century -had passed, formed into the great West-Gothic -kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gothic -kingdom -of Toulouse.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That kingdom stretched from the pillars of -Hêraklês to the Loire and the Rhone, and its capital -was placed, not on Spanish but on Gaulish ground, at -the Gaulish Tolosa or <i>Toulouse</i>. The Gothic dominion -in Gaul was doomed not to be lasting; the Gothic -dominion in Spain lasted down to the Saracen conquest, -and all the later Christian kingdoms of Spain may be -looked on as fragments or revivals of it. Spain however -never changed her name for that of her conquerors. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gothia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The only parts of the Gothic kingdom which ever bore -the Gothic name were those small parts both of Spain -and Gaul which kept the name of <i>Gothia</i> through later -causes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Andalusia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Vandals, on the other hand, though they -passed altogether out of Spain, have left their name to -this day in its southern part under the form of <i>Andalusia</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">{91}</a></span> -a name which, under the Saracen conquerors, -spread itself over the whole peninsula.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Franks.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The other great Teutonic nations or confederacies of -which we have to speak have had a far more lasting -effect on the nomenclature of Europe. We have now -to trace the steps by which the <i>Franks</i> gradually became -the ruling people both of Germany and of Gaul. -They have stamped their name on both countries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Uses of the -word -<i>Francia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -dominions of the Franks got the name of <i>Francia</i>, -a name whose meaning has constantly varied according -to the extent of the Frankish dominion at different -times. In modern use it still cleaves to two parts of -their dominions, to that part of Germany which is still -called <i>Franken</i> or <i>Franconia</i>, and to that part of -Gaul which is still called <i>France</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Alemanni.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And their history -is closely mixed up with that of another nation or confederacy, -that of the <i>Alemanni</i>, who again have, in the -French tongue, given their name to the whole of Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 275.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Franks and Alemanni alike begin to be heard of -in the third century, and the Alemanni even attempted -an actual invasion of Italy; but the geographical importance -of both confederacies does not begin till the -fifth. All through the fourth century it is the chief -business of the Emperors who ruled in Gaul to defend -the frontier of the Rhine against their incursions, against -the Alemanni along the upper part of its course, and -against the Franks along its lower part. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Thuringians.<br /> -The Low-Dutch -tribes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the east of -the Franks and Alemanni lay the <i>Thuringians</i>; to the -north, along the coasts of the German Ocean, the Low-Dutch -tribes, <i>Saxons</i> and <i>Frisians</i>. In the course of -the fifth century their movements also began to affect -the geography of the Empire.</p> - -<p>During the whole of that century the Franks were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">{92}</a></span> -pressing into Gaul. The Imperial city of Trier was -more than once taken, and the seat of the provincial -government was removed to Arles. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reign of -Chlodwig. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 481-511.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The union of -the two chief divisions of the Frankish confederacy, -and the overthrow of the Alemanni, made the Franks, -under their first Christian king, Chlodwig or Clovis, -the ruling people of northern Gaul and central Germany. -Their territory thus took in both lands which -had been part of the Empire, and lands which had -never been such. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -and divisions -of the -Frankish -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This is a special characteristic of -the Frankish settlement, and one which influences -the whole of their later history. There was, from the -very beginning, long before any such distinction was -consciously drawn, a <i>Teutonic</i> and a <i>Latin Francia</i>. -There were Frankish lands to the East which never had -been Roman. There were lands in northern Gaul which -remained practically Roman under the Frankish dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Roman -Germany -Teutonized -afresh.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And between them lay, on the left bank of -the Rhine, the Teutonic lands which had formed part -of the Roman province of Gaul, but which now became -Teutonic again. <i>Moguntiacum</i>, <i>Augusta Treverorum</i>, -and <i>Colonia Agrippina</i>, cities founded on Teutonic soil, -now again became German, ready to be in due time, -by the names of <i>Mainz</i>, <i>Trier</i>, and <i>Köln</i>, the metropolitan -and electoral cities of Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Eastern -and Western -<i>Francia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These lands, -with the original German lands, formed the <i>Eastern</i> -or <i>Teutonic Francia</i>, where the Franks, or their German -allies and subjects, formed the real population -of the country. In the <i>Western Francia</i>, between -the Loire and the Channel, though the Franks largely -settled and influenced the country in many ways, the -mass of the population remained Roman. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Armorica -or Britanny.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Over the -western peninsula of <i>Armorica</i> the dominion of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">{93}</a></span> -Franks was always precarious and, at most, external. -Here the ante-Roman population still kept its Celtic -language, and it was further strengthened by colonies -from Britain, from which the land took its later name -of the <i>Lesser Britain</i> or <i>Britanny</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Frankish -dominion. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 500.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus, at the end -of the fifth century, the Frankish dominion was firmly -established over the whole of central Germany and -Northern Gaul. Their dominion was fated to be the -most lasting of the Teutonic kingdoms formed on the -Roman mainland. The reason is obvious; while the -Goths in Spain and the Vandals in Africa were isolated -Teutonic settlers in a Roman land, the Franks in Gaul -were strengthened by the unbroken Teutonic mainland -at their back.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Burgundians.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The greater part of Gaul was thus, at the end of the -fifth century, divided between the Franks in the north -and the West-Goths in the south. But, early in the -fifth century, a third Teutonic power grew up in south-eastern -Gaul. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>Burgundians</i>, a people who, in the -course of the Wandering of the Nations, seem to have -made their way from the shores of the Baltic, established -themselves in the lands between the Rhone and the -Alps, where they formed a kingdom which bore their -name. Their dominion in Gaul may be said to have -been more lasting than that of the Goths, less lasting -than that of the Franks. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Meaning of -the word -<i>Burgundy</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Burgundy</i> is still a recognized -name; but no name in geography has so often shifted its -place and meaning, and it has for some centuries settled -itself on a very small part of the ancient kingdom of -the Burgundians. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Provence -Burgundian. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 500-510.<br /> -510-536.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the end of the fifth century the -Rhone was a Burgundian river; <i>Autun</i>, <i>Besançon</i>, -<i>Lyons</i>, and <i>Vienne</i> were Burgundian cities; -but the -sea coast, the original Roman <i>Province</i>, the land which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">{94}</a></span> -has so steadily kept that name, though it fell for a -moment under the Burgundian power, followed at this -time, as became the first Roman land beyond the Alps, -the fortunes of Italy rather than those of Gaul.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Invasion -of the -Huns.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Among these various conquests and shiftings of dominion, -all of which affected the map at the time, some -of which have affected history and geography ever since, -it may be well to mention, if only by way of contrast, -an inroad which fills a great place in the history of the -fifth century, but which had no direct effect on geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Battle of -Châlons. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 451.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was the invasion of Italy and Gaul by -the <i>Huns</i> under Attila, and their defeat at Châlons -by the combined forces of Romans, West-Goths, and -Franks. This battle is one of the events which is remarkable, -not for working change, but for hindering -it. Had Attila succeeded, the greatest of all changes -would have taken place throughout all Western Europe. -As it was, the map of Gaul was not affected by his -inroad. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Destruction -of Aquileia, -and origin -of Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the map of Italy it did have an indirect -effect; he destroyed the city of Aquileia, and its inhabitants, -fleeing to the Venetian islands, laid the foundation -of one of the later powers of Europe in the -form of the commonwealth of <i>Venice</i>.</p> - -<p>While Spain and Gaul were thus rent away from the -Empire, Italy and Rome itself were practically rent away -also, though the form which the event took was different. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reunion of -the Empire.<br /> -Rule of -Odoacer. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 476-493.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A vote of the Senate reunited the Western Empire to the -Eastern; the Eastern Emperor Zeno became sole Emperor, -and the government of the diocese of Italy—that is, it will -be remembered, of a large territory besides the Italian -peninsula—was entrusted by his commission to Odoacer, -a general of barbarian mercenaries, with the rank -of Patrician. No doubt Odoacer was practically independent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">{95}</a></span> -of the Empire; but the union of the Empire -was preserved in form, and no separate kingdom of -Italy was set up. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The East-Goths -in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently Odoacer was overthrown -by Theodoric king of the East-Goths, who, though -king of his own people, reigned in Italy by an Imperial -commission as Patrician. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rule of -Theodoric. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 493-526.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Practically, he founded -an East-Gothic kingdom, taking in Italy and the other -lands which formed the dioceses of Italy and Western -Illyricum. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -his dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -His dominion also took in the coast of -what we may now call <i>Provence</i>, and his influence -was extended in various ways over most of the kingdoms -of the West. The seat of the Gothic dominion, -like that of the later Western Empire, was at Ravenna. -Practically Theodoric and his successors were independent -kings, and, as chiefs of their own people, they -bore the kingly title. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Theory of -the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hence, as Rome formed part -of their dominions, it is true to say that under them -Rome ceased to be part of the Roman Empire. Still -in theory the Imperial supremacy went on, and in -this way it became much easier for Italy to be won -back to the Empire at a somewhat later time.</p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>Settlement of the English in Britain.</i></h3> - -<p>Meanwhile, in another part of Europe, a Teutonic -settlement of quite another character from those on -the mainland was going on. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Romans -withdrawn -from -Britain. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 411.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Spain and Gaul fell -away from the Empire by slow degrees; but the -Roman dominion in Britain came to an end by a definite -act at a definite moment. The Roman armies -were withdrawn from the province, and its inhabitants -were left to themselves. Presently, a new settlement -took place in the island which was thus left undefended. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Difference -between the -conquest -of Britain -and other -Teutonic -conquests.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is specially important to mark the difference between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">{96}</a></span> -the Teutonic settlements in Britain and the Teutonic -conquests on the mainland. The Teutonic conquests in -Gaul and Spain were made by Teutonic neighbours -who had already learned to know and respect the Roman -civilization, who were either Christians already or became -Christians soon after they entered the Empire. -They pressed in gradually by land; they left the Roman -inhabitants to live after the Roman law, and they themselves -gradually adopted the speech and much of the -manners of Rome. The only exception to this rule on -the continent is to be found in the lands immediately -on the Rhine and the Danube, where the Teutonic -settlement was complete, and where the Roman tongue -and civilization were pretty well wiped out. This same -process happened yet more completely in the Teutonic -conquest of Britain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of the -English -settlement; -long -struggle -with the -Britons.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great island possession of -Rome had been virtually abandoned by Rome before -the Teutonic settlements in it began. The invaders -had therefore to struggle rather with native Britons -than with Romans. Moreover, they were invaders who -came by sea, and who came from lands where little or -nothing was known of the Roman law or religion. They -therefore made a settlement of quite another kind from -the settlement of the Goths or even from that of the -Franks. They met with a degree of strictly national -resistance such as no other Teutonic conquerors met -with; therefore in the end they swept away all -traces of the earlier state of things in a way which took -place nowhere else. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The English -remain -Teutonic.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As far as such a process is possible, -they slew or drove out the older inhabitants; -they kept their heathen religion and Teutonic language, -and were thus able to grow up as a new Teutonic -nation in their new home without any important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">{97}</a></span> -intermixture with the earlier inhabitants, Roman or -British.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Low-Dutch -settlements -in Britain.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The conquerors who wrought this change were our -own forefathers, the Low-Dutch inhabitants of the -border lands of Germany and Denmark, quite away -from the Roman frontier; and among them three -tribes, the <i>Angles</i>, the <i>Saxons</i>, and the <i>Jutes</i>, had the -chief share in the conquest of Britain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saxons.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Saxons -had, as has already been said, attempted a settlement -in the fourth century. They were therefore the tribe -who were first known to the Roman and Celtic inhabitants -of the island; the Celts of Britain and Ireland -have therefore called all the Teutonic settlers <i>Saxons</i> -to this day. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -the name -<i>English</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, as the Angles or <i>English</i> occupied -in the end much the greater part of the land, it was -they who, when the Teutonic tribes in Britain began to -form one nation, gave their name to that nation and -its land. That nation was the <i>English</i>, and their land -was <i>England</i>. While <i>Britain</i> therefore remains the -proper geographical name of the whole island, <i>England</i> -is the name of that part of Britain which was step -by step conquered by the English. Before the end -of the fifth century several Teutonic kingdoms had -begun in Britain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Jutes in -Kent. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 449.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Jutes began the conquest by -their settlement in <i>Kent</i>, and presently the <i>Saxons</i> began -to settle on the South coast and on a small part of the -East coast, in <i>Sussex</i>, <i>Wessex</i>, and <i>Essex</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saxon and -Anglian -settlements.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And along -a great part of the eastern coast various <i>Anglian</i> settlements -were made, which gradually grew into the kingdoms -of <i>East-Anglia</i>, <i>Deira</i>, and <i>Bernicia</i>, which two -last formed by their union the great kingdom of <i>Northumberland</i>. -But, at the end of the sixth century, the -English had not got very far from the southern and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">{98}</a></span> -eastern coasts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Welsh -and Scots.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Britons, whom the English called -<i>Welsh</i> or strangers, held out in the West, and the -Picts and Scots in the North. The <i>Scots</i> were properly -the people of Ireland; but a colony of them had -settled on the western coast of northern Britain, and, -in the end, they gave the name of Scotland to the -whole North of the island.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>The Eastern Empire.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Contrast -between the -Eastern and -Western -Empires.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have already seen the differences between the -position of the Eastern and Western Empires during -this period. While in the West the provinces were -gradually lopped away by the Teutonic settlements, -the provinces of the East, though often traversed by -Teutonic armies, or rather nations, did not become -the seats of lasting Teutonic settlements. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Tetraxite -Goths.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We can -hardly count as an exception the settlement of the -<i>Tetraxite Goths</i> in the Tauric Chersonêsos, a land -which was rather in alliance with the Empire than -actually part of it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivalry -with Persia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The distinctive history of the -Eastern Empire consists, as has been already said, in -the long struggle between East and West, in which -Rome had succeeded to the mission of Alexander -and the Seleukids as the representative of Western -civilization. To this mission was afterwards added the -championship of Christianity, first against the Fire-worshipper -and then against the Moslem. In Eastern -history no event is more important and more remarkable -than the uprising of the regenerate <i>Persian</i> nation -against its Parthian masters. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revival of -the Persian -kingdom. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 226.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, as far as either the -history or the geography of Rome is concerned, the -Persian simply steps into the place of the Parthian as -the representative of the East against the West. From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">{99}</a></span> -our point of view, the long wars on the Eastern frontier -of Rome, and the frequent shiftings of that frontier, form -one unbroken story, whether the enemy that was striven -against is the successor of Arsakes or the successor of -Artaxerxes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -Armenia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And besides the natural rivalry of two great -powers in such a position, the border kingdom of -<i>Armenia</i>, a name which has changed its meaning and its -frontiers almost as often as Burgundy or Austria, supplied -constant ground for dispute between Rome and -her eastern rival, whether Parthian or Persian.</p> - -<p>In the geographical aspect of this long struggle -three special periods need to be pointed out. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Trajan. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 114-117.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first -is that of the momentary conquests of Trajan. Under -him <i>Armenia</i>, hitherto a vassal kingdom of Rome, was -incorporated as a Roman province. <i>Albania</i> and <i>Iberia</i> -took its place as the frontier vassal states. Beyond the -Euphrates, even beyond the Tigris, the Roman dominion -took in <i>Mesopotamia</i>, <i>Atropatênê</i>, and <i>Babylonia</i>. The -Parthian capital of Ktesiphôn and the outlying Greek -free city of Seleukeia were included within the boundaries -of an Empire which for a moment touched the -Caspian and the Persian Gulf. Rome, as the champion -of the West, seemed to have triumphed for ever over -her Eastern rival, when the Parthian kingdom was -thus shorn of the border lands of the two worlds, and -when its king was forced to become a Roman vassal for -the dominions that were left to him. But this vast -extension of the Roman power was strictly only for a -moment. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Trajan -surrendered -by Hadrian. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 117.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -What Trajan had conquered Hadrian at -once gave back; the Empire was again bounded by -the Euphrates, and Armenia was again left to form -matter of dispute between its Eastern and its Western -claimant. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Marcus. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 162-166.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The second stage begins when, under Marcus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">{100}</a></span> -the Roman frontier again began to advance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Severus. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 197-202.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Between -the Euphrates and the Tigris <i>Osrhoênê</i> became a Roman -dependency: under the house of Severus it became a -Roman province; and the fortress of <i>Nisibis</i>, so famous -in later wars, was planted as the Eastern outpost of -Rome against the Parthian. Ten years later the Parthian -power was no more; but, as seen with Western eyes, the -revived monarchy of Persia had simply stepped into its -place. The wars of Alexander Severus, the captivity of -Valerian, the wasting march of Sapor through the Roman -provinces, left no trace on the map. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -under Diocletian. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 297.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But under the -mighty rule of Diocletian the glories of Trajan were -renewed. Mesopotamia again became Roman; five -provinces beyond the Tigris were added to the Empire; -Armenia, again the vassal of Rome, was enlarged at -the expense of Persia, and Iberia was once more a -Roman dependency. In the third stage the Roman -frontier again went back. The wars of the second -Sapor did little but deprive Rome of two Mesopotamian -fortresses. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Surrender -of provinces -by Jovian. -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 363.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But after the fall of Julian the -lands beyond the Tigris were given back to Persia; -even Nisibis was yielded, and the Persian frontier again -reached the Euphrates. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division -of Armenia. -387.<br /> -The Hundred -Years’ -Peace. -421.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Armenia was now tossed to -and fro, conquered and reconquered, till the kingdom -was divided between the vassals of the two Empires, -a division which was again confirmed by the hundred -years’ peace between Rome and Persia. This was the -state of the Eastern frontier of Rome at the time when -the West-Goths were laying the foundation of their -dominion in Spain and Aquitaine, when Goth and -Roman joined together to overthrow the mingled host -of Attila at Châlons, and when the first English keels -were on their way to the shores of Britain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">{101}</a></span></p> - -<p>This then is the picture of the civilized world at -the end of the fifth century. The whole of the Western -dominions of Rome, including Italy and Rome -herself, have practically, if not everywhere formally, -fallen away from the Roman Empire. The whole -West is under the rule of Teutonic kings. The -Frank has become supreme in northern Gaul, without -losing his ancient hold on western and central Germany. -The West-Goth reigns in Spain and Aquitaine; -the Burgundian reigns in the lands between the Rhone -and the Alps. Italy and the lands to the north of the -Alps and the Hadriatic have become, in substance -though not in name, an East-Gothic kingdom. But -the countries of the European mainland, though cut off -from Roman political dominion, are far from being cut -off from Roman influences. The Teutonic settlers, if -conquerors, are also disciples. Their rulers are everywhere -Christian; in Northern Gaul they are even -Orthodox. Africa, under the Arian Vandal, is far -more utterly cut off from the traditions of Rome than -the lands ruled either by the Catholic Frank or by the -Arian Goth. To the north of the Franks lie the -independent tribes of Germany, still untouched by any -Roman influence. They are beginning to find themselves -new homes in Britain, and, as the natural -consequence of a purely barbarian and heathen -conquest, to sever from the Empire all that they -conquered yet more thoroughly than Africa itself was -severed. Such is the state of the West. In the East -the Roman power lives on in the New Rome, with a -dominion constantly threatened and insulted by various -enemies, but with a frontier which has varied but little -since the time of Aurelian. No lasting Teutonic settlement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">{102}</a></span> -has been made within its borders. In its endless -wars with Persia, its frontier sometimes advances and -sometimes retreats. In our next chapter we shall see -how much of life still clung to the majesty of the -Roman name, and how large a part of the ancient -dominion of Rome could still be won back again.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">{103}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Reunion of the Empire.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Continuity -of Roman -rule.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> main point to be always borne in mind in the -history, and therefore in the historical geography, of -the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, is the continued -existence of the Roman Empire. It was still the Roman -Empire, although the seat of its dominion was no longer -at the Old Rome, although for a while the Old Rome was -actually separated from the Roman dominion. Gaul, -Spain, Africa, Italy itself, had been lopped away. Britain -had fallen away by another process. But the Roman -rule went on undisturbed in the Eastern part of the -Empire, and even in the West the memory of that rule -had by no means wholly died out. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -the Teutonic -kings.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Teutonic kings -ruled in all the countries of the West; but nowhere on -the continent had they become national sovereigns. -They were still simply the chiefs of their own people -reigning in the midst of a Roman population. The -Romans meanwhile everywhere looked to the Cæsar of -the New Rome as their lawful sovereign, from whose -rule they had been unwillingly torn away. Both in Spain -and in Italy the Gothic kings had settled in the country -as Imperial lieutenants with an Imperial commission. -The formal aspect of the event of 476 had been the reunion -of the Western Empire with the Eastern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of territory -by the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">{104}</a></span> -perfectly natural therefore that the sole Roman Emperor -reigning in the New Rome should strive, whenever he -had a chance, to win back territories which he had -never formally surrendered, and that the Roman inhabitants -of those territories should welcome him as a -deliverer from barbarian masters. The geographical -limits within which, at the beginning of the sixth century, -the Roman power was practically confined, the -phænomena of race and language within those limits, -might have suggested another course. But considerations -of that kind are seldom felt at the time; they -are the reflexions of thoughtful men long after. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Roman -dominion -at the accession -of -Justinian, -527.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Roman dominion, at the accession of Justinian, was -shut up within the Greek and Oriental provinces of the -Empire; its enemies were already beginning to speak -of its subjects as Greeks. Its truest policy would have -been to have anticipated several centuries of history, to -have taken up the position of a Greek state, defending -its borders against the Persian, withstanding or inviting -the settlement of the Slave, but leaving the now -Teutonic West to develope itself undisturbed. But -in such cases the known past is always more powerful -than the unknown future, and it seemed the first duty -of the Roman Emperor to restore the Roman Empire -to its ancient extent.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Justinian.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It was during the reign of Justinian that this -work was carried out through a large part of the -Western Empire. Lost provinces were won back in -two continents. The growth of independent Teutonic -powers was for ever stopped in Africa, and it received -no small check in Europe. The Emperor was enabled, -through the weakness and internal dissensions of the -Vandal and Gothic kingdoms, to win back Africa and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">{105}</a></span> -Italy to the Empire. The work was done by the -swords of Belisarius and Narses—the Slave and the -Persian being now used to win back the Old Rome to -the dominion of the New. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Vandal -war. -533-535.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The short <i>Vandal</i> war restored -Africa in the Roman sense, and a large part of -Mauritania, to the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gothic war. -537-554.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The long <i>Gothic</i> war won -back Illyricum, Italy, and the Old Rome. Italy and -Africa were still ruled from Ravenna and from Carthage; -but they were now ruled not by Teutonic kings, -but by Byzantine exarchs. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -southern -Spain. -550.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, while the war -with the East-Goths was going on in Italy, a large part -of southern Spain was won back from the West-Goths. -Two Teutonic kingdoms were thus wiped out; -a third was weakened, and the acquisition of so great -a line of sea-coast, together with the great islands, -Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands, gave -the Empire an undisputed supremacy by sea. In one -corner only did the Imperial frontier even nominally -go back, or any Teutonic power advance at its -expense. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Provence -ceded to the -Franks, -548.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The sea-board of Provence, which had long -been practically lost to the Empire, was now formally -ceded to the Franks. In this one corner the Roman -Terminus withdrew.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -changes -under -Justinian.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In a geographical aspect the map of Europe has -seldom been so completely changed within a single -generation as it was during the reign of Justinian. At -his accession his dominion was bounded to the west by -the Hadriatic, and he was far from possessing the whole -of the Hadriatic coast. Under his reign the power of the -Roman arms and the Roman law were again extended -to the Ocean. The Roman dominion was indeed no -longer spread round the whole shore of the Mediterranean; -the Imperial territories were no longer continuous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">{106}</a></span> -as of old: but, if the Empire was not still, as it had -once been, the only power in the Mediterranean lands, -it had again become beyond all comparison the greatest -power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -Justinian’s -conquests.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Moreover, by the recovery of so large an extent -of Latin-speaking territory, the tendency of the Empire -to change into a Greek or Oriental state was checked -for several centuries. We are here concerned only -with the geographical, not with the political or moral -aspect of the conquests of Justinian. Some of those -conquests, like those of Trajan, were hardly more than -momentary. But the changes which they made for the -time were some of the most remarkable on record, and -the effect of those changes remained, both in history -and geography, long after their immediate results were -again undone.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>Settlement of the Lombards in Italy.</i></h3> - -<p>The conquests of Justinian hindered the growth of -a national Teutonic kingdom in Italy, such as grew up -in Gaul and Spain, and they practically made the cradle -of the Empire, Rome herself, an outlying dependency -of her great colony by the Bosporos. But the reunion -of all Italy with the Empire lasted only for a moment. -The conquest was only just over when a new set of -Teutonic conquerors appeared in Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pannonian -kingdom of -the Lombards.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were -the <i>Lombards</i>, who, in the great wandering, had made -their way into the ancient Pannonia about the time -that the East Goths passed into Italy. They were thus -settled within the ancient boundaries of the Western -Empire. But the Roman power had now quite passed -away from those regions, and the Lombard kingdom in -Pannonia was practically altogether beyond the Imperial -borders; it had not even that Roman tinge which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">{107}</a></span> -affected the Frankish and Gothic kingdoms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gepidæ.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the -east of the Lombards, in the ancient Dacia, another -Teutonic kingdom had arisen; that of the <i>Gepidæ</i>, a -people seemingly closely akin to the Goths. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Avars.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The process -of wandering had brought the Turanian <i>Avars</i> into -those parts, and their presence seriously affected all later -history and geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Teutonic -powers -on the -Lower -Danube.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With the Gepidæ in Dacia -and the Lombards in Pannonia, there was a chance of -two Teutonic states growing up on the borders of East -and West. These might possibly have played the same -part in the East which the Franks and Goths played in -the West, and they might thus have altogether changed -the later course of history. But the Lombards allied -themselves with the Avars. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Gepidæ -overthrown -by the -Lombards -and Avars. -566.<br /> -The Lombards -pass -into Italy. -567.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In partnership with their -barbarian allies, they overthrew the kingdom of the -Gepidæ, and they themselves passed into Italy. Thus -the growth of Teutonic powers in those regions was -stopped. A new and far more dangerous enemy was -brought into the neighbourhood of the Empire, and -the way was opened for the Slavonic races to play -in some degree the same part in the East which the -Teutons played in the West. But while the East lost -this chance of renovation, for such it would have been, -the Lombard settlement in Italy was the beginning of a -new Teutonic power in that country. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of the -Lombard -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was not a -power which could possibly grow up into a national -Teutonic kingdom of all Italy, as the dominion of the -East-Goths might well have done. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Incomplete -conquest of -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Lombard conquest -of Italy was at no time a complete conquest; part -of the land was won by the Lombards; part was kept -by the Emperors; and the Imperial and Lombard possessions -intersected one another in a way which hindered -the growth of any kind of national unity under either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">{108}</a></span> -power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lombard -duchies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The new settlers founded the great Lombard -kingdom in the North of Italy, which has kept the -Lombard name to this day, and the smaller Lombard -states of <i>Spoleto</i> and <i>Beneventum</i>. But a large part of -Italy still remained to the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Imperial -possessions -in Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Ravenna, the -dwelling-place of the Exarchs, Rome itself, Naples, and -the island city of Venice were all centres of districts -which still acknowledged the Imperial rule. The Emperors -also kept the extreme southern points of both -the peninsulas of Southern Italy, and, for the present, -the three great islands. The Lombard Kings were constantly -threatening Rome and Ravenna. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ravenna -taken by -the Lombards. -c. 753.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Rome never -fell into their hands, but in the middle of the eighth -century Ravenna was taken, and with it the district -specially known as the <i>Exarchate</i> was annexed to the -Lombard dominion. But this greatest extent of the -Lombard power caused its overthrow: for it led to a -chain of events which, as we shall presently see, ended -in transferring not only the Lombard kingdom, but the -Imperial crown of the West to the hands of the Franks.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>Rise of the Saracens.</i></h3> - -<p>But, before we give any account of the revolutions -which took place among the already existing powers of -Western Europe, it will be well to describe the geographical -changes which were caused by the appearance of -absolutely new actors on two sides of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Roman -province -in Spain recovered -by -the Goths. -534-572.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -One -point however may be noticed here, as standing apart -from the general course of events, namely, that the -Roman province in Spain was won gradually back by -the West-Goths. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>616-624.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The inland cities, as Cordova, were -hardly kept forty years, and the whole of the Imperial -possessions in Spain were lost during the reign of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">{109}</a></span> -Heraclius. Thus the great dominion which Justinian -had won back in the West, important as were its historical -results, was itself of very short duration; a large -part of Italy was lost almost as soon as it was won, and -the recovered dominion in Spain did not abide more -than ninety years.</p> - -<p>But meanwhile, in the course of the seventh century, -nations which had hitherto been unknown or -unimportant began to play a great part in history and -greatly to change the face of the map. These new -powers fall under two heads; those who appeared on -the northern and those who appeared on the eastern -frontier of the Empire. The nations who appeared -on the North were, like the early Teutonic invaders -of the Empire, ready to act, if partly as conquerors, -partly also as disciples; those who appeared on -the East were the champions of an utterly different -system in religion and everything else. In short, the -old rivalry of the East and West now takes a distinctly -aggressive form on the part of the East. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars between -Rome and -Persia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As long as -the Sassanid dynasty lasted, Rome and Persia still continued -their old rivalry on nearly equal terms. The -long wars between the two Empires made little difference -in their boundaries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars of -Chosroes -and Heraclius, -603-628.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the last stage of their -warfare Chosroes took Jerusalem and Antioch, and -encamped at Chalkêdôn. Heraclius pressed his eastern -victories beyond the boundaries of the Empire under -Trajan. But even these great campaigns made no -lasting difference in the map, except so far as, by -weakening Rome and Persia alike, they paved the way -for the greatest change of all. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extension -of the -Roman -power on -the Euxine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -More important to -geography was a change which took place at somewhat -earlier time when, during the reign of Justinian, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">{110}</a></span> -Roman power was extended on the Eastern side of the -Euxine in <i>Colchis</i> or <i>Lazica</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Arabian -vassals -of Rome -and Persia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The southern borders of -each Empire were to some extent protected by the -dominion of dependent Arabian kings, the <i>Ghassanides</i> -being vassals of Rome, and the <i>Lachmites</i> to the east of -them being vassals of Persia. But a change came -presently which altogether overthrew the Persian -kingdom, which deprived the Roman Empire of its -Eastern, Egyptian, and African provinces, and which -gave both the Empire and the Teutonic kingdoms of -the West an enemy of a kind altogether different from -any against whom they hitherto had to strive.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rise of the -Saracens.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The cause which wrought such abiding changes was -the rise of the <i>Saracens</i> under Mahomet and his first -followers. A new nation, that of the Arabs, now -became dominant in a large part of the lands which -had been part of the Roman Empire, as well as in -lands far beyond its boundaries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Arabia -united -under -Mahomet, -622-632.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The scattered tribes -of Arabia were first gathered together into a single -power by Mahomet himself, and under his successors -they undertook to spread the Mahometan religion -wherever their swords could carry it. And, with the -Mahometan religion, they carried also the Arabic -language, and what we may call Eastern civilization as -opposed to Western. A strife, in short, now begins -between Aryan and Semitic man. Rome and Persia, -with all their differences, were both of them Aryan -powers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of the -Saracens.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The most amazing thing is the extraordinary -speed with which the Saracens pressed their conquests -at the expense of both Rome and Persia, forming a -marked contrast to the slow advance both of Roman conquest -and of Teutonic settlement. In the course of less -than eighty years, the Mahometan conquerors formed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">{111}</a></span> -a dominion greater than that of Rome, and, for a short -time, the will of the Caliph of the Prophet was obeyed -from the Ocean to lands beyond the Indus. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -the Eastern -provinces -of Rome. -632-639.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In a few -campaigns the Empire lost all its possessions beyond -Mount Tauros; that is, it lost one of the three great -divisions of the Empire, that namely in which neither -Greek nor Roman civilization had ever thoroughly -taken root.</p> - -<p>While the Roman Empire was thus dismembered, -the rival power of Persia was not merely dismembered, -but utterly overwhelmed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saracen -conquest of -Persia. -632-651.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Persian nationality was -again, as in the days of the Parthians, held down under -a foreign power, to revive yet again ages later. But the -Saracen power was very far from merely taking the -place of its Parthian and Persian predecessors. The -mission of the followers of Mahomet was a mission of -universal conquest, and that mission they so far carried -out as altogether to overthrow the exclusive dominion -of Rome in her own Mediterranean. Under Justinian, -if the Imperial possession of the Mediterranean coast -was not absolutely continuous, the small exceptions in -Africa, Spain, and Gaul in no way interfered with the -maritime supremacy of the Empire, and Gaul and -Spain, even where they were not Roman, were at least -Christian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saracen -conquest of -Africa. -647-711.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But now a gradual advance of sixty-four -years annexed the Roman dominions in Africa to -the Mahometan dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Spain. -711-714.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thence the Saracens passed -into Spain, and found the West-Gothic kingdom an -easier prey than the Roman provinces. Within three -years after the final conquest of Africa, the whole -peninsula was conquered, save where the Christian still -held out in the inaccessible mountain fastnesses. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saracen -provinces -in Gaul, -713-755.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Saracen power was even carried beyond the Pyrenees<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">{112}</a></span> -into the province of Septimania, the remnant of the -Gaulish dominion of the West-Gothic kings. Narbonne, -Arles, Nîmes, all became for a while Saracen cities.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -Saracen -conquest.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In this way, of the three continents round the -Mediterranean, Rome lost all her possessions in Africa, -while both in Europe and Asia she had now a neighbour -and an enemy of quite another kind from any -which she had had before. The Teutonic conquerors, -if conquerors, had been also disciples; they became -part of the Latin world. The Persian, though his -rivalry was religious as well as political, was still -merely a rival, fighting along a single line of frontier. -But every province that was conquered by the Saracens -was utterly lopped away; it became the possession of -men altogether alien and hostile in race, language, -manners, and religion. A large part of the Roman -world passed from Aryan and Christian to Semitic and -Mahometan dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Different -fates of the -Eastern, -Latin, and -Greek -provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the essential differences -among the three main parts of the Empire now showed -themselves very clearly. The Eastern provinces, where -either Roman or Greek life was always an exotic, fell -away at the first touch. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>647-709.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Africa, as being so greatly -Romanized, held out for sixty years. The provinces -of Asia Minor, now thoroughly Greek, were often -ravaged, but never conquered. Spain and Septimania -were far more easily conquered than Africa—a sign -perhaps that the West-Gothic rule was still felt as -foreign by the Roman inhabitants.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatest -extent of -Saracen -provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>With the conquest of Spain the undivided Saracenic -Empire, the dominion of the single Caliph, reached its -greatest extent in the three continents. Detached conquests -in Europe were made long after, but on the -whole the Saracen power went back. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>750.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Forty years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">{113}</a></span> -later they lost <i>Sind</i>, their furthest possession to the East. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separation -of Spain. -755.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Five years later Spain became the seat of a rival dynasty, -which after a while grew into a rival Caliphate. In the -same year the Saracen dominion for the first time went -back in Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Battle of -Tours. -732.<br /> -Frankish -conquest of -Septimania. -755.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The battle of Tours answers to the -repulse of Attila at Châlons; it did not make changes, -but hindered them; but before long the one province -which the Saracens held beyond the Pyrenees, that of -<i>Septimania</i> or <i>Gothia</i>, was won from them by the -Franks.</p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>Settlements of the Slavonic Nations.</i></h3> - -<p>The movements of the sixth century began to bring -into notice a branch of the Aryan family of nations -which was to play an important part in the affairs both -of the East and of the West. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Movements -of the -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These nations were the -<i>Slaves</i>. It is needless for our purpose to attempt to -trace their earlier history; but the movements of the -<i>Avars</i> in the sixth century seem to have had much the -same effect upon the Slaves which the movements of the -Huns in the fourth century had upon the Teutons. The -inroads of the Avars had, as we have seen, checked the -growth of Teutonic powers on the Lower Danube, and -had led to the Lombard settlement in Italy. But the -Avars only formed the vanguard of a number of Turanian -nations, some at least of them Turkish, which were -now pressing westward. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -the Avars.<br /> -Magyars, -&c.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Avars formed a great kingdom -in the lands north of the Danube; to the east of -these, along the northern coasts of the Euxine, bordering -on the outlying possessions and allies of the Empire -in those regions, lay <i>Magyars</i>, <i>Patzinaks</i>, and the -greater dominion of the <i>Chazars</i>. All these play a part -in Byzantine history; and the Avars were in the seventh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">{114}</a></span> -century the most dangerous invaders and ravagers of -the Roman territory. But south of the Danube they -appeared mainly as ravagers; geography knows them -only in their settled kingdom to the north of that river. -Even that kingdom lasted no very great time; the real -importance of all these migrations consists in the effect -which they had on the great Aryan race which now -begins to take its part in history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>North-western -and South-western -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Slaves seem to -have been driven by the Turanian incursions in two -directions; to the North-west and to the South-west. -The North-western division gave rise to more than one -European state, and their relations with Germany form -an important part of the history of the Western Empire. -These North-western Slaves do not become of importance -till a little later. But the South-western division -plays a great part in the history of the sixth and seventh -centuries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Analogy -between -Teutons -and Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Their position with regard to the Eastern -Empire is a kind of shadow of the position held by the -Teutonic nations with regard to the Western Empire. -The Slaves play in the East, though less thoroughly -and less brilliantly, the same part, half conquerors, -half disciples, which the Teutons played in the West. -During the sixth century they appear only as ravagers; -in the seventh they appear as settlers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slavonic -settlements -under -Heraclius. -c. 620.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There seems no -doubt that Heraclius encouraged Slavonic settlements -south of the Danube, doubtless with a view to defence -against the more dangerous Avars. Much like the Teutonic -settlers in the West, the Slaves came in at first as -colonists under Imperial authority, and presently became -practically independent. A number of Slavonic states -thus arose in the lands north and east of the Hadriatic, -as <i>Servia</i>, <i>Chrobatia</i> or <i>Croatia</i>, <i>Carinthia</i>, of which the -first two are historically connected with the Eastern,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">{115}</a></span> -and the third with the Western Empire. <i>Istria</i> and -<i>Dalmatia</i> now became Slavonic, with the exception of -the maritime cities, which, among many vicissitudes, -clave to the Empire. And even among them considerable -revolutions took place. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Destruction -of -Salona, -639.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus <i>Salona</i> was destroyed, -and out of Diocletian’s palace in its neighbourhood -arose the new city of <i>Spalato</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -Spalato -and Ragusa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Dalmatian -<i>Epidauros</i> was also destroyed, and <i>Ragusa</i> took its -place. In many of these inroads Slaves and Avars were -mixed up together; but the lasting settlements were -all Slavonic. And the state of things which thus began -has been lasting; the north-eastern coast of the Hadriatic -is still a Slavonic land with an Italian fringe.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Displacement -of the -Illyrians.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In these migrations the Slaves displaced whatever -remnants were left of the old Illyrian race in the lands -near the Danube. They have themselves to some extent -taken the Illyrian name, a change which has sometimes -led to confusion. But at the time the movement went -much further south than this. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -Slavonic -settlement.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Slaves pressed on into -a large part of Macedonia and Greece, and, during the -seventh and eighth centuries, the whole of those countries, -except the fortified cities and a fringe along the -coast, were practically cut off from the Empire. The name -of <i>Slavinia</i> reached from the Danube to Peloponnêsos, -leaving to the Empire only islands and detached points -of coast from Venice round to Thessalonica. Their -settlements in these regions gave a new meaning to an -ancient name, and the word <i>Macedonian</i> now began to -mean <i>Slavonic</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Albanians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And it must have been at this time -that the Illyrians, the <i>Skipetar</i> or <i>Albanians</i>, pressed -southward and formed those colonies in Greece, some of -which still keep the Albanian language, while the Slavonic -language has vanished from those lands for ages.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">{116}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Nature of -Slavonic -settlement -in Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Slavonic occupation of Greece is a fact which must -neither be forgotten nor exaggerated. It certainly did -not amount to an extirpation of the Greek nation; but -it certainly did amount to an occupation of a large part -of the country, which was Hellenized afresh from those -cities and districts which remained Greek or Roman. -While these changes were going on in the Hadriatic -and Ægæan lands, another immigration later in the -seventh century took place in the lands south of the -lower Danube, and drove back the Imperial frontier -to Haimos. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlement -of the Bulgarians, -c. 679.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was the incursion of the <i>Bulgarians</i>, -another Turanian people, but one whose history has -been different from that of most of the Turanian immigrants. -By mixture with Slavonic subjects and neighbours -they became practically Slavonic, and they still -remain a people speaking a Slavonic language. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Eastern -Empire -cut short in -its own -peninsula.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus -the Empire, though it still kept its possessions in -Italy with the great Mediterranean islands, though its -hold on Western Africa lasted on into the eighth -century, though it still kept outlying possessions on -the northern and eastern coasts of the Euxine, was -cut short in that great peninsula which seems made -to be the immediate possession of the New Rome.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Moral influence -of -Constantinople.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But, exactly as happened in the West, the loss of -political dominion carried with it the growth of moral -dominion. The nations which pressed into these provinces -gradually accepted Christianity in its Eastern -form, and they have always looked up to the New Rome -with a feeling the same in kind, but less strong in degree, -as that with which the West has looked up to the -Old Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Eastern -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, at the beginning of the eighth century, -though the Imperial power still held posts here and -there from the pillars of Hêraklês to the Kimmerian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">{117}</a></span> -Bosporos, Saracens on the one side and Slaves on the -other had cut short the continuous Roman dominion to -a comparatively narrow space. The unbroken possessions -of Cæsar were now confined to Thrace and that -solid peninsula of Asia Minor which the Saracens constantly -ravaged, but never conquered. Mountains had -taken place of rivers as the great boundaries of the Empire: -instead of the Danube and the Euphrates, the -Roman Terminus had fallen back to Haimos and Tauros.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>The Transfer of the Western Empire to the Franks.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the Franks.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile we must go back to the West, and trace -the growth of the great power which was there growing -up, a power which, while the elder Empire was thus -cut short in the East, was in the end to supplant it -in the West by the creation of a rival Empire. For -a while the <i>Franks</i> and the Empire had only occasional -dealings with each other. Next to Britain, which -had altogether ceased to be part of the Roman world, -the part of the Western Empire which was least affected -by the re-awakening of the Roman power in the East -was the former province of Transalpine Gaul. The -power of the Franks was fast spreading, both in their old -home in Germany and in their new home in Gaul. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Frankish -conquest of -the Alemanni, -496;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -victory of Chlodwig over the <i>Alemanni</i> made the Franks -the leading people of Germany. The two German -powers which had so long been the chief enemies of -the Roman power along the Rhine were now united. -Throughout the sixth century the German dominion of -the Franks was growing. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of the Thuringians, -c. -530;<br /> -of Bavaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Frankish supremacy was -extended over <i>Thuringia</i>, and later in the century over -<i>Bavaria</i>. The Bavaria of this age, it must be remembered,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">{118}</a></span> -has a much wider extent than the name has in -modern geography, reaching to the northern borders of -Italy. The Bavarians seem to have been themselves -but recent settlers in the land between the Alps and the -Danube; but their immigration and their reduction -under Frankish supremacy made the lands immediately -south of the Danube thoroughly Teutonic, as the earlier -Frankish conquests had done by the lands immediately -west of the Rhine. Long before this time, the Franks -had greatly extended their dominions in Gaul also. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Aquitaine -[507-511] -and -Burgundy. -532-534.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the later years of Chlodwig the greater part of -<i>Aquitaine</i> was won from the West-Goths. Further -conquests at their expense were afterwards made, and -about the same time Burgundy came under Frankish -supremacy.</p> - -<p>The Franks now held, either in possession or dependence, -the whole oceanic coast of Gaul; but they -were still shut out from the Mediterranean. The West-Goths -still kept the land from the Pyrenees to the Rhone, -the land of <i>Septimania</i> or <i>Gothia</i>, to which the last name -clave as being now the only Gothic part of Gaul. The -land which was specially <i>Provincia</i>, the first Roman possession -in Transalpine Gaul, the coast from the Rhone to -the Alps, formed part of the East-Gothic dominions of -Theodoric. An invasion of Italy during the long wars -between the Goths and Romans failed to establish a -Frankish dominion on the Italian side of the Alps. -But as the Franks, by their conquest of Burgundy, were -now neighbours of Italy, it led to a further enlargement -of their Gaulish dominions, and to their first acquisition -of a Mediterranean sea-board. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cession of -Provence. -536.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was now that Massalia, -Arelate, and the rest of the Province were, by an -Imperial grant, one of the last exercises of Imperial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">{119}</a></span> -power in those regions, added to the kingdom of the -Franks. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Frankish -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the time that the Roman reconquest of -Italy was completed, the Frankish dominion, united for -a moment under a single head, took in the whole of -Gaul, except the small remaining West-Gothic territory, -together with central Germany and a supremacy over -the Southern German lands. To the north lay the still -independent tribes of the Low-Dutch stock, Frisian and -Saxon.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -the Franks.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>As the Frankish dominion plays so great a part in -European history and geography, a part in truth second -only to that played by the Roman dominion, it will -be needful to consider the historical position of the -Franks. Their dominion was that of a German people -who had made themselves dominant alike in Germany -and in Gaul. But it was only in a small part of -the Frankish territory that the Frankish people had -actually settled. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The cession -of Gaulish -possessions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was only in northern Gaul and -central Germany, in the countries to which they have -permanently given their name, that the Franks can be -looked on as really occupying the land. In their -German territory they of course remained German; in -northern Gaul their position answered to that of the -other Teutonic nations which had formed settlements -within the Empire. They were a dominant Teutonic -race in a Roman land. Gradually they adopted the -speech of the conquered, while the conquered in -the end adopted the name of the conquerors. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slow fusion -of Franks -and Romans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -the fusion of German and Roman was slower in the -Frankish part of Gaul than elsewhere, doubtless because -elsewhere the Teutonic settlements were cut off -from their older Teutonic homes, while the Franks -in Gaul had their older Teutonic home as a background.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">{120}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>German -and Gaulish -dependencies -of the -Franks.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Beyond the bounds of these more strictly -Frankish lands, German and Gaulish, the dominion of -the Franks was at most a political supremacy, and in -no sense a national settlement. In Germany Bavaria -was ruled by its vassal princes; in Gaul south of the -Loire the Frank was at most an external ruler. -Aquitaine had to be practically conquered over and -over again, and new dynasties of native princes were -constantly rising up. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ethnology -of Southern -Gaul.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Teutonic element in these -lands, an element much slighter than the Teutonic -element in Northern Gaul, is not Frankish, but Gothic -and Burgundian. The native Romance speech of -those lands is wholly different from the Romance -speech of Northern Gaul. In short, there was really -nothing in common between the two great parts of -Gaul, the lands south and the lands north of the Loire, -except their union, first under Roman and then under -Frankish dominion. And in Armorica the old Celtic -population, strengthened by the settlers from Britain, -formed another and a yet more distinct element.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Divisions of -the Frankish -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus there were within the Frankish dominions -wide national diversities, containing the germs of future -divisions. It needed a strong hand even to keep the -Teutonic and the Latin <i>Francia</i> together, much less to -keep together all the dependent lands, German and -Gaulish. During the ages while the Empire was being -cut short by Lombards, Goths, Slaves, and Saracens, -the Frankish dominion was never in the like sort cut -short by foreign settlements; but its whole history -under the Merowingian dynasty is a history of divisions -and reunions. The tendencies to division which were -inherent in the condition of the country were strengthened -by endless partitions among the members of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">{121}</a></span> -reigning house. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><i>Austria</i> -and -<i>Neustria</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Speaking roughly, it may be said -that the more strictly Frankish territory showed a -tendency to divide itself into two parts, the Eastern or -Teutonic land, <i>Austria</i> or <i>Austrasia</i>, and <i>Neustria</i>, the -Western or Romance land. These were severally the -germs which grew into the kingdoms of Germany and -France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -name -<i>Francia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As for the mere name of <i>Francia</i>, like other -names of the kind, it shifted its geographical use -according to the wanderings of the people from whom -it was derived. After many such changes of meaning, -it gradually settled down as the name for those parts of -Germany and Gaul where it still abides. There are the -Teutonic or Austrian <i>Francia</i>, part of which still keeps -the name of <i>Franken</i> or <i>Franconia</i>, and the Romance -or Neustrian <i>Francia</i>, which by various annexations -has grown into modern <i>France</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Karlings. -Dukes, -687-752; -Kings, -752-987.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>At last, after endless divisions, reconquests, and reunions -of the different parts of the Frankish territory, the -whole Frankish dominion was again, in the second half -of the eighth century, joined together under the Austrasian, -the purely German, house of the <i>Karlings</i>. The -Dukes and Kings of that house consolidated and extended -the Frankish dominion in every direction. Under -Pippin and Charles the Great, the power of the ruling -race was more firmly established over the dependent -states, such as Bavaria and Aquitaine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pippin -conquers -Septimania. -752.<br /> -Conquests -of Charles -the Great. -768-814.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Pippin -the conquest of the Saracen province of Septimania -extended the Frankish power over the whole of Gaul; -and under Charles the Great, the Frankish dominion -was extended by a series of conquests in every direction. -Of these, his Italian conquests were rather -the winning of a new crown for the Frankish king -than the extension of the Frankish kingdom. But the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">{122}</a></span> -conquest of <i>Saxony</i> at the one end and of the <i>Spanish -March</i> at the other, as well as the overthrow of the -Pannonian kingdom of the Avars, were in the strictest -sense extensions of the Frankish dominions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>German -character of -the Frankish -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Frankish power which now plays so great a part in the -world was a power essentially German. The Franks -and their kings, the kings who reigned from the Elbe -to the Ebro, were German in blood, speech, and -feeling; but they bore rule over other lands, German, -Latin, and Celtic, in many various degrees of incorporation -and subjection.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The three -great powers -of the -eighth century; -Romans, -Franks, -Saracens.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus the effect of the Saracen conquests was to leave -in Europe one purely European power, namely the -kingdom of the Franks, one power both European and -Asiatic, namely the Roman Empire with its seat at -Constantinople, and one power at once Asiatic, African, -and European, namely the Saracen Caliphate. Through -the eighth century these three are the great powers of -the world, to which the other nations of Europe and -Asia form, as far as we are concerned, a mere background. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of the -Caliphate.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the Caliphate, as a Semitic and Mahometan -power, could be European only in a geographical sense. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Saracen -dominion -in Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Even after the establishment of the independent Saracen -dominion in Spain, the new power still remained an -exotic. A great country of Western Europe was no -longer ruled from Damascus or Bagdad; but the emirate, -afterwards Caliphate, of Cordova, and the kingdoms -into which it afterwards broke up, still remained -only geographically European. They were portions of -Asia—in after times rather of Africa—thrusting themselves -into Europe, like the Spanish dominion of Carthage -in earlier times. The two great Christian powers, -the two great really European powers, are the Roman and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">{123}</a></span> -the Frankish. We now come to the process which for -a while caused the Roman and Frankish names to have -the same meaning within a large part of Europe, and -by which the two seats of Roman dominion were again -parted asunder, never to be reunited.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations of -the Franks -and the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The way by which the Roman and Frankish -powers came to affect one another was through the -affairs of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Imperial -possessions -in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The steps by which the Imperial power -was, during the eighth century, weakened step by step -in the territories which still remained to the Empire in -central Italy are, either from an ecclesiastical or from -a strictly historical point of view, of surpassing interest. -But, as long as the authority of the Emperor was not -openly thrown off, no change was made on the map. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lombard -conquest -of the -Exarchate.<br /> -Overthrow -of the -Lombards -by Charles. -774.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The events of those times which did make a change on -the map were, first the conquest of the Exarchate by -the Lombards, and secondly, the overthrow of the -Lombard kingdom itself by the Frank king Charles -the Great. The Frankish power was thus at last -established on the Italian side of the Alps, but it must -be remarked that the new conquest was not incorporated -with the Frankish dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lombardy -a separate -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Charles held -his Italian dominion as a separate dominion, and called -himself King of the Franks and Lombards. He also -bore the title of Patrician of the Romans; but, -though the assumption of that title was of great -political significance, it did not affect geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Title of -Patrician.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -title of Patrician of itself implied a commission from -the Emperor, and, though it was bestowed by the -Bishop and people of Rome without the Imperial -consent, the very choice of the title showed that -the Imperial authority was not formally thrown off. -Charles, as Patrician, was virtually sovereign of Rome,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">{124}</a></span> -and his acquisition of the patriciate practically extended -his dominion from the Ocean to the frontiers of -Beneventum. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Nominal -authority -of the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, down to his Imperial coronation -in the last week of the eighth century, the Emperor -who reigned in the New Rome was still the nominal -sovereign of the old. The event of the year 800, -with all its weighty significance, did not practically -either extend the territories of Charles or increase -his powers.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of -the Imperial -coronation -of -Charles. -800.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Still the Imperial coronation of Charles is one of -the great landmarks both of history and of historical -geography. The whole political system of Europe was -changed when the Old Rome cast off its formal allegiance -to the New, and chose the King of the Franks -and Lombards to be Emperor of the Romans. Though -the powers of Charles were not increased nor his dominions -extended, he held everything by a new title. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final division -of the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Roman Empire was divided, never to be joined together -again. But its Western half now took in, not only -the greatest of its lost provinces, but vast regions which -had never formed part of the Empire in the days of -Trajan himself. Again, the distinctive character of the -older Roman Empire had been the absence of nationality. -The whole civilized world had become Rome, -and all its free inhabitants had become Romans. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growing -nationality -of the two -Empires, -German -and Greek.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -from this time each of the two divisions of the Empire -begins to assume something like a national character. -East and West alike remained Roman in name and in -political traditions. The Old Rome was the nominal -centre of one; the New Rome was both the nominal -and the real centre of the other. But there was a -sense in which both alike ceased from this time to be -Roman. The Western Empire has passed to a German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">{125}</a></span> -king, and later changes tended to make his Empire -more and more German. The Eastern Empire meanwhile, -by the successive loss of the Eastern provinces, of -Latin Africa, and of Latin Italy, became nearly conterminous -with those parts of Europe and Asia where -the Greek speech and Greek civilization prevailed. -From one point of view, both Empires are still Roman; -from another point of view, one is fast becoming -German, the other is fast becoming Greek. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivalry of -the two -Empires.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And the -two powers into which the old Roman Empire is thus -split are in the strictest sense two Empires. They are -no longer mere divisions of an Empire which has been -found to be too great for the rule of one man. The -Emperors of the East and West are no longer Imperial -colleagues dividing the administration of a single Empire -between them. They are now rival potentates, each -claiming to be exclusively the one true Roman Emperor, -the one true representative of the common predecessors -of both in the days when the Empire was still undivided.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The two -Caliphates.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It is further to be noted that the same kind of -change which now happened to the Christian Empire, -had happened earlier in the century to the Mahometan -Empire. The establishment of a rival dynasty -at Cordova, even though the assumption of the actual -title of Caliph did not follow at once, was exactly -analogous to the establishment of a rival Empire -in the Old Rome. The Mediterranean world has now -four great powers, the two rival Christian Empires, -and the two rival Mahometan Caliphates. Among -these, it naturally follows that each is hostile to its -neighbour of the opposite religion, and friendly to -its neighbour’s rival. The Western Emperor is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">{126}</a></span> -enemy of the Western Caliph, the friend of the Eastern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivalry -of the Empires -and -Caliphates.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Eastern Emperor is the enemy of the Eastern -Caliph, the friend of the Western. Thus the four -great powers stood at the beginning of the ninth -century. And it was out of the dismemberments of -the two great Christian and the great Mahometan -powers that the later states, Christian and Mahometan, -of the Mediterranean world took their rise.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Carolingian -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It is a point of geographical as well as of historical -importance that Charles the Great, after he was crowned -Emperor, caused all those who had been hitherto bound -by allegiance to him as King of the Franks to swear -allegiance to him afresh as Roman Emperor. This marks -that all his dominions, Frankish, Lombard, and strictly -Roman, are to be looked on as forming part of the -Western Empire. Thus the Western Empire now took in -all those German lands which the old Roman Emperors -never could conquer. Germany became part of the -Roman Empire, not by Rome conquering Germany, but -by Rome choosing the German king as her Emperor. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Contrast of -its boundaries -with -those of the -elder Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The boundaries of the Empire thus became different -from what they had ever been before. Of the old -provinces of the Western Empire, Britain, Africa, and -all Spain save one corner, remained foreign to the new -Roman Empire of the Franks. But, on the other hand, -the Empire now took in all the lands in Germany and -beyond Germany over which the Frankish power now -reached, but which had never formed part of the elder -Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Saxony. -772-804.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The long wars of Charles with the Saxons led to -their final conquest, to the incorporation of <i>Saxony</i> with -the Frankish kingdom, and, after the Imperial coronation -of the Frankish king, to its incorporation with the -Western Empire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">{127}</a></span></p> - -<p>The conquests of Charles had thus, among their -other results, welded Germany into a single whole. For -though the Franks had long been the greatest power in -Germany, yet Germany could not be said to form a -single whole as long as the Saxons, the greatest people -of Northern Germany, remained independent. The -conquest of Saxony brought the Frankish power for -the first time in contact with the <i>Danes</i> and the other -people of <i>Scandinavia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Boundary -of the -Eider.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dominions of Charles took -in what was then called Saxony beyond the Elbe, that -is the modern Holstein, and the <i>Eider</i> was fixed as the -northern boundary of the Empire. More than one -Danish king did homage to Charles and to some of -the Emperors after him; but Denmark was never incorporated -with the Empire or even made permanently -dependent. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slavonic -allies and -neighbours.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the east, the immediate dominions of -Charles stretched but a little way beyond the Elbe; but -here the Western Empire came in contact, as the Eastern -had done at an earlier time and by a different process, -with the widely spread nations of the Slavonic race. -The same movements which had driven one branch of -that race to the south-west had driven another branch -to the north-west, and the wars of Charles in those -regions gave his Empire a fringe of Slavonic allies and -dependents along both sides of the Elbe, forming a -barrier between the immediate dominions of the Empire -and the independent Slaves to the east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Overthrow -of the Avar -kingdom. -796.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the -south Charles overthrew the kingdom of the <i>Avars</i>; he -thus extended his dominions on the side of south-eastern -Germany, and here he came in contact with the southern -branch of the Slaves, a portion of whom, in <i>Carinthia</i> -and the neighbouring lands, became subjects of his -Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Spanish -March. -778.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Spain he acquired the north-eastern corner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">{128}</a></span> -as far as the Ebro, forming the Spanish March, afterwards -the county of Barcelona.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Divisions -of the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus the new Western Empire took in all Gaul, all -that was then Germany, the greater part of Italy, and -a small part of Spain.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> It thus took in both Teutonic -and Romance lands, and contained in it the germs of -the chief nations of modern Europe. It was a step -towards their formation when Charles, following the -example both of earlier Roman Emperors and of earlier -Frankish kings, planned several divisions of his dominions -among his sons. Owing to the deaths of all his -sons but one, none of these divisions took effect. And -it should be noticed that as yet none of these schemes of -division agreed with any great natural or national -boundary. They did not as yet foreshadow the division -which afterwards took place, and out of which -the chief states of Western Europe grew. In two -cases only was anything like a national kingdom -thought of. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Aquitaine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Charles’s son Lewis reigned under him -as king in <i>Aquitaine</i>, a kingdom which took in all -Southern Gaul and the Spanish March, answering -pretty nearly to the lands of the Provençal tongue or -tongue of <i>Oc</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Death of -Charles. -814.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And when Charles died, and was succeeded -in the Empire by Lewis, Charles’s grandson -Bernard still went on reigning under his uncle as King -of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>Kingdom of Italy</i> must be understood -as taking in the Italian mainland, except the lands in -the south which were held by the dependent princes of -Beneventum and by the rival Emperors of the East. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -name -<i>Francia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During this period <i>Francia</i> commonly means the strictly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">{129}</a></span> -Frankish kingdoms, Gaulish and German. The words -<i>Gallia</i> and <i>Germania</i> are used in a strictly geographical -sense.</p> - - -<h3>§ 6. <i>Northern Europe.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Scandinavians -and -English.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile other nations were beginning to show -themselves in those parts of Europe which lay beyond -the Empire. In north-western Europe two branches -of the Teutonic race were fast growing into importance; -the one in lands which had never formed part of the -Empire, the other in a land which had been part of it, -but which had been so utterly severed from it as to be -all one as if it had never belonged to it. These were -the <i>Scandinavian</i> nations in the two great peninsulas of -Northern Europe, and the <i>English</i> in the Isle of Britain. -The history of these two races is closely connected, and -it has an important bearing on the history of Europe in -general.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Stages of -the English -conquest of -Britain.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In Britain itself the progress of the English arms -had been gradual. Sometimes conquests from the -Britons were made with great speed: sometimes the -English advance was checked by successes on the British -side, by mere inaction, or by wars between the -different English kingdoms. The fluctuations of victory, -and consequently of boundaries, between the English -kingdoms were quite as marked as the warfare between -the English and the Britons. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -English -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among the many Teutonic -settlements in Britain, small and great, seven kingdoms -stand out as of special importance, and three -of these, <i>Wessex</i>, <i>Mercia</i>, and <i>Northumberland</i>, again -stand out as candidates for a general supremacy over -the whole English name. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Britain at -the end of -the eighth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the end of the eighth -century a large part of Britain remained, as it still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">{130}</a></span> -remains, in the hands of the elder Celtic inhabitants; -but the parts which they still kept were now cut off -from each other. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Celtic -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Cornwall</i> or <i>West-Wales</i>, <i>North-Wales</i> -(answering nearly to the modern principality), and <i>Strathclyde</i> -or <i>Cumberland</i> (a much larger district than the -modern county so called) were all the seats of separate, -though fluctuating, British states. Beyond the Forth -lay the independent kingdoms of the <i>Picts</i> and <i>Scots</i>, -which, in the course of the ninth century, became one.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>West-Saxon -supremacy -under -Ecgberht. -802-837.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It was the West-Saxon kingdom to which the supremacy -over all the kingdoms of Britain, Teutonic -and Celtic, came in the end. Ecgberht, its king, had -been a friend and guest of Charles the Great, and he -had most likely been stirred up by his example to do in -his own island what Charles had done on the mainland. -In the course of his reign, West-Wales was completely -conquered; the other English kingdoms, together with -North-Wales, were brought into a greater or less degree -of dependence. But both in North-Wales and also in -Mercia, Northumberland, and East-Anglia, the local -kings went on reigning under the supremacy of the King -of the West-Saxons, who now began sometimes to call -himself <i>King of the English</i>. In the north both Scotland -and Strathclyde remained quite independent.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Scandinavian -nations.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">That part also of the Teutonic race which lay altogether -beyond the bounds of the Empire now begins -to be of importance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Danes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>Danes</i> are heard of as -early as the days of Justinian; but neither they nor -the other Scandinavian nations play any great part -in history before the time of Charles the Great. A -great number of small states gradually settled down -into three great kingdoms, which remain still, though -their boundaries have greatly changed. The boundary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">{131}</a></span> -between Denmark and the Empire was, as we -have seen, fixed at the Eider. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -Denmark -and Norway.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides the peninsula -of Jutland and the islands which still belong to it, -Denmark took in <i>Scania</i> and other lands in the south -of the great peninsula that now forms <i>Sweden</i> and -<i>Norway</i>. Norway, on the other hand, ran much further -inland, and came down much further south than it does -now. These points are of importance, because they -show the causes of the later history of the three -Scandinavian states. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sweden.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Both Denmark and Norway had a -great front to the Ocean, while <i>Swithiod</i> and <i>Gauthiod</i>, -the districts which formed the beginning of the kingdom -of Sweden, had no opening that way, but were altogether -turned towards the Baltic. It thus came about that for -some centuries both Denmark and Norway played a -much greater part in the general affairs of Europe than -Sweden did. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Danish and -Norwegian -settlements.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Denmark was an immediate neighbour -of the Empire, and from both Denmark and Norway -men went out to conquer and settle in various parts -of Britain, Ireland and Gaul, besides colonizing the -more distant and uninhabited lands of <i>Iceland</i> and -<i>Greenland</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pressure of -Swedes to -the East.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, the Swedes pressed eastward -on the Finnish and Slavonic people beyond the Baltic. -In this last way they had a great effect on the history -of the Eastern Empire; but in Western history Sweden -counts for very little till a much later time.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Summary.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>During the period which has been dealt with in -this chapter, taking in the sixth, seventh, and eighth -centuries, we thus see, first of all the reunion of the -greater part of the Roman Empire under Justinian—then -the lopping away of the Eastern and African -provinces by the conquests of the Saracens—then the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">{132}</a></span> -gradual separation of all Italy except the south, ending -in the re-establishment of a separate Western Empire -under Charles the Great. We thus get two great Christian -powers, the Eastern and Western Empires, balanced -by two great Mahometan powers, the Eastern and -Western Caliphates. All the older Teutonic kingdoms -have either vanished or have grown into something -wholly different. The Vandal kingdom of Africa and -the East-Gothic kingdom have wholly vanished. The -West-Gothic kingdom, cut short by Franks on one -side and Saracens on the other, survives only in the -form of the small Christian principalities which still -held their ground in Northern Spain. The Frankish -kingdom, by swallowing up the Gothic and Burgundian -dominions in Gaul, the independent nations of -Germany, the Lombard kingdom, and the more part -of the possessions of the Empire in Italy, has grown -into a new Western Empire. The two Empires, both -still politically Roman, are fast becoming, one German -and the other Greek. Meanwhile, nations beyond -the bounds of the Empire are growing into importance. -The process has begun by which the many -small Teutonic settlements in Britain grew in the end -into the one kingdom of England. The three Scandinavian -nations, Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians or -Northmen, now begin to grow into importance. In -a religious point of view, if Syria, Egypt, Africa, -and the more part of Spain were lost to Christendom, -the loss was in some degree made up by the -conversion to Christianity of the Angles and Saxons -in Britain, of the Old-Saxons in Germany, and of the -other German tribes which at the beginning of the -sixth century had still been heathen. At no time in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">{133}</a></span> -the world’s history did the map undergo greater changes. -This period is the time of real transition from the -older state of things represented by the undivided -Roman Empire to the newer state of things in which -Europe is made up of a great number of independent -states. The modern kingdoms outside the Empire, in -Britain and Scandinavia, were already forming. The -great continental nations of Western Europe had as -yet hardly begun to form. They were to grow out -of the break-up of the Carolingian Empire, the Roman -Empire of the Franks.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">{134}</a></span></p> - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Division of the Frankish Empire.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dissolution -of the -Frankish -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> great dominion of the Franks, the German kingdom -which had so strangely grown into a new Western -Roman Empire, did not last long. In the course of -the ninth century it altogether fell to pieces. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The chief -states of -modern -Europe -spring out -of it.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the -process by which it fell to pieces must be carefully -traced, because it was out of its dismemberment that -the chief states of Western Europe arose. Speaking -roughly, the Carolingian Empire took in Germany, so -far as Germany had yet spread to the East, all Gaul, -a great part of Italy, and a small part of Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>National -kingdoms -not yet -formed.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of -these, it was only Italy, and sometimes Aquitaine, -which showed any approach to the character of a -separate or national kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -<i>Francia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Northern Gaul and -central Germany were still alike <i>Francia</i>; and, though -the Romance speech prevailed in one, and the Teutonic -speech in the other, no national distinction was -drawn between them during the time of Charles the -Great. Among the proposed divisions of his Empire, -none proposed to separate <i>Neustria</i> and <i>Austria</i>, the -Western and the Eastern <i>Francia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separate -being of -Italy and -Aquitaine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Italy did form -a separate kingdom under the superiority of the Emperor; -and so for a while there was an under-kingdom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">{135}</a></span> -of Aquitaine, answering roughly to Gaul south of the -Loire. This is the land of the <i>Provençal</i> tongue, the -<i>tongue of Oc</i>, a tongue which, it must be remembered, -reached to the Ebro. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division -under -Lewis the -Pious.<br /> -First -glimpses -of Modern -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is in the various divisions, -contemplated and actual, among the sons of Lewis the -Pious, the successor of Charles the Great, that we see -the first approaches to a national division between Germany -and Gaul, and the first glimmerings of a state -answering in any way to <i>France</i> in the modern sense.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division of -817.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The earliest among those endless divisions that we -need mention is the division of 817, by which two new -subordinate kingdoms were founded within the Empire. -Lewis and his immediate colleague Lothar kept -in their own hands <i>Francia</i>, German and Gaulish, and -the more part of Burgundy. South-western Gaul, -Aquitaine in the wide sense, with some small parts of -Septimania and Burgundy, formed the portion of one -under-king; South-eastern Germany, Bavaria and -the march-lands beyond it, formed the portion of -another. Italy still remained the portion of a third. -Here we have nothing in the least answering to -modern France. The tendency is rather to leave -the immediate Frankish kingdom, both in Gaul and -Germany, as an undivided whole, and to part off -its dependent lands, German, Gaulish, and Italian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Neustria -and Aquitaine -the -first step to -the creation -of <i>France</i>. -838.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, in a much later division, Lewis granted Neustria -to his son Charles, and in the next year, on the -death of Pippin of Aquitaine, he added his kingdom -to that of Charles. A state was thus formed which -answers roughly to the later kingdom of France, as -it stood before the long series of French encroachments -on the German and Burgundian lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of the -<i>Western -Kingdom</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -kingdom thus formed had no definite name, and it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">{136}</a></span> -answered to no national division. It was indeed mainly -a kingdom of the Romance speech, but it did not -answer to any one of the great divisions of that -speech. It was a kingdom formed by accident, because -Lewis wished to increase the portion of his youngest -son. Still there can be no doubt that we have -here the first beginning of the kingdom of <i>France</i>, -though it was not till after several other stages -that the kingdom thus formed took that name. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division of -Verdun. -843.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -final division of Verdun went a step further in the -direction of the modern map. It left Charles in possession -of a kingdom which still more nearly answered -to France, as France stood before its Burgundian and -German annexations. It also founded a kingdom -which roughly answered to the later <i>Germany</i> before -its great extension to the East at the expense of the -Slavonic nations. And, as the Western kingdom was -formed by the addition of Aquitaine to the Western -<i>Francia</i>, so the Eastern kingdom was formed by the -addition of the Eastern <i>Francia</i> to Bavaria. Lewis of -Bavaria became king of a kingdom which we are -tempted to call the kingdom of <i>Germany</i>. Still it -would as yet be premature to speak of France at -all, or even to speak of Germany, except in the geographical -sense. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdoms -of the Eastern -and -Western -Franks.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The two kingdoms are severally the -kingdoms of the <i>Eastern</i> and of the <i>Western Franks</i>. -But between these two states the policy of the ninth -century instinctively put a barrier. The Emperor -Lothar, besides Italy, kept a long narrow strip of territory -between the dominions of his Eastern and -Western brothers. After him, Italy remained to his -son the Emperor Lewis, while the border lands of Germany -and Gaul passed to the younger Lothar. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of <i>Lotharingia</i>, -Lothringen, -Lorraine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">{137}</a></span> -land, having thus been the dominion of two Lothars, -took the name of <i>Lotharingia</i>, <i>Lothringen</i>, or <i>Lorraine</i>, -a name which part of it has kept to this day. This land, -sometimes attached to the Eastern kingdom, sometimes to -the Western, sometimes divided between the two, sometimes -separated from both, always kept its character of -a border-land. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Western -Kingdom -called -<i>Karolingia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom to the west of it, in like -manner took the name of <i>Karolingia</i>, which, according -to the same analogy, should be <i>Charlaine</i>. It is only -by a caprice of language that the name of Lotharingia -has survived, while that of Karolingia has died out.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Burgundy, -or the -Middle -Kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile, in South-eastern Gaul, between the -Rhone and the Alps, another kingdom arose, namely -the kingdom of <i>Burgundy</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union -under -Charles the -Fat. -884.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Charles the Third, -commonly known as the Fat, all the Frankish dominions, -except Burgundy, were again united for a moment. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division on -his deposition. -887.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On his deposition they split asunder again. We -now have four distinct kingdoms, those of the <i>Eastern</i> -and <i>Western Franks</i>, the forerunners of Germany and -France, the kingdom of <i>Italy</i>, and <i>Burgundy</i>, sometimes -forming one kingdom and sometimes two. <i>Lotharingia</i> -remained a border-land between the Eastern and Western -kingdoms, attached sometimes to one, sometimes to -another. Out of these elements arose the great kingdoms -and nations of Western Europe. The four can -hardly be better described than they are by the Old-English -Chronicler: ‘Arnulf then dwelled in the land -to the East of Rhine; and Rudolf took to the middle -kingdom; and Oda to the West deal; and Berengar -and Guy to the Lombards’ land, and to the lands on -that side of the mountain.’ But the geography of all -the four kingdoms which now arose must be described -at somewhat greater length.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">{138}</a></span></p> - -<p class="pb2">It must be borne in mind that all these divisions -of the great Frankish dominion were, in theory, like -the ancient divisions of the Empire, a mere parcelling -out of a common possession among several royal colleagues. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>No formal -titles or -names of -the Frankish -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Kings had no special titles, and their -dominions had no special names recognized in formal -use. Every king who ruled over any part of the -ancient <i>Francia</i> was a King of the Franks, just as -much as all among the many rulers of the Roman -Empire in the days of Diocletian and Constantine were -equally Roman Augusti or Cæsars. As the kings and -their kingdoms had no formal titles specially set apart -for them, the writers of the time had to describe them -as they might.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Various -names of -the Eastern -Kingdom -or <i>Germany</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Eastern part of the Frankish dominions, -the lot of Lewis the German and his successors, -is thus called the <i>Eastern Kingdom</i>, the <i>Teutonic Kingdom</i>. -Its king is the <i>King of the East-Franks</i>, sometimes -simply the King of the <i>Eastern men</i>, sometimes -the <i>King of Germany</i>. This last name, convenient in use, -was inaccurate as a formal title, for the <i>Regnum Teutonicum</i> -lay geographically partly in Germany, partly -in Gaul.<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> To the men of the Western kingdom the -Eastern king sometimes appeared as the <i>King beyond the -Rhine</i>. The title of <i>King of Germany</i> is often found in -the ninth century as a description, but it was not a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">{139}</a></span> -formal title. The Eastern king, like other kings, for the -most part simply calls himself <i>Rex</i>, till the time came -when his rank as King of Germany or of the East-Franks -became simply a step towards the higher title of -Emperor of the Romans. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Connexion -between -the Eastern -Kingdom -and the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it must be remembered, -that the special connexion between the Roman Empire -and the German kingdom did not begin at once -on the division of 887. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Imperial -coronation -of Arnulf. -896.<br /> -Homage of -Odo to -Arnulf. -888.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Arnulf indeed, the first -German King after the division, made his way to Rome -and was crowned Emperor; and it marks the position -of the Eastern kingdom as the chief among the -kingdoms of the Franks, that the West-Frankish King -Odo did homage to Arnulf before his lord’s Imperial -coronation, when he was still simple German king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final union -of Germany -with the -Empire -under Otto -the Great. -963.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The rule that whoever was chosen King of Germany -had a right, without further election, to the -kingdom of Italy and to the Roman Empire, began -only with the coronation of Otto the Great. Up to -that time, the German king is simply one of the kings -of the Franks, though it is plain that he held the -highest place among them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the German -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">This Eastern or German kingdom, as it came out -of the division of 887, had, from north to south, nearly -the same extent as the Germany of later times. It -stretched from the Alps to the Eider. Its southern -boundaries were somewhat fluctuating. <i>Verona</i> and -<i>Aquileia</i> are sometimes counted as a German march, -and the boundary between Germany and Burgundy, -crossing the modern Switzerland, often changed. To -the North-east the kingdom hardly stretched beyond -the Elbe, except in the small Saxon land between the -Elbe and the Eider. The great extension of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">{140}</a></span> -German power over the Slavonic lands beyond the -Elbe had hardly yet begun. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Austrian -and Carinthian -marks.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the South-east lay -the two border-lands or <i>marks</i>; the <i>Eastern Mark</i>, -which grew into the later duchy of <i>Oesterreich</i> or the -modern <i>Austria</i>, and to the south of it the mark of -<i>Kärnthen</i> or <i>Carinthia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The great -duchies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the main part of the -kingdom consisted of the great duchies of <i>Saxony</i>, -<i>Eastern Francia</i>, <i>Alemannia</i>, and <i>Bavaria</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saxony.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of these -the two names of Saxony and Bavaria must be carefully -marked as having widely different meanings -from those which they bear on the modern map. -Ancient Saxony lies, speaking roughly, between the -Eider, the Elbe, and the Rhine, though it never actually -touches the last-named river. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Eastern or -Teutonic -<i>Francia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south -of Saxony lies the Eastern <i>Francia</i>, the centre and -kernel of the German kingdom. The Main and the -Neckar both join the Rhine within its borders. To -the south of Francia lie <i>Alemannia</i> and <i>Bavaria</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Alemannia -and Bavaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last, it must be remembered, borders on Italy, -with Bötzen for its frontier town. Alemannia is -the land in which both the Rhine and the Danube -take their source; it stretches on both sides of -the <i>Bodensee</i> or Lake of Constanz, with the Rætian -Alps as its southern boundary. For several ages to -come, there is no distinction, national or even provincial, -between the lands north and south of the -Bodensee.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lotharingia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">These lands make up the undoubted Eastern or -German territory. To the west of this lies the border -land of <i>Lotharingia</i>, which has a history of its own. -For the first century after the division of 887, the possession -of Lotharingia fluctuated several times between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">{141}</a></span> -the Eastern and the Western kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>987.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After the -change of dynasty in the Western kingdom, Lotharingia -became definitely and undoubtedly German in allegiance, -though it always kept up something of a distinct -being, and its language was partly German and partly -Romance. Lotharingia took in the two duchies of the -<i>Ripuarian Lotharingia</i> and <i>Lotharingia on the Mosel</i>. -The former contains a large part of the modern Belgium -and the neighbouring lands on the Rhine, including -the royal city of Aachen. Lotharingia on the Mosel -answers roughly to the later duchy of that name, -though its extent to the East is considerably larger.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Western -Kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The part of the Frankish dominions to which the -Frankish name has stuck most lastingly has been the -Western kingdom or <i>Karolingia</i>, which gradually got -the special name of <i>France</i>. This came about through -the events of the ninth and tenth centuries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its extent.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Western kingdom, as it was formed under Charles the -Bald and as it remained after the division of 887, -nominally took in a great part of modern France, -namely all west of the Rhone and Saône. It took in -nothing to the east of those rivers, and Lotharingia, as -we have seen, was a border land which at last settled -down as part of the Eastern kingdom. Thus the -extent of the old <i>Karolingia</i> to the east was very -much smaller than the extent of modern France. But, -on the other hand, the Western kingdom took in -lands at three points which are not part of modern -France. These are the march or county of <i>Flanders</i> -in the north, the greater part of which forms part of -the modern kingdom of Belgium; the <i>Spanish March</i>, or -county of <i>Barcelona</i>, which is now part of Spain; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">{142}</a></span> -the <i>Norman Islands</i> which are now held by the sovereign -of England. And it is hardly needful to say that, -even within these boundaries, the whole land was not in -the hands of the King of the West-Franks. He had only -a supremacy, which was apt to become nearly nominal, -over the vassal princes who held the great -divisions of the kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The great -fiefs.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -South of the Loire the -chief of these vassal states were the duchy of <i>Aquitaine</i>, -a name which now means the land between the Loire -and the Garonne—the duchy of <i>Gascony</i> between the -Garonne and the Pyrenees—the county of <i>Toulouse</i> to -the east of it—the marches of <i>Septimania</i> and <i>Barcelona</i>. -North of the Loire were <i>Britanny</i>, where native -Celtic princes still reigned under a very doubtful -supremacy on the part of the Frankish kings—the -march of <i>Flanders</i> in the north—and the duchy of -<i>Burgundy</i>, the duchy which had Dijon for its capital, -and which must be carefully distinguished from other -duchies and kingdoms of the same name. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Duchy -of France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, -greatest of all, there was the duchy of <i>France</i>, that is -<i>Western</i> or <i>Latin France</i>, <i>Francia Occidentalis</i> or -<i>Latina</i>. Its capital was Paris, and its princes were -called <i>Duces Francorum</i>, a title in which the word -<i>Francus</i> is just beginning to change from its older -meaning of <i>Frank</i> to its later meaning of <i>French</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Normandy -cut off from -France. -912.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From this great duchy of France several great fiefs, as -<i>Anjou</i> and <i>Champagne</i>, were gradually cut off, and the -part of France between the Seine and the Epte was -granted to the Scandinavian chief Rolf, which, under -him and his successors, grew into the great duchy of -<i>Normandy</i>. Its capital was Rouen, and this settlement -of the Normans had the effect of cutting off -France and its capital Paris from the sea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">{143}</a></span></p> - -<p class="pb2">The modern French kingdom gradually came into -being during the century after the deposition of -Charles the Fat. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -between -the -Duchy of -the French -at Paris -and the -Karlings -at Laon. -888-987.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During this time the crown of the -Western kingdom passed to and fro more than once -between the Dukes of the French at Paris and the -princes of the house of Charles the Great, whose only -immediate dominion was the city and district of <i>Laon</i> -near the Lotharingian border. Thus, for a hundred -years, the royal city of the Western kingdom was -sometimes Laon and sometimes Paris, and the King -of the West-Franks was sometimes the same person -as the Duke of the French and sometimes not. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -the French -Duchy with -the West-Frankish -kingdom. -987.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -after the election of Hugh Capet, the kingdom and -the duchy were never again separated. The Kings -of <i>Karolingia</i> or the Western kingdom, and the -Dukes of the <i>Western Francia</i>, were now the same -persons. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New meaning -of the -word -<i>France</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>France</i> then—the Western or Latin <i>Francia</i>, -as distinguished from the German <i>Francia</i> or -<i>Franken</i>—properly meant only the King’s immediate -dominions. Though Normandy, Aquitaine, and the -Duchy of Burgundy, all owed homage to the French -king, no one would have spoken of them as parts -of France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -of the -French -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, as the French kings, step by -step, got possession of the dominions of their vassals -and other neighbours, the name of <i>France</i> gradually -spread, till it took in, as it now does, by far the -greater part of Gaul. On the other hand, Flanders, -Barcelona, and the Norman islands, though once -under the homage of the French kings, have fallen -altogether away, and have therefore never been -reckoned as parts of France. Thus the name of -<i>France</i> supplanted the name of <i>Karolingia</i> as the -name of the Western kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Title of <i>Rex -Francorum</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, as it so happened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">{144}</a></span> -that the Western kings kept on the title of -<i>Rex Francorum</i> after it had been dropped in the -Eastern kingdom, that title gradually came to mean, -not King of the <i>Franks</i>, but King of the <i>French</i>, King -of the new Romance-speaking nation which grew up -under them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -the French -nation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus it was that the modern kingdom -and nation of France arose through the crown of the -Western kingdom passing to the Dukes of the Western -<i>Francia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Paris the -kernel of -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Paris is not only the capital of the kingdom; -it is the kernel round which the kingdom and nation -grew.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Middle -Kingdom -or Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Of all geographical names, that which has changed -its meaning the greatest number of times is the name -of <i>Burgundy</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Various -meanings -of the name -<i>Burgundy</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is specially needful to explain its -different meanings at this stage, when there are always -two, and sometimes more, distinct states bearing the -Burgundian name. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The French -Duchy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of the older Burgundian kingdom, -the north-western part, forming the land best -known as the <i>Duchy of Burgundy</i>, was, in the divisions -of the ninth century, a fief of Karolingia or the -Western kingdom. This is the Burgundy which has -Dijon for its capital, and which was held by more than -one dynasty of dukes as vassals of the Western kings, -first at Laon and then at Paris. This Burgundy, which, -as the name of France came to bear its modern sense, may -be distinguished as the <i>French Duchy</i>, must be carefully -distinguished from the <i>Royal</i> Burgundy, the <i>Middle -Kingdom</i> of our own chronicler. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Kingdom -of -Burgundy -or Arles.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This is a state which -arose out of the divisions of the ninth century, and -which, sometimes as a single kingdom, sometimes as -two, took in all the rest of the old Burgundian kingdom -which did not form part of the French duchy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">{145}</a></span> -It may be roughly defined as the land between the -Rhone and Saône and the Alps, though its somewhat -fluctuating boundaries sometimes stretched west of the -Rhone, and its eastern frontier towards Germany changed -more than once. It thus took in the original Roman -province in Gaul, which may be now spoken of as -<i>Provence</i>, with its great cities, foremost among them -<i>Arelate</i> or <i>Arles</i>, which was the capital of the kingdom, -and from which the land was sometimes called the <i>Kingdom -of Arles</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cities of the -Burgundian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It also took in Lyons, the primatial city -of Gaul, Geneva, Besançon, and other important Roman -towns. In short, from its position, it contained a -greater number of the former seats of Roman power -than any of the new kingdoms except Italy itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cis-jurane.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -When Burgundy formed two kingdoms, the Northern -or <i>Trans-jurane</i> Burgundy took in, speaking roughly, -the lands north of Lyons, -and <i>Cis-jurane</i> Burgundy -those between Lyons and the sea. These last are now -wholly French. The ancient Transjurane Burgundy is -in modern geography divided between France and -Switzerland.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Burgundy -separated -from the -Frankish -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The history of this Burgundian kingdom differs -in one respect from that of any other of the states -which arose out of the break-up of the Frankish Empire. -It parted off wholly from the Carolingian dominion -before the division of 887. It formed no part of the -reunited Empire of Charles the Fat. It may therefore -be looked on as having parted off altogether from the -immediately Frankish rule, though it often appears as -more or less dependent on the kings of the Eastern -Francia. But its time of separate being was short. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -the kingdom -with -Germany.<br /> -Later history -of -Burgundy: -mostly annexed -by -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After -about a century and a half from its foundation, the -Burgundian kingdom was united under the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">{146}</a></span> -kings as Germany, and its later history consists of -the way in which the greater part of the old Middle -Kingdom has been swallowed up bit by bit by the -modern kingdom of France. The only part which -has escaped is that which now forms the western -cantons of Switzerland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Partly -represented -by Switzerland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In truth the Swiss Confederation -may be looked on as having, in some slight -degree, inherited the position of the Burgundian kingdom -as a middle state. Otherwise, while the Eastern -and Western kingdoms of the Franks have grown into -two of the greatest powers and nations in modern -Europe, the Burgundian kingdom has been altogether -wiped out. Not only its independence, but its very -name, has passed from it. The name Burgundy has for -a long time past been commonly used to express the -French duchy only.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Kingdom -of -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Italy, unlike Burgundy, formed part of the reunited -dominion of Charles the Fat; but it altogether passed -away from Frankish rule at the division of 887. It -must be remembered that, though Lombardy was conquered -by Charles the Great, yet it was not merged -in the Frankish dominions, but was held as a separate -kingdom by the King of the Franks and Lombards. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Carolingian -Kings -of Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Till the reunion under Charles the Fat, Italy, as a -separate kingdom, was ruled by kings of the Carolingian -house, some of whom were crowned at Rome as -Emperors. After the final division, it had separate -kings of its own, being not uncommonly disputed between -two rival kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Italian -Emperors.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Some of these kings even obtained -Imperial rank. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Italian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Italian kingdom, it must -be remembered, was far from taking in the whole -Italian peninsula. Its southern boundary was much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">{147}</a></span> -the same as the old boundaries of Latium and Picenum, -reaching somewhat further to the south on the Hadriatic -coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separate -principalities -of -Benevento -and Salerno.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south were the separate principalities of -<i>Benevento</i> and <i>Salerno</i>, and the lands which still clave -to the Eastern Emperors. The kingdom thus took in -Lombardy, Liguria, <i>Friuli</i> in the widest sense, taking -in <i>Trent</i> and <i>Istria</i>, though these latter lands are sometimes -counted as a German march, while the Venetian -islands still kept up their connexion with the Eastern -Empire. It took in also <i>Tuscany</i>, <i>Romagna</i> or the -former Exarchate of Ravenna, <i>Spoleto</i>, and <i>Rome</i> itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Kingdom -of -Italy represents -the -Lombard -Kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Italian kingdom thus represented the old Lombard -kingdom, together with the provinces which were -formally transferred from the Eastern to the Western -Empire by the election of Charles the Great. But it -may be looked on as essentially a continuation of the -Lombard kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Milan its -capital.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The rank of capital of the Italian -kingdom, as distinguished from the Roman Empire, -passed away from the old Lombard capital of <i>Pavia</i> -to the ecclesiastical metropolis of <i>Milan</i>, and Milan -became the crowning-place of the Kings of Italy.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Abeyance -of the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>For nearly eighty years after the division of 887, -the Roman Empire of the West may be looked on as -having fallen into a kind of abeyance. One German -and several Italian kings were crowned Emperors; -but they never obtained any general acknowledgement -throughout the West. There could not be said to be -any Western Empire with definite geographical boundaries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Restoration -of the -Western -Empire by -Otto.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A change in this respect took place in the -second half of the tenth century under the German -king Otto the Great. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>952.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -While he was still only German -king, Berengar King of Italy became his man, as Odo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">{148}</a></span> -of Paris had become the man of Arnulf. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>962, 963.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Afterwards -Otto himself obtained the Italian kingdom, and was -crowned Emperor at Rome. The rule was now fully -established that the German king who was crowned -at Aachen had a right to be crowned King of Italy at -Milan and Emperor at Rome. A geographical Western -Empire was thus again founded, consisting of the two -kingdoms of Germany and Italy, to which Burgundy was -afterwards added. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The three -Imperial -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These three kingdoms now formed -the Empire, which thus consisted of the whole dominions -of Charles the Great—allowing for a different eastern -frontier—except the part which formed the Western -kingdom, <i>Karolingia</i>, afterwards <i>France</i>. This union of -three of the four kingdoms gave a more distinct and antagonistic -character to the fourth which remained separate. -Karolingia looked like a part of the great -Frankish dominion lopped off from the main body. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -between the -Empire -and France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the other hand, now that the German kings, the -Kings of the East-Franks, were also Kings of Italy and -Burgundy and Emperors of the Romans, they gradually -dropped their Frankish style. But, as that -style was kept by the Western kings, and still more as -the name of their duchy of France gradually spread -over so large a part of Gaul, the kingdom of France -had a superficial look of representing the old Frankish -kingdom. The newly-constituted Empire had thus a -distinctly rival power on its western side. And we -shall find that a great part of our story will consist of -the way in which, on this side, the Imperial frontier -went back, and the French frontier advanced. On the -other side, the Eastern frontier of the Empire was -capable of any amount of advance at the cost of its -Slavonic neighbours.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">{149}</a></span></p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>The Eastern Empire.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Eastern -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The effect of the various changes of the seventh -and eighth centuries, the rise of the Saracens, the -settlement of the Slaves, the transfer of the Western -Empire to the Franks, seem really to have had the -effect of strengthening the Eastern Empire which they -so terribly cut short. It began for the first time to -put on something of a national character. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>It takes a -Greek -character.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the -Western Empire was fast becoming German, so the -Eastern Empire was fast becoming Greek. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivalry of -the Eastern -and Western -or Greek -and Latin -Churches.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And a -religious distinction was soon added to the distinction -of language. As the schism between the Churches -came on, the Greek-speaking lands attached themselves -to the Eastern, and not to the Western, form of -Christianity. The Eastern Empire, keeping on all -its Roman titles and traditions, had thus become -nearly identical with what may be called the artificial -Greek nation. It continues the work of hellenization -which was begun by the old Greek colonies and which -went on under the Macedonian kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -in the -extent of -the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -No power -gives more work for the geographer; through the -alternate periods of decay and revival which make up -nearly the whole of Byzantine history, provinces were -always being lost and always being won back again. -And it supplies also a geographical study of another -kind, in the new divisions into which the Empire was -now mapped out, divisions which, for the most part, -have very little reference to the divisions of earlier -times.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The <i>Themes</i> -as described -by -Constantine -Porphyrogennêtos.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The <i>Themes</i> or provinces of the Eastern Empire, -as they stood in the tenth century, have had the privilege -of being elaborately described by an Imperial geographer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">{150}</a></span> -in the person of Constantine Porphyrogennêtos.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> -He speaks of the division as comparatively recent, and -of some themes as having been formed almost in his -own time. The themes would certainly seem to have -been mapped out after the Empire had been cut short -both to the north and to the east. The nomenclature -of the new divisions is singular and diversified. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Asiatic -Themes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Some ancient national names are kept, while the titles -of others seem fantastic enough. Thus in Asia <i>Paphlagonia</i> -and <i>Kappadokia</i> remain names of themes with -some approach to their ancient boundaries; but the -<i>Armenian</i> theme is thrust far to the west of any of the -earlier uses of the name, so that the Halys flows through -it. Between it and the still independent Armenia lay the -theme of <i>Chaldia</i>, with Trapezous, the future seat of -Emperors, for its capital. Along the Saracen frontier lie -the themes of <i>Kolôneia</i>, <i>Mesopotamia</i>—a shadowy survival -indeed of the Mesopotamia of Trajan, of which it -was not even a part—<i>Sebasteia</i>, <i>Lykandos</i>, <i>Kappadokia</i>, -and <i>Seleukeia</i>, called from the Isaurian or Kilikian city of -that name. Along the south coast the city of <i>Kibyra</i> -has given—in mockery, says Constantine—its name -to the theme of the <i>Kibyrraiotians</i>, which reaches as -far as Milêtos. The isle of <i>Samos</i> gives its name to -a theme reaching from Milêtos to Adramyttion, while -the theme of the <i>Ægæan Sea</i>, besides most of the -islands, stretches on to the mainland of the ancient -Aiolis. The rest of the Propontis is bordered by -themes bearing the strange names of <i>Opsikion</i> and -<i>Optimatôn</i>, names of Latin origin, in the former of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">{151}</a></span> -which the word <i>obsequium</i> is to be traced. To the -east of them the no less strangely named <i>Thema -Boukellariôn</i> takes in the Euxine Hêrakleia. Inland -and away from the frontier are the themes <i>Thrakêsion</i> -and <i>Anatolikon</i>, while another Asiatic theme is formed -by the island of <i>Cyprus</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The European -Themes.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The nomenclature of the European themes is more -intelligible. Most of them bear ancient names, and -the districts which bear them are at least survivals of -the lands which bore them of old. After a good deal -of shifting, owing to the loss and recovery of so many -districts, the Empire under Constantine Porphyrogennêtos -numbered twelve European themes. <i>Thrace</i> had -shrunk up into the land just round Constantinople and -Hadrianople, the latter now a frontier city against the -Bulgarian. <i>Macedonia</i> had been pushed to the east, -leaving the more strictly Macedonian coast-districts -which the Empire still kept to form the themes of -<i>Strymôn</i> and <i>Thessalonikê</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -name -Hellas.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Going further south, the -name of <i>Hellas</i> has revived, and that with a singular -accuracy of application. Hellas is now the eastern side -of continental Greece, taking in the land of Achilleus. -The abiding name of Achaia has vanished for a while, -and the peninsula which had been won back from the -Slave again bears its name of <i>Peloponnêsos</i>. But <i>Lakedaimonia</i> -now appears on the list of its chief cities -instead of Sparta. This and other instances in which -one Greek name has been supplanted by another are -witnesses of the Slavonic occupation of Hellas and its -recovery by a Greek-speaking power. Off the west -coast the realm of Odysseus seems to revive in the -theme of <i>Kephallênia</i>, which takes in also the mythic -isle of Alkinoos. Such parts of Epeiros and Western<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">{152}</a></span> -Greece as clave to the Empire form the theme of -<i>Nikopolis</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Hadriatic -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the north, on the Hadriatic shore, was -the theme of <i>Dyrrhachion</i>, and beyond that again, the -Dalmatian and Venetian cities still counted as outlying -portions of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Possessions -of the Empire -in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Beyond the Hadriatic, southern -Italy forms the theme of <i>Lombardy</i>, interrupted by the -principality of <i>Salerno</i>, while Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi -were outlying posts like Venice and Ragusa. <i>Sicily</i> was -still reckoned as a theme; but it was now wholly lost -to the Saracen. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Chersôn.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And far away in the Tauric peninsula, -the last of the Hellenic commonwealths, the furthest -outpost of Hellenic civilization, had sunk in the ninth -century into the Byzantine theme of <i>Chersôn</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Seeming -Asiatic -character -of the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The first impression conveyed by this geographical -description is that the Eastern Empire had now become -a power rather Asiatic than European. It is only in -Asia that any solid mass of territory is kept. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Nature of -its European -possessions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Elsewhere -there are only islands and fringes of coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Maritime -supremacy -of the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -they were almost continuous fringes of coast, fringes -which contained some of the greatest cities of Christendom, -and which gave their masters an undisputed -supremacy by sea. If the Mediterranean was not a -Byzantine lake, it was only the presence of the -Saracen, the occasional visits of the Northman, which -hindered it from being so. Then again, the whole history -of the Empire, if a history of losses, is also a history -of recoveries, and before long the Roman arms again -became terrible by land. The picture of Constantine -Porphyrogennêtos shows us the Empire at a moment -when neither process was actually going on; but the -times before and after his reign were times, first of loss -and then of recovery. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss and -recovery of -Crete. -823-960.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Early in the ninth century <i>Crete</i> -was suddenly seized by Saracen adventurers from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">{153}</a></span> -Spain; about the same time began the long and slow -Saracen conquest of <i>Sicily</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Sicily. -827-878.<br /> -Advance in -Italy, Dalmatia, -and -Greece. -c. 802.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, almost at the moment -when Sicily was lost, the Imperial province in Italy -was largely increased, and the Imperial influence in -Dalmatia was largely restored. About the same time -Peloponnêsos was won back from the Slaves. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of provinces -in the East. -964-976.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the -latter half of the tenth century Crete was won back; so -were Kilikia and part of Syria, with the famous cities of -Tarsos, Edessa, and Antioch on the Orontes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Bulgaria. -981-1018.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently -Basil the Second overthrew the <i>Bulgarian</i> kingdom in -Europe and the <i>Armenian</i> kingdom in Asia; -the lands -at the foot of Caucasus admitted the Imperial supremacy, -and the Byzantine rule was carried round the -greater part of the Euxine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Cherson. -988.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Cherson indeed was lost; -the old Megarian city passed into the hands of the -Russian. At the other end of the Empire, the recovery -of Sicily was actually begun, and, if the Saracen -was not driven out, his power was weakened in the -interest of the next set of invaders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Eastern -Empire -under -Basil the -Second.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Early in the -eleventh century the Eastern Rome was again the -head of a dominion which was undoubtedly the greatest -among Christian powers, a dominion greater than -it had been at any time since the Saracenic and Slavonic -inroads began.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>Origin of the Spanish Kingdoms.</i></h3> - -<p>The historical geography of two of the three great -Southern peninsulas is thus bound up with that of the -Empires of which they were severally the centres. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The case is quite different with the third great peninsula, -that of Spain. There the Roman dominion, even -the province which had been recovered by Justinian, -had quite passed away, and it was only a small part of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">{154}</a></span> -the land which was ever reincorporated, even in the -most shadowy way, with either Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Saracen -conquest. -710-713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Spain was -now conquered by the Saracens, as it had before been -conquered by the Romans, with this difference, that it -had been among the longest and hardest of the Roman -conquests, while no part of the Saracen dominion was -won in a shorter time. But, if the Roman conquest was -slow, it was in the end complete. The swifter Saracen -conquest was never quite complete; it left a remnant -by which the land was in the end to be won back. -But the part of the land which withstood the Saracen -was, as could hardly fail to be the case, the same part -as that which held out for the longest time against -the Roman. The mountainous regions of the North -were never wholly conquered. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Asturia -732,<br /> -united with -Cantabria, -751.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Cantabria</i> and <i>Asturia</i>, -which had never fully submitted to the Goths, now -became the seat of resistance under princes who -claimed to represent the Gothic kings, and part of -whose dominions bore the name of <i>Gothia</i>. Twenty -years after the conquest, Asturia was again a Christian -principality, which was presently united with Cantabria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Leon, 916.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This grew into the kingdom of <i>Leon</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>County of -Castile, 904.<br /> -Kingdom, -1033.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -great fiefs of this kingdom on its eastern and western -borders, -the counties of <i>Gallicia</i> and <i>Castile</i>—the last -originally a line of <i>castles</i> against the Saracen enemy—both -showed from an early time strong tendencies -to separation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Navarre. -905.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile the kingdom of <i>Navarre</i> -grew up to the east, stretching, it must be remembered, -on both sides of the Pyrenees, though by -far the larger portion of it lay on their southern -side. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>County of -Aragon c. -760.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the east of Navarre the small counties of -<i>Aragon</i> and <i>Riparanensia</i> were the beginning of the -kingdom of <i>Aragon</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Spanish -March. -778.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the east again of this was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">{155}</a></span> -the land which, after the final expulsion of the Saracens -from Gaul, became part of the Carolingian Empire -by the name of the <i>Spanish March</i>. The shiftings of -territory, the unions and separations of these various -kingdoms and principalities, belong to the special -history of Spain. But early in the eleventh century -the whole north-western part of Spain, and a considerable -fringe of territory in the north-east, had -been formed into Christian states. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginnings -of Castile -and -Aragon.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among these had -been laid the foundations of two kingdoms, those of -Castile and Aragon, which were to play a great part in -the affairs of Europe.</p> - -<p class="pb2">It will be at once seen that those among the Spanish -powers which were destined to play the greatest part in -later history were not among the first to take the form -of separate kingdoms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slow -growth of -the greater -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At this stage even Castile has -hardly taken the form of a distinct state. Aragon is -only beginning; <i>Portugal</i> has not even begun. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>History of -Castile and -Aragon.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of -these three, Castile was fated to play the same part that -was played by Wessex in England and by France in -Gaul, to become the leading power of the peninsula. -Aragon, when her growth had brought her to the -Mediterranean, was to fill for a long time a greater -place in general European politics than any other Spanish -power. The union of Castile and Aragon was to form -that great Spanish monarchy which became the terror -of Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Portugal.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile Portugal, lying on the Ocean, -had first of all to extend her borders at the cost of the -common enemy, and afterwards to become a beginner -of European enterprise in distant lands, a path in which -Castile and other powers did but follow in her steps.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break-up of -the Spanish -Caliphate.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile the advance of the Christians was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">{156}</a></span> -helped by the division of the Saracenic power. The -Caliphates of the East and of the West fell to pieces, -exactly as the Christian Empires did. The undivided -Mahometan dominion in Spain was at the height of its -power in the tenth century. Yet even then, amid -many fluctuations, the Christian frontier was on the -whole advancing in the north-west. In the north-east -Christian progress was slower. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1028.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, early in the -eleventh century, the Caliphate of Cordova broke in -pieces, and out of its fragments arose a crowd of small -Mahometan kingdoms at Cordova, Seville, Lisbon, -Zaragoza, Toledo, Valencia, and elsewhere. It was -now only by renewed invasions from Africa that the -Mahometan power in Spain was kept up. But, as the -Christian states are now fully formed, such mention of -these African dynasties as concerns geography will -come more fittingly at a later stage.</p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>Origin of the Slavonic States.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slavonic -and Turanian -invasions.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We left the borders of both the Eastern and the -Western Empire beset by neighbours of Slavonic race, -who, in the case of the Eastern Empire, were largely -mingled with other neighbours of Turanian race. Of -these last, <i>Avars</i>, <i>Patzinaks</i>, <i>Khazars</i>, have passed -away; they have left no trace on the modern map of -Europe. With two of the Turanian settlements the -case is different. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bulgarians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The settlement of the <i>Bulgarians</i>, -the foundation of a kingdom of Slavonized Turanians -south of the Danube, has been already mentioned. -They still keep their place and nation, though in bondage. -Another Turanian settlement to the north of the -Bulgarians has been of yet greater importance in -European history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlement of the Magyars -or -Hungarians, -895.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the last years of the ninth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">{157}</a></span> -century the Finnish <i>Magyars</i> or <i>Hungarians</i>, the -<i>Turks</i> of the Byzantine writers, began to count as a -power in Europe. From their seats between the -mouths of the Dnieper and the Danube, they pressed -eastward into the lands which had been Dacia and -Pannonia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Great -Moravia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Bulgarian power was thus confined to -the lands south of the Danube, and <i>Great Moravia</i>, a -name which then took in the western part of modern -Hungary, fell wholly under Magyar dominion.</p> - -<p>This settlement is one which stands altogether by -itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peculiar -character of -the Magyar -settlement.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Magyars and the Ottoman Turks are the -only Turanian settlers in Europe who have grown into -permanent Turanian powers on European ground. The -Bulgarians have been lost in the mass of their Slavonic -neighbours and subjects, whose language they have -adopted. Magyars and Ottomans still remain speaking -a Turanian tongue on Aryan soil. But of these it is -only the Magyars that have grown into a really European -state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Kingdom -of -Hungary.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After appearing as momentary ravagers -in Germany, Italy, and even Gaul, the Magyars settled -down into a Christian kingdom, which, among many -fluctuations of supremacy and dependence, has remained -a distinct kingdom to this day. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of its -religious -connexion -with Rome.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Christianity -of Hungary however came from the Western -Church and not from the Eastern. And this fact has -had a good deal of bearing upon the history of those -regions. But for this almost incidental connexion with -the Old Rome, Hungary, though settled by a Turanian -people, would most naturally have taken its place -among the Slavonic states which fringed the dominion -of the New Rome. As it has turned out, difference of -religion has stepped in to heighten difference of blood, -and Hungary has formed a kingdom quite apart,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">{158}</a></span> -closely connected in its history with Servia and Bulgaria, -but running a course which has been in many -things unlike theirs.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Magyars -separate -the -Northern -and Southern -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The geographical results of the Magyar settlement -were to place a barrier between the Northern and the -Southern Slaves. This it did both directly and indirectly. -The <i>Patzinaks</i> pressed into what had been the -former Magyar territory; they appear in the pages of -the Imperial geographer as a nation with whom the -Empire always strove to maintain peace, as they formed -a barrier against both Hungarians and <i>Russians</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Russians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This -last name begins to be of importance in the ninth -century. A part of the Eastern branch of the Slavonic -race, they were cut off from the other members of that -branch south of the Danube by these new Turanian -settlements. The Magyars again parted the South-eastern -Slaves from the North-western, while the -Russians were still neighbours of the North-western -Slaves. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -the geographical -position -of the -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The geographical position of these three divisions -of the Slavonic race has had an important effect -on European history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>History of -the South-eastern -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The South-eastern Slaves in -Servia, Croatia, Dalmatia, and the neighbouring lands, -formed a debateable ground between the two Empires, -the Magyar kingdom, and the Venetian republic, as -soon as Venice grew into a distinct and conquering -state. These lands have, down to our own time, -played an important, but commonly a secondary, part -in history. And in later times their history has chiefly -consisted in successive changes of masters. The states -which they formed will have to be spoken of in connexion -with the greater and more lasting powers to -which they have commonly been adjuncts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The North-western -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The North-western -Slaves appear for the most part in different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">{159}</a></span> -degrees of vassalage or incorporation with the Western -Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bohemia, -Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, besides several considerable duchies, -there grew up among them the kingdoms of <i>Bohemia</i> -and <i>Poland</i>, of which the latter established its complete -independence of the Empire, and became for a while -one of the chief powers of Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Russia meanwhile, -forming a third division, appears, in the ninth and -tenth centuries, first as a formidable enemy, then as a -spiritual conquest, of the Empire and Church of Constantinople. -Russia had then already assumed the -character which it has again put on in later times, -that of the one great European power at once Slavonic -in race and Eastern in faith. Russia is now fully -established as an European power. The variations of -its territorial extent must be traced in a distinct -chapter.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>Northern Europe.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Scandinavian -settlements.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The European importance of the Scandinavian nations -at this time chiefly arises from their settlements in -various parts of Europe, and specially in Britain and -Ireland. The three great Scandinavian kingdoms were -already formed. Sweden was doing its work towards -the east; the Norwegians, specially known as Northmen, -colonized the extreme north of Britain, the Scandinavian -earldoms of Caithness and Sutherland, together -with the islands to the north and west of -Britain, Orkney, Shetland, Faroe, the so-called Hebrides, -and Man. They also colonized the eastern -coast of Ireland, where they were known as <i>Ostmen</i>. -And it was from Norway also that the settlers came by -which the coast of France in the strictest sense, the -French duchy, was cut off from the dominion of Paris<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">{160}</a></span> -to form the Duchy of Normandy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>England -and Denmark. -789-1017.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the chief field -for the energy of Denmark properly so called lay -within the limits of that part of Britain which we may -now begin to call <i>England</i>. It was during this period -that the united English kingdom grew up, that the -many English settlements in Britain coalesced into one -English nation. And this work was in a singular way -promoted by the very cause, namely, the Danish invasions, -which seemed best suited to hinder it.</p> - -<p>Up to this time the great island had been in truth, -as it was often called, another world, influencing but -little, and but little influenced by, any of the lands -which formed part of either of the continental Empires. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Formation -of the -Kingdom of -England.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The English history of these times, a history which is -specially connected with geography, consists of two -great facts. The first is the union of all the English states -in Britain into one English kingdom under the West-Saxon -kings. The other is the establishment of a vague -supremacy on the part of those kings over the whole -island. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>West-Saxon -supremacy -under -Ecgberht. -825-830.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dominion established by Ecgberht was in -no sense a kingdom of England. It consisted simply -in a supremacy on the part of the West-Saxon king -over all the princes of Britain, Teutonic and Celtic, -save only the Picts, Scots, and Welsh of Strathclyde or -Cumberland. The smaller kingdoms of Kent, Sussex, -and Essex formed appanages for West-Saxon <i>æthelings</i>; -but the superiority over East-Anglia, Mercia, -Northumberland, and the Welsh princes was purely -external. The change of this power into an united -English kingdom holding a supremacy over the whole -island was largely helped by the Danish incursions -and settlements. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Danish -invasions. -789.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These incursions began in the last -years of the eighth century; they became more frequent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">{161}</a></span> -and more dangerous in the middle of the ninth; -and in the latter part of that century they grew from -mere incursions into actual settlements. This was the -result of the great struggle in the days of the first -Æthelred and his more famous brother Ælfred. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division -between -Ælfred and -Guthrum. -878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By -Ælfred’s treaty with the Danish Guthrum, the West-Saxon -king kept his own West-Saxon kingdom and all -the other lands south of the Thames, together with -western Mercia. The rest of Mercia, with East-Anglia -and <i>Deira</i> or southern Northumberland, passed under -Danish rule. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bernicia -not Danish.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Bernicia</i>, or northern Northumberland -from the Tees to the Forth, still kept its Anglian princes, -seemingly under Danish supremacy. Over the lands -which thus became Danish the West-Saxon king kept -a mere nominal and precarious supremacy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Scandinavian -settlements -in -Cumberland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Scotland -and Strathclyde the succession of the Celtic -princes was not disturbed; but in part at least of -Strathclyde, in the more modern Cumberland, a large -Scandinavian population, though probably Norwegian -rather than Danish, must have settled.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Increase of -the immediate -kingdom -of -Wessex.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>By these changes the power of the West-Saxon -king as an over-lord was greatly cut short, while his -immediate kingdom was enlarged. The dynasty which -had come so near to the supremacy of the whole island -seemed to be again shut up in its own kingdom and -the lands immediately bordering on it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -West-Saxon -advance. -910-954.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, by overthrowing -the other English kingdoms, the Danes had -prepared the way for the second West-Saxon advance -in the tenth century. Saxon king was now -the only English king, and he further became the -English and Christian champion against intruders who -largely remained heathen. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wessex -grows into -England.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The work of the first half -of the tenth century was to enlarge the Kingdom of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">{162}</a></span> -Wessex into the Kingdom of England. Eadward the -Elder, King, not merely of the West-Saxons but of the -English, extended his immediate frontier, the frontier -of the one English kingdom, to the Humber. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First submission -of -Scotland -and Strathclyde. -923.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Wales, -Northumberland, English and Danish, and now, for the -first time, Scotland and Strathclyde, all acknowledged -the English supremacy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>926.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Æthelstan Northumberland -was for the first time incorporated with the -kingdom, and after several revolts and reconquests, -it finally became an integral part of England, forming -sometimes one, sometimes two, English earldoms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cumberland -granted as -a fief to -Scotland. -945.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile Cumberland was subdued by Eadmund, -and was given as a fief to the Kings of Scots, who -commonly granted it as an appanage to their sons. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lothian -granted to -Scotland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, partly, it would seem, by conquest, partly -by cession, the Scottish kings became possessed of the -northern part of Northumberland, under the name of -the earldom of Lothian. Thus, in the second half of -the tenth century, a single kingdom of England had -been formed, of which the Welsh principalities, as well -as Scotland, Strathclyde, and Lothian, were vassal states.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The English -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Thus the English kingdom was formed, and with it -the English Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -Imperial -titles.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For the English kings in the -tenth and eleventh centuries, acknowledging no superiority -in the Cæsar either of East or West and -holding within their own island a position analogous to -that of the Emperors on the mainland, did not scruple -to assume the Imperial title, and to speak of themselves -as Emperors of the other world of Britain. The -kingdom and Empire thus formed were transferred -by the wars of Swegen and Cnut from a West-Saxon -to a Danish king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Northern -Empire of -Cnut. -1016-1035.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Cnut England was for a -moment the chief seat, and Winchester the Imperial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">{163}</a></span> -city, of a Northern Empire which might fairly claim -a place alongside of the Old and the New Rome. -England, Denmark, Norway, had a single king, whose -supremacy extended further over the rest of Britain, -over Sweden and a large part of the Baltic coast. -That Empire split in pieces on his death. The Scandinavian -kingdoms were again separated; England itself -was divided for a moment. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Norman -Conquest. -1066-70.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom, again reunited, -first passed back to the West-Saxon house, and -then, by a second conquest, to the Norman. After this -last revolution a division of the kingdom was never -more heard of. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>England -finally -united by -William.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -William the Conqueror put the finishing -stroke to the work of Ecgberht, and made England -for ever one. And, by uniting England under the same -ruler as Normandy, and by thus leading her into the -general current of continental affairs, he gave her an -European position such as she had never held under -her native kings.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Summary.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>By the end of the eleventh century then the chief -nations of Europe had been formed. The Western -Empire, after many shiftings, had taken a definite -shape. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Western -Empire -and the -Imperial -Kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Imperial dignity and the two royal crowns -of Italy and Burgundy were now attached to the -German kingdom. The Empire, in short, though -keeping its Roman titles and associations, and with -them its influence over the minds of men, had practically -become a German power. Its history from this -time mainly consists in the steps by which the German -Emperors of Rome lost their hold on their Italian and -Burgundian kingdoms, and of the steps by which the -German dominion was extended over the Slaves to the -East. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the West the Western Kingdom has altogether<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">{164}</a></span> -detached itself from the Empire; the union of its -crown with the Duchy of France has created the -French kingdom and nation, with its centre at Paris, -and with a supremacy, as yet little more than nominal, -over a large part of Gaul. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Eastern -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the Western Empire -has become German, the Eastern Empire has become -Greek; in the early years of the eleventh century it again -forms a powerful and compact state, ruling from Naples -to Antioch. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Slavonic -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of the states to the north of it, Bulgaria -has been reincorporated with the Empire; Servia, -Hungary, Russia, have taken their definite position -among the Christian powers of Europe. So have Poland -and Bohemia on the borders of the Western Empire. -Prussia, Lithuania, and the Finnish lands to the immediate -north of them remain heathen. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Spain, the -Christians have won back a large part of the peninsula. -Castile and Navarre are already kingdoms; Aragon, -though not yet a kingdom, has begun her history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Scandinavian -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In -Northern Europe, the three Scandinavian nations are -clearly distinguished and firmly established. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>England -and Normandy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Within the -isle of Britain the kingdoms of England and Scotland -have been formed, and the union of England and Normandy -under a single prince has opened the way to -altogether new relations between the continent and the -great island. In short, the only European powers which -play a part in strictly mediæval history which are not -yet formed are Portugal and the Sicilian kingdoms.</p> - -<p>From this point then, when most of the European -powers have come into being, and when the two -Roman Empires are fast becoming a German and a -Greek power alongside of other powers, it will be well -to change the form of our present inquiry. Thus far -we have treated the historical geography of Europe as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">{165}</a></span> -whole, gathering round two centres at the Old and the -New Rome. It will henceforth be more convenient -to take the history of the great divisions of Europe -separately, and to trace out in distinct chapters the -changes which the boundaries of each have gone -through from the eleventh century to our own time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ecclesiastical -geography.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But before we enter on these several national divisions, -it will be well to take a view of the ecclesiastical -divisions of Western Christendom, which are of great -importance and which are constantly referred to in the -times with which we are now concerned.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">{166}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of ecclesiastical -geography.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> ecclesiastical geography of Western Europe was -by this time formed. The great ecclesiastical divisions -were now almost everywhere mapped out, and from -hence they are more permanent than the political divisions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Permanence -of -the ecclesiastical -divisions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The ecclesiastical geography in truth constantly -preserves an earlier political geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>They represent -older -civil divisions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The ecclesiastical -divisions were always mapped out according -to the political divisions of the time when they were -established, and they often remained unaltered while -the political divisions went through many revolutions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Illustrations -from -England -and France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus in France the dioceses represented the jurisdictions -of the Roman cities; in England they represented -the ancient English kingdoms and principalities. -In both cases they outlived by many ages the -political divisions which they represented. While the -political map was altered over and over again, the -ecclesiastical map remained down to quite modern -times, with hardly any change beyond the occasional -division of a large diocese or the occasional union -of two smaller dioceses. Thus the greater permanence -of the ecclesiastical map often makes it useful as a -standard for reference in describing political changes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lyons and -Rheims.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To take an instance, the city of Lyons has been at -different times under Burgundian and under Frankish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">{167}</a></span> -kings; it has been a free city of the Empire and a city -of the modern kingdom of France. But, among all -these changes, the Archbishop of Lyons has always -remained Primate of all the Gauls, while the Archbishop -of Rheims has held a wholly different position -alongside of him as first prelate and first peer of the -modern kingdom of France. Paris meanwhile, the -political capital of the modern kingdom, remained till -the seventeenth century the seat of a simple bishoprick.</p> - -<p>In this way the ecclesiastical division will be found -almost everywhere to keep up the remembrance of an -earlier political state of things. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Patriarchates, -Provinces, -Dioceses.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the Empire became -Christian, it was mapped out into <i>Patriarchates</i> as well -as into Prefectures. Under these were the metropolitan -and episcopal districts, which in after-times -borrowed, though in a reverse order of dignity, the -civil titles of <i>provinces</i> and <i>dioceses</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Divisions -within and -without the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the Church -carried her spiritual conquests beyond the bounds of -the Empire, new ecclesiastical districts were of course -formed in the newly converted countries. As a rule, -every kingdom had at least one archbishopric; the -smaller principalities, provinces, or other divisions became -the dioceses of bishops. But the different social -conditions of southern and northern Europe caused a -marked difference in the ecclesiastical arrangements of -the two regions. In the South the bishop was bishop of -a city; in the North he was bishop of a tribe or a district. -Within the Empire each city had its bishop. Thus in -Italy and Southern Gaul, where the cities were thickest -on the ground, the bishops were most numerous and -their dioceses were smallest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bishops of -cities and -of tribes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Northern Gaul the cities -are fewer and the dioceses larger, while outside the -Empire, the dioceses which represented a tribe or principality<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">{168}</a></span> -were larger again. Also again, within the -Empire the bishop, as bishop of a city, always took -his title from the city; outside the Empire, especially -in the British islands both Celtic and Teutonic, the -bishop of a tribe or principality bore a tribal or territorial -title.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Great Patriarchates.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Patriarchates -suggested -by the Prefectures.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The highest ecclesiastical divisions, the Patriarchates, -though they did not exactly answer to the Prefectures, -were clearly suggested by them. And whenever the -boundaries of the Patriarchates departed from the -boundaries of the Prefectures, they came nearer to the -great divisions of race and language. For our purpose, -it is enough to take the Patriarchates, as they grew up, -after the establishment of Christianity, in the course of -the fourth and fifth centuries. The four older ones -were seated at the <i>Old</i> and the <i>New Rome</i>, and at the -two great Eastern cities of <i>Antioch</i> and <i>Alexandria</i>. Out -of the patriarchate of Antioch the small patriarchate of -<i>Jerusalem</i> was afterwards taken. This last seems a piece -of sentimental geography; the other divisions were -eminently practical. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rome.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Whether we look on the original -jurisdiction of the Bishop of the Old <i>Rome</i> as taking in -the whole <i>prefecture</i> of Italy or only the <i>diocese</i> of -Italy, it is certain that it was gradually extended over -the two prefectures of Italy and Gaul. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extended -beyond the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That is, it took -in the Latin part of the Empire, and it spread thence -over the Teutonic converts in the West, as well as -over Hungary and the Western Slaves. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Constantinople.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Patriarchate -of <i>Constantinople</i> or New Rome took in the -Prefecture of Illyricum, and three dioceses in the -Prefecture of the East, those of Thrace, Asia, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">{169}</a></span> -Pontus. This territory pretty well answers to the -extent of the Greek language and influence. The two -Illyrian dioceses, possibly through some confusion arising -out of the two meanings of the word <i>Illyricum</i>, -were claimed by the Popes of Old Rome; but, when -the Empires and Churches parted asunder, Macedonia -and Greece were not likely to cleave to the Western -division. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its relation -to the Eastern -Empire -and to the -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In course of time the Byzantine patriarchate -became nearly coextensive with the Byzantine Empire, -and it became the centre of conversion to the Slaves -of the East, just as the patriarchate of Old Rome was to -the Teutons of the West. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Antioch.<br />Jerusalem.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The patriarchate of <i>Antioch</i>, -before its dismemberment in favour of the tiny patriarchate -of <i>Jerusalem</i>, took in the whole diocese of the -East, and the churches beyond the limits of the Empire -in that direction. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Alexandria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The patriarchate of <i>Alexandria</i> -answered to the diocese of Egypt, with the churches -beyond the Empire on that side, specially the <i>Abyssinian</i> -church, which has kept its nationality to our own time. -That these Eastern patriarchates have been for ages -disputed by claimants belonging to different sects of -Christianity is a fact which concerns both theology and -history, but does not concern geography. Whether -the see was in Orthodox or heretical—that is commonly -in national—hands, the see and its diocese, the geographical -extent on the map, remained the same.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later nominal -patriarchates.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>These then are the five great patriarchates which -formed the most ancient geographical divisions of the -Church. In later times the name patriarchate has -been more loosely applied. As the Roman bishop -grew into something more than the Patriarch of the -West, the title of Patriarch was given to several metropolitans, -sometimes, as far as one can see, without any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">{170}</a></span> -particular reason. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lisbon, -Venice, -Aquileia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The title has been borne by the -Bishops of <i>Lisbon</i> and <i>Venice</i>, and specially by the -Metropolitans of <i>Aquileia</i>. These last assumed the -title during a time of separation from the Roman see. -But nominal patriarchates of this kind must be carefully -distinguished from the five great churches to -which the name was anciently attached. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Patriarchate -of -Moscow. -1587.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the East -the name was never extended beyond its four original -holders, till a new patriarchate of <i>Moscow</i> arose in -Russia, to mark the greatest spiritual conquest of the -Orthodox Church. Of the four original Eastern patriarchates -it is only that of Constantinople which plays -much part in later history. The seats of the other -three fell into the hands of the Saracens in the very -beginning of their conquests.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Italy.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Great -numbers of -the Italian -bishoprics.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In no part of Christendom do the bishoprics lie so -thick upon the ground as in Italy, and especially in the -southern part. But from that very fact it follows that -the ecclesiastical divisions of Italy are of less historical -importance than those of most other Western countries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Small size -of the -provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In southern Italy above all, the bishoprics were so -numerous, and the dioceses therefore so small, that the -archiepiscopal provinces were hardly so large as the -episcopal dioceses in more northern lands. So it is -in the islands; Sicily contained four provinces and -Sardinia three. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of -the commonwealths -on the position -of the -prelates.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The peculiar characteristics of Italian -history also hindered ecclesiastical geography from -being of the same importance as elsewhere. Where -every city became an independent commonwealth, the -Bishop, and even the Metropolitan, sank to a lower -rank than they held in the lands where each prelate -was a great feudal lord.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">{171}</a></span></p> - -<p>It follows then that there are only a few of the archbishoprics -and bishoprics of Italy which at all stand -out in general history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relation to -the Roman -See.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The growth of the Roman see -also more distinctly overshadowed the Italian bishops -than it did those of other lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivals of -Rome.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The bishoprics which -have most historical importance are those which at one -time or another stood out in rivalry or opposition to -Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Milan.<br /> -Aquileia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such was the great see of <i>Milan</i>, whose province -took in a crowd of Lombard bishoprics; -such was the -patriarchal see of <i>Aquileia</i>, whose metropolitan jurisdiction -took in Como at one end and the Istrian Pola -at the other. The patriarchs of Aquileia, standing as -they did on the march of the Italian, Teutonic, and -Slavonic lands, grew, unlike most of the Italian prelates, -into powerful temporal princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ravenna.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Ravenna</i> was the -head of a smaller province than either Milan or Aquileia; -but <i>Ravenna</i> too stands out as one of the churches -which kept up for a while an independent position in -the face of the growing power of Rome. Milan and -Ravenna, in short, never lost the memory of their -Imperial days; and Aquileia took advantage, first of a -theological difference, and secondly of its temporal -position as the great border see.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The immediate -Roman -Province.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the rest of Italy the case is different. Rome -herself was the immediate head of a large province -stretching from sea to sea. Within this the <i>suburbicarian</i> -sees, those close around Rome, stood in a special -and closer relation to the patriarchal see itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Metropolitan -sees of -central -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -famous cities of <i>Genoa</i>, <i>Bologna</i>, <i>Pisa</i>, <i>Florence</i>, and -<i>Sienna</i>, were also metropolitan sees, though their ecclesiastical -dignity is quite overshadowed by their civic -greatness. <i>Lucca</i> has been added to the same list in -modern times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pisa and -Genoa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The provinces of Pisa and Genoa are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">{172}</a></span> -notable as having been extended into the island of -Corsica after its recovery from the Saracens. The history -and extent of the Italian dioceses is, with these few -exceptions, a matter almost wholly of local ecclesiastical -concern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -southern -province.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the south and in Sicily the endless archiepiscopal -sees preserve the names of some famous cities, -as <i>Capua</i>—the later Capua on the site of Casilinum—<i>Tarentum</i>, -<i>Bari</i>, and others. But some even of the metropolitan -churches are fixed in places of quite secondary -importance, and the simple bishoprics are endless.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Gaul and Germany.</i></h3> - -<p>By taking a single view of the ecclesiastical arrangements -of the whole of the Western Empire on this side -of the Alps and the Pyrenees, some instructive lessons -may be learned. Such a way of looking at the map -will bring out more strongly the differences between -bishoprics of earlier and later foundation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gaulish and -German -dioceses.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, if we -take the name of Gaul in the old geographical sense, -taking in the German lands west of the Rhine which -formed part of the older Empire, we shall find that -several ecclesiastical provinces may be called either -Gaulish or German. With the boundaries of the French -kingdom we have no concern, except so far as the -boundary between the Eastern and Western kingdoms -of the Franks did to some extent follow ecclesiastical -lines. Modern annexations of course have had no -regard to them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Province of -South Gaul.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>On first crossing the Alps from Italy, we find the -ecclesiastical phænomena of Italy continued in the lands -nearest to it. The two provinces of <i>Tarantaise</i> (answering -to the civil division of <i>Alpes Penninæ</i>) and <i>Embrun</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">{173}</a></span> -(<i>Alpes Maritimæ</i>) which take in the mountain region -between Italy and Gaul, are of small size, though of -course in the actual mountain lands the bishoprics are -less thick on the ground. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tarantaise.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Tarantasian province contained -only three suffragan sees, <i>Sitten</i>, <i>Aosta</i>, and <i>St. -John of Maurienne</i>, three bishoprics which now belong -to three distinct political powers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Embrun.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But in the southern -part of the province of Embrun, which reaches to the -sea, the bishops’ sees are thick on the ground, just as -they are in Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Aix and -Arles.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -So they are in the small provinces -of <i>Aix</i> (<i>Narbonensis Secunda</i>) and <i>Arles</i>. But, as soon -as we get out of Provence into the parts of Gaul which -were less thoroughly Romanized, and where cities, and -consequently bishoprics, lay less close together, the -phænomena of the ecclesiastical map begin to change. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Vienne.<br /> -Narbonne.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Provençal provinces of Aix and Aries are bounded -to the north and west by those of <i>Vienne</i> (which with -Arles answers nearly to the civil <i>Viennensis</i>) -and -<i>Narbonne</i> (answering nearly to <i>Narbonensis Secunda</i>). -These provinces are of much greater size, and the -suffragan sees are much further apart. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Auch.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the west lies -<i>Auch</i>, answering to the oldest Aquitaine or <i>Novempopulana</i>, -and to the north of these, in the remainder of -Gaul, the original provinces are of still greater size. -Most of them answer very nearly to the older civil -divisions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bourges, -Bourdeaux, -Lyons, -Rouen, -Tours, and -Sens.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Aquitania Prima</i> is the province of <i>Bourges</i>, -<i>Aquitania Secunda</i> that of <i>Bourdeaux</i>. <i>Lugdunensis -Prima</i>, <i>Secunda</i>, <i>Tertia</i>, and <i>Quarta</i>, answer to <i>Lyons</i>, -<i>Rouen</i>, <i>Tours</i>, and <i>Sens</i>. Of these Lyons, as having -been the temporal capital, became the seat of the Primate -of all the Gauls. The province of Rouen too answers -very nearly to the duchy of which that metropolis -became the capital; its Archbishop still bears the title -of Primate of Normandy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">{174}</a></span></p> - -<p class="pb2">These are the oldest ecclesiastical arrangements, -closely following the civil divisions of the Empire. These -divisions lived through the Teutonic conquests; and, -though here and there a see was translated from one city -to another, they were not seriously interfered with till the -fourteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Foundation -of the provinces -of -Toulouse -and Alby, -1322.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Pope John the Twenty-second raised -the see of <i>Toulouse</i> in the province of Narbonne and -that of <i>Alby</i> in the province of Bourges to metropolitan -rank, thus forming two new provinces. He also -founded new bishoprics in several towns in these two -new provinces and in that of Narbonne. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Avignon, -1475.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the next -century Sixtus the Fourth made the church of <i>Avignon</i> -metropolitan. These changes help to give this whole -district more of the character of Italy and Provence -than originally belonged to it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Paris, 1622.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, in the seventeenth -century the province of <i>Sens</i> was also divided, -and the church of <i>Paris</i> became metropolitan. Some -of these changes show how closely the ecclesiastical -divisions followed the oldest civil divisions, and how -slowly they were affected by changes in the civil divisions. -When Gaul was first mapped out, Tolosa was -of less account than Narbo; the Parisii and their city -were of less account than the great nation of the -<i>Senones</i>. Tolosa became the royal city of the Goth; -but it did not rise to the highest ecclesiastical rank till -ages after the Gothic kingdom had passed away. Paris, -after having been several times a momentary seat of -dominion, became the birthplace of the modern French -kingdom. But it had been the continuous seat of kings -for more than six hundred years before it became the -seat of an archbishop.</p> - - -<p>As we draw nearer to German ground, the ecclesiastical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">{175}</a></span> -boundaries are found to have been somewhat -more strongly affected by political changes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Besançon.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -ecclesiastical province of <i>Besançon</i> answers to <i>Maxima -Sequanorum</i>; but it is not quite of the same extent; -the boundary of the German and Burgundian kingdoms -passed through the Roman province: its eastern part -is therefore found in a German diocese. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rheims.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The province -of <i>Rheims</i> answers nearly, but not quite, to <i>Belgica Secunda</i>: -for the ecclesiastical province took in some territory -to the east of the Scheld. Here again the boundary -of the Eastern and Western kingdoms passed through the -province. The metropolitan city lay within the region -which became the kingdom of France, and it became -the ecclesiastical head of the kingdom. Yet one of -its suffragan sees, that of <i>Cambray</i>, was a city of the -Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Trier, 785.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The province of <i>Trier</i> took in no part of -the Western kingdom; but, besides the old province -of <i>Belgica Prima</i>, it stretched away over the German -lands even beyond the Rhine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Köln, 785.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -When the old Gaulish -bishoprick of <i>Colonia Agrippina</i> became metropolitan -under Charles the Great, its province took -in nearly all the old Gaulish province of <i>Germania -Secunda</i>; but it too came to stretch beyond the Rhine -and beyond the Weser. These two metropolitan sees, -Trier and Köln, were old Gaulish bishopricks of the -frontier land. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mainz, 747.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The see of <i>Mainz</i> has no certain historical -being before Boniface in the eighth century. It -too was founded on what was geographically Gaulish -soil; but the greater part of its vast extent was strictly -German. Three only of its suffragans, <i>Worms</i>, <i>Speyer</i>, -and <i>Argentoratum</i> or <i>Strassburg</i>, were even geographically -Gaulish. No province has had more fluctuating -boundaries: the elevation of Köln to metropolitan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">{176}</a></span> -rank cut it short to the west, while it grew indefinitely -to the north, south, and east, as its boundaries were -enlarged by conversion and conquest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prag, 1344.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the east it -was cut short in the fourteenth century when the kingdom -of Bohemia and its dependencies were formed into -the ecclesiastical province of <i>Prag</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bamberg, -1007.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The famous bishoprick -of <i>Bamberg</i>, locally in the province of Mainz, was -from the beginning immediately dependent on the see -of Rome.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The three -ecclesiastical -Electors -and Arch-chancellors.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>These three great archbishopricks of the frontier -land, all of whose sees were on the Gaulish side of the -Rhine, remained distinguished by their temporal rank -during the whole life of the German kingdom. All -the German prelates became princes; but only these -three were Electors. The prelates of these three were the -Arch-chancellors of the three Imperial kingdoms, Mainz -of Germany, Köln of Italy, Trier of Gaul. But, as the -Frankish or German kingdom spread to the north-east, -new ecclesiastical provinces were formed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Salzburg, -798.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The bishoprick -of <i>Salzburg</i> became metropolitan under Charles the -Great, with a province stretching away to the East -towards his conquests from the Avars. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bremen or -Hamburg, -788.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The bishoprick -of <i>Bremen</i>, another foundation of Charles the Great, was -transferred under his son to <i>Hamburg</i>, as a metropolitan -see which was designed to be a missionary centre for -the Scandinavian nations. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1223.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After some fluctuations, -the see was finally settled at Bremen, as the metropolis -of a province, which had now become in no way -Scandinavian, but partly Old-Saxon, partly Wendish. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Magdeburg, -968.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, Otto the Great founded the metropolitan see -of <i>Magdeburg</i> on the Slavonic march. Thus the -German kingdom formed six ecclesiastical provinces, -all of vast extent as compared with those of Southern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">{177}</a></span> -Europe, and with their suffragan sees few and far -apart. The difference is here clearly marked between -the earlier sees which arose from the very -beginning in the Roman cities, and the sees of later -foundation which were gradually founded as new lands -were brought under the dominion of the Empire and -the Church. Still the old tradition went on so far that -each Bishop had his see in a city, and took his name -from that city. Though the German dioceses were of -large extent, yet none of the German bishoprics were -in strictness territorial.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Modern ecclesiastical -divisions of -Germany -and France.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In no part of Christendom have the ecclesiastical -divisions been more completely upset in modern times -than they have been in Germany. In France the -number of dioceses was greatly lessened by the <i>Concordat</i> -under the first Buonaparte; but the main ecclesiastical -landmarks were to a great extent respected. -In Germany, on the other hand, no trace of them is left. -The country has been mapped out afresh to suit the -boundaries of patched-up modern kingdoms. Mainz -and Trier are no longer metropolitan sees, while the -modern map shows such novelties as an Archbishop of -München and an Archbishop of Freiburg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes of -Philip the -Second in -the Netherlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Long before, -under Philip the Second of Spain, those parts of the -German kingdom which had become practically detached -under the Dukes of Burgundy underwent a complete -change in their ecclesiastical divisions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cambray, -Mechlin, -Utrecht.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Cambray</i> and -<i>Mechlin</i> in the province of Rheims, and <i>Utrecht</i> in the -province of Köln, became metropolitan sees. Modern -political changes have made these three cities members -of three distinct political powers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">{178}</a></span></p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Spain.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peculiarities -of -Spanish ecclesiastical -geography.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The ecclesiastical history of the Spanish peninsula -presents phænomena of a different kind from those of -Italy, Gaul, or Germany. In Italy and Gaul the -ecclesiastical divisions go on uninterruptedly from the -earliest days of Christianity. Western Germany must -count for these purposes as part of Gaul. In eastern -Germany the ecclesiastical divisions were formed in -later times, as Christianity was spread over the country. -In Spain the country must have been mapped out for -ecclesiastical purposes at least as early as Gaul. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Old divisions -lost, -and mapped -out afresh -after the recovery -from -the Saracens.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the -Mahometan conquest of the greater part of the country, -followed by the Christian reconquest, caused the old ecclesiastical -lines to be wiped out, and new divisions had to -be traced out afresh as the land was gradually won back. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ecclesiastical -divisions -under -the West-Goths.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The ecclesiastical divisions of Spain in the time of the -Gothic kingdom simply reproduce the civil divisions -of the period, as those civil divisions are only a slight -modification of the Roman provinces. <i>Lusitania</i> and -<i>Bætica</i> survived, with a slight change of frontier, both -as civil and as ecclesiastical divisions. <i>Tarraconensis</i> -was for both purposes divided into three, <i>Tarraconensis</i>, -<i>Carthagenensis</i>, and <i>Gallæcia</i>. As the land was won -back, and as new ecclesiastical provinces were formed, -the number was greatly increased, and some of them -found their way to new sites. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tarragona, -Zaragoza, -Valencia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus the Tarraconensian -province was again divided into three, those of <i>Tarragona</i>, -<i>Zaragoza</i>, and <i>Valencia</i>, answering nearly to the -kingdom of Aragon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Toledo.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -New Carthage lost its metropolitan -rank in favour of the great metropolis of -<i>Toledo</i>, which numbered <i>Cordova</i> and <i>Valladolid</i> among -its suffragans. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Compostella, -Burgos, -Seville, -and -Granada.<br /> -Braga, -Evora, -Lisbon.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Leaving out some anomalous districts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">{179}</a></span> -the rest of the peninsula formed the provinces of St. -James of <i>Compostella</i>, <i>Burgos</i>, <i>Seville</i>, <i>Granada</i>, with -<i>Braga</i>, <i>Evora</i>, and the patriarchal see of <i>Lisbon</i>, the -last three answering to the kingdom of Portugal. And -it must be remembered that the Pyrenees did not form -an eternal boundary in ecclesiastical, any more than in -civil geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dioceses of -Pampeluna -and Bayonne.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the kingdom of Navarre stretched -on both sides of the mountains, so did the diocese of -<i>Pampeluna</i>; and to the west of it the Gaulish diocese -of <i>Bayonne</i> stretched on what is now Spanish ground. -All these are survivals of a time when, to use the phrase -of a later day, there were no Pyrenees, or when at least -the same rulers, first Gothic and then Saracen, reigned -on both sides of them.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of the British Islands.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The British -islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The historical phænomena of the British islands have -points in common with more than one of the continental -countries. In a very rough and general view of things, -Britain has some analogies with Spain. It is not altogether -without reason that in some legendary stories the -names of Saxons and Saracens get confounded. In both -cases a land which had been Christian was overrun by -conquerors of another creed; in both a Christian people -held their ground in a part of the country; and in both -the whole land was won back to Christianity, though -by different and even opposite processes in the two -cases. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Celtic -episcopate.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But there is no reason to believe that the Celtic -churches in Britain and Ireland had anything like the -same complete ecclesiastical organization as the Spanish -churches under the Goths. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tribal -episcopacy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Celtic episcopate was -of an irregular and anomalous kind, and, in its most -intelligible shape, it was, as was natural under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">{180}</a></span> -circumstances of the country, not a city episcopate, -hardly a territorial episcopate, but one strictly tribal. -This is nearly the only fact in the history of the early -Celtic churches which is of any importance for our -purpose. It might be too much to say that traces -of this peculiarity were handed on from the Celtic to -the English Church. The little likeness that there is -between them is rather due to the fact that in -Northern Europe generally, whether Celtic or Teutonic, -a strictly city episcopate like that of Italy and Gaul -was something which in the nature of things could -not be.</p> - -<p>In truth the antiquities of the Celtic churches may -fairly be left to be matter of local or of special ecclesiastical -inquiry. Their effect on history is slight; their -effect on historical geography is still slighter. For -our purpose the ecclesiastical geography of Britain may -be looked on as beginning with the mission of Augustine. -The English Church was formed, and the Welsh, -Scottish, and Irish Churches were reconstructed, partly -under its authority, altogether after its model. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Schemes of -Gregory the -Great.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the -original scheme of Gregory the Great, Britain was clearly -meant to be divided into two ecclesiastical provinces -nearly equal in extent. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Two equal -provinces in -Britain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Celtic churches were to be -brought under the same ecclesiastical obedience as the -heathen English. As Wales was to form part of the -lot of the southern metropolitan, so Scotland was to -form part of the lot of the northern. This scheme was -never fully carried out. Wales was indeed brought -into full submission to Canterbury; but Scotland was -never brought into the same full submission to York. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relation of -the Scottish -Bishops to -York.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The allegiance of the Scottish sees to their Northumbrian -metropolis was at all times very precarious, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">{181}</a></span> -it was in the end formally thrown off altogether. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Suffragan -sees of -Canterbury -and York.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of -this came the singular disproportion in the territorial -extent of the two English ecclesiastical provinces. -Canterbury, since the English Church was thoroughly -organized, has had a number of suffragans which would -be unusual anywhere on the continent, while York has -always had comparatively few, and for a considerable -time had practically one only.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Foundation -of the -existing -dioceses.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The systematic mapping out of Britain for ecclesiastical -purposes, as designed by Gregory, was therefore -never fully carried out. The actual provinces and -dioceses were gradually formed, as the various English -existing kingdoms embraced Christianity. As a rule, -each kingdom or independent principality became a diocese. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Territorial -bishoprics<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, except in the case of a few sees fixed in cities -which kept on something of old Roman memories, the -bishops were more commonly called from the people -who formed their flock, than from the cities which in -some cases contained their chairs. For in many cases -the <i>bishop-settle</i>, as our forefathers called it, was -not placed in a city at all, but in some rural or even -solitary spot. It was not till the time of the Norman -Conquest that a movement began for systematically -placing the ecclesiastical sees in the chief towns; -from that time the civic title altogether displaces the -territorial.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Canterbury.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>As Kent was the first part of Teutonic Britain to -accept Christianity, the metropolitan see of the south -was fixed at <i>Canterbury</i>, the capital of that kingdom. -It was thus fixed in a city which has at no time held -that temporal preeminence which has in different ages -belonged to York, Winchester, and London. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rochester.<br /> -London.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After -Canterbury the earliest formed sees were <i>Rochester</i> for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">{182}</a></span> -the West-Kentish kingdom, and <i>London</i> for the East-Saxons. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dorchester -or Winchester. -Sherborne, -Wells, -Ramsbury.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The conversion of the West-Saxons led to the -foundation of the great diocese whose see was first at -<i>Dorchester</i> on the Thames and then at <i>Winchester</i>, and -from which the sees of <i>Sherborne</i>, <i>Wells</i>, and <i>Ramsbury</i> -were gradually parted off. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Elmham.<br /> -Dorchester -or Lincoln.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The East-Angles formed a -diocese with its see at <i>Elmham</i>; -the Middle-Angles -settled down, after some shiftings, into the vast diocese -stretching from the Thames to the Humber, whose see, -first at <i>Dorchester</i>, was afterwards translated to <i>Lincoln</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Worcester, -Hereford, -Lichfield.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The West-Mercian lands formed the dioceses of the -Hwiccas at <i>Worcester</i>, of the Magesætas at <i>Hereford</i>, -and the great diocese of <i>Lichfield</i>, stretching northward -to the Ribble. The South-Saxons, whose see kept its -tribal name down to the Norman Conquest, had their see -first at <i>Selsey</i>, and then at <i>Chichester</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Exeter.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Devonshire and -Cornwall, after forming two dioceses, were, just before -the Norman Conquest, united under the single see of -<i>Exeter</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Welsh -Sees.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Conquest too brought about the more -complete submission of the four Welsh sees, <i>Saint -David’s</i>, <i>Llandaff</i>, <i>Bangor</i>, and <i>Saint Asaph</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Salisbury, -1078.<br /> -Ely, 1109.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the -times just before and just after the Conquest belong -the union of Sherborne and Ramsbury to form the -diocese of <i>Salisbury</i>, and the dismemberment of the -huge diocese of Lincoln by the foundation of an episcopal -see at <i>Ely</i>. Thus the province of Canterbury -with its suffragan sees was gradually organized in the -form which it kept from the reign of Henry the First -to that of Henry the Eighth.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile in the northern province things never -reached the same regular organization. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>York.<br /> -Lindisfarn<br /> -or Durham,<br /> -Carlisle, -1133.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -York, after -some changes, took the position of a metropolitan see, -with one suffragan, first at <i>Lindisfarn</i> -and afterwards at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">{183}</a></span> -<i>Durham</i>, -and another at <i>Carlisle</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saint -Andrews, -1471.<br /> -Glasgow. -1492.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the Scottish -dioceses broke off from York, they first acknowledged -a kind of precedence in the Bishop of <i>St. Andrews</i>; -but it was not till a far later time that Scotland was -divided into two regular ecclesiastical provinces with -their sees at <i>St. Andrews</i> and <i>Glasgow</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Edinburgh. -1634.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Several of the -Scottish dioceses always kept their territorial titles; -their sees were mostly fixed in small places; and of the -chief seats of Scottish royalty, Dunfermline and Stirling -never attained episcopal rank at all, -and <i>Edinburgh</i> only -attained it in quite modern times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The four -Irish provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The endless and fluctuating -bishoprics of Ireland were in the twelfth century -gathered into the four provinces of <i>Armagh</i>, <i>Dublin</i>, -<i>Cashel</i>, and <i>Tuam</i>, answering to the temporal divisions -of <i>Ulster</i>, <i>Leinster</i>, <i>Munster</i>, and <i>Connaught</i>. It is to -be noticed that, in marked contradiction to continental -practice, the chief see in all the three British kingdoms -has been placed in a city which has never held the first -temporal rank. Canterbury, St. Andrews, Armagh, -were never the temporal heads of England, Scotland, -and Ireland. York, Dublin, Glasgow, though metropolitan -sees, were of secondary rank, and London and -Winchester were ordinary bishoprics.</p> - - -<h3>§ 6. <i>The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Northern and Eastern Europe.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ecclesiastical -division -in the converted -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the other parts of Europe which formed part -of the communion of the Latin Church, the ecclesiastical -divisions mark the steps by which Christianity -was spread either by conversion or conquest. They -continued the process of which the ecclesiastical organization -of Eastern Germany was the beginning. As -a rule, they strictly follow the political divisions of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">{184}</a></span> -age in which they were founded. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Scandinavian -provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the Church in -the Scandinavian kingdoms became more settled, its -bishoprics parted off from their allegiance to Hamburg -or Bremen, and each of the three kingdoms formed -an ecclesiastical province, whose boundaries exactly -answered to the earlier boundaries of the kingdoms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lund, -1151.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Denmark had its metropolitan see at <i>Lund</i>, in that part of -the Danish kingdom which geographically forms part -of the greater Scandinavian peninsula, and which is now -Swedish territory. Its boundary to the south was the -Eider, the old frontier of Denmark and the Empire. -The suffragan sees of this province, among which the -specially royal bishopric of <i>Roeskild</i> is the most famous, -naturally lie thicker on the ground than they do in -the wilder regions of the two more northern kingdoms. -But the Baltic conquests of Denmark also placed part -of the isle of Rügen in the province of Lund and -the diocese of Roeskild, and also gave the Danish -metropolitan a far more distant suffragan in the Bishop -of <i>Revel</i> on the Finnish gulf. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Upsala.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The metropolitan see of -Sweden was placed at <i>Upsala</i>, and the province was -carried by Swedish conquest to the east of the Gulf of -Bothnia, where the single bishopric of <i>Abo</i> took in the -whole of the Swedish territory in that region. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Trondhjem.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In -the like sort, the Norwegian province of <i>Nidaros</i> or -<i>Trondhjem</i> stretched far over the Ocean to the distant -Colonies and dependencies of Norway in Iceland, Greenland, -and Man.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Poland, &c.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The conversion of Poland and the conquest of -Prussia and Livonia brought other lands within the pale -of the Latin Church and her ecclesiastical organization. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gnezna.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The original kingdom of Poland formed the province of -<i>Gnezna</i>, a province whose boundaries were for some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">{185}</a></span> -centuries very fluctuating, according as Poland or the -Empire was stronger in the Slavonic lands on the -Baltic. Each change of temporal dominion caused -the ecclesiastical frontiers of Gnezna and Magdeburg -to advance or fall back. The Silesian bishopric of -<i>Breslau</i> always kept its old relation to the Polish metropolis, -except so far as it was held to be placed under -the immediate superiority of Rome. The later union of -Lithuania to the Polish kingdom added a <i>Lithuanian</i> -and a <i>Samogitian</i> bishopric to the original Polish -province. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Riga.<br /> -Leopol.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The earlier Polish conquests from Russia -formed a new province, -the Latin province of <i>Leopol</i> -or <i>Lemberg</i>, a province whose southern boundaries advanced -and fell back along with the boundary of the -kingdom of which it formed a part. The conquests of -the Teutonic knights in Prussia and Livonia formed the -ecclesiastical province of <i>Riga</i>, which was divided into -two parts by the province of Gnezna in its greater -extent.</p> - - -<p class="p2">It will be seen that some of the ecclesiastical divisions -last mentioned belong to a later stage of European -history than the point which we have reached in our -general narrative. But it seemed better to continue -the survey over the whole of the Latin Church in -Europe, as the later foundations are a mere carrying -out of the same process which began in the earlier. The -ecclesiastical divisions represent the political divisions -of the time, whether those political divisions are -Roman provinces or independent Teutonic or Slavonic -kingdoms. But the ecclesiastical divisions, when -once fixed, were more lasting than the temporal -divisions, and many disputes have arisen out of political<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">{186}</a></span> -changes which transferred one part of a province or -diocese from one political allegiance to another. Since -the splitting-up of the Western Church, the old ecclesiastical -organization has altogether vanished from some -countries, and has been greatly modified in others, in -Germany most of all.</p> - -<p>It seems hardly needful for the understanding of -European history to carry our ecclesiastical survey beyond -the limits of the Latin Church. One of the -Polish provinces, that of Leopol, has carried us to the -borderland of the Eastern and Western Churches, and, -if we pass southwards into the Magyar and South-Slavonic -lands, we find ourselves still more distinctly -on an ecclesiastical march. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hungary.<br /> -Strigonium.<br /> -Kolocza.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Kingdom of Hungary -formed two Latin provinces, those of <i>Strigonium</i> or -Gran, and of <i>Kolocza</i>; the latter has a very fluctuating -boundary to the south. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dalmatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Dalmatian coast, the -borderland of all powers and of all religions, formed -three Latin provinces. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Zara.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Jadera</i> or <i>Zara</i>, on her peninsula, -was the head of a small province chiefly made -up of islands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spalato.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another metropolitan had his throne in -the very mausoleum of Diocletian, and the province of -<i>Spalato</i> stretched some way inland over the lands which -have so often changed masters. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ragusa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south, the see -of <i>Ragusa</i>, the furthest outpost of Latin Christendom -properly so called, had, besides its own coasts and -islands, an indefinite frontier inland. This marks the -furthest extent to which it is needful to trace our -ecclesiastical map. It is the furthest point at which -Latin Christianity can be said to be in any sense at home. -The ecclesiastical organization of the crusading and -Venetian conquests further to the south and east have -but little bearing on historical geography. But, within<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">{187}</a></span> -the bounds of Latin Christendom, the ecclesiastical -divisions both of the provinces and dioceses within the -older Empire and what we may call the missionary -provinces beyond it, are of the highest importance, and -they should always be kept in mind alongside of the -political geography.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">{188}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Kingdom -of the -<i>East-Franks</i> -or -of <i>Germany</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> division of 887 parted off from the general mass -of the Frankish dominions a distinct <i>Kingdom of the -East-Franks</i>, the acknowledged head of the Frankish -kingdoms, which, as being distinguished from its fellows -as the <i>Regnum Teutonicum</i>, may be best spoken of as a -<i>Kingdom of Germany</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Merging of -the Kingdom -in the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the lasting acquisition of -the Italian and Imperial crowns by the German kings, -and their later acquisition of the kingdom of Burgundy, -gradually tended to obscure the notion of a distinct -German kingdom. The idea of the Kingdom was -merged in the idea of the Empire of which it formed -a part. Later events too tended in the same direction. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Emperors -lose -Italy and -Burgundy, -but keep -Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Italian kingdom gradually fell off from any practical -allegiance to its nominal king the Emperor. So did -the greater part of the Burgundian kingdom. Meanwhile, -though the powers of the Emperors as German -kings were constantly lessening, their authority was -never wholly thrown off till the present century. The -Emperors in short lost their kingdoms of Italy and -Burgundy, and kept their kingdom of Germany. In -the fifteenth century the coronation of the Emperor at -Rome had become a mere ceremony, carrying with it -no real authority in Italy. In the sixteenth century -the ceremony itself went out of use. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Charles the -Fourth -crowned at -Arles, 1365.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Burgundian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">{189}</a></span> -coronation at Arles became irregular at a very early -time, and it is last heard of in the fourteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1792.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the election of the German kings at Frankfurt, -their coronation, in earlier times at Aachen, afterwards -at Frankfurt, -went on regularly till the last years of the -eighteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Endurance -of the German -Diet.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -So, while the national assemblies -of Italy and Burgundy can hardly be said to have been -regularly held at all, while they went altogether out of -use at an early time, the national assembly of Germany, -in one shape or another, never ceased as long as there -was any one calling himself Emperor or German King. -The tendency in all three kingdoms was to split up -into separate principalities and commonwealths. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -of Germany, -Italy, and -Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -in Germany the principalities and commonwealths -always kept up some show of connexion with one -another, some show of allegiance to their Imperial -head. In Italy and Burgundy they parted off altogether. -Some became absolutely independent; were -incorporated with other kingdoms or became their -distant dependencies; some were even held by the -Emperors themselves in some other character, and not -by virtue either of their Empire or of their local kingship. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Empire -identified -with -Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus, as the Empire became more and more -nearly coextensive with the German Kingdom, the -distinction between the two was gradually forgotten. -The small parts of the other kingdoms which kept any -trace of their Imperial allegiance came to be looked on -as parts of Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Empire -becomes a -Confederation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In short, the Western Empire -became a German kingdom; or rather it became a -German Confederation with a royal head, a confederation -which still kept up the forms and titles of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1530.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As no German king received an Imperial coronation -after Charles the Fifth, it might in strictness be said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">{190}</a></span> -that the Empire came to an end at his abdication. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1556.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And in truth from that date the Empire practically became -a purely German power. But, as the Imperial -forms and titles still went on, the Western Empire -must be looked on as surviving, in the form of a -German kingdom or confederation, down to its final -fall.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The German -Kingdom -represents -the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Kingdom of Germany then may be looked on -as representing the Western Empire, as being what -was left of the Western Empire after the other parts of -it had fallen away. But the German kingdom itself -underwent, though in a smaller degree, the same fate -as the other two Imperial kingdoms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separation -of parts of -the Kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -While all Italy -and all Burgundy, with some very trifling exceptions, -fell away from the Empire, the mass of Germany -remained Imperial. Still large parts of Germany -were lost to the Empire no less than Italy and Burgundy. -A considerable territory on the western and -south-western frontier of Germany gradually fell away. -Part of this territory has grown into independent -states; part has been incorporated with the French -kingdom. The Swiss Confederation has grown up on -lands partly German, partly Burgundian, partly Italian, -but of which the oldest and greatest part belonged to -the German kingdom. The Confederation of the -United Provinces, represented by the modern kingdom -of the Netherlands, lay wholly<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> within the old German -kingdom: so did by far the greater part of the modern -kingdom of Belgium. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Modern -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In our own day the same tendency -has been shewn in south-eastern as well as -south-western Germany; several members of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">{191}</a></span> -ancient kingdom have fallen away to form part of the -Austro-Hungarian monarchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extension -of Germany -to the -north-east.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But on the northern -and north-eastern frontier the tendency to extension, -with some fluctuations, has gone on from the beginning -of the kingdom to our own day. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -contrast -of the -earlier and -later Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This tendency to lose -territory to the west and south, and to gain territory to -the east and north, had the effect of gradually cutting -off the Western Empire, as represented by the German -kingdom, from any close geographical connexion -with the earlier Empire of which it was the historical -continuation. The Holy Roman Empire, at -the time of its final fall, contained but little territory -which had formed part of the Empire of Trajan. It -contained nothing which had formed part of the Empire -of Justinian, save some small scraps of territory in the -north-eastern corner of the old Italian kingdom.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Kingdom of Germany.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Change in -the geography -and -nomenclature -of Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">In tracing out, for our present purpose, the geographical -revolutions of Germany, it will be enough to -look at them, as far as may be, mainly in their European -aspect. Owing to the gradual way in which the -various members of the Empire grew into practical -sovereignty—owing to the constant division of principalities -among many members of the same family—no -country has undergone so many internal geographical -changes as Germany has. In few countries also has -the nomenclature shifted in a more singular way. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ancient -and modern -Saxony and -Bavaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To -take two obvious examples, the modern kingdom of -<i>Saxony</i> has nothing but its name in common with the -Saxony which was brought under the Frankish dominion -by Charles the Great. The modern kingdom -of <i>Bavaria</i> has a considerable territory in common<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">{192}</a></span> -with the ancient Bavaria; but it has gained so much -at one end and lost so much at the other that the two -cannot be said to be in any practical sense the same -country. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Uses of the -name -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The name of <i>Austria</i> has shifted from the -eastern part of the old <i>Francia</i> to the German mark -against the Magyar, and it has lately wandered altogether -beyond the modern German frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -name of <i>Burgundy</i> has borne endless meanings, both -within the Empire and beyond it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prussia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, the ruling -state of modern Germany, a state stretching across -the whole land from east to west, strangely bears -the name of the conquered and extinct <i>Prussian</i> -race. Many of these changes affect the history of Europe -as well as the history of Germany; but many -of the endless changes among the smaller members -of the Empire are matters of purely local interest, -which belong to the historical geography of Germany -only, and which claim no place in the historical geography -of Europe. I shall endeavour therefore in the -present section, first to trace carefully the shiftings of -the German frontier as regards other powers, and -then to bring out such, and such only, of the internal -changes as have a bearing on the general history of -Europe.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The extent of the German kingdom as it stood -after the division of 887 has been roughly traced -already. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Boundaries -under the -Ottos, 936-1002.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It will now be well to go over its frontiers -somewhat more minutely, as they stood at the time of -final separation between the Empire and the West-Frankish -kingdom, the time of final union between the -Empire and the East-Frankish kingdom. This marks the -great age of the Saxon Ottos. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Boundary -towards the -West.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The frontier towards the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">{193}</a></span> -Western kingdom was now fairly ascertained, and -it was subject to dispute only at a few points. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lotharingia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It -is hardly needful to insist again on the fact that all -Lotharingia, in the sense of those days, taking in -all the southern Netherlands except the French fief -of Flanders, was now Imperial. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Encroachments -of -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is along this -line that the German border has in later times most -largely fallen back. The advance of France has -touched Burgundy more than Germany; but it has, -first swallowed up, and afterwards partly restored, -a considerable part of the German kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Netherlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Netherlands had been practically so cut off from Germany -before the annexations of France in that quarter -began, that they will be better spoken of in another -section. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lorraine -and Elsass.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The other points at which the frontier -has fluctuated on a great scale have been the border -land of <i>Lorraine</i>—as distinguished from the Lower -<i>Lotharingia</i> which has more to do with the history -of the Netherlands—and the Swabian land of -<i>Elsass</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -of Bar.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Duchy of <i>Bar</i>, the borderland of the -borderland, fluctuated more than once. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1473.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After its -union with the Duchy of Lorraine, it followed the -fortunes of that state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Three -Bishoprics, -1552.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the next century came -the annexation of the three Lotharingian bishoprics -of <i>Metz</i>, <i>Toul</i>, and <i>Verdun</i>, which gave France three -outlying possessions within the geographical borders -of the Lotharingian duchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Austrian -Elsass, -1648.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the next century, -as the result of the Thirty Years’ War, France obtained -by the Peace of Westfalia the formal cession of -these conquests, and also the great advance of her -frontier by the dismemberment of <i>Elsass</i>. The cession -now made did not take in the whole of Elsass, but only -the possessions and rights of the House of Austria in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">{194}</a></span> -that country. This cession still left both Strassburg -and various smaller towns and districts to the Empire; -but it naturally opened the way to further French -advances in a land where the frontier was so complicated -and where difficulties were so easily raised as to -treaty-rights. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gradual annexation -of -Elsass, -1679-1789.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A series of annexations, <i>réunions</i> as they -were called, gradually united nearly all Elsass to France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Seizure of -Strassburg, -1681.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Strassburg</i>, as all the world knows, was seized by Lewis -the Fourteenth in time of peace. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Seizure of -Lorraine, -1678-1697.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the wars with -the same prince, the duchy of Lorraine was seized and -restored. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its final -annexation. -1766.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the next century it was separated from -the Empire to become the life-possession of the Polish -king Stanislaus, and on his death it was finally added -to France just before a far greater series of French -annexations began. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -left bank of -the Rhine, -1801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The wars of the French Revolution, -confirmed by the Peace of <i>Luneville</i>, tore away from -Germany and the Empire all that lay on the left bank -of the Rhine. In other words, the Western <i>Francia</i>, -the duchy of the lords of Paris, advanced itself to the -utmost limits of the Gaul of Cæsar. This was the last -annexation of France at the expense of the old German -kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dissolution -of the -Kingdom -and Empire, -1806.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was indeed the main cause of the formal -dissolution of the kingdom which happened a few years -later. The utter transformation of Germany within and -without which now followed must be spoken of at a -later stage.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Frontier of -Germany -and Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The frontier of Germany and Burgundy, while they -still remained distinct kingdoms, fluctuated a good -deal, especially in the lands which now form Switzerland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Burgundy -with the -Empire, -1033.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But this frontier ceased to be of any practical -importance when the Burgundian kingdom was united -with the Empire. The later history of Burgundy, consisting -of the gradual incorporation by France of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">{195}</a></span> -greater part of the kingdom, and the growth of the -remnant into the western cantons of the Swiss Confederation, -will be told elsewhere.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Frontier of -Germany -and Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Towards Italy again the frontier was sometimes -doubtful. <i>Chiavenna</i>, for instance, sometimes appears -in the tenth and eleventh centuries as German; so do -the greater districts of <i>Trent</i>, <i>Aquileia</i>, <i>Istria</i>, and even -<i>Verona</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Marchland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All these formed a marchland, part of which -in the end became definitely attached to Germany and -part to Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -the Crowns, -961-1530.<br /> -961-1250.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But here again, as long as the German -and Italian crowns were united, and as long as their -common king kept any real authority in either kingdom, -the frontier was of no great practical importance. -So in later times, both before and after the dissolution -of the German Kingdom, the question has practically -been a question between Italy and the House of Austria -rather than between Italy and Germany as such. These -changes also will better come in another section.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Eastern and -Northern -frontiers.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The case is quite different with regard to the -eastern and northern frontiers, on which the really -greatest changes took place, and where Germany, as -Germany, made its greatest advances. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -of the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Along this line -the Roman Empire and the German Kingdom meant the -same thing. On this side the frontier had to be marked, -so far as it could be marked, against nations which -had had nothing to do with the elder Empire. Here -then for many ages the Roman Terminus advanced and -fell back according to the accidents of a long warfare.</p> - -<p>The whole frontier of the kingdom towards its -northern and eastern neighbours was defended by a -series of <i>marks</i> or border territories whose rulers were -clothed with special powers for the defence and extension<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">{196}</a></span> -of the frontier.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> They had to guard the realm -against the Dane in the north, and against the Slave -during the whole remaining length of the eastern frontier, -except where, in the last years of the ninth century, -the Magyar thrust himself in between the northern and -southern Slaves. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hungarian -frontier.<br /> -Mark of -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Here the frontier, as against Hungary -and Croatia, was defended by the marks of <i>Krain</i> or -<i>Carniola</i>, <i>Kärnthen</i> or <i>Carinthia</i>, -<i>Austrian</i> mark to the north of them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Little -change on -this -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This frontier -has changed least of all. It may, without any great -breach of accuracy, be said to have remained the -same from the days of the Saxon Emperors till now. -The part where it was at all fluctuating was along the -Austrian mark, rather than along the two marks to -the south of it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Occasional -homage of -Hungary to -the Emperors.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Emperors claimed, and sometimes -enforced, a feudal superiority over the Hungarian -kings. But this kind of precarious submission does -not affect geography. Hungary always remained a -separate kingdom; the Imperial supremacy was something -purely external, and it was always thrown off -on the first opportunity.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Frontier -towards -Denmark.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The same may be said of <i>Denmark</i>. For a short -time a German mark was formed north of the Eider. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Danish -Mark, 934-1027.<br /> -Boundary -of the -Eider, -1027-1806.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, when the Danish kingdom had grown into the -Northern Empire of Cnut, the German frontier fell back -here also, and the <i>Eider</i> remained the boundary of the -Empire till its fall. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Occasional -homage of -the Danish -Kings.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As with Hungary, so with Denmark; -more than one Danish king became the man of -Cæsar; but here again the precarious acknowledgement -of Imperial supremacy had no effect on geography.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slavonic -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It is in the intermediate lands, along the vast<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">{197}</a></span> -frontier where the Empire marched on the northern -<i>Slavonic</i> lands, that the real historical geography of -Germany lies for some ages. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuation -of territory.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Here the boundary was -ever fluctuating. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the time of the division of 887, -the Slaves held all east of the Elbe and a good deal -to the west. How far they had during the Wandering -of the Nations stepped into the place of earlier Teutonic -inhabitants is a question which belongs to another -field of inquiry. We must here start from the geographical -fact that, at the time when the modern states -of Europe began to form themselves, the Slaves were -actually in possession of the great North-Eastern region -of modern Germany. Their special mention will come in -their special place; we must here mark that modern -Germany has largely formed itself by the gradual conquest -and colonization of lands which at the end of the -ninth century were Slavonic. The German kingdom -spread itself far to the North-East, and German settlements -and German influences spread themselves far beyond -the formal bounds of the German kingdom. Three -special instruments worked together in bringing about -this end. The Saxon Dukes came first. In after times -came the great league of German cities, the famous -<i>Hansa</i> which, like some other bodies originally commercial, -became a political power, and which spread German -influences over the whole of the shores of the Baltic. -Along with them, from the thirteenth century onwards, -worked the great military order of the Teutonic knights. -Out of their conquests came the first beginnings of the -Prussian state, and the extension of German rule and -the German speech over much which in modern geography -has become Russian. In a history of the German -nation all these causes would have to be dealt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">{198}</a></span> -with together as joint instruments towards the same -end. In a purely geographical view the case is different. -Some of these influences concern the formation of the -actual German kingdom; others have geographically -more to do with the group of powers more to the north-east, -the Slavonic states of Poland and Russia, and their -Lithuanian and Finnish neighbours. The growth and -fall of the military orders will therefore most naturally -come in another section. We have here to trace -out those changes only which helped to give the German -kingdom the definite geographical extent which it -held for some centuries before its final fall.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Saxon -Mark.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Beginning at the north, in the lands where German, -Slave, and Dane came into close contact, in <i>Saxony -beyond the Elbe</i>, the modern <i>Holstein</i>, the Slaves held -the western coast, and the narrow <i>Saxon mark</i> fenced -off the German land. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mark of -the Billungs, -960-1106.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Saxon dukes of the house -of Billung formed a German mark, which took in the -lands reaching from the Elbe to the strait which divides -the isle of Rügen from the mainland. But this possession -was altogether precarious. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its fluctuations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It again became a Slavonic -kingdom; then it was a possession of Denmark; -it cannot be looked on as definitely becoming part -of the German realm till the thirteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slavonic -princes continue -in -Mecklenburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -chief state in these lands which has lasted till later -times is the duchy of <i>Mecklenburg</i>, the rulers of which, -in its two modern divisions, are the only modern princes -who directly represent an old Slavonic royal house. -Meanwhile a way was opened for a vast extension of -German influence through the whole North, by the -growth of the city of <i>Lübeck</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Foundation -of Lübeck, -1140-1158.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Twice founded, the -second time by Henry the Lion Duke of Saxony, -it gradually became the leading member of the great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">{199}</a></span> -merchant League. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Hanse -Towns.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south of these lands come -those Slavonic lands which have grown into the modern -kingdom of Saxony and the central parts of the -modern kingdom of Prussia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Marchlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were specially -marchlands, a name which some of them have kept -down to our own day. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Brandenburg.<br /> -Lausitz.<br /> -Meissen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The mark of <i>Brandenburg</i> in -its various divisions, -the mark of <i>Lausitz</i> or <i>Lusatia</i>, -where a Slavonic remnant still lingers, -and the mark of <i>Meissen</i>, long preserved the memory of the times -when these lands, which afterwards came to play so -great a part in the internal history of Germany, were -still outlying and precarious possessions of the German -realm.</p> - -<p class="pb2">To the south-east lay the <i>Bohemian</i> lands, whose -history has been somewhat different. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bohemia a -fief, 928.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The duchy, afterwards -kingdom, of <i>Bohemia</i>, became, early in the tenth -century, a fief of the German kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Becomes a -kingdom, -1198.<br /> -1003.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From that time -ever afterwards, save during one moment of passing -Polish annexation, it remained one of its principal members, -ruled, as long as the Empire lasted, by princes -holding electoral rank. The boundaries of the kingdom -itself have hardly varied at all. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Moravia.<br /> -1019.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dependent marchland -of <i>Moravia</i> to the east, the remnant of the great -Moravian kingdom whose history will come more fittingly -in another chapter, fluctuated for a long while -between Hungarian, Polish, and Bohemian supremacy. -But from the early part of the eleventh century it -remained under Bohemian rule, and therefore under -Imperial superiority. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>More distant -Slavonic -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the east of this nearer zone -of Slavonic dependencies, lay another range of Slavonic -states, some of which were gradually incorporated -with the German kingdom, while others remained -distinct down to modern times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pomerania.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Pomerania</i> on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">{200}</a></span> -Baltic coast is a name which has often changed both -its geographical extent and its political allegiance. -The eastern part of the land now so called lay -open, as will be hereafter seen, to the occupation of -the Pole, and its western part to that of the Dane. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Native -princes -go on.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But in the end it took its place on the map in -the form of two duchies, ruled, like Mecklenburg, by -native princes under Imperial supremacy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Polish -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -South of -Pomerania, the German march bordered on the growing -power of <i>Poland</i>, and between Poland and Hungary -lay the northern <i>Croatia</i> or <i>Chrobatia</i>. The -German supremacy seems sometimes to have been -extended as far as the Wartha, and, in the Chrobatian -land, even beyond the Vistula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Occasional -homage of -the Polish -kings.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But this occupation was -quite momentary; Poland grew up, like Hungary, as -a kingdom, some of whose dukes and kings admitted -the Imperial supremacy, but which gradually became -wholly independent. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Silesia -Polish, 999.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The border province of <i>Silesia</i>, -after some fluctuations between Bohemia and Poland, -became definitely Polish at the end of the tenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bohemian, -1289-1327.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Afterwards it was divided into several principalities, -whose dukes passed under Bohemian vassalage, -and so became members of the Empire. Thus in the -course of some ages, a boundary was drawn between -Germany and Poland which lasted down to modern -times.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extension -of the Empire -to the -east.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The result of this survey is to show how great, and -at the same time how gradual, was the extension of -the German power eastward. A Roman Empire with -a long Baltic coast was something that had never been -dreamed of in earlier days. -If the extension of the -German name was but the recovery of long lost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">{201}</a></span> -Teutonic lands, the extension to them of the Imperial -name which had become identified with Germany -was at least wholly new. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Slavonic -lands -Germanized.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In all the lands -now annexed, save in a few exceptional districts, -German annexation meant German colonization, and -the assimilation of the surviving inhabitants to the -speech and manners of Germany. Colonists were -brought, specially from the Frisian lands, by whose -means the Low-Dutch tongue was spread along the -whole southern coast of the Baltic. German cities were -founded. The marchlands grew into powerful German -states. At last one of these marchlands, united with -a German conquest still further cut off from the heart -of the old German realm, has grown into a state which -in our own days has become the Imperial power of -Germany.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Internal -geography -of Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The internal geography of the German kingdom is -the greatest difficulty of such a work as the present. To -trace the boundaries of the kingdom as against other -kingdoms is comparatively easy; but to trace out the -endless shiftings, the unions and the divisions, of the -countless small principalities and commonwealths which -arose within the kingdom, would be a hopeless attempt. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the principalities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Still the growth of the dukes, counts, and other princes -of Germany into independent sovereigns is the great -feature of German history, as the consequent wiping -out of old divisions, and shifting to and fro of old names, -is the special feature of German historical geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes in -nomenclature.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dying out of the old names has a historical -interest, and the growth of the new powers which -have supplanted them has both an historical and a -political interest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -Prussia and -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is specially important to mark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">{202}</a></span> -how the two powers which have stood at the head of -Germany in modern times in no way represent any of -the old divisions of the German name. They have -grown out of the outlying <i>marks</i> planted against the -Slave and the Magyar. The mark of <i>Brandenburg</i>, the -mark against the Slave, has grown into the kingdom of -<i>Prussia</i>, the Imperial state of Germany in its latest -form. The <i>Eastern</i> mark, the mark against the Magyar, -has grown into the archduchy which gave Germany so -many kings, into the so-called Austrian ‘empire,’ into -the Austro-Hungarian monarchy of our own day. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Analogies -between -Brandenburg -and -other -marchlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -growth of Brandenburg or Prussia again affords an -instructive comparison with the growth of Wessex in -England, of France in Gaul, and of Castile in Spain. -In all these cases alike, it has been a marchland -which has come to the front and has become the head -of the united nation.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The great -Duchies -under the -Saxon and -Frankish -Kings, 919-1125.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Starting from the division of 887, we shall find -several important landmarks in the history of the -German kingdom which may help us in this most -difficult part of our work. Under the Saxon and -Frankish kings we see the great duchies still forming -the main divisions, while the kingdom is enlarged by -Slavonic conquests to the east and by the definite adhesion -of Lotharingia to the west. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Decline of -the Duchies -under the -Swabian -Kings, -1137-1254.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under the Swabian -kings we see the break-up of the great duchies. In -the partition of Saxony the process which was everywhere -silently and gradually at work was formally -carried out in the greatest case of all by Imperial, -and national authority. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>End of the -<i>Gauverfassung</i>.<br /> -Growth of -territorial -Principalities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>Gauverfassung</i>, the immemorial -system of Teutonic communities, now finally -changes into a system of territorial principalities, broken -only by the many free cities and the few free districts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">{203}</a></span> -which owned no lord but the King. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the march -powers. -1254-1512.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During this period -too we see the beginnings of some of the powers which -became chief at a later day, the powers of the eastern -marchland, <i>Brandenburg</i>, <i>Austria</i>, <i>Saxony</i> in the later -sense. The time from the so-called <i>Interregnum</i> to the -legislation under Maximilian is marked by the further -growth of these powers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the House -of Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is further marked by the -beginning of that connexion of the Austrian duchy, and -of the Imperial crown itself, with lands beyond the -bounds of the Kingdom and the Empire which led in -the end to the special and anomalous position of the -House of Austria as an European power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separation -of Switzerland, -1495-1648.<br /> -Of the Netherlands, -1430-1648.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the -same period comes the practical separation of <i>Switzerland</i> -and the <i>Netherlands</i> from the German kingdom. -In short it was during this age that Germany in its later -aspect was formed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Legislation -under Maximilian, -1495-1512.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The legislation of Maximilian’s reign, -the attempts then made to bring the kingdom to a greater -degree of unity, have left their mark on geography -in the division of Germany into <i>circles</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division -into circles, -1500-1512.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This division, -though it was not perfectly complete, though it did not -extend to every corner of the kingdom, was strictly an -administrative division of the kingdom itself as such; -but the mapping out of the circles, the difference of which -in point of size is remarkable, was itself affected by the -geographical extent of the dominions of the princes who -held lands within them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Thirty -Years’ War, -1618-1648.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The seventeenth century is -marked by the results of the Thirty Years’ War and of -other changes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Powers -holding -lands within -and without -Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its most important geographical result -was to carry on the process which had begun with the -Austrian House, the formation of powers holding lands -both within and without the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austria.<br /> -Sweden.<br /> -Union of -Brandenburg -and -Prussia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus, beside -the union of the Hungarian kingdom with the Austrian -archduchy, the King of Sweden now held lands as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">{204}</a></span> -prince of the Empire, and the same result was brought -about in another way by the union of the Electorate of -Brandenburg with the Duchy of Prussia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivalry of -Prussia and -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This, and -other accessions of territory, now made Brandenburg -as distinctly the first power of northern Germany as -Austria was of southern Germany, and in the eighteenth -century the rivalry of these two powers becomes the -chief centre, not only of German but of European politics. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hannover -and Great -Britain, -1715.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The union of the Electorate of Hannover under the -same sovereign with the kingdom of Great Britain -further increased the number of princes ruling both -within Germany and without it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dissolution -of the Kingdom, -1806.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, the wars of -the latter years of the eighteenth and the beginning of -the nineteenth century led to the dissolution alike of -the German kingdom and of the Roman Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The German -Confederation, -1815-1866.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then, after a time of confusion and foreign occupation, -comes the formation of a Confederation with boundaries -nearly the same as the later boundaries of the kingdom. -But the Confederation now appears as something quite -subordinate to its two leading members. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austria and -Prussia -greater -than the -Confederation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Germany, as -such, no longer counts as a great European power, -but Prussia and Austria, the two chief holders at -once of German and of non-German lands, stand forth -among the chief bearers of European rank. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The new -Confederation -and -Empire, -1866-1870.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, the -changes of our own day have given us an Imperial -Germany with geographical boundaries altogether new, -a Germany from which the south-eastern German lands -are cut off, while the Polish and other non-German -possessions of Prussia to the north-east have become -an integral part of the new Empire. The task of the -geographer is thereby greatly simplified. Down to the -last changes, one of his greatest difficulties is to make -his map show with any clearness what was the extent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">{205}</a></span> -of the German Kingdom or Confederation, and at the -same time what was the extent of the dominions of -those princes who held lands both in Germany and out -of it. By the last arrangements this difficulty at least -is altogether taken away.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Germany -under the -Saxon and -Frankish -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>If we look at the map of Germany under the Saxon -and Frankish Kings, we see that the old names, marking -the great divisions of the German people, still keep -their predominance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The great -Duchies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom is still made up of -the four great duchies, the Eastern <i>Francia</i>, <i>Saxony</i>, -<i>Alemannia</i>, and <i>Bavaria</i>, together with the great -border-land of <i>Lotharingia</i>. These are still the great -duchies, to which all smaller divisions are subordinate. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Eastern -Francia cut -off from extension.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among these, the kernel of the kingdom, the Eastern -<i>Francia</i>, is the only one whose boundaries had little -or no chance of being extended or lessened at the cost -of foreign powers. It had the smallest possible frontier -towards the Slave. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Frontier -position of -Saxony, -Bavaria, -and Alemannia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the other hand, <i>Saxony</i> has an -ever fluctuating boundary against the Slave and the -Dane; <i>Bavaria</i> marches upon the Slave, the Magyar, -and the Kingdom of Italy, while <i>Alemannia</i> has a -shifting frontier towards both Burgundy and Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Exposed -position of -Lotharingia -and Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lotharingia, and Burgundy after its annexation, are the -lands which lie exposed to aggression from the West. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Vanishing -of Francia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is perhaps for this very reason that, of the four -duchies which preserve the names of the four great -divisions of the German nation, the Eastern Francia is -the one which has most utterly vanished from the -modern map and from modern memory. Another -cause may have strengthened its tendency to vanish. -The policy of the kings forbade that the Frankish duchy -should become the abiding heritage of any princely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">{206}</a></span> -family. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its ecclesiastical -Dukes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The ducal title of the Eastern Francia was at -two periods of its history borne by ecclesiastical princes -in the persons of the Bishops of <i>Würzburg</i>; but it never -gave its name, like Saxony and Bavaria, to any ruling -house. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Analogy -with -Wessex.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The English student will notice the analogy -by which, among all the ancient English kingdoms, -Wessex, the cradle of the English monarchy, is the one -whose name has most utterly vanished from modern -memory.</p> - -<p class="pb2">The only way to grasp the endless shiftings and -divisions of the German principalities, so as to give -anything like a clear general view, will be to take the -great duchies, and to point out in a general way the -steps by which they split asunder, and the chief states -of any historical importance which rose out of their -divisions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -new powers -in the -twelfth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Most of these new powers begin to be of -importance in the twelfth century, a time which is -specially marked as the æra when those two states -which have had most to do with the making or unmaking -of modern Germany begin to find their place -in history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Brandenburg -and -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is then that the two great marchlands -of Brandenburg and Austria begin to take their place -among the leading powers of the German kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Circles.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, in making this survey, it will be well to bear in -mind the much later division into circles. The circles, -an attempt to create administrative divisions of the -kingdom as such, were, in a faint way, a return to the -ancient duchies, the names of which were to some -extent retained. Thus we have the two <i>Saxon</i> circles, -<i>Upper</i> and <i>Lower</i>, and the three of <i>Franconia</i>, <i>Swabia</i>, -and <i>Bavaria</i>. All of these keep up the names of -ancient duchies, and most of them keep up a stronger -or fainter geographical connexion with the ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">{207}</a></span> -lands whose names they bore. The other circles, the -two <i>Rhenish</i> circles, <i>Upper</i> and <i>Lower</i>, and those of -<i>Westfalia</i>, <i>Austria</i>, and <i>Burgundy</i>—the last name being -used in a sense altogether new—arose out of changes -which took place between the twelfth and fifteenth -centuries, some of which we shall have to notice.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saxony; its -three divisions, -Westfalia, -Angria, -Eastfalia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>First then, the great duchy of <i>Saxony</i> consisted of -three main divisions, <i>Westfalia</i>, <i>Engern</i> or <i>Angria</i>, -and <i>Eastfalia</i>. <i>Thuringia</i> to the south-east, and the -<i>Frisian</i> lands to the north-west, may be looked on as -in some sort appendages to the Saxon duchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -Saxony at -the expense -of the -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -duchy was also capable of any amount of extension -towards the east, and the lands gradually won from -the Wends on this side were all looked on as additions -made to the Saxon territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break-up of -the Duchy, -1182-1191.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the great Saxon -duchy was broken up at the fall of Henry the Lion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Westfalia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The archiepiscopal Electors of <i>Köln</i> received the title of -Dukes of <i>Westfalia</i> and <i>Engern</i>. But in the greater part -of those districts the grant remained merely nominal, -though the ducal title, with a small actual Westfalian -duchy, remained to the electorate till the end. From -these lands the Saxon name may be looked on as -having altogether passed away. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New use of -the name -<i>Saxony</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The name of <i>Saxony</i>, -as a geographical expression, clave to the Eastfalian -remnant of the old duchy, and to Thuringia and the -Slavonic conquests to the east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Saxon -Circles.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the later division -of Germany these lands formed the two circles of <i>Upper</i> -and <i>Lower Saxony</i>; and it was within their limits that -the various states arose which have kept on the Saxon -name to our own time.</p> - -<p>From the descendants of Henry the Lion himself, -and from the allodial lands which they kept, the Saxon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">{208}</a></span> -name passed away, except so far as they became part -of the Lower-Saxon circle. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Brunswick.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They held their place as -princes of the Empire, no longer as Dukes of Saxony, -but as Dukes of <i>Brunswick</i>, a house which gave Rome -one Emperor and England a dynasty of kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its division, -1203.<br /> -Lüneburg -and Wolfenbüttel.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After -some of the usual divisions, two Brunswick principalities -finally took their place on the map, those of <i>Lüneburg</i> -and <i>Wolfenbüttel</i>, the latter having the town of -Brunswick for its capital. The Lüneburg duchy grew. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lüneburg -acquires the -bishoprics -of Bremen -and -Verden, -1715-1719.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Late in the seventeenth century it was raised to the -electoral rank, and early in the next century it was -finally enlarged by the acquisition of the bishoprics -of <i>Bremen</i> and <i>Verden</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Electorate -of Hannover -or Brunswick -Lüneburg, -1692.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus was formed the Electorate, -and afterwards Kingdom, of <i>Hannover</i>, while the -simple ducal title remained with the Brunswick princes -of the other line.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The new -Saxony.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The Saxon name itself withdrew in the end from -the old Saxony to the lands conquered from the Slave. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bernhard -duke of -Saxony, -1180-1212.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the fall of Henry the Lion, the duchy of Saxony, -cut short by the grant to the archbishops of Köln, was -granted to Bernhard of Ballensted, the founder of the -Ascanian House. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sachsen-Lauenburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of the older Saxon land his house -kept only for a while the small district north of the -Elbe which kept the name of <i>Sachsen-Lauenburg</i>, and -which in the end became part of the Hannover electorate. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1423.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was in Thuringia and the conquered -Slavonic lands to the east of Thuringia that a new -Saxony arose, which kept on somewhat of the European -position of the Saxon name down to modern times. -This new Saxony, with Wittenberg for its capital, -grew, through the addition of <i>Thuringia</i> and <i>Meissen</i>, -into the Saxon Electorate which played so great a -part during the three last centuries of the existence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">{209}</a></span> -of the German kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Divisions -and unions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But in Saxony too the -usual divisions took place. Lauenburg parted off; so -did the smaller duchies which still keep the Saxon name. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1547.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The ducal and electoral dignities were divided, till -the two, united under the famous Maurice, formed the -Saxon electorate as it stood at the dissolution of the -kingdom. It was in short a new state, one which had -succeeded to the name, but which could in no other -way be thought to represent, the Saxony whose conquest -cost so many campaigns to Charles the Great.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Mark -of Brandenburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Another power which arose in the marchland of -Saxon and Slave, to the north of Saxony in the later -sense, was the land known specially as the <i>Mark</i>, the -groundwork of the power which has in our own day -risen to the head of Germany. The <i>North Mark</i> of -Saxony became the <i>Mark of Brandenburg</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reign of -Albert the -Bear, 1134-1170.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the -twelfth and thirteenth centuries, under Albert the Bear -and his house, the Mark greatly extended itself at the -expense of the Slaves. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union with -Bohemia, -1373-1415.<br /> -House of -Hohenzollern, -1415.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -United for a time with the -kingdom of Bohemia, it passed into the house of the -Burgraves of <i>Nürnberg</i>, that House of Hohenzollern -which has grown step by step till it has reached Imperial -rank in our own day. The power thus formed -presently acquired a special character by the acquisition -of what may be called a German land out of -Germany, a land which gave them in the end a -higher title, and which by its geographical position led -irresistibly to a further increase of territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Brandenburg -and -Prussia, -1611-1618.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Early in -the seventeenth century the Electors of Brandenburg -acquired by inheritance the <i>Duchy of Prussia</i>, that is -merely Eastern Prussia, a fief, not of the Empire but of -the crown of Poland, and which lay geographically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">{210}</a></span> -apart from their strictly German dominions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prussia independent -of Poland, -1656; becomes -kingdom, -1701.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The common -sovereign of Brandenburg and Prussia was thus -the man of two lords; but the Great Elector Frederick -William became a wholly independent sovereign in his -duchy, and his son Frederick took on himself the kingly -title for the land which was thus freed from all homage. -Both before and after the union with Prussia, the Electors -of Brandenburg continued largely to increase their German -dominions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1523-1623.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A temporary possession of the principality -of <i>Jägerndorf</i> in Silesia, unimportant in itself, led -to great events in later times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Westfalian -possessions -of Brandenburg, -1614-1666.<br /> -1702-1744.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The acquisition, at various -times in the seventeenth century, of <i>Cleve</i> and other -outlying Westfalian lands, which were further increased -in the next century, led in the same way to the modern -dominion of Prussia in western Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisitions -in -Pomerania, -1638-1648.<br /> -1713-1719.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the most -solid acquisition of Brandenburg in this age was that of -<i>Eastern Pomerania</i>, to which the town of Stettin, with -a further increase of territory, was added after the wars -of Charles the Twelfth of Sweden. The events of the -Thirty Years’ War also increased the dominions both of -Brandenburg and Saxony at the expense of the neighbouring -ecclesiastical princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later acquisitions -of -Prussia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The later acquisitions of -the House of Hohenzollern, after the Electors of Brandenburg -had taken the kingly title from their Prussian -duchy, concern Prussia as an European power at least as -much as they concern Brandenburg as a German power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>German -character of -the Prussian -Monarchy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Yet their proper place comes in the history of Germany. -Unlike the other princes who held lands within and -without the German kingdom, the Kings of Prussia -and Electors of Brandenburg have remained essentially -German princes. Their acquisitions of territory out of -Germany have all been in fact enlargements, if not of -the soil of Germany, at least of the sphere of German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">{211}</a></span> -influence. And, at last, in marked contrast to the fate -of the rival House of Austria, the whole Prussian dominions -have been incorporated with the new German -Empire, and form the immediate dominion of its Imperial -head. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spread of -the name of -<i>Prussia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The outward sign of this change, the -outward sign of the special position of Brandenburg, as -compared with Holstein or Austria, is the strange -spread of the name of <i>Prussia</i> over the German dominions -of the King of Prussia. No such spread has -taken place with the name of Denmark or of Hungary.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Silesia, -1741.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Within Germany the greatest enlargement of the -dominion of Prussia—as we may now begin to call it -instead of Brandenburg—was the acquisition of by far -the greater part of <i>Schlesien</i> or <i>Silesia</i>, hitherto part of -the Bohemian lands, and then held by the House of -Austria. This, it should be noted, was an acquisition -which could hardly fail to lead to further acquisitions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -character -of the -Prussian -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The geographical characteristic of the Prussian dominions -was the way in which they lay in detached -pieces, and the enormous extent of frontier as compared -with the area of the country. The kingdom -itself lay detached, hemmed in and intersected by the -territory of Poland. The electorate, with the Pomeranian -territory, formed a somewhat more compact -mass; but even this had a very large frontier compared -with its area. The Westfalian possessions, the -district of <i>Cottbus</i>, and other outlying dominions, lay -quite apart. The addition of Silesia increased this characteristic -yet further. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -Silesia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The newly won duchy, barely -joining the electorate, ran out as a kind of peninsula -between Saxony, Bohemia, and Poland. Silesia, first as -a Polish and then as a Bohemian fief, had formed -part of a fairly compact geographical mass; as part of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">{212}</a></span> -the same dominion with Prussia and Brandenburg, it -was an all but isolated land with an enormous frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisitions -from -Poland, -1772-1795.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The details of the Polish acquisitions of Prussia will be -best given in our survey of Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their geographical -character.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it should be -noted that each of the portions of territory which were -added to Prussia by the several partitions has a geographical -character of its own. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1772.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The addition of <i>West-Prussia</i>—that -is the geographical union of the kingdom -and the electorate—was something which could not -fail in the nature of things to come sooner or later. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1793.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The second addition of <i>South-Prussia</i> might seem geographically -needed in order to leave Silesia no longer -peninsular. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1795.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last, and most short-lived addition of -<i>New-East-Prussia</i> had no such geographical necessity -as the other two. Still it helped to give greater compactness -to the kingdom, and to lessen its frontier in -comparison with its area.</p> - -<p class="pb2">Another acquisition of the House of Hohenzollern -during the eighteenth century, though temporary, deserves -a passing notice. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>East-Friesland, -1744.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among its Westfalian annexations -was <i>East-Friesland</i>. The King of Prussia thus -became, during the last half of the eighteenth century, -an oceanic potentate, a character which he presently -lost, and which, save for a moment in the days of confusion, -he obtained again only in our own day.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Parts of -Saxony held -by foreign -kings.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>A large part of Saxony, both in the older and in the -later sense, thus came to form part of a dominion containing -both German and non-German lands, but in -which the German character was in every way predominant. -Other parts of Saxony in the same extended -sense also came to form part of the dominions -of princes who ruled both in and out of Germany, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">{213}</a></span> -in whom the non-German character was yet more -predominant. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Holstein:<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The old <i>Saxony beyond the Elbe</i>, the -modern <i>Holstein</i>, passed into the hands of the Danish -Kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>its relation -to Sleswick.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its shifting relations towards Denmark and -Germany and towards the neighbouring land of <i>Sleswick</i>, -as having become matter of international dispute -between Denmark and Germany, will be best spoken -of when we come to deal with Denmark. The events -of the Thirty Years’ War also made the Swedish -kings for a while considerable potentates in northern -Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>German territories -of -Sweden, -1648-1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Peace of Westfalia confirmed to them -<i>Western Pomerania</i> and the town of <i>Wismar</i> on the -Baltic, and the bishoprics of <i>Bremen</i> and <i>Verden</i> which -gave them an oceanic coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1720.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But these last lands were, -as we have seen afterwards, ceded to Hannover, and -the Pomeranian possessions of Sweden were also cut -short by cession to Brandenburg. But the possession -of Wismar and a part of Pomerania still gave the -Swedish kings a position as German princes down to -the dissolution of the Empire.</p> - -<p class="pb2">These are the chief powers which rose to historical -importance within the bounds of Saxony, in the widest -sense of that word. To trace every division and union -which created or extinguished any of the smaller principalities, -or even to mark every minute change of -frontier among the greater powers, would be impossible. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Free cities -of Saxony.<br /> -The Hanse -Towns.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it must be further remembered that the Saxon -circles were the seats of some of the greatest of the free -cities of Germany, the leading members of the Hanseatic -League. In the growth of German commerce the -Rhenish lands took the lead, and, in the earliest days -of the Hansa, <i>Köln</i> held the first place among its cities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lübeck, -Bremen, -Hamburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The pre-eminence afterwards passed to havens nearer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">{214}</a></span> -to the Ocean and the Baltic, where, among a crowd of -others, the Imperial cities of <i>Lübeck</i> and <i>Bremen</i> stand -out foremost, and with them <i>Hamburg</i>, a rival which -has in later times outstripped them. And at this point -it may be noticed that Lübeck and Bremen specially -illustrate a law which extended to many other of the -episcopal cities of Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The cities -and the -bishoprics.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Bishop became a -prince, and held a greater or smaller extent of territory -in temporal sovereignty. But the city which contained -his see remained independent of him in temporal things, -and knew him only as its spiritual shepherd. Such were -the archbishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Lübeck, -principalities which, after the change of religion, -passed into secular hands. Thus we have seen the archbishopric -of Bremen pass, first to Sweden, and then to -Hannover. But the two cities always remained independent -commonwealths, owning no superior but the -Emperor.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Franconia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The next among the great duchies, that of <i>Eastern -Francia</i>, <i>Franken</i>, or <i>Franconia</i>, is of much less importance -in European history than that of Saxony. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bishops of -Würzburg -Dukes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It -gave the ducal title to the Bishops of Würzburg; but -it cannot be said to be in any sense continued in -any modern state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Circle.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its name gradually retreated, and -the circle of <i>Franken</i> or <i>Franconia</i> took in only the -most eastern part of the ancient duchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Rhenish -Circles.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The western -and northern part of the duchy, together with a good -deal of territory which was strictly Lotharingian, became -part of the two Rhenish circles. Thus <i>Fulda</i>, the -greatest of German abbeys, passed away from the -Frankish name. In north-eastern Francia, the <i>Hessian</i> -principalities grew up to the north-west. Within the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">{215}</a></span> -Franconian circle lay <i>Würzburg</i>, the see of the bishops -who bore the ducal title, the other great bishopric -of <i>Bamberg</i>, together with the free city of <i>Nürnberg</i>, -and various smaller principalities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ecclesiastical -States -on the -Rhine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the Rhenish -lands, both within and without the old Francia, one -chief characteristic is the predominance of the ecclesiastical -principalities, <i>Mainz</i>, <i>Köln</i>, <i>Worms</i>, <i>Speyer</i>, and -<i>Strassburg</i>. The chief temporal power which arose in -this region was the <i>Palatinate of the Rhine</i>, a power -which, like others, went through many unions and divisions, -and spread into four circles, those of Upper and -Lower Rhine, Westfalia, and Bavaria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bavaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last district, -though united with the Palatine Electorate, was, from -the early part of the fourteenth century, distinguished -from the Palatinate of the Rhine as the <i>Oberpfalz</i> or -<i>Upper Palatinate</i>. To the south of it lay the <i>Bavarian</i> -principalities. These, united into a single duchy, formed -the power which grew into the modern kingdom. But -neither this duchy nor the whole Bavarian circle at all -reached to the extent of the ancient Bavaria which -bordered on Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Shiftings -between -Bavaria and -the Palatinate, -1623.<br /> -Electorate -of Bavaria, -1648.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The early stages of the Thirty -Years’ War gave the Rhenish Palatinate, with its electoral -rights, to Bavaria; the Peace of Westfalia restored -the Palatinate, leaving Bavaria as a new electorate. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of the -two, 1777.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Late in the eighteenth century, Bavaria itself passed to -the Elector Palatine, thus forming what may be called -modern Bavaria with its outlying Rhenish lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cession to -Austria, -1778.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This -acquisition was at the same time partly balanced by the -cession to Austria of the lands east of the Inn, known -as the <i>Innviertel</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Archbishopric -of -Salzburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The other chief state within the -Bavarian circle was the great ecclesiastical principality -of the archbishops of <i>Salzburg</i> in the extreme south-east.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lotharingia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The old <i>Lotharingian</i> divisions, as we see them in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">{216}</a></span> -the time of the great duchies, utterly died out. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lower Lotharingia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The states which arose in the <i>Lower Lotharingia</i> are among -those which silently fell off from the German Kingdom -to take a special position under the name of the <i>Netherlands</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Lothringen -or Lorraine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The special duchy of <i>Lothringen</i> or <i>Lorraine</i> was -held to belong to the circle of Upper Rhine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Elsass.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Elsass</i> also -formed part of the same circle, the circle which was -specially cut short by the encroachments of France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Circle of -Swabia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>Swabian</i> circle answered more nearly than most -of the new divisions to the old Swabian duchy, as that -duchy stood without counting the marchland of Elsass. -No part of Germany was more cut up into small states -than the old land of the Hohenstaufen. A crowd of -principalities, secular and ecclesiastical, among them -the lesser principalities of the Hohenzollern House, -of free cities, and of outlying possessions of the houses -of Austria made up the main part of the circle. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ecclesiastical -towns of -Swabia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Strassburg</i>, <i>Augsburg</i>, <i>Constanz</i>, <i>St. Gallen</i>, <i>Chur</i>, <i>Zürich</i>, -are among the great bishoprics and other ecclesiastical -foundations of the old Swabia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Part of -Swabia becomes -Switzerland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, as I shall -show more fully in another section, large districts in the -south-east, those which formed the <i>Old League of High -Germany</i>, had practically fallen away from the kingdom -before the new division was made, and were therefore -never reckoned in any circle. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Baden.<br /> -Württemberg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Two Swabian principalities, -the mark of <i>Baden</i>, and <i>Württemberg</i>, first county -and then duchy, came gradually to the first place in -this region. As such they still remain, preserving in -some sort a divided representation of the old Swabia.</p> - - -<p class="p2">Two important parts of the old kingdom, two circles -of the division of Maximilian, still remain. These are -the lands which form the circles of <i>Burgundy</i> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">{217}</a></span> -<i>Austria</i>. These are lands which have, in earlier or -later times, wholly fallen off from the German Kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Circle of -<i>Austria</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>Austrian</i> circle was formed of the lands in -southern Germany which gradually gathered in the -hands of the second Austrian dynasty, the House -of Habsburg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the House -of Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Starting from the original mark on the -Hungarian frontier, those lands grew, first into a great -German, and then into a great European, power, and -the latest changes have made even their German lands -politically non-German. The growth of the Austrian -House will therefore be properly dealt with in a separate -section. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -its German -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is enough to say here that the Austrian -dominion in Germany gradually took in, besides the -original duchy, the south-eastern duchies of <i>Steiermark</i> -or <i>Styria</i>, <i>Kärnthen</i> or <i>Carinthia</i>, and <i>Krain</i> or <i>Carniola</i>, -with the Italian borderlands of <i>Görz</i>, <i>Aquileia</i>, and part -of <i>Istria</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tyrol.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Joined to these by a kind of geographical -isthmus, like that which joins Silesia and Brandenburg, -lay the western possessions of the house, the Bavarian -county of <i>Tyrol</i> and various outlying strips and points -of lands in <i>Swabia</i> and <i>Elsass</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Swabian -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The growth of the -Confederates cut short the Swabian possessions of Austria, -as the later cession to France cut short its Alsatian -possessions. Still a Swabian remnant remained down -to the dissolution of the Kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bohemia -and its dependencies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom of -<i>Bohemia</i>, with the dependent lands of Moravia and <i>Silesia</i>, -though held by the Archdukes of Austria and -giving them electoral rank, was not included in any -German circle. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Trent and -Brixen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Austrian circle moreover was not -wholly made up of the dominions of the Austrian house; -besides some smaller territories it also took in the -bishoprics of <i>Trent</i> and <i>Brixen</i> on the debateable frontier -of Italy and old Bavaria.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">{218}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Circle of -Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The <i>Burgundian</i> circle was the last and the strangest -use of the Burgundian name. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominion of -the Valois -Dukes -within the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It consisted of those -parts of the dominions of the Dukes of Burgundy of the -House of Valois which remained to their descendants -of the House of Austria at the time of the division into -circles. These did not all lie strictly within the boundaries -of the German kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Imperial -Netherlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Within that kingdom -indeed lay the Northern Netherlands, the Frisian -lands of <i>Holland</i>, <i>Zealand</i>, and <i>West-Friesland</i>, as also -<i>Brabant</i> and other Lotharingian lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>County of -Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the circle -also took in the <i>County of Burgundy or Franche -Comté</i>, part of the old kingdom of Burgundy, and lastly -<i>Flanders</i> and <i>Artois</i>, lands beyond the bounds of the -Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Flanders -and Artois -released -from -homage to -France, -1526.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were fiefs of France which were released -from their homage to that crown by the treaty between -Charles the Fifth and Francis the First of France. The -Burgundian circle thus took in all the Imperial fiefs of -the Valois dukes, together with a small part of their -French fiefs. As all, or nearly all, of these lands -altogether fell away from the German kingdom, and as -those parts of them which now form the two kingdoms -of the Low Countries have a certain historical being of -their own, it will be well to keep their more detailed -mention also for a special section.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>The Confederation and Empire of Germany.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Germany -changed -from a -kingdom to -a confederation.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - - -<p>Our survey in the last section has carried us down -to the beginning of the changes which led to the break-up -of the old German Kingdom. Germany is the -only land in history which has changed from a -kingdom to a confederation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sketch of -the process, -1806-1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The tie which bound -the vassal princes to the king became so lax that it -was at last thrown off altogether. In this process<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">{219}</a></span> -foreign invasion largely helped. Between the two processes -of foreign war and domestic disintegration, a -chaotic time followed, in which boundaries were ever -shifting and new states were ever rising and falling. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The German -<i>Bund</i>, -1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the end, nearly all the lands which had formed the -old kingdom came together again, with new names and -boundaries, as members of a lax Confederation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The new -Confederation -and -Empire, -1866-1871.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -latest events of all have driven the former chief of the -Confederation beyond its boundaries; they have joined its -other members together by a much closer tie; they have -raised the second member of the former Confederation -to the post of perpetual chief of the new Confederation, -and they have further clothed him with the Imperial -title. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The new -Empire -still federal.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it must be remembered that the modern -Empire of Germany is still a Federal state. Its chief -bears the title of Emperor; still the relation is federal -and not feudal. The lesser members of the Empire -are not vassals of the Emperor, as they were in the days -of the old kingdom. They are states bound to him and -to one another by a tie which is purely federal. That -the state whose prince holds Imperial rank far surpasses -any of its other members in extent and power -is an important political fact; but it does not touch the -federal position of all the states of the Empire, great -and small. Reuss-Schleiz is not a vassal of Prussia; it -is a member of a league in which the voice of Prussia -naturally goes for more than the voice of Reuss-Schleiz. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars of the -French -Revolution, -1793-1814.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dissolution of the German kingdom, and with it -the wiping out of the last tradition of the Roman Empire, -cannot be separated from the history of wars of the -French Revolution which went before it, and which -indeed led to it. For our purely geographical purpose, -we must distinguish the changes which directly affected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">{220}</a></span> -the German kingdom from those which affected the -Austrian states, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, lands -which have now a separate historic being from Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>War between -France and -the Empire, -1793-1801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last war which the Empire as such waged with -France was the eight years’ war which was ended by the -Peace of Luneville. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The left -bank of the -Rhine ceded -by the -Peace of -Luneville, -1801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By that peace, all Germany on the -left bank on the Rhine was ceded to France. What a -sacrifice this was we at once see, when we bear in mind -that it took in the three metropolitan cities of Köln, -Mainz, and Trier, the royal city of Aachen, and the -famous bishoprics of Worms and Speyer. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The <i>Reichs­deputations­haupt­schluss</i>, -1803.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A number -of princes thus lost all or part of their dominions, and -it was presently agreed that they should compensate -themselves within the lands which remained to the -kingdom at the expense of the free cities and the ecclesiastical -princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>End of the -Ecclesiastical -principalities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great German hierarchy of -princely bishops and abbots now came to an end, with -a solitary exception. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Prince-Primate -of -Regensburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the ancient metropolis of -Mainz had passed to France, the see of its archbishop -was removed to <i>Regensburg</i>, where, under the title -of <i>Prince-Primate</i>, he remained an Elector and Arch-Chancellor -of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Salzburg a -secular -electorate.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Salzburg</i> became a secular -electorate. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Free -Cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The other ecclesiastical states were annexed -by the neighbouring princes, and of the free -cities six only were left. These were the Hanseatic -towns of <i>Lübeck</i>, <i>Bremen</i>, and <i>Hamburg</i>, and the inland -towns of <i>Frankfurt</i>, <i>Nürnberg</i>, and <i>Augsburg</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New Electorates.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides -Salzburg, three new Electorates arose, <i>Württemberg</i>, -<i>Baden</i>, and <i>Hessen-Cassel</i>. None of these new Electors -ever chose any King or Emperor. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peace of -Pressburg, -1805.<br /> -Kingdom of -Württemberg -and -Bavaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next war led -to the Peace of Pressburg, in which the Electors of -Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden appear as allies of -France, and by which those of Bavaria and Württemberg<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">{221}</a></span> -are acknowledged as Kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>They divide -the western -lands of -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Austria was now wholly -cut off from south-western Germany. Württemberg and -Baden divided her Swabian possessions, while Tyrol, -Trent, Brixen, together with the free city of Augsburg, -fell to the lot of Bavaria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Grand -Duchy of -Würzburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Austria received Salzburg; its -prince removed himself and his electorate to Würzburg, -and a <i>Grand Duchy of Würzburg</i> was formed to -compensate its Elector.</p> - -<p>These were the last changes which took place while -any shadow of the old Kingdom and Empire lasted. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Title of -‘Emperor of -Austria.’<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The reigning King of Germany and Emperor-elect, -Francis King of Hungary and Bohemia and Archduke -of Austria, had already begun to call himself ‘<i>Hereditary -Emperor of Austria</i>.’ In the treaty of Pressburg -he is described by the strange title, unheard of before -or after, of ‘Emperor of Germany and Austria,’ and -the Empire itself is spoken of as a ‘Germanic Confederation.’ -These formulæ were prophetic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Confederation -of -the Rhine, -July 12, -1806.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next year -a crowd of princes renounced their allegiance, and formed -themselves into the <i>Confederation of the Rhine</i> under -the protectorate of France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dissolution -of the Empire, -August -6, 1806.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The formal dissolution of -the Empire followed at once. The succession which -had gone on from Augustus ended; the work of Charles -the Great was undone. Instead of the Frank ruling -over Gaul, the Frenchman ruled over Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Repeated -changes, -1806-1811.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A time -of confusion followed, in which boundaries were constantly -shifting, states were constantly rising and falling, -and new portions of German ground were being constantly -added to France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Germany in -1811-1813.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the time of the greatest -extent of French dominion, the political state of Germany -was on this wise. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Territories -of Denmark -and Sweden.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dissolution of the Empire -had released all its members from their allegiance, and -the German possessions of the Kings of Denmark and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">{222}</a></span> -Sweden had been incorporated with their several kingdoms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Losses of -Prussia and -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hannover was wholly lost to its island sovereign; -seized and lost again more than once by Prussia and by -France, it passed at last wholly into the hands of the -foreign power. Prussia had lost, not only its momentary -possession of Hannover, but also everything west of the -Elbe. Austria had yielded <i>Salzburg</i> to Bavaria, and -part of her own south-western territory in Krain and -Kärnthen had passed to France under the name of the -<i>Illyrian Provinces</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexations -to -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France too, beside all the lands -west of the Rhine, had incorporated <i>East Friesland</i>, -<i>Oldenburg</i>, part of <i>Hannover</i>, and the three <i>Hanseatic</i> -cities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Confederation -of the -Rhine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The remaining states of Germany formed the -<i>Confederation of the Rhine</i>. The chief among these -were the four Kingdoms of <i>Bavaria</i>, <i>Württemberg</i>, -<i>Saxony</i>, and <i>Westfalia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdoms -of Saxony -and Westfalia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Saxony had become a kingdom -under its own Elector presently after the dissolution of -the Empire: the new-made kingdom of Westfalia had -a French king in Jerome Buonaparte. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Grand -Duchy of -Frankfurt.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides <i>Mecklenburg</i>, -<i>Baden</i>—now a Grand Duchy—<i>Berg</i>, <i>Nassau</i>, -<i>Hessen</i>, and other smaller states, there were now among -its members the Grand Duchy of <i>Würzburg</i>, and also a -Grand Duchy of <i>Frankfurt</i>, the possession of the Prince -Primate, once of Mainz, afterwards of Regensburg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Germany -wiped out.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We may say with truth that during this time Germany -had ceased to exist; its very name had vanished -from the map of Europe.</p> - - -<p class="p2">Prussia was a power so thoroughly German that -the fate even of its non-German possessions cannot -well be separated from German geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Kingdom of -Prussia cut -short, 1807.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The same -blow which cut short the old electorate of Brandenburg -no less cut short the kingdom of Prussia in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">{223}</a></span> -its Polish acquisitions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Commonwealth -of -Danzig.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>West-Prussia</i> only was left, -and even here <i>Danzig</i> was cut off to form a separate -republic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Warsaw, -1806-1814.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The other Polish territories of Prussia formed -the <i>Duchy of Warsaw</i>, which was held by the new -King of Saxony. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -Silesia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Silesia thus fell back again on its -half-isolated position, all the more so as it lay between -the German and the Polish possessions of the -Saxon king. The territory left to Prussia was now -wholly continuous, without any outlying possessions; -but the length of its frontier and the strange irregularity -of its shape on the map were now more striking -than ever.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The liberation of Germany and the fall of Buonaparte -brought with it a complete reconstruction of the -German territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The German -Confederation, -1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Germany again arose, no longer as -an Empire or Kingdom, but as a lax Confederation. -Austria, the duchy whose princes had been so often -chosen Emperors, became its presiding state. The -boundaries of the new Confederation differed but -slightly from those of the old Kingdom; but the internal -divisions had greatly changed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Princes -holding -lands both -within the -Confederation -and out -of it.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Once more a -number of princes held lands both in Germany and out -of it. The so-called ‘Emperor’ of Austria, the Kings of -Prussia, Denmark, and the Netherlands, became members -of the Confederation for those parts of their -dominions which had formerly been states of the -Empire. In the like sort, the King of Great Britain -and Ireland, having recovered his continental dominions, -entered the Confederation by the title of <i>King of Hannover</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Hannover, -1815-1866.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This new kingdom was made up of the former -electorate with some additions, including <i>East-Friesland</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Increase of -the Prussian -territory.<br /> -Dismemberment -of -Saxony.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In other parts the Prussian territories were largely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">{224}</a></span> -increased. <i>Magdeburg</i> and <i>Halberstadt</i> were recovered. -<i>Swedish Pomerania</i> was added to the rest of the ancient -duchy; and, more important than this, a large part of -the kingdom of <i>Saxony</i>, including the greater part of -<i>Lausitz</i> and the formerly outlying-land of <i>Cottbus</i>, was -incorporated with Prussia. This change, which made -the Saxon kingdom far smaller than the old electorate, -altogether put an end to the peninsular position of -Silesia, even as regarded the strictly German possessions -of Prussia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Posen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom was at the same time rendered -more compact by the recovery of part of its Polish -possessions under the name of the Grand Duchy of -<i>Posen</i>. In western Germany again Prussia now made -great acquisitions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rhenish -and Westfalian -territory.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its old outlying Rhenish and -Westfalian possessions grew into a large and tolerably -compact territory, though lying isolated from -the great body of the monarchy. The greater part -of the territory west of the Rhine which had been -ceded to France now became Prussian, including the -cities of <i>Köln</i>, no longer a metropolitan see, <i>Trier</i>, <i>Münster</i>, -and <i>Paderborn</i>. The main part of the Prussian -possessions thus consisted of two detached masses, -of very unequal size, but which seemed to crave -for a closer geographical union. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Neufchâtel.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Principality of -<i>Neufchâtel</i>, which made the Prussian king a member -of the Swiss Confederation, will be mentioned elsewhere.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Territory -recovered -by Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Of the other powers which entered the Confederation -for the German parts of their dominions, but -which also had territories beyond the Confederation, -<i>Austria</i> recovered <i>Salzburg</i>, <i>Tyrol</i>, <i>Trent</i>, and <i>Brixen</i>, -together with the south-eastern lands which had passed -to France. Thus the territory of the Confederation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">{225}</a></span> -like that of the old Kingdom, again reached to the -Hadriatic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Possession -of Denmark.<br /> -Holstein -and Lauenburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Denmark</i> entered the Confederation for <i>Holstein</i>, -and for a new possession, that of <i>Lauenburg</i>, the -duchy which in a manner represented ancient Saxony. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Luxemburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The King of the <i>Netherlands</i> entered the Confederation -for the Grand Duchy of <i>Luxemburg</i>, part of which -however was cut off to be added to the Rhenish -possessions of Prussia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sweden -gives up -Pomerania.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Sweden, by the cession of its -last remnant of <i>Pomerania</i>, ceased altogether to be a -German power.</p> - -<p>There were thus five powers whose dominions lay -partly within the Confederation, partly out of it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prussia the -greatest -German -Power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In -the case of one of these, that of Prussia, the division of -German and non-German territory was purely formal. -Prussia was practically a purely German power, and -the greatest of purely German powers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Her rival -Austria stood higher in formal rank in the Confederation, -and ruled over a much greater continuous territory; -but here the distinction between German and -non-German lands was really practical, as later events -have shown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -of the position -of -Austria and -Prussia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It has been found possible to shut out -Austria from Germany. To shut out Prussia would -have been to abolish Germany altogether. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hannover.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hannover, -though under a common sovereign with Great Britain, -was so completely cut off from Great Britain, and had -so little influence on British politics, that it was practically -as much a purely German state before its separation -from Great Britain as it was afterwards. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Holstein -and -Luxemburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the -cases of Denmark and the Netherlands, princes the -greater part of whose territories lay out of Germany -held adjoining territories in Germany. Here then were -materials for political questions and difficulties; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">{226}</a></span> -in the case of Denmark, these questions and difficulties -became of the highest importance.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Bavaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Among those members of the Confederation, whose -territory lay wholly within Germany, the Kingdom -of <i>Bavaria</i> stood first. Its newly acquired lands to -the south were given back to Austria; but it made -large acquisitions to the north-east. Modern Bavaria -consists of a large mass of territory, Bavarian, -Swabian, and Frankish, counting within its boundaries -the famous cities of <i>Augsburg</i> and <i>Nürnberg</i> and -the great bishoprics of <i>Bamberg</i> and <i>Würzburg</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her Rhenish -territory.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides this, Bavaria recovered a considerable part -of the ancient Palatinate west of the Rhine, which -adds <i>Speyer</i> to the list of Bavarian cities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Württemberg.<br /> -Saxony.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The other -states which bore the kingly title, <i>Württemberg</i> and -the remnant of <i>Saxony</i>, were of much smaller extent. -Saxony however kept a position in many ways out -of all proportion to the narrowed extent of its geographical -limits. Württemberg, increased by various -additions from the <i>Swabian</i> lands of <i>Austria</i> and from -other smaller principalities, had, though the smallest -of kingdoms, won for itself a much higher position -than had been held by its former Counts and Dukes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Baden.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Along with them might be ranked the Grand Duchy -of <i>Baden</i>, with its strange irregular frontier, taking in -Heidelberg and Constanz. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hessen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among a crowd of smaller -states stand out the two Hessian principalities, the -Grand Duchy of <i>Hessen-Darmstadt</i>, and <i>Hessen-Cassel</i>, -whose prince still kept the title of Elector, and the -Grand Duchy of <i>Nassau</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Oldenburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Grand Duchy of <i>Oldenburg</i> -nearly divided the Kingdom of Hannover into two -parts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Anhalt.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The principalities of <i>Anhalt</i> stretched into the -Prussian territory between Halberstadt and the newly-won<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">{227}</a></span> -Saxon lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Brunswick.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Duchy of <i>Brunswick</i> helped to -divide the two great masses of Prussian territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mecklenburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In -the north <i>Mecklenburg</i> remained, as before, unequally -divided between the Grand Dukes of <i>Schwerin</i> and -<i>Strelitz</i>. Germany was thus thoroughly mapped out -afresh. Some of the old names had vanished; some -had got new meanings. The greater states, with -the exception of Saxony, became greater. A crowd -of insignificant principalities passed away. Another -crowd of them remained, especially the smaller Saxon -duchies in the land which had once been Thuringian. -But, if we look to two of the most characteristic -features of the old Empire, we shall find that one -has passed away for ever, while the other was sadly -weakened. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>No ecclesiastical -principality.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -No ecclesiastical principality revived in the -new state of things. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lüttich -added to -Belgium.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The territory of one of the -old bishoprics, that of <i>Lüttich</i>, formerly absorbed by -France, now passed wholly away from Germany, and -became part of the new kingdom of Belgium. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The four -Free Cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of the -free cities four did revive, but four only. The three -<i>Hanse Towns</i>, no longer included in French departments, -and Frankfurt, no longer a Grand Duchy, entered -the Confederation as independent commonwealths. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revival of -German -national -life.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Germany, for a while utterly crushed, had come to -life again; she had again reached a certain measure -of national unity, which could hardly fail to become -closer.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<p>The Confederation thus formed lasted, with hardly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">{228}</a></span> -any change that concerns geography, till the war of -1866. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division of -Luxemburg, -1831.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Grand Duchy of <i>Luxemburg</i>, which had, -by the arrangements of 1815, been held by the King -of the Netherlands as a member of the German Confederation, -was, on the separation of Belgium and the -Netherlands, cut into two parts. Part was added to -Belgium; another part, though quite detached from the -kingdom of the Netherlands, was held by its king as -a member of the Confederation. In 1839 he also entered -it for the Duchy of Limburg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>War in -Sleswick -and Holstein, -1848-1851.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The internal movements -which began in 1848, and the war in <i>Sleswick</i> and -<i>Holstein</i> which began in the same time, led to no lasting -geographical changes. In 1849 the Swabian principalities -of Hohenzollern were joined to the Prussian crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cession of -the Duchies -to Austria -and Prussia, -1864.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last Danish war ended by the cession of Sleswick and -Holstein, together with Lauenburg, to Prussia and Austria -jointly, an arrangement in its own nature provisional. -Austria ceded her right in Lauenburg to Prussia in the -next year, and in the next year again came the Seven -Weeks’ War, and the great geographical changes which -followed it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Abolition -of the Confederation.<br /> -Exclusion -of Austria.<br /> -North-German -Confederation.<br /> -Cession of -Sleswick -and Holstein -to -Prussia, -1866.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The German Confederation was abolished; -Austria was shut out from all share in German affairs, -and she ceded her joint right in Sleswick and Holstein to -Prussia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prussian annexations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Northern states of Germany became a -distinct Confederation under the presidency of Prussia, -whose immediate dominion was increased by the annexation -of the kingdom of <i>Hannover</i>, the duchy of <i>Nassau</i>, -the electorate of <i>Hessen</i>, and the city of <i>Frankfurt</i>. The -States south of the Main, Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, -and the southern part of Hessen-Darmstadt, remained for -a while outside of the new League. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>All the -Prussian -lands admitted -to -the Confederation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The non-German -dominions of Prussia, Prussia strictly so called with the -Polish duchy of Posen and the newly acquired land of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">{229}</a></span> -Sleswick, were now incorporated with the Confederation; -on the other hand, all that Austria had held within -the Confederation was now shut out of it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlement -of Luxemburg, -1867.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Luxemburg</i> -also was not included in the new League, and, after some -disputes, it was in the next year recognized as a neutral -territory under its own duke the King of the Netherlands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Liechtenstein.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The little principality of <i>Liechtenstein</i> was perhaps -forgotten altogether; but, as not being included in -the Confederation, nor yet incorporated with anything -else, it must be looked on as becoming an absolutely -independent state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Great geographical -changes, -1866.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus the geographical frontiers of -Germany underwent, at a single blow, changes as great -as they had undergone in the wars of the French Revolution. -The geography of the presiding power of the -new League was no less changed.</p> - -<p>That extraordinary extent of frontier which had -hitherto been characteristic of Prussia was not wholly -taken away by the new annexations, but it was greatly -lessened. The kingdom, as a kingdom, is made far -more compact, and the two great detached masses in -which it formerly lay are now joined together. Moreover, -the geographical character of Prussia becomes of -much less political importance, now that her frontier -marches to so great an extent on the smaller members -of the League of which she is herself President. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>War with -France, -1870-1871.<br /> -The German -Empire.<br /> -Incorporation -of the -Southern -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Next -came the war with France, the first effect of which -was the incorporation of the southern states of Germany -with the new League, which presently took the -name of an Empire, with the Prussian King as hereditary -Emperor. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery of -Elsass-Lothringen, -1871.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then by the peace with France, nearly -the whole of <i>Elsass</i> and part of <i>Lotharingia</i>, including -the cities of <i>Strassburg</i> and <i>Metz</i>, were restored to -Germany. They have, under the name of <i>Elsass-Lothringen</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">{230}</a></span> -become an Imperial territory, forming -part of the Empire and owning the sovereignty of -the Emperor, but not becoming part of the kingdom of -Prussia or of any other German state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Imperial -title.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The assumption -of the Imperial title could hardly be avoided in a -confederation whose constitution was monarchic, and -which numbered kings among its members. No title -but Emperor could have been found to express the -relation between the presiding chief and the lesser -sovereigns.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The new -Empire a -revival of -the German -Kingdom, -but not of -the Roman -Empire.<br /> -Comparison -of the old -Kingdom -and the -new Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Still it must be borne in mind that the new German -Empire is in no sense a continuation or restoration of -the Holy Roman Empire which fell sixty-four years -before its creation. But it may be fairly looked on as -a restoration of the old German Kingdom, the Kingdom -of the East-Franks. Still, as far as geography -is concerned, no change can be stranger than the -change in the boundaries of Germany between the ninth -century and the nineteenth. The new Empire, cut short -to the north-west, south-west, and south-east, has grown -somewhat to the north, and it has grown prodigiously -to the north-east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Name of -<i>Prussia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its ruling state, a state which -contains such illustrious cities as Köln, Trier, and -Frankfurt, is content to call itself after an extinct -heathen people whose name had most likely never -reached the ears of Charles the Great. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -Berlin.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The capital of the -new Empire, placed far away from any of the antient -seats of German kingship, stands in what in his day, and -long after, was a Slavonic land. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Formation -of the new -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Germany, with its -chief state bearing the name of <i>Prussia</i>, with the place -of its national assemblies transferred from Frankfurt to -Berlin, presents one of the strangest changes that historical -geography can show us. But, strange as is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">{231}</a></span> -geographical change, it has come about gradually, by -the natural working of historical causes. The Slavonic -and Prussian lands have been Germanized, while the -western parts of the old kingdom which have fallen away -have mostly lost their German character. Those German -lands which have formed the kernel of the Swiss -Confederation have risen to a higher political state than -that of any kingdom or Empire. But the German -lands which still remain so strangely united to the -lands of the Magyar and the southern Slave await, at -however distant a time, their natural and inevitable reunion. -So does a Danish population in the extreme -north await, with less hope, its no less natural separation -from the German body. Posen, still mainly Slavonic, -remains unnaturally united to a Teutonic body, but -it is not likely to gain by a transfer to any other ruler. -The reconstruction of the German realm in its present -shape, a shape so novel to the eye, but preserving -so much of ancient life and ancient history, has been -the greatest historical and geographical change of our -times.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>The Kingdom of Italy.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Small geographical -importance -of the kingdom -as -such.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We parted from the Italian kingdom at the moment -of its separation from the Eastern and Western kingdoms -of the Franks. Its history, as a kingdom, consists in -little more than its reunion with the East-Frankish -crown, and in the way in which the royal power gradually -died out within its limits. There is but little to -say as to any changes of frontier of the kingdom as -such. As long as Germany, Italy, and Burgundy acknowledged -a single king, any shiftings of the frontiers -of his three kingdoms were of secondary importance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">{232}</a></span> -When the power of the Emperors in Italy had died -out, the land became a system of independent commonwealths -and principalities, which had hardly that degree -of unity which could enable us to say that a certain -territory was added to Italy or taken from it. Even if -a certain territory passed from an Italian to a German -or Burgundian lord, the change was rather a change in -the frontier of this or that Italian state than in the frontier -of Italy itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes on -the Alpine -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The shiftings of frontier along the -whole Alpine border have been considerable; but it is -only in our own day that we can say that Italy as such -has become capable of extending or lessening her -borders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Case of -Verona.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -When, in 1866, Venice and Verona were -added to the Italian kingdom, that was a distinct change -in the frontier of Italy. We can hardly give that -name to endless earlier changes on the same marchland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Case of -Trieste, -1380.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the fourteenth century, for instance, the town of -<i>Trieste</i>, disputed between the patriarchs of Aquileia -and the commonwealth of Venice, was acknowledged -as an independent state, and it presently gave up its -independence by commendation to the Duke of Austria. -It is not likely that the question entered into any man’s -mind whether the frontiers of the German and Italian -kingdoms were affected by such a change. Whether as a -free city or as an Austrian lordship, Trieste remained -under the superiority, formally undoubted but practically -nominal, of the common sovereign of Germany and Italy, -the Roman Emperor or King. Whether the nominal -allegiance of the city was due to him in his German -or in his Italian character most likely no one stopped -to think. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>No eastern -or western -frontiers.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -East and west, the Italian kingdom had no -frontiers; the only question which could arise was as -to the relation of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">{233}</a></span> -the kingdom itself or to any of the states which arose -within it. To the south lay the independent Lombard -duchies, and the possessions which still remained to the -Eastern Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Norman -kingdom -of -Sicily not -an Imperial -fief.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These changed in time into the -Norman duchy of <i>Apulia</i> and kingdom of <i>Sicily</i>; but -that kingdom, held as it was as a fief of the see of -Rome, was never incorporated with the Italian kingdom -of the Emperors, nor did its kings ever become -the men of the Emperor. Particular Emperors in -the thirteenth century, in the sixteenth, and in the -eighteenth, were also kings of one or both the Sicilian -kingdoms; but at no time before our own day were -Sicily and southern Italy ever incorporated with a -Kingdom of Italy. When we remember that it was to -the southern part of the peninsula that the name of -Italy was first given, we see here a curiosity of nomenclature -as remarkable as the shiftings of meaning -in the names of Saxony and Burgundy.</p> - -<p>Naples and Sicily then, the Two Sicilies of later -political nomenclature, lie outside our present subject. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venice no -part of -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -So does the commonwealth of <i>Venice</i>, except so far as -Venice afterwards won a large subject territory on the -Italian mainland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her Italian -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Both these states have to do with -Italy as a geographical expression, but neither the -Venetian commonwealth nor the Sicilian kingdom is -Italian within the meaning of the present section. They -formed no part of the Carolingian dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venice and -the Sicilies -part of the -Eastern -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They -were parts of the Eastern Empire, not of the Western. -They remained attached to the New Rome after an -Imperial throne had again been set up in the Old. -They gradually fell away from their allegiance to -the Eastern Empire, but they were never incorporated -with the Empire of the West. I shall deal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">{234}</a></span> -with them here only in their relations to the Imperial -Kingdom of Italy, and treat of their special history -elsewhere among the states which arose out of the -break-up of the Eastern Empire. Again, on the north-western -march of Italy a power gradually arose, partly -Italian, but for a long time mainly Burgundian, which -has in the end, by a strange fate, grown into a new -Italian Kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The House -of Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This is the House of <i>Savoy</i>. The -growth of the dominions of that house, the process -by which it gradually lost territory in Burgundy and -gained it in <i>Italy</i>, form another distinct subject. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its special -history.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It -will be dealt with here only in its relations to the kingdom -of Italy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Kingdom -of Italy -continues -the Lombard -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Italian Kingdom of the Karlings, the kingdom -which was reunited to Germany under Otto the Great, -was, as has been already said, a continuation of the old -Lombard kingdom. It consisted of that kingdom, -enlarged by the Italian lands which fell off from the -Eastern Empire in the eighth century; that is by the -<i>Exarchate</i> and the adjoining <i>Pentapolis</i>, and the immediate -territory of <i>Rome</i> itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austria -and Neustria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Lombard kingdom, -in the strictest sense, took in the two provinces north of -the Po, in which we again find, as in other lands, an -<i>Austria</i> to the east and a <i>Neustria</i> to the west. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Æmilia.<br /> -Tuscany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It -took in <i>Æmilia</i> south of the Po—the district of Piacenza, -Parma, Reggio, and Modena—also <i>Tuscany</i>, a -name, which, as it no longer reaches to the Tiber, -answers pretty nearly to its modern use. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Romagna.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Tuscan -name has lived on; the Exarchate and Pentapolis, as -having been the chief seat of the later Imperial power -in Italy, got the name of <i>Romania</i>, <i>Romandiola</i>, or -<i>Romagna</i>. This name also lives on; but the Lombard -Neustria and Austria soon vanish from the map. Their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">{235}</a></span> -disappearance was perhaps lucky, as one knows not -what arguments might otherwise have been built on -the presence of an Austria south of the Alps. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lombardy -proper.<br /> -Venetia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Lombard Neustria together with Æmilia got the special -name of <i>Lombardy</i>, while the Lombard Austria, after -various shiftings of names taken from the principalities -which rose and fell within it, came back in the end -to its oldest name, that of <i>Venetia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mark of -Ivrea.<br /> -Duchy of -Friuli.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the north-west -corner <i>Iporedia</i> or <i>Ivrea</i> appears as a distinct march; -but the Venetian march at the other corner, known at -this stage as the duchy of <i>Friuli</i>, is of more importance. -It takes in the county of <i>Trent</i>, the special march of -<i>Friuli</i>, and the march of <i>Istria</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuation -of boundary -at the -north-west -corner.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This is the corner -in which the German and Italian frontier has so often -fluctuated. We have seen that, after the union of the -Italian and German crowns, even Verona itself was -sometimes counted as German ground.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -of Italy and -Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Under the German kings Italy came under the -same influences as the other two Imperial kingdoms. -Principalities grew up; free cities grew up; but, while -in Germany the principalities were the rule and the -cities the exception, in Italy it was the other way. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of a -system of -commonwealths -in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The land gradually became a system of practically -independent commonwealths. Feudal princes, ecclesiastical -or temporal, flourished only in the north-western -and north-eastern corners of the kingdom. But, if the -range of the German cities was less wide, and their -career less brilliant, than those of Italy, their freedom -was more lasting. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tyrants -grow into -princes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Italian cities gradually fell -under tyrants, and the tyrants gradually grew into -acknowledged princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the dominion -of -the Popes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Bishops of Rome too, by -a series of claims dexterously pressed at various times, -contrived to form the greatest of ecclesiastical principalities,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">{236}</a></span> -one which stretched across the peninsula from -sea to sea. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Four stages -of Italian -history.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The geographical history of Italy consists -of four stages. In the first the kingdom fell asunder -into principalities. In the second the principalities -vanished before the growth of the free cities. In the -third the cities were again massed into principalities, -till in the fourth the principalities were at last merged -in a kingdom of united Italy.</p> - - -<p class="p2">Under the Saxon and Frankish Emperors the old -Lombard names of Neustria and Æmilia pass away. -Several small marches lie along the Burgundian frontier, -as <i>Savona</i> on the coast, <i>Ivrea</i> among the mountains -to the north-west, between them <i>Montferrat</i>, <i>Vasto</i>, and -<i>Susa</i>, whose princes, as special guardians of the passage -between the two kingdoms, bore the title of Marquess -in Italy. It was in this region that the feudal princes -were strongest, and that the system of free cities had -the smallest developement. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Marquesses -of -Montferrat, -938-1533.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Savoyard power was -already beginning to grow up in the extreme north-west -corner; but at this time a greater part in strictly Italian -history is played by the Marquesses of Montferrat, who -for many centuries kept their position as important -feudal princes quite apart from the lords of the cities. -In the north-east corner of the kingdom the place of the -old Austria is taken by the border principalities where -the Italian, the German, and the Slave all come in -contact, and which fluctuated more than once between -the Italian and the German crowns. We have here the -great march of Verona, beyond it that of Friuli, Trent, -the marchland of the marchland, between Verona and -Bavaria, and the Istrian peninsula on the Slavonic -side of the Hadriatic. Between the border districts on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">{237}</a></span> -either side lay the central land, Lombardy, in the narrower -sense, the chosen home of the free cities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the Lombard -cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Here, -by the middle of the twelfth century, every city had -practically become a separate commonwealth, owning -only the most nominal superiority in the Emperor. -Guelfic cities withstood the Emperor; Ghibelin cities -welcomed him; but both were practically independent -commonwealths. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars of the -Swabian -Emperors.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hence came those long wars between -the Swabian Emperors and the Italian cities which form -the chief feature of Italian history in the second half of -the twelfth century and the first half of the thirteenth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Milan and -Pavia.<br /> -The other -Lombard -cities.<br /> -Alessandria, -1168.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Round the younger and the elder capital, round Guelfic -Milan and Ghibelin Pavia, gathered a crowd of famous -names, <i>Como</i>, <i>Bergamo</i>, and <i>Brescia</i>, <i>Lodi</i>, <i>Crema</i>, -and <i>Cremona</i>, <i>Tortona</i>, <i>Piacenza</i>, and <i>Parma</i>, and -<i>Alessandria</i>, the trophy of republican and papal victory -over Imperial power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Verona and -Padua.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Veronese march was less rich -in cities of the same historical importance; -but both -<i>Verona</i> itself and <i>Padua</i> played a great part, as the -seats first of commonwealths, then of tyrants. Further -north and east, the civic element was weaker again. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Trent.<br /> -Aquileia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Trent</i> gradually parted off from Italy to become an -ecclesiastical principality of the German kingdom; -and the Patriarchs of <i>Aquileia</i> grew into powerful -princes at the north-eastern corner of the Hadriatic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The lords of -Romano -and Este.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Within the Veronese or Trevisan march itself, the -lords of <i>Romano</i> and the more important marquesses -of <i>Este</i> also demand notice. Romano gave the Trevisan -march its famous tyrant Eccelino in the days of -Frederick the Second, and the Marquesses of Este, -kinsmen of the great Saxon dukes, came in time to -rank among the chief Italian princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The north-eastern -march falls -off from -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The extreme -north-eastern march so completely fell off from Italy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">{238}</a></span> -that it will be better treated in tracing the growth of -the powers of Venice and Austria.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tuscany, -Romagna, -and the -March of -Ancona.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">In the more central lands of the kingdom, in the -old exarchate, now known as <i>Romagna</i>, in the march -variously called by the names of <i>Camerino</i>, <i>Fermo</i>, or -<i>Ancona</i>, and above all in the march of <i>Tuscany</i> on the -southern sea, the same developement of city life also -took place, but somewhat later. North of the Apennines, -along the Hadriatic coast, arose a crowd of -small commonwealths which gradually passed into -small tyrannies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Tuscan -commonwealths.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Tuscany, on the other hand, was -parted off into a few commonwealths of illustrious -name. For a while one of these ran a course which -stood rather apart from the common run of Italian -history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pisa;<br /> -her wars -with the -Saracens -1005-1115.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Pisa</i>, then one of the great maritime and commercial -states of Europe, became, early in the eleventh -century, a power which forestalled the crusades and -won back lands from the Saracen. Though she was -in every sense a city of the Italian kingdom, Pisa at -this time held a position not unlike that which was -afterwards held by Venice. Like her, she was a power -which colonized and conquered beyond the seas, but -which came only gradually to take a share in the -main course of Italian affairs. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Genoa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Beyond the borders of -Tuscany, the same position was held by <i>Genoa</i> on the -Ligurian gulf. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Occupation -of the island -of Sardinia -by Pisa, -and of Corsica -by -Genoa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Pisa won <i>Sardinia</i> from the Saracen; -Genoa, after long disputes with Pisa, obtained a more -lasting possession of <i>Corsica</i>. Returning to Tuscany, -three great commonwealths here grew up, which gradually -divided the land between them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lucca, -Siena, -Florence.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were -<i>Lucca</i> and <i>Siena</i>, and <i>Florence</i>, the last of Italian -cities to rise to greatness, but the one which became -in many ways the greatest among her fellows. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Perugia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">{239}</a></span> -centre of Italy, within the bounds of old Etruria but -not within those of modern Tuscany, <i>Perugia</i>, both as -commonwealth and as tyranny, held a high place among -Italian cities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rome.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of Rome herself it is almost impossible -to speak. She has much history, but she has little -geography. Emperors were crowned there; Popes -sometimes lived there; sometimes Rome appears once -more as a single Latin city, waging war against Tusculum -or some other of her earliest fellows. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Claims of -the Popes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -claims of her Bishops to independent temporal power, -founded on a succession of real or pretended Imperial -and royal grants, lay still in the background; but they -were ready to grow into reality as occasion served.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -stage, c. -1250-1530.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The next stage of Italian political geography may -be dated from the death of Frederick the Second, when -all practical power of an Imperial kingdom in Italy may -be said to have passed away. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -tyrannies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently begins the -gradual change of the commonwealths into tyrannies, -and the grouping together of many of them into larger -states. We also see the beginning of more definite -claims of temporal dominion on behalf of the Popes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominion -of Spain, -1555-1701.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the course of the three hundred years between -Frederick the Second and Charles the Fifth, these -processes gradually changed the face of the Italian -kingdom. It became in the end a collection of principalities, -broken only by the survival of a few oligarchic -commonwealths and by the anomalous dominion of -Venice on the mainland. Between Frederick the -Second and Charles the Fifth, we may look on the -Empire as practically in abeyance in Italy. The coming -of an Emperor always caused a great stir for the -time, but it was only for the time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Grant of -Rudolf, -1278.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After the grant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">{240}</a></span> -of Rudolf of Habsburg to the Popes, a distinction was -drawn between Imperial and papal territory in Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Imperial -and papal -fiefs.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -While certain princes and commonwealths still acknowledged -at least the nominal superiority of the -Emperor, others were now held to stand in the same -relation of vassalage to the Pope.</p> - -<p>We must now trace out the growth of the chief -states which were formed by these several processes. -Beginning again in the north, it must be remembered -that all this while the power of Savoy was advancing -in those north-western lands in which the influences -which mainly ruled this period had less force than -elsewhere. Montferrat too kept its old character of -a feudal principality, a state whose rulers had in various -ways a singular connexion with the East. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Palaiologoi -at Montferrat, -1306.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As -Marquesses of Montferrat had claimed the crown of -Jerusalem and had worn the crown of Thessalonica, so, -as if to keep even the balance between East and West, in -return a branch of the Imperial house of Palaiologos -came to reign at Montferrat. To the east of these more -ancient principalities, two great powers of quite different -kinds grew up in the old Neustria and Austria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Milan. -Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These -were the <i>Duchy of Milan</i> and the land power of <i>Venice</i>. -Milan, like most other Italian cities, came under the influence -of party leaders, who grew first into tyrants and -then into acknowledged sovereigns. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Visconti -at -Milan, -1310-1447.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These at Milan, -after the shorter domination of the Della Torre, were the -more abiding house of the Visconti. Their dominion, -after various fluctuations and revolutions, was finally -established when the coming of the Emperor Henry the -Seventh generally strengthened the rule of the Lords -of the cities throughout Italy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Grant of the -Duchy by -King -Wenceslaus, -1395.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>At the end of the fourteenth -century their informal lordship passed by a royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">{241}</a></span> -grant into an acknowledged duchy of the Empire. The -dominion which they had gradually gained, and which -was thus in a manner legalized, took in all the great -cities of Lombardy, those especially which had formed -the Lombard League against the Swabian Emperors. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>County of -Pavia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Pavia indeed, the ancient rival of Milan, kept a kind of -separate being, and was formed into a distinct county. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the duchy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the duchy granted by Wenceslaus to Gian-Galeazzo -stretched far on both sides of the lake of Garda. -<i>Belluno</i> at one end and <i>Vercelli</i> at the other formed -part of it. It took in the mountain lands which -afterwards passed to the two Alpine Confederations; -it took in <i>Parma</i>, <i>Piacenza</i>, and <i>Reggio</i> south of -the Po, and <i>Verona</i> and <i>Vicenza</i> in the old Austrian -or Venetian land. Besides all this, <i>Padua</i>, <i>Bologna</i>, -even <i>Genoa</i> and <i>Pisa</i>, passed at various times under -the lordship of the Visconti. But this great power -was not lasting. The Duchy of Milan, under various -lords, native and foreign, lasted till the wars of the -French Revolution; but, long before that time, it -had been cut short on every side. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Decrease on -the death of -Gian Galeazzo, -1402.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The death of the -first Duke was followed by a separation of the duchy -of Milan and the county of Pavia between his sons, -and the restored duchy never rose again to its former -power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The eastern -cities won -by Venice, -1406-1447.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The eastern parts, Padua, Verona, Brescia, -Bergamo, were gradually added to the dominion of -Venice. By the middle of the fifteenth century, that -republic had become the greatest power in northern -Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>House of -Sforza, -1450-1535.<br /> -Claims of -the Kings -of France, -1499-1525.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the duchy of Milan the house of Sforza -succeeded that of Visconti; -but the opposing claims -of the Kings of France were one chief cause of the -long wars which laid Italy waste in the latter years -of the fifteenth century and the early years of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">{242}</a></span> -sixteenth. The duchy was tossed to and fro between -the Emperor, the French King, and its own dukes. -Meanwhile the dominion which was thus struggled -for was cut short at the two ends. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cession to -the Alpine -Leagues, -1512-1513.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was dismembered -to the north in favour of the two Alpine -Leagues, as will be hereafter shown more in detail. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Popes -obtain -Parma and -Piacenza, -1515.<br /> -Duchy of -Parma and -Piacenza, -1545.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -South of the Po, the Popes obtained <i>Parma</i> and -<i>Piacenza</i>, which were afterwards granted as papal fiefs -to form a duchy for the house of Farnese. Thus the -Duchy of Milan which became in the end a possession -of Charles the Fifth, and afterwards of his Spanish -and Austrian successors, was but a remnant of the great -dominion of the first Duke. The duchy underwent still -further dismemberments in later times.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Land power -of Venice -only.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>With Venice we have here to deal in her somewhat -unnatural position as an Italian land power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>War of the -League of -Cambray, -1508-1517.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This position -she took on herself in the fifteenth century; in -the sixteenth it led to the momentary overthrow and -wonderful recovery of her dominion in the war of the -League of Cambray. This land power of Venice stands -quite distinct from the Venetian possessions east of -the Hadriatic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Istria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With this last her possession of the -coast of the <i>Istrian</i> peninsula must be reckoned, rather -than with her Italian dominions. Between these lay -Aquileia, Trieste, and the other lands in this quarter -which gradually came under the power of Austria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -Venetian -dominion.<br /> -Ravenna, -1441-1530.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The continuous Italian dominion of Venice took in -<i>Udine</i> at one end and <i>Bergamo</i> at the other, besides -<i>Crema</i>, and for a while <i>Ravenna</i>, as outlying possessions. -Thus the Byzantine city which lay anchored off the -shore of the Western Empire could for a season call -the ancient seat of the Exarchate its own. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Two parts of -the Venetian -territory.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But even -the continuous land territory of Venice lay in two portions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">{243}</a></span> -Brescia and Bergamo were almost cut off from -Verona and the other possessions to the east by the -Lake of Garda, the bishopric of Trent to the north, -and the principality of <i>Mantua</i> to the south.</p> - -<p>The mention of this last state leads us back again to -the commonwealths which, like Milan, changed, first into -tyrannies, and then into acknowledged principalities. -It is impossible to mention all of them, and some of -those which played for a while the most brilliant part in -Italian history had no lasting effect on Italian geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rule of the -Scala at -Verona, -1260-1387; -of the Carrara -at -Padua, -1318-1405;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The rule of the house of Scala at Verona, the rule of the -house of Carrara at Padua, left no lasting trace on the -map. It was otherwise with the two states which bordered -on the Venetian possessions to the south. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of the Gonzaga -at -Mantua, -1328-1708. -Marquesses, -1433; -Dukes, 1530.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -house of Gonzaga held sovereign power at <i>Mantua</i>, -first as captains, then as marquesses, then as dukes, -for nearly four hundred years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>House of -Este.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of greater fame was -the power that grew up in the house of <i>Este</i>, the -Italian branch of the house of Welf. Their position -is one specially instructive, as illustrating the various -tenures by which dominion was held. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The lords of -Ferrara and -Modena, -1264-1288.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The marquesses -of Este, feudal lords of that small principality, became, -after some of the usual fluctuations, permanent -lords of the cities of <i>Ferrara</i> and <i>Modena</i>. About -the same time they lost their original holding of Este, -which passed to Padua, and with Padua to Venice. -Thus the nominal marquess of Este and real lord of -Ferrara was not uncommonly spoken of as Marquess of -Ferrara. In the fifteenth century these princes rose to -ducal rank; but by that time the new doctrine of the -temporal dominion of the Popes had made great -advances. Modena, no man doubted, was a city of the -Empire; but Ferrara was now held to be under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">{244}</a></span> -supremacy of the Pope. The Marquess Borso had thus -to seek his elevation to ducal rank from two separate -lords. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Modena, -1453.<br /> -Duchy of -Ferrara, -1471.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -He was created Duke of Modena and Reggio -by the Emperor, and afterwards Duke of Ferrara by the -Pope. This difference of holding, as we shall presently -see, led to the destruction of the power of the house -of Este. In the times in which we are now concerned, -their dominions lay in two masses. To the west lay -the duchy of Modena and Reggio; apart from it to the -east lay the duchy of Ferrara. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Rovigo, -1484.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Not long after its creation, -this last duchy was cut short by the surrender of -the border-district of <i>Rovigo</i> to Venice.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cities of -Romagna.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Between the two great duchies of the house of Este -lay <i>Bologna</i>, gradually changed from <i>Romania</i> in one -sense into <i>Romagna</i> in another. Like most other Italian -cities, the commonwealths of the Exarchate and the Pentapolis -changed into tyrannies, and their petty princes -were one by one overthrown by the advancing power of -the Popes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bologna, -Perugia, -Rimini.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Every city had its dynasty; but it was only -a few, like the houses of <i>Bentevoglio</i> at <i>Bologna</i>, of <i>Baglioni</i> -at <i>Perugia</i>, and <i>Malatesta</i> at <i>Rimini</i>, that rose to -any historical importance. One only combined historical -importance with acknowledged princely rank. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Duchy -of Urbino, -1478-1631.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -house of <i>Montefeltro</i>, lords of <i>Urbino</i>, became acknowledged -dukes by papal grants. From them the duchy -passed to the house of La Rovere, and it flourished -under five princes of the two dynasties. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Expansion -of the papal -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Gradually, by -successive annexations, the papal dominions, before the -middle of the sixteenth century, stretched from the Po -to Tarracina. Ferrara and Urbino still remained distinct -states, but states which were confessedly held as fiefs of -the Holy See.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Creation of -the Tuscan -cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>To the west, in Tuscany, the phænomena are somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">{245}</a></span> -different. The characteristic of this part of Italy -was the grouping together of the smaller cities under -the power of the larger. Nearly all the land came -in the end under princely rule; but both acknowledged -princely rule and the tyrannies out of which it -sprang came into importance in Tuscany later than -anywhere else. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lucca under -Castruccio -Castracani, -1320-1338.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Lucca</i> had in the fourteenth century -a short time of greatness under her illustrious tyrant -Castruccio; but, before and after his day, she plays, -as a commonwealth, only a secondary part in Italy. -Still she remained a commonwealth, though latterly -an oligarchic one, through all changes down to the -general crash of the French Revolution. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pisa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> <i>Pisa</i> kept for -a while her maritime greatness, and her rivalry with -the Ligurian commonwealth of <i>Genoa</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Genoa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Genoa, less -famous in the earliest times, proved a far more lasting -power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her rule in -Corsica.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -She established her dominion over the coast -on both sides of her, and kept her island of Corsica -down to modern times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sardinia -ceded to -Aragon, -1428.<br /> -Pisa subject -to -Florence, -1416.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Physical causes caused the fall -of the maritime power of Pisa; -Sardinia passed from her -to become a kingdom of the House of Aragon, and she -herself passed under the dominion of <i>Florence</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatness of -Florence.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This -last illustrious city, the greatest of Tuscan and even of -Italian commonwealths, begins to stand forth as the -foremost of republican states about the time when her -forerunner Milan came under the rule of tyrants. She -extended her dominion over <i>Volterra</i>, <i>Arezzo</i>, and many -smaller places, till she became mistress of all northern -Tuscany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Siena.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south the commonwealth of <i>Siena</i> -also formed a large dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rule of the -Medici. -1434-1494. -1512-1527.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Florence the rule of -the Medici grew step by step into a hereditary tyranny; -but it was an intermittent tyranny, one which was supported -only by foreign force, and which was overturned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">{246}</a></span> -whenever Florence had strength to act for herself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Alexander, -Duke of -Florence, -1530.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It -was only after her last overthrow by the combined powers -of Pope and Cæsar that she became, under Alexander, -the first duke of the house of Medici, an acknowledged -principality. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cosmo -annexes -Siena, 1557.<br /> -Elba, &c.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Cosmo the First, the second duke, annexed -Siena, and all the territory of that commonwealth, -except the lands known as <i>Stati degli Presidi</i>, that -is the isle of <i>Elba</i> and some points on the coast. -These became parts of the kingdom of Naples; that is, -at that time, parts of the dominion of Spain. The state -thus formed by Cosmo was one of the most considerable -in Italy, taking in the whole of Tuscany except the -territory of Lucca and the lands which became Spanish. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cosmo -Grand Duke -of Tuscany, -1567.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its ruler presently exchanged by papal authority the -title of Duke of Florence for that of Grand Duke of -Tuscany.</p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>The Later Geography of Italy.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Abeyance of -the kingdom -of -Italy, 1530-1805.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Under Charles the Fifth it might have seemed that -both the Roman Empire and the kingdom of Italy had -come to life again. A prince who wore both crowns -was practically master of Italy. But though the power -of the Emperor was restored, the power of the Empire -was not. In truth we may look on all notion of a kingdom -of Italy in the elder sense as having passed away -with the coronation of Charles himself. The thing -had passed away long before; after the pageant at -Bologna the name was not heard for more than two -centuries and a half. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Italy a geographical -expression.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Italy became truly a ‘geographical -expression;’ the land consisted of a number of -principalities and a few commonwealths, all nominally -independent, some more or less practically so, but the -more part of which were under foreign influence, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">{247}</a></span> -some of them were actually ruled by foreign princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes -among the -Italian -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -states of Italy were united, divided, handed over from -one ruler to another, according to the fluctuations of war -and diplomacy, without any regard either to the will of -the inhabitants or to the authority of any central power. -A practically dominant power there was during the -greater part of this period; but it was not the power -of even a nominal King of Italy. For a long time that -dominant power was held by the House of Austria in -its two branches. The supremacy of Charles in Italy -passed, not to his Imperial brother, but to his Spanish -son. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominion -of Spain, -1555-1701;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then followed the long dominion of the Spanish -branch of the Austrian house; then came the less -thorough dominion of the German branch. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Austria, -1713-1793.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last -was a dominion strictly of the House of Austria as such, -not of the Empire or of either of the Imperial kingdoms. -And now that the name of Italy means merely a certain -surface on the map, we must take some notice, so far -as they regard Italian history, at once of Savoy at one -end and of the Sicilian kingdoms at the other. From -this time both of them have a more direct bearing on -Italian history.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Massing of -Italy into -larger -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>By the time of the coronation of Charles the Fifth, -or at least within the generation which could remember -his coronation, the greater part of Italy had been -massed into a few states, which, as compared with the -earlier state of things, were of considerable size. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Monaco<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A few -smaller principalities and lordships still kept their place, -of which one of the smallest, that of <i>Monaco</i> in the -extreme south-west, has lived on to our own time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>San Marino<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -So has -the small commonwealth of <i>San Marino</i>, surrounded, -first by the dominions of the Popes and now by the -modern kingdom. But such states as these were mere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">{248}</a></span> -survivals. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominion of -Venice on -the mainland, -1406-1797.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the north-east, Venice kept her power -on the mainland untouched, from the recovery of her -dominions after the league of Cambray down to her -final fall. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>She loses her -outlying -Italian -possessions, -1530.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the treaty of Bologna she lost <i>Ravenna</i>; -she lost too the towns of <i>Brindisi</i> and <i>Monopoli</i> -which she had gained during the wars of Naples; but -her continuous dominion, both properly Venetian and -Lombard, remained. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Milan:<br /> -Spanish, -1540-1706;<br /> -Austrian, -1706-1796.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The duchy of <i>Milan</i> to the west -of her was held in succession by the two branches of -the House of Austria, first the Spanish and then the -German. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -Savoy towards -Milan.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the duchy, as an Austrian possession, -was being constantly cut short towards the west by -the growing power of Savoy. For a while the Milanese -and Savoyard states were conterminous only -during a small part of their frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Montferrat.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The marquisate -of <i>Montferrat</i>, as long as it remained a separate principality, -lay between the southern parts of the two -states. On the failure of the old line of marquesses, -Montferrat was disputed between the Dukes of Savoy -and Mantua. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>United to -Mantua -1536, but -claimed by -Savoy, -1613-1631.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Adjudged to Mantua, and raised into -a duchy by Imperial authority, it was still claimed, -and partly conquered by, Savoy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mantua forfeited -to -the Empire, -and Montferrat -joined -to Savoy, -1708-1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last, by one of -the last exercises of Imperial authority in Italy, the -duchy of Mantua itself was held to be forfeited to the -Empire; that is, it became an Austrian possession. At -the same time the Imperial authority confirmed Montferrat -to Savoy. The Austrian dominions in Italy were thus -extended to the south-east by the accession of the -Mantuan territory; but the whole western frontier of -the Milanese now lay open to Savoyard advance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First dismemberment -of -Milan in -favour of -Savoy, 1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -same treaties which confirmed Montferrat to Savoy and -Milan to Austria also dismembered Milan in favour of -Savoy. A corner of the duchy to the south-west,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">{249}</a></span> -<i>Alessandria</i> and the neighbouring districts, were now -given to Savoy; the Peace of Vienna further cut off -<i>Novara</i> to the north and <i>Tortona</i> to the south. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Further cessions, -1738.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -next peace, that of Aix-la-Chapelle, gave up all west -of the Ticino, which river became a permanent frontier.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Parma and -Piacenza -given to the -Spanish -Bourbons, -1731-1749.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Among the other states, the duchy of <i>Parma</i> and -<i>Piacenza</i> was, on the extinction of the house of Farnese, -handed over to princes of the Spanish branch of the Bourbons. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ferrara -confiscated -to the -Popes, 1598.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Modena</i> and <i>Ferrara</i> remained united, till Ferrara -was annexed as an escheated fief to the dominions of -its spiritual overlord. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1718.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the house of Este still reigned -over Modena with <i>Reggio</i> and <i>Mirandola</i>, while its -dominions were extended to the sea by the addition -of <i>Massa</i> and other small possessions between -Lucca and Genoa. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1771-1803.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The duchy in the end passed by -female succession to the House of Austria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Corsica -ceded to -France, -1768.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Genoa</i> and -<i>Lucca</i> remained aristocratic commonwealths; -but Genoa -lost its island possession of <i>Corsica</i>, which passed to -France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extinction -of the -Medici, -1737.<br /> -Francis of -Lorraine -Grand Duke -of Tuscany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Grand Duchy of <i>Tuscany</i> remained in -the house of Medici, till it was assigned to Duke -Francis of Lorraine, afterwards the Emperor Francis -the First, and after that it remained in the House of -Habsburg-Lorraine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Urbino annexed -by -the Popes, -1631.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The States of the Church, after -the annexation of Ferrara, were in the next century -further enlarged by the annexation of the duchy of -Urbino.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>1530-1797.<br /> -Comparatively -little -geographical -change.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Thus, except on the frontier of Piedmont and -Milan, the whole time from Charles the Fifth to the -French Revolution was, within the old kingdom of -Italy, much less remarkable for changes in the geographical -frontiers of the several states than for the way -in which they are passed to and fro from one master to -another. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -the Two -Sicilies<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This is yet more remarkable, if we look to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">{250}</a></span> -southern part of the peninsula, and to the two great -islands which in modern geography we have learned -to look on as attached to Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Norman -kingdom -of -Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Norman kingdom -which, by steps which will be told elsewhere, grew up to -the south of the Imperial Kingdom of Italy, has hardly -ever changed its boundaries, except by the various -separations and unions of the insular and the continental -kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Benevento.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Even the outlying papal possession -of <i>Benevento</i> after each war went back to its ecclesiastical -master. But the shiftings, divisions, and reunions -of the Two Sicilies and of the island of Sardinia -have been endless. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Charles of -Anjou, 1265.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Sicilian kingdom of the -Norman and Swabian kings, containing both the island -and the provinces on the mainland, passed unchanged -to Charles of Anjou. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revolt of -the island of -Sicily, 1282.<br /> -The two -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The revolt of the island split the -kingdom into two, one insular, one continental, each of -which called itself the <i>Kingdom of Sicily</i>, though the -continental realm was more commonly known as the -<i>Kingdom of Naples</i>. The wars of the fourteenth and -fifteenth centuries caused endless changes of dynasty -in the continental kingdom, but no changes of frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Aragon, -Sardinia, -and continental -Sicily -under -Alfonso, -1442.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under the famous Alfonso in the fifteenth century, -Aragon, Sardinia, and the continental Sicily were -three kingdoms under one sovereign, while the insular -Sicily was ruled by another branch of the same house. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Aragonese -kings of the -island, -1296-1442. -1458-1701.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then continental Sicily passed to an illegitimate branch -of the House of Aragon, while Sardinia and insular -Sicily were held by the legitimate branch. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars beginning -with -Charles the -Eighth, -1494-1528.<br /> -Spanish, -1556-1701.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The French -invasion under Charles the Eighth and the long wars -that followed, the conquests, the restorations, the -schemes of division, all ended in the union of both the -Sicilian kingdoms, now known as the <i>Kingdom of the -Two Sicilies</i>, along with Sardinia, as part of the great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">{251}</a></span> -Spanish monarchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1554-1555.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A momentary separation of the -insular kingdom, in order to give the husband of Mary -of England royal rank while his father yet reigned, is -important only as the first formal use of the title of -<i>King of Naples</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sardinia -and Naples -Austrian.<br /> -Duke of -Savoy king -of Sicily, -1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the division of the Spanish monarchy, -Sardinia and Naples fell to the lot of the Austrian -House, while Sicily was given to the Duke of -Savoy, who thus gained substantial kingly rank. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Exchange -of Sicily -and Sardinia, -1718.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently -the kings of the two island kingdoms made an -exchange; Sardinia passed to Savoy, and the Emperor -Charles the Sixth ruled, like Frederick the Second and -Charles the Fifth, over both Sicilies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Spanish -Bourbons, -1735-1806. -1817-1860.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, the kingdom -was handed over from an Austrian to a new -Spanish master, the first of the line of Neapolitan -Bourbons. Thus, at the end of the last century, the -Two Sicilies formed a distinct and united kingdom, -while Sardinia formed the outlying realm of the Duke -of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont. His kingdom was -of far less value than his principality or his duchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -name <i>Sardinia</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, as Sardinia gave their common sovereign his -highest title, the Sardinian name often came in common -speech to be extended to the continental dominions of -its king.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Time of the -Revolution, -1797-1814.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This period, a period of change, but of comparatively -slight geographical change, was followed by a time -when, in Italy as in Germany, boundaries were changed, -new names were invented or forgotten names revived, -when old land-marks were rooted up, and thrones were -set up and cast down, with a speed which baffles the -chronicler. The first strictly geographical change -which was wrought in Italy by the revolutionary wars -was a characteristic one. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cispadane Republic, -1796.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A <i>Cispadane Republic</i>, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">{252}</a></span> -first of a number of momentary commonwealths bearing -names dug up from the recesses of bygone times, -took in the duchy of Modena and the Papal Legations -of Romagna. Without exactly following the same -boundaries, it answered roughly to the old Exarchate. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Transpadane -Republic, 1797.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then the French victories over Austria caused the -Austrian duchies of Milan and Mantua to become a -<i>Transpadane Republic</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Treaty of -Campo -Formio, -1797. -Cisalpine -Republic.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then Venice was wiped out at -Campo Formio, and her Lombard possessions were joined -together with the two newly made commonwealths, to -form a <i>Cisalpine Republic</i>. But the same treaty wrought -another change which was more distinctly geographical. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venice surrendered -to -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Venice and the eastern part of her possessions on the -mainland, the old Venetia, the Lombard <i>Austria</i>, was -now handed over to the modern state which bore the -latter name. This change may be looked on as distinctly -cutting short the boundaries of Italy. The duchy of -Milan in Austrian hands had been an outlying part -of the Austrian dominions; but Venetia marches on -the older territory of the Austrian house, and was -thus more completely severed from Italy. The whole -north of the Hadriatic coast thus became Austrian in the -modern sense. One Italian commonwealth—for Venice -had long counted as Italian—was thus wiped out, and -handed over to a foreign king. But elsewhere, at -this stage of revolutionary progress, the fashion ran in -favour of the creation of local commonwealths. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ligurian -Republic, -1797.<br /> -Parthenopæan -Republic.<br /> -Tiberine -Republic, -1798-1801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -dominions of Genoa became a <i>Ligurian Republic</i>; -Naples became a <i>Parthenopæan Republic</i>; Rome herself -exchanged for a moment the memories of kings, -consuls, emperors, and pontiffs to become the head of a -<i>Tiberine Republic</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Piedmont -joined to -France, -1798-1800.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Piedmont was overwhelmed; the -greater part was incorporated with France. Some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">{253}</a></span> -small parts were added to the neighbouring republics, -and the king of Sardinia withdrew to his island kingdom. -Amid this crowd of new-fangled states and new-fangled -names, ancient San Marino still lived on.</p> - -<p>Thus far revolutionary Italy followed the example of -revolutionary France, and the new states were all at -least nominal commonwealths. In the next stage, -when France came under the rule of a single man, -above all when that single ruler took on him the Imperial -title, the tide turned in favour of monarchy. In -Rome and Naples it had already turned so in another -way. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Restoration -of the Pope -and the -King of the -Two Sicilies, -1801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By help of the Czar and the Sultan, the new republics -vanished, and the old rulers, Pope and King, -came back again. And now France herself began to -create kingdoms instead of commonwealths. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Etruria, -1801-1808.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Parma -was annexed to France, and its Duke was sent to rule -in Tuscany by the title of <i>King of Etruria</i>. Presently -Italy herself gave her name to a kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Italy, 1805-1814.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Cisalpine -republic, further enlarged by Venice and the other -territory ceded to Austria at Campo Formio, enlarged -also by the <i>Valtellina</i> and the former bishopric of -<i>Trent</i> at one end and by the march of <i>Ancona</i> at the -other, became the <i>Kingdom of Italy</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Buonaparte -king of -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its King, the first -since Charles the Fifth who had worn the Italian crown, -was no other than the new ruler of France, the self-styled -‘Emperor.’ But, in Buonaparte’s later distributions -of Italian territory, it was not his Italian kingdom, -but his French ‘empire’ whose frontiers were extended. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of Liguria, -1805;<br /> -of Etruria, -1808.<br /> -Grand -duchy of -Lucca.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Ligurian Republic was annexed; -so before -long was the new kingdom of Etruria; -<i>Lucca</i> meanwhile -was made into a grand duchy for the conqueror’s -sister. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Incorporation -of Rome -and France, -1809.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, Rome itself, with what was left of the -papal dominions, was also incorporated with the French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">{254}</a></span> -dominion. The work alike of Cæsar and of Charles -was wiped out from the Eternal City. The Empire of -the Gauls, which Civilis had dreamed of more than -seventeen centuries before, had come at last.</p> - -<p>The fate of the remainder of the peninsula had been -already sealed before Rome became French. The kingdom -of the Two Sicilies fell asunder. The Bourbon -king kept his island, as the Savoyard king kept his. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdoms -of Naples -and Sicily, -1806. -1809. -<i>Stati degli -Presidi.</i><span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The continental kingdom passed, as a <i>Kingdom of -Naples</i>, first to Joseph Buonaparte, and then to Joachim -Murat. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Benevento.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the outlying Tuscan possessions of -the Sicilian crown had already passed to France, and -<i>Benevento</i>, the outlying papal possession in the heart -of the kingdom, became a separate principality.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Italy under -French -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Thus all Italy—unless we count the island kingdoms -of Sardinia and Sicily as parts of Italy—was brought -under French dominion in one form or another. But -of that dominion there were three varieties. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Part incorporated -with -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The whole -western part of the land, from Aosta to Tarracina—unless -it is worth while to except the new Lucchese -duchy—was formally incorporated with France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the kingdom -of -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -north-eastern side, from Bözen to Ascoli, formed a -Kingdom of Italy, distinct from France, but held by -the same sovereign. And this Kingdom of Italy was -further increased to the north by part of those Italian -lands which had become Swiss and German. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Naples.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Southern -Italy, the Kingdom of Naples, remained in form an independent -kingdom; but it was held by princes who could -not be looked on as anything but the humble vassals -of their mighty kinsman. Never had Italy been brought -more completely under foreign dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revival of -the Italian -name.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Still, in a -part at least of the land, the name of Italy, and the -shadow of a Kingdom of Italy, had been revived.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">{255}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its effects.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, as names and shadows are not without influence -in human affairs, the mere existence of an Italian -state, called by the Italian name, did something. The -creation of a sham Italy was no unimportant step -towards the creation of a real one.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlement -of, 1814-1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The settlement of Italy after the fall of Buonaparte -was far more strictly a return to the old state of things -than the contemporary settlement of Germany. Italy -remained a geographical expression. Its states were, as -before, independent of one another. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>No tie between -the -Italian -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They were practically -dependent on a foreign power: but they were in -no way bound together, even by the laxest federal tie. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The princes -restored, -but not the -commonwealths.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The main principle of settlement was that the princes -who had lost their dominions should be restored, but -that the commonwealths which had been overthrown -should not be restored. Only harmless San Marino -was allowed to live on. Venice, Lucca, and Genoa -remained possessions of princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Lombardy -and Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The sovereign of -Hungary and Austria, now calling himself ‘Emperor’ -of his archduchy, carved out for himself an Italian -kingdom which bore the name of the <i>Kingdom of -Lombardy and Venice</i>. On the strength of this, the -Austrian, like his French predecessor, took upon him to -wear the Italian crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its extent.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The new kingdom consisted -of the former Italian possessions of Austria, the duchies -of Milan and Mantua, enlarged by the former possessions -of Venice, which had become Austrian at Campoformio. -The old boundary between Germany and -Italy was restored. Trent, Aquileia, Trieste, were -again severed from Italy. They remained possessions -of the same prince as Milan and Venice, but they -formed no part of his Lombardo-Venetian kingdom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">{256}</a></span> -On another frontier, where restoration would have had -to be made to a commonwealth, the arrangements -were less conservative, and the <i>Valtellina</i> remained -part of the new kingdom. The Ticino formed, as -before, the boundary towards Piedmont. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Genoa annexed -to -Piedmont.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The King -of Sardinia came again into possession of this last -country, enlarged by the former dominions of <i>Genoa</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Monaco.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This gave him the whole Ligurian seaboard, except -where the little principality of <i>Monaco</i> still went on. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tuscany, -Parma, -Modena, -Lucca.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Parma</i>, <i>Modena</i>, and <i>Tuscany</i> again became separate -duchies. <i>Lucca</i> remained a duchy alongside of them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lucca annexed -to -Tuscany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The family arrangements by which these states were -handed about to this and that widow do not concern -geography; all that need be marked is that, by virtue of -one of these compacts, Lucca was in the end added to -Tuscany. That grand-duchy was further increased by -the addition of the former outlying possessions of the -Sicilian crown, including Elba, the island which for a -moment was an Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Papal -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Pope came back to all -his old Italian possessions, outlying Benevento included. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Two -Sicilies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was formed again by -the restoration of the Kingdom of Naples to the -Bourbon king. Thus was formed the Italy of 1815, -an Italy which, save in the sweeping away of its commonwealths, -and the consequent extension of Sardinian -and Austrian territory, differed geographically but little -from the Italy of 1748. But in 1815 there were hopes -which had had no being in 1748. Italy was divided -on the map; but she had made up her mind to be one.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The union -of Italy -comes from -Piedmont.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The union of Italy was at last to come from one of -those corners which in earlier history we have looked -on as being hardly Italian at all. It was not Milan or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">{257}</a></span> -Florence or Rome which was to grow into the new -Italy. That function was reserved for a princely house -whose beginnings had been Burgundian rather than -Italian, whose chief territories had long lain on the Burgundian -side of the Alps, but which had gradually put -on an Italian character, and which had now become the -one national Italian dynasty. The Italian possessions of -the Savoyard house, Piedmont, Genoa, and the island of -Sardinia, now formed one of the chief Italian states, and -the only one whose rule, if still despotic, was not foreign. -Savoy, by ceasing to be Savoy, was to become Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Movements -of 1848.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The movements of 1848 in Italy, like those in Germany, -led to no lasting changes on the map: but they do so far -affect geography that new states were actually founded, -if only for a moment. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Momentary -commonwealths.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Rome, Venice, Milan, were actually -for a while republics, and the Two Sicilies were -for a while separated. In the next year all came back -as before. The next lasting change on the map was -that which at last restored a real Kingdom of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Campaign -of 1859.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The joint campaign of France and Sardinia won <i>Lombardy</i> -for the Sardinian kingdom. Lombardy was now -defined as that part of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom -which lay west of the Mincio, except that Mantua -was left out. She was left to Austria. A French -scheme for an Italian confederation came to nothing. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -the smaller -states, 1860.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna voted their -own annexation to Piedmont. The Two Sicilies were -won by Garibaldi, and the kingly title of Sardinia was -merged in that of the restored Kingdom of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Addition of -the Sicilies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This -new Italian kingdom was, by the addition of the -Sicilies, extended over lands which had never been -part of the elder Italian kingdom. But Venetia was -still cut off; the Pope kept the lands on each side of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">{258}</a></span> -Rome, the so-called <i>Patrimony</i> and the <i>Campagna</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cession of -Savoy and -Nizza to -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But France annexed the lands, strictly Burgundian -rather than Italian, of <i>Savoy</i> and <i>Nizza</i>. The Italian -kingdom was thus again called into being; but it had -not yet come to perfection. Italy had ceased to be -a geographical expression; but the Italian frontier still -presented some geographical anomalies.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery of -Venetia, -1866;<br /> -of Rome, -1870.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The war between Prussia and Austria gave Venetia -to Italy; the war between Germany and France allowed -Italy to recover Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Part of the -old kingdom -not yet -recovered.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The two great gaps in her -frontier were thus made good; but, to say nothing of the -annexations made by France, a large Italian-speaking -population, lying within the bounds of the old Italian -kingdom, still remains outside its modern revival. Trent, -Aquileia, Trieste, Istria, are still parts, not of an Italian -kingdom, not of a German kingdom, confederation, or empire, -but of an Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Otherwise -the Italian kingdom has formed itself, and it has taken its -place among the great powers of Europe. Yet the whole -peninsula does not form part of the Italian kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>San Marino -remains -free.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Surrounded on every side by that kingdom, the commonwealth -of <i>San Marino</i>, like Rhodes or Byzantium -under the early Cæsars, still keeps its ancient freedom.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>The Kingdom of Burgundy.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Burgundy -with Germany -and -Italy, 1032.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Burgundian Kingdom, which was united with -those of Germany and Italy after the death of its last -separate king Rudolf the Third, has had a fate unlike -that of any other part of Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dying out -of the kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its memory, as a -separate state, has gradually died out. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Chiefly -annexed by -France;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The greater part -of its territory has been swallowed up bit by bit by -a neighbouring power, and the small part which has -escaped that fate has long lost all trace of its original<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">{259}</a></span> -name or its original political relations. By a long series -of annexations, spreading over more than five hundred -years, the greater part of the kingdom has gradually -been incorporated with France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>part Italian;<br /> -part Swiss.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of what remains, a -small corner forms part of the modern kingdom of Italy, -while the rest still keeps its independence in the form -of the commonwealths which make up the western -cantons of Switzerland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Burgundy -represented -by Switzerland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These cantons, in fact, are the -truest modern representatives of the Burgundian kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Neutrality -of Switzerland -and -Belgium.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And it is on the Confederation of which they -form a part, interposed as it is between France, Italy, -the new German Empire, and the modern Austrian monarchy, -as a central state with a guaranteed neutrality, -that some trace of the old function of Burgundy, as the -middle kingdom, is thrown. This function it shares -with the Lotharingian lands at the other end of the -Empire, which now form part of the equally neutral -kingdom of Belgium, lands which, oddly enough, themselves -became Burgundian in another sense.</p> - -<p>The Burgundian Kingdom, lying between the Alps, -the Saône and the Rhone, and the Mediterranean, -might be thought to have a fair natural boundary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Boundaries -of the kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, while it kept any shadow of separate being, its -boundaries did not greatly change. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuation -of its -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They were however -somewhat fluctuating on the side of the Western -kingdom, being sometimes bounded by the Rhone and -sometimes reaching to the line of hills to the west of -it. They were also, as we have seen, somewhat fluctuating -on the side of Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Chiefly -Romance -speaking.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At this end the kingdom -took in some German-speaking districts; otherwise -the language was Romance, including several dialects -of the tongue of <i>Oc</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>County -Palatine. <br /> -Lesser Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The northern part of the kingdom, answering to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">{260}</a></span> -former Transjurane kingdom—the <i>Regnum Jurense</i>—formed -two chief states, the <i>County Palatine of Burgundy</i>—the -modern <i>Franche Comté</i>—and the <i>Lesser -Burgundy</i>, roughly taking in western Switzerland and -northern Savoy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Provence.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the Mediterranean lay the great -county of <i>Provence</i>, with a number of smaller counties -lying between it and the two northern principalities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Free -Cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the great characteristic of the land was that, next -to Italy, no part of Europe contained so many considerable -cities lying near together. Many of these at -different times strove more or less successfully after a -republican independence, and a few have kept it to our -own day.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Little real -unity in the -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But, though the Burgundian kingdom might be -thought to have, on three sides at least, a good natural -frontier, it had but little real unity. The northern -part naturally clave to its connexion with the Empire -much longer than the southern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Burgundian -Palatinate.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>County -Palatine</i> of Burgundy often passed from one dynasty -to another, and it is remarkable for the number of -times that it was held as a separate state by several -of the great princes of Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Held by the -Emperor -Frederick, -1156-1189;<br /> -by Philip of -France, -1315-1330.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was held by the -Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in right of his wife; the -marriage of one of his female descendants carried it to -Philip the Fifth of France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>United with -the French -Duchy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then it became united -with the French duchy of Burgundy under the dukes -of the House of Valois. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1477.<br /> -Held by the -House of -Austria, -Charles the -Fifth Count -of Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Saving a momentary French -occupation after the death of Charles the Bold, it -remained with them and their Austrian and Spanish -representatives. -Among these it had a second Imperial -Count in the person of Charles the Fifth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexed to -France, -1674.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, -through all these changes of dynasty, it remained an -acknowledged fief of the Empire, till its annexation to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">{261}</a></span> -France under Lewis the Fourteenth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dole the -capital of -the county.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The capital of -this county, it must be remembered, was <i>Dole</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Besançon a -Free Imperial -city. -1189-1651.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -ecclesiastical metropolis of <i>Besançon</i>, though surrounded -by the county, remained a free city of the -Empire from the days of Frederick Barbarossa to those -of Ferdinand the Third. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>United to -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was then merged in the -county, and along with the county it passed to France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Montbeilliard.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And it should be noticed that a small Burgundian land -in this quarter, the county of <i>Montbeilliard</i> or <i>Mümpelgard</i>, -first as a separate state, then in union with -the duchy of Württemberg, kept its allegiance to the -Empire till the wars of the French Revolution, when it -was annexed to France and was never restored.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Lesser -Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>While the Burgundian Palatinate thus kept its history -as an unit in European geography, the <i>Lesser Burgundy</i> -to the south-west of it had a different history. The -geography here gets somewhat confused through the fact -that this Lesser Burgundy, which in the twelfth century -passed under the power of the <i>Dukes of Zähringen</i> in -Swabia as <i>Rectors</i>, took in some districts which were -not parts of the Burgundian kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The eastern -part German.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The eastern -part of the kingdom itself was of German speech, -and its frontier towards the German duchy of Alemannia -or Swabia was somewhat fluctuating. The Aar -may be taken as the boundary of the kingdom, while -the Lesser Burgundy, as an administrative division, -stretched somewhat further to the East. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cities of the -Lesser Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus Basel, as -well the foundations of the House of Zähringen at Bern -and Freiburg, stood on strictly Burgundian ground, -while the city of Luzern and the land of Unterwalden -come under the head of the Lesser Burgundy, without -forming part of the Burgundian kingdom. These lands -long kept up their connexion with the Empire, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">{262}</a></span> -the Lesser Burgundy did not long remain as a separate -unit. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dukes of -Zähringen.<br /> -End of their -house, 1218.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -When the House of Zähringen came to an end, -the country began to split up into small principalities -and free cities which gradually grew into independent -commonwealths. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break-up of -the duchy.<br /> -Savoyard -territory.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The counts of Savoy, of -whom more presently, acquired a large territory on -both sides of the Lake of Geneva. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bishops, -Counts, and -Free Cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Other considerable -princes were the bishops of <i>Basel</i>, <i>Lausanne</i>, <i>Geneva</i>, -and <i>Sitten</i>, the counts of <i>Geneva</i>, <i>Kyburg</i>, <i>Gruyères</i>, -and <i>Neufchâtel</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Free -Lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Basel</i>, <i>Solothurn</i>, and <i>Bern</i> were Imperial -cities. The complicated relations between the -Bishops and the city of Geneva hindered that city from -having a strict right to that title. In Unterwalden and -in <i>Wallis</i>, notwithstanding the possessions and claims of -various spiritual and temporal lords, the most marked -feature was the retention of the old rural independence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Old -League of -High Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of the cities in this region, Luzern, Bern, Freiburg, -Solothurn, and Basel, all gradually became members of -the <i>Old League of High Germany</i>, the ground-work of -the modern Swiss Confederation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Bern and -Freiburg -from Savoy, -1536.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Savoyard lands -north of the lake were conquered by Bern and Freiburg -in the sixteenth century, a conquest which also -secured the independence of Geneva. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Burgundian -cantons of -Switzerland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All these lands, -after going through the intermediate stage of allies or -subjects of some or other of the confederate cantons, -have in modern times become independent cantons -themselves. This process of annexation and liberation -will be traced more fully when we come to the history -of the Swiss Confederation.</p> - -<p>To the south of this group of states, and partly -intermingled with them, lay another group, lying partly -within the Cisjurane and partly within the Transjurane -kingdom, which gradually grew into a great power.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">{263}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were the states which were united step by step -under the Counts of <i>Maurienne</i>, afterwards Counts of -<i>Savoy</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Burgundian -possession -of its -county.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -When their dominions were at their greatest -extent, they held south of the Lake of Geneva, besides -Maurienne and Savoy strictly so called, the districts -of <i>Aosta</i>, <i>Tarantaise</i>, the <i>Genevois</i>, <i>Chablais</i>, and <i>Faucigny</i>, -together with <i>Vaud</i> and <i>Gex</i> north of the lake. -Thus grew up the power of Savoy, which has already -been noticed in its purely Italian aspect, but which -must receive fuller separate treatment in a section -of its own.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>States between -the -Palatinate -and the Mediterranean.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The remainder of the Burgundian Kingdom consisted -of a number of small states stretching from the -southern boundary of the Burgundian county to the -Mediterranean. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bresse and -Bugey -become -Savoyard. -Bugey, -1137-1344; -Bresse, -1272-1402.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -North of the Rhone lay the districts -of <i>Bresse</i> and <i>Bugey</i>, which passed at various times to -the House of Savoy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lyons, -Vienne, -Orange, &c.<br /> -Provence.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Southwards on the Rhone lay a -number of small states, among which the most important -in history are the archbishopric, the county, and the -free city of <i>Lyons</i>, the county or <i>Dauphiny</i> of <i>Vienne</i> -and the city of <i>Vienne</i>, the county or principality <i>of -Orange</i>, the city of <i>Avignon</i>, the county of <i>Venaissin</i>, -the free city of <i>Arles</i>, the capital of the kingdom, the free -city of <i>Massalia</i> or <i>Marseilles</i>, the county of <i>Nizza</i> or -<i>Nice</i>, and the great county or marquisate of <i>Provence</i>. -In this last power lay the first element of danger, especially -to the republican independence of the free cities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes of -dynasty.<br /> -The Angevins, -1246.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After being held by separate princes of its own, as well -as by the Aragonese kings, it passed by marriage into -the hands of a French prince, Charles of Anjou, the -conqueror of Sicily, and also the destroyer of the second -freedom of Massalia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growing -French -connexion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The possession of the greatest -member of the kingdom by a French ruler, though it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">{264}</a></span> -made no immediate change in the formal state of things, -gave fresh strength to every tendency which tended to -withdraw the Burgundian lands from their allegiance -to the Empire and to bring them, first into connexion -with France, and then into actual incorporation with -the French kingdom.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Process of -French annexation.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Step by step, though by a process which was spread -over many centuries, all the principalities and commonwealths -of the Burgundian kingdom, save the lands -which have been Swiss and the single valley which -is now Italian, have come into the hands of France. -The tendency shows itself early. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Avignon -first seized, -1226.<br /> -Annexation -of Lyons, -1310.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Avignon</i> was seized -for a moment during the Albigensian wars; -but the -permanent process of French annexation began when -Philip the Fair took advantage of the disputes between -the archbishops and the citizens of <i>Lyons</i>, to join that -Imperial city to his dominions. The head of all the -Gauls, the seat of the Primate of all the Gauls, thus -passed into the hands of the new monarchy of Paris, -the first-fruits of French aggrandizement at the cost of -the Middle Kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Purchase of -the Dauphiny -of -Vienne, -1343.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later in the same century, the -Dauphiny of <i>Vienne</i> was acquired by a bargain with its -last independent prince. This land also passed, through -the intermediate stage of an Imperial fief held by the -heir-apparent of the French crown, into a mere province -of France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The city of -Vienne -annexed, -1448.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the acquisition of the Dauphiny did not -carry with it that of the city of <i>Vienne</i>, which escaped -for more than a century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Valence, -1446.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Between the acquisition -of the Dauphiny and the acquisition of the city, the -county of <i>Valence</i> was annexed to the Dauphiny. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Provence, -1481.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later -in the same century followed the great annexation of -<i>Provence</i> itself. The rule of French princes in that -county for two centuries had doubtless paved the way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">{265}</a></span> -for this annexation. And the acquisition of Provence -carried with it the acquisition of the cities of <i>Arles</i> and -<i>Marseilles</i>, which the counts of Provence had deprived -of their freedom. By this time the whole of the -land between the Rhone and the sea had been swallowed -up, save one state at the extreme south-east -corner of the kingdom, and a group of small states -which were now quite hemmed in by French territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Nizza -passes to -Savoy, 1388.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first was the county of <i>Nizza</i> or Nice, which had -passed away from Provence to Savoy before the French -annexation of Provence. But by this time Savoy had -become an Italian power, and Nizza was from henceforth -looked on as Italian rather than Burgundian. -Between Provence and the Dauphiny lay the city of -<i>Avignon</i>, the county of <i>Venaissin</i>, and the principality -of <i>Orange</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Avignon -and Venaissin -become -Papal, 1348.<br /> -Annexed to -France, -1791.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Avignon and Venaissin became papal possessions -by purchase from the sovereign of Provence; and, -though they were at last quite surrounded by French -territory, they remained papal possessions till they were -annexed in the course of the great Revolution. These -outlying possessions of the Popes perhaps did somewhat -towards preserving the independence of a more interesting -fragment of the ancient kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Orange.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was -the Principality of <i>Orange</i>, which the neighbourhood -of the Pope hindered from being altogether surrounded -by French territory. This little state, whose name has -become so much more famous than itself, passed -through several dynasties, and for a long time it was -regularly seized by France in the course of every war. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its annexation -to -France, -1714-1771.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was as regularly restored to independence at -every peace, and its final annexation did not happen till -the eighteenth century. The acquisition of Orange, -Avignon, and Venaissin, completed the process of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">{266}</a></span> -French aggrandizement in the lands between the -Rhone and the Var. The stages of the same process -as applied to the Savoyard lands will be best told in -another section.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Modern -states which -have split -off from the -three kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have thus traced the geographical history of -the three Imperial kingdoms themselves. It now follows -to trace in the like sort the origin and growth of -certain of the modern powers of Europe which have -grown out of one or more of those kingdoms. Certain -parts of the German, Italian, and Burgundian kingdoms -have split off from these kingdoms, so as to form -new political units, distinct from any of them. Five -states of no small importance in later European history -have thus been formed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their character -as -middle -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Most of them partake more -or less of the character of middle states, interposed -between France and one or more of the Imperial -kingdoms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Switzerland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First, there is the Confederation of <i>Switzerland</i>, -which arose by certain German districts and -cities forming so close an union among themselves that -their common allegiance to the Empire gradually died -out. The Confederation grew into its present form by -the addition to these German districts of certain Italian -and Burgundian districts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Secondly, there are, or -rather were, the dominions of the Dukes of <i>Savoy</i>, -formed by the union of various Italian and Burgundian -districts. This however, as a middle power, has -ceased to exist; nearly all its Burgundian possessions -have been joined to France, while its Italian possessions -have grown into a new Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Dukes -of Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thirdly, there were the -dominions of the Dukes of <i>Burgundy</i>, forming a middle -power between France and Germany, and made up -by the union of French and Imperial fiefs. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Represented -by the -kingdoms -of the Low -Countries.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">{267}</a></span> -represented on the modern maps by the kingdoms of -the <i>Netherlands</i> and <i>Belgium</i>, the greater part of both -of which belonged to the Burgundian dukes. Of these -kingdoms much the greater part had split off from the -old kingdom of Germany. Certain parts were once -French fiefs, but had ceased to be so. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recognized -neutrality -of Belgium, -Switzerland, -and -once of part -of Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The position of -three out of these four states as middle powers, and their -importance in that character, has been acknowledged -even by modern diplomacy in the neutrality which is -still guaranteed to Belgium and Switzerland, and which -was formerly extended to certain districts of Savoy.</p> - -<p>Of these four states, Switzerland, Savoy, and the -duchy of Burgundy as represented by the two kingdoms -of the Low Countries, some have been merged -in other powers, and those which still remain count -only among the secondary states of Europe. But a -fifth power has also broken off from Germany which -still ranks among the greatest in Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Austrian -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This is the -power which, starting from a small German mark on -the Danube, has, by the gradual union of various lands, -German and non-German, grown into something distinct -from Germany, first under the name of the <i>Austrian ‘Empire’</i> -and more latterly under that of the <i>Austro-Hungarian -Monarchy</i>. This power differs from the other states -of which we have been just speaking, not only in its -vastly greater extent, but also in its position. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -the Austrian -dominion -as a -marchland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is -a marchland, a middle kingdom, but in a different -sense from Burgundy, Switzerland, Savoy, or Belgium. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -with the -western -marchlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All these were marchlands between Christian states, -between states all of which had formed part of the -Carolingian Empire. All lie on the western side -of the German and Italian kingdoms. Austria, on -the other hand, as its name implies, arose on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">{268}</a></span> -eastern side of the German kingdom, as a mark against -Turanian and heathen invaders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austria as -the march -against the -Magyar.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first mission of -Austria was to guard Germany against the Magyar. -When the Magyar was admitted into the fellowship of -Europe and Christendom—when, after a while, his realm -was united under a single sovereign with Austria—the -same duty was continued in another form. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austria and -Hungary -the mark of -Christendom -against -the Turk.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The power -formed by the union of Hungary and Austria was one of -the chief among those which had to guard Christendom -against the Turk. Its history therefore forms one of -the connecting links between Eastern and Western Europe. -In this chapter it will be dealt with chiefly on its -Western side, with regard to its relations towards Germany -and Italy. The Eastern aspect of the Austro-Hungarian -power has more to do with the states which -arose out of the break up of the Eastern Empire.</p> - -<p>These states then, Switzerland, Savoy, the Duchy -of Burgundy, the Netherlands, and Austria, form a -proper addition to the sections given to the three -Imperial kingdoms. I will now go on to deal with -them in order.</p> - - -<h3>§ 6. <i>The Swiss Confederation.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The original -Confederation -practically -German,<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>I have just spoken of the Swiss Confederation as -being in its origin purely German. This statement is -practically correct, as all the original cantons were German -in speech and feeling, and the formal style of their -union was <i>the Old League of High Germany</i>. But in strict -geographical accuracy there was, as we have seen in the -last section, a small Burgundian element in the Confederation, -if not from the beginning, at least from its aggrandizement -in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>though part -of it geographically -Burgundian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That is to say, part of the territory of the states which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">{269}</a></span> -formed the old Confederation lay geographically within -the kingdom of Burgundy, and a further part lay within -the Lesser Burgundy of the Dukes of Zähringen. But, by -the time when the history of the Confederation begins, -the kingdom of Burgundy was pretty well forgotten, -and the small German-speaking territory which it took -in at its extreme north-east corner may be looked on -as practically German ground. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>All the old -Cantons -German in -speech.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A more practical division -than the old boundaries of the kingdoms is the -boundary of the Teutonic and Romance speech; in -this sense all the cantons of the old Confederation, except -part of Freiburg, are German. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The later -Romance -Cantons.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Romance cantons -are those which were formed in modern times out of -the allied and subject states. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Many -popular -errors.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is specially needful to -bear in mind, first, that, till the last years of the thirteenth -century, not even the germ of modern Switzerland -had appeared on the map of Europe; secondly, -that the Confederation did not formally become an -independent power till the seventeenth century; lastly, -that, though the <i>Swiss</i> name had been in common use -for ages, it did not become the formal style of the -Confederation till the nineteenth century. Nothing in -the whole study of historical geography is more necessary -than to root out the notion that there has always -been a country of Switzerland, as there has always been -a country of Germany, Gaul, or Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Swiss -do not represent -the -Helvetii.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And it is no -less needful to root out the notion that the Swiss of -the original cantons in any way represent the Helvetii -of Cæsar. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Summary -of Swiss -history.<br /> -A German -League -having become -more -united and -independent -than -others, -annexes Romance -allies -and subjects.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The points to be borne in mind are that -the Swiss Confederation is simply one of many German -Leagues, which was more lasting and became more -closely united than other German Leagues—that it -gradually split off from the German Kingdom—that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">{270}</a></span> -in the course of this process, the League and its members -obtained a large body of Italian and Burgundian -allies and subjects—lastly, that these allies and subjects -have in modern times been joined into one Federal -body with the original German Confederates.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Three -Lands on -the boundary -of the -three kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The three Swabian lands which formed the kernel -of the Old League lay at the point of union of the -three Imperial kingdoms, parts of all of which were to -become members of the Confederation in its later form. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First known -document of -union, 1291.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first known document of confederation between the -three lands dates from the last years of the thirteenth -century. But that document is likely to have been -rather the confirmation than the actual beginning of -their union. They had for their neighbours several -ecclesiastical and temporal lords, some other Imperial -lands and towns, and far greater than all, the Counts -of the house of <i>Kyburg</i> and <i>Habsburg</i>, who had -lately grown into the more dangerous character of -Dukes of Austria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the League.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Confederation grew for a while -by the admission of neighbouring lands and cities -as members of a free German Confederation, owning -no superior but the Emperor. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Luzern, -1332.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First of all, the city -of <i>Luzern</i> joined the League. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Zürich, -1351.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then came the Imperial -city of <i>Zürich</i>, which had already begun to form -a little dominion in the adjoining lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Glarus and -Zug, 1352.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then came -the land of <i>Glarus</i> and the town of <i>Zug</i> with its small -territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bern, 1353.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And lastly came the great city of <i>Bern</i>, -which had already won a dominion over a considerable -body of detached and outlying allies and subjects. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Eight -Ancient -Cantons.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These confederate lands and towns formed the <i>Eight -Ancient Cantons</i>. Their close alliance with each other -helped the growth of each canton separately, as well as -that of the League as a whole. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their -growth.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Those cantons whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">{271}</a></span> -geographical position allowed them to do so, were -thus able to extend their power, in the form of various -shades of dominion and alliance, over the smaller -lands and towns in their neighbourhood. These lesser -changes and annexations cannot all be recorded here; -but it must be carefully borne in mind that the process -was constantly going on. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominion -of Zürich -and Bern.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Zürich, and yet more -Bern, each formed, after the manner of an ancient -Greek city, what in ancient Greece would have passed -for an empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -from Austria, -1415-1460.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the fifteenth century, large conquests -were made at the expense of the House of -Austria, of which the earlier ones were made by -direct Imperial sanction. The Confederation, or some -or other of its members, had now extended its territory -to the Rhine and the Lake of Constanz. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Aargau, -Thurgau, -&c.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -lands thus won, <i>Aargau</i>, <i>Thurgau</i>, and some other -districts, were held as subject territories in the hands -of some or other of the Confederate states.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>No new canton -formed -for a long -time.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It is a fact to be specially noticed in the history of -the Confederation, that, for nearly a hundred and thirty -years, though the territory and the power of the Confederation -were constantly increasing, no new states were -admitted to the rank of confederate cantons. Before -the next group of cantons was admitted, the general -state of the Confederation and its European position -had greatly changed. It had ceased to be a purely -German power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of Italian -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first extension beyond the original -German lands and those Burgundian lands which were -practically German began in the direction of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Uri obtains -Val Levantina, -1441.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Uri -had, by the annexation of Urseren, become the neighbour -of the Duchy of Milan, and in the middle of the -fifteenth century, this canton acquired some rights in -the <i>Val Levantina</i> on the Italian side of the Alps. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">{272}</a></span> -was the beginning of the extension of the Confederation -on Italian ground. But far more important than this was -the advance of the Confederates over the Burgundian -lands to the west.<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First -Savoyard -conquest of -Bern.<br /> -1475.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The war with Charles of Burgundy -enabled Bern to win several detached possessions in the -Savoyard lands north and east of the lake, and even on -the lower course of the Rhone. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Savoyard -conquests -of Freiburg -and Wallis.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, while Bern advanced, -some points in the same direction were gained -by her allies who are not yet members of the Confederation, -by the city of <i>Freiburg</i> and the League of <i>Wallis</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -Wallis.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last confederation had grown up on the upper -course of the Rhone, where the small free lands had -gradually displaced the territorial lords. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Freiburg -and Solothurn -become -Cantons, -1481.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Soon after this -came the next admission of new cantons, those of the -cities of <i>Freiburg</i> and <i>Solothurn</i>, each of them bringing -with it its small following of allied and subject territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Basel and -Schaffhausen, -1501.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Twenty years later, <i>Basel</i> and <i>Schaffhausen</i>, the latter -being the only canton north of the Rhine, were admitted -with their following of the like kind. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Appenzell, -1513.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Twelve years later, -<i>Appenzell</i>, a little land which had set itself free from -the rule of the abbots of <i>Saint Gallen</i>, after having -long been in alliance with the Confederates, was admitted -to the rank of a canton. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Thirteen -Cantons, -1513-1798.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus was made up -the full number of Thirteen Cantons, which remained -unchanged down to the wars of the French Revolution.</p> - -<p>But the time when the Confederation was finally -settled as regards the number of cantons was also a -time of great extension of territory on the part both -of the Confederation and of several of its members. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Graubünden.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the south-east corner of the Confederate territory, -on the borders of the duchy of Milan and the county -of Tyrol, the League of <i>Graubünden</i> or the <i>Grey -Leagues</i> had gradually arisen. A number of communities,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">{273}</a></span> -as in Wallis, had got rid of the neighbouring -lords, and had formed themselves into three leagues, -the <i>Grey League</i> proper, the <i>Gotteshausbund</i>, and the -League of <i>Ten Jurisdictions</i>, which three were again -united by a further federal tie. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their alliance -with -the Confederates.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the end of the -fifteenth century, the Leagues so formed entered into -an alliance with the Confederates. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1495-1567.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then began a great -accession of territory towards the south on the part -both of the Confederates and of their new allies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Italian dominion -of -the Confederation, -1512;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Confederates received a considerable territory within -the duchy of Milan, including <i>Bellinzona</i>, <i>Locarno</i>, and -<i>Lugano</i>, as the reward of services done to the House -of Sforza. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of the Grey -Leagues, -1513.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next year their new allies of the Grey -Leagues also won some Italian territory, the <i>Valtellina</i> -and the districts of <i>Chiavenna</i> and <i>Bormio</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Early -Savoyard -conquests of -Bern, Freiburg, -and -Wallis, -1536.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Next came -the conquest of a large part of the Savoyard lands, of -all north of the Lake and a good deal to the south, by -the arms of Bern, Freiburg, and Wallis. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Vaud.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Bern and -Freiburg divided <i>Vaud</i> in very unequal proportions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lausanne.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Bern and Wallis divided <i>Chablais</i> on the south side of -the lake, and Bern annexed the bishopric of <i>Lausanne</i> -on the north. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geneva in -alliance -with Bern -and Freiburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Geneva</i>, the ally of Bern and Freiburg, -with her little territory of detached scraps, was now -surrounded by the dominion of her most powerful -allies at Bern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Territory -restored to -Savoy, 1567.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But by a later treaty Bern and Wallis -gave back to Savoy all that they had won south of the -Lake, with the territory of <i>Gex</i> to the west of it. -Geneva thus again had Savoy for a neighbour, a neighbour -at whose expense she even made some conquests—Gex -among them—conquests which the French ally -of the free city would not allow her to keep. Later -changes gave her a neighbour yet more dangerous -than Savoy in the shape of France itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gruyères -divided between -Bern -and Freiburg, -1554.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">{274}</a></span> -changes, Bern and Freiburg divided the county of <i>Gruyères</i> -between them, the last important instance of that -kind of process.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Allies.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Confederation was thus fully formed, with its -Thirteen Cantons and their allied states. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saint -Gallen.<br /> -Bienne.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of these the -<i>Abbot of Saint Gallen</i>, the <i>town of Saint Gallen</i>, and -the town of <i>Biel</i> or <i>Bienne</i>, were so closely allied with -the Confederates as to have a place in their Diets. -Besides relations of less close alliance which the Confederates -had with various Alsatian cities, several other -states had a connexion so close and lasting with the -Confederation or with some of its members, as to form -part of the same political system. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><i>Bischofbasel.</i><br /> -Mühlhausen -and -Rottweil.<br /> -Neufchâtel -passes to -Prussia, -1707.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such were the -Leagues of Wallis and Graubünden, the Bishop of -<i>Basel</i>, the outlying town of <i>Mühlhausen</i> in Elsass, and -for a while that of <i>Rottweil</i>. Bern too, and sometimes -other cantons, had relations both with the town and -with the princes of <i>Neufchâtel</i>, which, after passing -through several dynasties, was at last inherited by the -Kings of Prussia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Constanz.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Constanz</i>, at the other end of the -Confederate land, was refused admission as a canton, but -for a while it was in alliance with some of the cantons. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Passes to -Austria, -1548.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But this connexion was severed when Constanz, instead -of a free Imperial city, became a possession of Austria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Confederation -released -from the -allegiance -to the Empire, -1658.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The power thus formed, a power in which a -body of German Confederates was surrounded by a -body of allies and subjects, German, Italian, and Burgundian, -all of them originally members of the Empire, -was by the Peace of Westfalia formally released from -all allegiance to the Empire and its chief. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Date of the -practical -separation, -1495.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Their practical -separation may be dated much earlier, from the -time when the Confederates refused to accept the -legislation of Maximilian.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">{275}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -position -of the -League.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The growth of the League into an independent -power was doubtless greatly promoted by its geographical -position, as occupying the natural citadel of -Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its anomalous -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the piecemeal way in which it grew up -was marked by the anomalous nature of its frontier on -several points. On the north the Rhine would seem -to be a natural boundary, but Schaffhausen beyond -the Rhine formed part of the Confederation, while -Constanz and other points within it did not. To the -south the possession of territory on the Italian side -of the Alps seems an anomaly, an anomaly which is -brought out more strongly by a singularly irregular -and arbitrary frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Confederation -as -a middle -state.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But looking on the Confederation -as the middle state, arising at the point of junction -of the three Imperial kingdoms, it was in a manner -fitting that it should spread itself into all three.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars of the -French Revolution.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The form which the Confederation thus took in the -sixteenth century remained untouched till the wars of -the French Revolution. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dismemberment -of the -Grey -Leagues, -1797.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The beginning of change was -when the Italian districts subject to the Grey Leagues -were transferred to the newly formed <i>Cisalpine Republic</i>. -In the next year the whole existing system -was destroyed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Abolition of -the Federal -system, -1798.<br /> -The Helvetic -Republic.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Federal system was abolished; -instead of the Old League of High Germany, there -arose, after the new fashion of nomenclature, a <i>Helvetic -Republic</i>, in which the word <i>canton</i> meant no more -than <i>department</i>. Yet even by such a revolution as -this some good was done. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Freedom of -the subject -districts.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The subject districts were -freed from the yoke of their masters, whether those -masters were the whole Confederation or one or more -of its several cantons. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Freedom of -Vaud.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus, above all, the Romance -land of <i>Vaud</i> was freed from subjection to its German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">{276}</a></span> -masters at Bern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of <i>Bischofbasel</i> -and -Geneva to -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Some of the allied districts, as the -bishopric of Basel and the city of Geneva, were annexed -to France. But the Leagues of Wallis and Graubünden -were incorporated with the Helvetic Republic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Act of -Mediation, -1803.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In 1803 the Federal system was restored by Buonaparte’s -<i>Act of Mediation</i>, which formed a Federal republic -of nineteen cantons. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The nineteen -cantons.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were the original -thirteen, with the addition of <i>Aargau</i>, <i>Graubünden</i>, -<i>St. Gallen</i>, <i>Ticino</i>, <i>Thurgau</i>, and <i>Vaud</i>, which were -formed out of the formerly allied and subject lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wallis incorporated -with -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Wallis</i> was separated from the Confederation, and -became, first a nominally distinct republic, and afterwards -a French department. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Neufchâtel.<br /> -1806.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Neufchâtel</i> was, in the -course of Buonaparte’s wars with Prussia, detached -from that power, to form a principality under his -General Berthier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Swiss -Confederation -of -twenty-two -cantons. -1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last, in 1815, the present <i>Swiss -Confederation</i> was established, consisting of twenty-two -cantons, the number being made up by the addition -of <i>Neufchâtel</i>, <i>Wallis</i>, and <i>Geneva</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><i>Bischofbasel</i> -added -to Bern.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The bishopric of -Basel was also again detached from France, and added -to the canton of Bern, a canton differing in language -and religion, and cut off by a mountain range. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Neufchâtel -separated -from Prussia, -1848.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -great constitutional changes which have been made -since that time have not affected geography, unless we -count the division of the city and district of Basel, -<i>Baselstadt</i> and <i>Baselland</i>, into distinct half-cantons, and -the surrender of all rights over Neufchâtel by the -King of Prussia. But this last was not strictly a geographical -change; it was rather a change from a <i>quasi</i> -monarchic to a purely republican government in that -particular canton.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">{277}</a></span></p> - - -<h3>§ 7. <i>The State of Savoy.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position -and growth -of Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The growth of the power of Savoy, the border state -of Burgundy and Italy, has necessarily been spoken of -more than once in earlier sections; but it seems needful -to give a short connected account of its progress, and to -mark the way in which a power originally Burgundian -gradually lost on the side of Burgundy and grew on -the side of Italy, till it has in the end itself grown -into a new Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -position -of the -Savoyard -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The lands which have at different -times passed under the rule of the House of Savoy -lie continuously, though with an irregular frontier, and -though divided by the great barrier of the Alps. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their three -divisions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They -fall however into three main geographical divisions, -which at one time became also political divisions, -being held by different branches of the Savoyard -House. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Italian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There are the Italian possessions of that House, -which have grown into the modern Italian kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Burgundian -south -of the lake.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There are the more strictly Savoyard lands south of the -Lake of Geneva, and the other lands south of the -Rhone after it issues from that lake, all of which have -passed away under the power of France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Burgundian -north -of the lake.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And there -are the lands north of the Lake and of the Rhone, part -of which have also become French, while others have -become part of the Swiss Confederation. Both these -last lay within the kingdom of Burgundy, and stretched -into both its divisions, Transjurane and Cisjurane. In -no part of our story is it more necessary to avoid -language which forestalls the arrangements of later -times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Popular -confusions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A wholly false impression is given by the use -of language such as commonly is used. We often -hear of the princes of Savoy holding lands ‘in France’ -and ‘in Switzerland. They held lands which by virtue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">{278}</a></span> -of later changes have severally become French and -Swiss; but those lands became French and Swiss only -by ceasing to be Savoyard. On the other hand, to -speak of them from the beginning as holding lands in -Italy is perfectly accurate. The Savoyard states were -a large and fluctuating assemblage of lands on both -sides of the Alps, lying partly within the Italian and -partly within the Burgundian kingdom. These last -have shared the fate of the other fiefs of that crown.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Savoyard -state -originally -Burgundian.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The cradle of the Savoyard power lay in the Burgundian -lands immediately bordering upon Italy and -stretching on both sides of the Alps. It was to their -geographical position, as holding several great mountain -passes, that the Savoyard princes owed their first importance, -succeeding therein in some measure to the -Burgundian kings themselves.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The early stages of -the growth of the house are very obscure; and its -power does not seem to have formed itself till after -the union of Burgundy with the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Possessions -of the -Counts of -Maurienne.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it seems -plain that, at the end of the eleventh century, the -Counts of <i>Maurienne</i>, which was their earliest title, -held rights of sovereignty in the Burgundian districts -of <i>Maurienne</i>, <i>Savoy</i> strictly so called, <i>Tarantaise</i>, -and <i>Aosta</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Aosta; its -special -position.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last valley and city, though -on the Italian side of the Alps, had hitherto been -rather Burgundian than Italian.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Its allegiance had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">{279}</a></span> -fluctuated several times between the two kingdoms; but, -from the time that Savoy held lands in both, the question -became of no practical importance. And, without -entering into minute questions of tenure, it may be -said that the early Savoyard possessions reached to the -Lake of Geneva, and spread on both sides of the inland -mouth of the Rhone. The power of the Savoyard princes -in this region was largely due to their ecclesiastical position -as advocates of the abbey of Saint Maurice. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -character -of the -Burgundian -territories.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus -their possessions had a most irregular outline, nearly surrounding -the lands of <i>Genevois</i> and <i>Faucigny</i>. A state -of this shape, like Prussia in a later age and on a greater -scale, was, as it were, predestined to make further -advances. But for some centuries those advances were -made much more largely in Burgundy than in Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their early -Italian possessions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The original Italian possessions of the House bordered -on their Burgundian counties of Maurienne and Aosta, -taking in <i>Susa</i> and <i>Turin</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Marquesses -in Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This small marchland gave -its princes the sounding title of <i>Marquesses in Italy</i>. -The endless shiftings of territory in this quarter could -be dealt with only at extreme length, and they are -matters of purely local concern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -of -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In truth, they are -not always fluctuations of territory in any strict sense -at all, but rather fluctuations of rights between the -feudal princes, the cities, and their bishops. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their position -in the -twelfth and thirteenth -centuries.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the -twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the princes of Savoy -were still hemmed in in their own corner of Italy by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">{280}</a></span> -princes of equal or greater power, at <i>Montferrat</i>, at -<i>Saluzzo</i>, at <i>Iverea</i>, and at <i>Biandrate</i>. And it must be -remembered that their position as princes at once -Burgundian and Italian was not peculiar to them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Other -princes at -once Italian -and -Burgundian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Dauphins of the Viennois and the Counts of Provence -both held at different times territories on the Italian -side of the Alps. The Italian dominions of the family -remained for a long while quite secondary to its Burgundian -possessions, and the latter may therefore be -traced out first.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -Savoy in -Burgundy.<br /> -Faucigny -and the -Genevois.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The main object of Savoyard policy in this region -was necessarily the acquisition of the lands of <i>Faucigny</i> -and the <i>Genevois</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First advance -north -of the lake.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the final incorporation of those -lands did not take place till they were still more completely -hemmed in by the Savoyard dominions through -the extension of the Savoyard power to the north of the -Lake. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Grant of -Moudon. -1207.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This began early in the thirteenth century by -a royal grant of <i>Moudon</i> to Count Thomas of Savoy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Romont the -northern -capital.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Romont</i> was next won, and became the centre of the -Savoyard power north of the Lake. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peter, -Count of -Savoy. -1263-1268.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Soon after, through -the conquests of Peter of Savoy, who was known as the -Little Charlemagne and who plays a part in English as -well as in Burgundian history, these possessions grew -into a large dominion, stretching along a great part of -the shores of the Lake of Neufchâtel and reaching as -far north as <i>Murten</i> or <i>Morat</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1239-1268.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was a straggling, -and in some parts fragmentary, dominion, the continuity -of which was broken by the scattered possessions of the -Bishops of Lausanne and other ecclesiastical and temporal -lords. This extension of dominion brought Peter -into close connexion with the lands and cities which -were afterwards to form the Old League of High Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>His relations with -Bern.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Bern especially, the power to which his conquests<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">{281}</a></span> -were afterwards to be transferred, looked on him -as a protector. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Barons of -Vaud. -Union of -Vaud with -the elder -branch. -1349.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This new dominion north of the Lake -was, after Peter’s reign, held for a short time by a -separate branch of the Savoyard princes as <i>Barons of -Vaud</i>; but in the middle of the fourteenth century, -their barony came into the direct possession of the elder -branch of the house. The lands of Faucigny and the -Genevois were thus altogether surrounded by the Savoyard -territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Faucigny -held by the -Dauphins -of the Viennois.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Faucigny had passed to the Dauphins of -the Viennois, who were the constant rivals of the Savoyard -counts, down to the time of the practical transfer of -their dauphiny to France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Savoy acquires -Faucigny -and -Gex. -1355.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Soon after that annexation, -Savoy obtained <i>Faucigny</i>, with <i>Gex</i> and some other -districts beyond the Rhone, in exchange for some small -Savoyard possessions within the Dauphiny. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Genevois. -1401.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The long -struggle for the Genevois, the <i>county</i> of Geneva, was -ended by its purchase in the beginning of the fifteenth -century. This left the <i>city</i> of Geneva altogether surrounded -by Savoyard territory, a position which before -long altogether changed the relations between the -Savoyard counts and the city. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changed -relations to -city of -Geneva.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hitherto, in the endless -struggles between the Genevese counts, bishops, and -citizens, the Savoyard counts, the enemies of the immediate -enemy, had often been looked on by the citizens -as friends and protectors. Now that they had -become immediate neighbours of the city, they began -before long to be its most dangerous enemies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Amadeus -the Eighth, -Count -1391;<br /> -Duke 1417;<br /> -Antipope -1440;<br /> -died 1451.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -acquisition of the Genevois took place in the reign of -the famous Amadeus the Eighth, the first Duke of -Savoy, who received that rank by grant of King Siegmund, -and who was afterwards the Antipope Felix. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatest -extent of -the dominions of -Savoy in -Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In his reign the dominions of Savoy, as a power ruling -on both sides of the Alps, reached their greatest extent.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">{282}</a></span> -But the Savoyard power was still pre-eminently -Burgundian, and Chambery was its capital. The continuous -Burgundian dominion of the house now reached -from the Alps to the Saône, surrounding the lake of -Geneva and spreading on both sides of the lake of -Neufchâtel. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of Nizza. -1388.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides this continuous Burgundian dominion, -the House of Savoy had already become possessed -of <i>Nizza</i>, by which their dominions reached to the sea. -This last territory had however, though technically Burgundian, -geographically more to do with the Italian -possessions of the house. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Savoy -brought -into the -neighbourhood -of -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But this great extension of -territory brought Savoy on its western side into closer -connexion with the most dangerous of neighbours. -Her frontier for a certain distance joined the actual -kingdom of France. The rest joined the Dauphiny, -which was now practically French, and the county -of Provence, which was ruled by French princes and -which before the end of the century became an actual -French possession. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New relations -towards -Bern -and the -Confederates.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the North again the change -in the relations between the House of Savoy and the -city of Geneva led in course of time to equally changed -relations towards Bern and her Confederates. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -Burgundian -dominion -of -Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Through -the working of these two causes, all that the House -of Savoy now keeps of this great Burgundian territory -is the single city and valley of Aosta. After -the fifteenth century, the Burgundian history of that -house consists of the steps spread over more than -three hundred years by which this great dominion was -lost.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -Savoy in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The real importance of the house of Savoy in Italy -dates from much the same time as the great extension -of its power in Burgundy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The largest -dominions -cut short in -the twelfth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the eleventh and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">{283}</a></span> -twelfth centuries, partly through the growth of the cities, -partly through the enmity of the Emperor Henry -the Sixth, the dominions of the Savoyard princes as -marquesses of Susa had been cut short, so as hardly -to reach beyond their immediate Alpine valleys. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Grants to -Count -Thomas. -1207.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In -the beginning of the thirteenth century, when Count -Thomas obtained his first royal grant north of the -lake, he also obtained grants of <i>Chieri</i> and other -places in the neighbourhood of Turin. These grants -were merely nominal; but they were none the less -the beginning of the Italian advance of the house. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First -homage of -Saluzzo. -1216.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the same reign <i>Saluzzo</i> for the first time paid a -precarious homage to Savoy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Italian dominion -of -Charles of -Anjou. -1259.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later in the thirteenth -century, Charles of Anjou, now Count of Provence -and King of Sicily, made his way into Northern Italy -also, and thus brought the house of Savoy into a -dangerous neighbourhood with French princes on its -Italian as well as on its Burgundian side. Through -the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the Savoyard -border went on extending itself. But the Italian possessions -of the house, like its possessions north of the -lake, were separated from the main body of Savoyard -territory to form a fief for one of the younger -branches. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Counts of -Achaia in -Piedmont. -1301-1418.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This branch bore by marriage the empty -title of Counts of <i>Achaia</i> and <i>Morea</i>—memories of -Frank dominion within the Eastern Empire—while, as -if to keep matters straight, a branch of the house of -Palaiologos reigned at Montferrat. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance in -the fourteenth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the fourteenth -century, among many struggles with the marquesses -of Montferrat and Saluzzo, the Angevin counts -of Provence, and the lords of Milan, the Savoyard -power in Italy generally increased. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reunion of -Piedmont. -1418.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Amadeus -the Eighth, the lands held by the princes of Achaia<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">{284}</a></span> -were united to the possessions of the head of the house. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisition -of Biella, -&c. -1435.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before the end of the reign of Amadeus, the dominions -of Savoy stretched as far as the Sesia, taking in <i>Biella</i>, -<i>Santhia</i> and <i>Vercelli</i>. Counting Nizza and Aosta as -Italian, which they now practically were, the Italian -dominions of the House reached from the Alps of -Wallis to the sea. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -with Montferrat.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But they were nearly cut in two by -the dominions of the Marquesses of <i>Montferrat</i>, from -whom however the Dukes of Savoy now claimed -homage. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Claims on -Saluzzo; -its doubtful -homage.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Saluzzo</i>, lying between the old inheritance -of Susa and the new possession of Nizza, also passed -under Savoyard supremacy. But it lay open to a very -dangerous French claim on the ground of a former -homage done to the Viennese Dauphins. Amadeus, the -first Duke of Savoy, took the title of <i>Count of Piedmont</i>, -and afterwards that of <i>Prince</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Establishment -of -Savoy as a -middle -state.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -His possessions were -now fairly established as a middle state, Italian and -Burgundian, in nearly equal proportions.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -the Italian -wars.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the course of the next century and a half the -Savoyard state altogether changed its character in -many ways. The changes which affected all Europe, -especially the great Italian wars, could not fail greatly -to affect the border state of Italy and Gaul. And there -is no part of our story which gives us more instructive -lessons with regard to the proper limits of our subject. -During this time the Savoyard power was brought -under a number of influences, all of which deeply -affected its history, but which did not all alike affect its -geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>French influence -and -occupation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We have a period of French influence, a -period of French occupation, and more than one actual -fresh settlement of the frontier. Mere influence does not -concern us at all. Occupation concerns us only when -it takes the form of permanent conquest. An occupation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">{285}</a></span> -of nearly forty years comes very near to permanent -conquest; still when, as in this case, it comes to an end -without having effected any formal annexation, it is -hardly to be looked on as actually working a change -on the map. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Occupation -by France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France occupied Piedmont for nearly -as long a time as Bern occupied the lands south of the -lake. Yet we look on the one occupation as simply -part of the military history, while in the other we see -a real, though only temporary, geographical change. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Increased -Italian -character -of Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the result alike of influence, of occupation, and of -actual change of boundaries, all tended the same way. -They all tended to strengthen the Italian character of -the House of Savoy, to cut short its Burgundian -possessions, and, if not greatly to increase its Italian -possessions, at least to put it in the way of greatly -increasing them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Decline of -Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>During the second half of the fifteenth century, the -power of the House of Savoy greatly declined, partly -through the growing influence of France, partly through -the division, in the form of appanages, of the lands -which had been so lately formed together into a -compact state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Italian -wars.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then came the Italian wars, in which -the Savoyard dominions became the highway for the -kings of France in their invasions of Italy. The strictly -territorial changes of this period chiefly concern the -marquisate of Saluzzo on the Italian side and the -northern frontier on the Burgundian side. In the end -these two points of controversy were merged in a single -settlement. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First loss of -lands north -of the lake. -1475.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first loss of territory on the northern -frontier, the first sign that the Savoyard power in -Burgundy was gradually to fall back, was the loss of -part of the lands north of the lake in the war between -Charles of Burgundy and the Confederates. <i>Granson</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">{286}</a></span> -on the lake of Neufchâtel, <i>Murten</i> or <i>Morat</i> on its own -lake, <i>Aigle</i> at the south-east end of the great lake, -<i>Échallens</i> lying detached in the heart of Vaud, all -passed away from Savoy and became for ever Confederate -ground. Sixty years later, the affairs of Geneva -led to the great intervention of Bern, Freiburg and -Wallis, by which Savoy was for ever shorn of her -possessions north of the lake. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -lands on -both sides -of the lake. -1536.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For a while indeed -she was cut off from the lake altogether; Chablais -passed away as well as Vaud. Geneva, with her detached -scraps of territory, was now wholly surrounded -by her own allies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reunion of -the lands -south of the -lake. -1567.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thirty years later, Bern restored -all her conquests south of the lake, together with Gex -to the west, leaving Geneva again surrounded by the -dominions of Savoy. Wallis too gave up part of her -share, keeping only the narrow strip on the left bank -of the Rhone. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Charles the -Good. -1504-1553.<br /> -Emanuel -Filibert. -1553-1580.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The loss and the recovery mark the -difference between the reigns of Duke Charles the -Third, called the Good, and Duke Emmanuel Filibert -with the Iron Head. The difference of the two reigns -is equally marked with regard to France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of French -occupation -1536.<br /> -Its end. -1574.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Almost at -the same moment as the conquests made by Bern, began -that occupation, whole or partial, of Savoyard territory -by the French arms which did not come wholly to an -end for thirty-eight years. Savoy then appeared again -as a power whose main strength lay in Italy, whose -capital, instead of Burgundian Chambery, was Italian -Turin. And all later changes of frontier and the -changes of frontier in her more southern dominions -also tended the same way to increase the Italian character -of the Savoyard power, and to lessen its extent -in the lands which we may distinguish as Transalpine, -for the Burgundian name has now altogether passed -away from them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">{287}</a></span></p> - -<p class="pb2">The first formal exchange of Burgundian for Italian -ground happened under Emmanuel Filibert, shortly after -the emancipation of his dominions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisition -of Tenda.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The small county -of <i>Tenda</i> was acquired in exchange for the marquisate -of <i>Villars</i> in Bresse. This extended the Italian frontier, -without formally narrowing the Burgundian frontier; -still it was a step in the direction of more important -changes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Disputes -about the -homage of -Saluzzo.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first of these was caused by the endless -disputes which arose out of the disputed homage -of Saluzzo. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of -Saluzzo by -France. -1548.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Marquesses of Saluzzo preferred the -French claimant of their homage to the Savoyard, a -preference which led in the end to definite annexation -by France. This was the first acquisition of Italian -soil by France as such, as distinguished from the claims -of French princes over Milan, Naples, and Asti. France -thus threw a continuous piece of French territory into -the heart of the states of Savoy. When the French -occupation ceased, Saluzzo still remained to France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Saluzzo. -1588.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently it was conquered by Duke Charles Emmanuel. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reign of -Charles -Emanuel. -1580-1630.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The reign of this prince marks the final change -in the destiny of the house of Savoy. He himself had -dreamed of wider conquests on the Gaulish side of the -Alps than had ever presented himself to any prince of -his house. He was to be Count of Provence, King -of Burgundy, perhaps King of France. The real -results of his reign told in exactly the opposite way. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bresse, &c. -exchanged -for Saluzzo. -1601.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the treaty which ended his war with France, -Saluzzo was ceded to Savoy in exchange for <i>Bresse</i>, -<i>Bugey</i>, <i>Valromey</i>, and <i>Gex</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of position -beyond -the Alps.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A powerful neighbour -was thus shut out from a possession which cut the -Savoyard states in twain; but the price at which this -advantage was gained amounted to a final surrender -of the old position of the Savoyard House beyond the -Alps. The Rhone and not the Saône became the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">{288}</a></span> -boundary, while the surrender of Gex brought France -to the shores of the Lake. Geneva, her city and her -scattered scraps of territory, had now, besides Bern, -two other neighbours in France and Savoy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Attempts -on Geneva. -1602-1609.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The two attempts -of Charles Emmanuel to seize upon the city were -fruitless. Savoy now became distinctly an Italian power, -keeping indeed the lands between the Alps and the -Lake, the proper Duchy of Savoy, but having her main -possessions and her main interests in Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later -history of -Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We may -here therefore finish the history of the Transalpine possessions -of the Savoyard House. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexed to -France. -1792-1796.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Duchy of Savoy -remained in the hands of its own Dukes till their continental -dominion was swept away in the storm of the -French Revolution. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Restored. -1814-1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was restored after the first fall -of Buonaparte, but with a narrowed frontier, which -left its capital <i>Chambery</i> to France. This was set -right by the treaties of the next year. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Savoy and -Nizza annexed -to -France. -1860.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, as all -the world knows, Savoy itself, including the guaranteed -neutral lands on the Lake, passed, along with Nizza, to -France. Savoy itself was so far favoured as to be -allowed to keep its ancient name, and to form the departments -of <i>High</i> and <i>Low Savoy</i>, instead of being -condemned, as in the former temporary annexation, to -bear the names of <i>Leman</i> and <i>Mont Blanc</i>. The Burgundian -Counts who have grown into Italian Kings -have thus lost the land under whose name their House -grew famous. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Aosta -spared.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Aosta alone remains as the last relic of -the times when the Savoyard Dukes, the greatest lords -of the Middle Kingdom, still kept their place as the -truest representatives of the Middle Kingdom itself.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Italian history -of the -House of Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The purely Italian history of the house now begins, -a history which has been already sketched in dealing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">{289}</a></span> -with the geography of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its character.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Savoy now takes part -in every European struggle, and, though its position -led to constant foreign occupation, some addition of -territory was commonly gained at every peace. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>French occupation. -1629.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus, -before the reign of Charles Emmanuel was over, Piedmont -was again overrun by French troops. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of part -of Montferrat. -1631.<br /> -French occupation -of -Pinerolo. -1630-1696.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Though -the Savoyard possessions in Italy were presently increased -by a part of the Duchy of <i>Montferrat</i>, this was -a poor compensation for the French occupation of -<i>Pinerolo</i> and other points in the heart of Piedmont, -which lasted till nearly the end of the century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later -Italian -advance.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -gradual acquisition of territory at the expense of the -Milanese duchy, the acquisition and exchange of the -two island kingdoms, the last annexation by France, -the acquisition of the Genoese seaboard, the growth of -the Kingdom of Sardinia into the Kingdom of Italy, -have been already told. Our present business has been -with Savoy as a middle power, a character which -practically passed from it with the loss of Vaud and -Bresse, and all traces of which are now sunk in the -higher but less interesting character of one of the great -powers of Europe. From Savoy in its character of a -middle power, as one of the representatives of ancient -Burgundy, we naturally pass to another middle power -which prolonged the existence of the Burgundian -name, and on part of which, though not on a part -lying within its Burgundian possessions, some trace of -the ancient functions of the middle kingdom is still -laid by the needs of modern European policy.</p> - - -<h3>§ 8. <i>The Duchy of Burgundy and the Low Countries.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -the Valois -Dukes of Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Among all the powers which we have marked as -having for their special characteristic that of being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">{290}</a></span> -middle states, the one which came most nearly to an -actual revival of the middle states of earlier days was -the Duchy of Burgundy under the Valois Dukes. A -great power was formed whose princes held no part of -their dominions in wholly independent sovereignty. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their twofold -vassalage.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In -practical power they were the peers of their Imperial and -royal neighbours; but their formal character throughout -every rood of their possessions was that of vassals of one -or other of those neighbours. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its effects.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such a twofold vassalage -naturally suggested, even more strongly than vassalage -to a single lord could have done, the thought of emancipation -from all vassalage, and of the gathering together -of endless separate fiefs into a single kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Schemes -for a Burgundian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The gradual acquisitions of earlier princes, especially -those of Philip the Good, naturally led up to the design, -avowed by his son Charles the Bold, of exchanging the -title of Duke for that of King. The memories of the older -Burgundian and Lotharingian kingdoms had no doubt a -share in shaping the schemes of a prince who possessed -so large a share of the provinces which had formed -those kingdoms. The schemes of Charles, one can -hardly doubt, reached to the formation of a realm like -that of the first Lothar, a realm stretching from the -Ocean to the Mediterranean. His actual possessions, at -their greatest extent, formed a power to which Burgundy -gave its name, but which was historically at least -as much Lotharingian as Burgundian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Historical -importance -of the Burgundian -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And though -this actual dominion was only momentary, no power -ever arose which fills a wider and more œcumenical -place in history than the line of the Valois Dukes. -Their power connects the earliest settlement of the -European states with the latest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1870.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It spans a thousand -years, and connects the division of Verdun with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">{291}</a></span> -last treaty that guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium. -The growth of their power was directly influenced by -memories of the early Carolingian partitions; and, even -in its fall, it has itself influenced the geography and -politics of Europe ever since. As a Burgundian power, -it was as ephemeral as all other Burgundian powers have -ever been. As a Lotharingian power, it abides still -in its effects. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>History of -the Low -Countries.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The union of the greater part of the Low -Countries under a single prince, and that a prince who -was on the whole foreign to the Empire, strengthened -that tendency to split off from the Empire which was -already at work in some of those lands. Later events -caused them to split off in two bodies instead of one. This -last tendency became so strong that a modern attempt -to unite them broke down, and their place in the modern -polity of Europe is that of two distinct kingdoms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final result -of the -Burgundian -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -existence of those two kingdoms is the final result of the -growth of the Burgundian power in the fifteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its effect -on language.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And by leading to the separation of the northern -Netherlands from the Empire, it has led to one result -which could never have been reckoned on, the preservation -of one branch of the Low-Dutch tongue as the -acknowledged and literary speech of an independent -nation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Netherlands -and -Belgium.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its political results were the creation, in the -shape of the northern Netherlands, of a power which -once held a great place in the affairs of Europe and of -the world, and the slower growth, in the shape of -the southern Netherlands, of a state in which modern -European policy still acknowledges the character of a -middle kingdom. As the neutral confederation of -Switzerland represents the middle kingdom of Burgundy, -so the neutral kingdom of Belgium represents -the middle kingdom of Lotharingia.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">{292}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ducal Burgundy -a fief -of the -Western -Kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Duchy of Burgundy which gave its name to -the Burgundian power of the fifteenth century was that -one among the many lands bearing the Burgundian -name which lay wholly outside the Burgundian kingdom -of the Emperors. This Burgundy, the only one -which has kept the name to our own time, the duchy -of which Dijon is the capital, never was a fief of the -Eastern Kingdom or of the Empire, after the final -separation. It always acknowledged the supremacy of -the kings of Laon and Paris. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Two lines -of Dukes. -1032.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By these last the duchy -was twice granted in fief to princes of their own house, -once in the eleventh century and once in the fourteenth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Valois. -1363.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last grant was the beginning of the Dukes of the -House of Valois, with the growth of whose power we -have now to deal. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Flanders -and Burgundy. -1369.<br /> -The county -of Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Philip the Hardy, the first Duke of -this line, obtained, by his marriage with Margaret of -Flanders, the counties of <i>Flanders</i>, <i>Artois</i>, <i>Rhetel</i>, and -<i>Nevers</i>, all fiefs of the crown of France, together with -the <i>County Palatine of Burgundy</i> as a fief of the Empire. -The peculiar position of the Dukes of Burgundy of this -line was at once established by this marriage. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Two masses -of territory.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Duke -Philip held of two lords, and his dominions lay in two -distinct masses. The two Burgundies, duchy and county, -and the county of Nevers, lay geographically together; -Flanders and Artois lay together at a great distance; -the small possession of Rhetel lay again detached -between the two. Any princes who held such a territory -as this could hardly fail to devote their main -policy to the work of bringing about the geographical -union of their scattered possessions. Nor was this all. -The possession of the two Burgundies made their -common sovereign a vassal at once of France and of -the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -the Netherlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The possession of Flanders, Artois, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">{293}</a></span> -Rhetel further brought him into connexion with those -border lands of the Empire and of the French kingdom -where the authority of either over-lord was weakest, -and which had long been tending to form themselves -into a separate political system distinct from both. The -results of this complicated position, as worked out, -whether by the prudence of Philip the Good or by the -daring of Charles the Bold, form the history of the -Dukes of Burgundy of the House of Valois.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Imperial -and French -fiefs in the -Netherlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The lands which we are accustomed to group -together under the name of the <i>Netherlands</i> or <i>Low -Countries</i> lay chiefly within the bounds of the Empire; -but the county of Flanders had always been a fief of -France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fief of the -Counts of -Flanders -within the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Part however of the dominions of its counts, -the north-eastern corner of their dominions, the lands -of <i>Alost</i> and <i>Waas</i>, were held of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Zealand.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These -lands, together with the neighbouring islands of <i>Zealand</i>, -formed a ground of endless disputes between the -Counts of Flanders and their northern neighbours the -Counts of <i>Holland</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>County of -Holland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last county gradually disentangles -itself from the general mass of the Frisian lands -which lie along the whole coast from the mouth of the -Scheld to the mouth of the Weser. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Inroads of -the sea. -1219, 1282.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And those great inroads -of the sea in the thirteenth century which gave the -Zuyder-Zee its present extent helped to give the country -a natural boundary, and to part it off from the Frisian -lands to the north-east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Disputes -with the -free Frisians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Towards the end of the thirteenth -century Friesland west of the Zuyder-Zee had -become part of the dominions of the Counts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Independence -of -West Friesland. -1417-1447.<br /> -County of -East Friesland. -1454.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The land -immediately east of the gulf established its freedom, -while <i>East Friesland</i> passed to a line of counts, under -whom its fortunes parted off from those of the Netherlands. -Part of its later history has been already given<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">{294}</a></span> -in the character of a more purely German state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Bishops of -Utrecht.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Both -the counts and the free Frisians had also dangerous -neighbours in the Bishops of <i>Utrecht</i>, the great ecclesiastical -princes of this region, who held a large temporal -sovereignty lying apart from their city on the eastern -side of the gulf. These disputes went on, as also -disputes with the Dukes of Geldern, without any final -settlement, almost to the time when all these lands -began to be united under the Burgundian power. But -before this time, the Counts of Holland had become -closely connected with lands much further to the south. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Brabant.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among a number of states in this region, the most -powerful was the Duchy of <i>Brabant</i>, which represented -the Duchy of the Lower Lotharingia, and whose princes -held the mark of <i>Antwerp</i> and the cities of <i>Brussels</i>, -<i>Löwen</i> or <i>Louvain</i>, and <i>Mechlin</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>County of -Hennegau -or Hainault -united with -Holland. -1299.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the South of them -lay the county of <i>Hennegau</i> or <i>Hainault</i>. At the end -of the thirteenth century, this county was joined by -marriage with that of Holland. Holland and Hainault -were thus detached possessions of a common prince, with -Brabant lying between them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mark of -Namur.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -South of Brabant lay -the small mark or county of <i>Namur</i>, which, without -being united to Flanders, was held by a branch of the -princes of that house.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Common -character of -these states.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>All these states, though their princes held of two -separate over-lords, had much in common, and were -well fitted to be worked together into a single political -system. They had much in common in the physical -character of the country, and in the unusual number -of great and flourishing cities which these countries -contained. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Importance -of the cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -None of these cities indeed actually reached -the position of free cities of the Empire; but their -wealth, and the degree of practical independence which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">{295}</a></span> -they possessed, forms a main feature in the history of -the Low Countries. In point of language, the northern -part of these states spoke various dialects of Low-Dutch, -from Flemish to Frisian; in the southern lands -of Hainault, Artois, and Namur, the language, though not -French, was not Teutonic, but an independent Romance -speech, the Walloon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>South-western -group of -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the west of these states lay -another group of small principalities connected with the -former greater group in many ways, but not so closely as -those which we have just gone through. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bishopric -of Lüttich.<br /> -Duchies of -Luxemburg -and Limburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great ecclesiastical -principality of <i>Lüttich</i> or <i>Liège</i>, lying in two -detached parts, divided the lands of which we have -been speaking from the counties, afterwards duchies, of -<i>Lüzelburg</i> or <i>Luxemburg</i> and of <i>Limburg</i>. Of these the -more distant Limburg passed in the fourteenth century -to the Dukes of Brabant. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Luxemburg -a Duchy. -1353.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Luxemburg is famous as -having given a series of princes to the kingdom of -Bohemia and to the Empire, and in their hands it rose to -the rank of a duchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geldern.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, to the north of Lüttich, -forming a connecting link between this group of states -and the more purely Frisian powers, lay the duchy of -<i>Geldern</i>, of whose quarters the most northern portion -stretched to the Zuyder Zee. These eastern states, -though not so closely connected with one another as -those to the west, were easily led into the same political -system. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Middle -position of -all these -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Without drawing any hard and fast line, -we may say that all the states of this region formed, if not -yet a middle state, yet a middle system, apart alike from -France and the Empire, though in various ways connected -with both. Mainly Imperial, mainly Teutonic, -they were not wholly so. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>French -influence.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides the homage lawfully -due to France from Flanders and Artois, French influence -in various ways, in politics, in manners, and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">{296}</a></span> -language, had made great inroads in the southern -Netherlands. Brabant and Hainault had practically -quite as much to do with France as with the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Walloon -language.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And this French influence was of course helped by -the fact that a considerable region in the south was, -though not of French, yet not of Teutonic speech. -Altogether, -with much to unite them to the great powers on -either side, with much to keep them apart from either of -them, with much more to unite them to one another, -the states of the Netherlands might almost seem to be -designed by nature to be united under a single political -head. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -the Netherlands -under -the Dukes -of Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such a head was supplied by the Dukes of Burgundy -and Counts of Flanders, by whom, in the course -of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, nearly the whole -of the Netherlands was united into a single power which -was to be presently broken into two by the results of -religious divisions.</p> - - -<p class="p2">Leaving then for the present the growth and fall of -the Burgundian power in the lands more to the south, -we will go on to trace the steps by which the provinces -of the Low Countries were united under the Valois -Dukes and their Austrian descendants. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reign of -Philip the -Good. -1419-1467.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great -increase of territory in this region was made during the -long reign of Philip the Good. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Namur. -1421-1429.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -His first acquisition was -the county of <i>Namur</i>, a small and outlying district, -but one which, as small and outlying, would still more -strongly suggest the rounding off of the scattered territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1429-1433.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A series of marriages and disputes next enabled -Philip to make a much more important extension -of his dominions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1405.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Brabant and Limburg had -passed to a younger branch of the Burgundian House. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1418.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -John, Duke of Brabant, the cousin of Philip by a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">{297}</a></span> -marriage with Jacqueline, Countess of Holland and Hainault, -united those states for a moment. The disputes -and confusions which followed on her marriages and -divorces led to the annexation of her territories by the -Duke of Burgundy, a process which was finally concluded -by the formal cession of her dominions by Jacqueline. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Brabant -and Limburg. -1430.<br /> -Holland -and Hainault. -1433.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile Philip had succeeded to Brabant -and Limburg, and the union of Flanders, Brabant, Hainault, -Zealand, and Holland, together made a dominion -which took in all the greatest Netherland states, and -formed a compact mass of territory. On this presently -followed a great acquisition of territory which was more -strictly French than the fiefs which Philip already held -of the French crown in Flanders and Artois. The -Treaty of Arras, by which Philip, hitherto the ally of -England against France, made peace with his western -overlord, gave him, under the form of mortgage, the -lands on the Somme. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The towns -on the -Somme. -1435-1483.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The acquisition of these lands, -<i>Ponthieu</i>, <i>Vermandois</i>, <i>Amiens</i>, and <i>Boulogne</i>, advanced -the Burgundian frontier to a dangerous neighbourhood -to Paris on this side as well as on the other. -It had the further effect of keeping the small continental -possessions which England still kept at Calais -and Guisnes apart from the French territory. During -the reigns of Philip and Charles the Bold, the continental -neighbour of England was not France but Burgundy. -But this great southern dominion was not -lasting. The towns on the Somme, redeemed and again -recovered, passed on the fall of Charles the Bold once -more into French hands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovered -by France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -So did Artois itself, and, -though Artois was won back, Amiens and the rest -were not. Yet, if the towns on the Somme had -stayed under the rule of the successive masters of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">{298}</a></span> -the Low Countries, it might by this time have seemed -as natural for Amiens to be Belgian as it now seems -natural for Cambray and Valenciennes to be French. -The Treaty of Madrid drew a definite boundary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>France resigns -the -homage of -Flanders -and Artois. -1526.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France gave up all claim to homage from Flanders and -Artois, and Charles the Fifth, in his Burgundian, or -rather in his Flemish, character, finally gave up all claim -to the lands on the Somme.</p> - -<p>The south-western frontier was thus fixed; but -meanwhile the new state had advanced in other directions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Luxemburg. -1443.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Philip’s last great acquisition was the duchy -of <i>Luxemburg</i>. He now possessed the greater part of -the Netherlands; but his dominions were still intersected -by the bishoprics of Utrecht and Lüttich and the duchy -of Geldern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geldern -and Zutphen. -1472.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The duchy of Geldern and county of Zutphen -were added by Charles the Bold. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final annexation. -1543.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But they formed -a precarious possession, lost and won more than once, -down to their final annexation under Charles the -Fifth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bishopric -of Lüttich -never annexed.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of the two great ecclesiastical principalities by -which the Burgundian possessions in the Netherlands -were cut asunder, the bishopric of <i>Lüttich</i>, though its -history is much mixed up with that of the Burgundian -Dukes, and though it came largely under their influence, -was never formally annexed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of the -bishopric -of Utrecht, -1531; and -Friesland, -1515.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the temporal principality -of the Bishop of <i>Utrecht</i> was secularized under -Charles the Fifth. <i>Friesland</i>, the Friesland immediately -east of the Zuyder Zee, was already reincorporated with -the dominions of the prince who represented the ancient -counts of Holland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominions -of Charles -the Fifth.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The whole Netherlands were -thus consolidated under the rule of Charles the Fifth. -They were united with the far distant county of Burgundy, -and with it they formed the Burgundian circle -in the new division of the Empire. The bishopric of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">{299}</a></span> -Lüttich, which intersected the whole southern part of -the country, remained in the circle of Westfalia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The seventeen -provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Seventeen -provinces, each keeping much of separate being, -were united under a single prince, and, since the -treaty of Madrid, they were free from any pretensions -on the part of foreign powers. The Netherlands -formed one of the most compact and important -parts of the scattered dominions of the Emperor who -was also lord of Burgundy and Castile. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their separation -from -the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the final -union of these lands under the direct dominion of an -Emperor at once led to their practical separation from -the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The possessions -of -Philip of -Spain. -1555.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They passed, with all the remaining possessions -and claims of the Burgundian House, to Philip -of Spain, and they were reckoned among the crowd of -distant dependencies which had come under the rule of -the crowns of Castile and Aragon. In Spanish hands -they acted less as a middle state than as a power which -helped to hem in France on both sides. Had the great -revolt of the Netherlands ended in the final liberation -of the whole seventeen provinces, the middle state would -have been formed in its full strength. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The War of -Independence. -1568-1609.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As it was, the -work of the War of Independence was imperfect. The -northern provinces won their freedom in the form of -a federal commonwealth. The southern provinces remained -dependencies of Spain, to become the chosen -fighting ground of European armies, the chosen plaything -of European diplomacy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Seven -United -Provinces. -1578.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The end of the long war of independence waged by -the northern provinces was the establishment of the -famous federal commonwealth of the <i>Seven United Provinces</i>, -<i>Holland</i>, <i>Zealand</i>, <i>Utrecht</i>, <i>Gelderland</i>, <i>Over-Yssel</i>, -<i>Friesland</i>, and <i>Groningen</i>. These answered -nearly to the dominions of the Counts of Holland and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">{300}</a></span> -Bishops of Utrecht in earlier times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gelderland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But besides -these, part of the duchy of <i>Geldern</i> formed one of the -United Provinces, while its southern part shared the -fate of the southern provinces. But, besides the -United Seven, the Confederation also kept parts of -Brabant, Geldern, and Flanders as common possessions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Formal independence -of the Empire. -1648.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The power thus formed, one which so long -held an European importance quite disproportioned to -its geographical extent, had under Burgundian rule become -practically independent of the Empire, but it was -only by the Peace of Westfalia that its independence -was formally acknowledged. The maritime strength of -the Confederation made it more than an European power. -It became a colonizing power in three parts of the world. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonies of -the Netherlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, -the Seven Provinces extended their dominion -over many points on the continent of India and over -the neighbouring island of <i>Ceylon</i>, over the great equatorial -islands of <i>Java</i>, <i>Sumatra</i>, and the <i>Moluccas</i>, over -many points in <i>Guinea</i> and southern Africa, and over -part of <i>Guiana</i> in South America. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New -Netherland -passes to -England. -1664.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the great -North American settlement of <i>New Netherland</i> passed -to England, and <i>New Amsterdam</i> became <i>New York</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>No real -name for -the county.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Singularly enough, this great power never had any -strict geographical name. <i>Netherlands</i> was too large, as -it took in the whole of the Low Countries and not the -emancipated provinces only. <i>Holland</i> was too small, -as being the name of one province only, though the -greatest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -name -<i>Dutch</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, by one of the oddest cases of caprice -of language, in common English usage the name of the -whole Teutonic race settled down on this one small -part of it, and the men of the Seven Provinces came to -be exclusively spoken of as <i>Dutch</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">{301}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Spanish -Netherlands. -1578-1706.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile the southern provinces, the greater part -of Brabant and Flanders, with Artois, Hennegau or -Hainault, Namur, Limburg, Luxemburg, and the -southern part of Geldern,—taking in Antwerp at -one end and Cambray at the other—remained under -the sovereignty of the representatives of the Burgundian -Dukes. That is, they remained an outlying dependency -of the Spanish monarchy. But their southern -frontier was open to constant aggressions on the part of -France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dunkirk -held by -England. -1658-1662.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Dunkirk</i> indeed was for a moment held by England, -as Calais and Boulogne had been in earlier times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cession of -parts of Artois -and of -Gravelines, -1659;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the Peace of the Pyrenees France obtained Arras -and the greater part of Artois, leaving Saint Omer to -Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dunkirk, -1662;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France also began to work her way up along -the coast of Flanders, taking <i>Gravelines</i> by virtue of -the treaty, and presently adding Dunkirk by purchase -from England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Philippeville, -Marienburg, -Thionville.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The treaty also added to France -several points along the frontiers of Hainault, Liège, -and Luxemburg, including the detached fortresses of -<i>Philippeville</i> and <i>Marienburg</i>, and <i>Thionville</i> famous -in far earlier days. During the endless wars of Lewis’ -reign, the boundary fluctuated with each treaty. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1668.<br /> -1677.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Acquisitions were made by France at the Treaty of -Aix-la-Chapelle, some of which were surrendered, and -others gained, by the Peace of Nimwegen. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Boundary -fixed by the -Peace of -Utrecht. -1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last the -boundary was finally fixed by the Peace of Utrecht in -the last days of Lewis. Parts of Flanders and Hainault -were finally confirmed to France, which thus kept -<i>Lille</i>, <i>Cambray</i>, and <i>Valenciennes</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Spanish -Netherlands -pass to -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The provinces which -had hitherto been Spanish now passed to the only -surviving branch of the House of Austria, that which -reigned in the archduchy and supplied the hereditary -candidates for the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexed -by France. -1792.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first wars of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">{302}</a></span> -French Revolution added the Austrian Netherlands to -France, and with them the bishopric of Lüttich which -still so oddly divided them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Holland. -1806-1810.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A later stage of the days -of confusion changed the Seven United Provinces, -enlarged by the addition of East Friesland, into a -<i>Kingdom of Holland</i>, one of the states which the new -conqueror carved out for the benefit of his kinsfolk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Holland -annexed by -France. -1810-1813.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently the new kingdom was incorporated with the -new ‘Empire,’ along with the German lands to the -north-east of it. The Corsican had at last carried out -the schemes of the Valois kings, and the whole Burgundian -heritage formed for a moment part of France.</p> - - -<p class="p2 pb2">At the general settlement of Europe, after the long -wars with France, the restoration of the Low Countries -as a middle state was a main object. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of the -Netherlands. -1814.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was brought -about by the union of the whole Netherlands into a single -kingdom bearing that name. The southern boundary -did not differ very greatly from that fixed by the -Peace of Utrecht. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The boundaries.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As in the case of the Savoyard frontier, -France kept a little more by the arrangements of 1814 -than she finally kept by those of 1815. To the east, -East-Friesland passed to Hannover, leaving the boundary -of the new kingdom not very different from that of -the two earlier powers which it represented, gaining -only a small territory on the banks of the Maes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Incorporation -of Lüttich.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -the bishopric of Lüttich was incorporated with the lands -which it had once parted asunder, and so ceased altogether -to be German ground. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Grand -Duchy of -Luxemburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The new king, as we have -already seen, entered the German confederation in his -character of Grand Duke of <i>Luxemburg</i>, the duchy being -somewhat shortened to the east in favour of Prussia. -Lastly, after fifteen years of union, the new kingdom again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">{303}</a></span> -split asunder. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Belgium. -1830-1831.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was now divided into the kingdom -of the Netherlands, answering to the old United Provinces, -and the kingdom of Belgium, answering to the -old Spanish or Austrian Netherlands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Luxemburg -divided.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But part of Limburg -remained to the northern kingdom, and its sovereign -also kept part of Luxemburg, as a district state, forming -part of the German confederation. The western part -of the duchy formed part of the kingdom of Belgium. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1867.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later events, as has been already recorded, have severed -the last tie between Germany and the Netherlands; they -have wiped out the last survival of the days when the -Counts of Holland and of Luxemburg were alike princes -of the German kingdom.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -Burgundian -rule.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The above may pass as a sketch of the fluctuations -along the borderland in their European aspect. It is -needless to go through every small shifting of frontier, -or to recount in detail the history of small border principalities -like <i>Saint Pol</i> and <i>Bouillon</i>. The main historical -aspect of these countries is their tendency, in -all ages, to form somewhat of a middle system between -two greater powers on either side of them. The guaranteed -neutrality of Belgium and the guaranteed neutrality -of Switzerland are alike survivals or revivals—it -is hard to say which they should be called—of -the instinctive feeling which, in the ninth century, called -the Lotharingian kingdom into being. The modern -form of this thousand-year old idea was made possible -through the growth of the power of the Burgundian -Dukes of the House of Valois.</p> - -<p>The real historical work of those dukes was thus -done in those parts of their dominions from which -they did not take their name, but which took their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">{304}</a></span> -name from them. The history of their other dominions -may be told in a few words; indeed a great part -of it has been told already. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Schemes of -Charles the -Bold.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The schemes of Charles -the Bold for uniting his scattered dominions by the conquest -of the duchy of Lorraine, for extending the -power thus formed to the sea-board of the royal Burgundy, -for forming in short a middle kingdom stretching -from the Ocean to the Mediterranean, acting as a -barrier alike between France and Germany and between -France and Italy, remained mere schemes. They are -important only as showing how deeply the idea or the -memory of a middle state was still fixed in men’s minds. -The conquests of Charles in Lorraine, his purchases -in Elsass, were momentary possessions which hardly -touch geography. But the fall of Charles, by causing -the break-up of the southern dominion of his house, -helped to give greater importance to its northern -dominion. While the Netherlands grew together, the -Burgundies split asunder. After the fall of Charles the -fate of the two Burgundies was much the same as the -fate of Flanders and Artois. Both were for a while -seized by France; but the county, like Artois, was afterwards -recovered for a season. The duchy of Burgundy -was lost for ever; the county, along with the outlying -county of Charolois, remained to those who by -female succession represented the Burgundian Dukes, -that is to Charles the Fifth and his Spanish son. The -annexation of the Burgundian county, and with it of -the city of Besançon, by Lewis the Fourteenth has -been recorded in an earlier section.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">{305}</a></span></p> - - -<h3>§ 9. <i>The Dominions of Austria.</i></h3> - -<p class="pb2">We now come to one among these German states -which have parted off from the kingdom of Germany -whose course has been widely different from the -rest, and whose modern European importance stands -on a widely different level. As the Lotharingian and -Frisian lands parted off on the north-west of the -kingdom, as a large part of the Swabian lands parted -off to the south-west of the kingdom, so the <i>Eastern -Mark</i>, the mark of <i>Austria</i>, parted off no less, but -with widely different consequences. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -the name -<i>Oesterreich</i>, -<i>Austria</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The name of -<i>Austria</i>, <i>Oesterreich</i>—<i>Ostrich</i> as our forefathers wrote -it—is, naturally enough, a common name for the -eastern part of any kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Other lands -so called.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Frankish kingdom -of the Merwings had its <i>Austria</i>; the Italian kingdom -of the Lombards had its <i>Austria</i> also. We are half -inclined to wonder that the name was never given in -our own island either to Essex or to East-Anglia. But, -while the other Austrias have passed away, the <i>Oesterreich</i>, -the <i>Austria</i>, the Eastern mark, of the German -kingdom, its defence against the Magyar invader, has -lived on to our own times. It has not only lived on, -but it has become one of the chief European powers. -And it has become so by a process to which it would -be hard to find a parallel. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Special -position of -the Austrian -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Austrian duchy supplied -Germany with so many Kings, and Rome with -so many Emperors, that something of Imperial character -came to cleave to the duchy itself. Its Dukes, in -resigning, first, the crown of Germany, and then all -connexion with Germany, have carried with them into -their new position the titles and bearings of the German -Cæsars. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union with -Hungary.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The power which began as a mark against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">{306}</a></span> -the Magyar came to have a common sovereign with -the Magyar kingdom; and the Austrian duchy and -Magyar kingdom, each drawing with it a crowd of -smaller states of endless nationalities, have figured -together in the face of modern Europe as the <i>Austrian -Empire</i> or the <i>Austro-Hungarian Monarchy</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The so-called -‘Empire’ -of -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is -not easy, in drawing a map, to find a place for the -‘Empire’ of Austria. The Archduchy is there, and its -sovereign has not dropped his archiducal title. A crowd -of kingdoms, duchies, counties, and lordships, all acknowledging -the sovereignty of the same prince, are there -also. But it is not easy to find the geographical place of -an ‘Empire’ of Austria, as distinct from the Archduchy. -Nor is it easy to understand on what principle an -‘Empire’ of Austria can be understood as taking in all -the states which happen to own the Hungarian King -and Austrian Archduke as their sovereign. The matter -is made more difficult when we remember that the -title of ‘Hereditary Emperor of Austria’ was first taken -while its bearer was still King of Germany and Roman -Emperor-elect. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -separate -states -under the -Austrian -House.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, putting questions like these aside, -the gradual union of a great number of states, German -and non-German, under the common rule of the archiducal -house of Austria, by whatever name we call the -power so formed, is a great fact both of history and of -geography. A number of states, originally independent -of one another, differing in origin and language and -everything that makes states differ from one another, -some of them members of the former Empire, some not, -have, as a matter of fact, come together to form a power -which fills a large space in modern history and on the -modern map. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lack of -national -unity.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it is a power which is altogether -lacking in national unity. It is a power which is not coextensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">{307}</a></span> -with any nation, but which takes in parts of many -nations. It cannot even be said that there is a dominant -nation surrounded by subject nations. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>German, -Magyar, -and other -races.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Magyar -nation in its unity, and a fragment of the German -nation, stand side by side on equal terms, while Italians, -Roumans, and Slaves of almost every branch of the -Slavonic race, are grouped around those two. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>No strictly -federal tie.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There -is no federal tie; it is a stretch of language to apply -the federal name to the present relation between the -two chief powers of Hungary and Austria. Nor -can any strictly federal tie be said to unite Bohemia, -Dalmatia, Croatia, and Galicia. And yet these other -members of the general body are not mere subject -provinces, like the dominions of Old Rome. The same -prince is sovereign of a crowd of separate states, two -of which stand out prominently as centres among the -rest. There is neither national unity, nor federation, nor -mere subjection of one land or nation to another. All -this has come by the gradual union by various means of -many crowns upon the same brow. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Anomalous -nature of -the Austrian -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The result is an -anomalous power which has nothing else exactly like -it, past or present. But the very anomaly makes the -growth of such a power a more curious study.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Eastern -Mark.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The beginnings of the Austrian state are to be -found in the small <i>Mark</i> on the Danube, lying between -Bohemia, Moravia, and the Duchy of Kärnthen or Carinthia. -It appears in its first form as an appendage -to Bavaria.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> This mark Frederick Barbarossa raised -into a duchy, under its first duke Henry the Second, -and it was enlarged to the westward at the expense of -Bavaria by the addition of the lands above the Enns.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">{308}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Austria, -1156.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus was formed the original <i>Duchy of Austria</i>, the -duchy of the Dukes of the House of Babenberg. It had -not long risen to ducal rank before it began to extend -itself at the expense of states which had hitherto been -of greater moment than itself. Itself primarily a mark -against the Magyar, Austria had to the south of it -the lands where the German Kingdom marched at -once upon the Magyar, the Slave, and the Kingdom -of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Carinthia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Here lay the great Duchy of Carinthia, a -land where the population was mainly Slave, though -on this frontier the Slavonic population had been -brought into much earlier and more thorough subjection -to the German Kings than the Slaves on the north-eastern -frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Styria, -1180;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the time of the foundation of the -duchy of Austria, the Carinthian duchy had begun to -split in pieces, and its northern part, hitherto the -<i>Upper Carinthian Mark</i>, grew into the Duchy of <i>Steyermark</i> -or <i>Styria</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>united to -Austria, -1192.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Twelve years later, Leopold the -Fifth of Austria inherited the duchy of Styria, a duchy -greater than his own, by the will of its duke Ottokar. -Carinthia itself went on as a separate duchy; but it -now took in only a narrow territory in the south-western -part of the old duchy, and that broken up by -outlying possessions of the archbishops of Salzburg -and other ecclesiastical lords. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The county -of Görz.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south grew up a -considerable power in the hands of the counts of <i>Görz</i> -or <i>Gorizia</i> on the Italian border. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ecclesiastical -position -of its -Counts.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The possessions of -these counts stretched, though not continuously, from -Tyrol to Istria, and their influence was further enlarged -by their position as advocates of the bishoprics of <i>Trent</i> -and <i>Brixen</i> and of the more famous patriarchate of -<i>Aquileia</i>. These are the lands, the marchlands of -Germany towards its eastern and south-eastern neighbours,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">{309}</a></span> -which came by gradual annexations to form the -German possessions of the Austrian power. But the -further growth of that power did not begin till the -duchy itself had passed away to the hands of a wholly -new line of princes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Momentary -union of -Austria and -Bohemia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The first change was one which brought about for a -moment from one side an union which was afterwards -to be brought about in a more lasting shape from the -other side. This was the annexation of Austria by the -kingdom of <i>Bohemia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bohemia a -kingdom, -1158.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That duchy had been raised to -the rank of a kingdom, though of course without ceasing -to be a fief of the Empire, a few years after the mark of -Austria had become a duchy. The death of the last -duke of Austria of the Babenberg line led to a disputed -succession and a series of wars, in which the princes of -Bavaria, Bohemia, and Hungary all had their share. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ottokar of -Bohemia -annexes -Austria -and Styria, -1252-1262. -Carinthia, -1269.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the end, between marriage, conquest, and royal grant, -Ottokar king of Bohemia obtained the duchies of -Austria and Styria, and a few years later he further -added Carinthia by the bequest of its Duke. Thus a -new power was formed, by which several German -states came into the power of a Slavonic king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Great -power of -Ottokar.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -power of that king for a moment reached the Baltic as -well as the Hadriatic; for Ottokar carried his arms -into Prussia, and became the founder of Königsberg. -But this great power was but momentary. Bohemia -and Austria were again separated, and Austria, with -its indefinite mission of extension over so many lands, -including Bohemia itself, passed to a house sprung from -a distant part of Germany.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>House of -Habsburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have now come to the European beginnings of -the second House of Austria, the house whose name<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">{310}</a></span> -seems to have become inseparably connected with the -name of Austria, though the spot from which that house -drew its name has long ceased to be an Austrian possession. -This is the house of the Counts of <i>Habsburg</i>. -They took this name from their castle on the lower -course of the Aar, in the north-west corner of the -Aargau, in that southern Swabian land where the Old -League of High Germany was presently to arise, and -so greatly to extend itself at the cost of the power of -Habsburg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Habsburg, -Kyburg, -and Lenzburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By an union of the lands of Habsburg -with those of the Counts of <i>Kyburg</i> and <i>Lenzburg</i>, a -considerable, though straggling, dominion was formed. -It stretched in and out among the mountains and lakes, -taking in Luzern, and forming a dangerous neighbour -to the free city of Zürich. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their possession -in -Elsass.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides these lands, the same -house also held <i>Upper Elsass</i> with the title of Landgrave, -a dominion separated from the other Swabian -lands of the House by the territory of the free city of -Basel. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rudolf -king, 1273.<br /> -His victories -over -Ottokar, -1276-1278.<br /> -Albert of -Habsburg -Duke of -Austria -and Styria, -1282.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The lord of this great Swabian dominion, the -famous Rudolf, being chosen to the German crown, -and having broken the power of Ottokar, bestowed the -duchies of Austria and Styria on his son Albert, afterwards -King. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Meinhard -Duke of -Carinthia -and Count -of Tyrol, -1286.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Carinthia at first formed part of the same -grant; but it was presently granted to Meinhard Count -of Görz and Tyrol. Görz passed to another branch of -the house of its own Counts. Three powers were thus -formed in these regions, the duchies of <i>Austria</i> and -<i>Styria</i>, the duchy of <i>Carinthia</i> with the county of -<i>Tyrol</i>, and the county of <i>Görz</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Scattered -territories -of the -House of -Habsburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus under Albert the possessions of the House of -Habsburg were large, but widely scattered. The two -newly acquired eastern duchies not only gave its princes -their highest titles, but they formed a compact territory,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">{311}</a></span> -well suited for extension northward and southward. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Falling off -of the -Swabian -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But among the outlying Swabian territories, -though some parts remained to the Austrian House -down to the end of the German Kingdom, the tendency -was to diminish and gradually to part off altogether -from Germany. In the lands south of the Rhine this -happened through union with the Confederates; in the -Alsatian lands it happened at a later stage through -French annexation.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Connexion -of Austria -with the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It is to be hoped that it is no longer needful to -explain that the hereditary lands of the House of Habsburg -or Austria had no inherent connexion with the -German Kingdom and Roman Empire of which they -were fiefs, beyond the fact that they were among its -fiefs. They were further connected with it only by the -accident that, from Rudolf onwards, many princes of -that house were chosen Kings, and that, from the middle -of the fifteenth century, onwards, all the Kings were -chosen from that house and from the house into which -it merged by female succession. It is to be hoped that -there is no longer any need to explain that every Emperor -was not Duke of Austria, and that every Duke of -Austria was not Emperor. But it may be needful to -explain that every Duke of Austria was not master of -the whole dominions of the House of Austria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Divisions -of the -Austrian -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The divisions, -the reunions, the joint reigns, which are common -to the House of Austria with other German princely -houses, become at once more important and more puzzling -in the case of a house which gradually came to -stand above all the others in European rank. The -caution is specially needful in the case of the Swabian -lands, as the history of the Confederates is liable to be -greatly misunderstood, if every Duke of Austria who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">{312}</a></span> -appears there is taken for the sole sovereign of the -Austrian dominions. It is needless to go here through -all these shiftings between princes of the same house. -Through all changes the unity of the house and its possessions -was maintained, even while they were parted out -or held in common by different members of the house. -But it is important to bear in mind that some of the -Dukes of Austria who figure in the history of Switzerland -were rather Landgraves of Elsass or Counts of -Tyrol than Dukes of Austria in any practical sense.</p> - -<p>The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries may be -defined as a time during which the Austrian House on -the whole steadily advanced in the Eastern part of its -dominions and steadily fell back in the Western. But -in the course of the fourteenth century an acquisition -was made which, without making them absolutely continuous, -brought them into something more like geographical -connexion with one another. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisition -of -Carinthia -and Tyrol, -1335.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was the -acquisition of the Duchy of Carinthia and County of -<i>Tyrol</i>, the latter of which lands lay conveniently -between the Eastern and Western dominions of the house. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Austrian -territory.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These now stretched continuously from the Bohemian -frontier to Istria, and they threw out, in the form of -Tyrol and the Swabian lands, a scattered, but nearly -continuous, territory stretching to the borders of Lorraine -and the county of Burgundy. The Austrian -possessions now touched the eastern gulf of the Hadriatic -and came into the neighbourhood of the Dalmatian -Archipelago. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Commendation -of -Trieste, -1382.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Somewhat later they reached -the main Hadriatic itself, when the city of <i>Trieste</i>, -hitherto disputed between the commonwealth of Venice -and the patriarchs of Aquileia, commended itself to -the Austrian Duke Leopold as its lord. This is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">{313}</a></span> -same Leopold who four years later fell at Sempach. -By this time the Swabian possessions had been increased -north of the Rhine, while south of the Rhine the -Austrian dominion was steadily giving way. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Thurgau, -1460.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Confederates -and their several cantons advanced in every -way, by purchase and conquest, till, after the loss of -Thurgau, the House of Austria kept nothing south -of the Rhine except the towns known as the <i>Waldstädte</i>.</p> - -<p>By this time the division of the estates of the house -had taken a more lasting shape. One branch reigned -in Austria, another in Carinthia and Styria, a third in -Tyrol and the other western lands. At this time begins -the unbroken series of Austrian elections to the German -and Imperial crowns. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Albert the -Second, -king, 1437-1440.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first was Albert the Second, -Duke of Austria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Frederick -the Third, -king, 1440; -Emperor, -1452.<br /> -Archduke -of Austria, -1453.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then Frederick the Third, the first -Emperor of the House, united the Austrian and Carinthian -duchies, and raised Austria to the unique rank of -an Archduchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Siegmund, -Count of -Tyrol, &c., -1429-1496.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, Siegmund Count of Tyrol -held the western lands, and appears as Duke of Austria -in Confederate and Burgundian history. He there -figures as the prince who lost Thurgau to the Confederates -and who mortgaged his Alsatian lands to Charles -the Bold. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Maximilian, -King of the -Romans, -1486; -Archduke, -1493; -Count of -Tyrol, 1496; -Emperor-elect, -1508.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Maximilian the whole possessions of the -house of Austria were united. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of union -with lands -beyond the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But by this time the -affairs of the purely German lands which had hitherto -formed the possessions of the Austrian house had begun -to be mixed up with the succession to lands and kingdoms -beyond the Empire, and with lands which, though -technically within the Empire, had a distinct being of -their own. In the course of the fifteenth century the -house of Austria, hitherto simply one of the chief -German princely houses, put on two special characters.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">{314}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Succession -of -Austrian -Kings and -Emperors.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It became, as we have already seen, the house which -exclusively supplied kings and Emperors to Germany -and the Empire. And it became, by virtue of its hereditary -possessions rather than of its Imperial position, -one of the chief European powers. For a while the -greatest of European powers, it has remained a great -European power down to our own time.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union with -Bohemia -and Hungary.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The special feature in the history of the house of -Austria from the fifteenth century onwards is its connexion—a -connexion more or less broken, but still constantly -recurring till in the end it becomes fully permanent—with -the kingdom of Bohemia within the Empire -and with the kingdom of Hungary beyond its bounds. -These possessions have given the Austrian power its -special character, that of a power formed by the union -under one prince of several wholly distinct nations -or parts of nations which have no tie beyond that -union. The Austrian princes, originally purely German, -equally in their Swabian and in their Austrian -possessions, had already, by the extension of their -power to the south, obtained some Slavonic and some -Italian-speaking subjects. Still, as a power, they were -purely German. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Various acquisitions -of Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But in the period which begins in -the fifteenth and goes on into the nineteenth century, -we shall see them gradually gathering together, sometimes -gaining, sometimes losing—gaining and losing by -every process, warlike and peaceful, by which territory -can be gained or lost—a crowd of kingdoms, duchies, -and counties, scattered over all parts of Europe from -Flanders to Transsilvania. But it is the acquisition of -the two crowns of Bohemia and Hungary which, above -all others, gave the House of Austria its special position -as a middle power, a power belonging at once to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">{315}</a></span> -system of Western and to the system of Eastern Europe. -Among the endless shiftings of the states which have -been massed together under the rule of the House of -Habsburg, that house has more than once been at the -same moment the neighbour of the Gaul and the neighbour -of the Turk; and it has sometimes found Gaul and -Turk arrayed together against it. Add to all this that, -though the connexion between the house of Austria -and the Empire was a purely personal one, renewed in -each generation by a special election, still the fact that -so many kings of Hungary and archdukes of Austria -were chosen Emperors one after another, caused the -house itself, after the Empire was abolished, to look -in the eyes of many like a continuation of the power -which had come to an end. The peculiar position of -the Austrian house could hardly have been obtained -by a mere union of Hungary, Austria, and the other states -under princes none of whom were raised to Imperial -rank. Nor could it have been obtained by a series of -mere dukes of Austria, even though they had been chosen -Emperors from generation to generation. It was through -the accidental union under one sovereign of a crowd of -states which had no natural connexion with each other, -and through the further accident that the Empire -itself seemed to become a possession of the House, -that the House of Habsburg, and its representative the -House of Lorraine, have won their unique position -among European powers.</p> - -<p>The first hints, so to speak, of a coming union -between the Hungarian and Bohemian kingdoms and -the Austrian duchy began, as we have seen, in the days -of Ottokar. A Bohemian king had then held the Austrian -duchy, while a Hungarian king had for a moment occupied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">{316}</a></span> -part of Styria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -with Hungary -and -Bohemia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the later form which the union -was to take was not that of the Bohemian or the Hungarian -reigning over Austria, but that of the Austrian -reigning over Hungary and Bohemia. The duchy was -not to be added to either of the kingdoms; but both -kingdoms were in course of time to be added to the -duchy. The growth of both Hungary and Bohemia as -kingdoms will be spoken of elsewhere. We have now -to deal only with their relations to the Austrian House. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rudolf, son -of Albert, -King of -Bohemia, -1306.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For a moment, early in the fourteenth century, an -Austrian prince, son of the first Austrian King of Germany, -was actually acknowledged as King of Bohemia. -But this connexion was only momentary. The first -beginnings of anything like a more permanent connexion -begin a hundred and thirty years later. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Albert the -Second, -King of -Hungary -and Bohemia, -1438.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -second Austrian King of Germany wore both the -Hungarian and the Bohemian crowns by virtue of his -marriage with the daughter of the Emperor and King -Siegmund. The steps towards the union of the various -crowns are now beginning. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Siegmund, -King of -Hungary, -1386; -King of the -Romans, -1414; -King of -Bohemia, -1419; -Emperor, -1433.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Siegmund was the third -King of Bohemia who had worn the crown of Germany, -the second who had worn the crown of the Empire. -Under his son-in-law, Hungary, Bohemia, and Austria -were for a moment united with the German crown; -in the next reign, as we have seen, begins the lasting -connexion between Austria and the Empire. But the -Hungarian and Bohemian kingdoms parted again. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wladislaus -Postumus, -Duke of -Austria, -1440-1457; -King of -Hungary -and Bohemia, -1453-1457.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -One -Austrian King, the son of Albert, reigned at least nominally -over both kingdoms, as well as over the special -Austrian duchy. But the final union did not come for -another eighty years. The Turk was now threatening -and conquering. At Mohacz Lewis, king of the two -kingdoms, fell before the invaders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ferdinand, -Archduke -of Austria, -1519; King -of Hungary -and Bohemia, -1527; -King of the -Romans, -1531; -Emperor-elect, -1556.<br /> -Permanent -union of -Bohemia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -His Bohemian -kingdom passed to Ferdinand of Austria, and from that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">{317}</a></span> -day to this, unless we except the momentary choice of -the Winter King, the Palatine Frederick, the Bohemian -crown has always stayed in the House of Austria. And -for many generations it has been worn by the actual -sovereign of the Austrian archduchy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -the union -with Hungary.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The acquisition of the crown of Hungary was of -greater importance. It at once put the Austrian House -into a wholly new position; it gave it its new later -character of a middle state between Eastern and Western -Europe. The duchy had begun as a mark against -the Turanian and heathen invaders of earlier times. -Those Turanian and heathen invaders had long before -settled down into a Christian kingdom; they had latterly -become the foremost champions of Christendom -against the Turanian and Mahometan invaders who had -seized the throne of the Eastern Cæsars. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mission -against the -Turk.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With the -crown of Hungary, the main duty of the Hungarian -crown, the defence of Christendom against the Ottoman, -passed to the Archdukes and Emperors of the Austrian -House. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Austrian -kings -in Hungary.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But for a long time Hungary was a most -imperfect and precarious possession of its Austrian -Kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1526-1699.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For more than a century and a half after the -election of Ferdinand, his rule and that of his successors -was disputed and partial. They had from the very -beginning to strive against rival kings, while the -greater part of the kingdom and of the lands attached -to the crown was either held by the Turk himself -or by princes who acknowledged the Turk as their -superior lord. These strictly Hungarian affairs, as well -as the changes on the frontier towards the Turk, will -be spoken of elsewhere. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peace of -Passarowitz, -1718.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was not till the eighteenth -century that the Austrian Kings were in full possession -of the whole Hungarian kingdom and all its -dependencies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">{318}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisition -of Görz, -1500.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile the Austrian power had been making -advances in other quarters. At the end of the fifteenth -century the Austrian possessions at the north-east of -the Hadriatic were greatly enlarged by the addition of -the county of <i>Görz</i>, which carried with it the fallen -city of Aquileia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New position -towards -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A more direct path towards Italian -dominion was thus opened. The wars of the League -of Cambray made no permanent addition to Austrian -dominion in this quarter; but the master of Trieste and -Aquileia, whose territory cut off Venice from her Istrian -possessions, might already almost pass for an Italian -sovereign. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominions -of Charles -the Fifth.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Charles the Fifth the House of -Austria became, as we have seen, possessed of a vast -Italian dominion. But after him it passed away alike -from the Empire and the German branch of the house, -to become part of the heritage of the Austrian Kings of -Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austrian -rule in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was not, as we have already seen, till the beginning -of the eighteenth century that either an Emperor -or a reigning archduke again obtained any territory -within the acknowledged bounds of Italy. The fluctuations -of Austrian rule in Italy, from the acquisition of -the Duchy of Milan down to our own day, have been -already told in the Italian section. Lombardy and -Venetia are now again Italian; but Austria still keeps -the north-east corner of the great gulf. She still keeps -Görz and Aquileia, Trieste and all Istria, to say nothing -of the dangerous way which her frontier still stretches -on Italian ground in the land of Trent and Roveredo.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Burgundian -possessions.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>These last named possessions still abide as traces of the -Austrian advance in these regions, and its fluctuations -there have been among the most important facts of -modern history. Another series of Austrian acquisitions -in the West of Europe have altogether passed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">{319}</a></span> -away. The great Burgundian inheritance passed to -the House of Austria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Maximilian -and -Philip.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was only for a short time, -in the persons of Maximilian and Philip, that it was in any -way united to the actual Austrian Archduchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Austrian -Netherlands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After -Charles the Fifth the Burgundian possessions passed, like -those in Italy, to the Spanish branch of the House, and, -just as in Italy, it was not till the eighteenth century that -actual Emperors or archdukes again reigned over a part -of the Netherlands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Elsass.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before this time the Alsatian dominion -of Austria had passed away to France, and the -remnant of her Swabian possessions passed away, as we -have seen, in the days of general confusion. The -changes of her territory in Germany during that period -have been already spoken of. Her acquisitions in Eastern -Europe will come more fully elsewhere; but a word must -be given to them here. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Silesia, -1740.<br /> -Final partition -of -Poland, -1772.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Looking at the House of Austria -simply as a power, without reference to the German -or non-German character of its dominions, the loss of -<i>Silesia</i> may be looked on as counterbalanced by the -territory gained from Poland at the first and third partitions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Galicia and -Lodomeria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first partition gave the Austrian House -a territory of which the greater part was originally -Russian rather than Polish, and in which the old Russian -names of <i>Halicz</i> and <i>Vladimir</i> were strangely softened -into a <i>Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Third partition, -1795.<br /> -New-Galicia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The third -partition added <i>Cracow</i> and a considerable amount of -strictly Polish territory. These last passed away, first to -the Duchy of Warsaw, and then to the restored Kingdom -of Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of -Cracow, -1846.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Galicia has been kept, and it has -been increased in our day by the seizure of the republic -of Cracow. These lands lie to the north of the -Hungarian kingdom. Parted from them by the whole -extent of that kingdom, and adjoining that kingdom at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">{320}</a></span> -its south-west corner lie the coast lands of Austria on -the Hadriatic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dalmatia, -1797.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the Peace of Campoformio, Austria -took <i>Dalmatia</i> strictly so called, and the other Venetian -possessions as far south as Budua. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovered, -1814.<br /> -Ragusa, -1814.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These lands, lost in -the wars with France, were won again at the Peace, -with the addition of <i>Ragusa</i> and its territory.</p> - - -<p class="p2">This account of the gains and losses of a power -which has gained and lost in so many quarters is -necessary somewhat piecemeal. It may be well then -to end this section with a picture of the Austrian power -as it stood at several points of the history of the last -century and a half, leaving the fluctuating frontier -towards the Turk to be dealt with in our survey of the -more strictly Eastern lands.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reign of -Maria -Theresa, -1740-1780.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We will begin at a date when we come across a -sovereign whose position is often strangely misunderstood, -the Empress-Queen Maria Theresa—Queen in her -own right of Hungary and Bohemia, Empress by the -election of her husband to the Imperial Crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her hereditary -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Pragmatic Sanction of her father Charles the Sixth -made her heiress of all his hereditary dominions. That -is, it made her heiress, within the Empire, of the kingdom -of Bohemia with its dependencies of Moravia and -Silesia—of the Archduchy of Austria with the duchies, -counties, and lordships of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, -Tyrol, Görz, and Trieste—of Constanz and a few other -outlying Swabian points—as also of Milan, Mantua, and -the Austrian Netherlands, lands which it needs some -stretch, whether of memory or of legal fiction, to look -on as being then in any sense lands of the Empire. -Altogether beyond the Empire, it gave her the Kingdom -of Hungary with its dependent lands of Croatia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">{321}</a></span> -Slavonia, and Transsilvania or Siebenbürgen. These -hereditary dominions, lessened by the loss of Silesia, -increased by the addition of Galicia, she handed on to -their later Kings and Archdukes. Her marriage transferred -those hereditary dominions, it indirectly transferring -the Empire itself, to a new family, the House -of Lorraine. The husband of Maria Theresa, Francis, -who had exchanged his duchy of Lorraine for that of -Tuscany, was in truth the first Lotharingian Emperor. -After him came three Emperors of his house, under -the third of whom the succession of Augustus and -Charles came to an end.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austrian -dominions -in 1811.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We may take another view of the Austrian territory -at the moment when the French power in Germany was -at its height. The Roman Empire and the German kingdom -had now come to an end; but their last sovereign -still, with whatever meaning, called himself Emperor of -his archduchy, though without dropping his proper title -of Archduke. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New use of -the name -<i>Austria</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From this time the word Austria was -used, commonly but inaccurately, to take in all the -possessions of the House of Austria. And, as all the -possessions of the House of Austria were now geographically -continuous, it became more natural to speak of -them by a single name than it had been when the dominions -of that house in Italy and the Netherlands lay apart -from the great mass of Austrian territory. And at this -moment, when the Empire had come to an end and when -the German Confederation had not yet been formed, -there was no distinction between German and non-German -lands. The ‘Empire’ of Francis the Second -or First, as it stood at the time of Buonaparte’s greatest -power, had, as compared with the hereditary dominions -of Maria Theresa, gone through these changes. Tyrol<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">{322}</a></span> -and the Swabian lands had passed to other German -princes; Salzburg had been won and lost again. In -Italy the Venetian possessions had been won and lost, -and they, together with the older Italian possessions of -Austria, had passed to the French kingdom of Italy. -France in her own name had encroached on the Austrian -dominions at two ends. She had absorbed the -Austrian Netherlands at one corner, the newly won -territory of Dalmatia at another. This last territory, -with parts of Carinthia and Carniola, and with the -Hungarian kingdom of Croatia, received, on passing -to France, the name of the <i>Illyrian Provinces</i>. -Illyrian they were in the widest and most purely -geographical sense of that name. But this use of -the Illyrian name was confusing and misleading, as -tending to put out of sight that the true representatives -of the old Illyrian race dwell to the south, not only of -Carinthia and Carniola, but of Dalmatia itself. The -loss of the Austrian possessions in this quarter brought -back the new Austrian ‘Empire’ to the condition of the -original Austrian duchy. It became a wholly inland -dominion, without an inch of sea-coast anywhere.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austria at -the peace. -1814-5.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have already seen how Austria won back her -lost Italian and Dalmatian territory, and so much of -her lost German territory as was geographically continuous. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ragusa and -Cattaro.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Released from her inland prison, provided -again with a great sea-board on both sides of the -Hadriatic, she now refused to Ragusa the restoration -of her freedom, and filched from Montenegro her hard-won -haven of Cattaro. The recovered lands formed, -in the new nomenclature of the Austrian possessions, -the kingdoms of Lombardy and Venice, of Illyria, -and of Dalmatia. The last was an ancient title of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">{323}</a></span> -Hungarian crown. The Kingdom of Illyria was a -continuation of the affected nomenclature which had -been bestowed on the lands which formed it under their -French occupation. We have already traced the driving -out of the Austrian power from Lombardy and Venetia, -its momentary joint possession in Sleswick, Holstein, and -Lauenburg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cracow, -1846.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The only other actual change of frontier -has been the annexation of the inland commonwealth -of Cracow, to match the annexation of the sea-faring -commonwealth of Ragusa. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separation -of Hungary, -1848.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The movement of 1848 -separated Hungary for a moment from the Austrian -power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery of -Hungary, -1849.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Won back, partly by Russian help, partly by -the arms of her own Slavonic subjects, the Magyar kingdom -remained crushed till Austria was shut out alike -from Germany and from Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austro-Hungarian -Monarchy, -1867.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then arose the present -system, the so called <i>dualism</i>, the theory of which -is that the ‘Austro-Hungarian Monarchy’ consists of -two states under a common sovereign. By an odd -turning about of meanings, Austria, once really the -<i>Oesterreich</i>, the Eastern land, of Germany, has become -in truth the Western land, the <i>Neustria</i>, of the -new arrangement. With the Hungarian kingdom are -grouped the principality of Transsilvania and the kingdoms -of Slavonia and Croatia. The Austrian state is -made up of <i>Austria</i> itself—the archduchy with the -addition of <i>Salzburg</i>—the duchy of <i>Styria</i>, the county -of <i>Tyrol</i>, the kingdoms of <i>Bohemia</i>, <i>Galicia</i> and <i>Lodomeria</i>, -<i>Illyria</i>, and <i>Dalmatia</i> with <i>Ragusa</i> and <i>Cattaro</i>. -These last lands are not continuous. Thus two states -are formed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Modern -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In one the dominant German duchy has -Slavonic lands on each side of it, and an Italian fringe -on its coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Modern -Hungary.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the other state, the ruling Magyar -holds also among the subjects of his crown the Slave,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">{324}</a></span> -the Rouman, and the outlying Saxon of Siebenbürgen. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Herzegovina, -Bosnia, -and Spizza, -1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Add to this that the latest arrangements of -all have added to the Austrian dominions, under the -diplomatic phrase of ‘administration,’ the Slavonic -lands of <i>Herzegovina</i> and <i>Bosnia</i>, while the kingdom -of Dalmatia is increased by the harbour of <i>Spizza</i>. -A power like this, which rests on no national basis, but -which has been simply patched together during a -space of six hundred years by this and that grant, this -and that marriage, this and that treaty, is surely an -anachronism on the face of modern Europe. Germany -and Italy are nations as well as powers. Austria, -changed from the <i>Austria</i> of Germany into the -<i>Neustria</i> of Hungary, is simply a name without a -meaning.</p> - - -<p class="p2">We have thus gone through the geographical -changes of the three Imperial kingdoms, and of the -states and powers which were formed by parts of those -kingdoms falling away, and in some cases uniting themselves -with lands beyond the Empire. They have all -to some extent kept a common history down to our -own time. We have now to turn to another land which -parted off from the Empire in like manner, but which -parted off so early as to become a wholly separate and -rival land, with an altogether independent history of its -own.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">{325}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin and -growth of -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> process by which a great power grew up to the -west of the Western Empire has something in common -with the process by which the powers spoken of in the -later sections of the last Chapter split off from the -Western Empire. As in the case of Switzerland and -the United Provinces, so in the case of France, a land -which had formed part of the dominions of Charles the -Great became independent of his successors. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -with -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As in the -case of Austria to the east, so in the case of France to -the west, a duchy of the old Empire grew into a -power distinct from the Empire, and tried to attach -to itself the old Imperial titles and traditions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Different -nature of -the Austrian -and -the French -territories.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -there is more than one point of difference between the -two cases. As a matter of geography, the power of the -Austrian house has for some centuries largely rested -on the possession of dominions beyond the boundaries -of the Carolingian Empire, while it has been only for -a moment, and that chiefly by the annexation of -territory from Austria itself, that France has ever -held any European possessions beyond the Carolingian -frontier.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Difference -in the process -of -separation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the true difference lies in the date and -circumstances of the separation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The other -powers split -off after the -Empire has -become -German.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Swabian, Lotharingian, -Frisian, and Austrian lands which gradually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">{326}</a></span> -split off from the Empire to form distinct states split off -after the Empire had been finally annexed to the crown -of Germany, indeed after Germany and the Empire had -come to mean nearly the same thing. But France can -hardly be said to have split off from the German -kingdom or from the Empire itself. The first prince -of the Western <i>Francia</i> who bore the kingly title was -indeed the man of the King of the East-Franks.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> But no -lasting relation, such as afterwards bound the princes -of the Empire to its head, sprang out of his homage. -Again from 887 to 963 the Imperial dignity was not -finally attached to any one kingdom. It fluctuated -between Germany and Italy; it might have passed to -Burgundy; it might have passed to Karolingia, as it -had once already done in the person of Charles the -Bald. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Empire -divided -into four -kingdoms, -of which -three are -again -united, -while one -remains -distinct.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The truer way of putting the matter is to say -that in 887 the Empire split up into four kingdoms, of -which three came together again, and formed the -Empire in a new shape. The fourth kingdom remained -separate; it can hardly be said to have split off from -the Empire, but its separation hindered the full reconstruction -of the Empire. It has had a distinct history, -a history which made it the special rival of the -Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Karolingia -receives the -name of -<i>France</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was <i>Karolingia</i>, the kingdom of the -West-Franks, to which, through the results of the -change of dynasty in 987, the name of <i>France</i> gradually -came to be applied.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>France a -nation as -well as a -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">But there is yet another distinction of greater -practical importance. France was so early detached -from the rest of the elder Frankish dominions that it -was able to form from the first a nation as well as a -power. Its separation happened at the time when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">{327}</a></span> -European nations were forming. The other powers -did not split off till long after those nations were -formed, and they did not in any strict sense form -nations. But France is a nation in the fullest sense. -Its history is therefore different from the history of -Austria, of Burgundy, of Switzerland, or even of Italy. -As a state which had become wholly distinct from the -Empire, which was commonly the rival and enemy of -the Empire, which largely grew at the expense of the -Empire, above all, as a state which won for itself a -most distinct national being, France fully deserves a -chapter, and not a mere section. Still that chapter is -in some sort an appendage to that which deals with the -Imperial kingdoms of the West. It naturally follows -on our survey of those kingdoms, before we go on -further to deal with the European powers which arose -out of the dismemberment of the Empire of the East.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the royal -domain at -the accession -of the -Parisian -house. -987.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We left Karolingia or the Western Kingdom at -that point where the modern French state took its real -beginning under the kings of the house of Paris. -Their duchy of France had since its foundation been -cut short by the great grant of Normandy, and by the -practical independence which had been won by the -counts of <i>Anjou</i>, <i>Maine</i>, and <i>Chartres</i>. By their election -to the kingdom the Dukes of the French added to -their duchy the small territory which up to that time -had still been in the immediate possession of the West-Frankish -Kings at Laon. And, with the crown and the -immediate territory of those kings, the French kings -at Paris also inherited their claim to superiority over -all the states which had arisen within the bounds of the -Western Kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Definition of the word -<i>France</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the name <i>France</i>, as it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">{328}</a></span> -used in the times with which we are dealing, means -only the immediate territory of the King. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Two forms -of growth; -annexation -of fiefs of -the French -crown and -of lands altogether -beyond the -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The use of -the name spreads with every increase of that territory, -whether that increase was made by the incorporation -of a fief or by the annexation of territory wholly foreign -to the kingdom. These two processes must be carefully -distinguished. Both went on side by side for some -centuries; but the incorporation of the vassal states -naturally began before the annexation of altogether -foreign territory.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Various -feudal -gradations.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Among the fiefs which were gradually annexed -a distinction must be drawn between the great princes -who were really national chiefs owing an external -homage to the French crown, and the lesser counts -whose dominions had been cut off from the original -duchy of France. And a distinction must be -again drawn between these last and the immediate -tenants of the Crown within its own domains, vassals -of the Duke as well as of the King. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The great -vassals.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the first class -belong the Dukes and Counts of <i>Burgundy</i>, <i>Aquitaine</i>, -<i>Toulouse</i>, and <i>Flanders</i>; to the second the Counts of -<i>Anjou</i>, <i>Chartres</i>, and <i>Champagne</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Special character -of -Normandy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Historically, <i>Normandy</i> -belongs to the second class, as the original -grant to Rolf was undoubtedly cut off from the French -duchy. But the whole circumstances of the Norman -duchy made it a truly national state, owing to the -French crown the merest external homage. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Britanny.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Britanny</i>, -yet more distinct in every way, was held to owe its -immediate homage to the Duke of the Normans. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Twelve -Peers.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -so-called Twelve Peers of France seem to have been -devised by Philip Augustus out of the romances of -Charlemagne; but the selection shows who were looked -on as the greatest vassals of the crown in his day. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">{329}</a></span> -six lay peers were the Dukes of Burgundy, Normandy, -and Aquitaine, the Counts of Flanders, Toulouse, and -Champagne. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Champagne.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last was the only one of the six who -could not be looked upon as a national sovereign. His -dominions were <i>French</i> in a sense in which Normandy -or Aquitaine could not be called French. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Different -position of -the Bishops -in the Eastern -and -Western -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The six -ecclesiastical peers offer a marked contrast to the -ecclesiastical electors of the Empire. The German -bishops became princes, holding directly of the Empire. -But the bishops within the dominions of the great -vassals of the French crown were the subjects of -their immediate sovereigns. The Archbishop of Rouen -or the Archbishop of Bourdeaux stood in no relation -to the King of the French. The ecclesiastical peerage -of France consisted only of certain bishops who were -immediate vassals of the King in his character of King, -among whom was only one prelate of the first rank, -the Archbishop and Duke of <i>Rheims</i>. The others were -the Bishops and Dukes of <i>Langres</i> and <i>Laon</i>, and the -Bishops and Counts of <i>Beauvais</i>, <i>Noyon</i>, and <i>Châlons</i>. -As the bishops within the dominions of the great feudatories -had no claim to rank as peers of the kingdom, -neither had those prelates who were actually within -the King’s immediate territory, vassals therefore of the -Duke of the French as well as of the King. Thus the -Bishop of <i>Paris</i> and his metropolitan the Archbishop -of <i>Sens</i> had no place among the twelve peers.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>Incorporation of the Vassal States.</i></h3> - -<p>At the accession of the Parisian dynasty, the royal -domain took in the greater part of the later <i>Isle of -France</i>, the territory to which the old name specially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">{330}</a></span> -clung, the greater part of the later government of <i>Orleans</i>, -besides some outlying fiefs holding immediately -of the King. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Chief vassals -within -the royal -domain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Within this territory the counties of -<i>Clermont</i>, <i>Dreux</i>, <i>Moulins</i>, <i>Valois</i>, and <i>Gatinois</i>, are -of the greatest historical importance. Two of the great -rivers of Gaul, the Seine and the Loire, flowed through -the royal dominions; but the King was wholly cut off -from the sea by the great feudatories who commanded -the lower course of the rivers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>States on -the Channel -and<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The coast of the channel -was held by the princes of Britanny, Normandy, -and Flanders, and the smaller county of <i>Ponthieu</i>, -which lay between Normandy and Flanders and fluctuated -in its homage between the two. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>on the -Ocean;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The ocean -coast was held by the rulers of Britanny, of <i>Poitou</i> -and <i>Aquitaine</i> united under a single sovereign, and -of <i>Gascony</i> to the south of them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>on the -Mediterranean -coast.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That small part of -the Mediterranean coast which nominally belonged -to the Western Kingdom was held by the counts of -<i>Toulouse</i> and <i>Barcelona</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Neighbours -of the royal -domain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of these great feudatories, the -princes of Flanders, Burgundy, Normandy, and Champagne, -were all immediate neighbours of the King. To -the west of the royal domain lay several states of the -second rank which played a great part in the history -of France and Normandy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Chartres -and Blois. -1125-1152.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were the counties -of <i>Chartres</i> and <i>Blois</i>, which were for a while -united with <i>Champagne</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Anjou and -Touraine -united. -1044.<br /> -Maine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Beyond these, besides some -smaller counties, were <i>Anjou</i> and <i>Touraine</i>, and <i>Maine</i>, -the great borderland of Normandy and France. Thus -surrounded by their own vassals, the early Kings of -the house of Paris had far less dealings with powers -beyond their own kingdom than their Karolingian -predecessors. They were thus able to make themselves -the great power of Gaul before they stood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">{331}</a></span> -forth on a wider field as one of the great powers of -Europe.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The kingdom -smaller -than the -old duchy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>As regards their extent of territory, the Kings of -the French at the beginning of the eleventh century -had altogether fallen away from the commanding -position which had been held by the Dukes of the -French in the middle of the tenth. But this seeming -loss of power was fully outweighed by the fact that -there were now Kings and not merely Dukes, lords -and no longer vassals. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advantage -of the -kingly -position.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As feudal principles grew, -opportunities were constantly found for annexing the -lands of the vassal to the lands of his lord. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First -advances of -the Kings.<br /> -Gatinois. -1068.<br /> -Viscounty -of Bourges. -1100.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Towards -the end of the eleventh century the royal domain had -already begun to increase by the acquisition of the -<i>Gatinois</i> and of the viscounty of <i>Bourges</i>, a small part -only of the later province of Berry, but an addition -which made France and Aquitaine more clearly neighbours -than before. Towards the end of the twelfth -century began a more important advance to the north-east. -The first aggrandizement of France at the expense -of Flanders was the beginning of an important -chain of events in European history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Amiens -and Vermandois. -1183.<br /> -Valois. -1185.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the early -years of Philip Augustus the counties of <i>Amiens</i> and -<i>Vermandois</i> were united to the crown, as was the -county of <i>Valois</i> two years later. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Artois. -1180-1187.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -So for a while was -the more important land of <i>Artois</i>. Later in the reign -of the same prince came an annexation on a far -greater scale, which did not happen till the first years -of the thirteenth century, but which was the result of -causes which had been going on ever since the -eleventh.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the House -of Anjou.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the course of the twelfth century a power -grew up within the bounds of the Western Kingdom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">{332}</a></span> -which in extent of territory threw the dominions of -the French King into insignificance. The two great -powers of northern and southern Gaul, Normandy and -Aquitaine, each carrying with it a crowd of smaller -states, were united in the hands of a single prince, and -that a prince who was also the king of a powerful -foreign kingdom. The Aquitanian duchy contained, -besides the county of <i>Poitou</i>, a number of fiefs, of -which the most important were those of <i>Perigueux</i>, -<i>Limoges</i>, the dauphiny of <i>Auvergne</i>, and the county of -<i>Marche</i> which gave kings to Jerusalem and Cyprus. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Aquitaine -and Gascony. -1052.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To these, in the eleventh century, the duchy of <i>Gascony</i>, -with its subordinate fiefs, was added, and the dominions -of the lord of Poitiers stretched to the Pyrenees. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests of -William of -Normandy. -Ponthieu. -1056.<br /> -Domfront. -1049.<br /> -Maine. -1063.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile -Duke William of Normandy, before his conquest -of England, had increased his continental dominions, -by acquiring the superiority of <i>Ponthieu</i> and the immediate -dominion, first of the small district of <i>Domfront</i> -and then of the whole of <i>Maine</i>. Maine was presently -lost by his successor, and passed in the end to the -house of Anjou. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Maine and -Anjou. -1110.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the union of several lines in -descent in the same person united England, Normandy, -Anjou, and Maine in the person of Henry the Second.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominions -of Henry -the Second.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>For a moment it seemed as if, instead of the -northern and southern powers being united in opposition -to the crown, one of them was to be itself -incorporated with the crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Momentary -union of -France and -Aquitaine. -1137.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The marriage of Lewis -the Seventh with Eleanor of Aquitaine united his -kingdom and her duchy. A king of Paris for the -first time reigned on the Garonne and at the foot -of the Pyrenees. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their -separation. -1152.<br /> -Union of -Aquitaine, -Normandy, -and Anjou. -1152-1154.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the divorce of Lewis and -Eleanor and her immediate re-marriage with the Duke -of Normandy and Count of Anjou again severed the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">{333}</a></span> -southern duchy from the kingdom, and united the -great powers of northern and southern Gaul. Then -their common lord won a crown beyond the sea and -became the first Angevin king of England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Britanny. -1169.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another -marriage brought Britanny, long the nominal fief of -Normandy, under the practical dominion of its Duke. -The House of Anjou thus suddenly rose to a dominion -on Gaulish soil equal to that of the French king and -his other vassals put together, a dominion which held -the mouths of the three great rivers, and which was -further strengthened by the possession of the English -kingdom. But a favourable moment soon came which -enabled the King to add to his own dominions the -greater part of the estates of his dangerous vassal. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Claims of -Arthur of -Britanny.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the death of Richard, first of England and fourth -of Normandy, Normandy and England passed to his -brother John, while in the other continental dominions -of the Angevin princes the claims of his nephew Arthur, -the heir of Britanny, were asserted. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Possible -effects of -his success.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The success of -Arthur would have given the geography of Gaul altogether -a new shape. The Angevin possessions on the -continent, instead of being held by a king of England, -would have been held by a Duke of Britanny, the -prince of a state which, though not geographically cut -off like England, was even more foreign to France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of -Normandy, -Anjou, &c. -1202-1205.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the fall of Arthur, Philip, by the help of a jurisprudence -devised for the purpose, was able to declare -all the fiefs which John held of the French crown to -be forfeited to that crown, a sentence which did not -apply to the fiefs of his mother Eleanor. In the -space of two years Philip was able to carry that -sentence into effect everywhere on the mainland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1258.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Continental Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">{334}</a></span> -were joined to the dominions of the French crown, and -by a later treaty they were formally surrendered by -John’s son Henry. Poitou went with them, and all -these lands may from this time be looked on as forming -part of France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -and effects -of the annexation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus far the process of annexation -was little more than the restoration of an earlier state -of things. For all these lands, except Poitou, had -formed part of the old French duchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Territories -kept by the -English -kings.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Kings of -England still kept the duchy of Aquitaine with Gascony. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Norman -Islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They kept also the insular Normandy, the Norman -islands which have ever since remained distinct states -attached to the English crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Aquitaine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Aquitaine was now no -longer part of the continental dominions of a prince -who was equally at home on both sides of the Channel. -It was now a remote dependency of the insular kingdom, -a dependency whose great cities clave to the -English connexion, while its geographical position and -the feelings of its feudal nobility tended to draw it -towards France.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sudden -greatness -of France.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The result of this great and sudden acquisition of -territory was to make the King of the French incomparably -greater on Gaulish ground than any of his -own vassals. France had now a large sea-board on -the Channel and a small sea-board on the Ocean. And -now another chain of events incorporated a large territory -with which the crown had hitherto stood in no -practical relation, and which gave the kingdom a third -sea-board on the Mediterranean.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fiefs of -Aragon in -Southern -Gaul.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>While north-western and south-western Gaul were -united in the hands of an insular king, the king of -a peninsular kingdom became only less powerful in -south-eastern Gaul. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Counts of -Toulouse.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hitherto the greatest princes in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">{335}</a></span> -this region had been the counts of <i>Toulouse</i>, who, -besides their fiefs of the French crown, had also possessions -in the Burgundian kingdom beyond the Rhone. -But during the latter part of the eleventh century and -the beginning of the twelfth, the Counts of <i>Barcelona</i>, -and the kings of Aragon who succeeded them, acquired -by various means a number of Tolosan fiefs, -both French and Imperial. <i>Carcassonne</i>, <i>Albi</i>, and -<i>Nîmes</i> were all under the lordship of the Aragonese -crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Albigensian -War. -1207-1229.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Albigensian war seemed at first likely -to lead to the establishment of the house of Montfort -as the chief power of Southern Gaul. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Simon of -Montfort at -Toulouse.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the -struggle ended in a vast increase of the power of the -French crown, at the expense alike of the house of -Toulouse and of the house of Aragon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlement -of Meaux.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dominions -of the Count of Toulouse were divided. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of Narbonne, -1229;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A number of -fiefs, <i>Beziers</i>, <i>Narbonne</i>, <i>Nîmes</i>, <i>Albi</i>, and some other -districts, were at once annexed to the crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Toulouse, -1270.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -capital itself and its county passed to the crown fifty -years later. By a settlement with Aragon, the domains -of the French king were increased, while the French -kingdom itself was nominally cut short. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Roussillon -and Barcelona -released -from -homage. -1258.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Two of the -Aragonese fiefs, the counties of <i>Roussillon</i> and <i>Barcelona</i>, -were relieved from even nominal homage. The -name of Toulouse, except as the name of the city -itself, now passed away, and the new acquisitions of -France came in the end to be known by the name of -the tongue which was common to them with Aquitaine -and Imperial Burgundy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Province of -Languedoc.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under the name of <i>Languedoc</i> -they became one of the greatest and most valuable -provinces of the French kingdom.</p> - -<p class="pb2">The great growth of the crown during the reign of -Saint Lewis was thus in the south; but he also extended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">{336}</a></span> -his borders nearer home. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Purchase of -Blois and -Chartres. -1234.<br /> -Escheat of -Perche. -1257.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -He won back part -of the old French duchy when he purchased the -superiority of <i>Blois</i> and <i>Chartres</i>, to which <i>Perche</i> was -afterwards added by escheat. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of -Macon, -1239.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Further off, he added -<i>Macon</i> to the crown, a possession which afterwards -passed away to the House of Burgundy.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Southern -advance of -the Crown.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Thus, during the reigns of Philip Augustus and his -grandson, the royal possessions had been enlarged by -the annexations of two of the chief vassal states, two of -the lay peerages, annexations which gave the French -King a sea-board on two seas and which brought him -into immediate connexion with the affairs of the Spanish -peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Marriage of -Philip the -Fair, 1284, -with the -heiress of -Champagne -and Navarre.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later in the thirteenth century, the -marriage of Philip the Fair with the heiress of <i>Champagne</i> -not only extinguished another peerage, but -made the French kings for awhile actually Spanish -sovereigns, and made France an immediate neighbour -of the German kingdom. The county of <i>Champagne</i> -had for two generations been united with the kingdom -of Navarre. These dominions were held in right of -their wives by three kings of France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separation -of Navarre. -1328.<br /> -Union of -Champagne, -1335; incorporation, -1361.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then Navarre, -though it passed to a French prince, was wholly -separated from France, while Champagne was incorporated -with the kingdom. This last annexation gave -France a considerable frontier towards Germany, and -especially brought the kingdom into the immediate -neighbourhood of the Lotharingian bishoprics. These -acquisitions, of Normandy and the states connected -with it, of Toulouse and the rest of Languedoc, and -now of Champagne, were the chief cases of incorporation -of vassal states with the royal domain up to -the middle of the fourteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Appanages.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The mere grants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">{337}</a></span> -and recoveries of appanages hardly concern geography. -We now turn to two great struggles which, in the -course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the -Kings of France had to wage with two of their chief -vassals who were also powerful foreign princes. In -both cases, events which seemed likely to bring about -the utter humiliation of France did in the end bring -to it a large increase of territory.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Hundred -Years’ -War with -England.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The former of these struggles was the great war -between England and France, called by French writers -the <i>Hundred Years’ War</i>. This war might be called -either a war for the annexation of France to England -or a war for the annexation of Aquitaine to France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Designs of -the French -kings on -Aquitaine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the peace between Henry the Third and Saint -Lewis, Aquitaine became a land held by the king -of England as a vassal of the French crown. From -that time it was one main object of the French kings -to change their feudal superiority over this great -duchy into an actual possession. This object had been -once obtained for a moment by the marriage of -Eleanor and Lewis the Seventh. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Momentary -occupation -by Philip -the Fair. -1294.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was again obtained -for a moment by the negotiations between Edward the -First and Philip the Fair. The Hundred Years’ war -began through the attempts of Philip of Valois on the -Aquitanian dominions of Edward the Third. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1337.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then -the King of England found it politic to assume the title -of King of France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1339.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the real nature of the controversy -was shown by the first great settlement. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peace of -Bretigny. -1360.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At -the Peace of <i>Bretigny</i> Edward gave up all claim -to the crown of France, in exchange for the independent -sovereignty of his old fiefs and of some of his recent -conquests. <i>Aquitaine</i> and <i>Gascony</i>, including <i>Poitou</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">{338}</a></span> -but not including <i>Auvergne</i>, together with the districts -on the Channel, <i>Calais</i> with <i>Guines</i> and the county of -<i>Ponthieu</i>, were made over to the King of England without -the reservation of any homage or superiority of any -kind. These lands became a territory as foreign to -the French kingdom as the territory of her German -and Spanish neighbours. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Renewal of -the war. -1370-1374.<br /> -Losses of -the English.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But in a few years the treaty -was broken on the French side, and the actual possessions -of England beyond the sea were cut down to -Calais and Guines, with some small parts of Aquitaine -adjoining the cities of Bourdeaux and Bayonne. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Henry -the Fifth.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then -the tide turned at the invasion of Henry the Fifth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Treaty of -Troyes. -1420.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Treaty of Troyes united the crowns of England and -France. <span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1431.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> Aquitaine and Normandy were won back; -Paris saw the crowning of an English king, and only -the central part of the country obeyed the heir of -the Parisian kingdom, no longer king of Paris but -only of Bourges. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Aquitaine. -1451-1453.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the final result of the war -was the driving out of the English from all Aquitaine -and France, except the single district of Calais. The -geographical aspect of the change is that Aquitaine, -which had been wholly cut off from the kingdom by -the Peace of Bretigny, was finally incorporated with -the kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final union -of Aquitaine -with -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The French conquest of Aquitaine, the -result of the Hundred Years’ War, was in form the -conquest of a land which had ceased to stand in any -relation to the French crown. Practically it was the -incorporation with the French crown of its greatest -fief, balanced by the loss of a small territory the value -of which was certainly out of all proportion to its geographical -extent. In its historical aspect the annexation -of Aquitaine was something yet more. The first foreshadowing -of the modern French kingdom was made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">{339}</a></span> -by the addition of Aquitaine to Neustria, of southern -to northern Gaul.<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Now, after so many strivings, -the two were united for ever. Aquitaine was merged -in France. The grant to Charles the Bald took effect -after six hundred years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of the -modern -Kingdom of -France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France, in the sense which -the word bears in modern use, may date its complete -existence from the addition of Bourdeaux to the -dominions of Charles the Seventh.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -the Dukes -of Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus, in the course of somewhat less than four -hundred years, the conquest of England by a vassal of -France, followed by the union of a crowd of other French -fiefs in the hands of a common sovereign of England -and Normandy, had led to the union with France of all -the continental possessions of the prince who thus -reigned on both sides of the sea. Meanwhile, on the -eastern side of the kingdom, the holder of a great French -fief swelled into an European power, the special rival of -his French overlord. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Escheat of -the duchy -of Burgundy. -1361.<br /> -Grant to -Philip the -Hardy. -1364.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The duchy of Burgundy, granted -to a branch of the royal house in the earliest days of -the Parisian kingdom, escheated to the crown in the -fourteenth century, and was again granted out to a son -of the reigning king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -the Valois -Dukes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A series of marriages, purchases, -conquests, transactions of every kind, gathered -together, in the hands of the Burgundian dukes, a -crowd of fiefs both of France and of the Empire.<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> -The duchy of <i>Burgundy</i> with the county of <i>Charolois</i>, -and the counties of <i>Flanders</i> and <i>Artois</i>, were joined -under a common ruler with endless Imperial fiefs -in the Low Countries and with the Imperial <i>County -of Burgundy</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance to -the Somme.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -More than this, under Philip the Good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">{340}</a></span> -and Charles the Bold, the Burgundian frontier was -more than once advanced to the Somme, and Amiens -was separated from the crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexations -at the -death of -Charles the -Bold. -1479.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The fall of Charles -the Bold laid his dominions open to French annexation -both on the Burgundian and on the Flemish -frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Momentary -annexation -of Artois -and the -County of -Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the first moments of his success, Lewis -the Eleventh possessed himself of a large part of the -Imperial as well as the French fiefs of the fallen Duke. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Treaty of -Arras. -1435.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But in the end Flanders and Artois remained French -fiefs held by the House of Burgundy, which also kept -the county of Burgundy and the isolated county of -Charolois. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Incorporation -of the -duchy of -Burgundy. -1479.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But France not only finally recovered the -towns on the Somme, but incorporated the Burgundian -duchy, one of the greatest fiefs of the crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>French advance -to -the east.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was the addition of a territory which the kings of -France had never before ruled, and it marks an important -stage in the advance of the French power -towards the Imperial lands on its eastern border. By -the marriage of Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian of -Austria, the remains of the Burgundian dominions -passed to the House of Austria, and thereby in the -end to Spain. The result was that a French king had -for a moment an Emperor for his vassal in his character -of Count of Flanders and Artois. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Flanders -and Artois -relieved -from -homage. -1525.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But by the treaty of -Madrid Flanders and Artois were relieved from all -homage to France, exactly as Aquitaine had been by -the Peace of Bretigny. They now became lands wholly -foreign to France, and, as foreign lands, large parts of -them were afterwards conquered by France, just as -Aquitaine was. But the history of their acquisition -belongs to the story of the advance of France at the -expense of the Empire.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>All the -great fiefs -annexed -except -Britanny.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus, by the end of the reign of Lewis the Eleventh,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">{341}</a></span> -all the fiefs of the French crown which could make -any claim to the character of separate sovereignties -had, with a single exception, been added to the dominions -of the crown. The one which had escaped was -that one which, more than any other, represented a -nationality altogether distinct from that of France. -<i>Britanny</i> still remained distinct under its own Dukes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1491-1499; -incorporated -1532.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The marriages of its Duchess Anne with two successive -French kings, Charles the Eighth and Lewis the -Twelfth, added Britanny to France, and so completed -the work. The whole of the Western Kingdom, -except those parts which had become foreign ground—that -is to say, insular Normandy and Calais, Barcelona, -Flanders, and Artois—was now united under the -kings of Paris. Their duchy of <i>France</i> had spread its -power and its name over the whole kingdom. We -have now to see how it also spread itself over lands -which had never formed part of that kingdom.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>Foreign Annexations of France.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Foreign -neighbours -of Karolingia.<br /> -Imperial -and -Spanish -neighbours.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>When the Western Kingdom finally parted off from -the body of the Empire, its only immediate neighbours -were the Imperial kingdoms to the east, and the Spanish -kingdoms to the south. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>England.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The union of Normandy and -England in some sort made England and France immediate -neighbours. And the long retention of Aquitaine -by England, the English possession of Calais for more -than two hundred years and of the insular Normandy -down to our own day, have all tended to keep them -so. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Small acquisitions -of France -from England -and -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the acquisitions of France from England, and -from Spain, in its character as Spain, have been comparatively -small. Indeed the separation of the Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">{342}</a></span> -March and the insular Normandy may be thought -to turn the balance the other way. From England -France has won Aquitaine and Calais, territories which -had once been under the homage of the French King. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>English -conquest of -Boulogne. -1544-1550. -<br /> -1663.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -So in the sixteenth century <i>Boulogne</i> was lost to -England and won back again; so in the seventeenth -century <i>Dunkirk</i>, which had become an English possession, -was made over to France. Since the final loss -of Aquitaine, the wars between England and France -have made most important changes in the English and -French possessions in distant parts of the world, but -they have had no effect on the geography of England, -and very little on that of France.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Boundary -of the -Pyrenees.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Nearly the same may be said of the geographical -relations between France and Spain. The long wars -between those countries have added to France a large -part of the outlying dominions of Spain; but they -have not greatly affected the boundaries of the two -countries themselves. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Roussillon, -its shiftings.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The only important exception -is the county of <i>Roussillon</i>, the land which Aragon -kept on the north side of the mountain range. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Finally -becomes -French. -1659.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -United -to France by Lewis the Eleventh, given back by -Charles the Eighth, it was finally annexed to France -by the Peace of the Pyrenees. Towards the other end -of the mountain frontier, a small portion of Spanish -territory has been annexed to France, perhaps quite -unconsciously. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Navarre -north of the -Pyrenees.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The old kingdom of <i>Navarre</i>, though -it lay chiefly south of the Pyrenees, contained a small -territory to the north. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -France and -Navarre. -1589.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The accidents of female succession -had given Navarre to more than one King of -France, and in the person of Henry the Fourth the -crown of France passed to a King of Navarre who -held only the part of his kingdom north of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">{343}</a></span> -Pyrenees. This little piece of Spain within the borders -of Gaul was thus united with France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Protectorate -of -Andorra.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the other -hand, the Kings of France, as successors of the Counts -of Foix, and the other rulers of France after them, -have held, not any dominion but certain rights as -advocates or protectors, over the small commonwealth -of <i>Andorra</i> on the Spanish side of the mountains.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance at -the expense -of the -Imperial -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Of far greater importance is the steady acquisition -of territory by France at the expense of the Imperial -kingdoms, and of the modern states by which those -kingdoms are represented. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Burgundy.<br /> -1310-1860.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the case of Burgundy, -French annexation has taken the form of a gradual -swallowing up of nearly the whole kingdom, a process -which has been spread over more than five hundred -years, from the annexation of Lyons by Philip the Fair -to the last annexation of Savoy in our own day. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexations -from -Germany. -1552-1811.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -advance at the expense of the German kingdom did -not begin till the greater part of the Burgundian -kingdom was already swallowed up. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Late beginning -of -annexations -from -Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The north-eastern -frontier of the Western Kingdom changed but -little from the accession of the Parisian house in the -tenth century till the growth of the Dukes of Burgundy -in the fifteenth. After Lotharingia finally -became a part of the Eastern Kingdom, there was no -doubt that the homage of Flanders was due to France, -no doubt that the homage of the states which had -formed the Lower Lotharingia was due to the Empire. -The frontier towards the Upper Lotharingia and the -Burgundian county also remained untouched. The -Saône remained a boundary stream long after the -Rhone had ceased to be one. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of -the Burgundian -acquisitions -of France;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was on this latter -river that the great Burgundian annexations of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">{344}</a></span> -France began, annexations which gave France a wholly -new European position.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of the -Dauphiny;<br /> -of Provence.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The acquisition of the Dauphiny -of Viennois made France the immediate neighbour -of Italy; the acquisition of Provence at once strengthened -this last position and more than doubled her -Mediterranean coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -with the -Swiss.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Add to this that, though France -and the Confederate territory did not yet actually touch, -yet the Burgundian wars and many other events in the -latter half of the fifteenth century enabled France to -establish a close connexion with the power which -had grown up north of Lake Leman. France had -thus become a great Mediterranean and Alpine power, -ready to threaten Italy in the next generation. Later -acquisitions within the old border of the Burgundian -kingdom had a somewhat different character. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexations -at the -expense of -Savoy;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Annexations -at the expense of Savoy, even when geographically -Burgundian, were annexations at the cost -of a power which was beginning to be Italian rather -than Burgundian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of the -County of -Burgundy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The annexation of the County of -Burgundy goes rather with the Alsatian annexations. -It was territory won at the cost of the Empire and of -the House of Austria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Middle character -of -the Burgundian -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the lands between the -Rhone, the Alps, and the sea, still kept, negatively at -least, their middle character. They were lands which -at least were neither German, French, nor Italian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>They -become -French.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The events of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries -ruled that this intermediate region should become -French. And none of the acquisitions of France ever -helped more towards the real growth of her power.</p> - -<p class="pb2">It was while the later stages of this process were -going on that the French kings added to their dominions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">{345}</a></span> -the Aquitanian lands on one side and the Burgundian -duchy on the other. The acquisition of -Aquitaine has, besides its other characters, a third -aspect which closely connects it with the annexations -between the Rhone and the Alps. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of -French annexations -on the -<i>Langue -d’oc</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The strife between -Northern and Southern Gaul, between the tongue -of <i>oil</i> and the tongue of <i>oc</i>, now came to an end. -Had the chief power in Gaul settled somewhere in -Burgundy or Aquitaine, the tongue of <i>oil</i> might now -pass for a <i>patois</i> of the tongue of <i>oc</i>. Had French -dominion in Italy begun as soon and lasted as permanently -as French dominion in Burgundy and -Aquitaine, the tongue of <i>si</i>, as well as the tongue of <i>oc</i>, -might now pass for a <i>patois</i> of the tongue of <i>oil</i>. But -now it was settled that French, not Provençal, was to -be the ruling speech of Gaul. The lands of the -Southern speech which escaped were almost wholly -portions of the dominions of other powers. There -was no longer any separate state wholly of that -speech, except the little principality of Orange. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extinction -of the Provençal -speech and -nation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -work which the French kings had now ended amounted -to little short of the extinction of an European nation. -A tongue, once of at least equal dignity with the tongue -of Paris and Tours, has sunk from the rank of a -national language to the rank of a provincial dialect.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Italian -conquests -of France.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The next great conquests of France were made on -Italian soil, but they are conquests which do not greatly -concern geography. This distinguishes the relations -of France towards Italy from her relations towards -Burgundy. France has constantly interfered in Italian -affairs; she has at various times held large Italian -territories, and brought all Italy under French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">{346}</a></span> -influence. But France has never permanently kept any -large amount of Italian territory. The French possession -of Naples and Milan was only temporary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Not strictly -extensions -of France.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, -if it had been lasting, the possession of these isolated -territories by the French king could hardly have been -looked on as an extension of the actual French -frontier. Those lands could never have been incorporated -with France in the same way in which other -French conquests had been. Their retention would -in truth have given the later history of France quite -a different character, a character more like that which -actually belonged to Spain. The long occupation of -Savoyard territory on both sides of the Alps<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> would, if -it had lasted, have been a real extension of the French -kingdom. But down to our own day, while the lands -won by France from the Burgundian kingdom form a -large proportion of the whole French territory, French -acquisitions from Italy hardly go beyond the island -of Corsica and the insignificant district of <i>Mentone</i>.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexations -at the -expense of -Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The great annexations of France at the expense of -the German kingdom and the lands more closely connected -with it begin in the middle of the sixteenth -century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of -Metz, Toul, -and Verdun. -1552.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first great advance was the practical -annexation of the three Lotharingian bishoprics, though -their separation from the Empire was not formally -acknowledged till the Peace of Westfalia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of -isolated -conquests.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This kind -of conquest can hardly fail to lead to other conquests. -France now held certain patches of territory -which lay detached from one another and from the -main body of the kingdom. Yet the rounding off -of the frontier was not the next step taken in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">{347}</a></span> -direction. The cause was most likely the close connexion -which for somewhile existed between the ruling -houses of France and Lorraine.</p> - -<p>Before the next French advance on German ground, -the frontier had been extended in other directions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of Calais, -1558;<br /> -of Boulogne, -1550.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Almost at the same time as the acquisition of the Three -Bishoprics, <i>Calais</i> was won back from England—the -short English possession of <i>Boulogne</i> had already come -to an end. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Surrender -of Saluzzo -and annexation -of -Bresse, -Bugey, and -Gex.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first year of the sixteenth century -saw the surrender of <i>Saluzzo</i>, in exchange for <i>Bresse</i>, -<i>Bugey</i>, and <i>Gex</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Occupation -of Pinerolo. -1630-1696.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thirty years later came the renewed -occupation of Italian territory at <i>Pinerolo</i> and other -points in Piedmont, which lasted till nearly the end of -the seventeenth century.</p> - -<p>The next great advance was the work of the Thirty -Years’ War and of the war with Spain which went on -for eleven years longer. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Bishoprics -surrendered -by the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Now came the legal cession -of the Bishoprics and the further acquisition of the -Alsatian dominions and rights of the House of Austria. -The irregularities of the frontier, and the temptation -to round off its angles, were increased tenfold. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>French acquisitions -in Elsass. -1648.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France -received another and larger isolated territory lying to -the east both of her earlier conquests and of the independent -lands which surrounded them. A part of -her dominion, itself sprinkled with isolated towns and -districts which did not belong to her dominion, stretched -out without any connexion into the middle of the -Empire. The Duchy of Lorraine, dotted over by the -French lands of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, lay between -the old French land of Champagne and the new French -land of <i>Elsass</i> or <i>Alsace</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Breisach.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And while France was allowed, -by the possession of <i>Breisach</i>, to establish herself at one -point on the right bank of the Rhine, her new territory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">{348}</a></span> -on the left bank was broken up by the continued independence -of <i>Strassburg</i> and the other Alsatian towns -and districts which were still left to the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>France -reaches the -Rhine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such -a frontier could hardly be lasting; now that France -had reached and even crossed the Rhine, the annexation -of the outlying Imperial lands to the west of that river -was sure to follow.</p> - -<p>But, even after this further advance into the heart -of Germany, the gap was not filled up at the next -stage of annexation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of Bar. -1659.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the Peace of the Pyrenees, -France obtained the scattered lands of the duchy of -Bar, which made the greater part of the Three -Bishoprics continuous with her older possessions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bar restored. -1661.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -Bar was presently restored, and, though Lorraine was -constantly occupied by French armies, it was not incorporated -with France for another century. Up to -this last change the Three Bishoprics still remained -isolated French possessions surrounded by lands of -the Empire. But France advanced at the expense of -the outlying possessions of Spain, lands only nominally -Imperial, as well as of the Spanish lands on her own -southern frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of -Roussillon. -1659.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the Peace of the Pyrenees -<i>Roussillon</i> finally became French. No Spanish kingdom -any longer stretched north of the great natural -barrier of the peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -in the -Netherlands. -1659.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The same Treaty gave -France her first acquisitions in <i>Flanders</i> and <i>Artois</i> -since they had become wholly foreign ground, as well -as her first acquisitions from <i>Hainault</i>, <i>Liége</i>, and -<i>Luxemburg</i>, lands which had never owed her homage. -Here again the frontier was of the same kind as the -frontier towards Germany. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Isolated -points held -by each -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Isolated points like <i>Philippeville</i> -and <i>Marienburg</i> were held by France within -Spanish or Imperial territory, and isolated points like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">{349}</a></span> -<i>Aire</i> and <i>St. Omer</i> were still held by Spain in what -had now become French territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Further annexations. -1668.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The furthest -French advance that was recognized by any treaty -was made by the earlier Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, -when, amongst other places, <i>Douay</i>, <i>Tournay</i>, <i>Lille</i>, -<i>Oudenarde</i>, and <i>Courtray</i> became French. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes at -the Peace of -Nimwegen. -1678.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the -Peace of Nimwegen the frontier again fell back in -eastern Flanders, and Courtray and Oudenarde were -restored. But in the districts more to the south -France again advanced, gaining the outlying Spanish -towns in Artois, <i>Cambray</i> and its district, and <i>Valenciennes</i> -in Hainault. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1697.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Peace of Ryswick left the -frontier as it had been fixed by the Peace of Nimwegen. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Treaty of -Utrecht -and Barrier -Treaty. -1713-1715.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Finally, the Treaty of Utrecht and the Barrier Treaty -left France in possession of a considerable part of -Flanders, and of much land which had been Imperial. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Barrier -Towns.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Netherlands, formerly Spanish and now Austrian, -kept a frontier protected by the barrier towns of <i>Furnes</i>, -<i>Ypres</i>, <i>Menin</i>, <i>Tournai</i>, <i>Mons</i>, <i>Charleroi</i>, <i>Namur</i>. The -French frontier on the other side had its series of -barrier towns stretching from <i>St. Omer</i> to <i>Charlemont</i> -on the Maes. The arrangements now made have, -with very slight changes, lasted ever since, except -during the French annexation of the whole of the -Netherlands during the revolutionary wars.</p> - -<p>The reign of Lewis the Fourteenth was also a time -of at least equal advance on the part of France on -her more strictly German frontier. The time was now -come for serious attempts to consolidate the scattered -possessions of France between Champagne and the -Rhine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Franche -Comté -conquered. -1668.<br /> -Conquered -again. -1674.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Franche Comté</i>, as the county of Burgundy was -now more commonly called, with the city of <i>Besançon</i>, -was twice seized by Lewis, and the second seizure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">{350}</a></span> -was confirmed by the peace of Nimwegen. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Freiburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By that -peace also France kept <i>Freiburg-im-Breisgau</i> on the -right bank of the Rhine. A number of small places -in Elsass were annexed after the peace of Nimwegen -by the process known as <i>Reunion</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Seizure of -Strassburg -1681.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last in -1681 <i>Strassburg</i> itself was seized in time of peace, -and its possession was finally secured to France by -the peace of Ryswick. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Restoration -of Freiburg -and Breisach.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Freiburg and Breisach -were restored, and Lorraine, held by France, though -not formally ceded, was given back to its own -Duke. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peace of -Rastadt. -1714.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The arrangements of Ryswick were again -confirmed by the peace of Rastadt. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of -Orange. -1714.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the same -year the principality of <i>Orange</i> was annexed to -France, leaving the Papal possessions of Avignon -and Venaissin surrounded by French territory, the -last relic of the Burgundian realm between the Rhone -and the Alps. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -the reign of -Lewis the -Fourteenth.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France had thus obtained a good -physical boundary towards Spain and Italy, and a -boundary clearly marked on the map towards the -now Austrian Netherlands. Her eastern frontier was -still broken in upon by the duchy of Lorraine, by -the districts in Elsass which had still escaped, by -the county of <i>Montbeliard</i>, and by the detached territories -of the commonwealth of <i>Geneva</i>. But France -could now in a certain part of her territory call -the Rhine her frontier. It was an easy inference that -the Rhine ought to be her frontier through the whole -of its course.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The next reign, that of Lewis the Fifteenth, -in a manner completed the work of Henry the -Second and Lewis the Fourteenth. The gap which -had so long yawned between Champagne and Elsass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">{351}</a></span> -was now filled up. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Arrangements -as to -Lorraine. -1735.<br /> -Its incorporation. -1766.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France obtained a reversionary -right to the duchy of Lorraine, which was incorporated -thirty-one years later. The lands of Metz, Toul, and -Verdun were no longer isolated. Elsass, which, by the -acquisition of Franche Comté, had ceased to be insular, -now ceased to be even peninsular. Leaving out of -sight a few spots of Imperial soil which were now -wholly surrounded by France, the French territory -now stretched as a solid and unbroken mass from the -Ocean to the Rhine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Thorough -incorporation -of -French -Conquests.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And it must be remembered that -all the lands which the monarchy of Paris had gradually -brought under its power were in the strictest -sense incorporated with the kingdom. There were -no dependencies, no separate kingdoms or duchies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of -geographical -continuity.<br /> -Contrast -with Spain -and Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The geographical continuity of the French territory -enabled France really to incorporate her conquests -in a way in which Spain and Austria never could. -And the process was further helped by the fact that -each annexation by itself was small compared with the -general bulk of the French monarchy. Except in the -case of the fragment of Navarre which was held by its -Bourbon king, France never annexed a kingdom or -made any permanent addition to the royal style of her -kings.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Purchase of -Corsica. -1768.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The same reign saw another acquisition altogether -unlike the rest in the form of the Italian island -of <i>Corsica</i>. In itself the incorporation of this island -with the French kingdom seems as unnatural as -the Spanish or Austrian dominion in Sicily or Sardinia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its effects.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the result has been different. Corsica has -been far more thoroughly incorporated with France -than such outlying possessions commonly are. The -truth is that the strong continuity of the continental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">{352}</a></span> -dominions of France made the incorporation of the -island easier. There were no traditions or precedents -which could suggest the holding of it as a dependency -or as a separate state in any form. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Birth of -Buonaparte. -1769.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Corsica again was -more easily attached to France, because the man who -did most to extend the dominion of France was a -Frenchman only so far as Corsicans had become Frenchmen. -Corsica has thus become French in a sense in -which Sardinia and Sicily never became Spanish, partly -because France had no other possession of the kind, -partly because Napoleon Buonaparte was born at -Ajaccio.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>The Colonial Dominion of France.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Early -French colonization.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>France, like all the European powers which have -an oceanic coast, entered early on the field of colonization -and distant dominion. At one time indeed it -seemed as if France was destined to become the chief -European power both in India and in North America. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>French -colonies in -North -America. -1506.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -French attempts at colonization in the latter country -began early in the sixteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1540.<br /> -1603.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus <i>Cape -Breton</i> at the mouth of the Saint Lawrence was -reached early in the sixteenth century, the colonization -of <i>Canada</i> began a generation later, and French dominion -in America was confirmed by the foundation of -<i>Quebec</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acadia -ceded to -England. -1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The peninsula of <i>Acadie</i> or <i>Nova Scotia</i> was -from this time a subject of dispute between France and -Great Britain, till it was finally surrendered by France -at the Peace of Utrecht. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Canada and -Louisiana.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France now, under the -names of <i>Canada</i> and <i>Louisiana</i>, or of <i>New France</i>, -held or claimed a vast inland region stretching from -the mouth of the Saint Lawrence to the mouth of the -Mississippi, while the eastern coast was colonized by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">{353}</a></span> -other powers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonization -at the -mouth of -the Mississippi. -1699.<br /> -Foundation -of New -Orleans. -1717.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the end of the seventeenth century -the first colonization began at the mouth of the -Mississippi; and the city of New Orleans was founded -eighteen years later. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivalry -of English -and French -settlements.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France and England thus became -distinctly rival powers in America as well as in -Europe. The English settlers were pressing westward -from the coast to the Ocean. The French strove to -fix the Alleghany range as the eastern boundary of -English advance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Share of the -Colonies in -European -Wars.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In every European war between -the two powers the American colonies played an important -part. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>English -conquest of -Canada. -1759.<br /> -1763.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Canada was wrested from France; and -by the Treaty of Paris all the French possessions north -of the present United States were finally surrendered -to England, except a few small islands kept for fishing -purposes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Mississippi -boundary.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Mississippi was now made the boundary -of Louisiana, leaving nothing to France on its left -bank except the city of New Orleans. These cessions -ruled for ever that men of English blood, whether -remaining subjects of the mother-country or forming -independent states, should be the dominant power in -the North American continent.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The West -India islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Among the West India islands, France in the seventeenth -century colonized several of the <i>Antilles</i>, some -of which were afterwards lost to England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>St. Domingo. -1697.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later -in the century she acquired part of the great island -called variously <i>Hispaniola</i>, <i>Saint Domingo</i>, and <i>Hayti</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>French -Guiana. -1624.<br /> -Cayenne. -1635.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the coast of South America lay the French settlements -in <i>Guiana</i>, with <i>Cayenne</i> as their capital. This -colony grew into more importance after the war of -Canada.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The French -in India.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Nearly the same course of things took place in the -eastern world as in the western. In India neither -English nor French colonized in any strict sense. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">{354}</a></span> -commercial settlements grew into dominion, or what -seemed likely to become dominion: and in India, as -in America, the temporary greatness of France came -before the more lasting greatness of England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1664.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -French East India Company began later than the English; -but its steps towards dominion were for a long time -faster. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bourbon. -1657.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before this the French had occupied the <i>Isle -of Bourbon</i>, an important point on the road to India. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Factory -at Surat. -1668.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first French factory on the mainland was at Surat. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pondicherry. -1672.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the later years of the century various attempts -at settlement were made; but no important or lasting -acquisition was made, except that of <i>Pondicherry</i>. This -has ever since remained a French possession, often lost -in the course of warfare, but always restored at the next -peace. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Chandernagore. -1676.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A little later France obtained <i>Chandernagore</i> -in Bengal. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Isle of -France. -1720.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the next century the island of <i>Mauritius</i>, -abandoned by the Dutch, became a French colony -under the name of the <i>Isle of France</i>. Under Labourdonnais -and Dupleix France gained for a moment -a real Indian dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Taking of -Madras. -1746.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Madras was taken, and a large -dominion was obtained on the eastern coast of India in -the Carnatic and the Circars. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Restored. -1748.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But all hope of French -supremacy in India came to an end in the later years -of the Seven Years’ War. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -the Peace -of Paris. -1763.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -France was confined to a few -points which have not seriously threatened the eastern -dominion of England.</p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>Acquisitions of France during the Revolutionary Wars.</i></h3> - -<p>Thus the French monarchy grew from the original -Parisian duchy into a kingdom which spread north, -south, east, and west, taking in all the fiefs of the West-Frankish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">{355}</a></span> -kings, together with much which had belonged -to the other kingdoms of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisitions -in the -Revolutionary -Wars.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With -the great French revolution began a series of acquisitions -of territory on the part of France which are altogether -unparalleled. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Different -classes of -annexations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First of all, there were those -small annexations of territory surrounded or nearly so -by French territory, whose annexation was necessary -if French territory was to be continuous. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Avignon.<br /> -Mülhausen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such were -Avignon, Venaissin, the county of <i>Montbeliard</i>, the few -points in Elsass which had escaped the reunions, with -the Confederate city of <i>Mülhausen</i>. Avignon and Venaissin, -and the surviving Alsatian fragments, were annexed -to France before the time of warfare and conquest -had begun. Mülhausen, as Confederate ground, was -respected as long as Confederate ground was respected. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1796.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Montbeliard had been annexed already. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geneva and -<i>Bischofbasel</i>. -1801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And with -these we might be inclined to place the annexations of -Geneva and of the <i>Bishopric of Basel</i>, lands which lay -hardly less temptingly when the work of annexation had -once begun. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -zone;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And beyond these roundings off of the -home estate lay a zone of territory which might easily -be looked upon as being French soil wrongfully lost. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>traditions -of Gaul and -the Rhine -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -When the Western <i>Francia</i> had made such great strides -towards the dimensions of the Gaul of Cæsar, the inference -was easily made that it ought to take in all that -Gaul had once taken in. The conquest and incorporation -of the Austrian Netherlands, of all Germany on -the left bank of the Rhine, of Savoy and Nizza, thus -became a matter of course. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Buonaparte’s -feeling -towards -Switzerland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That the Gaul of Cæsar -was not fully completed by the complete incorporation -of Switzerland, seems to have been owing to a personal -tenderness for the Confederation on the part of -Napoleon Buonaparte, who never incorporated with his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">{356}</a></span> -dominions any part of the territory of the Thirteen -Cantons. Otherwise, France under the Consulate might -pass for a revival of the Transalpine Gaul of Roman -geography. And there were other lands beyond the -borders of Transalpine Gaul, which had formed part -of Gaul in the earlier sense of the name, and whose -annexation, when annexation had once begun, was -hardly less wonderful than that of the lands within the -Rhine and the Alps. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Piedmont, -&c.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The incorporation of Piedmont -and Genoa was not wonderful after the incorporation of -Savoy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Distinction -between -conquests -under the -Republic -and under -the ‘Empire.’<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In short, the annexations of republican France -are at least intelligible. They have a meaning; we -can follow their purpose and object. They stand -distinct from the wild schemes of universal conquest -which mark the period of the ‘Empire.’</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Example of -Corsica.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Still the example of such schemes was given during -the days of the old monarchy. There was nothing to -suggest a French annexation of Corsica, any more than -a French annexation of Cerigo. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of Buonaparte’s -conquests.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Both were works of -exactly the kind, works quite different from incorporating -isolated scraps of Elsass or of the old Burgundy, -from rounding off the frontier by Montbeliard, or even -from advancing to the left bank of the Rhine. The -shiftings of the map which took place during the ten -years of the first French Empire, the divisions and the -unions, the different relations of the conquered states, -seem like several centuries of the onward march of -the old Roman commonwealth crowded into a single -day. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dependent -and incorporated -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In both cases we mark the distinction between -lands which are merely dependent and lands which are -fully incorporated. And in both cases the dependent -relation is commonly a step towards full incorporation. -All past history and tradition, all national feelings, all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">{357}</a></span> -distinctions of race and language, were despised in -building up the vast fabric of French dominion. Such -a power was sure to break in pieces, even without -any foreign attack, before its parts could possibly have -been fused together. As it was, Buonaparte never -professed to incorporate either Spain or the whole of -Italy and Germany with his Empire. He was satisfied -with leaving large parts either in the formally -dependent relation, in the hands of puppet princes, -or even in the hands of powers which he deemed -too much weakened for further resistance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Buonaparte’s -treatment -of Germany;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A large -part of Germany was incorporated with France, another -large part was under French protection or dependence, -but a large part still remained in the hands of the -native princes of Austria and Prussia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Much of Italy -was incorporated, and the rest was held, partly by -the conqueror himself under another title, partly by -a prince of his own house. This last was the case with -Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division of -Europe between -France and -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Till the final breach with Russia, the idea of -Buonaparte’s dominion seems to have been that of -a twofold division of Europe between Russia and himself, -a kind of revival on a vaster scale of the Eastern -and Western Empires. The western potentate was -careful to keep everywhere a dominant influence within -his own world; but whether the territory should be -incorporated, made dependent, or granted out to his -kinsfolk and favourites, depended in each case on the -conqueror’s will.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Europe in -1811.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>A glance at the map of Europe, as it stood at the -beginning of 1811, will show how nearly this scheme -was carried out. The kernel of the French Empire -was France as it stood at the beginning of the Revolution, -together with those conquests of the Republic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">{358}</a></span> -which gave it the Rhine frontier from Basel to Nimwegen. -Beyond these limits the former United Provinces, -with the whole oceanic coast of Germany as -far as the Elbe, and the cities of Bremen, Hamburg, -and Lübeck, were incorporated with France. France -now stretched to the Baltic, and, as Holstein was now -incorporated with Denmark, France and Denmark had -a common frontier. The Confederation of the Rhine -was a protected state, and the Kingdom of Prussia and -the self-styled ‘Empire’ of Austria could practically -hardly claim a higher place. Of the former Austrian -possessions, those parts which had passed to Bavaria -and to the kingdom of Italy formally stood in the dependent -relation, and the so-called Illyrian provinces -were actually incorporated with France. So were the -Ionian islands yet further on. In Italy, the whole -western side of the ancient kingdom, with Rome itself, -was incorporated with France. North-eastern Italy -formed a separate kingdom held by the ruler of -France. Naples, like Spain, was a dependent kingdom. -In northern Europe, Denmark and Sweden, like Prussia -and Austria, could practically claim no higher place. -And the new duchy of Warsaw and the new republic -of Danzig carried French influence beyond the ancient -borders of Germany.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Arrangements -of -1814-1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Such was the extent of the French dominion when -the power of Buonaparte was at its highest. At his fall -all the great and distant conquests were given up. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The first -class of annexations -retained by -France, -the rest -restored.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -those annexations which were necessary for the completion -of France as she then stood were respected. -The new Germanic body took back Köln, Trier, and -Mainz, Worms and Speyer, but not Montbeliard or -any part of Elsass. The new Swiss body received the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">{359}</a></span> -Bishopric of Basel, Neufchâtel, Geneva, and Wallis. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Boundary -of Savoy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Savoy and Nizza went back to their own prince. But -here a different frontier was drawn after the first and -the second fall of Buonaparte. The earlier arrangement -left Chambéry to France. The Pope again received -Rome and his Italian dominions, but not his outlying -Burgundian city of Avignon and county of Venaissin. -The frontier of the new kingdom of the Netherlands, -though traced at slightly different points by the two -arrangements, differed in either case but little from the -frontier of the Barrier Treaty. In short the France of the -restored Bourbons was the France of the old Bourbons, -enlarged by those small isolated scraps of foreign soil -which were needed to make it continuous.</p> - -<p>The geographical results of the rule of the second -Buonaparte consist of the completion of the work which -began under Philip the Fair, balanced by the utter undoing -of the work of Richelieu, the partial undoing of -the work of Henry the Second and Lewis the Fourteenth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of -Savoy and -Nizza. 1860.<br /> -Loss of -Elsass and -Lorraine. -1871.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Savoy</i>, <i>Nizza</i>, and <i>Mentone</i> were added; -but -Germany recovered nearly all <i>Elsass</i> and a part of -<i>Lorraine</i>. The Rhine now neither crosses nor waters -a single rood of French ground. As it was in the first -beginnings of Northern European history, so it is now; -Germany lies on both sides of the German river.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The time of the greatest power of France in Europe -was by no means equally favourable to her advance in -other parts of the world. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Independence -of -Hayti, 1801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The greatest West India colony -of France, Saint Domingo, now known as <i>Hayti</i>, -became an independent negro state whose chiefs imitated -home example by taking the title of Emperor. -About the same time the last remnant of French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">{360}</a></span> -dominion on the North American continent was voluntarily -given up. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Louisiana -ceded to -Spain, -1763; -recovered, -1800; -sold to -United -States, -1803.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Louisiana, ceded to Spain by the -Peace of Paris and recovered under the Consulate, -was sold to the United States. All the smaller French -West India islands were conquered by England; but -all were restored at the peace, except <i>Tobago</i> and <i>Saint -Lucia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mauritius -kept by -England.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The isles of <i>Bourbon</i> and <i>Mauritius</i> were also -taken by England, and <i>Bourbon</i> alone was restored at -the Peace. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pondicherry -lost -and restored.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In India <i>Pondicherry</i> was twice taken and -twice restored.</p> - -<p>But since France was thus wholly beaten back -from her great schemes of dominion in distant parts -of the world, she has led the way in a kind of conquest -and colonization which has no exact parallel in -modern times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>French conquest -of -Algeria, -1830;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the French occupation of <i>Algeria</i> we -see something different alike from political conquests -in Europe and from isolated conquests in distant parts -of the world. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Constantine, -1837.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is conquest, not actually in Europe, -but in a land on the shores of the great European sea, -in a land which formed part of the Empire of Constantine, -Justinian, and Heraclius. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of African -conquests.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is the winning -back from Islam of a land which once was part of -Latin-speaking Christendom, a conquest which, except -in the necessary points of difference between continental -and insular conquests, may be best paralleled with the -Norman Conquest of Sicily. Sicily could be wholly -recovered for Europe and Christendom; but the French -settlement in Algeria can never be more than a mere -fringe of Europe and its civilization on the edge of -barbaric Africa. It is strictly the first colony of the -kind. Portugal, Spain, England, had occupied this or -that point on the northern coast of Africa; France was -the first European power to spread her dominion over a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">{361}</a></span> -long range of the southern Mediterranean shore, a land -which in some sort answers alike to India and to Australia, -but lying within two days’ sail of her own coast.</p> - - -<p class="p2">We have thus finished our survey of the states -which were formed out of the break-up of the later -Western Empire. The rest of Western Europe must -be postponed, as neither the Spanish, the British, nor -the Scandinavian kingdoms rose out of the break-up -of the Empire of Charles the Great. In our next -Chapter we must trace the historical geography of the -states which arose out of the gradual dismemberment -of the dominion of the Eastern Rome, a survey which -will lead us to the most stirring events and to the latest -geographical changes of our own day.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">{362}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE EASTERN EMPIRE.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Contrast -between the -Eastern and -Western -Empires.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> geographical, like the political, history of the -Eastern Empire is wholly unlike that of the Western. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Western -Empire fell -to pieces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Western Empire, in the strictest sense, fell asunder. -Some of its parts fell away formally, others practically. -The tie that held the rest snapped at the first touch of -a vigorous invader. But that invader was an European -power whose territories had once formed part of the -Empire itself. From the invasions of nations beyond -the European pale the Western Empire, as such, suffered -but little. The Western Empire again, long -before its fall, had become, so far as it was a power -at all, a national power, the <i>Roman Empire of the -German nation</i>. Its fall was the half voluntary parting -asunder of a nation as well as of an Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position -of the -Western -Emperors;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Western Emperors again had, as Emperors, practically -ceased to be territorial princes. No lands of any account -directly obeyed the Emperor, as such, as their -immediate sovereign. When the Empire fell, the -Emperor withdrew to his hereditary states, taking the -Imperial title with him. In the Eastern Empire all is -different. It did to some extent fall asunder from -within, but its overthrow was mainly owing to its being -broken in pieces from without. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of the -Eastern.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, throughout its -history, the Emperor remained the immediate sovereign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">{363}</a></span> -of all that still clave to the Empire, and, when the -Empire fell, the Emperor fell with it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Eastern -Empire fell -mainly -through -foreign -invasion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The overthrow -of the Empire was mainly owing to foreign invasion -in the strictest sense. It was weakened and dismembered -by the Christian powers of Europe, and at last -swallowed up by the barbarians of Asia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tendencies -to separation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the same -time the tendency to break in pieces after the Western -fashion did exist and must always be borne in mind. -But it existed only in particular parts and under special -conditions. It is found mainly in possessions of the -Empire which had become isolated, in lands which had -been lost and won again, and in lands which came -under the influence of Western ideas. The importance -of these tendencies is shown by the fact that three -powers which had been cut off in various ways from -the body of the Empire, Bulgaria, Venice, and Sicily, -became three of its most dangerous enemies. But the -actual destruction of the Empire came from those barbarian -attacks from which the West suffered but little.</p> - -<p>Speaking generally then, the Western Empire fell -asunder from within; the Eastern Empire was broken in -pieces from without. Of the many causes of this difference, -perhaps only one concerns geography. At -the time of the separation of the Empires, the Western -Empire was really only another name for the dominions -of the King of the Franks, whether within or without -the elder Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Closer connexion -of -the East -with -Roman -political -traditions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Eastern Empire, on the other -hand, kept the political tradition of the elder Empire -unbroken. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Disuse of -the Roman -name in -the West.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -No common geographical or national name -took in the three Imperial kingdoms of the West and -their inhabitants. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its retention -in the -East.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But all the inhabitants of the Eastern -Empire, down to the end, knew themselves by no -national name but that of <i>Romans</i>, and the land gradually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">{364}</a></span> -received the geographical name of <i>Romania</i>. But -the Western Empire was not <i>Romania</i>, nor were its -people <i>Romans</i>. The only <i>Romania</i> in the West, the -Italian land so called, took its name from its long -adhesion to the Eastern Empire.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Importance -of distinctions -of -race in the -East.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the East again differences of race are far more -important than they ever were in the West. In the -West nations have been formed by a certain commingling -of elements; in the East the elements remain -apart. All the nations of the south-eastern peninsula, -whether older than the Roman conquest or settlers of -later times, are there still as distinct nations.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -original -nations.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>First among them come three nations whose settlement -in the peninsula is older than the Roman conquest. -One of these has kept its name and its language. -One has kept its language, but has taken up -its name afresh only in modern times. The third has -for ages lost both its name and its language. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Albanians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The most -unchanged people in the peninsula must be the <i>Albanians</i>, -called by themselves <i>Skipetar</i>, the representatives -of the old Illyrians. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greeks.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Next come the Greeks, who -keep their language, but whose name of <i>Hellênes</i> went out -of ordinary use till its revival in modern times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Vlachs.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly -there are the <i>Vlachs</i>, representing those inhabitants of -Thrace, Mœsia, and other parts of the peninsula, who, like -the Western nations, exchanged their own speech for -Latin. They must mainly represent the Thracian race in -its widest sense. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -Roman -name.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Both Greeks and Vlachs kept on the -Roman name in different forms, and the Vlachs, the -<i>Roumans</i> of our own day, keep it still. Of the invading -races, the Goths passed through the Empire without -making any lasting settlements in it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slavonic -settlers.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last Aryan -settlers, setting aside mere colonists in later times, were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">{365}</a></span> -the <i>Slaves</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Turanian -settlers.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then came the Turanian settlers, Finnish, -Turkish, or any other. Of these the first wave, the <i>Bulgarians</i>, -were presently assimilated by the Slaves, and -the Bulgarian power must be looked at historically as -Slavonic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Turanian -neighbours.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then come Avars, Chazars, Magyars, Patzinaks, -Cumans, all settling on or near the borders -of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Magyars.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of these the Magyars alone grew into -a lasting European state, and alone established a lasting -power over lands which had formed part of the Empire. -All these invaders came by the way of the lands north of -the Euxine. Lastly, there are the non-Aryan invaders -who came by way of Asia Minor or of the Mediterranean -sea. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Saracens.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Semitic Saracens, after their first conquests -in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, made no lasting conquests. -They occupied for a while several of the great islands; -but on the mainland of the Empire, European and -Asiatic, they were mere plunderers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Seljuk and -Ottoman -Turks.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In their wake -came the most terrible enemies of all, the Turks, first -the Seljuk, then the Ottoman. Ethnologically they -must be grouped with the nations which came in -by the north of the Euxine. Historically, as Mahometans, -coming in by the southern route, they rank -with the Saracens, and they did the work which the -Saracens tried to do. Most of these invading races have -passed away from history; three still remain in three -different stages. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -of -Bulgarians, -Magyars -and Ottomans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Bulgarian is lost among the Aryan -people who have taken his name. The Magyar abides, -keeping his non-Aryan language, but adopted into the -European commonwealth by his acceptance of Christianity. -The Ottoman Turk still abides on European -soil, unchanged because Mahometan, still an alien alike -to the creed and to the tongues of Europe.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Eastern -Empire -becomes -Greek.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Among all these nations one holds a special place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">{366}</a></span> -in the history of the Eastern Empire. The loss of the -Oriental and Latin provinces of the Empire brought -into practical working, though not into any formal -notice, the fact that, as the Western Empire was fast -becoming German, so the Eastern Empire was fast -becoming Greek. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -Oriental -provinces,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To a state which had both a Roman -and a Greek side the loss of provinces which were -neither Roman nor Greek was not a loss but a source -of strength. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of the -Latin provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And if the loss of the Latin provinces -was not a source of strength, it at least did much to -bring the Greek element in the Empire into predominance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dying out -of Roman -ideas.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, within the lands which were left to -the Empire, first the Latin language, and then Roman -ideas and traditions generally, gradually died out. -Before the end of the eleventh century, the Empire -was far more Greek than anything else. Before the -end of the twelfth century, it had become nearly conterminous -with the Greek nation, as defined by the -combined use of the Greek language and profession of -the Orthodox faith. The name <i>Roman</i>, in its Greek -form, was coming to mean <i>Greek</i>. And, about the -same time, the other primitive nations of the peninsula, -hitherto merged in the common mass of Roman -subjects, began to show themselves more distinctly -alongside of the Greeks. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Appearance -of Albanians -and -Vlachs.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We now first hear of <i>Albanians</i> -and <i>Vlachs</i> by those names, and the importance -of the nations which have thus come again to -light increases as we go on. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Latin -Conquest, -1204.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then the Greek remnant -of the Empire was broken in pieces by the great Latin -invasion, and, instead of a single power, Roman or -Greek, we see a crowd of separate states, Greek and -Frank. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The revived -Byzantine -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The reunion of some of these fragments -formed the revived Empire of the Palaiologoi. But at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">{367}</a></span> -no moment since the twelfth century has the whole -Greek nation been united under a single power, native -or foreign. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1461-1821.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And from the Ottoman conquest of Trebizond -to the beginning of the Greek War of Independence, -the whole of the Greek nation was under foreign -masters.<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> - - -<p class="p2">We have now first to trace out the steps by which -the Empire was broken in pieces, and then to trace out -severally the geographical history of the states which -rose out of its fragments. And with these last we may -class certain powers which do not strictly come under -that definition, but which come within the same geographical -range and which absorbed parts of the Imperial -territory. Beginning in the West, the territory which -the Empire at the final separation still held west of the -Hadriatic, was gradually lost through the attacks, first -of the Saracens, then of the Normans. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These lands -grew into the kingdom of <i>Sicily</i>, which has its proper -place here as an offshoot from the Eastern Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At -the other end of the Italian peninsula, <i>Venice</i> gradually -detached itself from the Empire, to become foremost in -its partition: here then comes the place of Venice as a -maritime power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slavonic -powers.<br /> -Bulgaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then come the powers which arose -on the north and north-west of the Empire, powers -chiefly Slavonic, reckoning as Slavonic the great Bulgarian -kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hungary.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Here too will come the kingdom of -Hungary, which, as a non-Aryan power in the heart of -Europe, has much both of likeness and of contrast with -Bulgaria. The kingdom of Hungary itself lay beyond -the bounds of the Empire, but a large part of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">{368}</a></span> -dependent territory had been Imperial soil. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Albanians.<br /> -Roumans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Here also -we must speak of the states which arose out of the -new developement of the Albanian and Rouman -races, and of the states, Greek and Frank, which arose -just before and at the time of the Latin Conquest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Asiatic -powers.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then there are the powers, both Christian and Mahometan, -which arose within the Imperial dominions in -Asia. Here we have to speak alike of the states -founded by the Crusaders and of the growth of the -Ottoman Turks. Lastly, we come to the work of our -own days, to the new European states which have been -formed by the deliverance of old Imperial lands from -Ottoman bondage.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>800-1204.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We will therefore first trace the geographical -changes in the frontier of the Empire itself down to -the Latin Conquest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1204-1453.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Latin Empire of <i>Romania</i>, -the Greek Empire of <i>Nikaia</i>, the revived Greek Empire -of Constantinople, will follow, as continuing, at least -geographically, the true Eastern Roman Empire. Then -will come the powers which have fallen off from the -Empire or grown up within the Empire, from Sicily to -free Bulgaria. But it must be remembered that it is -not always easy to mark, either chronologically or on -the map, when this or that territory was finally lost to -the Empire. This is true both on the Slavonic border -and also in southern Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Distinction -between -conquest -and settlement.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the former above all -it is often hard to distinguish between conquest at the -cost of the Empire and settlement within the Empire. -In either case the frontier within which the Emperors -exercised direct authority was always falling back and -advancing again. Beyond this there was a zone which -could not be said to be under the Emperor’s direct -rule, but in which his overlordship was more or less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">{369}</a></span> -fully acknowledged, according to the relative strength -of the Empire and of its real or nominal vassals.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>Changes in the Frontier of the Empire.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Power of -revival in -the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In tracing the fluctuations of the frontier of the -Eastern Empire from the beginning of the ninth century, -we are struck by the wonderful power of revival -and reconquest which is shown throughout the whole -history. Except the lands which were won by the -first Saracens, hardly a province was finally lost till it -had been once or twice won back. No one could -have dreamed that the Empire of the seventh century, -cut short by the Slavonic settlements to a mere fringe -on its European coasts, could ever have become the -Empire of the eleventh century, holding a solid mass of -territory from Tainaros to the Danube. But before -this great revival, the borders of the Empire had both -advanced and fallen back in the farther West. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sardinia, -Sicily, -Southern -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the -time of the separation of the Empires, the New Rome -still held Sardinia, Sicily, and a small part of southern -Italy. The heel of the boot still formed the theme of -<i>Lombardy</i>,<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> while the toe took the name of <i>Calabria</i> -which had once belonged to the heel. <i>Naples</i>, <i>Gaeta</i>, -and <i>Amalfi</i> were outlying Italian cities of the Empire; -so was <i>Venice</i>, which can hardly be called an Italian -city. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -islands.<br /> -Advance on -the continent.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the course of the ninth century the power of -the Empire was cut short in the islands, but advanced -on the mainland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Sardinia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The history of Sardinia is utterly -obscure; but it seems to have passed away from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">{370}</a></span> -Empire by the beginning of the ninth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Sicily, -827-965.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Sicily -was now conquered bit by bit by the Saracens of Africa -during a struggle of one hundred and forty years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Agrigentum, -827;<br /> -of Palermo, -831;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Agrigentum</i>, -opposite to the African coast, fell first; <i>Palermo</i>, -once the seat of Phœnician rule, became four years later -the new Semitic capital. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Messina, -842;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Messina</i> on the strait soon -followed; but the eastern side of the island, its most -thoroughly Greek side, held out much longer. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Malta, 869;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before -the conquest of this region, <i>Malta</i>, the natural appendage -to Sicily, passed into Saracen hands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Syracuse, -878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Syracuse</i>, the -Christian capital, did not fall till fifty years after the -first invasion, and in the north-western corner of the -island a remnant still held out for nearly ninety years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tauromenion, -902-963.<br /> -Rametta, -965.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Tauromenion</i> or <i>Taormina</i>, on its height, had to be -twice taken in the course of the tenth century, and the -single fort of <i>Rametta</i>, the last stronghold of Eastern -Christendom in the West, held out longer still. By -this time Eastern Christendom was fast advancing on -Islam in Asia; but the greatest of Mediterranean -islands passed from Christendom to Islam, from Europe -to Africa, and a Greek-speaking people was cut off -from the Empire which was fast becoming Greek. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Partial -recovery -and final -loss of -Sicily, -1038-1042.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -the complete and uninterrupted Mussulman dominion -in Sicily was short. The Imperial claims were never -forgotten, and in the eleventh century they were again -enforced. By the arms of George Maniakês, Messina -and Syracuse, with a part of the island which at the -least took in the whole of its eastern side, was, if only -for a few years, restored to the Imperial rule.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -the Empire -in Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>While Sicily was thus lost bit by bit, the power of -the Empire was advancing in the neighbouring mainland -of Italy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Taking of -Bari, 871.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Bari</i> was won back for Christendom -from the Saracen by the combined powers of both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">{371}</a></span> -Empires; but the lasting possession of the prize fell to -the Cæsar of the East. At the end of the ninth century, -the Eastern Empire claimed either the direct possession -or the superiority of all southern Italy from -Gaeta downwards. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -of the -Imperial -power in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The extent of the Imperial -dominion was always fluctuating; there was perhaps -no moment when the power of the Emperors was really -extended over this whole region; but there was perhaps -no spot within it which did not at some time or other -admit at least the Imperial overlordship. The eastern -coast, with the heel and the toe in a wider sense than -before, became a real and steady possession, while the -allegiance of <i>Beneventum</i>, <i>Capua</i>, and <i>Salerno</i> was always -very precarious. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Naples, -Gaeta, and -Amalfi.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But <i>Naples</i>, <i>Gaeta</i>, and <i>Amalfi</i>, however -nominal their allegiance might be, never formally -cast it aside.</p> - -<p>Thus, at the beginning of the ninth century, the -Eastern Emperors held all Sicily, with some patches of -territory on the neighbouring mainland. At the beginning -of the eleventh century, the island had been wholly -lost, while the dominion on the mainland had been -greatly enlarged. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Normans -in -Italy and -Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the course of the eleventh century -a new power, the Normans of Apulia, conquered the -Italian possessions of the Empire, won Sicily from the -Mussulman, and even made conquests from the Empire -east of the Hadriatic. Thus arose the Sicilian kingdom, -the growth of which will best be traced when we -come to the powers which arose out of the breaking-up -of the Empire.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The great islands of the Eastern Mediterranean also -fluctuated between Byzantine and Saracen dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Crete, 823.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Crete</i> was won by a band of Mussulman adventurers from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">{372}</a></span> -Spain nearly at the time when the conquest of Sicily -began. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its recovery, -963.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was won back in the great revival of the Imperial -power one hundred and forty years later. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cyprus lost, -708; recovered -and -lost again -c. 881-888; -recovered -again, 965.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Cyprus</i> -was lost sooner; but it went through many fluctuations -and divisions, a recovery and a second loss, before -its final recovery at the same time as the recovery of -Crete and the complete loss of Sicily. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss and -gain -among the -great islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Looking at the -Empire simply as a power, there can be no doubt that -the loss of Sicily was altogether overbalanced by the -recovery of Crete and Cyprus. Geographically Sicily -was an outlying Greek island; Crete and Cyprus lay -close to the body of the Empire, essential parts of a -Greek state. But Crete and Cyprus, as lands which had -been lost and won back, were among the lands where -the tendency to fall away from within showed itself -earliest. Crete never actually separated from the -Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separation -of Cyprus, -1182-1185.<br /> -Conquered -by Richard -of Poitou, -1191.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Cyprus fell away under a rebel Emperor, to -be presently conquered by Richard, Count of Poitou -and King of England, and to pass away from the -Empire for ever.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -in the -possession -of the great -islands, -801.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">We may thus sum up the fluctuations in the -possession of the great islands. At the beginning of -the ninth century, the Eastern Empire still took in -Sardinia, Sicily, and Crete; Cyprus was in the hands -of the Saracens. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>901.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the beginning of the tenth -century, the Empire held nothing in any of the four -except the north-eastern corner of Sicily. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1001.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the beginning -of the eleventh, Crete and Cyprus had been won -back; Sicily was wholly lost. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1101.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the beginning of the -twelfth, Crete and Cyprus were still Imperial possessions; -a great part of Sicily had been won and lost -again. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1201.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the beginning of the thirteenth, Cyprus, -like Sicily, had passed to a Western master; Crete was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">{373}</a></span> -still held by the Empire, but only by a very feeble tie. -Thus they stood at the fall of the old Roman Empire -of the East; of the revived Empire of the Palaiologoi -none of them ever formed a part.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations of -the Empire -towards the -Slavonic -powers.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">In the islands the enemies with whom the Empire -had to strive were, first the Saracens, and then the -Latins or Franks, the nations of Western Europe. On -the mainland the part of the Saracen was taken by -the Slave. During the four hundred years between -the division of the Empires and the Frank conquest -of the East, the geographical history of the Eastern -Empire has mainly to deal with the shiftings of its -frontier towards the Slavonic powers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Three -Slavonic -groups.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These fall into -three main groups. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Servia and -Croatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First, in the north-western corner -of the Empire, are the Croatian and Servian settlements, -whose history is closely connected with that of the -kingdom of Hungary and the commonwealth of Venice. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Macedonia -and Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Secondly, there are the Slaves of Thrace, Macedonia, -and Greece. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bulgaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thirdly, the great Bulgarian kingdom -comes between the two. These two last ranges gradually -merge into one; the first remains distinct throughout. -Servia, Croatia, and Dalmatia, will be best -treated of in another section, remembering that, amidst -all fluctuations, the claims of the Empire over them -were never denied or forgotten, and were from time to -time enforced. It was towards the Bulgarian kingdom that -the greatest fluctuations of the Imperial frontier took -place.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Bulgarian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The original Finnish Bulgarians were the vanguard -of Turanian invasion in the lands with which we have -to do. Earlier, it would seem, in their coming than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">{374}</a></span> -the Avars, they were slower to settle down into actual -occupation of European territory. But when they -did settle, it was not on the outskirts of the Empire, -but in one of its acknowledged provinces. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlement -south of -the Danube, -679.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Late in the -seventh century, the first Bulgarian kingdom was established -between Danube and Hæmus. It must be remembered -that another migration in quite another -direction founded another Bulgarian power on the -Volga and the Kama. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>White -Bulgaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This settlement, <i>Great</i> or <i>White -Bulgaria</i>, remained Turanian and became Mahometan; -<i>Black Bulgaria</i> on the Danube became Christian and -Slavonic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -Bulgarian -name.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The modern Bulgarians bear the Bulgarian -name only in the way in which the Romanized Celts -of Gaul bear the name of their Frankish masters from -Germany, in which the Slaves of Kief and Moscow -bear the name of their Russian masters from Scandinavia. -In all three cases, the power formed by the -union of conquerors and conquered has taken the -name of the conquerors and has kept the speech of the -conquered. But though the Bulgarian power became -essentially Slavonic, it took quite another character -from the less fully organized Slavonic settlements -to the west and south of it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Empire -and the -Macedonian -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Towards the Slaves of -Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, it cannot be said -that the Empire had any definite frontier. Settled -within the Empire, they were its tributaries or its -enemies, according to the strength of the Empire at -any particular moment. Up to the coming of the -Bulgarians, we might, from different points of view, -place the Imperial border either at the Danube or at -no great distance from the Ægæan. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Empire -and the -Bulgarian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But from the -Bulgarian conquest onwards, there was on the Bulgarian -side a real frontier, a frontier which often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">{375}</a></span> -shifted, but which was often fixed by treaty, and which, -wherever it was fixed, marked off lands which were, for -the time, wholly lost to the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -Danubian -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With the first -Bulgarian settlement, the Imperial frontier definitely -withdrew for three hundred years from the lower Danube -to the line of Hæmus or Balkan. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bulgarians -south of -Hæmus.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the Bulgarian -power pushed to the south and west the two fields of -warfare, against the Bulgarians to the north and against -the half-independent Slaves to the west, gradually -melted into one. But as long as the Isaurian Emperors -reigned, the two fields were kept distinct. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -Bulgaria in -the eighth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They kept -the Balkan range against the Bulgarians, whose kingdom, -stretching to the north-west over lands which are -now Servian, had not, at the end of the eighth century, -passed the mountain barrier of the Empire.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of the -Slavonic -settlements -in Macedonia -and -Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile, as a wholly distinct work, the Imperial -power was restored over the Slaves of Thrace, -Macedonia, and Greece. In the middle of the eighth, -century the inland parts of Greece were chiefly occupied -by Slavonic immigrants, while the coast and the cities -remained Greek. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>775-784.<br /> -807.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before the end of the century, the -Slaves of Macedonia were reduced to tribute, and early -in the ninth, those of Greece wholly failed to recover -their independence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery of -Greece from -the Slaves.<br /> -Slaves on -Taÿgetos.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The land was gradually settled -afresh by Greek colonists, and by the middle of the -tenth, only two Slavonic tribes, <i>Melings</i> and <i>Ezerites</i> -(<i>Melinci</i> and <i>Jezerci</i>), remained, distinct, though tributary, -on the range of Taÿgetos or Pentedaktylos. -From this time to the Frankish conquest, Greece, as a -whole, was held by the Empire. But, as a recovered -land, it was one of those parts of the Empire in which -a tendency to separate began to show itself. In the -course of these changes, the name <i>Hellênes</i>, as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">{376}</a></span> -national name, quite died out. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hellênes of -Maina.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It had long meant -<i>pagan</i>, and it was confined to the people of <i>Maina</i>, who -remained pagan till near the end of the ninth century. -The Greeks now knew no name but that of <i>Romans</i>. -The local, perhaps contemptuous, name of the inhabitants -of Hellas was <i>Helladikoi</i>.</p> - -<p>Thus, at the division of the Empires, Thrace, Macedonia, -and Greece had been more or less thoroughly recovered -by the Eastern Empire, while the lands between -Hæmus and Danube were wholly lost. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Romania.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Imperial -dominion from the Hadriatic to the Euxine formed, -together with the Asiatic provinces, <i>Romania</i>, the land -of the Romans of the East. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dalmatia, -Servia, and -Croatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Emperors also kept -the cities on the Dalmatian coast, and the precarious -allegiance of the Servian and Croatian principalities. -These lands were bound to the Empire by a common -dread of the encroaching Bulgarian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatness -of the first -Bulgarian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The ninth century -and the early years of the tenth was a great -time of Bulgarian advance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Attempt on -Pannonia, -818-829.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Bulgarians seem to -have failed in establishing any lasting dominion to -the north-west in Pannonia;<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> at the expense of the -Empire they were more successful. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -against the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the end of the -eighth century <i>Anchialos</i> and <i>Sardica</i>—afterwards -called <i>Triaditza</i> and <i>Sofia</i>—were border cities of the -Empire. The conquest of Sardica early in the ninth -marks a stage of Bulgarian advance. At the end of -the century, after the conversion of the nation to -Christianity, comes the great era of the first Bulgarian -kingdom, the kingdom of <i>Peristhlava</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Simeon, -923-934.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Tzar Simeon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">{377}</a></span> -established the Bulgarian supremacy over Servia, and -carried his conquests deep into the lands of the Empire. -In Macedonia and Epeiros the Empire kept only the -sea-coast, Ægæan and Hadriatic; Sardica, Philippopolis, -Ochrida, were all cities of the Bulgarian realm. -Hadrianople, a frontier city of the Empire, passed more -than once into Bulgarian hands. Nowhere in Europe, -save in old Hellas, did the Imperial dominion stretch -from sea to sea.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revival of -the Imperial -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>So stood matters in the middle of the tenth century. -Then came that greatest of all revivals of the -Imperial power which won back Crete and Cyprus, and -which was no less successful on the mainland of Europe -and Asia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Bulgaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Bulgaria was conquered and lost and conquered -again. But the first time it was conquered, -not from the Bulgarian but from the Russian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Russians -and -Bulgarians. -968-971.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Russians, long dangerous to Constantinople, now suddenly -appear as a land power. Their prince Sviatoslaf -overthrew the first Bulgarian kingdom, and -Philippopolis became for a moment a Russian outpost. -But John Tzimiskês restored the power of the Empire -over the whole Bulgarian dominions. The Danube was -once more the frontier of the Eastern Rome.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The second -Bulgarian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It remained so for more than two hundred years -during the lower part of its course. But in the inland -regions the Imperial power fell back almost at once, to -advance again further than ever. A large part of the -conquered land soon revolted, and a second Bulgarian -kingdom, Macedonian rather than Mœsian, arose. The -kingdom of <i>Ochrida</i>, the kingdom of Samuel, left to -the Empire the eastern part of the old Bulgaria between -Danube and Hæmus, together with all Thrace -and the Macedonian coast. But it took in all the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">{378}</a></span> -inland region of Macedonia; it stretched down into -Thessaly and Epeiros; and, while it nowhere touched -the Euxine or the Ægæan, it had a small seaboard on -the Hadriatic. Now came the great struggle between -Romania and Bulgaria which fills the last years of the -tenth century and the opening years of the eleventh. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second conquest -of Bulgaria, -1018.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last all Bulgaria, and with it for a while Servia, -was restored to the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Croatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Croatia continued its -vassalage, and its princes were presently raised to royal -rank by Imperial authority.</p> - -<p>Thus the Eastern Empire again took in the whole -south-eastern peninsula. Of its outlying European -possessions, southern Italy was still untouched. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At -what moment Venice ceased to be a dependency of the -Empire, it would be hard to say. Its dukes still received -the Imperial investiture, and Venetian ships often joined -the Imperial fleet. This state of things seems never -to have been formally abolished, but rather to have -dropped out of sight as Venice and Constantinople became -practically hostile. In the other outlying city -north of the Euxine the ninth and tenth centuries -change places. Through all changes the Empire kept -its maritime province in the Tauric Chersonêsos. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cherson -annexed, -829-842; -taken by -Vladimir, -988.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There -the allied city of <i>Cherson</i>, more formally annexed to the -Empire in the ninth century, was taken by the Russian -Vladimir in the interval between the two great Bulgarian -wars.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Empire -in Asia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">In Asia the Imperial frontier had changed but -little since the first Saracen conquests. The solid -peninsula of Asia Minor was often plundered by the -Mussulmans, but it was never conquered. Now, in Asia -as in Europe, came a time of advance. For eighty years, -with some fluctuations, the Empire grew on its eastern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">{379}</a></span> -side. The Bagdad caliphate was now broken up, and -the smaller emirates were more easily overcome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Asiatic conquests -of -Nikêphoros -and John, -963-976;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -wars of Nikêphoros Phôkas and John Tzimiskês restored -<i>Kilikia</i> and <i>Syria</i> to the list of Roman provinces, -<i>Tarsos</i>, <i>Antioch</i>, and <i>Edessa</i> to the list of Christian -cities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Basil the -Second, -991-1022.<br /> -Beginning -of the -annexation -of Armenia -1021; -Ani, 1045; -of Kars, -1064.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Basil the Second extended the Imperial power -over the <i>Iberian</i> and <i>Abasgian</i> lands east of the Euxine, -and began a series of transactions by which, in the -space of forty years, all <i>Armenia</i> was added to the -Empire on the very eve of the downfall of the Imperial -power in Asia.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>New -enemies.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>For the great extension of the Empire laid it open -to new enemies in both continents. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Turks.<br /> -Magyars.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Asia it became -the neighbour of the Seljuk <i>Turks</i>, in Europe of the -Magyars or Hungarians, who bear the name of <i>Turks</i> -in the Byzantine writers of the tenth century. Hungary -had now settled down into a Christian kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revolt of -Servia, -1040.<br /> -Loss of Belgrade, -1064.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A Servian revolt presently placed a new independent -state between Hungary and Romania, but Belgrade -remained an Imperial possession till it passed under -Magyar rule twenty-four years later. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -the Turks.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By this time -the Empire had begun to be cut short in a far more -terrible way in Asia. The Seljuk Turks now reached -the new Roman frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Ani, 1064.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Plunder grew into conquest, -and the first Turkish conquest, that of <i>Ani</i>, happened -in the same year as the last Imperial acquisition of <i>Kars</i>. -The Emperors now tried to strengthen this dangerous -frontier by the erection of vassal principalities. The -very name of <i>Armenia</i> now changes its place. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lesser -Armenia, -1080.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -new or <i>Lesser Armenia</i> arose in the Kilikian mountains, -and was ruled by princes of the old Armenian dynasty, -whose allegiance to the Empire gradually died out.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">{380}</a></span> -But before this time the Turkish power was fully established -in the peninsula of Asia Minor. The plunderers -had become conquerors. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1071.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The battle of Manzikert -led to formal cessions and further advances. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1074.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Throughout -Asia Minor the Empire at most kept the coast; -the mass of the inland country became Turkish. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Sultans -of <i>Roum</i>.<br /> -1081.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -the Roman name did not pass away; -the invaders took -the name of Sultans of <i>Roum</i>. Their capital was at -<i>Nikaia</i>, a threatening position indeed for Constantinople. -But distant positions like Trebizond and Antioch -were still held as dependencies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Antioch, -1081.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Antioch was before -long betrayed to the Turks.</p> - -<p>By this time the Empire was attacked by a new -enemy in its European peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Normans -in Corfu -and -Epeiros. -1081-1085.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Norman conquerors -of Apulia and Sicily crossed the Hadriatic, and -occupied various points, both insular and continental, -especially <i>Dyrrhachion</i> or <i>Durazzo</i> and the island -of <i>Korkyra</i>, now called by a new Greek name, <i>Koryphô</i> -or <i>Corfu</i>. At every point of its frontier the -Empire had, towards the end of the eleventh century, -altogether fallen back from the splendid position -which it held at its beginning. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -aspect -of the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The geographical -aspect of the Empire was now the exact opposite of -what it had been in the eighth and ninth centuries. -Then its main strength seemed to lie in Asia. Its -European dominion had been cut down to the coasts -and islands; but its Asiatic peninsula was firmly held, -touched only by passing ravages. Now the Asiatic -dominion was cut down to the coasts and islands, while -the great European peninsula was, in the greater part -of its extent, still firmly held. Never before had -the main power of the Empire been so thoroughly -European. No wonder that in Western eyes the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">{381}</a></span> -Empire of Romania began to look like a kingdom of -Greece.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The states founded by the Crusaders will be dealt -with elsewhere. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery of -Asiatic -territory, -1097.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The crusades concern us here only -as helping towards the next revival of the Imperial -power under the house of Komnênos. Alexios himself -won back Nikaia and the other great cities of western -Asia Minor. Some of these, as <i>Laodikeia</i>, were received -rather as free cities of the Empire than as mere -subjects. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reigns of -John and -Manuel.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The conquering reigns of John and Manuel -again extended the Empire in both continents. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1097.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Turk still ruled in the inland regions of Asia, but his -capital was driven back from Nikaia to <i>Ikonion</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1137.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -superiority of the Empire was restored over Antioch and -Kilikian Armenia at the one end, over Servia at the -other. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1148.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hungary itself had to yield <i>Zeugmin</i>, <i>Sirmium</i>, -and all Dalmatia. <span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1163-1168.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For a moment the Empire again -took in the whole eastern coast of the Hadriatic and -its islands; even on its western shore <i>Ancona</i> became -something like a dependency of the Eastern Cæsar.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Falling of -distant possessions.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The conquests of Manuel were clearly too great for -the real strength of the Empire. Some lands fell away -at once. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dalmatia, -1181.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Dalmatia was left to be struggled for between -Venice and Hungary. And the tendency to fall away -within the Empire became strengthened by increased -intercourse with the feudal ideas of the West. Cyprus, -Trebizond, old Greece itself, came into the hands of -rulers who were rather feudal vassals than Roman governors. -We have seen how Cyprus fell away. Its Poitevin -conqueror presently gave it to Guy of Lusignan. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Latin kingdom -of -Cyprus, -1192.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus, -before the Latin conquest of Constantinople, a province -had been torn from the Eastern Empire to become a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">{382}</a></span> -Latin kingdom. The Greek-speaking lands were now -beginning largely to pass under Latin rule. In Sicily -the Frank might pass for a deliverer; in Corfu and -Cyprus he was a mere foreign invader.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The third -Bulgarian -kingdom, -1187.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Meanwhile the Empire was again cut short to the -north by a new Bulgarian revolt, which established -a third Bulgarian kingdom, but a kingdom which -seems to have been as much Vlach or Rouman as -strictly Bulgarian. The new kingdom took in the old -Bulgarian land between Danube and Hæmus, and it -presently spread both to the west and to the south. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Other -Slavonic -revolts.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Bulgarian revolt was followed by other movements -among the Thracian and Macedonian Slaves, which did -not lead to the foundation of any new states, but which -had their share in the general break-up of the Imperial -power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Increased -Greek -character of -the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The work of Basil and Manuel was now undone, -but its undoing had the effect of making the -Empire more nearly a Greek state than ever. It did -not wholly coincide with the Greek-speaking lands: -the Empire had subjects who were not Greeks, and -there were Greeks who were not subjects of the Empire. -But the Greek speech and the new Greek -nationality were dominant within the lands which were -still left to the Empire. The Roman name was now -merely a name: Roman and Greek meant the same -thing. Whatever was not Greek in European Romania -was mainly Albanian and Vlach. The dominion of -the Empire in the peninsula was mainly confined to -the primitive races of the peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Slavonic -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great element -of later times, the Slavonic settlers, had almost -wholly separated themselves from the Empire, establishing -their independence, but not their unity. They -formed a group of independent powers which had simply<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">{383}</a></span> -fallen away from the Empire; it was by the powers of -the West that the Empire itself was to be broken in -pieces.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Latin conquest -of -Constantinople, -1204.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The taking of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade -was the work of an alliance between the now independent -commonwealth of Venice and a body of Western -crusaders who, along with the states which they -founded, may be indifferently called <i>Latins</i> or <i>Franks</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Act of -Partition.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A regular act of partition was drawn out, by which the -Empire was to be divided into three parts. One was -to be assigned to a Latin <i>Emperor of Romania</i>, another -of the pilgrims as his feudatories, a third to the commonwealth -of Venice. But the partition was never -carried out. A large part of the Empire was never -conquered; another large part was not assigned by the -act of partition. In fact the scheme of partition is -hardly a geographical fact at all. The real partition -to which the Latin conquest led was one of quite -another kind, a partition of the Empire among a -crowd of powers, Greek, Frank, and Venetian, more -than one of which had some claim to represent the -Empire itself.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Latin Empire -of -Romania.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>These were the Latin Empire of <i>Romania</i>, and the -Greek Empire which maintained itself at <i>Nikaia</i>, and -which, after nearly sixty years of banishment, won -back the Imperial city. In the crusading scheme the -Latin Emperor was to be the feudal superior of the -lesser princes who were to establish themselves within -the Empire. For his own Imperial domain he was to -have the whole of the Imperial possessions in Asia, with -a Thracian dominion stretching as far north as <i>Agathopolis</i>. -Hadrianople, with a narrow strip of territory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">{384}</a></span> -stretching down to the Propontis, was to be Venetian. -The actual result was very different. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its extent.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Latin Emperors -never got any footing in Asia beyond parts of -the themes bordering on the Propontis, reaching from -Adramyttion to the mouth of the Sangarios. In Europe -they held the eastern part of Thrace, with a fluctuating -border towards Bulgaria on the north, and to the new -Latin and Greek states which arose to the west. Their -dominion also took in <i>Lêmnos</i>, <i>Lesbos</i>, <i>Chios</i>, and some -others of the Ægæan islands.</p> - -<p>But the Latin Empire of Romania was not the only -Empire which arose out of the break-up of the old -East-Roman power. Two, for a time three, Greek -princes bore the Imperial title; there was also a Latin -king. It will be convenient for a while to leave out of -sight both Asia and southern Greece, and to look to -the revolutions of Thrace, Macedonia, northern Greece, -and what we may now begin to call <i>Albania</i>. The immediate -result of the Latin conquest was to divide -these lands between three powers, two Latin and one -Greek. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Thessalonikê. -1204-1222. -Despotat of -Epeiros.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides the Empire of Romania, there was the -Latin kingdom of <i>Thessalonikê</i>, and the Greek <i>despotat</i><a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> -of <i>Epeiros</i> held by the house of Angelos. Of these -the Thessalonian kingdom was the most short-lived, -and there can be little doubt that its creation was the -ruin of the Latin Empire. It cut off the Emperor from -his distant vassals in Greece, whose vassalage soon -became nominal. It gave him, in successive reigns, a -powerful neighbour who knew his own power, and a -weak neighbour, who fell before the Greek advance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">{385}</a></span> -sooner than himself. But the beginnings of the kingdom, -under its first king Boniface, were promising. His -power stretched over Thessaly, now known as <i>Great -Vlachia</i>, and he received the homage of the Frank -princes further to the south. But within twenty years -from its foundation, Frank rule had ceased in Macedonia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Thessalonikê -again -Greek.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thessalonikê was again a Greek and an Imperial -city, and its recovery by the Greeks split the Latin -Empire asunder.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Epeirot -despotat.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This blow came from the west. It was the Nicene -Empire which did in the end win back the Imperial -city; but, for some years after the Latin conquest, things -looked as if the restoration of the Greek power in Europe -was designed for Epeiros. The first despot Michael -paid a nominal homage to all the neighbouring powers, -Greek and Frank, in turn; but in truth he was the lord -of an independent and growing state. His power began -in the Epeirot land west of Pindos. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1208-1210.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For a moment -he held in Peloponnêsos Corinth, Nauplia, and Argos. -Durazzo and Corfu were won from Venice. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1215.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Epeirot power advanced also to the east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1222.<br /> -1225.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thessalonikê was taken; its ruler took the Imperial title; -Hadrianople followed, and the new Empire stretched -across the peninsula from sea to sea, and took in Thessaly -to the south. But the Thessalonian Empire was -hardly more long-lived than the Thessalonian kingdom. -It was first dismembered among the princes of the -ruling house. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separation -of Epeiros -and Thessalonia. -1237.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The original Epeirot despotat, along -with Corfu, parted away from the new Macedonian -power, to survive it by many years. But by this -time the championship of the Greek speech and faith -against the Latin lords of Constantinople had passed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">{386}</a></span> -to the foremost of the Greek powers which had grown -up in Asia, to the Empire of Nikaia.</p> - -<p>These Greek powers were two, which arose at the -same time, but by different processes and with different -destinies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Empire -of Trebizond, -1204-1461.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Empire of <i>Nikaia</i> was the truer continuation -of the old East-Roman power; the Empire -of <i>Trapezous</i> or <i>Trebizond</i> was the last independent -fragment of Roman dominion and Greek culture. The -Trapezuntine Empire was not in strictness one of the -states which arose out of the Latin partition. One of -the parts of the Empire which showed most disposition -to fall away was independently seized by a rival -Emperor, at the very moment of the Latin conquest. -Alexios Komnênos occupied Trebizond, an occupation -largely wrought by Iberian help, as if the Empire, -already dismembered by the Christians of the West, -was to be further dismembered by the Christians -of the further East. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent -of the -Komnenian -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dominions of Alexios, enlarged -by his brother David to the west, at first took -in the whole south coast of the Euxine from the Sangarios -eastward, broken by the city of <i>Amisos</i>, which -contrived to make itself virtually independent, and by -the neighbouring Turkish settlement at <i>Samsoun</i>. But -this dominion was only momentary. The eastern part -alone survived to form the later Empire of Trebizond; -the western part, the government of David, soon passed -to the rising power of Nikaia.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Empire of -Nikaia. -1206-1261.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The founder of that power was Theodore Laskaris, -in whom the succession of the Eastern Empire was held -to be continued. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1214.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Ten years after the taking of Constantinople, -a treaty fixed his border towards the small -Latin dominion in Asia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1220.<br /> -1240.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Six years later the Latins -kept only the lands north of the gulf of Nikomêdeia; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">{387}</a></span> -sixteen years later they held only the Asiatic coast of -the Bosporos. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1247.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Seven years later Chios, Lêmnos, Samos, -Kôs, and other islands were won back by the growing -Greek state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Nicene -Empire in -Europe. -1235.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, long before this, the Nicene Empire -had become an European power. The Thracian -Chersonêsos was first won, the work beginning at <i>Kallipolis</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1242.<br />1246.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently the Thessalonian Emperor sank to the -rank of a despot under him of Nikaia; four years later -Thessalonikê was incorporated with the Nicene dominions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1245-1256.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A series of Bulgarian campaigns carried the -Imperial frontier, first to the Hebros—already the Slavonic -<i>Maritza</i>—and then to the foot of Hæmus. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1254-1259.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A -series of Epeirot campaigns won a Hadriatic seaboard, -and made <i>Durazzo</i> for a while again a city of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1259.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Nicene power in these regions was confirmed by -the victory of Pelagonia, won over the combined forces -of Epeiros, Achaia, and Sicily. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1260.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next year <i>Selymbria</i> -was won from the Latins, and the Frank Empire was -cut down to so much territory as could be guarded -from the walls of Constantinople. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery of -Constantinople, -1261.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last the recovery -of Constantinople changed the Empire of Nikaia into -the revived Byzantine Empire of the Palaiologoi.</p> - -<p>That Empire still lasted a hundred and ninety years, -and we must carefully distinguish between its European -and its Asiatic history. The Asiatic border fell back -almost as soon as the seat of rule was restored to Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -the Empire -in Europe.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Europe the revived Empire kept the character of an -advancing power till just before the entrance of the -Ottoman into Europe, in some parts till just before the -fall of Constantinople. Many events helped to weaken -the real power of the Empire, which did not affect its -geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1302.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such were the earlier Turkish inroads and -the destroying visit of the Catalans. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance in -Peloponnêsos.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The land in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">{388}</a></span> -advance was most steady was Peloponnêsos, where, at -the time of the recovery of Constantinople, the Empire -did not hold a foot of ground. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1262.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> <i>Misithra</i>, <i>Monembasia</i>, -and <i>Maina</i> were the fruits of the day of Pelagonia. -For a while the Imperial frontier was stationary, but -from the beginning of the fourteenth century it steadily -advanced. It advanced perhaps all the more after -Peloponnêsos became an Imperial dependency, or an -appanage for princes of the Imperial house, rather than -an immediate possession of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1404.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Early in the -fifteenth century the greater part of the peninsula, including -Corinth, was again in Greek hands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1430.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last, -twenty-three years only before the Turkish conquest of -Constantinople, all Peloponnêsos, except the points held -by Venice, was under the superiority of the Empire.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance in -Macedonia -and Epeiros.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In more northern parts the advance of the Empire, -though chequered by more reverses, went on steadily -till the growth of the Servian power in the middle of -the fourteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1308.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The frontier varied towards -Servia, Bulgaria, Epeiros, and the Angevin power -which established itself on the Hadriatic coast. Even -under Andronikos the Second the Imperial dominion -was extended over the greater part of Thessaly or <i>Great -Vlachia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1318-1339.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later still, all Epeiros, <i>Jôannina</i> and <i>Arta</i>—once -<i>Ambrakia</i>—were won. At the moment of the -great Servian advance, the Empire held the uninterrupted -seaboard from the Euxine to the Pagasaian -Gulf, as well as its Hadriatic seaboard from the Ambrakian -gulf northward. But the Frank principalities -still cut off the main body of the Empire from its possessions -in Peloponnêsos.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Losses of -the Empire -in Asia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In Asia there is another tale to tell. There the -frontier of the Empire steadily went back from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">{389}</a></span> -recovery of Constantinople. A few points gained or -lost to European powers go for little. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1260.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> <i>Smyrna</i> passed -for a while to Genoa. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Knights of -Saint John, -1309-1315.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Knights of Saint John won -<i>Rhodes</i>, <i>Kôs</i>, and other islands, but they did not become -a power on the mainland of Asia till the Empire had -almost withdrawn from that continent. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -the Turks.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Imperial -power steadily crumbled away before the advance of -the Turk, first the Seljuk and then the Ottoman. The -small Turkish powers into which the Sultanate of -Roum had now split up began to encroach on the Greek -dominion in Asia as soon as its centre was transferred -to Europe. By the end of the thirteenth century, the -Imperial possessions in Asia had again shrunk up to a -narrow strip on the Propontis, from the Ægæan to the -Euxine. Losses followed more speedily when the -Turkish power passed from the Seljuk to the Ottoman. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1326-1338.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Brusa</i>, <i>Nikaia</i>, <i>Nikomêdeia</i>, were all lost within twelve -years. By the middle of the fourteenth century, the -Emperors kept nothing in Asia, save a strip of land -just opposite Constantinople, and the outlying cities of -<i>Philadelphia</i> and <i>Phôkaia</i>, their allies rather than their -subjects.</p> - -<p>The Ottoman was now all but ready to pass into -Europe, and the way was made easier for him by the -rise and fall of an European power which again cut -short the Empire in its western provinces. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Empire -falls back -towards -Servia and -Bulgaria.<br /> -1331.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -While the -Imperial frontier was advancing in Epeiros and Thessaly, -it fell back towards Servia, and advanced towards -Bulgaria only to fall back again. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Philippopolis, -1344.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Philippopolis</i>, so -often lost and won, now passed away for ever. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest. -Stephen -Dushan.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And -now came the great momentary advance of <i>Servia</i> -under Stephen Dushan, which wrested from the Empire -a large part of its Thracian, Macedonian, Albanian, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">{390}</a></span> -Greek possessions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the middle of the fourteenth -century, the Empire, all but banished from Asia, kept no -unbroken European dominion out of Thrace. Its other -possessions were isolated. It kept Thessalonikê and -Chalkidikê, with a small strip of Macedonia as far as -<i>Berrhoia</i> and <i>Vodena</i>. It kept a small Thessalian territory -about <i>Lamia</i> or <i>Zeitouni</i>. There was the Peloponnesian -province, fast growing into importance; -there was <i>Lesbos</i> and a few other islands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1355.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On -Stephen’s death his dominion broke in pieces, but the -Empire did not win back its lost lands. For the -Ottoman was already in Europe, ready, in the space of -the next hundred years, to swallow up all that was left.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>1336.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">As in the recovery of Romania by the Greeks of -Nikaia, so in the final conquest of Romania by the -Turks of Brusa, Constantinople itself was—with the -exception of the Peloponnesian appanage—the last -point of the Empire to fall. The Turk, like the Greek, -made his way in by Kallipolis; like the Greek, he -hemmed in the Imperial city for years before it fell -into his hands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Hadrianople, -1361.<br /> -1366.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In seven years from his first landing, -Hadrianople had become the European capital of the -Turk; the Empire was his tributary, keeping, besides -its outlying possessions, only the land just round the -city. The romantic expedition of Amadeo of Savoy -gave back to the Empire its Euxine coast as far as -<i>Mesêmbria</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Philadelphia, -1374-1391.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before the end of the century Philadelphia -was lost in Asia, and the Imperial dominion in -Europe hardly reached beyond the city itself and the -Peloponnesian province. Thessalonikê and the Thessalian -province were both lost for a while. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -Timour’s -invasion, -1401.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Bajazet -was on the point of doing the work of Mahomet, when -the Empire was saved for another half-century by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">{391}</a></span> -invasion of Timour and the consequent break-up of the -Ottoman power. During the Ottoman civil wars, the -outlying points of the Empire were restored and seized -again more than once. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1424.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last the boundaries of the -Empire were fixed by treaty between Sultan Mahomet -and the Emperor Manuel, much as they had stood sixty -years before. The coast of the Propontis to Selymbria, -the coast of the Euxine to Mesêmbria, Thessalonikê and -Chalkidikê, the Peloponnesian province, the smaller -Thessalian province, the overlordship of Lesbos, Ainos, -and Thasos, was all that was left. Further losses soon -followed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1426.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thessalonikê passed from the Empire within -two years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1453.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last, as all the world knows, the Imperial -city itself fell, and the name of the Eastern Roman -Empire was blotted out of European geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1460.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Six -years later came the conquest of Peloponnêsos, and the -whole of European Greece passed into the hands of -foreign masters.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>States -growing -out of the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Having thus sketched the changes in the extent of -the Eastern Roman Empire during a period of six hundred -and fifty years, we have now to trace the geography -of the states which, within that time, grew up -within its borders or upon its frontiers. These fall -naturally into four groups. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Slavonic -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First come the national -states which were formed by throwing off the dominion -of the Empire. These are mainly the Slavonic powers -to the north, Bulgaria, Servia, Croatia, and the later -states which arose out of their divisions and combinations. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hungary.<br /> -Rouman -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And with these, different as was their origin, we -must, for our purposes, place both the <i>Hungarian</i> kingdom -which annexed so many of the Slavonic lands, and -the <i>Rouman</i> states, so closely connected with Hungarian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">{392}</a></span> -history, which arose by migrations out of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Greek -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another group consists of the Greek states which split -off from the Empire before or at the Latin conquest, -and which were not recovered by the Greek Emperors -of Nikaia and Constantinople. Both these classes of -states belong strictly to Eastern Christendom. Catholic -Hungary ruling over Orthodox Slaves forms a link -between the East and the West; so do those Slaves who -themselves belong to the Latin Church. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Latin states -with the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another link is -supplied by a third group of states, namely, those parts -of the Empire which, either at or before the Latin conquest, -came under Latin rule. This class is not confined -to the Frank powers in Romania or to the Eastern settlements -of Venice and Genoa. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Sicily.<br /> -Kingdom of -Jerusalem.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From our point of view -it takes in the Norman kingdom of Sicily and the crusading -kingdom of Jerusalem with its fiefs. In all -these cases, territory which had formed part of the -Eastern Empire came under Latin rule. And in all -these cases, Latin masters bore rule over alien subjects, -Greek, Slave, Syrian, or any other. None of the Latin -powers were national states, like the Slavonic or even -like the Greek powers. But the foreign masters of these -lands were at least European and Christian. The last -class consists of powers which lie beyond the range of -European and Christian civilization. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Turkish -dynasties.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These are the -Turkish dynasties which arose within the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Ottomans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of -these only the last and greatest, the dynasty of <i>Othman</i>, -became geographically European, and swallowed -up nearly all the lands which had belonged to the -Empire in Europe, together with much which lay -beyond its bounds. Here we have, not only the -absence of national being, but the rule of the Asiatic -over the European, of the Mussulman over the Christian.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">{393}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The New -States.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, we come to the partial redressing of this -wrong by the re-establishment of independent Greek -and Slavonic states in our own century.</p> - -<p>These seem to make four natural groups, and it is -needful to bear in mind their nature and relations to -each other. But it will be more convenient to speak of -the several states thus formed in an order approaching -more nearly to the order of their separation from the -Empire. And first comes a power which parted off -so early, and which became so thoroughly a part of -Western Europe, that it needs an effort to grasp the -fact that its right place is among the powers which had -their beginning in separation from the Imperial throne -of Constantinople.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>The Kingdom of Sicily.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Norman -power in -Italy and -Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This is the power which, in the course of the eleventh -century, was formed by the Norman adventurers in -southern Italy and in Sicily. It was not wholly -formed at the expense of the Eastern Empire. But -all its insular, and the greater part of its continental, -territory, was either won from the Eastern Empire and -its vassals, or else had once formed part of that Empire. -Its kings also more than once established their power, -for a longer or shorter time, in the Imperial lands -east of the Hadriatic. With the Western Empire and -the Kingdom of Italy the Sicilian kingdom had in its -beginnings nothing to do, though it was afterwards -somewhat enlarged at their expense.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Possessions -of the -Empire in -Italy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>When the Norman conquests in Italy began, early -in the eleventh century, the Eastern Empire still kept -the coast of both seas from the further side of the peninsula<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">{394}</a></span> -of <i>Gargano</i> to the head of the gulf of <i>Policastro</i>. -The Imperial duchies of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi, -lying to the north of this point, were cut off by the -duchies of <i>Benevento</i>, <i>Capua</i>, and <i>Salerno</i>, over which -the Empire had at the most a very precarious superiority. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -the Normans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Within a hundred years, all these lands, together -with the island of Sicily, were brought under -Norman rule. Thus grew up a new European power, -sometimes forming one kingdom, sometimes two, sometimes -held alone, sometimes together with other kingdoms. -This power supplanted alike the Eastern Empire, -the Saracen powers of Sicily, and the Lombard -princes of southern Italy. It started from two points, -two distinct Norman settlements, of which the later outshone -the earlier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>County of -Aversa, -1021.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The earliest Norman territorial settlement -was the county of <i>Aversa</i>, held in vassalage of the -Imperial duchy of Naples. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Principality -of Capua, -1062-1068.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Forty years later its counts -became possessed of the principality of <i>Capua</i>, of which -they received a papal confirmation which implied a -denial of all dependence on either Empire. The more -lasting duchy of <i>Apulia</i> began later under the adventurers -of the house of Hauteville. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>County of -Apulia, -1042.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Their first stage is -marked by the foundation of the county of Apulia, with -<i>Melfi</i> as its capital, under William of-the-Iron-arm. -This took in the peninsula of Gargano and the lands -immediately to the south of it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Investiture -by Pope -Leo, 1053.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next stage is when -Leo the Ninth invested Count Humfrey, or rather the -Normans as a body, with all that they could conquer -in Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Robert -Wiscard -Duke, 1059.<br /> -Completion -of the -Apulian -duchy, -1077.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first of several -takings of <i>Tarentum</i>, and the assumption of the ducal -title by Robert Wiscard, mark another stage. Less -than twenty years later the Eastern Empire kept -nothing but the duchy of Naples; <i>Benevento</i> had passed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">{395}</a></span> -to the Popes. The rest of the lands both of the Empire -and of the Lombard princes were now very unequally -divided between two Norman lords, the Duke of Apulia -and the Prince of Capua. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Robert -Wiscard in -Epeiros, -1081-1085.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Byzantine power west of -the Hadriatic being thus overthrown, Robert Wiscard -for the first time pushed the Norman arms into the -Eastern peninsula itself. For the last few years of his -life he held the islands of Corfu and Kephallênia, with -Durazzo and the coast to the south, and even inland as -far as <i>Kastoria</i> and <i>Trikkala</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1147-1150.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -His power was renewed -for a moment by his son Bohemond, and in the middle -of the next century Corfu was again for a short time -held by King Roger.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Norman -Conquest of -Sicily, -1060-1093.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>For by that time the island of Sicily was a kingdom -of Western Christendom. The second time of Mussulman -rule over the whole island was short. In the -space of thirty years Count Roger won the great island -alike from Islam and from Eastern Christendom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Taking of -Messina, -1061;<br /> -of Palermo, -1072;<br /> -of Syracuse, -1086;<br /> -of Noto, -1091;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Greek Messina was first won; after a while Saracen Palermo followed; -Syracuse was won much later; the last Saracen post in the island to -hold out was <i>Noto</i> in the south-eastern corner. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Malta, -1091.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Malta</i>, the natural appendage of -Sicily, was soon added. The first Norman capital was -<i>Messina</i>. Duke Robert, as overlord of his brother -Count Roger, kept Palermo and the surrounding district -in his own hands. It was not till the next century -that the Count of Sicily won full possession of the -city. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Palermo -capital of -Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Palermo then became again, as it had been -under the Saracens, the head of Sicily.</p> - -<p>The ruler of Sicily also became a potentate on the -Italian mainland. First the half, then the whole, of -Calabria formed part of his dominions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Roger the -Second, -1105-1154.<br /> -King, 1130.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The third -Great Count, the first King, of Sicily, Roger the Second,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">{396}</a></span> -gradually won the whole possessions of his family on -the mainland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Capua, -1132-1136.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To these he presently added the Norman -principality of Capua, first as a dependent territory, -then as fully incorporated with his dominions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Naples, -1138.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -He -next won the last possession in the West which was still -held by the Eastern Empire, the city of Naples. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Abruzzi, -1140.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -He -then pressed beyond the bounds both of the Eastern -Empire and of the early Norman conquests by the annexation -of the <i>Abruzzi</i>. He then, as we have seen, -extended his power for a moment east of the Hadriatic. -Meanwhile he was more successful against the common -enemies of Eastern and Western Christendom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -in Africa, -1135-1137.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As -Sicily had twice been conquered from Africa, Africa -now began to be conquered from Sicily. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1160.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Roger held -a considerable dominion on the African coast including -<i>Mehadia</i>, <i>Bona</i>, and other points, which were lost -under his son William.</p> - -<p>Thus was founded a kingdom which has, perhaps -oftener than any other European state, been divided -and united and handed over from one dynasty of -strangers to another, but whose boundaries, strictly so -called, have hardly changed at all. For the only immediate -neighbour of the Sicilian king was his ecclesiastical -overlord. The question was whether the king of -the mainland should be also king of the island. But -the successive dynasties which reigned both over the -whole kingdom and over its divided parts were for a -long time eager to carry out the policy of their first -founder, by conquests east of the Hadriatic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Epeirot -conquests -of William -the Good, -1185.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before -the fall of the old Empire, William the Good began -again to establish an Epeirot and insular dominion by -the conquest of Durazzo, Corfu, Kephallênia, and -Zakynthos. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Margarito, -1186.<br /> -1338.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But these outlying dominions were granted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">{397}</a></span> -in fief to the Sicilian Admiral Margarito,<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> who, himself -bearing the strange title of <i>King of the Epeirots</i>, -founded a dynasty which, with the title of Count -Palatine, held <i>Kephallênia</i>, <i>Zakynthos</i>, and <i>Ithakê</i> into -the fourteenth century. Thus these lands, like Cyprus -and Trebizond, were cut off from the Empire -just before its fall, and the revolutions of Sicily cut -them off equally from the Sicilian kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Epeirot -dominion -of Manfred, -1258.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A more -lasting power in these regions began under Manfred, -who received with his Greek wife Corfu, Durazzo, -and a strip of the Albanian coast, with the title of -<i>Lord of Romania</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Charles -of Anjou, -1266-69.<br /> -1272-1276.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This dominion passed to his conqueror -Charles of Anjou, who further established -a feudal superiority over the Epeirot despotat. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1282.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -his plans were cut short by the revolution of the -Vespers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>History of -Durazzo, -1322.<br /> -Duchy of -Durazzo, -1333-1360.<br /> -1378.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Durazzo was lost and won more than once; -but it came back to the Angevin house, to become a -separate Angevin duchy, till it fell before the growth of -the Albanian powers. Another branch held <i>Lepanto</i>—once -<i>Naupaktos</i>—which lasted longer. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1373-1386.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Corfu and -Butrinto became immediate possessions of the Neapolitan -crown till they found more lasting masters -at Venice.</p> - -<p>This Eastern dominion of the two Sicilian crowns, -besides their influence of which we shall have presently -to speak in southern Greece, tends to keep up the connexion -of the Sicilian kingdoms with the Empire out -of which they sprang. But it can hardly be called a -geographical enlargement of the kingdoms themselves.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">{398}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acre occupied -by -Charles of -Anjou.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Still less can that name be given to the short occupation -of <i>Acre</i> by Charles of Anjou in his character of -one of the many Kings of Jerusalem. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Malta -granted -to the -Knights, -1530.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Sicilian -kingdoms themselves cannot be said to have gained or -lost territory till Charles the Fifth granted Malta to the -Knights of Saint John, till Philip the Second added -the <i>Stati degli Presidi</i> to the Two Sicilies. The great -revolution of all has taken place in our own day. The -name of Sicily has for the first time been wiped from -the European map. The island of Hierôn and Roger -has sunk to form seven provinces of a prince who has -not deigned to take the crown or the title of that -illustrious realm.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>The Crusading States.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -between -Sicily and -the crusading -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Sicilian kingdom has much in common with -the states formed by the crusaders in Asia and Eastern -Europe. Both grew out of lands won by Western -conquerors, partly from the Eastern Empire itself, partly -from Mussulman holders of lands which had belonged -to the Eastern Empire. But the order of the two processes -is different. The Sicilian Normans began by -conquering lands of the Empire, and then went on to -win the island which the Saracens had torn from the -Empire. The successive crusades first founded Christian -states in the lands which the Mussulmans had won -from the Empire, and then partitioned the Empire itself. -The first crusaders undertook to hold their conquest as -fiefs of the Eastern Empire. This condition was only -very partially carried out; but the mere theory marks -a stage in the relations between the Eastern Empire -and the Latin powers of Palestine which has nothing -answering to it in the case of Sicily.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">{399}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Jerusalem -and Frank -principalities -in -Syria.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>First among these powers come the <i>Kingdom of -Jerusalem</i> and the other Frank principalities which -arose out of the first crusade. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cyprus.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom of <i>Cyprus</i>, -which in some sort continued the Kingdom of Jerusalem, -forms a link between the true crusading states -and those which arose out of the partition of the Empire -in the fourth crusade. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Armenia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And closely connected -with this was the kingdom of <i>Kilikian Armenia</i> whose -foundation we have already mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> This last -was an Eastern state which became to some extent -Latinized. But the Syrian states, Cyprus, and the -Latin powers which arose out of the partition of the -Empire, all agree in being colonies of Western Europe -in Eastern lands, states where the Latin settlers appear -as a dominant race over the natives, of whatever blood -or creed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Crusaders -cut -off the Mussulmans -from the -sea.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The great geographical result of the first crusade -was to cut off the Mussulman powers from the seas -of Asia and Eastern Europe. In the first years of -the twelfth century the Christian powers, Byzantine, -Armenian, and Latin, held the whole coast of Asia -Minor and Syria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Kingdom -of -Jerusalem.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Kingdom of Jerusalem, at its -greatest extent, stretched along the coast from <i>Berytos</i> -to <i>Gaza</i>. To the east it reached some way beyond -Jordan and the Dead Sea, with a strip of territory -reaching southward to the eastern gulf of the Red Sea. -To the north lay two Latin states which, in the days of -Komnenian revival, acknowledged the superiority of the -Eastern Emperor. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tripolis.<br /> -Antioch.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were the county of <i>Tripolis</i>, -reaching northwards to the Syrian <i>Alexandretta</i>, and -the more famous principality of <i>Antioch</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>640.<br /> -968.<br /> -1081.<br /> -1098.<br /> -1268.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That great -city, lost to Christendom in the first days of Saracen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">{400}</a></span> -conquest, won back to the Empire in the Macedonian -revival, lost to the Turk, won back by the Frank, -remained a Christian principality long after the fall of -Jerusalem, and did not pass again under Mussulman -rule till late in the thirteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Edessa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -North-east of -Antioch lay the furthest of the Latin possessions, the -inland county of <i>Edessa</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1128-1173.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was the first to be -lost; it fell under the power of the Turkish Attabegs -of Syria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -lands -beyond -Jordan.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They cut short the kingdom of Jerusalem, -taking away the territory east of Jordan. On their -ruin arose the mightier power of Saladin, lord alike -of Egypt and Syria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Jerusalem -taken by -Saladin, -1187.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -He took Jerusalem, and the -kingdom which still bore that name was cut down to -the lands just round Tyre. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Jerusalem -recovered by -Frederick -the Second, -1228.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The crusades which followed -won back <i>Acre</i> and various points, and at last -the diplomacy of Frederick the Second won back from -the Egyptian Sultan Tyre, Sidon, and the Holy City -itself. A strip of coast running inland at two points, -so as to take in Tiberias and Nazareth at one end, -Jerusalem and Bethlehem at the other, formed the -Eastern realm of the lord of Rome and Sicily. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1239-1243.<br /> -Final loss -of Jerusalem, -1244.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lost -and won again by the Christians, Jerusalem was finally -won for Islam by the invasion of the Chorasmians -from the shores of the Caspian. But for nearly fifty -years longer the points on the coast were lost and won, -as the Mussulman powers or fresh crusaders from -Europe had the upper hand. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fall of -Acre, 1291.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With the fall of <i>Acre</i>, -the Latin dominion on the Syrian mainland came to an -end. The land won by the Western Christians from -the Mussulman went back to the disciples of the Prophet. -The land won by the Western Christian from -the Eastern, and the land where the Eastern Christian -still maintained his independence, held out longer.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">{401}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cyprus.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>These were the kingdoms of <i>Cyprus</i> and <i>Armenia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Famagosta -Genoese.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The frontier of Cyprus hardly admitted of geographical -change, unless it were when, for a part of the fourteenth -and fifteenth centuries, the city and haven of -<i>Famagosta</i> passed to Genoa. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Connexion -between -Cyprus and -Jerusalem.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kings of Cyprus -however claimed the crown of Jerusalem, and sometimes, -before the whole Syrian coast was lost, they -really held this or that piece of territory on the mainland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Armenia -acknowledges -the -Western -Emperor, -1190.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile the Armenian kingdom in some sort -entered the Western world, when its king, after receiving -one confirmation from the Eastern Emperor, -thought it wise to receive another from the Western -Emperor also. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1342.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom, though sadly cut short -by its Mussulman neighbours, lived on under native -princes till the middle of the fourteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Connexion -between -Armenia -and -Cyprus, -1393.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then -the fragments of the kingdom passed, first to a branch of -the Cypriot royal family, and then to the reigning king -of Cyprus. But the first joint reign was the last. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>End of -Armenia -and -Cyprus, -1489.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -remnant of independent Armenia was swallowed up by -the Mameluke lords of Syria, while Cyprus lingered on -till Saint Mark and his commonwealth became the heirs -of its last king.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The kingdom of Cyprus forms a link between the -Latin states in Syria and those which arose in Romania -after the crusading capture of Constantinople. And these -last again fall into two classes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Frank principalities -in -Greece.<br /> -Possessions -of the -maritime -commonwealths.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There are the Frank -principalities on the mainland of Greece, and there are -the lands, chiefly insular, which fell to the lot of the -maritime commonwealths of the West and of their -citizens. Among these the first place belongs to the -great commonwealth which had now cast off all traces -of allegiance to the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Genoa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Genoa</i>, which had no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">{402}</a></span> -share in the original partition of the Empire, obtained -several points of Imperial territory, both for the commonwealth -itself and for particular Genoese citizens. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the part played by Genoa in the East is small -beside the great and abiding dominion of Venice. -No result of the partition was greater than the field -which it gave to Venetian growth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -between -the two.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The position of -the two commonwealths is different. Genoa was a -mere stranger in the East; Venice was in a manner at -home. Once an outlying possession of the Empire, -her really great historical position is due to her share -in its overthrow.</p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>The Eastern Dominion of Venice and Genoa.</i></h3> - -<p>We have already seen the origin of the Venetian -state, and the beginning of Venetian rule over the Slavonic -coasts of the Hadriatic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Connexion -of the -Dalmatian -and Greek -dominion of -Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Eastern dominion -of Venice now began, and, in a strictly geographical -view, her Istrian and Dalmatian dominion cannot be -separated from her Albanian and purely Greek dominion. -But Venice did not become a great European -power till she passed from the Slavonic lands whose -connexion with the Empire was nominal or precarious -into the Albanian and Greek lands which were among -its immediate possessions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of -the partition -on -Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The greatness of Venice -dates from that partition of the Empire which was the -surest proof that she had wholly cast aside her Byzantine -allegiance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -between -Venice and -Sicily.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In this point of view the history of Venice -may be compared and contrasted with the history of -Sicily. In each case, a part of the dominions of the -Eastern Rome grew into a separate power; that power -passed, so to speak, from Eastern Europe to Western,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">{403}</a></span> -and, in its new Western character, it appeared as a conqueror -in the Eastern lands. But, as Venice and Sicily -parted from the Empire in different ways, so their later -relations to the Empire were widely different. The -Sicilian state began in actual conquests made by foreign -invaders at the expense of the Empire. Venice was a -dependency of the Empire which gradually drifted into -independence. Thus Sicily became more thoroughly -Western than Venice. The attempts of the kings, both -of the whole Sicilian kingdom and of its divided parts, -to establish an Eastern dominion were attacks from -without, and were not really lasting. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venice -inherits -the position -of the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Venice, whose -princes were lords of one fourth and one eighth of the -Empire of Romania,<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> took up in some sort the position of -the Empire itself. If she destroyed one bulwark against -the Mussulman, she set up another. As long as Venice -was really a great power, her main interests lay east of -the Hadriatic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Importance -of the -fourth crusade -in -Venetian -history.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The fourth crusade was her turning -point. It was at once the beginning of her Greek -dominion and the recovery of her Dalmatian dominion.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Territory -assigned to -Venice by -the Act of -Partition.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The scheme of partition gave to Venice a vast -dominion, insular and continental. She was to be mistress -of the Hadriatic and Ionian seas. To her were -assigned, not only the islands off the west coast of the -Empire, but the whole western coast itself, from the -north of Albania to the southern point of Peloponnêsos. -She was to have some points in the Ægæan, among -them <i>Oreos</i> and <i>Karystos</i> at the two ends of Euboia. -She was to have her quarter of the capital, with a -Thracian and an Asiatic dominion, including, according<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">{404}</a></span> -to some versions, the strange allotment of <i>Lazia</i> at the -east of the Euxine<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her actual -possessions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The actual possessions of Venice -in the East have a very different look. Much of the -territory which was assigned to the republic never -became hers, while she obtained large possessions -which were not assigned to her. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her dominion -primarily -Hadriatic.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the main point, -the dominion of the Hadriatic, was never forgotten, -though some both of her earliest and of her latest -conquests lay beyond its necessary range.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Possessions -not assigned -by -the partition.<br /> -Crete. -1206-1669.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Among those possessions of Venice which were not -assigned to her in the act of partition was her greatest -and most lasting possession of all, the island of <i>Crete</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1645-1669.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This she won almost at the first moment of the conquest, -and she kept it for more than four centuries and a half, -till the war of <i>Candia</i> handed over all Crete, save two -fortresses, to the Ottoman. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisition -of -Cyprus. -1489.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before this loss, Saint Mark -had won and lost another great island which lay altogether -beyond the scheme of the Latin conquerors of -Constantinople. Late in the fifteenth century the -republic succeeded the Latin kings in the possession of -<i>Cyprus</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Cyprus, -1571.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But this was held for less than a century. -Cyprus, like Crete and Sicily, was a special scene of -struggle between European and barbarian powers. But -it shared the fate, not of Sicily but of Crete, and became -the solid prize of the Ottoman, when Christendom won -the barren laurels of Lepanto. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Occupation -of Thessalonikê, -1426-1430.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another possession -which lay out of the usual course of Venetian dominion -was the short occupation of <i>Thessalonikê</i>. Bought of -a Greek despot, it was after four years taken by the -Turk. Had Thessalonikê been kept, it might have -passed as a late compensation to the republic for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">{405}</a></span> -early loss of Hadrianople and her other Thracian -territory.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venetian -power -both Dalmatian -and -Greek.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But the true scene of Venetian enterprise in the -East is primarily the Hadriatic, and next to that, the -coasts and islands of the Ægæan. She remained both a -Dalmatian and a Greek power down to the moment of -her overthrow, and, at the moment of her overthrow, -it was not eighty years since she had ceased to be a -Peloponnesian and an Ægæan power. The Greek -dominion of Venice was an enlargement of her Dalmatian -dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Taking of -Zara, -1202.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is significant that Zara was taken—not -for the first or the last time—on the way to -the taking of Constantinople. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hadriatic -dominion -of Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Already mistress, or -striving to be mistress, of the northern part of the -eastern coast of the Hadriatic, the partition of the -Empire opened to Venice the hope of becoming mistress -of the southern part. Mistress of the whole coast she -never was at any one moment; one point was gained -and another lost. But extension in those lands was -steadily aimed at for more than seven hundred -years, and the greater part of the eastern Hadriatic -coast has been, at one time or another, under Venetian -rule.</p> - -<p>The story of Venetian dominion in these parts cannot -be kept apart from the story of the neighbouring -Slavonic lands. The states of Servia and Croatia were -from the beginning the inland neighbours of the Dalmatian -coast cities. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Servian districts -on the -coast.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The river Tzettina may pass as the -boundary between the Servian and Croatian states. -<i>Pagania</i> on the Narenta, <i>Zachloumia</i> between the Narenta -and Ragusa, <i>Terbounia</i>, represented by the modern -<i>Trebinje</i>, the coast district of the <i>Canali</i>, <i>Dioklea</i>, -taking in the modern Montenegro with the coast as far<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">{406}</a></span> -as the Drin—<i>Skodra</i> or <i>Scutari</i> on its lake, the harbours -of <i>Spizza</i>, <i>Antivari</i>, and <i>Dulcigno</i>, were all originally -Servian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Dalmatian -cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Dalmatian coast cities, <i>Dekatera</i> or <i>Cattaro</i>, -<i>Raousion</i> or <i>Ragusa</i>, <i>Tragourion</i> or <i>Traü</i>, <i>Diadora</i>, -<i>Jadera</i>, or <i>Zara</i>, formed a Roman fringe on what -had become a Slavonic body. It was not even a continuous -fringe, as the Slaves came down to the sea at -more than one point. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pagania.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Pagania</i> above all, the land of -the heathen Narentines, cut Roman Dalmatia into two -marked parts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It even took in most of the great islands, -<i>Curzola</i>—once <i>Black Korkyra</i>—<i>Meleda</i>, <i>Lesina</i>—once -<i>Pharos</i>—and others. At the separation of the two -Empires the Croatian power was strongest in those -lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Croatia -under -Charles the -Great, 806-810.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The wars of Charles the Great left the coast -cities to the Eastern Empire, while inland Dalmatia -and Croatia passed under Frankish rule. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>825-830.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently -Croatia won its independence of the Western Empire, -while the coast cities were practically lost by the -Eastern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlement -under Basil -the Macedonian, -868-878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Basil the Macedonian the Imperial -authority was admitted, in name at least, both by the -cities and by the Croatian prince. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First Venetian -Conquest, -995-997.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -More than a century -later came the first Venetian conquest, which was -looked on at Venice as a deliverance of the cities from -Croatian rule. The pagan power on the Narenta was -destroyed, and the Duke of Venice took the title of <i>Duke -of Dalmatia</i>. But all this involved no formal separation -from the Empire.<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The cities -under -Croatia, -1052.<br /> -Dalmatian -Kingdom, -1062.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such a separation may be held to -have taken place in the middle of the next century,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">{407}</a></span> -when the cities again passed under Croatian rule, and -when the taking of the title of <i>King of Dalmatia</i> by -Croatian Kresimir may pass for an assertion of complete -independence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Magyar -Kingdom of -Croatia, -1091; <br /> -of -Dalmatia, -1102.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the kingdoms, first of Croatia, -then of Dalmatia, were presently swallowed up by the -growing power of the Magyar. Then comes a time in -which this city and that passes to and fro between -Venice and Hungary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Croatia and -Dalmatia -restored to -the Empire, -1171.<br /> -Dalmatia -passes to -Hungary.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Manuel Komnênos the -whole of Croatia and Dalmatia was fully restored to the -Empire; but ten years later the cities again passed to -Hungary. This was their final separation from the -Empire, and by this time Venice had thrown off all -Byzantine allegiance.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Struggle -for the -dominion of -Dalmatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>From this time the history of Croatia forms part of -the history of the Hungarian kingdom. The history -of Dalmatia becomes part of the long struggle of -Venice for Hadriatic dominion. For five hundred -years the cities and islands of the whole Hadriatic -coast were lost and won over and over again in the -strifes of the powers of the mainland. These were in -Dalmatia the Hungarian and Bosnian Kings; more to -the south they were the endless powers which rose and -fell in Albania and northern Greece. In after times the -Ottoman took the place of all. And many of the cities -were able, amid the disputes of their stronger neighbours, -to make themselves independent commonwealths -for a longer or shorter time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Independence -of -Ragusa;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Ragusa</i>, above all, kept -her independence during the whole time, modified in -later times by a certain external dependence on the -Turk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Polizza.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And the almost invisible inland commonwealth -of <i>Polizza</i>—a Slavonic San Marino—kept its separate -being into the present century.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -between -Venice and -Hungary, -1315.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The crusading conquest of Zara was the beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">{408}</a></span> -of this long struggle. The frontier fluctuated during -the whole of the thirteenth century; early in the -fourteenth the whole coast was again Venetian. -Meanwhile the republic was striving to make good -her position further south. The Epeirot despotat -long hindered her establishment either on the coasts -or the islands of northern Greece. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final conquest -of -Durazzo -and Corfu, -1206.<br /> -1216.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Durazzo, the -central point between the older and the newer Venetian -range, was won, along with Corfu, in the earliest -days of the conquest; but they were presently -lost, to come back again in after times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>History of -Corfu.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The famous -island of Korkyra or Corfu has a special history of its -own. No part of Greece has been so often cut off from -the Greek body. Under Pyrrhos and Agathoklês, no -less than under Michael Angelos and Roger, it obeyed -an Epeirot or a Sicilian master. It was among the -first parts of Greece to pass permanently under Roman -dependence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -Venetian -conquest of -Corfu, -1386-1797.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last, after yet another turn of Sicilian -rule, it passed for four hundred years to the great commonwealth. -In our own day Corfu was not added to -free Greece till long after the deliverance of Attica and -Peloponnêsos. But, under so many changes of foreign -masters, the island has always remained part of Europe -and of Christendom. Alone among the Greek lands, -Corfu has never passed under barbarian rule. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1716.<br /> -1800.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It has -seen the Turk only, for one moment as an invader, for -another moment as a nominal overlord.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greek -advance of -Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The second Venetian occupation of Corfu was the -beginning of a great advance among the neighbouring -islands. But, during the hundred and eighty years -between the two occupations, the main fields of Venetian -action lay more to the north and more to the -south. The Greek acquisitions of the republic at this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">{409}</a></span> -time were in Peloponnêsos and the Ægæan islands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Modon and -Coron, -1206.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the mainland she won, at the very beginning of -Latin settlement in the East, the south-western peninsula -of Peloponnêsos, with the towns of <i>Methônê</i> and -<i>Kôrônê</i>—otherwise <i>Modon</i> and <i>Coron</i>—which she held -for nearly three hundred years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>History of -Euboia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Among the Ægæan -islands Venice began very early to win an influence -in the greatest of their number, that of <i>Euboia</i>, -often disguised under the specially barbarous name of -<i>Negropont</i>.<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The history of that island, the endless -shiftings between its Latin lords and the neighbouring -powers of all kinds, is the most perplexed -part of the perplexed Greek history of the time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Complete -occupation -of Euboia, -1390.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Venice, mixed up in its affairs throughout, obtained in -the end complete possession, but not till after the -second occupation of Corfu. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Turkish -conquest of -Euboia, -1470.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The island was kept till -the Turkish conquest eighty years later. Several other -islands were held by the republic at different times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -Ægæan -islands, -1718.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of these <i>Tênos</i> and <i>Mykonos</i> were not finally lost till -Venice was in the eighteenth century confined to the -western seas.</p> - -<p>Between the first and the second occupation of -Corfu, the Venetian power in Dalmatia had risen and -fallen again. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peace of -Zara, 1358.<br /> -Dalmatia -Hungarian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the peace of Zara, Lewis the Great of -Hungary shut out Venice altogether from the Dalmatian -coasts, and, as Dalmatian King, he required the -Venetian Duke to give up his Dalmatian title. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New -advance of -Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later -in the century Venice again gained ground, and her -Dalmatian, Albanian, and Greek possessions began to -draw near together, and to form one whole, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">{410}</a></span> -never a continuous whole. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1378-1455.<br /> -Recovery -of Dalmatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the space of about -eighty years, amid many fluctuations towards Hungary, -Bosnia, and Genoa—a new claimant called into rivalry -by the war of Chioggia—Venice again became mistress -of the greater part of Dalmatia. Some districts however -formed part of the Duchy of <i>Saint Sava</i>, and Hungary -kept part of the inland territory, with the fortress -of <i>Clissa</i>. The point where the Hadriatic coast turns -nearly due south may be taken as the boundary of the -lasting and nearly continuous dominion of the Republic; -but for the present the Venetian power went on spreading -far south of that point. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance in -Albania -and Greece, -1392.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the second occupation -of Corfu followed the acquisition of <i>Durazzo</i>, <i>Alessio</i>, -and of the Albanian <i>Skodra</i> or <i>Scutari</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1401.<br /> -1407.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Butrinto</i> and -the ever memorable <i>Parga</i> put themselves under Venetian -protection, and <i>Lepanto</i> was ceded by a Prince of -Achaia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1388.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Peloponnêsos the Messenian towns were -still held, and to them were now added <i>Argos</i> and its -port of <i>Nauplia</i>, known in Italian as <i>Napoli di Romania</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1408-1415.<br /> -1419.<br /> -1423.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Patras</i> was held for a few years, <i>Monembasia</i> was won, -and the isle of <i>Aigina</i>, which might almost pass for -part of Peloponnêsos. On the other side of Greece, the -possession of Corfu led to the acquisition of the other -so-called Ionian Islands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Western -Islands. -1449.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The prince of <i>Kephallênia</i>, of -<i>Zakynthos</i> or <i>Zante</i>, and of <i>Leukadia</i> or <i>Santa Maura</i>, -found it to his interest, for fear of the advancing Ottoman, -to put his dominions under the overlordship of -Saint Mark.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venice the -champion -against the -Turk.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This marks an epoch in the history of Venice and of -Europe. The championship of Christendom against the -Turk now passes from the New Rome to the hardly less -Byzantine city in the Lagoons. The short occupation -of Thessalonikê may pass for the beginning of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">{411}</a></span> -struggle. Later in the fifteenth century, Venice and -the Turk were meeting at every point. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Argos, -1463.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Peloponnêsos, -<i>Argos</i> was first lost to the Turk; at the same -moment he appeared far to the north, and gradually -occupied the Bosnian and Hungarian districts of Dalmatia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1505-1699.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries -the inland districts and the smaller towns were -lost over and over again, but the Republic always kept -the chief coast cities, <i>Zara</i>, <i>Sebenico</i>, and <i>Spalato</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Losses of -Venice.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, to the south of Dalmatia, the Venetian power -went back everywhere, except in the western islands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1474-1478.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the mainland <i>Croja</i>, the city of Scanderbeg, was -held for a while. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1479.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But both Croja and Skodra were won -by Mahomet the Conqueror, and the treaty which -ended this war left to the Republic nothing on the -coast of Albania and Northern Greece, save <i>Durazzo</i>, -<i>Antivari</i>, and <i>Butrinto</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1500.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The treaty which followed -the next war took away <i>Durazzo</i>, <i>Butrinto</i>, and <i>Lepanto</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Western -Islands, -1481-1483.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A series of revolutions in the islands of which -the Republic already held the overlordship placed them -under her immediate dominion, to be struggled for -against the Turk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1485.<br /> -1502.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the next peace <i>Zakynthos</i> was kept, on payment of a tribute to the Sultan; -<i>Kephallênia</i> passed to the Turk, to be won back seventeen -years later, and then to be permanently kept. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1502-1504.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Leukadia</i> -was at the same time won for a moment and lost again. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -Peloponnesian -fortresses, -1502.<br /> -1540.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Peloponnêsos <i>Modon</i> and <i>Koron</i> were lost along -with <i>Durazzo</i> and <i>Lepanto</i>, and the great naval war with -Suleiman cost the Republic her last Peloponnesian possessions, -<i>Nauplia</i> and <i>Monembasia</i>, together with all -her Ægæan islands, except <i>Tênos</i> and <i>Mykonos</i>. The -strictly Greek dominion of Venice was now for a hundred -and forty years confined to the islands, and, after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">{412}</a></span> -the loss of Cyprus and Crete, almost wholly to the -Western islands. But after the loss of Crete came a -revival of the Venetian power, like one of the old revivals -of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venetian -conquest of -Peloponnêsos, -1685-1699.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great campaigns of Francesco -Morosini, confirmed by the peace of Carlowitz, -freed all Peloponnêsos from the Turk, and added it -to the dominion of Saint Mark.</p> - -<p>The same treaty confirmed Venice in the possession -of the greater part of Dalmatia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Peloponnêsos, -1715-1718.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next war cost -her the whole of Peloponnêsos, her two Cretan fortresses, -and her two remaining Ægæan islands. She -now withdrew wholly to the western side of Greece, -where she had again won <i>Leukadia</i> and <i>Butrinto</i>, -and had enlarged her dominion by the acquisition of -<i>Prevesa</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -Venetian -dominion -in Greece -in the last -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the last century the Venetian possessions -in Greece consisted of the seven so-called Ionian -islands, with the continental posts of <i>Butrinto</i>, <i>Prevesa</i>, -and <i>Parga</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venetian -territory in -Dalmatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Dalmatian territory of the Republic during the -same time consisted of a considerable inland district in -the north-east, and of the whole coast down to <i>Budua</i>, -except where the territory of independent Ragusa -broke the continuity of her rule. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ragusan -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Ragusa was so -jealous of the mightier commonwealth that she preferred -the Turk as a neighbour. At two points of the -coast, at <i>Klek</i> at the bottom of the gulf formed by the -long peninsula of Sabbioncello, and again at <i>Sutorina</i> -on the <i>Bocche</i>, the Ottoman territory came down to -the sea, so as to isolate the dominion of Ragusa from -the Venetian possessions on either side. Such was the -frontier of the two Hadriatic commonwealths down -to the days when, first Venice and then Ragusa, passed -away.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">{413}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Possession -of Venetian -cities.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Meanwhile, besides the direct possessions of the -Venetian commonwealth, there were other lands within -the former dominions of the Eastern Empire which were -held by Venetian lords, as vassals either of the republic -or of the Empire of Romania. It would be endless to -trace out the revolutions of every Ægæan island; but -one among the few which claim our notice became the -seat of a dynasty which proved, next to the Venetian -commonwealth itself, the most long-lived Latin power -in the Greek world. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Duchy -of Naxos.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This is the duchy variously -known as that of <i>Naxos</i>, of the <i>Dôdekannêsos</i>, and -of the <i>Archipelago</i>, the barbarous name given to the -Ægæan or <i>White Sea</i>.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1207.<br /> -1566.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Founded in the early years -of Latin settlement by the Venetian Marco Sanudo, -the island duchy lived on as a Latin state, commonly -as a vassal or tributary state of some greater -power, till the last half of the sixteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexed -by the -Turk, -1579.<br /> -1617.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Shorn of many of its islands by its Ottoman overlord, -granted afresh to a Jewish duke, it passed thirteen -years later under the immediate dominion of the Sultan. -Most of the <i>Kyklades</i> were either parts of this duchy -or fiefs held of it by other Venetian families. All came -into the hands of the Turk; but some of the very -smallest remained merely tributary, and not fully annexed, -into the seventeenth century.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlements -of Genoa -and of -Genoese -citizens.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The year which saw the Naxian duchy pass from -Latin to Hebrew hands saw the fall of the most remarkable -of the Genoese settlements in the Greek lands. -These settlements, like those of Venice, formed two -classes, those which were possessions of the Genoese<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">{414}</a></span> -commonwealth itself and those which came into the -hands of Genoese citizens. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1304.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Genoa had no share in the -fourth Crusade; she had therefore no share in the -division of the Empire, though, after the restoration of -Byzantine rule, her colony of <i>Galata</i> made her almost -a sharer in the capital of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Possessions -of Genoa -on the -Euxine, -1461.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the seat -of direct Genoese dominion in the East was not the -Ægæan but the Euxine. On the southern coast of that -sea the republic held <i>Amastris</i> and <i>Amisos</i>, and in the -Tauric Chersonêsos was her great colony of <i>Kaffa</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1475.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Euxine dominion of Genoa came to an end during -the later half of the fifteenth century; but it outlived -the Empires both of Constantinople and of Trebizond.</p> - -<p>The Ægæan dominion of the citizens of Genoa was -longer lived than the Euxine dominion of Genoa herself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lesbos. -1354-1462.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The family of Gattilusio received <i>Lesbos</i> as an -Imperial fief in the fourteenth century, and kept it -till after the fall of Constantinople. But the most remarkable -Genoese settlement in the Ægæan was that -of <i>Chios</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Zaccaria -at -Chios. -1304-1346.<br /> -The -Maona. -1346-1566.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First held by princes of the Genoese house -of Zaccaria, the island, with some of its neighbours, -passed into the hands of a Genoese commercial company -or <i>Maona</i>, a body somewhat like our own East -India Company. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1566.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Samos</i>, <i>Kôs</i>, and <i>Phôkaia</i> on the -mainland, came at different times under their power, -and Chios did not fall under the Ottoman yoke till the -same year as the duchy of Naxos.</p> - - -<p class="p2">One more insular dominion remains, chiefly famous -as the possession, not indeed of a commonwealth, but of -an order. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revolutions -of -Rhodes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In a few years of the thirteenth century -the island of <i>Rhodes</i> passed through all possible revolutions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1233.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the first moment of the Latin conquest, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">{415}</a></span> -became an independent Greek principality, like Epeiros -and Trebizond. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1246.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then it admitted the overlordship of the -Nicene Emperors. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1249.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Seized by Genoa, it was presently -won back to the Empire, till seventy years later it was -again seized by the Knights of Saint John. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Establishment -of the -Knights, -1310.<br /> -1315.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From -Rhodes as a centre, the order established its dominion -over <i>Kôs</i> and some other islands, and on some points -of the Asiatic coast, especially their famous fortress of -<i>Halikarnassos</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1480.<br /> -1522.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They beat back Mahomet the Conqueror, -but they yielded to Suleiman the Lawgiver -forty years later. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their removal -to -Malta, -1530.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Banished from Rhodes, the order -received <i>Malta</i> from Charles the Fifth as a fief of his -Sicilian kingdom. We are thus brought back to the -island which had been lost to the Eastern Empire for -seven hundred years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1566.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The knights in their new home -beat back their former conqueror Suleiman, and kept -their island till the times of confusion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revolutions -of -Malta.<br /> -1814.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Held by France, -held by England, held, nominally at least, by its own -Sicilian overlord, this fragment of the Empire of Leo -and of the kingdom of Roger finally passed at the -peace under the acknowledged rule of England.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>The Principalities of the Greek Mainland.</i></h3> - -<p>The Greek possessions of Venice, of Genoa, and of -the Knights of Saint John, consisted mainly of islands -and detached points of coast. The Venetian conquest of -Peloponnêsos was the only exception on a great scale. -In this they are distinguished from the several powers, -Greek and Frank, which arose on the Greek mainland. -We have already heard, and we shall hear again, of the -Greek despotat of Epeiros, which for a moment grew -into an Empire of Thessalonikê. Among the Latin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">{416}</a></span> -powers two rose to European importance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Athens.<br /> -Principality -of Achaia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These are -the <i>duchy of Athens</i> in central Greece—in <i>Hellas</i>, -according to the Byzantine nomenclature—and the -principality of <i>Achaia</i> or <i>Môraia</i> in Peloponnêsos. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -name -Môraia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last name, of uncertain origin,<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> has come, in its -Italian shape, to be a modern name of the peninsula -itself. But the name of <i>Môraia</i> seems strictly to -belong to the domain lands of the principality, and -never to go beyond the bounds of the principality, -which at no time took in the whole of Peloponnêsos.</p> - -<p class="pb2">Both these powers were founded in the first days -of the Latin conquest, and the Turk did not finally -annex the territories of either till after the fall of -Constantinople. But while the Athenian duchy lived -on to become itself the prize of Mahomet the Conqueror, -the lands of the Achaian principality had already -gone back into Greek hands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lordship of -Athens. -1204-1205.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The lordship of Athens, -founded by Otho de la Roche, was first a fief of the -kingdom of Thessalonikê, then of the Empire of Romania. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Duchy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was by the grant of Saint Lewis of -France that the title of <i>Great Lord</i><a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> was exchanged -for that of <i>Duke</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1260.<br /> -The Catalan -Conquest, -1311.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The duchy fell into the hands of the -Catalan Great Company, who in central Greece grew -from mere ravagers into territorial occupiers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Sicilian -Dukes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They -brought with them the Thessalian land of <i>Neopatra</i>, and -transferred the nominal title of <i>Duke of Athens and -Neopatra</i> to princes of the Sicilian branch of the House -of Aragon. Thus the two claimants of the Sicilian -crown were brought face to face on old Greek ground.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">{417}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dukes of -the house of -Acciauoli.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The duchy next passed to the Florentine house of Acciauoli, -which already held Corinth, Megara, Sikyôn, and -the greater part of Argolis. But their Peloponnesian -dominion passed to the Byzantine lords of the peninsula, -and Neopatra fell into the hands of the Turk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1390.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Athenian duchy itself, taking in Attica and Boiôtia, -lived on, the vassal in turn of the Angevin king at -Naples, of the Greek despot of Peloponnêsos, and of -the Ottoman Sultan. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ottoman -conquest. -1456-1460.<br /> -1466.<br /> -1687.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Annexed at last to the Ottoman -dominions, Athens remained in bondage till our own -day, save only two momentary occupations by Venice, -one soon after the first conquest, the other in the great -war of Morosini.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Salôna and -Bodonitza.<br /><hr />The Principality -of -Achaia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The smaller principalities of <i>Salôna</i> and <i>Bodonitza</i> -play their part in the history of the Athenian duchy; -but we turn to the chief Latin power of Peloponnêsos, -the principality of Achaia. The shiftings of its dynasties -and feudal relations are endless; its geographical -history is simpler. The peninsula was, at the time -of the Latin conquest, already beginning to fall away -from the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1205.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -King Boniface of Thessalonikê -had to win the land from its Greek lord Leôn Sgouros. -The princes of the house of Champlitte and Villehardouin -were his vassals. They had to struggle with -the Venetian settlement in Messênia, and with the -Greek despot of Epeiros, who, oddly enough, held -Corinth, Argos, and Nauplia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1210-1212.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These last towns were -won by the Latins, and became an Achaian fief in the -hands of Otho of Athens. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its greatest -extent. -1248.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before the end of half a -century, the conquest of the whole peninsula, save -the Venetian possessions, was completed by the taking -of <i>Monembasia</i>. Things looked as if, now that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">{418}</a></span> -Latin power was waning at Constantinople, a stronger -Latin power had arisen in Peloponnêsos. A crowd of -Greek lands, Zakynthos, Naxos, Euboia, Athens, even -Epeiros and Thessalonikê, acknowledged at one time or -another the supremacy of Achaia. But Latin Achaia, -like Latin Constantinople, had to yield to revived -Greek energy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of lands in -Peloponnêsos -by -the Empire -1262.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Empire won back the three Lacedæmonian -fortresses,<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> and presently made <i>Kalabryta</i> in -northern Arkadia a Greek outpost. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1263.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Here the Greek -advance stopped for a while.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Angevin -overlordship. -1278.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Before the end of the century the Frank principality -lost its independence. It passed into vassalage -to the Angevin crown, and was held, sometimes by the -Neapolitan kings themselves, sometimes by princes of -their house—some of them nominal Emperors of Romania—sometimes -by princes of Savoy, who carried -the Achaian name into Northern Italy.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dismemberment -of -the principality. -1337.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the course -of the fourteenth century the principality crumbled -away. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1356.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Patras</i> became an ecclesiastical principality -under the overlordship of the Pope of the Old Rome. -Argos and its port became a separate lordship. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1358.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Both of these passed for a longer or a shorter -time under the power of Venice. Corinth and the -north-east corner of the peninsula passed to the Acciauoli. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Byzantine -advance. -1348-1383.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meantime the Byzantine province grew. For -some while, under despots of the house of Kantakouzênos, -it might almost pass for an independent Greek -state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1381.<br /> -1387.<br /> -1442.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Notwithstanding the inroads of the Navarrese, -the second Spanish invaders of Greece, and the first -appearance of the Ottoman, the Greek power advanced, -till it took in all Peloponnêsos save the Venetian towns. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Constantine -Palaiologos.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last Constantine even appeared as a conqueror at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">{419}</a></span> -Athens and in central Greece. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1458-1460.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then came more Ottoman -inroads, dismemberment, Albanian colonization, -final annexation by the Turk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Successive -Turkish -conquests -of Peloponnêsos.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the last conqueror -has been twice driven to conquer Peloponnêsos -afresh. The first revolt under Venetian support was -crushed a few years after the first conquest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1463-1540.<br /> -1670.<br /> -1685.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then -the Turk gradually gathered in the Venetian ports, -and the whole peninsula was his, save so far as <i>Maina</i> -kept on a kind of wild independence almost down -to the last Venetian conquest. The complete and -unbroken possession of all Peloponnêsos by the -Ottoman has never filled up the whole of any one -century.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Despotat of -Epeiros.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have seen how the despotat of Epeiros parted -away from the momentary Empire of Thessalonikê. -The despots, like their neighbours, often found it convenient -to acknowledge the overlordship of some other -power, Venice, Nikaia, Sicily, or Achaia. The boundaries -of their dominions were greatly cut short by the -advance of the restored Empire and by the cessions to -Manfred of Sicily. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dismemberment -of -the despotat.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A state was left which took in old -Epeiros, Akarnania, and Aitôlia, save the points on the -coast which were held by other powers. <i>Arta</i>, the old -<i>Ambrakia</i>, was, as in the days of Pyrrhos, its head. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1271-1318.<br /> -1309.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another branch reigned in <i>Great Blachia</i> or Thessaly, -with its capital at <i>Neopatra</i>, a capital presently lost to -the Catalan invaders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1318.<br /> -1339.<br /> -Servian -conquest. -1331-1355.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Next the greater part of Thessaly, -and then Epeiros itself, were recovered by the Empire, -and then all gradually passed under the Servian power. -On the break-up of that power came a time of utter -confusion and endless shiftings, which has however one -marked feature. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -of the -Albanians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Albanian race now comes fully<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">{420}</a></span> -to the front. Albanian settlers press into all the southern -lands, and Albanian principalities stand forth on a level -with those held by Greek and Latin lords.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kings of -Albania of -the house of -Thopia, -1358-1392.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The chief Albanian power which arose within the -bounds of the despotat was the house of <i>Thopia</i> in -northern Epeiros. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1366.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They called themselves <i>Kings of -Albania</i>; they won Durazzo from the Angevins, and -their power lasted till that duchy passed to Venice. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Servian -dynasty in -Epeiros. -1359.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To -the south of them, in southern Epeiros, Akarnania, -and Aitolia, reigned a Servian dynasty, whose prince -Stephen Urosh added Thessaly to his dominions, and -called himself <i>Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks</i>.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1363.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -His -western dominion passed from him. A Servian despot -ruled at <i>Jôannina</i>, and an Albanian despot at <i>Arta</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Thessaly.<br /> -Turkish -conquest.<br /> -1393.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -Thessaly went on as a kingdom, taking in the greater -part of the land anciently so called,<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> a kingdom which -was the first Hellenic land to pass under the power -of the Turk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1396.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Neopatra and Salôna followed, and the -Ottoman power stretched to the Corinthian gulf, and -parted asunder the still independent states of Western -Greece from Attica and Peloponnêsos.</p> - -<p>In Epeiros the Servian and Albanian despots had -both to yield to Italian houses. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Buondelmonti -in -Northern -Epeiros.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Northern Epeiros passed -to the Florentine house of <i>Buondelmonte</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The house -of Tocco.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south -arose a dynasty of greater interest, the Beneventan -house of <i>Tocco</i>, the last independent princes in Western -Greece. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1357.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They first, as counts palatine, held Kephallênia -and Zakynthos as a fief of the Latin Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1362.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then -they won Leukadia with the ducal title. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1394.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They next -began a continental dominion, first for a moment in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">{421}</a></span> -Peloponnêsos, then more lastingly in the lands near their -island duchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1405-1418.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Duke Charles of Leukadia gradually -won all Epeiros save the Venetian posts; and he, his wife, -and his heirs were called Despot of Romania, King -of Epeiros, and even Empress of the Romans.<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its effects.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This -dynasty, though not long-lived on the mainland, is of -real and abiding importance in the history of the Greek -nation. The advance of the Albanians was checked; -their settlements were thrust further north and further -south, while the Beneventan dominions became and remained -purely Greek. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Venetian -and -Turkish -occupation. -1430.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Soon after the death of Duke -Charles, the Turk won Jôannina and the greater part -of Epeiros; but his son kept <i>Arta</i> and its neighbourhood -for nineteen years as a vassal of Venice. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1449.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then -the dominions of Duke <i>Charles</i> became the Turkish -province of <i>Karlili</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1449-1479.<br /> -1481-1483.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The house of Tocco kept its island -possessions for thirty years longer. Then they too -passed to the Turk, to be recovered for a moment by -their own Duke, and then to be struggled for between -Turk and Venetian.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Northern -Albania.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile the strictly Albanian lands, from the -Akrokeraunian point northwards, were subdued by -the Turk, were freed, and subdued again. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1414.<br /> -Turkish -conquest. -1431.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Early in the -fifteenth century the Turk won all Albania, except the -Venetian posts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revolt. -1448.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Seventeen years later came a revolt -and a successful defence of the country, whose later -stages are ennobled by the name of George Kastriota of -Croja, the famous Scanderbeg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Death of -Scanderbeg. -1467.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -His death gave his land -back to the Ottoman, while Croja itself was for a while -held by Venice. The whole Greek and Albanian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">{422}</a></span> -mainland was now divided between Turk and Venetian.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Empire -of -Trebizond.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Lastly, we must not forget that Greek state which -outlived all the rest. Far away, on the furthest bounds -of the elder Empire, the Empire of <i>Trebizond</i> had the -honour of being the last remaining fragment of the -Eastern Roman power. The rule of the Grand Komnênos -survived the fall of Constantinople; it survived -the conquest of Athens and Peloponnêsos.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -the Empire. -1204.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have seen the origin and early history of this -power. After its western dominions passed to the Nicene -Emperors and Sinôpê to the Turk, the Trapezuntine -Empire was confined to the eastern part of the south -coast of the Euxine, stretching over part of Iberia, and -keeping the Imperial possessions in the Tauric Chersonêsos. -Sometimes independent, sometimes tributary to -Turks or Mongols, the power of Trebizond lived on -for nearly eighty years as a distinct and rival Roman -Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Agreement -between -Constantinople -and -Trebizond, -1281.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then, when Constantinople was again in -Greek hands, John Komnênos of Trebizond was content -to acknowledge Michael Palaiologos as Emperor -of the Romans, and to content himself with the style -of ‘Emperor of all the East, of Iberia, and of <i>Perateia</i>.’ -This last name means the <i>province beyond the sea</i>, in -the Tauric Chersonêsos or <i>Crim</i>. We thus see that -the style of ‘Emperor of the East,’ which it is sometimes -convenient to give to him of Constantinople, -strictly belongs to him of Trebizond. The new Empire -of the East suffered many fluctuations of territory, -chiefly at the hands of the neighbouring Turkomans. -<i>Chalybia</i>, the land of iron, was lost; the coast-line -was split asunder; the Empire bowed to Timour. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Turkish -conquest of -Trebizond; -1461.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">{423}</a></span> -the capital and a large part of the coast bore up to -the last, and did not pass under the Ottoman yoke -till eight years after the fall of Constantinople. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Perateia. -1472.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -outlying dependency of <i>Perateia</i> or <i>Gothia</i> was not -conquered till eleven years later still. As the Tauric -Chersonêsos had sheltered the last Greek commonwealth, -it sheltered also the last Greek principality.</p> - - -<h3>§ 6. <i>The Slavonic States.</i></h3> - -<p>The Greek and Frank states of which we have just -been speaking arose, for the most part they directly -arose, out of the Latin partition of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -the partition -of the -Empire on -the Slavonic -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On -the Slavonic powers the effect of that partition was -only indirect. Servia and Bulgaria had begun their -second career of independence before the partition. -The partition touched them only so far as the splitting -up of the Empire into a number of small states took away -all fear of their being again brought under its obedience. -In Croatia and Dalmatia all trace of the Imperial power -passed away. The Magyar held the inland parts; the -question was whether the Magyar or the Venetian -should hold the coast.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Servia and -Bulgaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The chief independent Slavonic powers were those -of <i>Servia</i> and <i>Bulgaria</i>. Of these, Servia represents -the unmixed Slave, as unmixed, that is, as any nation -can be; Bulgaria represents the Slave brought under -some measure of Turanian influence and mixture. The -history of the purer race is the longer and the more -brilliant. The Servian people made a longer resistance -to the Turk than the Bulgarian people; they were the -first to throw off his yoke; one part of them never submitted -to his yoke at all. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -Servia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The oldest Servia, as we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">{424}</a></span> -have seen, stretched far beyond the bounds of the present -principality, and had a considerable Hadriatic sea-board, -though interrupted by the Roman cities. Among -the Zupans or princes of the many Servian tribes, the -chief were the northern Grand-Zupans of <i>Desnica</i> on -the Drina, and the southern Grand-Zupans of <i>Dioklea</i> -or <i>Rascia</i>, so called from their capital <i>Rassa</i>, the -modern <i>Novi-Bazar</i>. This last principality was the -germ of the historical kingdom of Servia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -to the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But till the -fall of the old Empire, the Imperial claims over Servia -were always asserted and were often enforced. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1018.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Indeed -common enmity to the Bulgarian, the momentary conqueror -of Servia,<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> formed a tie between Servia and -the Empire down to the complete incorporation of -Servia by Basil the Second. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1040.<br /> -Conquest -by Manuel -Komnênos; -1148.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The successful revolt of -Servia made room for more than one claimant of Servian -dominion and kingship; but the Imperial claims remained, -to be enforced again in their fulness by Manuel -Komnênos. At last the Latin conquest relieved Servia -from all danger on the part of Constantinople; Servia -stood forth as an independent power under the kings -of the house of Nemanja.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -towards -Hungary.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>They had to struggle against more dangerous -enemies to the north in the Kings of Hungary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Bosnia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Even -before the last Imperial conquest, the Magyars had cut -away the western part of Servia, the land beyond the -Drina, known as <i>Bosnia</i> or <i>Rama</i>. Under the last -name it gave the Hungarian princes one of their royal -titles. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1286.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This land was more than once won back by -Servia; but its tendency was to separation and to -growth at the cost of Servia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1326.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the first half of the -fourteenth century, Bosnia was enlarged by the Servian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">{425}</a></span> -lands bordering on the Dalmatian coast, the lands of -<i>Zachloumia</i> and <i>Terbounia</i>, which were never permanently -won back. So the lands on the Save, between -the Drina and the Morava, taking in the modern capital -of Belgrade, passed, in the endless shiftings of the -frontier, at one time to Bulgaria and at another to -Hungary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Servian -advance -eastward -and southward.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Servia, thus cut short to the north and -west, was driven to advance southward and eastward, -at the expense of Bulgaria and of the powers which -had taken the place of the Empire on the lower Hadriatic -coast. From the latter part of the thirteenth -century onwards, Servia grew to be the greatest power -in the south-eastern peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her seaboard. -1296.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Shorn of her old Hadriatic -seaboard, she gained a new and longer one, -stretching from the mouths of Cattaro to Durazzo. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1319-1322.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Durazzo itself twice fell into Servian hands; but at -the time of the highest power of Servia that city -remained an Angevin outpost on the Servian mainland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reign of -Stephen -Dushan, -1331-1355.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That highest power was reached in the reign -of Stephen Dushan, who spread his dominions far -indeed at the cost of Greeks and Franks, at the cost -of his old Slavonic neighbours and of the rising powers -of Albania. In the new Servian capital of <i>Skopia</i>, <i>Skoupi</i>, -or <i>Skopje</i>, the Tzar Stephen took an Imperial crown as -<i>Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1346.<br /> -The -Servian -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The new Empire -stretched uninterruptedly from the Danube to the -Corinthian gulf. At one end Bosnia was won back; -at the other end the Servian rule was spread over -Aitôlia and Thessaly, over Macedonia and Thrace as -far as <i>Christopolis</i>. It only remained to give a head to -this great body, and to make New Rome the seat of -the Servian power.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break up -of the -Servian -power, -1355.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">But the Servian tzardom broke in pieces at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">{426}</a></span> -death of the great Servian Tzar; and before he died, -the Ottoman was already in Europe. In fact the historical -result of the great advance of Servia was to -split up the whole of the Greek and Slavonic lands, -and to leave no power of either race able to keep out -the barbarian. We have seen how the titles of Stephen’s -Empire lived for a generation in the Greek part -of his dominions.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> In Macedonia and Thrace several -small principalities sprang up, and a power arose at -Skodra of which we shall have to speak again. To the -north Bosnia fell away, and carried Zachloumia with -it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later -Kingdom of -Servia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Servia itself comes out of the chaos as a separate -kingdom, a kingdom wholly cut off from the sea, but -stretching southward as far as <i>Prisrend</i>, and again -holding the lands between the Drina and the Morava. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -and deliverances -of -Servia. -1375.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Turk first took <i>Nish</i>, and brought the kingdom -under tribute. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1389.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The overthrow at Kossovo made Servia -wholly dependent. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1403.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With the fall of Bajazet it again -became free for a generation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1438.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then the Turk won -the whole land except Belgrade. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1442.<br /> -1444.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then the campaign -of Huniades restored Servia as a free kingdom; -the event of Varna again brought her under tribute. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1459.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At -last Mahomet the Conqueror incorporated all Servia, -except Belgrade, with his dominions.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Kingdom -of -Bosnia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - - -<p>The history of <i>Bosnia</i>, as a really separate power, -holding its own place in Europe, begins with the break-up -of the momentary Servian Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its origin, -1376.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Ban Stephen -Tvartko became the first king of the last Bosnian dynasty, -under the nominal superiority of the Hungarian crown. -Thus, at the very moment of the coming of the Turk, a -kingdom of Latin creed and associations became the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">{427}</a></span> -first power among the south-eastern Slaves. For a while -it seemed as if Bosnia was going to take the place which -had been held by Servia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatest -extent of -Bosnia, -1382.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Bosnian kingdom at -its greatest extent took in all the present Bosnia and -Herzegovina, with, it would seem, all Dalmatia except -Zara, and the north-west corner of Servia stretching -beyond the Drina. But the Bosnian power was broken -at Kossovo as well as that of Servia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Jayce, 1391.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the time of -confusion which followed, Jayce in the north-west -corner became a power connected with both Hungary -and Bosnia, while the Turk established himself in -the extreme south. The Turk was driven out for -a while, but the kingdom was dismembered to form -a new Latin power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Saint Saba -or Herzegovina. -1440.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Lord of the old Zachloumia, -a Bosnian vassal, transferred his homage to the -Austrian king of the Romans, and, became sovereign -Duke of <i>Saint Sava</i>, perhaps rather of <i>Primorie</i>. Thus -arose the state of <i>Herzegovina</i>, that is the <i>Duchy</i>, commemorating -in its half-German name the relation of -its prince to the Western Empire. But neither kingdom -nor duchy was long-lived. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1449.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Within ten years after -the separation of Herzegovina the Turk held western -Bosnia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Turkish -conquest of -Bosnia, -1463;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Fourteen years later he subdued the whole -kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Herzegovina, -1483.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next year the duchy became tributary, -and twenty years after the conquest of Bosnia it was -incorporated with the now Turkish province of Bosnia. -But in the long struggle between Venice and the Turk -various parts of its territory, especially the coast, came -under the power of the Republic.</p> - - -<p class="p2">Meanwhile one small Slavonic land, one surviving -fragment of the great Servian dominion, maintained its -independence through all changes.</p> - -<p>In the break-up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">{428}</a></span> -of the Servian Empire, a small state, with Skodra for its -capital, formed itself in the district of Zeta, reaching -northwards as far as Cattaro. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominion -of the house -of Balsa at -Skodra.<br /> -Loss of -Skodra, -1394.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For a moment its -princes of the house of <i>Balsa</i> spread their power -over all Northern Albania; -but the new state was -cut short on all sides by Bosnia, Venice, and the -Turk, and Skodra itself was sold to Venice. In the -middle of the fifteenth century, the state took a more -definite shape, though with a smaller territory, under -a new dynasty, that of Tzernojevich. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of Montenegro, -1456.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This independent -remnant answered to the modern <i>Tzernagora</i> or -<i>Montenegro</i>, with a greater extent to the east and with a -small seaboard taking in Antivari. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Establishment -of -Tzetinje, -1488.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its capital <i>Zabljak</i> -was more than once lost and won from the Turk; at the -end of the century it was found hopeless to defend the -lower districts, and prince and people withdrew to the -natural fortress of the Black Mountain with its newly -founded capital of Tzetinje. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Vladikas, -1499.<br /> -Lay -princes, -1851.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last prince of the -dynasty resigned his power to the metropolitan bishop, -and Montenegro remained an independent state under -its Vladikas or hereditary prelates, till their dominion -was in our own time again exchanged for that of -temporal princes. During all this time the territory -of Montenegro was simply so much of the mountain -region as could maintain its independence against -the ceaseless attacks of the Turk. Yet Montenegro, -as the ally of England and Russia, bore her part -in the great European struggle, and won for herself -a haven and a capital at Cattaro. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1813.<br /> -1858.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Her allies -stood by while Cattaro was filched by the Austrian; -and, more than forty years later, when a definite frontier -was first traced, Western diplomacy so traced it as -to give the Turk an inlet on both sides to the unconquered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">{429}</a></span> -Christian land. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Montenegrin -conquests, -1876-1877.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the latest times the Montenegrin -arms set free a large part of the kindred land of -Herzegovina, and won back a considerable part of the -lost territory to the east, including part of the old seaboard -as far as <i>Dulcigno</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then Western diplomacy drew -another frontier, which forbade any large incorporation -of the kindred Slavonic districts, while a small extension -was allowed in that part of the lost ancient territory -which had become Albanian. Of three havens won by -Montenegro in the war, <i>Dulcigno</i> has been given back -to the Turk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spizza.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Austria has been allowed to filch <i>Spizza</i>, -as she had before filched Ragusa and Cattaro. The -third haven, that of <i>Antivari</i>, was left to those who -had won it under such restrictions as armed wrong -knows how to impose on the weaker power of right.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The continued independence of Montenegro enables -the Servian branch of the Slavonic race to say that -their nation has never been wholly enslaved. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The third -Bulgarian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -case has been different with Bulgaria. We have seen -the origin of the third Bulgarian, or rather <i>Vlacho-Bulgarian</i>, -kingdom which won its independence of the -Empire in the last years of the twelfth century. From -that time to the Turkish conquest, one or more Bulgarian -states always existed. And throughout the -thirteenth century, the Bulgarian kingdom, though its -boundaries were ever shifting, was one of the chief -powers of the south-eastern peninsula.</p> - -<p>The oldest Bulgaria between Danube and Hæmus -was the first to throw off the Byzantine dominion, and -the last to come under the power of the Turk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bulgarian -advance. -1197-1207.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -the new Bulgarian power grew fast, and for a while -called back the days of Simeon and Samuel. Under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">{430}</a></span> -Joannice the frontier stretched far to the north-west, -over lands which gradually passed to Servia, taking in -Skupi, Nish, and even Belgrade. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dominion -of John -Asan. -1218-1241.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under the Tzar -John Asan the new Bulgaria, the kingdom of <i>Tirnovo</i>, -reached its greatest extent. The greater part of Thrace, -Philippopolis and the whole land of <i>Rhodopê</i> or <i>Achridos</i>, -Hadrianople itself, Macedonia too stretching -away to Samuel’s Ochrida and to <i>Albanon</i> or Elbassan, -were all under his rule. If his realm did not touch the -Hadriatic or the Ægæan, it came very near to both; -but Thessalonikê at least always remained to its Frank -and Greek lords.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> But this great power, like so many -other powers of its kind, did not survive its founder. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Decline of -Bulgaria. -1246-1257.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The revived Greek states, the Nicene Empire and the -Epeirot despotat, cut the Bulgarian realm short. The -disputes of an older and of a later time went on.<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Shiftings -of the -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There -was undisputed Bulgaria north of Hæmus, an ever-shifting -frontier south of it. The inland Philippopolis, -and the coast towns of <i>Anchialos</i> and <i>Mesêmbria</i>, -passed backwards and forwards between Greek and -Bulgarian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Philippopolis -finally -Bulgarian. -1344-1366.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last state of things, immediately before -the common overthrow, gave Philippopolis to Bulgaria -and the coast towns to the Empire.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars with -Hungary. -1260.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>An attempt at extension of the north by an attack -on the Hungarian Banat of <i>Severin</i>, the western part -of modern Wallachia, led only to a Hungarian invasion, -to a temporary loss of <i>Widdin</i>, and the assumption of a -Bulgarian title by the Magyar king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cuman -dynasty in -Bulgaria. -1280.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently a new<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">{431}</a></span> -Turanian dynasty, this time of Cuman descent, reigned -in Bulgaria, and soon after, the kingdom passed for -the moment under a mightier overlord in the person -of Nogai Khan. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break-up of -the kingdom. -1357.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the fourteenth century the kingdom -broke up. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Principality -of -Dobrutcha.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The despot <i>Dobroditius</i>—his name -has many spellings—formed a separate dominion on -the seaboard, stretching from the Danube to the Imperial -frontier, cutting off the King of Tirnovo from -the sea. Part of his land preserves his memory in its -modern name <i>Dobrutcha</i>. Presently we hear of three -Bulgarias, the central state at Tirnovo, the sea-land of -Dobroditius, and a north-western state at Widdin. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1362.<br /> -1365-1369.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By -this time the Ottoman inroads had begun; Philippopolis -was lost, and Bulgarian princes were blind enough -to employ Turkish help in a second attack on Severin, -which led only to a second temporary loss of Widdin. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1382.<br /> -1388.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Turk now pressed on; Sofia was taken; the whole -land became a Turkish dependency. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -by Bajazet, -1393.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After Kossovo -the land was wholly conquered, save only that the -northern part of the land of Dobroditius passed to Wallachia. -Bulgaria passed away from the list of European -states both sooner and more utterly than Servia. -Servia still had its alternations of freedom and bondage -for sixty years. In after times large parts of it -passed to a rule which, if foreign, was at least European. -In later days Servia was the first of the subject nations -to win its freedom. But the bondage of Bulgaria was -never disturbed from the days of Bajazet to our own -time.</p> - - -<h3>§ 7. <i>The Kingdom of Hungary.</i></h3> - -<p>The origin of the Hungarian kingdom and the -reasons for dealing with along with the states which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">{432}</a></span> -arose out of the break-up of the Eastern Empire have -already been spoken of.<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of the -Hungarian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Finnish conquerors of -the Slave, admitted within the pale of Western Christendom, -founding a new Hungary on the Danube and -the Theiss while they left behind them an older Hungary -on the Kama, have points of contact at once with -Asia and with both Eastern and Western Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its position -in south-eastern -Europe.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, -as closely connected in their history with the nations -of the south-eastern peninsula, as sharers in the bondage -and in the deliverance of Servia, Greece, and Bulgaria, -in our geographical survey they claim a place -where they may be looked at strictly as part of the -south-eastern world.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -the Magyar -invasion.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It has been already noticed<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> that the main geographical -work of the Magyar was to cut off that south-eastern -world, the world where the Greek and the -Slave, struggling for its supremacy, were both swallowed -up by the Ottoman, from the Slavonic region -between the Carpathians and the Baltic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Great -Moravia. -884-894.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the moment -of the Magyar inroad, the foundation of the -<i>Great-Moravian</i> kingdom, the kingdom of Sviatopluk, -made it more likely than it has ever been since that -the Slaves of the two regions might be united into a -single power. That kingdom, stretching to Sirmium, -marched on the north-western dependencies of the -Eastern Empire, while on the north it took in the Chrobatian -land which was afterwards Little Poland. Such -a power might have been dangerous to both Empires at -once; but the invaders whom the two Emperors called -in proved far more dangerous than Great Moravia could -ever have been. The Magyars, Ogres, or Hungarians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">{433}</a></span> -the Turks of the Imperial geographer,<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> were -called in by his father Leo to check the Bulgarians, -as they were called in by Arnulf in the West to check -the new power of Moravia. They passed, from the -north rather than from the east, into the land which -was disputed between Moravian and Bulgarian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>906. -Relations -between -Hungary -and Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Moravian power was overthrown, and the Magyars, -stepping into its place, became constant invaders of -both Empires and their dependent lands. But to the -west, the victories of the Saxon kings put a check to -their inroads, and, save some shiftings on the Austrian -march, the frontier of Germany and Hungary has been -singularly abiding.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The two -Chrobatias -separated -by the -Magyars.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>While the Magyar settlement placed a barrier between -the two chief regions of the Slavonic race as a -whole, it specially placed a barrier between the two divisions -of the <i>Croatian</i> or <i>Chrobatian</i> people, those on the -Vistula and those on the Drave and Save. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1025.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The northern -<i>Chrobatia</i> still reached south of the Carpathians, and -it was not until the eleventh century that the Magyar -kingdom, by the acquisition of its southern part, gained -a natural frontier which, with some shiftings, served to -part it off from the Slavonic powers to the north of it. -To the south-east an uncultivated and wooded tract -separated the Magyar territory from the lands between -the Carpathians and the lower Danube which were still -held by the Patzinaks. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -position -of the -Magyars.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The oldest Magyar settlement -thus occupied the central part of the modern kingdom, -on the Theiss and the middle Danube. There the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">{434}</a></span> -Turanian invaders formed a ruling and central race, -within a Slavonic fringe at each end. There were -northern and southern Croats, <i>Slovaks</i> to the north, -and <i>Ruthenians</i> to the north-west, towards the kindred -land of <i>Halicz</i> or <i>Red Russia</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hungary a -kingdom: -its growth.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Hungary, ranking from the beginning of the eleventh -century as a kingdom of Latin Christendom, presently -grew in all directions. We have just seen its advance -at the expense of the northern Chrobatian land. Its -advance at the expense of the southern branch of that -race, and of the other Slavonic lands which owed more -or less of allegiance to the Eastern Empire, was still -more marked. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hungary -and Croatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All these lands at one time or another -gave royal titles to the King of Hungary, King also of -Croatia, of Dalmatia, of Rama, even of Bulgaria. But in -most of these lands the Hungarian kingship was temporary -or nominal; in Croatia alone, though the frontier -has often shifted, Hungarian rule has been abiding. -Croatia has never formed an independent state since the -first Hungarian conquest; it has never been fully wrested -from Hungary since the days of Manuel Komnênos. In -those days it was indeed a question whether Hungary -itself had not an overlord in the Eastern Emperor. -After the great Bulgarian revolt that question could -never be raised again. But the Hungarian frontier was -ever shifting towards the former lands of the Empire, -Venetian, Servian, and Bulgarian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom of -Slavonia. -1492.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -One part of the old -Croatian kingdom, the land between Save and Drave, -was cut off to form, first an appanage, then an annexed -kingdom, by the special name of <i>Slavonia</i>, a name -shared by it with lands on the Baltic, perhaps on the -Ægæan.</p> - -<p>But, from the first days of its conversion, the Hungarian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">{435}</a></span> -realm began to advance in other directions, in -lands which had formed no part of the Empire since -the days of Aurelian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Transsilvania -or -<i>Siebenbürgen</i>.<br /> -1004.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before their Chrobatian conquest, -the Magyars passed the boundary which divided them -from the Patzinaks, and won the land which from its -position took the name of <i>Transsilvania</i>.<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Colonists -were invited to settle in the thinly inhabited land. One -chief settlement was of the Low-Dutch speech from -Saxony and Flanders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Various -colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another element was formed -by the Turanian <i>Szeklers</i>, whose Latin form of <i>Siculi</i> -might easily mislead. Another migration brought back -the name and speech of the Old Rome to the first land -from which she had withdrawn her power.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -the Roumans.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The legendary belief in the unbroken life of the -Roman name and speech in the lands north of the -Danube is merely a legendary belief.<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> There can be no -reasonable doubt that the present principality of Roumania -and the Rouman lands beyond its borders derived -their present population and language from a settlement -of the Rouman people further south. South of the -Danube, the Rouman or Vlach population, scattered -among Greeks, Slaves, and Albanians, at many points -from Pindos northwards, has kept its distinct nationality, -but it has never formed a political whole. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their -Northern -migration.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But a -migration beyond the Danube enabled the Roumans in -course of time to found two distinct principalities, and -to form a chief element in the population of a third.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">{436}</a></span> -There is no sign of any Rouman population north of -the Danube before the thirteenth century. The events -of that century opened a way for a reversal of the -ordinary course of migration, for the settlement of lands -beyond the Empire by former subjects of the Empire.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rouman -element in -the third -Bulgarian -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have seen that the third Bulgarian kingdom, that -which arose at the end of the twelfth century, was in its -origin as much Rouman as Bulgarian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cumans in -Dacia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By this time -the rule of the Patzinaks beyond the lower Danube had -given way to that of the kindred <i>Cumans</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mongolian -invasion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then the -storm of Mongolian invasion, which crushed Hungary -itself for a moment, crushed the Cuman power for -ever. But the remnant of the Cuman nation lived on -within the Magyar realm, and gave its king yet another -title, that of <i>King of Cumania</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rouman -settlement -in the -Cuman -land.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The former Cuman -land now lay open to new settlers, and the Rouman part -of the inhabitants of the new Bulgaria began to cross the -Danube into that land and the neighbouring districts. -In the course of the thirteenth century they occupied -the present Wallachia, and already formed an element -in the mixed population of Transsilvania. A Rouman -state thus began to be formed, which took the name -by which the Roumans were known to their neighbours. -The new <i>Vlachia</i>, <i>Wallachia</i>, stretched on both -sides of the Aluta. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Little -Wallachia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the west of that river, <i>Little -Wallachia</i> formed, as the banat of <i>Severin</i>, an integral -part of the Hungarian kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Great -Wallachia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Great Wallachia</i> to -the east formed a separate principality, dependent or -independent on Hungary, according to its strength from -time to time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dobrutcha.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, towards the end of the fourteenth -century, the land south of the Danube, called <i>Dobrutcha</i>, -passed from Bulgaria to Wallachia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Moldavia. -c. 1341.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another Rouman -migration, passing from the land of <i>Marmaros</i> north<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">{437}</a></span> -of Transsilvania, founded the principality of <i>Moldavia</i> -between the Carpathians and the Dniester. This too -stood to the Hungarian crown in the same shifting -relation as Great Wallachia, and sometimes transferred -its vassalage to Lithuania and Poland.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lewis the -Great, -1342-1382;<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The greatest extension of the Hungarian dominion -was in the fourteenth century, under the Angevin -King Lewis the Great. Before his time the Magyar -frontier had advanced and fallen back. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First -possession of -Halicz, -1185-1220,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hungary, -having a Russian population within its borders, had for -a while enlarged its Russian dominion by the annexation -of the Red Russian land of <i>Halicz</i> or <i>Galicia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Widdin, -1260-1264.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It -had also, for a shorter time, occupied the Bulgarian -town of Widdin. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Lewis, -Halicz and -Vladimir, -1342; -Widdin, -1365-1369.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lewis renewed both these conquests, -and made others. Halicz was not only won again, -but was enlarged by the neighbouring principality -of <i>Vladimir</i>. The great day of Hungary was contemporary -with the great day of Servia, but it was a -longer day, and Hungary profited greatly by the fall -of Servia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1356.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -While Lewis annexed Dalmatia, he also at -various times established his supremacy over Bosnia -and the Rouman principalities. That Lewis was king -of Poland by a personal union did not affect Hungarian -geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Red Russia -restored to -Poland, -1390.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the separation of the crowns -at his death led presently to the restoration of the -Red Russian provinces to Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pledging of -Zips, 1412.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Somewhat later, -under Sigismund, a territory within the Hungarian -border, part of the county of <i>Zips</i> or <i>Czepusz</i>, was -pledged to Poland, and continued to be held by that -power.</p> - - -<p class="p2">Meanwhile the Ottoman was on his march to overthrow -Hungary as well as its neighbours, though the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">{438}</a></span> -position of the Magyar kingdom made it the last to -be devoured and the first to be delivered. The Turkish -inroads as yet barely grazed the strictly Hungarian -frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>First -Turkish invasion. -1391.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first Turkish invasion of Hungary, the -first Turkish exaction of tribute from Wallachia, came -in the same year in which Sigismund established his -supremacy over Bosnia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Battle of -Nikopolis. -1396.<br /> -Campaign -of Huniades -1443.<br /> -Battle of -Varna. -1444.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The defeat of Nikopolis confirmed -the Turkish supremacy in Wallachia, a supremacy -which was again won for Hungary in the great -campaign of Huniades, and was again lost at Varna. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Disputes -for Dalmatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile the full possession of Dalmatia did not outlive -the reign of Lewis. Henceforth Hungary is merely -one competitor among others in the ceaseless shiftings -of the Dalmatian frontier.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hungary -under -Matthias -Corvinus. -1458-1490.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Later in the fifteenth century came another day of -Hungarian greatness under the son of Huniades, Matthias -Corvinus. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1477.<br /> -1485.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its most distinguishing feature was -the extension of the Magyar power to the west, over -Bohemia and its dependencies, and even over the -Austrian archduchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1467.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the south-eastern lands Wallachia -and Moldavia again became Hungarian dependencies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1463.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Jayce</i> was won back from the Turk, now lord -of Bosnia, and, Belgrade being now Hungarian, the -frontier towards the Ottoman was fixed till the time -of his great advance northwards.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Belgrade. -1521.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The first stage of Ottoman conquest in Hungary, as -distinguished from mere ravage, was the taking of Belgrade. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Battle of -Mohacz. -1526.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With the battle of Mohacz, five years later, -the separate history of Hungary ends. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Turkish -occupation -of the -greater -part of -Hungary. -1552-1687.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That victory, -followed by the disputes for the Hungarian crown -between an Austrian archduke and a Transsilvanian -palatine, enabled Suleiman to make himself master of -the greater part of the kingdom, especially of the part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">{439}</a></span> -which was most thoroughly Magyar. From the middle -of the sixteenth century till the latter years of the -seventeenth, the Austrian Kings of Hungary kept only -a fragment of Croatia, including <i>Zagrab</i> or <i>Agram</i>, and -a strip of north-western Hungary, including <i>Pressburg</i>. -The whole central part of the kingdom passed under -the immediate dominion of the Turk, and a Pasha ruled -at Buda. Besides this great incorporation of Hungarian -soil, the Turk held three vassal principalities within -the dominions of Lewis the Great. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tributary -principalities: -Transsilvania, -Wallachia, -Moldavia. -1497.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -One was <i>Transsilvania</i>, -increased by a large part of north-eastern -Hungary; the second was <i>Wallachia</i>; the third was -<i>Moldavia</i>, which began to be tributary late in the -fifteenth century. The Rouman lands became more -and more closely dependent on the Turk, who took -on him to name their princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1606.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Indeed, one might for a -while add the Austrian kingdom of Hungary itself as a -fourth vassal state, as it paid tribute to the Turk into -the seventeenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Rouman -lands -disputed -between -Poland and -the Turk.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For the superiority of the -Rouman principalities an endless struggle went on -between Poland and the Turk. At last the same -Slavonic power stepped in to deliver Hungary and -Austria also. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Battle of -Vienna. -1683.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With the overthrow of the Turk before -Vienna began the reaction of Christendom against Islam -which has gone on to our own day.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery of -Hungary -from the -Turk.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The wars which follow answer to the wars of independence -in Servia and Greece in so far as the Turk -was driven out of a Christian land. They differ in this, -that the Turk was driven out of Greece and Servia -to the profit of Greece and Servia themselves, while he -was driven out of Hungary to the profit of the Austrian -king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peace of -Carlowitz. -1699.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first stage of the work, the war which was -ended by the Peace of Carlowitz, won back nearly all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">{440}</a></span> -Croatia and Slavonia, and all Hungary proper, except -the land of <i>Temeswar</i> between Danube, Theiss, and -Maros. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Incorporation -of -Transsilvania. -1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Transsilvania became a dependency of the -Hungarian kingdom, with which it was presently incorporated. -Wallachia and Moldavia remained under -Turkish supremacy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peace of -Passarowitz. -1718.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next war, ended by the -Peace of Passarowitz, fully restored the Hungarian -kingdom as part of Christendom. The Turk kept only -a small part of Croatia. All Slavonia and the banat of -Temeswar were won back; the frontier was even -carried south of the Save, so as to take in a small -strip of Bosnia and a great part of Servia, as also the -Lesser Wallachia, the old banat of Severin. Thus, -while the first stage delivered Buda, the second delivered -Belgrade. But the next war, ended by the Peace of -Belgrade, largely undid the work. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Losses by -the Peace -of Belgrade. -1739.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The frontier fell -back to the point at which it stayed till our own day. -From the mouth of the Unna to Orsovo, the Save and -the Danube became the frontier. Belgrade, and all the -land south of those rivers, passed again to the Turk, and -Little Wallachia became again part of a Turkish dependency. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final loss -of Belgrade. -1789-1791.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At a later stage of the century Belgrade -was again delivered and again lost.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisitions -from -Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The later acquisitions of the House of Austria were -made in the character of Hungarian kings, but they -did not lead to any enlargement of the Hungarian -kingdom. Thus the claim to the Austrian acquisitions -made at the first and third partitions of Poland, -rested solely on the two Hungarian occupations of -Red Russia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Galicia -and Lodomeria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under the softened forms of <i>Galicia</i> -and <i>Lodomeria</i>, the Red Russian lands of <i>Halicz</i> -and <i>Vladimir</i>, together with part of Poland itself, -became a new kingdom of the House of Habsburg,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">{441}</a></span> -as the greater part of the territory thus won still remains. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisition -of Bukovina. -1776-1786.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Between the two partitions the new kingdom -was increased by the addition of <i>Bukovina</i>, the north-western -corner of Moldavia, which was claimed as an -ancient part of the Transsilvanian principality. It was -again only in its Hungarian character that the House of -Habsburg could make any claim to Dalmatia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dalmatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Certainly -no Austrian duke had ever reigned over Dalmatia, -Red Russia, or the Rouman principalities. Yet in the -present dual arrangement of the Austro-Hungarian -monarchy the so-called <i>triple kingdom</i> of Croatia, Dalmatia, -and Slavonia, is divided between the rule of -Pest and the rule of Vienna. Galicia also counts to -the Austrian, and not to the Hungarian, division of the -monarchy. All this is perhaps in harmony with the -generally anomalous character of the power of which -they form part. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spizza. -1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The port of <i>Spizza</i> has been added -to the Dalmatian kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bosnia and -Herzegovina.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is hard to say in which -of his many characters the Hungarian King and -Austrian Archduke holds the lands of <i>Bosnia</i> and -<i>Herzegovina</i>, of which the Treaty of Berlin confers on -him, not the sovereignty, but the administration. They -might have been claimed by the Hungarian king in his -ancient character of King of Rama. But the formal -aspect of the transaction would seem rather to be that -he has, like his predecessors in the sixteenth century, -become the man of the Turk.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later history -of -Roumania.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>After the restoration of the Lesser Wallachia to the -Turk and the addition of Bukovina to Galicia, the -geographical history of the Rouman principalities parts -off wholly from that of Hungary, and will be more -fittingly treated in another section.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">{442}</a></span></p> - - -<h3>§ 8. <i>The Ottoman Power.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Ottoman -Turks.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Last among the powers which among them supplanted -the Eastern Empire, comes the greatest and -most terrible of all, that which overthrew the Empire -itself and most of the states which arose out of its -ruins, and which stands distinguished from all the rest -by its abiding possession of the Imperial city. This is -the power of the Ottoman Turks. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their -special -character -as Mahometans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They stand distinguished -from all the other invaders of the European -mainland of the Empire by being Mahometan invaders. -The examples of Bulgaria and Hungary show that -Turanian invaders, as such, are not incapable of being -received into European fellowship. This could not be in -the case of a Mahometan power, bound by its religion to -keep its Christian subjects in the condition of bondmen. -The Ottomans could not, like the Bulgarians, be lost in -the greater mass of those whom they conquered. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Preservation -of the -subject -nations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -this very necessity helped in some measure to preserve -the national being of the subject nations. Greeks, -Servians, Bulgarians, have under Ottoman rule remained -Greeks, Servians, and Bulgarians, ready to begin their -national career afresh whenever the time for independence -should come. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -with the -Saracen -power in -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dominion of the Turk in -Eastern Europe answers, as a Mahometan dominion, to -the dominion of the Saracen in Western Europe. But -in everything, save the mere reckoning of years, it has -been far more abiding. The Mahometan dominion in -southern Spain did indeed last two hundred years -longer than Mahometan dominion has yet lasted in -any part of Eastern Europe. But the Saracen power -in the West began to fall back as soon as it was established, -and its last two hundred years were a mere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">{443}</a></span> -survival. The Ottomans underwent no considerable -loss of territory till more than four centuries and a -half after their first appearance in Asia, till more than -three centuries after their passage into Europe. Constantinople -has been Ottoman sixty years longer than -Toledo was Saracen.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent -of the -Ottoman -dominion -compared -with the -Eastern -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Ottoman, possessor of the Eastern Rome, does -in a rough way represent the Eastern Roman in the -extent of his dominion. The dominions and dependencies -of the Sultans at the height of their power took -in, in Eastern Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, nearly -all that had formed part of the Empire of Justinian, -with a large territory, both in Europe and Asia, which -Justinian had not held. Justinian held nothing north -of the Danube; Suleiman held, as sovereign or as overlord, -a vast dominion from Buda to Azof. On the -other hand, no part of the dominions of Justinian in -Western Europe, save one city for one moment, ever -came under Ottoman rule. The Eastern Empire in the -year 800 was smaller than even the present reduced -dominion of the Turk. The Eastern Empire, at its -height in the eleventh century, held in Europe a -dominion far smaller than the dominion of the Turk in -the sixteenth century, far larger than his dominion -now. But in the essential feature of Byzantine geography, -the possession of Constantinople and of the -lands on each side of the Bosporos and Hellespont, the -Ottoman Sultan took the place of the Eastern Emperor, -and as yet he keeps it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -the Mongolian -advance.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The history of the Eastern Empire, and that of the -Ottomans in connexion with it, was largely affected by -the movements of the Mongols in the further East. -Mongolian pressure weakened the Seljuk Turks, and so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">{444}</a></span> -allowed the growth of the Nicene Empire. Mongolian -invasions also led indirectly to the growth of the -Ottoman power, and at a later time they gave it its -greatest check. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -the Ottomans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Ottomans grew out of a Turkish -band who served the Seljuk Sultan against the Mongols. -As his vassals, they began to be a power in Asia and to -harry the coasts of Europe. They passed into Europe, -and won a great European dominion far more quickly -than they had won their Asiatic dominion. This is the -special characteristic of the Ottoman power. Asiatic -in everything else, it is geographically European; most -of its Asiatic and all its African dominion was won -from an European centre. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break-up -and reunion -of the -Ottoman -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Already a power in Europe, -but not yet in possession of the Imperial city, the -new Ottoman power was for a moment utterly broken -in pieces by the second flood of Mongol invasion. That -the shattered dominion came together again is an event -without a parallel in Eastern history. The restored -Ottoman power then won Constantinople, and from -Constantinople, as representing the fallen Empire, it won -back the lost dominion of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its permanence.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The permanence -of the Ottoman power, when Constantinople was -once won, is in no way wonderful. Even the unreclaimed -Asiatic, when he was once seated on the throne of the -New Rome, inherited his share of Rome’s eternity.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>First settlements -of -the Ottomans.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The first settlements of the Ottoman Turks were -on the banks of the <i>Sangarios</i>, which gave them from -the beginning a threatening position towards Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1299.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the end of the thirteenth century they were firmly -established in that region. In the first half of the fourteenth -they became the leading power in Western Asia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Brusa. -1326-1330.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Brusa</i>, the Asiatic capital, won in the last days of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">{445}</a></span> -Emir Othman, has a manifest eye towards Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Nikaia -and Nikomêdeia. -1330-1338.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Nikaia</i> and <i>Nikomêdeia</i> followed, and the Ottoman -stepped geographically into the same position towards -the revived Greek Empire which the Nicene princes -had held towards the Latin Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Entry into -Europe. -1354.<br /> -Conquest -of Hadrianople. -1361.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the last days of -the Emir Othman came their passage into Europe, and a -few more years saw Amurath in his European capital of -Hadrianople, completely hemming Constantinople in. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ottoman -advance.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The second half of the fourteenth century was a time -of the most speedy Ottoman advance, and the amount of -real advance is by no means represented by the change -on the map. We have seen in the case of Servia, of -Greece, and of Hungary, that the course of Turkish -invasion commonly went through three stages. There -was first the time of mere plunder. Then came the -tributary stage, and lastly, the day of complete bondage. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bajazet -first Sultan, -1389-1402.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Bajazet, the first Ottoman prince who bore -the title of Sultan, the immediate Ottoman dominion in -Europe stretched from the Ægæan to the Danube. It -took in all Bulgaria, all Macedonia, Thessaly, and -Thrace, save only Chalkidikê and the district just round -Constantinople. Servia and Wallachia were dependent -states, as indeed was the Empire itself. Central and -southern Greece, Bosnia, Hungary, even Styria, were -lands open to plunder.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Battle of -Angora. -1402.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This great dominion was broken in pieces by the -victory of Timour at Angora. It seemed that the -empire of the Ottoman had passed away like the empire -of the Servian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break up of -the Ottoman -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The dominion of Bajazet was -divided among his sons and the princes of the dispossessed -Turkish dynasties. The Christian states had -a breathing-time, and the sons of Bajazet were glad to -give back to the Empire some important parts of its lost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">{446}</a></span> -territories. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reunited -under -Mahomet. -1413.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Ottoman power came together again -under Mahomet the First; but for nearly half a century -its advance was slower than in the half-century before. -The conquests of Mahomet and of Amurath the Second -lay mainly in the Greek and Albanian lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Thessalonikê. -1430.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Turk -now reached the Hadriatic, and the conquest of Thessalonikê -gave him a firmer hold on the Ægæan. Towards -Servia and Hungary he lost and he won again; he hardly -conquered. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mahomet -the Conqueror. -1451-1481.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was the thirty years of Mahomet the -Conqueror which finally gave the Ottoman dominion its -European position. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Constantinople. -1453.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From his first and greatest conquest -of the New Rome, he gathered in what remained, -Greek, Frank, and Slave. The conquest of the Greek -mainland, of Albania and Bosnia, the final conquest of -Servia, made him master of the whole south-eastern -peninsula, save only the points held by Venice and the -unconquered height of the Black Mountain. He began -to gather in the Western islands, and he struck the first -great blow to the Venetian power by the conquest of -Euboia. Around the Euxine he won the Empire of -Trebizond and the points held by Genoa. The great -mass of the islands and the few Venetian points on the -coast still escaped. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -his dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Otherwise Mahomet the Conqueror -held the whole European dominions of Basil the Second, -with a greater dominion in Asia than that of Manuel -Komnênos. From the Danube to the Tanais and beyond -it, he held a vast overlordship, over lands which had -obeyed no Emperor since Aurelian, over lands which -had never obeyed any Emperor at all. At last the -Mussulman lord of Constantinople seemed about to win -back the Italian dominion of its Christian lords. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Taking of -Otranto, -1480.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In -his last days, by the possession of Otranto, Mahomet -ruled west of the Hadriatic.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">{447}</a></span></p> - -<p>It might have been deemed that the little cloud -which now lighted on Otranto would grow as fast -as the little cloud which a hundred and thirty years -before had lighted on Kallipolis. But Bajazet the -Second made no conquests save the points which were -won from Venice. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Syria -and Egypt. -1516-17.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Selim the First, the greatest conqueror -of his line against fellow Mahometans, had no leisure, -while winning Syria and Egypt, to make any advance on -Christian ground. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Suleiman. -1520-1566.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But under Suleiman the Lawgiver, -not only the overlordship but the immediate rule of -Constantinople under its Turkish Sultans was spread -over wide European lands which had never obeyed its -Christian Emperors. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>His African -overlordship.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then too its Mussulman lords won -back at least the nominal overlordship of that African -seaboard which the first Mussulmans had rent away -from the allegiance of Constantinople. The greatest -conquest of Suleiman was made in Hungary; but he -also made the Ægæan an Ottoman sea. The early years -of his reign saw the driving of the Knights from Rhodes, -and the winning of their fortress of Halikarnassos, the -last European possession on Asiatic ground. His last -days saw the annexation of the Naxian duchy; at -an intermediate stage Venice lost her Peloponnesian -strongholds. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Algiers. -1519.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Africa the Turk received the commendation -of <i>Algiers</i> and of <i>Tunis</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tunis conquered -by -Charles the -Fifth. -1531.<br /> -1535.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Tunis, won -for Christendom by the Imperial King of the Two -Sicilies, was lost and won again, till it was finally -won for Islam by the second Selim. <i>Tripolis</i>, granted -to the Knights, also passed to Suleiman. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1574.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under -Selim <i>Cyprus</i> was added; the fight of Lepanto could -neither save nor recover it; but the advance of the -Turk was stopped. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Decline -of the -Ottoman -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The conquests of the seventeenth -century were small compared with those of earlier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">{448}</a></span> -days, and, before that century was out, the Ottoman -Terminus had begun to go back.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatest -extent of -the Ottoman -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Yet it was in the last half of the seventeenth -century that the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest -geographical extent. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Crete. -1641-1669.<br /> -of Podolia. -1672-1676.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Crete</i> was now won; a few years -later <i>Kamienetz</i> and all <i>Podolia</i> were ceded to the Turk -by Poland. This was not absolutely his last European -acquisition, but it was his last acquisition of a great -province. The Ottoman dominion now covered a -wider space on the map than it had done at any earlier -moment. Suleiman in all his glory had not reigned -over Cyprus, Crete, and Podolia. The tide now turned -for ever. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Ottoman -frontier -falls -back.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From that time the Ottoman has, like his -Byzantine predecessor, had his periods of revival and -recovery, but on the whole his frontier has steadily -gone back.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ottoman -loss of -Hungary. -1683-1699.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The first great blow to the integrity and independence -of the Ottoman Empire was dealt in the war which was -ended by the Peace of Carlowitz. We have seen how -Hungary and Peloponnêsos were won back for Christendom; -so was Podolia. We have seen too how at the next -stage the Turk gained at one end and lost at the other, -winning back Peloponnêsos, winning Mykonos and -Tênos, but losing on the Save and the Danube. The -next stage shows the Ottoman frontier again in advance; -in our own day we have seen it again fall back. And -the change which has given Bosnia and Herzegovina -to the master of Dalmatia, Ragusa, and Cattaro has, -besides throwing back the frontier of the Turk, redressed -a very old geographical wrong. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -inland and -maritime -Illyricum.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Ever since -the first Slavonic settlements, the inland region of -northern Illyricum has been more or less thoroughly -cut off from the coast cities which form its natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">{449}</a></span> -outlets. Whatever may be the fate of those lands, the -body is again joined to the mouth, and the mouth to -the body, and we can hardly fancy them again severed.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The same arrangements which transferred the -‘administration’ of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the King -of Hungary and Dalmatia, have transferred another part -of the Ottoman dominion to a more distant European -power on terms which are still less easy to understand. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cyprus. -1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Greek island of <i>Cyprus</i> has passed to English rule; -but it is after a fashion which may imply that the conquest -of Richard of Poitou is held—not, it is to be hoped, -by the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, but possibly -by the Empress of India—as a tributary of the Ottoman -Sultan.</p> - - -<p class="p2">During the former half of the eighteenth century -the shiftings of the Ottoman territory to the north were -all on the side of Austria or Hungary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations of -the Turk -towards -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But a new -enemy of the Turk appeared towards the end of the -seventeenth century, one who was, before the end of the -eighteenth, to stand forth as his chief enemy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss and -recovery of -Azof. -1696-1711.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under -Peter the Great <i>Azof</i> was won by Russia and lost again. -Sixty years later great geographical changes took place -in the same region. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Treaty of -Kainardji. -1774.<br /> -Independence -of -Crim.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the Treaty of Kainardji, the -dependent khanate of <i>Crim</i>—the old Tauric Chersonêsos -and the neighbouring lands—was released from the -superiority of the Sultan. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -annexation -of Crim. -1783.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was a natural step -towards its annexation by Russia, which thus again -made her way to the Euxine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Jedisan. -1791.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Bug was now the -frontier; presently, by the Russian annexation of -<i>Oczakow</i> and the land of Jedisan, it fell back to the -Dniester. By the treaty of Bucharest the frontier alike<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">{450}</a></span> -of the dominion and of the overlordship of the Turk fell -back to the Pruth and the lower Danube. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Bessarabia. -1812.<br /> -Shiftings -of the -Moldavian -frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Russia thus -gained <i>Bessarabia</i> and the eastern part of <i>Moldavia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Treaty of -Hadrianople. -1829.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By -the Treaty of Hadrianople she further won the islands at -the mouth of the Danube. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Treaty of -Paris, -1856;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Treaty of Paris restored -to Moldavia a small part of the lands ceded at Bucharest, -so as to keep the Russian frontier away from the Danube. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Berlin, -1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last cession, with the exception of the islands, was -recovered by Russia at the Treaty of Berlin. But -changes of frontier in those regions no longer affect the -dominion of the Turk.</p> - - -<h3>§ 9. <i>The Liberated States.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lands liberated -from -the Ottoman.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The losses which the Ottoman power has undergone -at the hands of its independent neighbours, Russia, -Montenegro, and Austria or Hungary, must be distinguished -from the liberation of certain lands from -Turkish rule to form new or revived European states. -We have seen that the kingdom of Hungary and its -dependent lands might fairly come under this head, -and we have seen in what the circumstances of their -liberation differ from the liberation of Greece or Servia -or Bulgaria. But it is important to bear in mind -that the Turk had to be driven from Hungary, no less -than from Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria. If the Turk -has ruled at Belgrade, at Athens, and at Tirnovo, he -has ruled at Buda no less. All stand in the same -opposition to Tzetinje, where he has never ruled.</p> - -<p>As the Servian people was the only one among the -south-eastern nations of which any part maintained its -abiding independence, so the enslaved part of the -Servian people was the first among the subject nations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">{451}</a></span> -to throw off the yoke. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Ionian -Islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the first attempt to form -anything like a free state in south-eastern Europe was -made among a branch of the Greek nation, in the so-called -<i>Ionian Islands</i>. But the form which the attempt -took was no lessening of the Turkish dominion, but its -increase. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ceded to -France. -1797.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the peace of Campoformio, the islands, -with the few Venetian points on the mainland, were to -pass to France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Septinsular -Republic -under Ottoman -overlordship. -1798.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the treaty of the next year between -Russia and the Turk, the points on the mainland were -to be handed over to the Turk, while the islands were -to form a commonwealth, tributary to the Turk, but -under the protection of Russia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Venetian -outposts -given -to the -Turk.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus, besides an advance -of the Turk’s immediate dominion on the mainland, his -overlordship was to be extended over the islands, including -Corfu, the one island which had never come under -his power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Surrender -of Parga. -1819.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The other points on the mainland passed, -not so much to the Sultan as to his rebellious vassal Ali -of Jôannina; -but <i>Parga</i> kept its freedom till five years -after the general peace. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>All Albania -and -continental -Greece -under the -Turk.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus the Turk made his last -encroachment on Christendom, and held for a moment -the whole of the Greek and Albanian mainland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Ionian -Islands -under -English -protection. -1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -islands meanwhile, tossed to and fro during the war -between France and England, were at the peace again -made into a nominal commonwealth, but under a form -of British protection which it is not easy to distinguish -from British sovereignty. Still a nominally free Greek -state was again set up, and the possibility of Greek -freedom on a larger scale was practically acknowledged.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Greek -War of Independence. -1821.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">It was only for a very short time that the Turk -held complete possession of all Albania and continental -Greece. Two years after the betrayal of Parga began -the Greek War of Independence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Greek -nation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The geographical -disposition of the Greek nation has changed very little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">{452}</a></span> -since the Latin conquest of Constantinople; it has -changed very little since the later days of old Hellas. -At all these stages some other people has held the solid -mainland of south-eastern Europe and of western Asia, -while the Greek has been the prevailing race on the -coasts, the islands, the peninsular lands, of both continents, -from Durazzo to Trebizond. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>General -Greek -revolt.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Within this range the -Greeks revolted at every point where they were strong -enough to revolt at all. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent -of the -liberated -territory.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was only in the old -Hellenic mainland, and in Crete and others of the Ægæan -islands, that the Greeks were able to hold their ground. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1829-1833.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of these lands some parts were allowed by Western -diplomacy to keep their freedom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Greece.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A <i>Kingdom of -Greece</i> was formed, taking in Peloponnêsos, Euboia, -the Kyklades, and a small part of central Greece, south -of a line drawn from the gulf of Arta to the gulf of -Volo. But the Turk was allowed to hold, not only the -more distant Greek lands and islands, but Epeiros, -Thessaly, and Crete. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ionian -islands -added to -Greece. -1864.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom was afterwards -enlarged by the addition of the Ionian islands, whose -nominal Septinsular Republic was merged in the -kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Treaty of -Berlin. -1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the Treaty of Berlin, Crete, which had -twice risen, was thrust back into bondage, but parts of -Thessaly and Epeiros were ordered to be set free and -to be added to the kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its promises -unfulfilled.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But even this small instalment -of Greek emancipation has not yet been carried -out.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>First revolt -and deliverance -of -Servia. -1805-1812.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Between the first and the second establishment of -the Ionian commonwealth, Servia had been delivered -and had been conquered again. The first revolt made -Servia a tributary principality. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -revolt and -deliverance. -1817-1829.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was then won back -by the Turk and again delivered. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1826-1829.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its freedom,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">{453}</a></span> -modified by the payment of tribute and by the presence -of Turkish garrisons in certain towns, was decreed by -the peace of Akerman, and was carried out by the treaty -of Hadrianople. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Withdrawal -of -Turkish -garrisons. -1867.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Fifty years after the second establishment -of the principality, its practical freedom was -made good by the withdrawal of the Turkish garrisons. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Servia independent -with an -enlarged -territory. -1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last changes have made Servia, under a native -dynasty, an independent state, released from all tribute -or vassalage. The same changes have given Servia -a slight increase of territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Servian -territory -left to the -Turk.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the boundary is so -drawn as to leave part of the old Servian land to the -Turk, and carefully to keep the frontiers of the Servian -and Montenegrin principalities apart. That is to say, -the Servian nation is split into four parts—Montenegro, -free Servia, Turkish Servia, and those Servian lands -which are, some under the ‘administration,’ some under -the acknowledged rule, of the King of Hungary and -Dalmatia.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Rouman -principalities.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>While Servia and Greece were under the immediate -rule of the Turk, the Rouman lands of <i>Wallachia</i> -and <i>Moldavia</i> always kept a certain measure of separate -being. The Turk named and deposed their -princes, but they never came under his direct rule. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Wallachia -and -Moldavia. -1861.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After the Treaty of Paris, the two principalities, being -again allowed to choose for themselves, took the -first step towards union by choosing the same prince. -Then followed their complete union as the <i>Principality -of Roumania</i>, paying tribute to the Turk, but otherwise -free. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Independence -of -Roumania. -1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last changes have made Roumania, -as well as Servia, an independent state. Its frontier -towards Russia, enlarged at Paris, was cut short at -Berlin. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Change of -its frontier.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But this last treaty restored to it the land of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">{454}</a></span> -<i>Dobrutcha</i> south of the Danube, thus giving the new -state a certain Euxine sea-board. Thus the Roumans, -the Romance-speaking people of Eastern Europe, still a -scattered remnant in their older seats, have, in their -great colony on the Danube, won for themselves a -place among the nations of Europe.</p> - - -<p class="p2 pb2">Lastly, while Servia and Roumania have been -wholly freed from the yoke, a part of <i>Bulgaria</i> has been -raised to that position of practical independence which -they formerly held. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Bulgaria -of San -Stefano. -1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Russian treaty of San Stefano -decreed a tributary principality of Bulgaria, whose boundaries -came most nearly to those of the third Bulgarian -kingdom at its greatest extent. But it was to have, what -no Bulgarian state had had before, a considerable -Ægæan sea-board. This would have had the effect of -splitting the immediate dominion of the Turk in two. It -would also have had the real fault of adding to Bulgaria -some districts which ought rather to be added to free -Greece. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Treaty of -Berlin.<br /> -Division of -Bulgaria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the Treaty of Berlin the Turk was to keep -the whole north coast of the Ægæan, while the Bulgarian -nation was split into three parts, in three different political -conditions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Free.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The oldest and latest Bulgarian land, -the land between Danube and Balkan, forms, with the -exception of the corner ceded to Roumania, the tributary -<i>Principality of Bulgaria</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Half-free.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The land immediately -south of the Danube, the southern Bulgaria of -history—northern Roumelia, according to the compass—receives -the diplomatic name of <i>Eastern Roumelia</i>, -a name which would more naturally take in Constantinople. -Its political condition is described as ‘administrative -autonomy,’ a half-way house, it would -seem, between bondage and freedom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Enslaved.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">{455}</a></span> -the old Macedonian land, the land for which Basil and -Samuel strove so stoutly, the question between Greek -and Bulgarian is held to be solved by handing over -Greek and Bulgarian alike to the uncovenanted mercies -of the Turk.</p> - - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>General -Survey.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We may end our survey of the south-eastern lands -by taking a general view of their geographical position -at some of the most important points in their history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>800.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the end of the eighth century we see the Eastern -Empire still stretching from Tauros to Sardinia; but -everywhere, save in its solid Asiatic peninsula, it has -shrunk up into a dominion of coasts and islands. It -still holds Sicily, Sardinia, and Crete, the heel and the -toe of Italy, the outlying duchies of Campania, the outlying -duchy at the head of the Hadriatic. In its great -European peninsula it holds the whole of the Ægæan -coast, a great part of the coasts of the Euxine and the -Hadriatic. But the lord of the sea rules nowhere far -from the sea; the inland regions are held, partly by -the great Bulgarian power, partly by smaller Slavonic -tribes fluctuating between independence and formal -submission. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>900.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the end of the next century the -general character of the East-Roman dominion remains -the same, but many points of detail have changed. -Sardinia and Crete are lost; a corner is all that is -left in Sicily; but the Imperial power is acknowledged -along the whole eastern Hadriatic coast; the heel and -the toe have grown into the dominion of all southern -Italy; all Greece has been won back to the Empire. -But the Empire has now new neighbours. The -Turanian Magyar is seated on the Danube, and other -kindred nations are pressing in his wake. Russians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">{456}</a></span> -Slaves that is under Scandinavian leadership, threaten the -Empire by sea. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1000.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last year of the tenth century shows -Sicily wholly lost, but Crete and Cyprus won back; -Kilikia and Northern Syria are won again; Bulgaria is -won and lost again; Russian establishment on the Danube -is put off for eight hundred years; the great struggle -is going on to decide whether the Slave or the Eastern -Roman is to rule in the south-eastern peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>c. 1040.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At -one moment in the eleventh century we see the -dominion of the New Rome at its full height. Europe -south of the Danube and its great tributaries, Asia to -Caucasus and almost to the Caspian, form a compact -body of dominion, stretching from the Venetian isles to -the old Phœnician cities. The Italian and insular -dominion is untouched; it is enlarged for a moment -by Sicilian conquest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>c. 1090.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another glance, half-a-century -later, shows the time when the Empire was most frightfully -cut short by old enemies and new. The Servian -wins back his own land; the Saracen wins back Sicily. -The Norman in Italy cuts down the Imperial dominion -to the nominal superiority of Naples, the last of Greek -cities in the West, as Kymê was the first. For a -moment he even plants himself east of Hadria, and -rends away Corfu and Durazzo from the Eastern world, -as Rome rent them away thirteen centuries before. -The Turk swallows up the inland provinces of Asia; he -plants his throne at Nikaia, and leaves to the Empire -no Asiatic dominion beyond a strip of Euxine and -Ægæan coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>c. 1180.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Towards the end of the twelfth century, -the Empire is restored to its full extent in Europe; -Servia and Dalmatia are won back, Hungary itself -looks like a vassal. In Asia the inland realm of the -Turk is hemmed in by the strong Imperial grasp of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">{457}</a></span> -whole coast-line, Euxine, Ægæan, and Mediterranean. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>c. 1200.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the next moment comes the beginning of the final -overthrow; before the century is out, the distant -possessions of the Empire have either fallen away of -themselves, or have been rent away by other powers. -Bulgaria, Cyprus, Trebizond, Corfu, even Epeiros and -Hellas, have parted away, or are in the act of parting -away. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1204.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Venice, its long nominal homage cast aside, -joins with faithless crusaders to split the Empire in -pieces. The Flemish Emperor reigns at Constantinople; -the Lombard King reigns at Thessalonikê; Achaia, -Athens, Naxos, give their names to more abiding -dynasties; Venice plants herself firmly in Crete and -Peloponnêsos. Still the Empire is not dead. The -Frank, victorious in Europe, hardly wins a footing in -Asia. Nikaia and Trebizond keep on the Imperial succession, -and a third Greek power, for a moment Imperial -also, holds it in Western Greece and the islands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1250.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Fifty years later, the Empire of Nikaia has become an -European power; it has already outlived the Latin -dominion at Thessalonikê; it has checked the revived -power of Bulgaria; it has cut short the Latin Empire -to the immediate neighbourhood of the Imperial city. -To the north Servia is strengthening herself; Bosnia is -coming into being; the Dalmatian cities are tossed to -and fro among their neighbours. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1300.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another glance at the -end of the thirteenth century shows us the revived East-Roman -Empire in its old Imperial seat, still in Europe -an advancing and conquering power, ruling on the -three seas of its own peninsula, established once more in -Peloponnêsos, a compact and seemingly powerful state, -as compared with the Epeirot, Achaian, and Athenian -principalities, or with the scattered possessions of Venice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">{458}</a></span> -in the Greek lands. But the power which seems so -firmly established in Europe has all but passed away in -Asia. There the Turk has taken the place of the Greek, -and the Greek the place of the Frank, as they stood a -hundred years earlier. And behind the immediate -Turkish enemies stands that younger and mightier -Turkish power which is to swallow up all its neighbours, -Mussulman and Christian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>c. 1354.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the central years -of the fourteenth century we see the Empire hemmed -in between two enemies, European and Asiatic, which -have risen to unexpected power at the same time. -Part of Thrace, Chalkidikê, part of Thessaly, a few -scattered points in Asia, are left to the Empire; in -Peloponnêsos alone is it an advancing power; everywhere -else its frontiers have fallen back. The Servian -Tzar rules from the Danube to the Gulf of Corinth. -The Ottoman Emir has left but a few fragments to the -Empire in Asia, and has already fixed his grasp on -Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1400.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before the century is ended, neither Constantinople, -nor Servia, nor any other Christian power, is -dominant in the south-eastern peninsula. The Ottoman -rules in their stead. The Empire is cut short to a -corner of Thrace, with Thessalonikê, Chalkidikê, and -the Peloponnesian province which now forms its greatest -possession. Instead of the great power of Servia, we -see a crowd of small principalities, Greek, Slavonic, -and Albanian, falling for the most part under either -Ottoman or Venetian supremacy. The Servian name -is still borne by one of them; but its prince is a -Turkish vassal; the true representative of Servian independence -has already begun to show itself among the -mountains which look down on the mouths of Cattaro -and the lake of Skodra. Bulgaria has fallen lower<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">{459}</a></span> -still; the Turk’s immediate power reaches to the -Danube. Bosnia at one end, the Frank principalities -at the other end, the Venetian islands in either sea, still -hold out; but the Turk has begun, if not to rule over -them, at least to harry them. Within the memory of -men who could remember when the Empire of Servia -was not yet, who could remember when the eagles of -Constantinople still went forth to victory, the Ottoman -had become the true master of the South-Eastern lands; -whatever has as yet escaped his grasp remained simply -as remnants ready for the gleaning.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>1500.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We will take our next glance in the later years -of the fifteenth century, a few years after the death of -the great conqueror. The momentary break-up of -the power of the Ottoman has been followed by the -greatest of his conquests. All now is over. The New -Rome is the seat of barbarian power. Trebizond, -Peloponnêsos, Athens, Euboia, the remnant of independent -Epeiros, Servia, Bosnia, Albania, all are gathered -in. The islands are still mostly untouched; but the -whole mainland is conquered, save where Venice still -holds her outposts, and where the warrior prelates of -the Black Mountain, the one independent Christian -power from the Save to Cape Matapan, have entered on -their career of undying glory. With these small exceptions, -the whole dominion of the Macedonian Emperors -has passed into Ottoman hands, together with a vast -tributary dominion beyond the Danube, much of which -had never bowed to either Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1600.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the end of another -century, we see all Hungary, save a tributary remnant, -a subject land of the Turk. We see Venice shorn of -Cyprus and all her Peloponnesian possessions. The -Dukes have gone from Naxos and the Knights from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">{460}</a></span> -Rhodes, and the Mussulman lord of so many Christian -lands has spread his power over his fellow Mussulmans -in Syria, Egypt, and Africa. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1700.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another century passes, -and the tide is turned. The Turk can still conquer; he -has won Crete abidingly and Podolia for a moment. -But the crescent has passed away for ever from Buda -and from the Western isles; it has passed away for a -moment from Corinth and all Peloponnêsos. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1800.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the -end of another century we see the Turk’s immediate -possession bounded by the Save and the Danube, and -his overlordship bounded by the Dniester. His old -rivals Poland and Venice are no more; but Austria -hems in his Slavonic provinces; France struggles for -the islands off his western shore; Russia watches him -from the peninsula so long held by the free Goth and -the free Greek. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Seventy-eight years more, and his -shadow of overlordship ends at the Danube, his shadow -of immediate dominion ends at the Balkan. Free -Greece, free Servia, free Roumania—Montenegro again -reaching to her own sea—Bulgaria parted into three, -but longing for reunion—Bosnia, Herzegovina, Cyprus, -held in a mysterious way by neighbouring or distant -European powers—all join to form, not so much a -picture as a dissolving view. We see in them a transitional -state of things, which diplomacy fondly believes -to be an eternal settlement of an eternal question, but -of which reason and history can say only that we -know not what a day may bring forth.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>[Long after this chapter was written, after the whole of it was -printed, after a great part of it was revised for the press, there appeared -the first volume of the great collection of C. N. Sathas, -Μνημεῖα τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς Ἱσορίας, <i>Documents Inédits relatifs à -l’Histoire de la Grèce au Moyen Âge</i> (Paris, 1880). In his preface -M. Sathas insists on two points. One is the Greek character of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">{461}</a></span> -Eastern Empire throughout its whole being; that it had a Greek -side no one ever thought of denying. He brings together a good -many occasional instances, largely from unprinted manuscripts, of -the use of Ἕλλην and Ἑλλάς through the whole period of the -Empire. That the name came into rhetorical use by a kind of -<i>Renaissance</i> about the thirteenth century is undoubted. I brought -together some few instances in my Historical Essays, iii. 246, and the -whole history of Laonikos Chalkokondylas is one long instance. M. -Sathas brings several others from much earlier times. But they -seem to me to be mainly cases of the rhetorical use of an antiquated -name, such as is common among all nations. They do not seem to -affect the proposition that the regular national name of the Empire -and its people was always <i>Roman</i>. M. Sathas’ other point is somewhat -startling. It is that the Slavonic occupation of a large part of -Greece, as to the extent of which there has been much disputing, -but which I never before saw altogether denied, is all a mistake. -According to him the settlers were not Slaves, but Albanians, called -Slaves by that lax use of national names of which there certainly -are plenty of instances. I cannot undertake either to accept or to -refute M. Sathas’ doctrine during the process of revising a proof-sheet. -I can only put the fact on record that one who has gone very deeply -into the matter has come to this, to me at least, altogether new -conclusion.]</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">{462}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE BALTIC LANDS.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lands beyond -the -two -Empires.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Our</span> survey of the two Empires and of the powers -which sprang out of them has still left out of sight -a large part of Europe, including some lands which -formed part of the elder Empire. It is only indirectly -that we have spoken of the extreme north, -the extreme east, or the extreme west, of Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span><i>Quasi</i>-Imperial -position of -certain -powers.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In all these regions powers have risen and fallen -which might pass for shadows of the two Empires -of Rome. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The British -islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus in the north-west lie two great islands -with a following of smaller ones, of which the -elder Empire never held more than part of the greater -island and those of the smaller ones which could -not be separated from it. Britain passed for a world -of its own, and the princes who rose to a <i>quasi</i>-Imperial -position within that world took, by a kind -of analogy, the titles of Empire.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Scandinavia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the extreme -north are a larger and smaller peninsula, with their -attendant islands, which lay wholly beyond the elder -Empire, and of which the later Western Empire took -in only a very small part for a short time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Empire -of Cnut.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -momentary union of these two insular and peninsular -systems, of Britain and Scandinavia, formed more truly -a third Empire of the North, fully the fellow of those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">{463}</a></span> -of the East and West.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the south-west of Europe -again lay another great peninsula, which had been -fully incorporated with the elder Empire, parts of -which—at two opposite ends—had belonged to the -Empire of Justinian and to the Empire of Charles, -but whose history, as a whole, stands apart from that -of either the Eastern or the Western Roman power. -And in Spain also, as being, like Britain, in some sort -a world of its own, the leading power asserted an -Imperial rank. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Castilian -Emperors.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As Wessex had its Emperors, so had -Castile.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>History of -the lands -beyond the -Empires.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Britain, Scandinavia, and Spain, thus form three -marked geographical wholes, three great divisions of -that part of Europe which lay outside the bounds of -either Empire at the time of the separation. But the -geographical position of the three regions has led to -marked differences in their history. Insular Britain is -wholly oceanic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -comparison -of -Scandinavia -and -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Peninsular Spain and Scandinavia have -each an oceanic side; but each has also a side towards -one of the great inland seas of Europe—Spain towards -the Mediterranean, Scandinavia towards the northern -Mediterranean, the Baltic. But the Baltic side of -Scandinavia has been of far greater relative importance -than the Mediterranean side of Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -Aragon in -the Mediterranean.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of the three chief -Spanish kingdoms Aragon alone has a Mediterranean -history; the seaward course of Castile and Portugal -was oceanic. Of the three Scandinavian kingdoms -Norway alone is wholly oceanic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -Sweden in -the Baltic.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Denmark is more -Baltic than oceanic; the whole historic life of Sweden -lies on the Baltic coasts. The Mediterranean position -of Aragon enabled her to win whole kingdoms as -her dependencies. But they were not geographically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">{464}</a></span> -continuous, and they never could be incorporated. -Sweden, on the other hand, was able to establish a -continuous dominion on both sides of the great northern -gulfs, and to make at least a nearer approach to the -incorporation of her conquests than Aragon could ever -make. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth -and decline -of Sweden.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The history of Sweden mainly consists in the -growth and the loss of her dominion in the Baltic lands -out of her own peninsula. It is only in quite modern -times that the union of the crowns, though not of -the kingdoms, of Sweden and Norway has created -a power wholly peninsular and equally Baltic and -oceanic.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Eastern -and -western aspects -of -Scandinavia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This eastern aspect of Scandinavian history needs the -more to be insisted on, because there is another side of it -with which we are naturally more likely to be struck. -Scandinavian inroads and conquests—inroads and conquests, -that is, from Denmark and Norway—make -up a large part of the early history of Gaul and Britain. -When this phase of their history ends, the Scandinavian -kingdoms are apt to pass out of our sight, till we are -perhaps surprised at the great part which they suddenly -play in Europe in the seventeenth century. But both -Denmark and Sweden had meanwhile been running -their course in the lands north, east, and south of the -Baltic. And it is this Baltic side of their history which -is of primary importance in our general European -view.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Baltic -lands generally.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It follows then that, for the purposes of our present -survey, while the British islands and the Spanish peninsula -will each claim a distinct treatment, we cannot -separate the Scandinavian peninsulas from the general -mass of the Baltic lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Northern -Slavonic -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We must look at Scandinavia -in close geographical connexion with the region<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">{465}</a></span> -which stretches from the centre to the extreme east of -Europe, a region which, while by no means wholly Slavonic, -is best marked as containing the seats of the -northern branch of the Slavonic race. This region has a -constant connexion with both German and Scandinavian -history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Germanized -Slavonic -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It takes in those wide lands, once Slavonic, -which have at various times been more or less -thoroughly incorporated with Germany, but which did -not become German without vigorous efforts to make -large parts of them Scandinavian. In another part of -our survey we have watched them join on to the -Teutonic body; we must now watch them drop off -from the Slavonic body. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Northern -Slaves -under -Hungary -or Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And with them we must take -another glimpse at those among the Northern Slaves who -passed under the power of the Magyar, and of that composite -dominion which claims the Magyar crown among -many others. These North-Slavonic lands which have -passed to non-Slavonic rulers form a region stretching -from Holstein to the Austrian kingdom of Galicia -and Lodomeria and to the Slovak and Ruthenian districts -of Hungary. But above all, this North-Slavonic -region takes in those two branches of the Slavonic race -which have in turn lorded it over one another, neither -of which passed permanently under the lordship of -either Empire, but one of which owed its unity and -national life to settlers from the Scandinavian north. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Characteristics -of -Poland and -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That is to say, it is the land of the Pole and the Russian, -the land of the two branches of the Slavonic race which -passed severally under the spiritual dominion of the -elder and the younger Rome without passing under the -temporal dominion of either. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -primitive -nations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And within the same -region we have to deal with the remnant that is left of -those ancient nations, Aryan and non-Aryan, which so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">{466}</a></span> -long refused all obedience to either Church as well as to -either Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Aryan -nations; -Prussians -and Lithuanians.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The region at which we now look takes -in the land of those elder brethren of the European -family whose speech has changed less than any other -European tongue from the Aryan speech once common to -all. Alongside of the Orthodox Russian, of the Catholic -Pole, of the Swede first Catholic and then Lutheran, we -have to look on the long abiding heathendom of the -Lithuanian and the Prussian.<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Non-Aryan -Fins.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And at their side we -have to look on older races still, on the præ-Aryan -nations on either side of the Bothnian and Finnish gulfs. -The history of the eastern coast of the Baltic is the -history of the struggle for the rule or the destruction of -these ancient nations at the hands of their Teutonic -and Slavonic neighbours.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Central -position of -the North-Slavonic -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The whole North-Slavonic region, north-eastern -rather than central with regard to Europe in general, -has still a central character of its own. It is connected -with the history of northern, of western, and -of south-eastern Europe. The falling away of so -many Slavonic lands to Germany is of itself no small -part of German history. But besides this, the strictly -Polish and Russian area marches at once on the -Western Empire, on the lands which fringe the Eastern -Empire, on the Scandinavian North, and on the barbarian -lands to the north-east. This last feature is a -characteristic both of the North-Slavonic region and of -the Scandinavian peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Barbarian -neighbours -of Russia -and Scandinavia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Norway, Sweden, Russia, -are the only European powers whose land has always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">{467}</a></span> -marched on the land of barbarian neighbours, and have -therefore been able to conquer and colonize in barbarian -lands simply by extending their own frontiers. This -was done by Norway and Sweden as far as their geographical -position allowed them; but it has been done on -a far greater scale by Russia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -conquest -and colonization -by land.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -While other European -nations have conquered and colonized by sea, Russia, -the one European state of later times which has marched -upon Asia, has found a boundless field for conquest and -colonization by land. She has had her India, her -Canada, and her Australia, her Mexico, her Brazil, her -Java, and her Algeria, geographically continuous with -her European territory. This fact is the key to much -in the later history of Russia.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relation of -the Baltic -lands to -the two -Empires.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>With regard to the two Empires, the lands round -the Baltic show us several relations. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Norway -always independent.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Scandinavia, -Norway stands alone in never having had anything to -do with the Roman power in any of its forms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -of Sweden -and Denmark -to the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Sweden -itself has always been equally independent; but in later -times Swedish kings have held fiefs within the Western -Empire. The position of Denmark has naturally caused -it to have much more to do with its Roman or German -neighbour. In earlier times some Danish kings became -vassals of the Empire for the Danish crown; others -made conquests within the lands of the Empire. In -later times Danish kings have held fiefs within the -German kingdom and have been members of the more -modern Confederation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Empire -and the -West-Slavonic -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The western parts of the Slavonic -region became formally part of the Western Empire. -But this was after the Empire had put on the character -of a German state; these lands were not drawn to it from -its strictly Imperial side. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Poland and -the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Poland sometimes passed in -early days for a fief of the German kingdom; in later days<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">{468}</a></span> -it was divided between the two chief powers which -arose out of that kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -of Russia -to the -Eastern -Church and -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Russia, on the other hand, -the pupil of the Eastern Empire, has never been the -subject or the vassal of either Empire. When Russia -had an external overlord, he was an Asiatic barbarian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Imperial -style of -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The peculiar relation between Russia and Constantinople, -spiritual submission combined with temporal independence, -has led to the appearance in Russia of Imperial -ideas and titles with a somewhat different meaning from -that with which they were taken in Spain and in -Britain. The Russian prince claims the Imperial style -and bearings, not so much as holding an Imperial -position in a world of his own, as because the most -powerful prince of the Eastern Church in some sort -inherits the position of the Eastern Emperor in the -general world of Europe.</p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Scandinavian Lands after the Separation of the Empires.</i></h3> - -<p>At the end of the eighth century the Scandinavian -and Slavonic inhabitants of the Baltic lands as yet -hardly touched one another. The most northern -Scandinavians and the most northern Slaves were still -far apart; if the two races anywhere marched on one -another, it must have been at the extreme south-western -corner of the Baltic coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Baltic -still -mainly -held by the -earlier -races.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The greater part of that -coast, all its northern and eastern parts, was still held -by the earlier nations, Aryan and non-Aryan. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Formation -of the -Scandinavian -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, -within the two Scandinavian peninsulas, the three -Scandinavian nations were fast forming. A number -of kindred tribes were settling down into the kingdoms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">{469}</a></span> -of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden,<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> which, -sometimes separate, sometimes united, have existed -ever since.</p> - -<p>Of these three, Denmark, the only one which had -a frontier towards the Empire, was naturally the first to -play a part in general European history. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Formation -of the -Danish -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the course -of the tenth century, under the half-mythical Gorm and -his successors Harold and Sven, the Danish kingdom -itself, as distinguished from other lands held in after -times by its kings, reached nearly its full historical -extent in the two peninsulas and the islands between -them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Denmark -in the -northern -peninsula.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Halland</i> and <i>Skåne</i> or <i>Scania</i>, it must always be -remembered, are from the beginning at least as Danish -as Zealand and Jutland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Frontier -of the -Eider.<br /> -The -Danish -March. -934-1027.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Eider remained the frontier -towards the Empire, save during part of the tenth and -eleventh centuries, when the Danish frontier withdrew -to the Dannewerk, and the land between the two -boundaries formed the <i>Danish March</i> of the Empire. -Under Cnut the old frontier was restored.</p> - -<p>The name of <i>Northmen</i>,<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> which the Franks used in -a laxer way for the Scandinavian nations generally, was -confined to the people of <i>Norway</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Formation -of the -kingdom of -Norway.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were formed -into a single kingdom under Harold Harfagra late in -the ninth century. The Norwegian realm of that day -stretched far beyond the bounds of the later Norway,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">{470}</a></span> -having an indefinite extension over tributary Finnish -tribes as far as the White Sea. The central part of -the eastern side of the northern peninsula, between -Denmark to the south and the Finnish nations to -the north, was held by two Scandinavian settlements -which grew into the Swedish kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Swedes and -<i>Gauts</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were -those of the Swedes strictly so called, and of the -<i>Geátas</i> or <i>Gauts</i>. This last name has naturally been -confounded with that of the Goths, and has given -the title of <i>King of the Goths</i> to the princes of -Sweden. <i>Gothland</i>, east and west, lay on each side of -Lake Wettern. <i>Swithiod</i> or <i>Svealand</i>, Sweden proper, -lay on both sides of the great arm of the sea whose -entrance is guarded by the modern capital. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Swedish -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The union -of Svealand and Gothland made up the kingdom of -Sweden. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -towards -Norway -and Denmark. -1111.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Its early boundaries towards both Denmark -and Norway were fluctuating. <i>Wermeland</i>, immediately -to the north of Lake Wenern, and <i>Jamteland</i> farther to -the north, were long a debateable land. At the beginning -of the twelfth century Wermeland passed finally -to Sweden, and Jamteland for several ages to Norway. -<i>Bleking</i> again, at the south-east corner of the peninsula, -was a debateable land between Sweden and Denmark -which passed to Denmark. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth to -the north.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For a land thus bounded -the natural course of extension by land lay to the -north, along the west coast of the Gulf of Bothnia. In -the course of the eleventh century at the latest, Sweden -began to spread itself in that direction over <i>Helsingland</i>.</p> - -<p>Sweden had thus a better opportunity than Denmark -and Norway for extension of her own borders by land. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Western -expeditions -of the -Danes and -Northmen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile Denmark and Norway, looking to the west, -had their great time of Oceanic conquest and colonization<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">{471}</a></span> -in the ninth and tenth centuries.<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> These two processes -must be distinguished. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Some lands, like the -Northumbrian and East-Anglian kingdoms in Britain and -the duchy of Normandy in Gaul, received Scandinavian -princes and a Scandinavian element in their population, -without the geographical area of Scandinavia being -extended. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But that area may be looked on as being extended -by colonies like those of <i>Orkney</i>, <i>Shetland</i>, -<i>Faroe</i>, the islands off the western coast of Scotland, -<i>Man</i>, <i>Iceland</i>, <i>Greenland</i>. Some of these were actually -discovered and settled for the first time by the Northmen. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlements -in -Ireland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The settlements on the east coast of Ireland, -Dublin, Waterford, Wexford, may also pass as outposts -of Scandinavia on Celtic ground. Of these outlying -Scandinavian lands, some of the islands, specially -Iceland, have remained Scandinavian; the settlements -on the mainland of Britain and Ireland, and on the -islands nearest to them, have been merged in the British -kingdoms or have become dependencies of the British -crown.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Expedition -to the east.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Against this vast range of Oceanic settlement there -is as yet little to set in the form of Baltic conquest on -the part of Norway and Denmark. Norway indeed -hardly could become a Baltic power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Danes in -Samland. -950.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But there was -a Danish occupation of <i>Samland</i> in Prussia in the tenth -century, which caused that land to be reckoned among -the kingdoms which made up the Northern Empire of -Cnut.<a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Jomsburg. -935-1043.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There is also the famous settlement of the -<i>Jomsburg</i> Wikings at the mouth of the Oder. But the -great eastern extension of Danish power came later. -Nor did the lasting Swedish occupation of the lands -east of the gulf of Bothnia begin till the twelfth century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">{472}</a></span> -But there is no doubt that, long before this, there were -Swedish inroads and occasional Swedish conquests in -other parts of the Baltic lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Swedish -conquest of -Curland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus <i>Curland</i> is said -to have been won for a while by Sweden, and to have -been again won back by its own Lettic people.<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> The -ninth century indeed saw a wonderful extension of -Scandinavian dominion far to the east and far to the -south. But it was neither ordinary conquest nor ordinary -settlement. No new Scandinavian people was -planted, as in Orkney and Iceland. Nor were Scandinavian -outposts planted, as in Ireland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Scandinavians -in -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Scandinavian -princes, who in three generations lost all trace of their -Scandinavian origin, created, under the name of <i>Russia</i>, -the greatest of Slavonic powers. The vast results of -their establishment have been results on the history and -geography of the Slaves; on Scandinavian geography -it had no direct effect at all. Still it forms a connecting -link between the Scandinavian lands west and north of -the Baltic and the Slavonic region to the east and south -of that sea.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>The Lands East and South of the Baltic at the Separation of the Empires.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slaves -between -Elbe and -Dnieper.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>At the beginning of the ninth century the inland -region stretching from the Elbe a little beyond the -Dnieper was continuously held by various Slavonic -nations. Their land marched on the German kingdom -at one end, and on various Finnish and Turkish nations -at the other. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their lack -of sea-board.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But their sea-board was comparatively -small. Wholly cut off from the Euxine, from the -northern Ocean, and from the great gulfs of the Baltic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">{473}</a></span> -their only coast was that which reaches from the modern -haven of Kiel to the mouth of the Vistula. And this -Slavonic coast was gradually brought under German -influence and dominion, and has been in the end fully -incorporated with the German state. It follows then -that, in tracing the history of the chief Slavonic powers -in this region, of Bohemia, Poland, and Russia, we are -dealing with powers which are almost wholly inland. -At the time of the separation of the Empires, there was -no one great Slavonic power in these parts. One -such, with Bohemia for its centre, had shown itself for a -moment in the seventh century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bohemian -kingdom -of Samo. -623.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was the kingdom -of Samo, which, if its founder was really of -Frankish birth, forms an exact parallel to Bulgaria -and Russia, also Slavonic powers created by foreign -princes.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Great-Moravia. -884.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next considerable power which arose -nearly on the same ground was the Great Moravian -kingdom of Sviatopluk, which passed away before the -advance of the Magyars. Before its fall the Russian -power had already begun to form itself far to the -north-east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Four -Slavonic -groups.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Looking at the map just before the beginning -of the momentary Moravian and the lasting -Russian power, the North-Slavonic nations fall into four -main historical groups. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>North-western -group; -thoroughly -Germanized.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -There are, first, the tribes to -the north-west, whose lands, answering roughly to the -modern Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg, and -Saxony, have been thoroughly Germanized. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>South-western -group under -German -supremacy<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Secondly, -there are the tribes to the south-west in <i>Bohemia</i>, -<i>Moravia</i>, and <i>Lusatia</i>, which were brought under -German dominion or supremacy, but from which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">{474}</a></span> -Slavonic nationality has not in the same sort passed -away. <i>Silesia</i>, connected in different ways with both -these groups, forms the link between them and the third -group. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Central -group; -Polish.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This is formed by the central tribes of the whole -region, lying between the Magyar to the south and the -Prussian to the north, whose union made up the -original Polish kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Eastern -group; -Russian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, to the east lie the -tribes which joined to form the original Russian state. -Looking at these groups in our own time, we may -say that from the first of them all signs of Slavonic -nationality have passed away. The second and third, -speaking roughly, keep nationality without political -independence. The fourth group has grown into the -one great modern power whose ruling nationality is -Slavonic.</p> - - - -<p class="p2">With regard to the first group, we have now to -trace from the Slavonic side the same changes of frontier -which we have already slightly glanced at from the -German side. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Polabic -group.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the land between the Elbe and the -Oder, taking the upper course of those rivers as represented -by their tributaries the Saale and the Bober, -we find that division of the Slaves which their own -historian marks off as <i>Polabic</i>.<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> These again fall -under three groups. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sorabi.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First, to the south, in the modern -Saxony, are the <i>Sorabi</i>, the northern Serbs, cut off -for ever from their southern brethren by the Magyar -inroad. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Leuticii.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the north of them lie the <i>Leuticii</i>, <i>Weleti</i>, -<i>Weletabi</i>, or <i>Wiltsi</i>, and other tribes stretching to the -Baltic in modern Mecklenburg and Western Pomerania. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Obotrites:<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the north-west corner, in Mecklenburg and eastern -Holstein, were the <i>Obotrites</i>, <i>Wagri</i>, and other tribes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">{475}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>their relations -to the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Through the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries the -relations between these lands and the Western Empire -was not unlike the relation of the southern Slaves -to the Eastern Empire during the same ages. Only -the Western Emperors never had such a rival on -their immediate border as the Bulgaria of Simeon -or Samuel. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -of -tribute and -independence. -921-968.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Slavonic tribes on the north-eastern -border of the Western Empire were tributary or independent, -according as the Empire was strong or -weak. Tributary under Charles the Great, tributary -again under the great Saxon kings, they had an intermediate -period of independence. The German dominion, -which fell back in the latter part of the tenth -century, was again asserted by the Saxon dukes and -margraves in the eleventh and twelfth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final -conquest.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Long before -the end of the twelfth century the work was done. -The German dominion, and with it the Christian -religion, had been forced on the Slaves between Elbe -and Oder.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of the -Sorabi.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Serbs between Elbe and Saale seem to have -been the earliest and the most thoroughly conquered. -They never won back their full independence after the -victories of the first Saxon kings. The Serbs between -Elbe and Bober, sometimes tributary to the Empire, -were also sometimes independent, sometimes under the -superiority of kindred powers like Poland or Bohemia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Meissen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The lands included in the mark of <i>Meissen</i> were -thoroughly Germanized by the twelfth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lusatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -in the lands included in the mark of <i>Lusatia</i> the -Slavonic speech and nationality still keep a firm -hold.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Leuticians.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Leutician land to the north was lost and won -over and over again. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>927-1157.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Branibor</i>, the German <i>Brandenburg</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">{476}</a></span> -was often taken and retaken during a space of two -hundred years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>983.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Late in the tenth century the whole -land won back its freedom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1030-1101.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the eleventh it came -under the Polish power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1134-1157.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last, the reign of Albert -the Bear finally added to Germany the land which -was to contain the latest German capital, and made -Brandenburg a German <i>mark</i>.</p> - -<p>In the land lying on that narrow part of the -Baltic which bore the special name of the <i>Slavonic -Gulf</i>, the alternations of revolt and submission, from -the ninth century to the twelfth, were endless. Here -we can trace out native dynasties, one of which has -lasted to our own day. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Sclavinia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The mark of the Billungs<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> -alternates with the <i>kingdom of Sclavinia</i>, and the kingdom -of Sclavinia alternates between heathen and -Christian princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Przemyslaf. -1161.<br /> -House of -Mecklenburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At last, in the twelfth century, the -last heathen King of the Wends became the first -Christian Duke, the founder of the house of Mecklenburg. -Part of this region, Western Pomerania and -the island of <i>Rügen</i>, became, both in this and in -later times, a special borderland of Germany and -Scandinavia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rügen -under -Denmark. -1168-1325.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Rügen and the neighbouring coast became -a Danish possession in the twelfth century, and -so remained into the fourteenth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1214-1223.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom of -Sclavinia itself became Danish for a short season. A -Scandinavian power appeared again in the same region -in the seventeenth century. With these exceptions, -the history of these lands from the twelfth century -onward, is that of members of the German kingdom.</p> - - - -<p class="p2 pb2">It was otherwise with the second group, with the -Slaves who dwelled within the fence of the Giant Mountains,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">{477}</a></span> -and with their neighbours to the north-east, on -the upper course of the Oder as well as on the Wag and -the northern Morava. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Bohemia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Here a Slavonic kingdom has -lived on to this day, though it early passed under German -supremacy, and though it has been for ages ruled -by German kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>928.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Bohemia</i>, the land of the <i>Czechs</i>, -tributary to Charles the Great, part of the kingdom of -Sviatopluk, became definitely a German fief through -the wars of the Saxon kings. But this did not hinder -Bohemia from becoming, later in the century, an advancing -and conquering power, the seat of a short-lived -dominion, like those of Samo and Sviatopluk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Moravians -and -Slovaks.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the -east of the Czechs of Bohemia lie the <i>Moravians</i> and -<i>Slovaks</i>, that branch of the Slavonic race which formed -the centre of the kingdom of Sviatopluk, and which bore -the main brunt of the Magyar invasion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Magyar -conquest of -Moravia. -906-955.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A large part of -the Slaves of this region fell permanently under Magyar -rule; so did Moravia itself for a season. Since then -Bohemia and Moravia have usually had a common -destiny. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -of Bohemia. -973-999.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later in the century the Czechish dominion -reached to the Oder, and took in the Northern <i>Chrobatia</i> -on the upper Vistula. This dominion passed away -with the great growth of the Polish power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bohemia -and -Moravia -under -Poland. -1003-1004.<br /> -1003-1029.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Bohemia -itself for a moment, Moravia for a somewhat longer -time, became Polish dependencies, and the Magyar won -a further land between the Wag and the Olzava. -Later events led to another growth of Bohemia, in more -forms than one, but always as a member of the Roman -Empire and the German kingdom.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Polish -kingdom.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>While our second group thus passed under German -dominion without ceasing to be Slavonic, among the -third group a great Slavonic power arose whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">{478}</a></span> -adhesion to the Western Church made it part of the -general Western world, but which was never brought -under the lasting supremacy of the Western Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its relations -to -Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Large parts of the old Polish lands have passed under -German rule; some parts have been largely Germanized. -But Poland, as a whole, has never been either -Germanized or brought under lasting German rule. -Holding the most central position of any European -state, Poland has had to struggle against enemies from -every quarter, against the Swede from the Baltic and -the Turk from the Danube. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rivalry of -Poland and -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the distinguishing -feature of its history has been its abiding rivalry with -the Slavonic land to the east of it. The common -history of Poland and Russia is a history of conquest -and partition, wrought by whichever power was at the -time the stronger.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Lechs -or Poles.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Our first glimmerings of light in these parts show us -a number of kindred tribes holding the land between -Oder and Vistula, with the coast between the mouths -of those rivers. East of the Vistula they are cut off -from the sea by the Prussians; but in the inland region -they stretch somewhat to the east of that river. To -the west the Oder and Bober may be taken as their -boundary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>White -Chrobatia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the upper course of these rivers is the -home of another kindred people, the northern branch -of the Chrobatians or Croats, whose land of <i>White -Chrobatia</i> stretched on both sides of the Carpathians. -These Slaves of the central and lower Oder -and Vistula would seem to be best distinguished as -<i>Lechs</i>; <i>Poland</i> is the name of the land rather than of -the people. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Polish -tribes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Mazovia</i>, <i>Cujavia</i>, <i>Silesia</i>—the German -<i>Schlesien</i>—with the sea land, <i>Pomore</i>, <i>Pommern</i>, or -<i>Pomerania</i>, mark different districts held by kindred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">{479}</a></span> -tribes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of the -Polish -kingdom -at Gnesen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the tenth century a considerable power arose -for the first time in these regions, having its centre -between the Warta and the Vistula, at <i>Gniezno</i> or -<i>Gnesen</i>, the abiding metropolitan city of Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>931-992. -Conversion -of Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -extent of the new power under the first Christian -prince Mieczïslaf answered nearly to the later Great -Poland, Mazovia, and Silesia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tributary -to the -Empire. -963.<br /> -973.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the Polish duke -became a vassal of the Empire for his lands west of -Warta, and suffered some dismemberments to the advantage -of Bohemia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Boleslaf. -996-1025.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under his son Boleslaf, Poland -rose to the same kind of momentary greatness as -Moravia and Bohemia had already done. The dominions -of Boleslaf took in, for longer or shorter -times, Bohemia, Moravia, Lusatia, Silesia, Pomerania, -Prussia, part of Russia, and part of that middle Slavonic -land which became the mark of Brandenburg, the districts -of <i>Barnim</i> and <i>Custrin</i>. Of this great dominion -some parts fell away during the life of Boleslaf, and -other parts at his death. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -his reign.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But he none the less established -Poland as a power, and some of his conquests -were abiding. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Chrobatia -becomes -<i>Little -Poland</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Western Pomerania, Silesia, Barnim and -Custrin, were kept for a longer or shorter time; and -Chrobatia north of the Carpathians—the southern part -fell to the Magyar at his death—remained, under the -name of <i>Little Poland</i>, as long as Poland lasted at all. -It supplied the land with its second capital, <i>Cracow</i>. -From this time Poland ranked sometimes as a kingdom, -sometimes as a duchy.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Internal -divisions.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Constant divisions among members -of the ruling house, occasional admissions of the -outward supremacy of the Empire, did not destroy its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">{480}</a></span> -national unity and independence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Polish -state -survives.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A Polish state always -lived on. And from the end of the thirteenth century, -it took its place as an important European kingdom, -holding a distinctive position as the one Slavonic power -at once attached to the Western Church and independent -of the Western Empire.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -of Russia -to the -Eastern -Church.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>To the east of the Lechs and Chrobatians lay that -great group of Slavonic tribes whose distinctive historical -character is that they stood in the same relation to -Eastern Christendom in which Poland stands to Western. -Disciples of the Eastern Church, they were never vassals -of the Eastern Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Teutonic -influence -among -eastern and -western -Slaves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Western Slaves were -brought under Christian and under Teutonic influences -by the same process, a process which implied submission, -or attempted submission, to the Western Empire -or to some of its princes. The Eastern Slaves were also -brought under both Christian and Teutonic influences, -but in wholly different shapes. The Teutonic influence -came first. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russia -created by -the Scandinavian -settlement.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It did not take the form of submission to -any existing Teutonic power; it was the creation of a -new Slavonic power under Teutonic rulers. Christianity -did not come till those Teutonic influences had -died away, except in their results, and, coming from -the Eastern centre of Christendom, it had the effect of -keeping its disciples aloof from both the Christian and -the Teutonic influences of the West. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The name -<i>Russian</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A group of Slavonic -tribes, without losing their Slavonic character, -grew up to national unity, and took up a national name -from Scandinavian settlers and rulers, the Warangians -or <i>Russians</i> of the Swedish peninsula.<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">{481}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Origin of -Russia. -862.<br /> -First -seat at -Novgorod. -Russian -advance.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Russian power began by the Scandinavian -leaders obtaining, in the latter half of the ninth century, -the dominion of the most northern members of the -Slavonic race, the Slaves of <i>Novgorod</i> on the Ilmen. -Thence they pushed their dominion southwards. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the eastern -Slavonic -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -East -and north-east of the Lechs and Chrobatians lay a -crowd of Slavonic tribes stretching beyond the Dnieper -as far as the upper course of the Oka. Cut off from -the Baltic by the Fins and Letts, they were cut off from -the Euxine by various Turanian races in turn, first -Magyars, then Patzinaks. To the south-east, from the -Dnieper to the Caspian, lay the <i>Chazar</i> dominion, to -which the Slaves east of Dnieper were tributary. To -the north-east lay a crowd of Finnish tribes, among -which is only one Finnish power of historic name, the -kingdom of <i>Great</i> or <i>White Bulgaria</i> on the Volga. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -the eastern -Slaves. -862-912.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Within this region, in the space of fifty years, the -various Slavonic tribes joined in different degrees of -unity to form the new power, called <i>Russian</i> from its -Scandinavian leaders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -against -Chazars -and Fins.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The tribes who were tributary -to the Chazars were set free, and the Russian power -was spread over a certain Finnish area on the Upper -Volga and its tributaries, nearly as far north as Lake -Bielo. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -centre at -Kief.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The centres of the new power were, first <i>Novgorod</i>, -and then <i>Kief</i> on the Dnieper.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The rulers -of Russia -become -Slavonic.<br /> -957-972.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>How early the Scandinavian rulers of the new -Slavonic power became themselves practically Slavonic -is shown by the name of the prince Sviatoslaf, of -whom we have already heard in the Danubian Bulgaria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -enterprise. -Euxine.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Already had Russian enterprise taken the direction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">{482}</a></span> -which it took in far later days. It was needful for the developement -of the new Russian nation to have free access -to the Euxine. From this they were cut off by a strange -fate for nine hundred years. But from the very beginning -more than one attempt was made on Constantinople, -though the <i>Tzargrad</i>, the Imperial city, could -be reached only by sailing down the Dnieper through an -enemy’s country. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -on the -Caspian.<br /> -Vladimir -takes -Cherson.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Sviatoslaf also appears as a conqueror -in the lands by the Caucasus and the Caspian, and -Vladimir, the first Christian prince, won his way to -baptism by an attack on the Imperial city of Cherson.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Isolation -of Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The oldest Russia was thus, like the oldest Poland, -emphatically an inland state; but it was far more -isolated than Poland. Its ecclesiastical position kept it -from sharing the history of the Western Slaves. Its -geographical position kept it from sharing the history -of the Servians and Bulgarians. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -lands west -of Dnieper.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And it must not be -forgotten that the oldest Russia was formed mainly of -lands which afterwards passed under the rule of Poland -and Lithuania. <i>Little Russia</i>, <i>Black Russia</i>, <i>White -Russia</i>, <i>Red Russia</i>, all came under foreign rule. The -Dnieper, from which Russia was afterwards cut off, -was the great central river of the elder Russia; of the -Don and the Volga she held only the upper course. The -northern frontier barely passed the great lakes of Ladoga -and Onega, and the Gulf of Finland itself. It seems not -to have reached what was to be the Gulf of Riga, but -some of the Russian princes held a certain supremacy -over the Finnish and Lettish tribes of that region.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -principalities. -1054.<br /> -Supremacy -of Kief;<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the course of the eleventh century, the Russian -state, like that of Poland, was divided among princes of -the reigning family, acknowledging the superiority of -the great prince of <i>Kief</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of the -Northern -Vladimir, -1169.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the next century the chief -power passed from Kief to the northern <i>Vladimir</i> on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">{483}</a></span> -the Kiasma. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Susdal -Russian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus the former Finnish land of <i>Susdal</i> -on the upper tributaries of the Volga became the cradle -of the second Russian power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Commonwealths -at -Novgorod -and Pskof.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Novgorod the Great</i> -meanwhile, under elective princes, claimed, like its -neighbour <i>Pskof</i>, to rank among commonwealths. Its -dominion was spread far over the Finnish tribes to the -north and east; the White Sea, and, far more precious, -the Finnish Gulf, had now a Russian seaboard. It was -out of Vladimir and Novgorod that the Russia of the -future was to grow. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The principalities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile a crowd of principalities, -<i>Polotsk</i>, <i>Smolensk</i>, the <i>Severian Novgorod</i>, -<i>Tchernigof</i>, and others, arose on the Duna and Dnieper. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Commonwealth -of -Viatka. -1174.<br /> -Halicz or -Galicia. -1186.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Far to the east across the commonwealth of <i>Viatka</i>, and -on the frontiers of Poland and Hungary arose the principality -of <i>Halicz</i> or <i>Galicia</i>, which afterwards grew for -a while into a powerful kingdom.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Cumans. -1114.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Meanwhile in the lands on the Euxine the old -enemies, Patzinaks and Chazars, gave way to the -<i>Cumans</i>,<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> known in Russian history as <i>Polovtzi</i> and -<i>Parthi</i>. They spread themselves from the Ural river to -the borders of Servia and Danubian Bulgaria, cutting -off Russia from the Caspian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1223.<br /> -Mongol -invasion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the next century -Russians and Cumans—momentary allies—fell before -the advance of the <i>Mongols</i>, commonly known in -European history as <i>Tartars</i>. Known only as ravagers -in the lands more to the west, over Russia they become -overlords for two hundred and fifty years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russia -tributary -to the -Mongols.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All that -escaped absorption by the Lithuanian became tributary -to the Mongol. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1240.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Still the relation was only a tributary -one; Russia was never incorporated in the -Mongol dominion, as Servia and Bulgaria were incorporated -in the Ottoman dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russia -represented -by Novgorod.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Kief was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">{484}</a></span> -overthrown; Vladimir became dependent; Novgorod -remained the true representative of free Russia in the -Baltic lands.</p> - - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The earlier -races on -the Baltic.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">But besides the Slaves of Poland and Russia, our -survey takes in also the ancient races by which both -Poland and Russia were so largely cut off from the -Baltic. Down to the middle of the twelfth century, -notwithstanding occasional Polish or Scandinavian -occupations, those races still kept their hold of the -whole Baltic north-eastwards from the mouth of the -Vistula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fins in -Livland -and -Esthland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The non-Aryan Fins, besides their seats to -the north, still kept the coast of <i>Esthland</i> and <i>Lifland</i>, -in Latin shape <i>Esthonia</i> and <i>Livonia</i>, from the Finnish -Gulf to the Duna and slightly beyond, taking in a small -strip of the opposite peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Lettic -nations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The inland part of the -later Livland was held by the <i>Letts</i>, the most northern -branch of the ancient Aryan settlers in this region. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Curland.<br /> -Samogitia.<br /> -Lithuania.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of -this family were the tribes of <i>Curland</i> in their own -peninsula, of <i>Samigola</i> or <i>Semigallia</i>, the <i>Samaites</i> of -<i>Samogitia</i> to the south, the proper <i>Lithuanians</i> south -of them, the <i>Jatwages</i>, <i>Jatwingi</i>—in many spellings—forming -a Lithuanian wedge between the Slavonic lands -of Mazovia and Black Russia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prussia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Lithuanians, strictly -so called, reached the coast just north of the Niemen; -from the mouth of the Niemen to the mouth of the -Vistula the coast was held by the <i>Prussians</i>. Of these -nations, Aryan and non-Aryan, the Lithuanians alone -founded a national dominion in historic times. The -history of the rest is simply the history of their bondage, -sometimes of their uprooting.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Survey in -the twelfth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Taking a general survey of the lands round the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">{485}</a></span> -Baltic about the middle of the twelfth century, we see -the three Scandinavian kingdoms, the first fully formed -states in these regions, all living and vigorous powers, -but with fluctuating boundaries. Their western colonies -are still Scandinavian. East and south of the Baltic -they have not got beyond isolated and temporary -enterprises. The Slavonic nations on the middle Elbe -have fallen under German dominion; to the south -Bohemia and its dependencies keep their Slavonic -nationality under German supremacy. Poland, often -divided and no longer conquering, still keeps its -frontier, and its position as the one independent Slavonic -power belonging to the Western Church. Russia, the -great Eastern Slavonic power, has risen to unity and -greatness under Scandinavian masters, and has again -broken up into states connected only by a feeble tie. -The submission of Russia to barbarian invaders comes -later than our immediate survey; but the weakening of -the Russian power both by division and by submission is -an essential element in the state of things which now -begins. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Teutonic -advance, -German -and Scandinavian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This is the spread in different ways of Teutonic -dominion, German and Scandinavian, over the -southern and eastern coasts of the Baltic, largely at the -expense of the Slaves, still more largely at the expense -of the primitive nations, Aryan and non-Aryan.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>The German Dominion on the Baltic.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Time of -Teutonic -conquest.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the first half of the twelfth century, no Teutonic -power, German or Scandinavian, had any lasting hold -on any part of the eastern coast of the Baltic or its gulfs, -nor had any such power made any great advances on the -southern coast. Early in the fourteenth century the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">{486}</a></span> -whole of these coasts had been brought into different -degrees of submission to several Teutonic powers, -German and Scandinavian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>German -influence -stronger -than -Scandinavian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of the two influences the -German has been the more abiding. Scandinavian dominion -has now wholly passed away from these coasts, -and it is only in the lands north of the Finnish Gulf -that it can be said to have ever been really lasting. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -German -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But German influence has destroyed, assimilated, or -brought to submission, the whole of the earlier inhabitants, -from Wagria to Esthland. In our own day -the whole coast, from the isle of Rügen to the head of -the gulf of Bothnia, is in the possession of two powers, -one German, one Slavonic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>German -influence -abiding.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But German influence -abides beyond the bounds of German rule. Not only -have Pomerania and Prussia become German in every -sense, but Curland, Livland, and Esthland, under the -dominion of Russia, are still spoken of as German -provinces.</p> - -<p class="pb2">This great change was brought about by a singular -union of mercantile, missionary, and military enterprise. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of Swedish -conquest in -Finland. -1155.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The beginning came from Scandinavia, when the -Swedish King Saint Eric undertook the conquest and -conversion of the proper Finland, east of the Gulf of -Bothnia. Here, in the space of about a century, a -great province was added to the Swedish kingdom, a -province whose eastern boundary greatly shifted, but -the greater part of which remained Swedish down to -the present century. To the south of the Gulf of Finland -the changes of possession have been endless. The -settled dominion of Sweden in those lands comes later; -Danish occupation, though longer, was only temporary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>German -conquest -in Livland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Soon after the beginning of Swedish conquest in Finland -began the work of German mercantile enterprise,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">{487}</a></span> -followed fifty years later by German conquest and -conversion, in Livland and the neighbouring lands. -This hindered the growth of any native power on those -coasts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its effect on -Lithuania -and Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Even Lithuania in the days of its greatness was -cut off from the sea. Whatever tendencies towards -Russian supremacy had arisen in those parts were hindered -from growing into Russian dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Military -Orders.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Knights -of the Sword in Livland were followed by the Teutonic -Knights in Prussia, and the two orders became one. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Danish -advance.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Further west, the latter part of the twelfth and the beginning -of the thirteenth century saw a great, but mostly -short-lived, extension of Danish power over both German -and Slavonic lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Scandinavian -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -While the coasts are thus changing -hands, the relations of Scandinavian kingdoms to one -another are ever shifting. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Polish -gains and -losses.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Poland is ever losing territory -to the west, and, still more after the beginning of -its connexion with Lithuania, ever gaining it to the east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -<i>Hansa</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, alongside of princes and sovereign orders, this -time is marked by the appearance of the first germs -of the great German commercial league, which, without -becoming a strictly territorial power, exercised the -greatest influence on the disposal of power among all -its neighbours.</p> - - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Scania -Swedish. -1332-1360.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In Scandinavia itself the chief strictly geographical -change was a temporary transfer to Sweden in the -fourteenth century of the Danish lands within the -northern peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Calmar. -1396.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the end of that century came -the union of Calmar, the principle of which was that -the three kingdoms, remaining separate states, should -be joined under a common sovereign. But this union -was never firmly established, and the arrangements of -the three crowns were shifting throughout the fifteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">{488}</a></span> -century; a lasting state of things came only with the -final breach of the union in the sixteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sweden -separated, -Denmark -and Norway -united. -1520.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From that time, Sweden, under the house of Vasa, -forms one power; Denmark and Norway, under the -house of Oldenburg, form another.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -oceanic -colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>With regard to the more distant relations of the -three kingdoms, this period is marked by the gradual -withdrawal of Scandinavian power from the oceanic -lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Iceland -and Greenland -united -to Norway. -1261-1262.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The union of Iceland and Greenland with Norway -was the union of one Scandinavian land with -another. But Greenland, the most distant Scandinavian -land, vanishes from history about the time of the -Calmar union. The Scandinavian settlements in and -about the British Islands all passed away. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ireland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Ostmen -of Ireland were lost in the mass of the Teutonic -settlers who passed from England into Ireland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Western -Isles. -Man. -1264.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Western Isles were sold to Scotland; Man passed under -Scottish and English supremacy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Orkney -pledged. -1468.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Orkney and Shetland -were pledged to the Scottish crown; and, though never -formally ceded, they have become incorporated with -the British kingdom.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Swedish -advance in -Finland.<br /> -1248-1293.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>East of the Gulf of Bothnia Swedish rule advanced. -Attempts at conquest both in Russia and in Esthland -failed, but <i>Finland</i> and <i>Carelia</i> were fully subdued, and -the Swedish power reached to Lake Ladoga. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Esthland -Danish. -1238-1346.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Denmark -made a more lasting, but still short-lived, settlement in -Esthland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Short-lived -greatness -of Denmark.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The growth of Denmark at the other end -of the Baltic lands began earlier and was checked -sooner. But at the beginning of the thirteenth century -things looked as if Denmark was about to become the -chief power on all the Baltic coasts.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Holstein.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>South of the boundary stream of the Eider the -lands which make up the modern Holstein formed three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">{489}</a></span> -settlements, two Teutonic and one Slavonic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ditmarschen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the west -lay the free Frisian land of <i>Ditmarschen</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Holstein.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the middle -were the lands of the Saxons beyond the Elbe—the -<i>Holtsætan</i>—with <i>Stormarn</i> immediately on the Elbe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wagria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the Baltic side lay the Slavonic land of <i>Wagria</i>, -which at the beginning of the twelfth century formed -part of the kingdom of <i>Sclavinia</i>, a kingdom stretching -from the haven of Kiel to the islands at the mouth of -the Oder. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Danish -conquest of -Sclavinia. -1168-1189.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In these lands began the eastern advance of -Denmark in the latter half of the twelfth century. All -Sclavinia was won, with at least a supremacy over the -Pomeranian land as far as the Riddow. Thus far the -Danish conquests, won mainly over Slaves, continue the -chain of occasional Scandinavian occupation on those -coasts, from the tenth century to the nineteenth. In -another point of view, the Christian advance, the overthrow -of the chief centre of Slavonic heathendom in -Rügen, carries on the work of the Saxon Dukes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Danish -advance in -Germany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -in the first years of the next century began a Danish -occupation of German ground. Holstein, and Lübeck -itself, were won; a claim was set up to the free land of -Ditmarschen; and all these conquests were confirmed -by an Imperial grant.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1214.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Danish kings now took the -title of <i>Kings of the Slaves</i>, afterwards of the <i>Vandals</i> -or <i>Wends</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fall of the -Danish -power. -1223-1227.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But this dominion was soon broken up -by the captivity of the Danish king Waldemar. The -Eider became again the boundary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Denmark -keeps -Rügen, -till ceded -1325, -1438.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of her Slavonic -dominion Denmark kept only an outlying fragment,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">{490}</a></span> -the isle of Rügen and the neighbouring coast. This -remained Danish for a hundred years longer, nominally -for a hundred years longer still.</p> - -<p class="pb2">The next changes tended to draw the lands immediately -on each side of the Eider into close connexion -with one another. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -South -Jutland. -1232.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The southern part of the Danish -peninsula, from the Eider to the Aa, became a distinct fief -of the Danish crown, held by a Danish prince under the -name of the duchy of <i>South-Jutland</i>—<i>Jutia</i> or <i>Sunder-Jutia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>United with -Holstein. -1325.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the next century this duchy and the county -of Holstein are found in the hands of the same prince, -and it is held that his grant of the Danish duchy contained -a promise that it should never be united with -the Danish crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Sleswick.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Henceforth South-Jutland begins -to be spoken of as the <i>duchy of Sleswick</i>. But of the -lands held together, Sleswick remained a fief of Denmark, -while Holstein remained a fief of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -of -Sleswick -and -Holstein.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The duchy was several times united to the crown and -again granted out. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1424.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At one moment of union the -Roman King Sigismund expressly confirmed the union, -and acknowledged Sleswick as a Danish land. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1448.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the -next grant of the duchy, its perpetual separation from -the crown is alleged to have been again confirmed -by Christian the First. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1460.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Yet Christian himself, already -king of the three kingdoms, was afterwards elected -Duke of Sleswick and Count of Holstein. The election -was accompanied by a declaration that the two principalities, -though the one was held of the Empire and -the other of the Danish crown, should never be separated. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Holstein. -1474.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the same reign an Imperial grant raised the -counties of Holstein and Stormarn with the land of -Ditmarsh to the rank of a duchy. But the dominions of -its duke were not a continuous territory stretching from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">{491}</a></span> -sea to sea. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Freedom -in Ditmarschen.<br /> -Bishopric -of Lübeck.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the west, <i>Ditmarschen</i>—notwithstanding -a renewed Imperial grant—remained free; -to the east, -some districts of the old Wagria formed the <i>bishopric of -Lübeck</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Denmark, -Sleswick, -and -Holstein -under -Christian.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But now for the first time the same prince -reigned in the threefold character of King of Denmark, -Duke of the Danish fief of Sleswick, and Duke of the -Imperial fief of Holstein. Endless shiftings, divisions, and -reunions of various parts of the two duchies followed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Royal and -Ducal -lines. -1580.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the partitions between the <i>royal</i> and <i>ducal</i> lines -of the house of Oldenburg, the several portions of -the Kings of Denmark and of the Dukes of Gottorp -paid no regard to the boundary of the Eider, but each -was made up of detached parts of both duchies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Ditmarschen. -1559.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile -the freedom of Ditmarschen came to an end, -and the old Frisian land became part of the royal share -of the duchy of Holstein. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Acquisition -of Dago -and Oesel.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, as we began our story -of Danish advance with the settlement in Esthland, we -have to end it for the present with the acquisition of -the islands of <i>Dago</i> and <i>Oesel</i> off the same coasts.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effect of -the Danish -advance on -the Slavonic -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>After the loss of Rügen, Denmark had little to do -with the Slavonic lands, except so far as the possession of -Holstein carried with it the possession of the old Slavonic -land of Wagria. Still the advance of Denmark -at the end of the twelfth century had a lasting effect -on the Slavonic lands by altogether shaking the Polish -dominion on the Baltic. But it shook it to the advantage, -not of Scandinavia, but of Germany. Between the -twelfth century and the fourteenth Poland lost all its -western dominions. -<i>Pomore</i>, <i>Pommern</i>, <i>Pomerania</i>, the -seaboard of the Lechish Slaves, is strictly the land between -the mouth of the Vistula and the mouth of the -Oder; but the name had already spread further to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">{492}</a></span> -West. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pomerania -falls away -from -Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After the fall of the Danish power on this coast, -Pomerania west of the Riddow altogether fell away -from Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Slavia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the duchy of <i>Slavia</i>, it became, -like Mecklenburg, a land of the Empire, though ruled -by Slavonic princes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1298-1305. -Loss of -western -territory -by Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the eastern part of Pomerania, -<i>Cassubia</i> and the mark of <i>Gdansk</i> or <i>Danzig</i>, -remained under Polish superiority till the beginning -of the fourteenth century. Then the greater part -fell away, partly for ever, to the Pomeranian duchy -of <i>Wolgast</i>, partly, for a season only, to the Teutonic -Knights. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1220-1260.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south <i>Barnim</i> and <i>Custrin</i> passed, -after some shiftings, to the mark of Brandenburg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Silesia. -1289-1327.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Further to the south, Silesia, divided among princes of -the house of Piast, gradually fell under Bohemian -supremacy. Thus the whole western part of the Polish -kingdom passed into the hands of princes of the Empire, -and was included within the bounds of the German -realm.</p> - - - -<p class="p2">The fate of Silesia brings us again to the history of -the inland Slavonic land of the Czechs. <i>Bohemia</i> went -on, as duchy and kingdom,<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> ruled by native princes -as vassals of the Empire. Moravia was a fief of -Bohemia. In the end Bohemia passed to German -kings, but not till it had become again the centre of -a dominion which recalls the fleeting powers of Samo -and Sviatopluk. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bohemia -and -Ottocar. -1269-1278.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Ottocar the Second united the long-severed -branches of the Slavonic race by annexing -the German lands which lay between them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>His -German -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lord of -Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">{493}</a></span> -the Czech king reigned on the upper Oder and -the middle Danube as far as the Hadriatic. The same -lands were in after times to be again united, but from -the opposite side.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Luxemburg -kings -of -Bohemia. -1308.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The successors of Ottocar reigned only over -Bohemia and Moravia. Early in the next century the -Bohemian crown passed to the house of Luxemburg. -Under them Bohemia became a powerful state, but a state -becoming more and more German, less and less Slavonic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Silesia, -1355.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The gradual extension of Bohemian superiority over -Silesia led to its formal incorporation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lusatia. -1320-1370.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the same -century <i>Lusatia</i>, High and Low, was won from Brandenburg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Brandenburg. -1373-1417.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The mark of Brandenburg itself became for -a while a Bohemian possession, before it passed to the -burgraves of Nürnberg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1353.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Bohemian possession of -the Upper Palatinate lies out of our Slavonic range. -Among the revolutions of the fifteenth century, we find -the Bohemian crown at one time held conjointly with -that of Hungary, at another time held by a Polish -prince. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Matthias -Corvinus, -1478-1490.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later in the century the victories of Matthias -Corvinus took away Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, from -the Bohemian crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bohemia -and -Austria.<br /> -Its losses. -1635.<br /> -1740.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was the fourfold dominion -of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, which finally -passed to the House of Austria, to be shorn of its -northern and eastern lands to the profit, first of Saxony, -and then of Brandenburg or Prussia.</p> - - -<p class="p2">Thus far the Teutonic advance, both on the actual -Baltic coast and on the inland Slavonic region, had -been made to the profit, partly of the Scandinavian -kingdoms, partly of the princes of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>German -corporations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -there were two other forms of Teutonic influence and -dominion, which fell to the share, not of princes, but of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">{494}</a></span> -corporate bodies, mercantile and military or religious. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Hansa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Hanseatic League was indeed a power in these -regions, but it hardly has a place on the map. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -foundation -of Lübeck. -1158.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Even -before the second foundation of Lübeck by Henry the -Lion, German mercantile settlements had begun at -Novgorod, in Gotland, and in London. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the League.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Gradually, in -the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, -the League into which the union of the merchant -towns of Germany grew spread itself over the -Baltic, the Westfalian, and the Netherlandish lands. -A specially close tie bound together the five <i>Wendish</i> -towns, <i>Lübeck</i>, <i>Rostock</i>, <i>Wismar</i>, <i>Stralsund</i>, and -<i>Greifswald</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Nature of -the union.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the union of a town with the -Hansa did not necessarily affect its political position. -It might, at least in the later stages of the -League, be a free city of the Empire, a town subject -to some prince of the Empire, or a town subject -to a prince beyond its bounds. Not only the Pomeranian -and Prussian cities under the rule of the Knights, -but Revel in Esthland under Danish rule formed part -of the League. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Hansa -not a -territorial -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The League waged wars, made peace, -overthrew and set up kings, as suited its interests; but -territorial dominion, strictly so called, was not its -object. Still in some cases privileges grew into something -like dominion; in others military occupation -might pass for temporary dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Hansa -in Gotland -and -Scania.<br /> -1361.<br /> -1368-1385.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus in the isle -of <i>Gotland</i> the Hansa had an ascendency which was -overthrown by the conquest of the island by the Danish -king Waldemar, a conquest avenged by a temporary -Hanseatic occupation of Scania. In fact the nature of -the League, the relations of the cities to one another, -geographical as well as political, hindered the Hansa -from ever becoming a territorial power like Switzerland<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">{495}</a></span> -and the United Provinces. In the history of the Baltic -lands it takes for some ages a position at least equal -to that of any kingdom. But it is only casually and -occasionally that its triumphs can be marked on the -map.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The other great German corporation was not commercial, -but military and religious. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Swordbearers -and the -Teutonic -Order.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The conquests of -the Order of Christ and of the Order of Saint Mary—better -known as the <i>Sword-brothers</i> and the <i>Teutonic -Order</i>—were essentially territorial. These orders became -masters of a great part of the Baltic coast, and -wherever they spread their dominion, Christianity and -German national life were, by whatever means, established. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their -connexion -with the -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As both the chiefs of the Order and the -Livonian prelates ranked as princes of the Empire, the -conquests of the Knights were in some sort an extension -of the bounds of the Empire. Yet we can hardly look -on Livonia and Prussia as coming geographically -within the Empire in the same sense as Pomerania -and Silesia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -their rule.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But whether strictly an extension of the -Western Empire or not, the conquests of the Knights -were an extension of the Western Church, the Western -world, and the German nation, as against both heathendom -and Eastern Christianity, as against all the other -Baltic nationalities, non-Aryan and Aryan.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Swordbearers -in Livland. -1201.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The first settlement began in <i>Livland</i>. In the -beginning of the thirteenth century, the Knights of the -Order of Christ were called in as temporal helpers by -Bishop Albert of Riga, and they gradually won the -dominion of the lands on the gulf called from his city. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Danes in -Esthland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For a while they had a partner in the Danish crown, -which held part of <i>Esthland</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent -of their -dominion.<br /> -Dago and -Oesel.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the rest of Esthland,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">{496}</a></span> -Livland in the narrower sense, Curland, Semigola, the -special Lettish land, and the Russian territory on the -Duna, made up this Livonian dominion, which was -afterwards enlarged by the isles of Dago and Oesel and -by the Danish portion of Esthland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Esthland. -1346.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Riga</i> and <i>Revel</i> -became great commercial cities, and Riga became an -ecclesiastical metropolis under a prince-archbishop. -The natives were reduced to bondage, and the Russian -powers of Novgorod and Polotsk were effectually kept -away from the gulf.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Teutonic -Order in -Prussia. -1226.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The dominion of the Knights of Saint Mary, the -Teutonic Order, in Prussia and in a small part of -Lithuania, began a little later than that of the Sword-brothers -in Livland. Invited by a Polish prince, Conrad -of Mazovia, they received from him their first Polish -possession, the palatinate of <i>Culm</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -the Orders. -1237.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Eleven years later -the Prussian and Livonian orders were united. Their -dominion grew. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Purchase of -Pomerelia. -1311.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The acquisition of <i>Pomerelia</i>, the -eastern part of the old <i>Pomore</i>, immediately west of -the lower Vistula, cut off Poland from the sea. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Samogitia. -1384.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later -in the century, Lithuania was equally cut off by the -cession of <i>Samogitia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Occupation -of Gotland. -1398-1408.<br /> -The New -Mark -pledged to -the Order. -1402.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The isle of <i>Gotland</i> was held -for a while; the <i>New Mark</i> of Brandenburg was -pledged by King Sigismund. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Their coast -line.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The whole coast from -Narva on the Finnish gulf to the point where the -Pomeranian coast trends south-west formed the unbroken -sea-board of the Order.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Losses -of the -Prussian -Knights.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Of the two seats of the Order the northern one -proved the stronger and more lasting. Livland remained -untouched long after Poland had won back -her lost ground from the Prussian Knights. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Samogitia -restored to -Lithuania. -1410.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The battle -of Tannenberg won back Samogitia for Lithuania, and -again parted the Livonian and Prussian lands of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">{497}</a></span> -Order. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Peace of -Thorn. -1646.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the peace of Thorn its Prussian dominion -was altogether cut short. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cessions of -the Order -to Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Culm</i> and <i>Pomerelia</i>, with -the cities of <i>Danzig</i> and <i>Thorn</i>, went back to Poland. -And a large part of Prussia itself, the bishopric of -<i>Ermeland</i>, a district running deep into the land still -left to the knights, was added to Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Vassalage -of the -Order.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The rest of -Prussia was left to the Order as a Polish fief.</p> - - - -<p class="p2">The thirteenth century was the special time when -Teutonic dominion spread itself over the Baltic lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -of Christianity.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was also the time when heathendom gave way to -Christianity at nearly every point of those lands where -it still held out. But, while the old creeds and the old -races were giving way, a single one among them stood -forth for a while as an independent and conquering -state, the last heathen power in Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lithuania -the last -heathen -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -While all -their kinsfolk and neighbours were passing under the -yoke, the <i>Lithuanians</i>, strictly so called, showed themselves -the mightiest of conquerors in all lands from -the Baltic to the Euxine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -Lithuania. -c. 1220.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From their own land on -the Niemen they began, under their prince Mendog, -to advance at the expense of the Russian lands to -the south. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mendog -king. -1252.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Mendog embraced Christianity, and was -crowned King of Lithuania, a realm which now -stretched from the Duna to beyond the Priepetz. But -heathendom again won the upper hand, and the next -century saw the great advance of the Lithuanian -power, the momentary rule of old Aryan heathendom -alike over Christendom and over Islam. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -from -Russia. -1315-1340. -1345-1377.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under two -conquering princes, Gedymin and Olgierd, further conquests -were made from the surrounding Russian lands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1315-1360.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Lithuanian dominion was extended at the expense -of Novgorod and Smolensk; the Lithuanian frontier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">{498}</a></span> -stretched far beyond both the Duna and the Dnieper; -Kief was a Lithuanian possession. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Volhynia -and -Podolia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The kingdom of -Galicia lost <i>Volhynia</i> and <i>Podolia</i>, which became a -land disputed between Lithuania and Poland. These -last conquests carried the Lithuanian frontier to the -Dniester, and opened a wholly new set of relations -among the powers on the Euxine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Perekop. -1363.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the conquest -of the Tartar dominion of <i>Perekop</i>, Lithuania, cut off -from the Baltic, reached to the Euxine.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Consolidation -of -Poland. -1295-1320.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile Poland, from a collection of duchies -under a nominal head, had again grown into a consolidated -and powerful kingdom. The western frontier had -been cut short by various German powers, and the Teutonic -Order shut off the kingdom from the sea. Mazovia -and Cujavia remained separate duchies; but Great and -Little Poland remained firmly united, and were ready -to enlarge their borders to the eastward. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Casimir -the Great. -1333-1370.<br /> -Red -Russia. -1340.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Casimir the -Great added <i>Podlachia</i>, the land of the <i>Jatvingi</i>, and in -the break-up of the Galician kingdom, he incorporated -<i>Red Russia</i> as being a former possession of Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexed -to Hungary. -1377.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, -as it had also been a former possession of Hungary,<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> -Lewis the Great, the common sovereign of Hungary and -Poland, annexed it to his southern kingdom.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Poland and -Lithuania.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">The two powers which had thus grown up were -now to be gradually fused into one. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1386.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The heathen -Lithuanian prince Jagiello became, by marriage and -conversion, a Christian King of Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Volhynia -and -Podolia -added to -Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -He enlarged -the kingdom at the expense of the duchy, by incorporating -<i>Podolia</i> and <i>Volhynia</i> with Poland, making -Poland as well as Lithuania the possessor of a large extent -of Russian soil. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of Red -Russia. -1392.<br /> -Moldavia.<br /> -Pledge of -Zips. -1412.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The older Russian territory of Poland, -Red Russia, was won back from Hungary; -<i>Moldavia</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">{499}</a></span> -began to transfer its fleeting allegiance from Hungary to -Poland; within Hungary itself part of the county of <i>Zips</i> -was pledged to the Polish crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of the -Polish -duchies. -1401.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Polish duchies -now began to fall back to the kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1463-1476.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Cujavia</i> came in -early in the fifteenth century, and parts of <i>Mazovia</i> in its -course. Of the relation of the kingdom to the Teutonic -order we have already spoken. Lithuania meanwhile, as -part of Western Christendom, remained, under its separate -grand dukes of the now royal house, the rival both -of Islam and of Eastern Christendom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquests -of Witold. -1392-1430.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Witold -the advance on Russian ground was greater than ever. -<i>Smolensk</i> and all <i>Severia</i> became Lithuanian; Kief was -in the heart of the grand duchy; Moscow did not seem -far from its borders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -Perekop, -1474.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lithuania was presently cut -short further to the south by the loss of its Euxine -dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Closer -union of -Poland and -Lithuania. -1501.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the beginning of the sixteenth century -Poland and Lithuania were united as distinct states -under a common sovereign. But by that time a new -state of things had begun in the lands on the Duna -and the Dnieper.</p> - - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revival of -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>While the military orders had thus established -themselves on the Baltic coast, and had already largely -given way to the combined Polish and Lithuanian -power behind them, a new <i>Russia</i> was growing up -behind them all. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Power of -Moscow.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Cut off from all dealings with -Western Europe, save with its immediate western -neighbours, cut off from its own ecclesiastical centre -by the advance of Mussulman dominion, the new power -of <i>Moscow</i> was schooling itself to take in course of -time a greater place than had ever been held by the -elder power of Kief. The Mongol conquest had placed -the Russian principalities in much the same position<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">{500}</a></span> -as that through which most of the south-eastern -lands passed before they were finally swallowed up -by the Ottoman. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Russian -princes dependent -on the -Golden -Horde.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The princes of Russia were dependent -on the Tartar dominion of <i>Kiptchak</i>, which -stretched from the Dniester north-eastwards over -boundless barbarian lands as far as the lower course of -the Jenisei. Its capital, the centre of the <i>Golden -Horde</i>, was at <i>Sarai</i> on the lower course of the Volga. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Homage of -Novgorod. -1252-1263.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Even Novgorod, under its great prince Alexander -Nevsky, did homage to the Khan. But this dependent -relation did not, like the Lithuanian conquests to -the west, affect the geographical frontiers of Russia. -The Russian centre at the time of the Mongol conquest -was the northern Vladimir. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Moscow -the new -centre, -c. 1328.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Towards the end of the -thirteenth century, <i>Moskva</i>, on the river of that name, -grew into importance, and early in the next century -it became the centre of Russian life. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Name of -<i>Muscovy</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From <i>Moskva</i> -or <i>Moscow</i> comes the old name of <i>Muscovy</i>, a name -which historically describes the growth of the second -Russian power. Muscovy was to Russia what France -in the older sense was to the whole land which came -to bear that name. Moscow was to Russia all, and -more than all, that Paris was to France. It was to -Moscow as the centre that the separate Russian principalities -fell in; it was from Moscow as the centre that -the lost Russian lands were won back. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Other -Russian -states.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Besides Novgorod, -there still were the separate states of <i>Viatka</i>, <i>Pskof</i>, -<i>Tver</i>, and <i>Riazan</i>. Disunion and dependence lasted till -late in the fifteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Decline of -the Mongol -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the Tartar power had -already begun to grow weaker before the end of the -fourteenth, and the invasion of Timour, while making -Russia for a moment more completely subject, led to -the dissolution of the dominion of the older Khans.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">{501}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break-up -of the -Mongol -power.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the course of the fifteenth century the great -power of the Golden Horde broke up into a number -of smaller khanats. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Khanat of -Crim;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The khanat of <i>Crim</i>—the old -Tauric Chersonêsos—stretched from its peninsula inwards -along the greater part of the course of the Don. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Kazan, -1438;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The khanat of <i>Kazan</i> on the Volga supplanted the -old kingdom of White Bulgaria. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Siberia;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Far to the east, on -the lower course of the Obi, was the khanat of -<i>Siberia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Astrakhan.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Golden Horde itself was represented by -the khanat of <i>Astrakhan</i> on the lower Volga, with its -capital at the mouth of that river. Of these Crim and -Kasan were immediate neighbours of the Muscovite -state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Deliverance -of Russia. -1480.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The yoke was at last broken by Ivan the Great. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1487.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Seven years later he placed a tributary prince on the -throne of Kazan, and himself took the title of <i>Prince -of Bulgaria</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Crim dependent -on -the Ottoman.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By this time the khans of Crim had -become dependents of the Ottoman Sultans, the beginning -of the long strife between Russia and the Turk -in Europe.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -of Moscow -in Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But before Muscovy thus became an independent -power, it had taken the greatest of steps towards growing -into Russia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -of -Novgorod. -1470;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Novgorod the Great, the only Russian -rival of Moscow, first lost its northern territory, and -then itself became part of the Muscovite dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Viatka, -1478;<br /> -of Tver, -1493.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -commonwealth of <i>Viatka</i>, the principality of <i>Tver</i>, and -some small appanages of the house of Moscow followed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reign of -Basil -Ivanovitch, -1505-1533.<br /> -Annexation -of -Pskof and -Riazan.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The annexation of what remained, as <i>Pskof</i> and <i>Riazan</i>, -was only a question of time, and it came in the next -reign. Of the three works which were needful for the -full growth of the new Russia, two were accomplished. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russia -united and -independent.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Russian state was one, and it was independent. -And the third work, that of winning back the lost -Russian lands, had already begun.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">{502}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Survey at -the end -of the -fifteenth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus, at the end of the fifteenth century, five powers -held the Baltic coast. Sweden held the west coast -from the Danish frontier northward, with both sides -of the gulf of Bothnia and both sides of the gulf of -Finland. Denmark held the extreme western coast -and the isle of Gotland. Poland and Lithuania had a -small seaboard indeed compared to their inland extent. -Poland had only the Pomeranian and Prussian coast -which she had just won from the Knights. Lithuania -barely touched the sea between Prussia and Curland. -To the west of the Polish coast lay the now Germanized -lands of Pomerania and Mecklenburg. To the north-west -lay the coast of the German military Order, under -Polish vassalage in Prussia, independent in its northern -possessions. Thus almost the whole Baltic coast was -held by Teutonic powers; the Slavonic powers still -lie mainly inland. The Polish frontier towards the -Empire has been cut down to the limit which it kept -till the end. Pomerania, Silesia, a great part of the -mark of Brandenburg, have fallen away from the Polish -realm. On the other hand, that realm and its confederate -Lithuania have grown wonderfully to the east at the -cost of divided and dependent Russia, and have begun -to fall back again before Russia one and independent. -Bohemia, enlarged by Silesia and Lusatia, has entered so -thoroughly into the German world as almost to pass -out of our sight.</p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>The Growth of Russia and Sweden.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes of -the last -four centuries.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The work of the last four centuries on the Baltic -coast has been to drive back the Scandinavian power, -after a vast momentary advance, wholly to the west of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">{503}</a></span> -the Baltic—to give nearly the whole eastern coast to Russia—to -make the whole southern coast German. These -changes involve the wiping out, first of the German -military Order, and then of Poland and Lithuania. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -Russia and -creation of -Prussia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This -last change involves the growth of Russia, and the creation -of Prussia in the modern sense, a sense so strangely -different from its earlier meaning. These two have been -the powers by which Sweden and Denmark have been -cut short, by which Poland and Lithuania have been -swallowed up. In this last work they indeed had a -third confederate. Still the share of Austria in the -overthrow of Poland was in a manner incidental. But -the existence of such a Polish and Lithuanian state -as stood at the end of the fifteenth, or even of the -seventeenth, century was inconsistent with the existence -of either Russia or Prussia as great European powers.</p> - -<p>The period with which we have now to deal takes -in only the former stage of this process. Russia advances; -Prussia in the modern sense comes into being. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatness -of Sweden.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Sweden is still the most advancing power of all; -and, if Denmark falls back, it is before the power of -Sweden. The Hansa too and the Knights pass away; -Sweden is the ruling power of the Baltic.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The sixteenth century saw the fall of both branches -of the Teutonic Order. Out of the fall of one of -them came the beginnings of modern <i>Prussia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Separation -of the -Prussian -and Livonian -knights. -1515.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -two branches of the Order were separated; the -Livonian lands had an independent Master. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of the -Duchy of -Prussia. -1525.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before -long the Prussian Grand Master, Albert of Brandenburg, -changed from the head of a Catholic religious -order into a Lutheran temporal prince, holding the -hereditary <i>duchy of Prussia</i> as a Polish fief. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -position -of Prussia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">{504}</a></span> -duchy had so strange a frontier towards the kingdom -that it could not fail sooner or later either to be swallowed -up by the kingdom which hemmed it in, or else -to make its way out of its geographical bonds. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Prussia and -Brandenburg. -1611.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -When -the Prussian duchy and the mark of Brandenburg came -into the hands of one prince, when the dominions of -that prince were enlarged by the union of Brandenburg -and Pomerania, the second of these solutions became -only a question of time. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prussia -independent -of -Poland. -1647.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first formal step towards -it was the release of the duchy from all dependence on -Poland. Prussia became a distinct state, one now -essentially German, but lying beyond the bounds of -the Empire.</p> - -<p>As the rights of the Empire had been formally cut -short when Prussia passed under Polish vassalage, they -were also formally cut short by the dissolution of the -northern branch of the Teutonic order. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fall of the -Livonian -Order. -1558-1561.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The rule of -the Livonian Knights survived the secularization of the -Prussian duchy by forty years; their dominion then fell -asunder. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Curland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As in the case of Prussia, part of their territory, -<i>Curland</i> and <i>Semigallia</i>, was kept by the Livonian -Master Godhard Kettler, as an hereditary duchy under -Polish vassalage. The rest of the lands of the order -were parted out among the chief powers of the Baltic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Momentary -kingdom -of Livonia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A Livonian kingdom under the Danish prince Magnus -was but for a moment. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Denmark -takes Dago -and Oesel.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Denmark in the end received -the islands of <i>Dago</i> and <i>Oesel</i>, her last conquests east -of the Baltic. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sweden -takes -Esthland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Sweden advanced south of the Finnish -gulf, taking the greater part of Esthland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Livland -goes to -Poland and -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Northern -Livland fell to Russia, the southern part to Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>All Livland -Polish. -1582.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Twenty years later all Livland became a Polish possession.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatest -Baltic extent of -Poland and -Lithuania.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This acquisition of Livland and of the superiority<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">{505}</a></span> -over Prussia and Curland raised the united power of -Poland and Lithuania to its greatest extent on the -Baltic coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Lublin, -1569.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile the union of <i>Lublin</i> joined -the kingdom and the grand duchy yet more closely -together. But, long before this time, the eastern frontier -of Lithuania had begun to fall back. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -advance.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The central -advance of Russia to the west had begun. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its causes.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A revived -state, such as Russia was at the end of the fifteenth -century, must advance, unless it be artificially hindered; -and the new Russian state was driven to advance if it -was to exist at all. It had no sea-board, except on the -White Sea; it did not hold the mouth of any one of its -great rivers, except the Northern Dvina, a stream thoroughly -cut off from European life. The dominions of -Sweden, Lithuania, and the Knights cut Russia off from -the Baltic and from central Europe. To the south and -east she was cut off from the Euxine and the Caspian, -from the mouths of the Don and the Volga, by the -powers which represented her old barbarian masters. -Russia was thus not only driven to advance, but -driven to advance in various directions. She had to -win back her lost lands; she had, if she was really to -become an European power, to win her way to the -Baltic and to the Euxine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -to the -north-east.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Her position made it almost -equally needful to win her way to the Caspian, and -made it unavoidable that she should spread her power -over the barbarian lands to the north-east. Of these -several fields of advance the path to the Euxine was -the longest barred. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Order of -Russian -advances.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First, at the end of the fifteenth -century, began the recovery of the lost lands, a work -spread over the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth -centuries. Then, in the sixteenth, came the eastern -extension at the cost of the now weakened Mongol<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">{506}</a></span> -enemy. Strictly Baltic extension was in the sixteenth -century merely momentary; it did not become lasting -till the beginning of the eighteenth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Euxine -reached -last.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Russia had -been established on the Caspian for more than two -centuries, she had become a Baltic power for more than -two generations, before she made her way to the oldest -scene of her seafaring enterprise.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of the -lands conquered -by -Lithuania.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The recovery of the lands which had been lost to -Lithuania began before the end of the fifteenth century. -Ivan the Great won back <i>Severia</i>, with <i>Tchernigof</i> and -the Severian <i>Novgorod</i> and part of the territory of -<i>Smolensk</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1514.<br /> -1563.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Basil Smolensk itself followed; under Ivan the Terrible Polotsk again became Russian. -Then the tide turned for a season. Russia first lost her -newly-won territory in Livland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of Smolensk -by -Poland. -1582.<br /> -Polish -conquest of -Russia, -1606.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The recovery of -Smolensk by Poland was followed by the momentary -Polish conquest of independent Russia, and the occupation -of the throne of Moscow by a Polish prince. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -revival of -Russia, and -second -advance.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Muscovite state came again to life; but it was shorn of -a large part of the national territory, which had to be -won again by a second advance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cessions to -Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Smolensk, Tchernigof, -and the greater part of the Lithuanian conquests beyond -the Dnieper, were again surrendered to the united -Polish and Lithuanian state. In the middle of the century -came the renewed Russian advance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lands recovered -by -the Peace -of Andraszovo, -1667.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Treaty -of Andraszovo gave back to Russia most of the lands -which had been surrendered fifty years before. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of Kief. -1686.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By -the last advance in the seventeenth century Russia won -back a small territory west of the Dnieper, including her -ancient capital of Kief. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Superiority -over the -Ukraine -Cossacks.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the same time Poland finally -gave up to Russia the superiority over the Cossacks -of Ukraine, between the Bug and the Lower Dnieper. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -lands still -kept by -Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, with this exception, Poland and Lithuania still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">{507}</a></span> -kept all the Russian lands south of Duna and west -of Dnieper, with some districts beyond those rivers. -Nor was Russia the only power to which Poland had -to give way on her south-eastern frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Podolia -lost to the -Turk.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In this -quarter the Ottoman for the last time won a new -province from a Christian state by the acquisition of -<i>Kamienetz</i> and all <i>Podolia</i>.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> - - - -<p class="p2">But Poland had during this period to give way -at other points also. This was the time of the great -growth of the Swedish power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -Sweden -and Russia -compared.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The contrast between -the growth of Sweden and the contemporary growth -of Russia is instructive. The revived power of Moscow -was partly winning back its own lost lands, partly advancing -in directions which were needful for national -growth, almost for national being. The growth of -Sweden in so many directions was almost wholly a -growth beyond her own borders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -advance -lasting.<br /> -Swedish -advance -temporary.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hence doubtless it -came that the advance of Russia has been lasting, while -the advance of Sweden was only for a season. Sweden -has lost by far the greater part of her conquests; she -has kept only those parts of them which went to complete -her position in her own peninsula.</p> - -<p>On the Swedish conquest of Esthland followed a -series of shiftings of the frontiers of Sweden and Russia -which lasted into the present century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -under and -after -Gustavus -Adolphus. -1611-1660.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the -reign of Gustavus Adolphus, and the period which we -might almost call the continuation of his reign after his -death, Sweden advanced both in her own peninsula and -east of the Baltic, while she also gained a wholly new -footing on German ground, both on the Baltic and on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">{508}</a></span> -the Ocean. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars between -Sweden -and -Russia. -1576-1617.<br /> -Peace of -Stalbova.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A long period of alternate war and peace, -a time in which Novgorod the Great passed for a -moment into Swedish hands, was ended, as far as -Sweden and Russia were concerned, by the peace of -Stalbova. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sweden -gains -Ingermanland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Swedish frontier thus fixed took in all -<i>Carelia</i> and <i>Ingermanland</i>, and wholly cut off Russia -from the Baltic and its gulfs. Such an advance could -not fail to lead to further advance, though at the -expense of another enemy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars between -Sweden -and Poland. -1619-1660.<br /> -Swedish -conquest of -Livland, -1621-1625;<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The long war between -Sweden and Poland gave to Sweden Riga and the greater -part of Livland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>of Dago -and Oesel, -1645.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Her conquests in this region were -completed by winning the islands of Dago and Oesel -from Denmark.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -Sweden -against -Denmark -and -Norway.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>This last acquisition, geographically connected with -the Swedish conquests from Russia and Poland, was -politically part of an equally great advance which -Sweden was making at the cost of the rival Scandinavian -power, the united realms of Denmark and Norway. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Gotland -and -Bornholm. -1645.<br /> -Of Jämteland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Along with the two eastern islands, Denmark lost the isle -of <i>Gotland</i> for ever and that of <i>Bornholm</i> for a moment,<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> -and the Norwegian provinces east of the mountains, -<i>Jämteland</i> and <i>Hertjedalen</i>. The treaty of Roskild yet -further enlarged Sweden at the expense of Norway. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Trondhjemlän. -1658.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the cession of <i>Trondhjemlän</i> the Norwegian kingdom -was split asunder; the ancient metropolis was lost, -and Sweden reached to the Ocean. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Bohuslän, -and -Scania, &c.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -With Trondhjem -Sweden also received <i>Bohuslän</i>, the southern province -of Norway, and, more than all, the ancient possessions -of Denmark in the northern peninsula, with her old -metropolis of <i>Lund</i>. Here comes in the application of -the rule. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Trondhjem -restored to -Norway. -1660.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In annexing Trondhjem Sweden had overshot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">{509}</a></span> -her mark; it was restored within two years. It was -otherwise with Bohuslän, Scania, and her other conquests -within what might seem to be her natural -borders; they have remained Swedish to this day.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lands held -by Sweden -in Germany, -Pomerania -and Rügen, -Bremen -and -Verden. -1648.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Swedish acquisition of the eastern lands of -Denmark was made more necessary by the position -which Sweden had now taken on the central mainland. -The peace of Westfalia had confirmed her in the -possession of <i>Rügen</i> and <i>Western Pomerania</i> on the -Baltic, and of the bishoprics of <i>Bremen</i> and <i>Verden</i> -which made her a power on the Ocean. These lands -were not strictly an addition to the Swedish realm; they -were fiefs of the Empire held by the Swedish king. Here -again comes in the geographical law. The Swedish -possession of the German lands on the Ocean was short; -part of the German lands on the Baltic was kept into -the present century.</p> - - - -<p class="p2">The peace of Roskild, which cut short the kingdoms -of Denmark and Norway in the northern peninsula, also -marks an epoch in the controverted history of the -duchies of Sleswick and Holstein. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Denmark -gives up -the sovereignty -of -the Gottorp -lands. -1658.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Danish king -gave up the <i>sovereignty</i> of the Gottorp districts of the -duchies. Even if that cession implied the surrender of -his own feudal superiority over the Gottorp districts of -Sleswick, he could not alienate any part of the Imperial -rights over Holstein. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuations -in -the duchies. -1675-1700.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This sovereignty, in whatever it -consisted, was lost and won several times between king -and Duke before the end of the century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Danish -possession -of Oldenburg. -1678.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile -the Danish crown became possessed of the outlying -duchies of <i>Oldenburg</i> and <i>Delmenhorst</i>, which in some -sort balanced the Swedish possession of Bremen and -Verden.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">{510}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sweden -after the -peace of -Oliva.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The wars and treaties which were ended by the -peace of Oliva fixed the boundaries of the Baltic lands -for a season. They fixed the home extent of Sweden -down to the present century. They cut off Denmark, -save its one outpost of <i>Bornholm</i>, from the Baltic itself, -as distinguished from the narrow seas which lead to it. -They fixed the extent of Poland down to the partitions. -What they failed to do for any length of time was to -cut off Russia from the Baltic, and to establish Sweden -on the Ocean. But for the present we leave Sweden -ruling over the whole western and the greater part of -the eastern coast of the Northern Mediterranean, and -holding smaller possessions both on its southern coast -and on the Ocean. The rest of the eastern and southern -coast of the Baltic is divided between the Polish fief -of Curland, the dominions of the common ruler of Pomerania -and Prussia,—now an independent prince in -his eastern duchy,—and the small piece of Polish -coast placed invitingly between the two parts of -his dominions. In her own peninsula Sweden has -reached her natural frontier, and has given back what -she won for a moment beyond it. While Sweden has -this vast extent of coast with comparatively little -extent inland, the vast inland region of Poland and -Lithuania has hardly any seaboard, and the still vaster -inland region of Russia has none at all in Europe, except -on the White Sea. Thus the most striking feature of -this period is the advance of Sweden; but we have -seen that it was also a time of great advance on the -part of Russia. It was a time of yet greater advance -on that side of her dominion where Russia had no -European rivals.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">{511}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Eastern -advance of -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the case of Russia, the only European power -which could conquer and colonize by land in barbarian -regions,<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> her earlier barbarian conquests were absolutely -necessary to her existence. No hard line can be drawn -between her earliest and her latest conquests, between -the first advance of Novgorod and the last conquests in -Turkestan. But the advance which immediately followed -the deliverance from the Tartar yoke marks a great epoch. -The smaller khanats into which the dominion of the -Golden Horde had been broken up still kept Russia -from the Euxine and the Caspian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Kazan -and Astrakhan. -1552-1554.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The two khanats -on the Volga, <i>Kazan</i> and <i>Astrakhan</i>, were subdued by -Ivan the Terrible. The coast of the Caspian was now -reached. But the khans of <i>Crim</i> remained, unsubdued -and dangerous enemies, still cutting off Russia -from the Euxine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Superiority -over the -Don Cossacks. -1577.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Yet, even in this direction an -advance was made when the Russian supremacy was -acknowledged by the Cossacks of the Don. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of Siberian -conquest. -1581.<br /> -1592-1706.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The conquest -of the Siberian khanat, with its capital <i>Tobolsk</i>, -next followed, and thence, in the course of the next -century, the boundless extent of northern Asia was -added to the Russian dominion.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>The Decline of Sweden and Poland.</i></h3> - -<p>In the last section we traced out the greatest -advance of Sweden and a large advance of Russia, both -made at the cost of Poland, that of Sweden also at the -cost of Denmark. We saw also the beginnings of a -power which we still called <i>Brandenburg</i> rather than -<i>Prussia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -Prussia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the present section, describing the work -of the eighteenth century, we have to trace the growth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">{512}</a></span> -of this last power, which now definitely takes the -Prussian name, and which we have to look at in its -Prussian character. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Decline of -Sweden.<br /> -Extinction -of Poland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The period is marked by the -decline of Sweden and the utter wiping out of Poland -and Lithuania, Russia and Prussia in different degrees -being chief actors in both cases. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Prussia. -1701.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the beginning of the -period Prussia becomes a kingdom—a sign of advance, -though not accompanied by any immediate increase -of territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Empire of -Russia. -1721.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A little later the ruler of Russia, already -Imperial in his own tongue,<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> more definitely takes the -Imperial style as <i>Emperor of all the Russias</i>. This -might pass as a challenge of the Russian lands, Black, -White, and Red, which were still held by Poland.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russia on -the Baltic.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But more pressing than the recovery of these lands -was the breaking down of the barrier by which Sweden -kept Russia away from the Baltic. To a very slight -extent this was a recovery of old Russian territory; -but the position now won by Russia was wholly new. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Wars of -Charles -and Peter. -1700-1721.<br /> -Foundation -of Saint -Petersburg. -1703.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The war with Charles the Twelfth made Russia a great -Baltic power, and Peter the Great, early in the struggle, -set up the great trophy of his victory in the foundation -of his new capital of Saint Petersburg on ground won -from Sweden. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cession of -Livland, -&c., by -Sweden.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The peace of Nystad confirmed Russia -in the possession of Swedish Livland, Esthland, Ingermanland, -part of Carelia, and a small part of Finland -itself. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Further -advance of -Russia. -1741-1743.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Another war, ended by the Peace of Åbo, gave -Russia another small extension in Finland.</p> - -<p class="pb2">At the same time Sweden was cut short in her other -outlying possessions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sweden -loses Bremen, -Verden, and -part of -Pomerania.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of her German fiefs, the duchies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">{513}</a></span> -of Bremen and Verden passed, first to Denmark, then -to Hannover. But her Baltic possessions were only -partly lost, to the profit of Brandenburg. The frontier -of Swedish Pomerania fell back to the north-west, losing -Stettin, but keeping Stralsund, Wolgast, and Rügen. -Denmark meanwhile advanced in the debateable land -on her southern frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Danish -conquest of -the Gottorp -lands. -1713-1715.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Danish occupation -of Bremen and Verden was only momentary; but -the Gottorp share of Sleswick and Holstein was conquered, -and the possession of all Sleswick was guaranteed -to Denmark by England and France. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Gottorp -lands in -Holstein -restored.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But -the Gottorp share of Holstein, as an Imperial fief, -was given back to its Duke. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>They pass -to Denmark -in -exchange -for Oldenburg. -1767-1773.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Lastly, when the house -of Gottorp had mounted the throne of Russia, the -Gottorp portion of Holstein was ceded to Denmark -in exchange for Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, which -were at once given to another branch of the family.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>First partition -of -Poland. -1772.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the latter part of the eighteenth century the -three partitions of Poland brought about the all but -complete recovery of the lands which the Lithuanian -dukes had won from Russia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -share.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first partition -gave Russia Polish Livland, and all the lands which -Poland still kept beyond Duna and Dnieper. The -greater part of <i>White Russia</i> was thus won back. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prussian -share.<br /> -Brandenburg -and -Prussia -geographically -united.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the same time the house of Hohenzollern gained -its great territorial need, the geographical union of -the kingdom of Prussia with the lands of Brandenburg -and Pomerania, now increased by nearly all -Silesia. This union was made by Poland giving up -<i>West Prussia</i>—Danzig remaining an outlying city of -Poland—and part of <i>Great Poland</i> and <i>Cujavia</i>, known<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">{514}</a></span> -as the <i>Netz District</i>.<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austrian -share.<br /> -Kingdom -of Galicia -and Lodomeria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Austrian share, the new -kingdom of <i>Galicia and Lodomeria</i>, was a kind of -commemoration of the conquests of Lewis the Great:<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> -but, while it did not take in all <i>Red Russia</i>, it took in -part of <i>Podolia</i> and of <i>Little Poland</i> south of the Vistula, -making Cracow a frontier city. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -territory -held by -Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Austria thus became -possessed of a part of the old Russian territory, most -of which she has kept ever since.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -partition. -1793.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Polish state was thus maimed on all sides; but -it still kept a considerable territorial extent. The -second partition, the work of Russia and Prussia only, -could only be a preparation for the final death-blow. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -share.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It gave to Russia the rest of <i>Podolia</i> and <i>Ukraine</i>, and -part of <i>Volhynia</i> and <i>Podlasia</i>. <i>Little Russia</i> and <i>White -Russia</i> were thus wholly won back, and the Russian -frontier was advanced within the old Lithuanian duchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prussian -share.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Prussia took nearly all that was left of the oldest Polish -state, the rest of <i>Great Poland</i> and <i>Cujavia</i>, and part -of <i>Mazovia</i>, forming the <i>South Prussia</i> of the new -nomenclature. Gnesen, the oldest Polish capital, the -metropolis of the Polish Church, now passed away from -Poland.</p> - -<p>The remnant that was left to Poland took in the -greater part of <i>Little Poland</i>, part of <i>Mazovia</i>, the -greater part of the old <i>Lithuania</i> with the fragment -still left of its Russian territory, <i>Samogitia</i> and the -fief of <i>Curland</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Third partition. -1795.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The final division was delayed only -two years. This time all three partners joined. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -share.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Russia took all <i>Lithuania</i> east of the Niemen, with -its capital <i>Vilna</i>, also <i>Curland</i> and <i>Samogitia</i> to -the north, and the old Russian remnant to the south. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Austrian -share.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Austria took <i>Cracow</i>, with nearly all the rest of <i>Little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">{515}</a></span> -Poland</i>, as also part of <i>Mazovia</i>, by the name of <i>New -Galicia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Prussian -share.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Prussia took <i>Danzig</i> and <i>Thorn</i>, as also a -small piece of <i>Little Poland</i> to improve the frontiers of -South Prussia and Silesia, perhaps without thinking -that this last process was an advance of the Roman -Terminus. The capital <i>Warsaw</i>, with the remnant of -<i>Mazovia</i> and the strip of <i>Lithuania</i> west of the Niemen, -also fell to Prussia. The names of Poland and Lithuania -now passed away from the map.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>No original -Polish -territory -gained by -Russia in -the partitions.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">It is important to remember that the three partitions -gave no part of the original Polish realm to Russia. -Russia took back the Russian territory which had been -long before won by Lithuania, and added the greater -part of Lithuania itself, with the lands immediately to -the north. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The old -Poland -divided between -Prussia -and Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The ancient kingdom of Poland was divided -between Prussia and Austria, and the oldest Poland of all -fell to the lot of Prussia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Poland -passes to -Prussia,<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Great Poland, Silesia, Pomerania, -the Polish lands which had passed to the mark -of Brandenburg, once united under Polish rule, were -again united under the power to which they had gradually -fallen away. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Chrobatia -to Austria.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Austria or Hungary meanwhile took -the rest of the northern Chrobatia, seven hundred years -after the acquisition of the former part, and also the -Russian land which had been twice before added to -the Magyar kingdom.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance to -the Euxine.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile Russia made advances in other quarters -of nearly equal extent. As the remnant of the Saracen at -Granada cut off the Castilian from his southern coast or -the Mediterranean, for more than two hundred years, so -did the remnant of the Tartar in <i>Crim</i> cut off the Russian -for as long a time from his southern coast on the Euxine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Occupation -of Azof. -1696-1711.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Peter the Great first made his way, if not to the Euxine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">{516}</a></span> -at least to its inland gulf, by the taking of <i>Azof</i>. But the -new conquest was only temporary. After seventy -years more the work was done. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Independence -of -Crim -1774.<br /> -Annexation -of -Crim. -1783.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First came the -nominal independence of the Crimean khanat, then -its incorporation with Russia. The work at which -Megarian and Genoese colonists had laboured was -now done; the northern coast of the Euxine was won -for Europe.<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> The road through which so many -Turanian invaders had pressed into the Aryan continent -was blocked for ever. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Jedisan. -1791.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The next advance, the -limit of Russian advance made strictly at the expense -of the barbarian as distinguished from his Christian -vassals, carried the Russian frontier from the Bug to -the Dniester.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -conquests -from -Persia. -1727-1734.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The chief Asiatic acquisition of Russia in the -eighteenth century took a strange form. It was conquest -beyond the sea, though only beyond the inland -Caspian. Turk and Russian joined to dismember -Persia, and for some years Russia held the south coast -of that great lake, the lands of <i>Daghestan</i>, <i>Ghilan</i>, and -<i>Mazanderan</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Superiority -over -Georgia. -1783.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later in the century the ancient Christian -kingdom of <i>Georgia</i> passed under Russian superiority, -the earnest of much Russian conquest on both sides of -Caucasus. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Superiority -over the -Kirghis. -1773.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And nearly at the same time as the first -steps towards the acquisition of Crim, the Russian -dominion was spread over the <i>Kirghis</i> hordes west of -the river Ural, winning a coast on the eastern Caspian, -the sea of Aral, and the Baltash lake.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">{517}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Survey at -the end of -the eighteenth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus, by the end of the eighteenth century, the -Swedish power has fallen back. Its territory east of -the Baltic is less than it was at the beginning of the -sixteenth century. Denmark, on the other hand, has -grown by an advance in the debateable southern -duchies. All Sleswick is added to the Danish crown; -all Holstein is held by the Danish king. Poland has -vanished. The anomalous power on the middle -Danube, whose princes, it must be remembered, still -wore the crown of the Empire, has thrust itself into the -very heart of the old Polish land. But the power -which has gained most by the extinction of Poland has -been the new kingdom of Prussia. If part of her annexations -lasted only a few years, she made her Baltic -coast continuous for ever. But Prussia and Austria -alike, by joining to wipe out the central state of the -whole region, have given themselves a mighty neighbour. -Russia has wholly cast aside her character as a -mere inland power, intermediate between Europe and -Asia. She has won her way, after so many ages, to -her old position and much more. She has a Baltic and -an Euxine seaboard. Her recovery of her old lands -on the Duna and the Dnieper, her conquest of new -lands on the Niemen, have brought her into the heart -of Europe. And she has opened the path which was -also to lead her into the heart of Asia, and to establish -her in the intermediate mountain land between the -Euxine and the Caspian.</p> - - -<h3>§ 6. <i>The Modern Geography of the Baltic Lands.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The French -revolutionary -wars.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The territorial arrangements of Northern and -Eastern Europe were not affected by the French revolutionary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">{518}</a></span> -wars till after the fall of the Western Empire. -At that moment the frontier of Germany and Denmark -was still what it had been under Charles the Great; -“Eidora Romani terminus Imperii.” Only now the -Danish king ruled to the south of the boundary stream -in the character of a prince of the Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Holstein -incorporated -with -Denmark, -and Swedish -Pomerania -with -Sweden. -1806.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The fall -of the Empire put an end to this relation, and the -duchy of Holstein was incorporated with the Danish -realm. In the like sort, the Swedish kingdom was -extended to the central mainland of Europe, by the -incorporation of the Pomeranian dominions of the -Swedish king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -conquest of -Finland, -1809.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Before long, the last war between Sweden -and Russia was ended by the peace of Friderikshamn, -when Sweden gave up all her territory east of the -gulf as far as the river Tornea, together with the isles -of <i>Aland</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Grand -Duchy of -Finland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These lands passed to the Russian Emperor -as a separate and privileged dominion, the <i>Grand Duchy -of Finland</i>. Thus Sweden withdrew to her own side -of the Baltic, while Russia at last became mistress of -the whole eastern coast from the Prussian border -northward. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Sweden -and Norway. -1814-1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The general peace left this arrangement -untouched, but decreed the separation of Norway from -Denmark and its union with Sweden. This was carried -out so far as to effect the union of Sweden and Norway -as independent kingdoms under a single king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Swedish -Pomerania -passes to -Denmark.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Denmark -got in compensation, as diplomacy calls it, a -scrap of its old Slavonic realm, Rügen and Swedish -Pomerania. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Exchanged -with -Prussia for -Lauenburg.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These detached lands were presently exchanged -with Prussia for a land adjoining Holstein, the -duchy of <i>Lauenburg</i>, the representative of ancient -Saxony.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Heligoland -passes to -England.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Denmark kept Iceland, but the Frisian island -of <i>Heligoland</i> off the coast of Sleswick passed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">{519}</a></span> -England. Thus the common king of Sweden and -Norway reigns over the whole of the northern peninsula -and over nothing out of it. No such great change -had affected the Scandinavian kingdoms since the -union of Calmar.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Holstein -and Lauenburg -join -the German -Confederation.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Meanwhile the king of Denmark, remaining the -independent sovereign of Denmark, Iceland, and Sleswick, -entered the German Confederation for his duchies -of Holstein and Lauenburg. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Disputes -and wars in -the Duchies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Disputes and wars made -no geographical change till the war which followed the -accession of the present king. The changes which -then followed have been told elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Transfer of -Sleswick -and Holstein, -with -Lauenburg -to Prussia. -1864-1866.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They amount -to the transfer to Prussia of Lauenburg, Holstein, and -Sleswick, with a slight change of frontier and a redistribution -of the smaller islands. A conditional engagement -for the restoration of northern Sleswick to Denmark -was not fulfilled, and has been formally annulled.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Losses of -Prussia. -1806.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the lands which had been Poland and Lithuania, -the immediate result of the French wars was the -creation of a new Polish state; their final result was a -great extension of the dominion of Russia. Prussia had -to surrender its whole Polish territory, save West -Prussia.<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bialystok -added to -Russia.<br /> -Danzig a -commonwealth.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A small Lithuanian territory, the district -of <i>Bialystok</i>, was given to Russia; -<i>Danzig</i> became a -separate commonwealth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Warsaw<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The rest of the Prussian -share of Poland formed the new <i>Duchy of Warsaw</i>. -This state was really no bad representative of the -oldest Poland of all. Silesia was gone; but the new -duchy took in Great Poland and Cujavia, with parts of -Little Poland, Mazovia, and Lithuania. It took in the -oldest capital at Gnesen and the newest at Warsaw.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">{520}</a></span> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Enlarged -by part of -Austrian -Poland. -1810.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The new state was presently enlarged by the addition -of the territory added to Austria by the last partition. -Cracow, with the greater part of Little Poland, was -again joined to Great Poland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Duchy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Speaking roughly, the -duchy took in nearly the whole of the old Polish kingdom, -without Silesia, but with some small Lithuanian -and Russian territory added.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Arrangements -of -1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>It was the Poland thus formed, a state which answered -much more nearly to the Poland of the fourteenth -than to the Poland of the eighteenth century, -which, by the arrangements of the Vienna Congress, -first received a Russian sovereign. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Danzig -and Posen -restored to -Prussia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Prussia now again -rounded off her <i>West-Prussian</i> province by the recovery -of Danzig and Thorn, and she rounded off her southern -frontier by the recovery of Posen and Gnesen, -which had been part of her <i>South-Prussian</i> province. -The <i>Grand Duchy of Posen</i> became again part of -the Prussian state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cracow a -commonwealth. -Annexed -by Austria. -1846.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Cracow</i> became a republic, to be -annexed by Austria thirty years later. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Poland -united to -Russia. -1831-1863.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The remainder -of the Duchy of Warsaw, under the style of the -<i>Kingdom of Poland</i>, became a separate kingdom, but -with the Russian Emperor as its king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russia -takes old -Polish -territory -for the first -time.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later events -have destroyed, first its constitution, then its separate -being; and now all ancient Poland, except the part of -Great Poland kept by Prussia and the part of Little -Poland kept by Austria, is merged in the Russian -Empire. Thus the Russian acquisition of strictly -Polish, as distinguished from old-Russian and Lithuanian -territory, dates, not from the partitions, but from -the Congress of Vienna. It was to the behoof of -Prussia and Austria, not of Russia, that the old -kingdom of the Piasts was broken in pieces.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">{521}</a></span></p> - -<p>The changes of the nineteenth century with regard -to the lands on the European coasts of the Euxine -have been told elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fluctuation -of the -Russian -frontier towards -Moldavia. -1812-1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They amount, as far as -the geographical boundaries of Russia are concerned, -to her advance to the Pruth and the Danube, her -partial withdrawal, her second partial advance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -in the -Caucasus.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile the Russian advance in the nineteenth -century on the Asiatic shores of the Euxine and in -the lands on and beyond the Caspian has been far -greater than her advance during the eighteenth. It -is in our own century that Russia has taken up her -commanding position between the Euxine and the -Caspian seas, one which in some sort amounts to an enlargement -of Europe at the expense of Asia. The old -frontier on the Caspian, which had hardly changed -since the conquest of Astrakhan, reached to the <i>Terek</i>. -The annexation of Crim made the <i>Kuban</i> the boundary -on the side of the Euxine. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Incorporation -of -Georgia. -1800.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The incorporation of the -<i>Georgian</i> kingdom gave Russia an outlying territory -south of the Caucasus on the upper course of the <i>Kur</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -on the -Caspian. -1802.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Next came the acquisition of the Caspian coast from -the mouth of the Terek to the mouth of the Kur, the -land of <i>Daghestan</i> and <i>Shirwan</i>, including part of the -territory which had been held for a few years in the -eighteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance in -Armenia -and Circassia. -1829.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Persian and Turkish wars -gave Russia the Armenian land of <i>Erivan</i> as far as the -<i>Araxes</i>, <i>Mingrelia</i> and <i>Immeretia</i>, and the nominal -cession of the Euxine coast between them and the -older frontier. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1859.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was thirty years before the -mountain region of <i>Circassia</i> was fully subdued. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -last changes have extended the Trans-Caucasian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">{522}</a></span> -frontier of Russia to the south by the addition of -<i>Batoum</i> and <i>Kars</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance in -Turkestan. -1853-1868.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the lands east of the Caspian the new province -of Turkestan gradually grew up in the lands on the -Jaxartes, reaching southward to Samarkand. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1875.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Khokand</i> -to the south-east followed, while <i>Khiva</i> and <i>Bokhara</i>, -the lands on the Oxus, have passed under Russian -influence. The Turcoman tribes immediately east of -the Caspian have also been annexed. The Caspian -has thus nearly become a Russian lake. Hardly anything -remains to Persia except the extreme southern -coast which was once for a moment Russian.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance in -Eastern -Asia. -1858.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Far again to the east, Russia has added a large -territory on the Chinese border on the river Amoor. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent and -character -of the -Russian -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All these conquests form the greatest continuous -extent of territory by land which the world has ever -seen, unless during the transient dominion of the old -Mongols. No other European power in any age has, or -could have had, such a continuous dominion, because -no other European power has ever had the unknown -barbarian world lying in the same way at its side. Nowhere -again has any European power held a dominion -so physically unbroken as that which stretches from -the gulf of Riga to the gulf of Okhotsk. The greater -part of the Asiatic dominion of Russia belongs to -that part of Asia which has least likeness to Europe. -It is only on the Frozen Ocean that we find a kind -of mockery of inland seas, islands, and peninsulas. -Massive unbroken extent by land is its leading character. -And as this character extends to a large part -of European Russia also, Russia is the only European -land where there can be any doubt where Europe -ends. The barbarian dominion of other European<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">{523}</a></span> -states, a dominion beyond the sea, has been a dominion -of choice. The barbarian dominion of Russia in lands -adjoining her European territory is a dominion forced -on her by geographical necessity. The annexation of -Kamtschatka became a question of time when the first -successors of Ruric made their earliest advance towards -the Finnish north.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Russian -America.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">Alongside of this continuous dominion in Europe -and Asia, the Russian occupation of territory in a third -continent, an occupation made by sea after the manner -of other European powers, has not been lasting. The -Russian territory in the north-west corner of America, -the only part of the world where Russia and England -marched on one another, has been sold to the United -States.</p> - - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final -Survey.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>To return to Europe, the events of the nineteenth -century have, in the lands with which we are dealing, -carried on the work of the eighteenth by the further -aggrandizement of Russia and Prussia. The Scandinavian -powers have withdrawn into the two Scandinavian -peninsulas and the adjoining islands, and in the -southern peninsula the power of Denmark has been -cut short to the gain of Prussia. The Prussian power -meanwhile, formed in the eighteenth century by the -union of the detached lands of Prussia and Brandenburg, -has in the nineteenth grown into the imperial -power of Germany, and has, even as a local kingdom, -become, by the acquisition of Swedish Pomerania, -Holstein, and Sleswick, the dominant power on the -southern Baltic. The acquisition of the duchies too, not -only of Sleswick and Holstein, but of Bremen and Verden -also, as parts of the annexed kingdom of Hannover, have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">{524}</a></span> -given her a part of the former oceanic position both of -Denmark and Sweden. Russia has acquired the same -position on the gulfs of the Baltic which Prussia has on -the south coast of the Baltic itself. The acquisition of -the new Poland has brought her frontier into the very -midst of Europe; it has made her a neighbour, not -merely of Prussia as such, but of Germany. The third -sharer in the partition has drawn back from her -northern advance, but she has increased her scrap of -Russia, her scrap of Little Poland, her scrap of Moldavia,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> -by the suppression of a free city. The southern -advance of Russia on European ground has been -during this century an advance less of territory than -of influence. The frontier of 1878 is the restored -frontier of 1812. It is in the lands out of Europe that -Russia has in the meanwhile advanced by strides which -look startling on the map, but which in truth spring -naturally from the geographical position of the one -modern European power which cannot help being -Asiatic as well.</p> -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">{525}</a></span></p> - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Analogy -between -Spain and -Scandinavia.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> great peninsula of the West has much in common -with the great peninsula of the North. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slight relations -with -the Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Save Sweden -and Norway, no part of Western Europe has had so -little to do with the later Empire as Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break between -earlier and -later history.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And in no -land that formed part of the earlier Empire, save our -own island, is the later history so completely cut off -from the earlier history. The modern kingdoms of -Spain have still less claim to represent the West-Gothic -kingdom than the modern kingdom of France had to -represent the Frankish kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Modern -Spanish -history -begins -with the -Saracen -conquest.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The history of Spain, -as an element in the European system, begins with the -Saracen invasion. For a hundred years before that -time all trace of dependence on the elder Empire had -passed away. With the later Western Empire Spain -had nothing to do after the days of Charles the Great -and his immediate successors. Their claims over a -small part of the country passed away from the Empire -to the kings of Karolingia.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Analogy -between -Spain and -South-eastern -Europe.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">With the Eastern Empire and the states which -grew out of it Spain has the closest connexion in the -way of analogy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Comparison -of the -effects of -conquest -and deliverance -in each.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Each was a Christian land conquered -from the Mussulman. Each has been wholly or partially -won back from him. But the deliverance of -south-western Europe was mainly the work of its own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">{526}</a></span> -people, and its deliverance was nearly ended when -the bondage of south-eastern Europe was only beginning. -Again, in south-eastern Europe the nations were -fully formed before the Mussulman conquest, and they -have lived through it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Spanish -nation -formed by -the war -with the -Mussulmans.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Spain the Mussulman conquest -cut short the West-Gothic power just as it was growing -into a new Romance nation; the actual Romance nation -of Spain was formed by the work of withstanding -the invaders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Analogy -between -Spain and -Russia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The closest analogy of all is between -Spain and Russia. Each was delivered by its own -people. In each case, long after the main deliverance -had been wrought, long after the liberated nation had -begun again to take its place in Europe, the ransomed -land was still cut off, by a fragment of its old enemies, -from the coasts of its own southern sea.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the West-Gothic -and -the Saracen -dominions.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The Saracen dominion in the West, as established -by the first conquerors, answered very nearly to the -West-Gothic kingdom, as it then stood: but it did not -exactly answer to <i>Spain</i>, either in the geographical or -in the later Roman sense.<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> When the Saracen came, -the Empire, not the Goth, still held the Balearic Isles, -and the fortresses of <i>Tangier</i> and <i>Ceuta</i> on the Mauretanian -side of the strait. On the other hand, the Goth -did not hold quite the whole of the peninsula, while -his dominion took in the Gaulish land of <i>Septimania</i>. -Strictly speaking, the conquest was one, not of Spain -geographically, but of the West-Gothic dominions in -and out of Spain, and of the outlying Imperial possessions -in their neighbourhood. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Two -centres of -deliverance.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was from the lands -which hindered both the West-Gothic and the Saracen -dominion from exactly answering to geographical Spain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">{527}</a></span> -that deliverance came, and it came in two forms. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The independent -lands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -From -the land to the north-west, which held out against both -Goth and Saracen, came that form of deliverance which -was strictly native. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Frankish -dominion. -752-759.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -At the other end, the Frank first won -back for Christendom the Saracen province in Gaul, and -then carried his arms into the neighbouring corner of -Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>778.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus we get two centres of deliverance, two -groups of states which did the work. There are the north-western -lands, whose history is purely Spanish, which -simply withstood the Saracen, and the north-eastern -lands, which were first won from the Saracen by the -Frank, and which gradually freed themselves from their -deliverer. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Represented -severally -by -Castile and -Portugal, -and by -Aragon.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The former class are represented in later -Spanish history by the kingdoms of Castile and Portugal, -the latter by the kingdom of Aragon. Navarre lies -between the two, and shares in the history of both. -The former start geographically from the mountain -region washed by the Ocean. The latter start geographically -from the mountains which divide Gaul and -Spain, and which stretch westward to the Mediterranean. -The geographical position of the regions foreshadows -their later history.<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Later history -of -Aragon.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was Aragon, looking -to the East, which first played a great part in European -affairs, and which carried Spanish influence and dominion -into Gaul, Sicily, Italy, and Greece. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Castile -and Portugal.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was -Portugal and Castile, looking to the West, which -established an Iberian dominion beyond the bounds of -Europe. The fact that a Queen of Castile in the fifteenth -century married a King of Aragon and not a -King of Portugal has led us to speak of the peninsular -kingdoms as ‘<i>Spain</i> and <i>Portugal</i>.’<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> For some ages -‘Spain and Aragon’ would have been a more natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">{528}</a></span> -division. But the very difference in the fields of action -of Castile and Aragon hindered any such strong opposition. -Between Castile and Portugal, on the other -hand, a marked rivalry arose in the field which was -common to both.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The more -strictly -native -centre -foremost in -the work of -deliverance.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Of these two centres, one purely Spanish, the other -brought for a long time under a greater or less degree -of foreign influence, the more strictly native region -was foremost in the work of national deliverance. -How far western Spain stood in advance of eastern -Spain is shown by the speaking fact that Toledo, -so much further to the south, was won by Castile -a generation before Zaragoza was won by Aragon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -of Castile -and Aragon -towards -Navarre.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But both Castile and Aragon, as powers, grew out -of the break-up of a momentary dominion in the -land which lay between them, and whose later history -is much less illustrious than theirs. In the second -quarter of the eleventh century the kingdom of -<i>Pampeluna</i> or <i>Navarre</i> had, by the energy of a single -man, the Sviatopluk or Stephen Dushan of his little -realm, risen to the first place among the Christian -powers of Spain. Castile and Aragon do not appear -with kingly rank till both had passed under the -momentary rule of a neighbour which in after times -seemed so small beside either of them. And the -name of <i>Castile</i>, whether as county, kingdom, or -empire, marks a comparatively late stage of Christian -advance. We must here go back for a moment to -those early days of the long crusade of eight hundred -years at which we have already slightly glanced.<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">{529}</a></span></p> - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Foundation of the Spanish Kingdoms.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Founding -of the -kingdom -of Leon. -753.<br /> -916.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have seen how the union of the small independent -lands of the north, <i>Asturia</i> and <i>Cantabria</i>, grew -into the kingdom, first of <i>Oviedo</i> and then of <i>Leon</i>. -<i>Gallicia</i>, on the one side, representing in some sort the -old Suevian kingdom, <i>Bardulia</i> or the oldest <i>Castile</i>, -the land of Burgos, on the other side, were lands which -were early inclined to fall away. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Christian -advance.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The growth of the -Christian powers on this side was favoured by internal -events among the Mussulmans, by famines and revolts -which left a desert border between the hostile powers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Ommiad -emirate. -755.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Ommiad emirate, afterwards caliphate, was established -almost at the moment of the Saracen loss of -Septimania. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Spanish -March. -778-801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then came the <i>Spanish March</i> of Charles -the Great, which brought part of northern Spain once -more within the bounds of the new Western Empire, -as the conquests of Justinian had brought back part -of southern Spain within the bounds of the undivided -Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its extent.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This march, at its greatest extent, took in -Pampeluna at one end and Barcelona at the other, with -the intermediate lands of <i>Aragon</i>, <i>Ripacurcia</i>, and -<i>Sobrarbe</i>. But the Frankish dominion soon passed -away from Aragon, and still sooner from Pampeluna. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Its division.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The western part of the march, which still acknowledged -the superiority of the Kings of Karolingia, split -up into a number of practically independent counties, -which made hardly any advance against the common -enemy.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the land of Pampeluna became, at the -beginning of the eleventh century, an independent and -powerful kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Navarre -under -Sancho the -Great. -1000-1035.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Navarre of Sancho the Great -stretched some way beyond the Ebro; to the west it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">{530}</a></span> -took in the ocean lands of <i>Biscay</i> and <i>Guipuzcoa</i>, with -the original Castile; to the east it took in <i>Aragon</i>, -<i>Ripacurcia</i>, and <i>Sobrarbe</i>. The two Christian kingdoms -of Navarre and Leon took in all north-eastern -Spain. The Douro was reached and crossed; the Tagus -itself was not far from the Christian boundary; but -the states which owned the superiority of the power -which we may now call <i>France</i> were still far from the -lower Ebro.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Break-up -of the -kingdom of -Navarre -(1035), and -of the -Ommiad -caliphate -(1028).<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>At the death of Sancho the Great his momentary -dominion broke up. Seven years earlier the dominion -of the Ommiad caliphs had broken up also. These two -events, so near together, form the turning-point in the -history of the peninsula. Instead of the one Ommiad -caliphate, there arose a crowd of separate Mussulman -kingdoms, which had to call for help to their Mussulman -brethren in Africa. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Invasion -of the -Almoravides. -1086-1110.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This led to what was really -a new African conquest of Mussulman Spain. The -new deliverers or conquerors spread their dominion -over all the Mussulman powers, save only Zaragoza. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -name -<i>Moors</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This settlement, with other later ones of the same kind, -gives a specially African look to the later history of -Mahometan Spain, and has doubtless helped to give -the Spanish Mussulmans the common name of <i>Moors</i>. -But their language and culture remained Arabic, and -the revolution caused by the African settlers among -the ruins of the Western caliphate was far from being -so great as the revolution caused by the Turkish -settlers among the ruins of the Eastern caliphate.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>New kingdoms, -Castile, -Aragon, -and Sobrarbe -1035.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Out of the break-up of the dominion of Sancho -came out the separate kingdom of Navarre, and the -new kingdoms of <i>Castile</i>, <i>Aragon</i>, and <i>Sobrarbe</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Aragon -and Sobrarbe. -1040.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of -these the two last were presently united, thus beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">{531}</a></span> -the advance of Aragon. Thus we come to -four of the five historic kingdoms of Spain—Navarre, -Castile, Aragon, and Leon, whose unions and divisions -are endless. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Shiftings -of Castile -and Leon. -1037.<br /> -1065-1073.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first king Ferdinand of Castile united -Castile and Leon; -Castile, Leon, and Gallicia were -again for a moment separated under his son. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1076-1134.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Aragon -and Navarre were united for nearly sixty years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Emperor -Alfonso -1135.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Presently -Spain has an Emperor in Alfonso of Castile, -Leon, and Gallicia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1157.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Empire and kingdom were -split asunder. Leon and Castile became separate kingdoms -under the sons of Alfonso, and they remained -separate for more than sixty years. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final union -of Castile -and Leon. -1230.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Their final union -created the great Christian power of Spain.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Decline of -Navarre.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Navarre meanwhile, cut short by the advance of -Castile, shorn of its lands on the Ocean and beyond -the Ebro, lost all hope of any commanding position in -the peninsula. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1234.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It passed to a succession of French -kings, and for a long time it had no share in the geographical -history of Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Growth of -Aragon.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the power of Aragon -grew, partly by conquests from the Mussulmans, partly -by union with the French fiefs to the east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union with -Barcelona. -1131.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first -union between the crown of Aragon and the county -of <i>Barcelona</i> led to the great growth of the power of -Aragon on both sides of the Pyrenees and even beyond -the Rhone.<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1213.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This power was broken by the overthrow -of King Pedro at Muret. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlement -with -France. -1258.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But by the final arrangement -which freed <i>Barcelona</i>, <i>Roussillon</i>, and <i>Cerdagne</i>, -from all homage to France, all trace of foreign -superiority passed away from Christian Spain. The -independent kingdom of Aragon stretched on both -sides of the Pyrenees, a faint reminder of the days of -the West-Gothic kings.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">{532}</a></span></p> -<p>On the other side of the peninsula the lands -between Douro and Minho began to form a separate -state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>County of -Portugal. -1094.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The county of <i>Portugal</i> was held by -princes of the royal house of France, as a fief of the -crown of Castile and Leon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom, -1139.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The county became a -kingdom, and its growth cut off Leon, as distinguished -from Castile, from any advance against the Mussulmans. -Navarre was cut off already. But the three -kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal were all -ready for the work. A restored Western Christendom -was growing up to balance the falling away in the -East. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Beginning -of the great -Christian -advance.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The first great advance of the Christians in -Spain began about the time of the Seljuk conquests -from the Eastern Empire. The work of deliverance -was not ended till the Ottoman had been for forty -years established in the New Rome.</p> - - -<p class="p2">The Christian powers however were disunited, -while the Mussulmans had again gained, though at a -heavy price, the advantage of union. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Toledo. -1085.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Alfonso the -Sixth, commanding the powers of Castile and Leon, -pressed far to the south, and won the old Gothic -capital of <i>Toledo</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Battle of -Zalacca. -1086.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But his further advance was checked -by the African invaders at the battle of Zalacca. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -of the -Almoravides.<br /> -Advance of -Aragon.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -Almoravide power was too strong for any present hope -of conquests on the part of Castile; -but the one independent -Mussulman state at <i>Zaragoza</i> lay open to the -Christians of the north-east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Zaragoza. -1118.<br /> -Of Tarragona.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Zaragoza itself was taken -by the king of Aragon, and <i>Tarragona</i> by the Count -of Barcelona. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Tortosa. -1148.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Both these powers advanced, and the -conquest of <i>Tortosa</i> made the Ebro the Christian -boundary. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -Portugal.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the power of the Almoravides weakened, -Castile and Portugal again advanced on their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">{533}</a></span> -side. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Lisbon. -1147.<br /> -Of Silvas. -1191.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The latter kingdom made the great acquisition -of its future capital <i>Lisbon</i>, and a generation later, it -reached the southern coast by the conquest of <i>Silvas</i> -in Algarve. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -Castile. -1147-1166.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Castile meanwhile pressed to the Guadiana -and beyond, counting <i>Calatrava</i> and <i>Badajoz</i> among -its cities. The line of struggle had advanced in about -a century from the land between Douro and Tagus to -the land between Guadiana and Guadalquivir.</p> - -<p>This second great Christian advance in the twelfth, -century was again checked in the same way in which -the advance in the eleventh century had been. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Invasion -of the -Almohades. -1146.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A -new settlement of African conquerors, the <i>Almohades</i>, -won back a large territory from both Castile and -Portugal. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Battle of -Alarcos. -1196.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The battle of Alarcos broke for a while -the power of Castile, and the Almohade dominion -stretched beyond the lower Tagus. To the east, the -lands south of Ebro remained an independent Mussulman -state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Decline -of the -Almohades.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, as the Almohades were of doubtful -Mahometan orthodoxy, their hold on Spain was weaker -than that of any other Mahometan conquerors. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Battle of -Navas de -Tolosa. -1211.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Their -power broke up, and the battle of Navas de Tolosa -ruled that Spain should be a Christian land. All three -kingdoms advanced, and within forty years the Mussulman -power in the peninsula was cut down to a mere survival. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -the Balearic -Isles. -1228-1236.<br /> -Of Valencia. -1237-1305.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Aragon won the <i>Balearic Isles</i> and formed her -kingdom of <i>Valencia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Murcia. -1243-1253.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But as Castile, by the incorporation -of <i>Murcia</i>, reached to the Mediterranean, any -further advance in the peninsula was forbidden to -Aragon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -Portugal. -1217-1256.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the eastern side Portugal won back her -lost lands, reached her southern coast, kept all the -land west of the lower Guadiana and some points to -the east of it. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Algarve.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the kingdom of Portugal was added -the kingdom of <i>Algarve</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">{534}</a></span></p> - -<p>But the central power of Castile pressed on faster still. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Castile -under Saint -Ferdinand.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Under Saint Ferdinand began the recovery of the great -cities along the Guadalquivir. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of Cordova. -1236.<br /> -Of Jaen. -1246.<br /> -Of Seville. -1248.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Cordova</i>, the city of the -caliphs, was won; -<i>Jaen</i> followed; -then more famous -<i>Seville</i>; and <i>Cadiz</i>, eldest of Western cities, passed -again, as when she first entered the Roman world, -from Semitic into Aryan hands. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Of Nibla. -1257.<br /> -Of Tarifa. -1285.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The conquest of -<i>Nibla</i> and <i>Tarifa</i> at last made the completion of the -work only a question of time.</p> - -<p class="pb2">No one in the middle of the twelfth century could -have dreamed that a Mussulman power would live on -in Spain till the last years of the fifteenth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Granada. -1238.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This was -the kingdom of <i>Granada</i>, which began, amid the -conquests of Saint Ferdinand, as a vassal state of Castile. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Reconquered -from -Castile. -1298.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Yet, sixty years later, it was able to win back a considerable -territory from its overlord. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -by Castile. -1316.<br /> -1430.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Part of the land -now gained was soon lost again; but part, with the city -of <i>Huascar</i>, was kept by the Mussulmans far into the -fifteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gibraltar -lost and -won. -1309. -1333. -1344.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, on the strait between -the ocean and the Mediterranean, <i>Gibraltar</i> was won -by Castile, lost, and won again.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Geographical -position -of the four -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Thus, in the latter part of the thirteenth century, -the peninsula of Spain was very unequally divided -between one Mussulman and four Christian states. -Aragon on the one side, Portugal on the other, were -kingdoms with a coast line out of all proportion to -their extent inwards. Aragon had become a triangle, -Portugal a long parallelogram, cut off on each side -from the great trapezium formed by the whole peninsula. -Between these two lay the central power of -Castile, with Christian Navarre still separate at one -corner and Mussulman Granada still separate at another.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">{535}</a></span> -Of these five kingdoms, Navarre and Aragon alone -marched to any considerable extent on any state beyond -the peninsula. Castile barely touched the Aquitanian -dominions of England, while Navarre and Aragon, both -stretching north of the Pyrenees, had together a considerable -frontier towards Aquitaine and France. -Navarre and Aragon again marched on one another, -while Portugal and Granada marched only on Castile, -the common neighbour of all. The destiny of all was -written on the map. Navarre at one end, Granada at -the other, were to be swallowed up by the great central -power. Aragon, after gaining a high European position, -was to be united with Castile under a single -sovereign. Portugal alone was to become distinctly a -rival of Castile, but wholly in lands beyond the bounds -of Europe.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Title of -‘King of -Spain.’<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Of the five Spanish powers Castile so far outtopped -the rest that its sovereign was often spoken of in other -lands as <i>King of Spain</i>. But Spain contained more -kingdoms than it contained kings. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The lesser -kingdoms.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Castile, Aragon, and -Portugal were all formed by a succession of unions and -conquests, each of which commonly gave their kings a -new title. The central power was still the power of -<i>Castile and Leon</i>, not of Castile only. <i>Leon</i> was made -up of the kingdoms of <i>Leon</i> and <i>Gallicia</i>. Castile took -in Castile proper or <i>Old Castile</i>, with the principality of -the <i>Asturias</i>, and the free lands of <i>Biscay</i>, <i>Guipuzcoa</i>, -and <i>Alava</i>. To the south it took in the kingdoms—each -marking a stage of advance—of <i>Toledo</i> or <i>New -Castile</i>, of <i>Cordova</i>, <i>Jaen</i>, <i>Seville</i>, and <i>Murcia</i>. The -sovereign of Portugal held his two kingdoms of <i>Portugal</i> -and <i>Algarve</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1262.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The sovereign of Aragon, besides his -enlarged kingdom of <i>Aragon</i> and his counties of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">{536}</a></span> -<i>Catalonia</i>, <i>Roussillon</i>, and <i>Cerdagne</i>, held his kingdom -of <i>Valencia</i> on the mainland, while the Balearic -Isles formed the kingdom of <i>Majorca</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1349.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last, first -granted as a vassal kingdom to a branch of the royal -house, was afterwards incorporated with the Aragonese -state.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>Growth and Partition of the Great Spanish Monarchy.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Little geographical -change -after the -thirteenth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">After the thirteenth century the strictly geographical -changes within the Spanish peninsula were but few. -The boundaries of the kingdoms changed but little -towards one another, and not much towards France, -their only neighbour from the fifteenth century onwards. -But the five kingdoms were gradually grouped under -two kings, for a while under one only. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Territories -beyond the -peninsula.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The external -geography, so to speak, forms a longer story. We have -to trace out the acquisition of territory within Europe, -first by Aragon and then by Castile, and the acquisition -of territory out of Europe, first by Portugal and then by -Castile. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The great -Spanish -Monarchy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The permanent union of the dominions of Castile -and Aragon, the temporary union of the dominions -of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal, formed that great -<i>Spanish Monarchy</i> which in the sixteenth century was -the wonder and terror of Europe, which lost important -possessions in the sixteenth and in the seventeenth -century, and which was finally partitioned in the -beginning of the eighteenth.</p> - - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>1410-1430.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Within the peninsula we have seen Castile, in the -first half of the fifteenth century, win back the lands -which had been lost to Granada at the end of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">{537}</a></span> -fourteenth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Granada. -1492.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The last decade of the fifteenth saw the -ending of the struggle. Men fondly deemed that the -recovery of Granada balanced the loss of Constantinople. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>End of -Mussulman -rule in -Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the last Moorish prince still kept for a -moment a small tributary dominion in the Alpujarras, -and it was the purchase of this last remnant which -finally put an end to the long rule of the Mussulman in -Spain.</p> - -<p class="pb2">The conquest of Granada was the joint work of a -queen of Castile and a king of Aragon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1469.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the -marriage of Ferdinand and Isabel did not at once unite -their crowns. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Castile and -Aragon. -1506.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -That union may be dated from the beginning -of Ferdinand’s second reign in Castile. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss and -recovery of -Roussillon. -1462-1493.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile -<i>Roussillon</i> and <i>Cerdagne</i> had been, after thirty years’ -French occupation, won back by Aragon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Navarre. -1513.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then came -the conquest of <i>Navarre</i> south of the Pyrenees, which -left only the small part on the Gaulish side to pass to -the French kings of the House of Bourbon. -Portugal -was now the only separate kingdom in the peninsula, -and the tendency to look on the peninsula as made up -of <i>Spain</i> and <i>Portugal</i> was of course strengthened. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Annexation -and -separation -of Portugal. -1581-1640.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But later in the century Portugal itself was for sixty -years united with Castile and Aragon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Final loss -of Roussillon. -1659.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Portugal won -back its independence; and the Spanish dominion was -further cut short by the final loss of <i>Roussillon</i>. The -Pyrenees were now the boundary of France and Spain, -except so far as the line may be held to be broken by -the French right of patronage over <i>Andorra</i>.<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> Since -the Peace of the Pyrenees, the peninsula itself has seen -hardly any strictly geographical change. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Gibraltar -lost to -England, -1704-1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Gibraltar</i> -has been for nearly a hundred and eighty years occupied -by England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Oliverca. -1801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The fortress of <i>Oliverca</i> has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">{538}</a></span> -yielded by Portugal to Spain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Minorca.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And during the last -century <i>Minorca</i> passed to and fro between Spain and -England more times than it is easy to remember.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance of -Aragon beyond -the -peninsula.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The acquisition of territory beyond the peninsula -naturally began with Aragon. The acquisition of the -Balearic isles may pass as the enlargement of a peninsular -kingdom; but before that happened, Aragon had -won and lost what was practically a great dominion -north of the Pyrenees. But this dominion was continuous -with its Spanish territory. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Aragon -and Sicily. -1282-1285.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The real beginning -of Aragonese dominion beyond the sea was when the -war of the Vespers for a moment united the crowns of -Aragon and the insular Sicily. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -union of -Aragon -and Sicily. -1409.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then the island crown -was held by independent Aragonese princes, and lastly -was again united to the Aragonese crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Aragon -and continental -Sicily. -1442-1458.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The continental -Sicily had, during the reign of Alfonso the -Magnanimous, a common king with Aragon and the -island. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Continental -Sicily -under -Aragonese -princes.<br /> -Final union -of Aragon -and the -Sicilies. -1503.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then the continental kingdom was—save during -the momentary French occupations—held by Aragonese -princes till the final union of the crowns of Aragon -and the Two Sicilies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>War of -Sardinia. -1309-1428.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile a war of more -than a hundred years gave to Aragon the island of -<i>Sardinia</i> as a new kingdom. Thus, at the final union -of Castile and Aragon, Aragon brought with it the -outlying crowns of the Two Sicilies and of Sardinia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1530.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The insular Sicilian kingdom was slightly lessened by -the grant of <i>Malta</i> and <i>Gozo</i> to the Knights of Saint -John. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1557.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The continental kingdom was increased by the -addition of a small Tuscan territory.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">{539}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Difference -between -the outlying -possessions -of -Aragon -and those -of Castile.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The outlying possessions of Aragon were thus strictly -acquisitions made by the Kings of Aragon on behalf of -the crown of Aragon. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Burgundian -inheritance. -1504.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the extension of Castilian -dominion over distant parts of Europe was due only to -the fact that the crown of Castile passed to an Austrian -prince who had inherited the greater part of the dominions -of the Dukes of Burgundy. But thereby the -<i>Netherlands</i> and the counties of <i>Burgundy</i> and <i>Charolois</i> -became appendages to Castile, and went to swell -the great Spanish Monarchy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Duchy of -Milan. -1535.<br /> -1555.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The duchy of <i>Milan</i> -too, in whatever character the Emperor Charles held -it, became a Spanish dependency when it passed to his -son Philip.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extent of -the Spanish -Monarchy.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The European possessions of the Spanish Monarchy -thus took in, at the time of their greatest extent, the -whole peninsula, the Netherlands and the other Burgundian -lands of the Austrian house, Roussillon, the Sicilies, -Sardinia, and Milan. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of the -United -Netherlands. -1578-1609.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But this whole dominion was never -held at once, unless for form’s sake we count the United -Netherlands as Spanish territory till the Twelve Years’ -Truce. Holland and its fellows had become practically -independent before Portugal was won. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lands lost -to France. -1659-1677.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it was not -till after the loss of Portugal that Spain suffered her -great losses on the side of France, when the conquests -of Lewis the Fourteenth cost her Roussillon, Cerdagne, -Charolois, the County of Burgundy, Artois, and other -parts of the Netherlands. The remainder of the Netherlands, -with Milan and the three outlying Aragonese -kingdoms, were kept till the partitions in the beginning -of the eighteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Partition -of the -Spanish -Monarchy. -1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The final results of so much -fighting and treaty-making was to take away all the -outlying possessions of both Aragon and Castile, and to -confine the Spanish kingdom to the peninsula and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">{540}</a></span> -Balearic isles, less Portugal and Gibraltar for ever, and -less Minorca for a season. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovery -of Sicily. -1718, 1735.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Since then Spain has never -won back any part of the lost possessions of Castile; -but she has more than once won back the lost possessions -of Aragon, insular Sicily twice, continental Sicily -once. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spanish -kings of -the Two -Sicilies. -1735-1860.<br /> -Duchy of -Parma, -1731-1860.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And if the Sicilies were not kept as part of the -Spanish dominions, they passed to a branch of the -Spanish royal house, as the duchies of <i>Parma</i> and -<i>Piacenza</i> passed to another.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>The Colonial Dominion of Spain and Portugal.</i></h3> - -<p>The distinction between Spain and Portugal is most -strikingly marked in the dominion of the two powers -beyond the bounds of Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of the -Portuguese -dominion -out of -Europe.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Portugal led the way -among European states to conquest and colonization -out of Europe. She had a geographical and historical -call so to do. Her dominion out of Europe was not -indeed a matter of necessity like that of Russia, but it -stood on a different ground from that of England, -France, or Holland. It was not actually continuous -with her own European territory, but it began near to -it, and it was a natural consequence and extension of -her European advance. The Asiatic and American -dominion of Portugal grew out of her African dominion, -and her African dominion was the continuation of her -growth in her own peninsula.</p> - -<p>When the Moor was driven out of Spain, it was -natural to follow him across the narrow seas into a -land which lay so near to Spain, and which in earlier -geography had passed as a Spanish land. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Portugal -fully -formed in -the thirteenth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But as far as -Castile was concerned, the Moor was not driven out till -late in the fifteenth century; as far as Portugal was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">{541}</a></span> -concerned, he was driven out in the thirteenth. Portugal -had then reached her full extent in the peninsula, -and she could no longer advance against the misbelievers -by land. One is tempted to wonder that her advance -beyond sea did not begin sooner. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Her -African -conquests, -1415-1471.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It came in the fifteenth -century, when fifty years of conquest gave to -Portugal her kingdom of <i>Algarve beyond the Sea</i>, an -African dominion older than the Castilian conquest of -Granada. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Algarves.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The king of <i>Portugal and the Algarves</i> thus -held the southern pillar of Hercules, while Castile held -the northern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Loss of -African -dominion, -1578.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The greater part of this African kingdom -was lost after the fall of Sebastian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ceuta -Spanish.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Ceuta</i> remained -a Spanish possession after the dominion of Portugal, so -that Spain now holds the southern pillar and England -the northern. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tangier -English, -1662-1683.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Tangier</i> too once passed from Portugal -to England as a marriage gift, and was presently forsaken -as useless.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Advance -in Africa -and the -islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But before the kingdom of Algarve beyond the sea -had passed away, its establishment had led to the discovery -of the whole coast of the African continent, and -to the growth of a vast Portuguese dominion in various -parts of the world. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Madeira, -1419.<br /> -Azores and -Cape Verde -Islands. -1448-1454.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Madeira</i> was the first insular possession, -followed by the <i>Azores</i> and <i>Cape Verde Islands</i>. -Gradually, under the care of Don Henry, the Portuguese -power spread along the north-west coast of Africa. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cape of -Good Hope, -1497.<br /> -Dominion -of Arabia -and India.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The work went on: Vasco de Gama made his great -discovery of the Cape of Good Hope; the road to India -was opened; dominion on the coasts of Arabia and -India, and even in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, -was added to dominion on the coast of Africa. This -dominion perished through the annexation of Portugal -by Spain. Since the restoration of Portuguese independence, -only fragments of this great African and Indian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">{542}</a></span> -dominion have been kept. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Modern -extent of -Portuguese -dominion -abroad.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But Portugal still holds the -Atlantic islands, various points and coasts in Africa, -and a small territory in India and the Eastern islands.</p> - -<p>But Portuguese enterprise led also to a more lasting -work, to the creation of a new European nation -beyond the Ocean, the single European monarchy -which has taken root in the New World. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Discovery -of Brazil, -1500.<br /> -1531.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Brazil</i> was -discovered by Portuguese sailors at the end of the -fifteenth century; it was settled as a Portuguese possession -early in the sixteenth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1624-1654.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -During the union of -Portugal with Spain the Dutch won for a while a large -part of the country, but the whole was won back -by independent Portugal. The peculiar position of -Portugal, ever threatened by a more powerful neighbour, -gave her great Transatlantic dominion a special -importance. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1807.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was looked to as possible place for -shelter, which it actually became during the French -invasion of Portugal. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -of Portugal -and Brazil, -1813.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Portuguese dominions took -the style of ‘the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, -and Algarve.’ Nine years later these kingdoms were -separated, and Brazil became an independent state. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Empire -of Brazil, -1822.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But it remains a monarchy with the title of Empire, -and it is still ruled by the direct representative of the -Portuguese royal house, while Portugal itself has passed -away from the native line by the accidents of female -succession.</p> - -<p>In the sixteenth century Brazil held a wholly -exceptional position. It was the only settlement of -Portugal, it was the only considerable settlement of -any European power, in a region which Spain claimed -as her exclusive dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Division of -the Indies -between -Spain and -Portugal. -1494.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By Papal authority Spain -was to have all the newly found lands that lay to the -west, and Portugal all that lay to the east, of a line<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">{543}</a></span> -on the map, drawn at 370 leagues west of the Cape -Verde Islands. Spain thus held the whole South -American continent, with the exception of Brazil, together -with that part of the North American continent -which is most closely connected with the southern. -While the non-European dominion of Portugal was -primarily African and Indian, the non-European dominion -of Spain was primarily American. It did not -in the same way spring out of the European history of -the country; it was rather suggested by rivalry of -Portugal. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Oran, -1516-1708. -1732-1791.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Africa the Spanish dominion hardly went -beyond the possession of <i>Oran</i> and the more lasting possession -of <i>Ceuta</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tunis, -1531.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The conquest of <i>Tunis</i> by Charles the -Fifth<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> was made rather in his Sicilian than in his Castilian -character. Within the range of Portuguese dominion -the settlements of Spain were exceptional. But they -took in the <i>Canaries</i> off the Atlantic coast of Africa, -and the <i>Philippine Islands</i> in the extreme eastern Archipelago. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Insular -possessions -of Spain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These insular possessions Spain still keeps.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spanish -dominion -in America.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile the great Spanish dominion in the New -World, in both Americas and in the adjoining islands -of the West Indies, has risen and fallen. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Hispaniola, -1492.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It began with -the first conquest of Columbus, <i>Hispaniola</i> or Saint -<i>Domingo</i>. Thus the dominion of Castile beyond the -Ocean began at the very moment when she reached -the full extent of her own Mediterranean coast. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1519.<br /> -1532.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then -followed the great continental dominion in <i>Mexico</i>, -<i>Peru</i>, and the other lands on or south of the isthmus -which joins the two western continents. But into the -body of the North American continent, the land which -was to be disputed between France and England, Spain -never spread. <i>New Mexico</i>, <i>California</i>, <i>Florida</i>, barely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">{544}</a></span> -stretched along its western and southern coasts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Revolutions -of the -Spanish -colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -whole of this continental dominion passed away in a -series of revolutions within our own century. While -Portugal and England have really founded new -European nations beyond the Ocean, the result of -Spanish rule in America has been to create a number -of states of ever shifting extent and constitution, keeping -the Spanish language, but some of which are as -much native American as Spanish. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mexico.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of these <i>Mexico</i> -is the one which has had most to do with the general -history of Europe and European America. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Two Mexican -Empires, -1822-1823.<br /> -1866-1867.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It has twice -taken the name of Empire, once under a native, once -under a foreign, adventurer. And vast provinces, once -under its nominal rule, have passed to the United -States. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cessions to -the United -States.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The loss of <i>Texas</i>, <i>New Mexico</i>, and <i>Upper -California</i>, has cut down the present Mexico nearly to -the extent of the first Spanish conquests.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Spanish -West India -islands.<br /> -Jamaica, -1655.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Of the Spanish West India islands, some, like -<i>Jamaica</i> and <i>Trinidad</i>, have passed to other European -powers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Saint -Domingo, -1864.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The oldest possession of all, the Spanish part -of Hispaniola, has become a state distinct from that -of Hayti in the same island. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Puerto -Rico.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Puerto Rico</i> remains a -real Spanish possession. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cuba.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The allegiance of <i>Cuba</i> is -always doubtful. In short, the dominion of Spain out -of Europe has followed its European dominion out of -Spain. The eighteenth century destroyed the one; -the nineteenth century has cut down the other to -mere fragments.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">{545}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></h2> - -<p class="ph3">THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have now gone, first through that great mass of -European lands which formed part either of the -Eastern or of the Western Empire, and then through -those more distant, and mainly peninsular, lands which -so largely escaped the Imperial dominion. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The British -islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We end by -leaving the mainland of Europe, by leaving the world of -either Empire, for that great island, or rather group of -islands, which for ages was looked on as forming a world -of its own.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Late Roman -conquest -and -early loss -of Britain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Western Europe Britain was the last land -to be won, and the first to be lost, in the days of the -elder Empire. And, after all, Britain itself was only -partly won, while the conquest of Ireland was never -tried at all. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Independence -of -Britain in -the later -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -After the English Conquest, Britain had -less to do with the revived Western Empire than any -Western land except Norway. The momentary dealings -of Charles the Great with Scotland and Northumberland, -the doubtful and precarious homage done by -Richard the First to Henry the Sixth, are the only exceptions, -even in form, to its complete independence -on the continental Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Britain -another -world and -another -Empire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The doctrine was that -Britain, the other world, formed an Empire of its own. -That Empire, being an island, was secured against the -constant fluctuations of its external boundary to which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">{546}</a></span> -continental states lie open. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Changes -within -Britain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For several centuries the -boundaries, both of the Celtic and Teutonic occupants -and of the Teutonic kingdoms among themselves, were -always changing. But these changes hardly affect -European history, which is concerned only with the -broad general results—with the establishment of the -Teutonic settlers in the island—with the union of those -settlers in one kingdom under the West-Saxon house—with -the extension of the imperial power of the West-Saxon -kings over the whole island of Britain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Slight -change in -the internal -divisions of -England.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, -from the eleventh century onwards, there has been -singularly little change of boundaries within the island. -The boundaries of England towards Scotland and Wales -changed much less than might have been looked for -during ages of such endless warfare. Even the lesser -divisions within the English kingdom have been singularly -lasting. The land, as a whole, has never been -mapped out afresh since the tenth century. While a map -of France or Germany in the eleventh century, or even in -the eighteenth, is useless for immediate practical objects, -a map of England in the days of Domesday practically -differs not at all from a map of England now. The -only changes of any moment, and they are neither -many nor great, are in the shires on the Welsh and -Scottish borders.</p> - -<p>Thus the historical geography of the isle of Britain -comes to little more than a record of these border -changes, down to the incorporation of England, Scotland, -and Wales into a single kingdom. In the other -great island of Ireland there is little to do except -to trace how the boundary of English conquest advanced -and fell back, a matter after all of no great -European concern. The history of the smaller outlying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">{547}</a></span> -islands, from Scandinavian Shetland to the insular -Normandy, has really more to do with the general -history of Europe. The dominion of the English kings -on the continent is of the highest European moment, -but, from its geographical side, it is Gaul and not -Britain which it affects. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>English -settlements -beyond sea.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The really great geographical -phænomenon of English history is that which -it shares with Spain and Portugal, and in which it -surpasses both. This is the vast extent of outlying -English dominion and settlement, partly in Europe, but -far more largely in the distant lands of Asia, Africa, -America, and Australia. But it is not merely that -England has become a great power in all quarters of -the world; England has been, like Portugal, but on a far -greater scale, a planter of nations. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>English -nations.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -One group of her -settlements has grown into one of the great powers of -the world, into a third England beyond the Ocean, -as far surpassing our insular England in geographical -extent as our insular England surpasses the first England -of all in the marchland of Germany and Denmark. -The mere barbaric dominion of England concerns -our present survey but little; but the historical -geography of Europe is deeply concerned in the -extension of England and of Europe in lands beyond -the Western and the Southern Ocean.</p> - - -<p class="p2">In tracing out the little that we have to say of the -geography of Britain itself, it will be well to begin -with that northern part of the island where changes -have been both more numerous and more important -than they have been in England.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">{548}</a></span></p> - - -<h3>§ 1. <i>The Kingdom of Scotland.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Historical -position of -Scotland.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">In Northern Britain, as in some other parts of -Europe, we see a land which has taken its name from -a people to which it does not owe its historic importance. -<i>Scotland</i> has won for itself a position in Britain -and in Europe altogether out of proportion to its size -and population. But it has not done this by virtue of -its strictly Scottish element. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greatness -of Scotland -due to its -English -element.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Irish settlers who -first brought the Scottish name into Britain<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> could -never have made Scotland what it really became. What -founded the greatness of the Scottish kingdom was the -fact that part of England gradually took the name of -Scotland and its inhabitants took the name of Scots. -The case is as when the Duke of Savoy and Genoa -and Prince of Piedmont took his highest title from that -Sardinian kingdom which was the least valuable part -of his dominions. It is as when the ruler of a mighty -German realm calls himself king of the small duchy of -Prussia and its extinct people. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Two -English -kingdoms -in Britain.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The truth is that, for -more than five hundred years, there were two English -kingdoms in Britain, each of which had a troublesome -Celtic background which formed its chief difficulty. -One English king reigned at Winchester or London, -and had his difficulties in Wales and afterwards in -Ireland. Another English king reigned at Dunfermline -or Stirling, and had his difficulties in the true -Scotland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extension -of the Scottish -name.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the southern kingdom, ruled by kings -of native English or of foreign descent, but never by -kings of British or Irish descent,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> always kept the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">{549}</a></span> -English name, while the northern kingdom, ruled by -kings of Scottish descent, adopted the Scottish name. -The English subjects of the King of Scots gradually -took the Scottish name to themselves. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Analogy of -Switzerland.<br /> -Threefold -elements in -the later -Scotland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -As the present -Swiss nation is made up of parts of the German, Burgundian, -and Italian nations which have detached -themselves from their several main bodies, so the -present Scottish nation is made up of parts of the -English, Irish, and British nations which have detached -themselves from their several main bodies. But in -both cases it is the Teutonic element which forms the -life and strength of the nation, the kernel to which the -other elements have attached themselves. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>True position -of the -Kings of -Scots.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -We cannot -read the mediæval history of Britain aright, unless we -remember that the King of Scots was in truth the -English king of Teutonic Lothian and Teutonized -Fife. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Enmity of -the true -Scots.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The people from whom he took his title were at -most his unwilling subjects; they were often his open -enemies, the allies of his southern rival.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lothian, -Strathclyde, -and -Scotland.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The modern kingdom of Scotland was made up of -English <i>Lothian</i>, British <i>Strathclyde</i>, and Irish <i>Scotland</i>. -The oldest Scotland is Ireland, whence the Scottish -name, long since forgotten in Ireland itself, came into -Britain and there spread itself. These three elements -stand out plainly. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Picts.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the Scottish or Irish element -swallowed up another, that of the <i>Picts</i>, of whom there -can be no doubt that they were Celts, like the Scots -and Britons, but about whom it may be doubted -whether their kindred was nearer to the Scots or to -the Britons. For our purpose the question is of little -moment. The Picts, as far as geography is concerned, -either vanished or became Scots.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550">{550}</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Position of -the Picts -and Scots -in the ninth -century.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Early in the ninth century the land north of the -firths of Clyde and Forth was still mainly Pictish. The -second Scotland (the first Scotland in Britain) had not -spread far beyond the original Irish settlement in the -south-west. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -Picts and -Scots, -843.<br /> -The Celtic -Scotland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The union of Picts and Scots under a -Scottish dynasty created the larger Scotland, the true -Celtic Scotland, taking in all the land north of the -firths, except where Scandinavian settlers occupied the -extreme north. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Bernicia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -South of the firths, English <i>Bernicia</i>, -sometimes a separate kingdom, sometimes part of <i>Northumberland</i>, -stretched to the firth of Forth, with <i>Edinburgh</i> -as a border fortress. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Strathclyde -or -Cumberland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the west of Bernicia, -south and east of the firth of Clyde, lay the British kingdom -of <i>Cumberland</i> or <i>Strathclyde</i>, with <i>Alcluyd</i> or -<i>Dumbarton</i> as its border fortress. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Galloway.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south-west -again lay the outlying Pictish land of <i>Galloway</i>, which -long kept up a separate being. Parts of Bernicia, parts -of Strathclyde, were one day to join with the true -Scotland to make up the later Scottish kingdom. As -yet the true Scotland was a foreign and hostile land -alike to Bernicia and to Strathclyde.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlements -of -the Northmen.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the next century we see the Scottish power cut -short to the north and west, but advancing towards the -south and east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Caithness.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The Northmen have settled in the -northern and western islands, in those parts of the -mainland to which they gave the names of <i>Caithness</i> -and <i>Sutherland</i>, and even in the first Scottish land in -the west. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Scotland -acknowledges -the -English -supremacy, -924.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Scotland itself has also admitted the external -supremacy of the English overlord. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Taking of -Edinburgh, -c. 954.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the other -hand, the Scots have pressed within the English border, -and have occupied Edinburgh, the border fortress of -England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cession of -Lothian, -966 or -1018.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later in the same century or early in the -next, the Kings of Scots received Northern Bernicia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">{551}</a></span> -the land of <i>Lothian</i>, as an English earldom. On the -other side, <i>Strathclyde</i> or <i>Cumberland</i>—its southern -boundary is very uncertain—had become in a manner -united to England and Scotland at once. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Grant of -Cumberland, -945.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -An English -conquest, it was granted in fief to the King of Scots, -and was commonly held as an appanage by Scottish -princes.<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Different -tenures of -the dominion -of -the King -of Scots.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Thus the King of Scots held three dominions -on three different tenures. Scotland was a kingdom -under a merely external English supremacy; Cumberland -was a territorial fief of England; Lothian was an -earldom within the English kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The distinctions -forgotten in -later controversies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In after times -these distinctions were forgotten, and the question now -was whether the dominions of the King of Scots, as a -whole, were or were not a fief of England. When the -question took this shape, the English king claimed more -than his ancient rights over Scotland, less than his -ancient rights over Lothian.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Effects of -the grant -of Lothian.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The acquisition of Lothian made the Scottish -kingdom English. Lothian remained English; Cumberland -and the eastern side of Scotland itself, the -Lowlands north of the firth of Forth, became practically -English also. The Scottish kings became English -princes, whose strength lay in the English part of their -dominions. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Fate of -southern -Cumberland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But late in the eleventh century it would -seem that the southern part of Cumberland had -become a separate principality ruled by a refugee -Northumbrian prince under Scottish supremacy. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Carlisle -and its district -added -to England -by William -Rufus, -1092.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This -territory, the city of <i>Carlisle</i> and its immediate district, -the old diocese of Carlisle, was added to England -by William Rufus. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cumberland -and -Northumberland -granted to -David, -1136.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the other hand, in the troubles -of Stephen’s reign, the king of Scots received as -English earldoms, Cumberland—in a somewhat wider<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">{552}</a></span> -sense—and <i>Northumberland</i> in the modern sense, the -land from the Tweed to the Tyne. Had these earldoms -been kept by the Scottish kings, they would doubtless -have become Scottish lands in the same sense in -which Lothian did; that is, they would have become -parts of the northern English kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Recovered -by England, -1157.<br /> -The boundary -permanent, -except as -to Berwick.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But these -lands were won back by Henry the Second; and the -boundary has since remained as it was then fixed, save -that the town of <i>Berwick</i> fluctuated according to the -accidents of war between one kingdom and the other.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Relations -between -England -and Scotland.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">But though the boundaries of the kingdoms were -fixed, their relations were not. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1292.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Scotland in the modern -sense—that is, Scotland in the older sense, Lothian, -and Strathclyde—was for a moment held strictly as a -fief of England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1296.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was then for another moment -incorporated with England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1327.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It was then acknowledged -as an independent kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1333.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It again fell under -vassalage for a moment, and again won its independence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1603.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then, at the beginning of the seventeenth -century, England and Scotland, as distinct, independent, -and equal kingdoms, passed under a common king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1649.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -They were separated again for a moment when Scotland -acknowledged a king whom England rejected. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1652.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For -another moment Scotland was incorporated with an -English commonwealth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1660.<br /> -1707.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Again Scotland and England -became independent kingdoms under a common king, -till the two kingdoms were, by common consent, joined -in the one kingdom of <i>Great Britain</i>.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Struggle -with the -Northerners.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Meanwhile the Scottish kings had, like those of -England somewhat earlier, to struggle against Scandinavian -invaders. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Scandinavian -advance, -1014-1064.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The settlements of the Northmen -advanced, and for some years in the eleventh century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">{553}</a></span> -they took in <i>Moray</i> at one end and <i>Galloway</i> at the -other. But it was only in the extreme north and in the -northern islands that the land really became Scandinavian. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Sudereys, -and Man.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the <i>Sudereys</i> or <i>Hebrides</i>—the southern -islands as distinguished from Orkney and Shetland—and -in <i>Man</i>, the Celtic speech has survived. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Caithness -submits, -1203.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Caithness</i> -was brought under Scottish supremacy early in the -thirteenth century. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Galloway -incorporated, -1235.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Galloway</i> was incorporated. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Sudereys -and Man -submit, -1263-1266.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Later -again, after the battle of Largs, the Sudereys and Man -passed under Scottish supremacy. But the authority of -the Scottish crown in the islands was for a long time very -precarious. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>History of -Man.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Man, the most central of the British isles, -lying at a nearly equal distance from England, Scotland, -Ireland, and Wales, remained a separate kingdom, -sometimes under Scottish, sometimes under English, -superiority. Granted to English subjects, the kingdom -sank to a lordship. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1764-1826.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The lordship was united to -the crown of Great Britain, and Man, like the Norman -islands, remains a distinct possession, forming no part -of the United Kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Orkney. -1469.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The earldom of Orkney -meanwhile remained a Norwegian dependency till it -was pledged to the Scottish crown. Since then it has -silently become part, first of the kingdom of Scotland, -and then of the kingdom of Great Britain.</p> - - -<h3>§ 2. <i>The Kingdom of England.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Harold’s -conquests -from -Wales, -1063.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The changes of boundary between England and -<i>Wales</i> begin, as far as we are concerned with them, -with the great Welsh campaign of Harold. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Enlargement -of the -border -shires.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All the -border shires, Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire, -Gloucestershire, seem now to have been enlarged; the -English border stretched to the <i>Conway</i> in the north,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">{554}</a></span> -and to the <i>Usk</i> in the south. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Marches.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But part of this territory -seems to have been recovered by the Welsh princes, -while part passed into the great <i>march</i> district of England -and Wales, ruled by the Lords Marchers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -South -Wales, -1070-1121.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The gradual -conquest of South Wales began under the Conqueror -and went on under his sons; but it was more largely -the work of private adventurers than of the kings -themselves. The lands of <i>Morganwg</i>, <i>Dyfed</i>, <i>Ceredigion</i>, -and <i>Breheiniog</i>, answering nearly to the modern -South Wales, were gradually subdued. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Flemish -settlement -in Pembrokeshire, -1111.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In some districts, -especially in the southern part of the present -Pembrokeshire, the Britons were actually driven out, -and the land was settled by Flemish colonists, the latest -of the Teutonic settlements in Britain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Character -of the conquest -of -South -Wales.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Elsewhere Norman -lords, with a Norman, English, and Flemish following, -held the towns and the more level country, while -the Welsh kept on a half independence in the mountains. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Princes of -North -Wales.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile in North Wales native princes—<i>Princes -of Aberffraw</i> and <i>Lords of Snowdon</i>—still -ruled, as vassals of the English king, till the conquest -by Edward the First. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cessions to -England, -1277.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the first stage the vassal -prince was compelled again to cede to his overlord the -territory east of the Conway. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest -of North -Wales, -1282.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Six years later followed -the complete conquest. But complete incorporation -with England did not at once follow. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Principality -of -Wales.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Wales, North -and South, remained a separate dominion, giving the -princely title to the eldest son of the English king.<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> -Some shires were formed; some new towns were -founded; the border districts remained under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555">{555}</a></span> -anomalous jurisdiction of the Marchers. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Full incorporation. -1535.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The full incorporation -of the principality and its marches dates -from Henry the Eighth. Thirteen new counties were -formed, and some districts were added or restored to -the border shires of England. One of the new counties, -<i>Monmouthshire</i>, was, under Charles the Second, -added to an English circuit, and it has since been -reckoned as an English county.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Domesday -shires.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Setting aside these new creations, all the existing -shires of England were in being at the time of the -Norman Conquest, save those of <i>Lancaster</i>, <i>Cumberland</i>, -<i>Westmoreland</i>, and <i>Rutland</i>. The boundaries were -not always exactly the same as at present; but the -differences are commonly slight and of mere local interest. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Two classes -of shires.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The shires, as they stood at the Conquest, were -of two classes. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ancient -kingdoms -and principalities.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Some were old kingdoms or principalities, -which still kept their names and boundaries as shires. -Such were the kingdoms of <i>Kent</i>, <i>Sussex</i>, and <i>Essex</i>, and -the East-Anglian, West-Saxon, and Northumbrian shires. -Most of these keep old local or tribal names; a few -only are called from a town. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Mercian -shires -mapped out -in the -tenth century.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Mercia on the other -hand, the shires seem to have been mapped out afresh -when the land was won back from the Danes. They -are called after towns, and the town which gives the -name commonly lies central to the district, and remains -the chief town of the shire, except when it has -been outstripped by some other in modern times.<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> -Both classes of shires survived the Conquest, and both -have gone on till now with very slight changes.</p> - -<p>On the Welsh border, all the shires, for reasons -already given, stretch further west in Domesday than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">{556}</a></span> -they do now. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cumberland -and -Westmoreland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -On the Scottish border <i>Cumberland</i> and -<i>Westmoreland</i> were made out of the Cumbrian conquest -of William Rufus, enlarged by districts which -in Domesday appear as part of Yorkshire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lancashire.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Lancashire</i> -was made up of lands taken from Yorkshire -and Cheshire, the Ribble forming the older boundary -of those shires. The older divisions are marked by the -boundaries of the dioceses of <i>York</i>, <i>Carlisle</i>, and <i>Lichfield</i> -or <i>Chester</i>, as they stood down to the changes -under Henry the Eighth. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Rutland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In central England the only -change is the formation of the small shire of <i>Rutland</i> -out of the Domesday district of Rutland (which, oddly -enough, appears as an appendage to <i>Nottinghamshire</i>), -enlarged by a small part of what was then <i>Northamptonshire</i>.</p> - - -<h3>§ 3. <i>Ireland.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Ireland -the first -Scotland.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The second great island of the British group, <i>Ireland</i>, -the original <i>Scotia</i>, has had less to do with the general -history of the world than any other part of Western -Europe. Its ancient divisions have lived on from the -earliest times. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The five -provinces.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The names of its five great provinces, -<i>Ulster</i>, <i>Meath</i>, <i>Leinster</i>, <i>Munster</i>, and <i>Connaught</i>, are all -in familiar use, though <i>Meath</i> has sunk from its old -rank alongside of the other four. The Celtic inhabitants -of the island remained independent of foreign -powers till the days of Scandinavian settlement. Just -like the English kingdoms in Britain, the great divisions -of Ireland were sometimes independent, sometimes -united under the supremacy of a head king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Settlement -of the -Ostmen.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Gradually -the Northmen, called in Ireland <i>Ostmen</i>, settled on -the eastern coast, and held the chief ports, as <i>Dublin</i>, -<i>Waterford</i>, <i>Wexford</i>, two of which names bear witness to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557">{557}</a></span> -Teutonic occupation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Irish victory -at -Clontarf. -1012.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great Irish victory at Clontarf -weakened, but did not destroy, the Scandinavian power. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Increasing -connexion -with -England.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And, from the latter half of the tenth century onward, -the eastern coast of Ireland shows a growing connexion -with England. Any actual English supremacy seems -doubtful; but both commercial and ecclesiastical ties became -closer during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -English -conquest, -1169-1652.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This led to the actual English conquest of Ireland, -begun under Henry the Second, but really finished only -by Cromwell. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1171.<br /> -Fluctuations -of -the Pale.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -All Ireland admitted for a moment the -supremacy of Henry; but, till the sixteenth century, -the actual English dominion, called the <i>Pale</i>, with -Dublin for its centre, was always fluctuating, and for a -while it fell back rather than advanced.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Kingdom -and Lordship -of -Ireland.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>In the early days of the conquest Ireland is spoken -of as a kingdom; but the title soon went out of use. -The original plan seems to have been that Ireland, like -Wales afterwards, should form an appanage for a son -of the English King. It became instead, so far as it -was an English possession at all, a simple dependency -of England, from which the King took the title of <i>Lord -of Ireland</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1542.<br /> -Relations -of Ireland -to England.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Henry the Eighth took the title of <i>King -of Ireland</i>; but the kingdom remained a mere dependency, -attached to the crown, first of England and then -of Great Britain. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1652.<br /> -1689.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This state of things was diversified -by a short time of complete incorporation under the -Commonwealth, and a short time of independence -under James the Second. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1782-1800.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But for the last eighteen -years of the last century, Ireland was formally acknowledged -as an independent kingdom, connected with -Great Britain only by the tie of a common king. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1801.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Since -that time it has formed an integral part of the United -Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">{558}</a></span></p> - - -<h3>§ 4. <i>Outlying European Possessions of England.</i></h3> - -<p>Ireland, the sister island of Britain, has thus been -united with Britain into a single kingdom. Man, lying -between the two, remains a distinct dependency. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Norman -Islands. -1205.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -This last is also still the position of that part of the -Norman duchy which clave to its own dukes, which -never became French, but always remained Norman. -It might be a question what was the exact position of -<i>Guernsey</i>, <i>Jersey</i>, <i>Alderney</i>, <i>Sark</i>, and their smaller -neighbours, when the English kings took the titles of the -French kingdom and actually held the Norman duchy. -Practically the islands have, during all changes, remained -attached to the English crown; but they have -never been incorporated with the kingdom. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Other -European -dependencies, -Aquitaine, -&c.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Other -more distant European lands have been, some still are, -in the same position. Such were <i>Aquitaine</i>, <i>Ponthieu</i>, -and <i>Calais</i>, as fixed by the Peace of Bretigny. Since -the loss of Aquitaine, England has had no considerable -continental dominion in Europe, but she has from time -to time held several islands and detached points. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Outposts -and -islands.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such -are <i>Calais</i>, <i>Boulogne</i>, <i>Dunkirk</i>, <i>Gibraltar</i>, <i>Minorca</i>, -<i>Malta</i>, <i>Heligoland</i>, all of which have been spoken of -in their natural geographical places. To these we may -add <i>Tangier</i>, which has more in common with the -possession of Gibraltar and Minorca than with the English -settlements in the further parts of Africa. Of these -points, Gibraltar, Heligoland, and Malta, are still held -by England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Greek -possessions, -Ionian -Islands, -1814-1864.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The virtual English possession of the -<i>Ionian Islands</i> made England for a while a sharer in -the fragments of the Eastern Roman Empire. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Cyprus, -1878.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And -later still she has again put on the same character by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">{559}</a></span> -the occupation, on whatever terms, of another Greek -and Imperial land, the island of <i>Cyprus</i>.</p> - - -<h3>§ 5. <i>The American Colonies of England.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonies of -England.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>England, like France and Holland, became a colonizing -power by choice. Extension over barbarian -lands was not a necessity, as in the case of Russia, nor -did it spring naturally out of earlier circumstances, as -in the case of Portugal. But the colonizing enterprise -of England has done a greater work than the colonizing -enterprise of any other European power. The -greatest colony of England—for in a worthier use of -language the word <i>colony</i> would imply independence -rather than dependence<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>—is that great Confederation -which is to us what Syracuse was to Corinth, what -Milêtos was to Athens, what Gades and Carthage were -to the cities of the older Canaan. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The United -States.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>United States -of America</i>, a vaster England beyond the Ocean, an -European power, on a level with the greatest European -powers, planted beyond the bounds of Europe, -form the great work of English and European enterprise -in non-European lands.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>First -English -settlements -in North -America, -1497.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The settlements which grew into the United States -were not the first English possessions in North America, -but they were the first which really deserved to be -called colonies. The first discoveries of all led only -to the establishment of the <i>Newfoundland</i> fisheries. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Attempts -of Raleigh, -1585-1587.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Raleigh’s attempts at real colonization ninety years -later only pointed the way to something more lasting. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The Thirteen -Colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In the seventeenth century began the planting of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">{560}</a></span> -thirteen settlements which won their independence. -Of these the earliest and the latest, the most southern -and the most northern, began through English colonization -in the strictest sense. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Virginia, -1607.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First came <i>Virginia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The New -England -States, -1620-1638.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then -followed the Puritan colonization much further to the -north which founded the <i>New England</i> states. The -shiftings among these settlements, from <i>Plymouth</i> to -<i>Maine</i>, the unions, the divisions, the colonies of colonies—the -Epidamnos and the Sinôpê of the New World—the -various and varying relations between the different -settlements, read like a piece of old Greek or of Swiss -history.<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1629-1692.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -By the end of the seventeenth century they -had arranged themselves into four separate colonies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1820.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -These were <i>Massachusetts</i>, formed by the union of <i>Massachusetts</i> -and <i>Plymouth</i>, with its northern dependency -of <i>Maine</i>, which became a separate State long after the -Revolution; <i>New Hampshire</i>, annexed by Massachusetts -and after a while separated from it; <i>Connecticut</i>, formed -by the union of <i>Connecticut</i> and <i>Newhaven</i>; <i>Rhode Island</i>, -formed by the union of <i>Rhode Island</i> and <i>Providence</i>. -These New England States form a distinct geographical -group, with a marked political and religious character -of their own. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Southern -Colonies.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile, at some distance to the -south, around Virginia as their centre, grew up another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">{561}</a></span> -group of colonies, with a history and character in many -ways unlike those of New England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Maryland. -1646.<br /> -Carolina. -1650-1663.<br /> -Divided, -1720.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the north -of Virginia arose the proprietary colony of <i>Maryland</i>; -to the south arose <i>Carolina</i>, afterwards divided into -<i>North and South</i>. South Carolina for a long while -marked the end of English settlement to the south, as -Maine did to the north.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Intermediate -space occupied -by the -United -Provinces -and -Sweden.<br /> -English -Conquest -of New -Netherlands, -1664.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>But between these two groups of English colonies in -the strictest sense lay a region in which English settlement -had to take the form of conquest from another -European power. Earlier than any English settlement -except Virginia, the great colony of the United Provinces -had arisen on Long Island and the neighbouring mainland. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New -Netherlands, -1614.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It bore the name of <i>New Netherlands</i>, with its -capital of <i>New Amsterdam</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New -Sweden, -1658.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -To the south, on the shores -of Delaware Bay, the other great power of the seventeenth -century founded the colony of <i>New Sweden</i>. -Three European nations, closely allied in race, speech, -and creed, were thus for a while established side by -side on the eastern coasts of America. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Union of -New Sweden -with -New -Netherlands, -1655.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But the three -settlements were fated to merge together, and that by -force of arms. A local war added New Sweden to New -Netherlands; a war between England and the United -Provinces gave New Netherlands to England. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New York.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -New -Amsterdam became <i>New York</i>, and gave its name to -the colony which was to become the greatest State of -the Union. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>1674.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Ten years later, in the next war between -the two colonizing powers, the new English possession -was lost and won again.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the gap which was still left began to be -filled up by other English settlements. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Jerseys. -1665.<br /> -1702.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>East</i> and <i>West -Jersey</i> began as two distinct colonies, which were afterwards -united into one. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Pennsylvania, -1682.<br /> -Delaware, -1703.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The great colony of <i>Pennsylvania</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">{562}</a></span> -next arose, from which the small one of <i>Delaware</i> -was parted off twenty years later. Pennsylvania was -thus the last of the original settlements of the seventeenth -century, which in the space of nearly eighty -years had been formed fast after one another. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Georgia, -1733.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Fifty -years after the work of the benevolent Penn came the -work of the no less benevolent Oglethorpe; <i>Georgia</i>, -to the south of all, now filled up the tale of the famous -Thirteen, the fitting number, it would seem, for a -Federal power, whether in the Old World or in the -New.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Independence -of -the United -States, -1783.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">By the Peace of Paris the Thirteen Colonies were -acknowledged as independent States. The great work -of English settlement on foreign soil was brought to -perfection. The new and free English land beyond the -Ocean took in the whole temperate region of the North -American coast, all between the peninsula of <i>Acadia</i> to -the north and the other peninsula of <i>Florida</i> to the south. -Both of these last lands were English possessions at the -time of the War of Independence, but neither of them -had any share in the work. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Nova -Scotia, -1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Acadia, under the name of -<i>Nova Scotia</i>, had been ceded by France in the interval -between the settlement of Pennsylvania and the settlement -of Georgia. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -Canada, -1759-1763.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Next came the conquest of <i>Canada</i>, -in which the men of the colonies played their part. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The French -barrier at -Alleghany.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Hitherto the English colonies had been shut in to the -West by the French claim to the line of the Alleghany -mountains. The Treaty of Paris took away this bugbear, -and left the whole land as far as the Mississippi -open to the enterprise of the English colonists. Thus, -when the Thirteen States started on their independent -career, the whole land between the great lakes, the -Ocean, and the Mississippi, was open to them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Florida -again -Spanish, -1781-1821.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Florida<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563">{563}</a></span> -indeed, first as an English, then again as a Spanish possession, -cut them off from the Gulf of Mexico. The -city of <i>New Orleans</i> remained, first a Spanish, then a -French, outpost east of the Mississippi, and the possessions -still held by England kept them from the mouth -of the Saint Lawrence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Extension -to the -West.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But within these limits, such -of the old States as were allowed by their geographical -position might extend themselves to the west, and -new States might be formed. Both processes went on, -and two of the barriers formed by European powers -were removed. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Louisiana, -1803.<br /> -Florida, -1821.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The purchase of <i>Louisiana</i> from France, -the acquisition of <i>Florida</i> from Spain, gave the States -the sea-board of the Gulf of Mexico, and allowed their -extension to the Pacific. The details of that extension, -partly by natural growth, partly at the expense of the -Spanish element in North America, it is hardly needful -to go through here. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>A new -English -nation.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -But, out of the English settlements -on the North-American coast, a new English -nation has arisen, none the less English, in a true view -of history, because it no longer owes allegiance to the -crown of Great Britain. But the power thus formed, -exactly like earlier confederations in Europe, lacks a -name. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Lack of a -name.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>United States of America</i> is hardly a geographical -or a national name, any more than the names -of the <i>Confederates</i> and the <i>United Provinces</i>. In the two -European cases common usage gave the name of a single -member of the Union to the whole, and in the case of -Switzerland the popular name at last became the formal -name. In the American case, on the other hand, -popular usage speaks of the Confederation by the name -of the whole continent of which its territory forms part. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Use of the -word -<i>America</i>.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -For several purposes, the words <i>America</i> and <i>American</i> -are always understood as shutting out Canada and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">{564}</a></span> -Mexico, to say nothing of the southern American continent. -For some other purposes, those names still take -in the whole American continent, north and south. But -it is easier to see the awkwardness of the usual nomenclature -than to suggest any improvement on it.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Second -English -nation in -North -America.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">While one set of events in the eighteenth century -created an independent English nation on North -American soil, another set of events in the same century, -earlier in date but later in their results, has led -to the formation in its immediate neighbourhood of -another English nation which still keeps its allegiance -to the English crown. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Dependent -confederacy.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -A confederation of states, practically -independent in their internal affairs, but remaining -subjects of a distant sovereign, is a novelty in political -science. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>British -North -America.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Such is the <i>Confederation of British North -America</i>. But this dependent Confederation did not -arise out of colonization in the same sense as the independent -Confederation to the south of it. The central -land which gives it its character is the conquered -land of <i>Canada</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New Brunswick, -&c.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Along with Canada came the possession -of the smaller districts which received the -names of <i>New Brunswick</i> and <i>Prince Edward’s Island</i>, -districts which were at first joined to Nova Scotia, but -which afterwards became distinct colonies. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>The -Dominion, -1867.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Now they -are joined with the <i>Dominion of Canada</i>, which, like -the United States, grows by the incorporation of new -states and territories. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>British -Columbia, -1871.<br /> -Rupertsland.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The addition of <i>British Columbia</i> -has carried the Confederation to the Pacific; that of -<i>Rupertsland</i> carries it indefinitely northward towards -the pole. This second English-speaking power in -North America, stretches, like the elder one, from -Ocean to Ocean. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Newfoundland, -1713.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -<i>Newfoundland</i> alone, a possession<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_565" id="Page_565">{565}</a></span> -secured to England after many debates at the same -time as Nova Scotia, remains distinct.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>The West -Indies. -Barbadoes, -1605.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>Of the British possessions in the <i>West Indies</i> a few -only, among them <i>Barbadoes</i>, the earliest of all, were -colonies in the same sense as Virginia and Massachusetts. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Jamaica, -1655.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The greater number, <i>Jamaica</i> at their head, -were won by conquest from other European powers. -No new English nation, like the American and the -Canadian, has grown up in them. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Smaller -settlements.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Still less is there any -need to dwell on the <i>Bahamas</i>, the <i>Falkland Islands</i>, -or the South-American possession of <i>British Guiana</i>.</p> - - -<h3>§ 6. <i>Other Colonies and Possessions of England.</i></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonies -in the -southern -hemisphere.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>The story of the North-American colonies may be -both compared and contrasted with the story of two -great groups of colonies in the southern hemisphere. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Australia.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In Australia and the other great southern islands, a -body of English colonies have arisen, the germs at -least of yet another English nation, but which have -not as yet reached either independence or confederation. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>South -Africa.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -In South Africa, another group of possessions -and colonies, beginning, like Canada, in conquest from -another European power, seems to be feeling its way -towards confederation, while one part has in a manner -stumbled into independence.</p> - -<p>The beginning of English settlement in the greatest -of islands began in the years which immediately followed -the establishment of American independence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>New South -Wales, -1787.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -First -came <i>New South Wales</i>, on the eastern coast, designed -originally as a penal settlement. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Western -Australia, -1829.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It outgrew this stage, -and another penal settlement was founded in <i>Western -Australia</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>South -Australia, -1836.<br /> -Victoria, -1837.<br /> -Queensland, -1859.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Then colonization spread into the intermediate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_566" id="Page_566">{566}</a></span> -region of <i>Southern Australia</i> (which however -stretches right through the island to its northern -coast) into the district called <i>Victoria</i>, south-west of the -original settlement, and lastly, into <i>Queensland</i> to the -north-east. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Colonies -Act, -1850.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Since the middle of the present century -all these colonies have gradually established constitutions -which give them full internal independence. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Tasmania, -1804.<br /> -1839.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -South of the great island lies one smaller, but still -vast, that of <i>Van Diemen’s</i> Land, now <i>Tasmania</i>, -which was settled earlier than any Australian settlement -except New South Wales. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Six -colonies, -1852.<br /> -United, -1875.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -And to the east lie -the two great islands of <i>New Zealand</i>, where six -English colonies founded at different times have been -united into one.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>South -Africa.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">While the Australian settlements were colonies in -the strictest sense, the English possessions in South -Africa began, like New York, in a settlement first planted -by the United Provinces. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Conquest of -the Cape, -1806.<br /> -1815.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The <i>Cape Colony</i>, after some -shiftings during the French revolutionary wars, was -conquered by England, and its possession by England -was confirmed at the general peace. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Eastern -Colony and -Natal, -1820-1836.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Migration northward, -both of the English and Dutch inhabitants, has -produced new settlements, as the <i>Eastern Colony</i> and -<i>Natal</i>. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Orange -River State, -1847-1856.<br /> -Transvaal, -1861-1877.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Meanwhile independent Dutch states have arisen, -as the <i>Orange River Republic</i>, annexed by England, -then set free, and lastly dismembered, and the <i>Transvaal</i>, -more lately annexed after sixteen years of independence. -Lastly a scheme of confederation for -all these settlements awaits some more peaceful time -to be carried into effect.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Europe extended -by -colonization.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p class="pb2">In all these cases of real colonization, of real -extension of the English or any other European<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">{567}</a></span> -nation, it is hardly a figure to say that the bounds of -Europe have been enlarged. All that makes Europe -Europe, all that parts off Europe from Africa and Asia, -has been carried into America and Australia and -Africa itself. The growth of this new Europe, no less -than the changes of the old, is an essential part of -European geography. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Barbarian -dominion.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -It is otherwise with territories, -great or small, which have been occupied by England -and other European powers merely for military or -commercial purposes. Forts, factories, or empires, on -barbarian soil, where no new European nation is likely -ever to grow up, are not cases of true colonization; -they are no extension of the bounds of Europe. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>English -dominion -in India.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -The -climax of this kind of barbarian dominion is found in -those vast Indian possessions in which England has supplanted -Portugal, France, and the heirs of Timour. -<span class="sni"><span class="sne">♦</span>Empire of -India. -1876.<span class="sne">♦</span></span> -Of that dominion the scientific frontier has yet to be -traced; yet it has come to give an Imperial title to the -sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, while those two -European islands, as perhaps befits their inferiority in -physical size, remain content with the lowlier style of the -United Kingdom. Whether the loftier pretensions of Asia -do, or do not, imply any vassalage on the part of Europe, -it is certain that the Asiatic Empire of the sovereign of -the British kingdom is no extension of England, no -extension of Europe, no creation of a new English or -European nation. The Empire of India stands outside -the European world, outside the political system -which has gathered round the Old and the New Rome. -But a place amongst the foremost members of that -system belongs to the great European nation on -American soil, where the tongue of England is kept, -and the constitution of old Achaia is born again,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">{568}</a></span> -in a confederation stretching from the Western to the -Eastern Ocean.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote"><span class="sne">♦</span>Summary.<span class="sne">♦</span></div> - -<p>We have thus traced the geography, and in tracing -the geography we have in a slighter way traced the -history, of the various states and powers of Europe, -and of the lands beyond the Ocean which have been -planted from Europe. We have throughout kept -steadily before our eyes the centre, afterwards the -two centres, of European life. We have seen how the -older states of Europe gradually lose themselves in the -dominion of Rome, how the younger states gradually -spring out of the dominion of Rome. We have -followed, as our central subjects, the fates of those -powers in the East and West which continued the Roman -name and Roman traditions. We have traced out the -states which were directly formed by splitting off from -those powers, and the states which arose beyond the -range of Roman power, but not beyond the range of -Roman influence. We have seen the Western Empire -first pass to a German prince, then gradually shrink -into a German kingdom, to be finally dissolved into a -German confederation. We have watched the states -which split off at various dates from its body, the -power of France on one side, the power of Austria on -another, the powers of Italy on a third, the free states -of Switzerland at one end, the free states of the Netherlands -at the other. We have beheld the long tragedy -of the Eastern Rome; we have told the tale of the -states which split off from it and arose around it. We -have seen its territorial position pass to a barbarian -invader, and something like its position in men’s minds -pass to the mightiest of its spiritual disciples. And we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569">{569}</a></span> -have seen, painted on the map of our own century, the -beginning of the great work which is giving back the -lands of the Eastern Rome to their own people. We -have then traced the shiftings of the powers which lay -wholly or partly beyond the bounds of either Empire, -the great Slavonic mainland, the Scandinavian and the -Iberian peninsulas, ending with that which is geographically -the most isolated land of all, the other world of -Britain. We have seen too how Europe may be said to -have spread herself beyond her geographical limits in the -foundation of new European states beyond the Ocean. -We have contrasted the different positions and destinies -of the colonizing European powers—where, as in the -days of Old Rome, a continuous territory has been -extended over neighbouring barbarian lands—where -growth beyond the sea was the natural outcome of -growth at home—where European powers have colonized -and conquered simply of their own free will. In -thus tracing the historical geography of Europe, we -have made the round of the world. But we have -never lost sight of Europe; we have never lost sight of -Rome. Wherever we have gone, we have carried -Europe with us; wherever we have gone, we have -never got beyond the power of the two influences -which, mingling into one, have made Europe all that it -has been. The whole of European history is embodied -in the formula which couples together the ‘rule of -Christ and Cæsar;’ and that joint rule still goes on, in -the shape of moral influence, wherever the tongues and -the culture of Europe win new realms for themselves -in the continents of the western or in the islands of the -southern Ocean.</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_570" id="Page_570"></a><a name="Page_571" id="Page_571">{571}</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX.</a></h2> - -<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Aachen</span>, crowning-place of the German kings, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aargau</span>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Åbo</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">peace of, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Abruzzi</span>, the, annexed to Sicily, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Abyssinian Church</span>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Acadia</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Nova Scotia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Acciauoli</span>, Dukes of Athens, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Achaia</span>, League of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dependent on Rome, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">province of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">principality of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Angevin overlordship of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its dismemberment, <i><a href="#Page_418">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">Savoyard counts of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Achaians</span>, use of the name in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Acre</span>, lost and won in the Crusades, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fall of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ægæan</span> Sea, Greek colonies on its coasts, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ælfred</span>, his treaty with Guthrum, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Æmilia</span>, province of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Æquians</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their wars with Rome, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Africa</span>, Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman province of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">New, province of, <i><a href="#Page_59">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Vandal kingdom, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered to the Empire, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Saracen conquest of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Norman conquests in, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Portuguese conquests in, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French conquests in, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">South, English possessions in, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Agram</span> (Zagrab), <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Agri Decumates</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Agricola</span>, his conquest of Britain, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Agrigentum</span> (Akragas), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aigina</span>, held by Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aiolian</span> colonies in Asia, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aire</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aitolia</span>, geographical position of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">League of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its alliance with and dependence on Rome, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aitolians</span>, their place in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aix</span> (Aquæ Sextiæ), Roman colony, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aix-la-Chapelle</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ajaccio</span>, birthplace of Buonaparte, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Akarnania</span>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">league of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Akarnanians</span>, not in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_3">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Akerman</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Akragas</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Agrigentum</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aktê</span>, Argolic, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alans</span>, origin of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlements in Spain, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alarcos</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alaric</span>, king of the West-Goths, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alava</span>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Albania</span>, Asiatic, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Albania</span>, kings of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish conquest of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">revolt of, under Scanderbeg, <i><a href="#Page_421">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Albanians</span>, their origin, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlements in Greece, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Albanon</span> (Elbassan), <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Albigensian War</span>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Albi</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Aragon, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <i><a href="#Page_335">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alemanni</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by the Franks, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alemannia</span>, Duchy of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alessandria</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to Savoy, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572">{572}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alessio</span>, taken by Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alexander the Great</span>, his conquests, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alexandria</span>, greatness of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Patriarchate of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alexios Komnênos</span>, his conquests in Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alexios Komnênos</span>, founds the Empire of Trebizond, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alfonso VI.</span> of Castile, Emperor, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his conquests, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Algarve</span>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Algarve-beyond-the-Sea</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Algeria</span>, character of the French conquest of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Algiers</span>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Almohades</span>, invade Spain, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">decline of, <i><a href="#Page_533">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Almoravides</span>, invade Spain, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alps</span>, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Alsace</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Elsass</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Amadeus VI.</span>, Count of Savoy, his Eastern expedition, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Amadeus VIII.</span>, first Duke of Savoy, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his title of Prince of Piedmont, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Amalfi</span>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Amastris</span>, held by Genoa, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ambrakia</span>, Corinthian colony, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">capital of Pyrrhos, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Arta</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">America</span>, Spanish dominion in, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the word, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">America</span>, North, French settlements in, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">English and French rivalry in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Russian settlements in, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">first English settlements in, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of the thirteen colonies in, <a href="#Page_560">560-562</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">colonies of the United Provinces and Sweden in, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">confederation of British North America, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>; <i>see also</i> <span class="smcap">United States</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Amiens</span>, county of, added to France, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Amisos</span>, held by Genoa, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Amurath I.</span>, Sultan, takes Hadrianople, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Anatolikon</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Anchialos</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ancona</span> (Ankôn), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">march of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">occupied by Manuel Komnênos, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Andalusia</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Andorra</span>, French protectorate of, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Andraszovo</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Angles</span>, their settlements in Britain, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Angora</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Anhalt</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ani</span>, annexed to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <i><a href="#Page_379">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Anjou</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Touraine, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to Maine and England, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Anjou</span>, House of, its growth, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its overlordship in Peloponnêsos, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ankôn</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Ancona</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Anne</span> of Britanny, effects of her marriages, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Antilles</span>, French colonies in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Antioch</span>, greatness of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by Chosroes, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">patriarchate of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by the Empire, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its later captures, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Antiochos the Great</span>, his war with Rome, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Antivari</span>, Servian, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of Montenegro, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Montenegro, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aosta</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of the kingdom of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to Savoy, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Apennines</span>, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Apollônia</span>, its alliance with Rome, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Appenzell</span>, joins the Confederates, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Apulia</span>, Norman conquest of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aquæ Sextiæ</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Aix</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aquileia</span>, foundation of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">destroyed by Attila, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Patriarchate of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fluctuates between Germany and Italy, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Austria, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aquitaine</span>, south-western division of Transalpine Gaul, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its inhabitants, <i><a href="#Page_58">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">Frankish conquest of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Neustria, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">duchy of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Gascony, <i><a href="#Page_332">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its union with and separation from France, <i><a href="#Page_332">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">united with England and Normandy, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kept by England, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French designs on, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">released from homage, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its final union with France, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_573" id="Page_573">{573}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arabia</span>, attempted Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Portuguese conquests in, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arabia Petræa</span>, Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aragon</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its position in the Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its later history, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations towards Navarre, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Sobrarbe joined to, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Barcelona, <i><a href="#Page_531">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">advances beyond the Pyrenees and Rhone, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquers the Balearic isles and Valencia, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of in the thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Castile, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its second advance beyond the peninsula, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Sicily, <i><a href="#Page_538">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its conquests in Sardinia, <i><a href="#Page_538">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its outlying possessions compared with those of Castile, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arcadius</span>, Emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Archipelago</span>, Duchy of, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Argos</span>, its place in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its early greatness, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins the Achaian League, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won from Epeiros by the Latins, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ariminum</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Rimini</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arkadia</span>, its place in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arles</span>, later Roman capital of Gaul, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Saracen conquest of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">crowning-place of the kings of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Armagh</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Armenia</span>, conquered by Trajan, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">given up by Hadrian, <i><a href="#Page_99">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">division of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Basil II., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Russian advance in, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Armenia, Lesser</span>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acknowledges the Western Emperor, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its connexion with Cyprus, <i><a href="#Page_401">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">end of the kingdom, <i><a href="#Page_401">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arminius</span>, his victory over Varus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Armorica</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Britanny</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arnulf</span>, king of the East Franks and Emperor, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arras</span>, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to France, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arta</span> (Ambrakia), won by the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Arthur</span> of Britanny, possible effects of the success of his claims, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Artois</span>, added to France, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to the Duchy of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its momentary annexation by Lewis XI., <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">relieved from homage, <i><a href="#Page_340">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">within the Burgundian circle, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French acquisitions in, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aryan</span> nations of Europe, order of their settlements, <a href="#Page_13">13-15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Asia</span>, its geographical character, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Macedonian kingdoms in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman province of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Asia Minor</span>, historically connected with Europe, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdoms in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Saracen ravages in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish conquests of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aspledôn</span>, its place in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Astrakhan</span>, khanat of, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Russia, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Asturia</span>, united to Cantabria, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grows into the kingdom of Leon, <i><a href="#Page_154">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Asturias</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Athamania</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Athaulf</span>, king of the West Goths, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Athens</span>, its position in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nominally independent of Rome, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lordship and duchy of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Ottoman and Venetian conquests of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Atropatênê</span>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Attabegs</span>, their wars with the Crusaders, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Attica</span>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Attila</span>, effects of his inroads, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Auch</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Augsburg</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">free city, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Bavaria, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aurelian</span>, Emperor, gives up Dacia, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Australia</span>, English settlement in, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Austria</span>, Lombard, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Austria</span>, origin and use of the name, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beginning of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">mark of, <a href="#Page_196">196-202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its position as a marchland, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">duchy of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_574" id="Page_574">{574}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Bohemia, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under the Habsburgs, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">archduchy of, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its connexion with the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">circle of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its acquisitions and divisions, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Bohemia and Hungary, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its foreign possessions, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its rivalry with Prussia, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Venice surrendered to, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">so-called Empire of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">changes of, during the revolutionary wars, <a href="#Page_221">221-224</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its position compared with that of Prussia, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">loses and recovers Hungary, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">modern extent of, <a href="#Page_321">321-324</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cedes its rights in Sleswick and Holstein, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Bosnia and Herzegovina administered by, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Austro-Hungary</span>, dual system in, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Autun</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Auvergne</span>, counts of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Avars</span>, a Turanian people, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">allied with the Lombards against the Gepidæ, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">overthrown by Charles the Great, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Aversa</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Avignon</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by France, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sold to the Pope, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Azof</span>, won and lost by Russia, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Azores</span>, conquered by Portugal, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Babylonia</span>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Badajoz</span>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Baden</span>, mark, electorate, and duchy of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bahamas</span>, the, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bajazet</span> the Thunderbolt, Sultan, defeated by Timour, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his conquest of Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of his dominion, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Balearic Isles</span>, conquered by Aragon, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Balsa</span>, house of, its dominion in Albania, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Baltic Sea</span>, Scandinavian and German influence on, compared, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Baltic</span> lands, general view of, <a href="#Page_464">464-468</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bamberg</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bangor</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bar</span>, duchy of, united to Lorraine, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Lorraine, <i><a href="#Page_348">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Barbadoes</span>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Barcelona</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to Aragon, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">released from homage to France, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bardulia</span>, the original Castile, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bari</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won from the Saracens, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Barnim</span>, under Poland, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">passes to Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Barrier</span> Treaty, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Basel</span>, joins the Confederates, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Basel</span>, bishopric of, annexed by France, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored by France, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Basil II.</span>, Eastern Emperor, his conquests, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">incorporates Serbia, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Basques</span>, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their independence, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Batoum</span>, annexed to Russia, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bavaria</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by the Franks, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">modern use of the name, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">electorate of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with the Palatinate, <i><a href="#Page_215">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bayonne</span>, diocese of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Belgium</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Belgrade</span>, taken by the Magyars, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Turk, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Peace of, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Belisarius</span>, ends the Vandal kingdom in Africa, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Benevento</span>, Lombard duchy of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">papal possession of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Berengar</span>, king of Italy, submits to Otto the Great, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Berlin</span>, its position, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Berlin</span>, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bern</span>, joins the Confederates, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its Savoyard conquests, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexes Lausanne, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restores lands north of the lake, <i><a href="#Page_273">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bernhard</span>, duke of Saxony, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bernicia</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Berwick</span>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Besançon</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">an Imperial city, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to France, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bessarabia</span>, annexed by Russia, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Beziers</span>, annexed by France, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">{575}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bialystok</span>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bienne</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Billungs</span>, their mark, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Biscay</span>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bithynia</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bleking</span>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Blois</span>, united to Champagne, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">purchased by Saint Lewis, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bodonitza</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bohemia</span>, whether the seat of Samo’s kingdom, <a href="#Page_473">473</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_58">note</a></i>).</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexes Austria, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its permanent union with Austria, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sketch of its history, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bohuslän</span>, ceded to Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Boiôtia</span>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">legendary Thessalian settlement of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">league of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dissolved, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bokhara</span>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Boleslaf I.</span>, of Poland, his conquests, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">whether the first king, <a href="#Page_479">479</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_61">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bologna</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bona</span>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Boniface</span>, king of Thessalonikê, extent of his kingdom, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bormio</span>, won by Graubünden, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bornholm</span>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bosnia</span>, Hungarian conquest of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won back by Stephen Dushan, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its greatest extent, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish conquest of, <i><a href="#Page_427">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">administered by Austro-Hungary, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bosporos</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Boukellariôn</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Boulogne</span>, lost and won by France, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bourbon</span>, Isle of, occupied by the French, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by England but restored, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bourdeaux</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bourges</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">viscounty of, added to France, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Brabant</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Braga</span>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Brandenburg</span>, mark of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grows into modern Prussia, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">New Mark of, pledged to the Teutonic knights, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Bohemia, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Prussia, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Branibor</span>, takings of, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Brazil</span>, discovery of, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Empire of, <i><a href="#Page_542">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Breisach</span>, annexed by France, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bremen</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held and lost by Sweden, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Hannover, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bremen</span>, city, one of the Hanse towns, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its independence of the Bishop, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Brescia</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Breslau</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bresse</span>, annexed to Savoy, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to France, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bretigny</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Brindisi</span>, lost by Venice, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Britain</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">early position of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Celtic settlements in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman troops withdrawn from, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Teutonic settlements in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">English kingdoms in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Celtic states in, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Empire of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its independence of the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">two English kingdoms in, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Britanny</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">duchy of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to Normandy, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">incorporated with France, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Brixen</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Bavaria, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Austria, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Brunswick</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Brusa</span>, Turkish conquest of, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bucharest</span>, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bugey</span>, annexed to Savoy, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to France, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bukovina</span>, annexed by Austria, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bulgaria</span>, White and Black, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of, in the eighth century, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Simeon, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Sviatoslaf, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by John Tzimiskês, <i><a href="#Page_377">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">extent of, under Samuel, <i><a href="#Page_377">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Basil II., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">third kingdom of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">advance of, under John Asan, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its decline, <i><a href="#Page_430">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">Cuman dynasty in, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">break up of, <i><a href="#Page_431">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish conquest of, <i><a href="#Page_431">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">triple partition of, by the Treaty of Berlin, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bulgarians</span>, a Turanian people, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576">{576}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">their settlements, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with the Magyars and Ottomans, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Buonaparte</span>, Napoleon, his kingdom of Italy, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his feeling towards Switzerland, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">character of his conquests, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his treatment of Germany and Italy, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his scheme for the division of Europe, <i><a href="#Page_357">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">extent of France under, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Buonaparte</span>, Louis Napoleon, his annexations, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Buondelmonte</span>, house of, in Northern Epeiros, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Burgos</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Burgundians</span>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlement in Gaul, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Burgundy</span>, Frankish conquest of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the name, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Burgundy</span>, Kingdom of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Trans- and Cis-jurane, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">chiefly annexed by France, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">represented by Switzerland, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its language, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">importance of its acquisition by France, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Burgundy</span>, County of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">revolutions of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined with the duchy, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">momentary annexation of, by Lewis XI., <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">an appendage to Castile under Charles V., <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">finally annexed by France, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Burgundy</span>, Duchy of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">escheat of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">union of Flanders with, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its growth, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Lewis XI., <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Burgundy</span>, Lesser, Duchy of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Burgundy</span>, circle of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Butrinto</span>, under the Angevins, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">commends itself to Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to the Turk, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won back by Venice, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Byzantium</span>, annexed by Vespasian, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">capital of the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Constantinople</span>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Cæsar</span>, Augustus, his conquests, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his division of Italy, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cæsar</span>, Caius Julius, his conquests in Gaul, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">forms the province of New Africa and restores Carthage, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cadiz</span>, joined to Castile, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Gades</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Caithness</span>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Calabria</span>, change of the name, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Calais</span>, English conquest of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won back by France, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Calatrava</span>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">California</span>, Upper, ceded by Spain to the United States, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Caliphate</span>, Eastern, extent of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">division of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Caliphate</span>, Western, beginning of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">broken up, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Calmar</span>, Union of, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cambray</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes an archbishopric, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">League of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Camerino</span>, march of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Campo Formio</span>, treaty of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Canada</span>, colonized by France, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by England, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of the confederation of British North America, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Canali</span>, district of, originally Servian, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Canaries</span>, conquered by Spain, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Candia</span>, war of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the name, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_33">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cantabria</span>, conquered by Augustus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Asturia, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Canterbury</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cape Breton</span>, French settlement at, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cape Colony</span>, conquered by England, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cape of Good Hope</span>, discovery of, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cape Verde Islands</span>, conquered by Portugal, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Capua</span>, Archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Principality of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Sicily by King Roger, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Carcassonne</span>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Carelia</span>, conquered by Sweden, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of, ceded to Russia, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Carinthia</span> (Kärnthen), mark of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Duchy of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">whether the seat of Samo’s kingdom, <a href="#Page_473">473</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_58">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Carlisle</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">added to England by William Rufus, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Carlowitz</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Carniola</span>, (Krain), Duchy of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">mark of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Carolina</span>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its division, <i><a href="#Page_561">ib.</a></i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">{577}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Carthage</span>, Phœnician colony, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">greatness of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its possessions in Sicily, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">holds Sardinia and Corsica, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its power in Spain, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">destroyed, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored, <i><a href="#Page_59">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">capital of the Vandal kingdom, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Carthagena</span> (New Carthage), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cashel</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Casimir the Great</span>, king of Poland, his conquests, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Caspian</span>, Russian advance on, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cassubia</span>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Castile</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of the name, <i><a href="#Page_154">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its Emperor, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">later history of, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations towards Navarre, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">shiftings of, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its final union with Leon, <i><a href="#Page_531">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">advance of, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquests of, under Saint Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquers Granada, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">loses and recovers Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Aragon, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its outlying possessions compared with those of Aragon, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Catalans</span>, conquests of, in Greece, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Catalonia</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cattaro</span>, won and lost by Montenegro, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Caucasus</span>, Russian advance in, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cayenne</span>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Celts</span>, earliest Aryan settlers in western Europe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of their settlements, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cerdagne</span>, released from homage to France, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Aragon, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">loss of, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ceuta</span>, under the Empire, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Spain, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ceylon</span>, Dutch colony, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chablais</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chaldia</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chalkidikê</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Macedonia, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kept by the Empire, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Châlons</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chambéry</span>, Savoyard capital, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Champagne</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">character of its vassalage, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to France, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chandernagore</span>, a French settlement, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Channel Islands</span>, kept by the English kings, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles</span> the Great, his conquests, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquers Lombardy, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his title of Patrician, <i><a href="#Page_123">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">conquers Saxony, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">overthrows the Avars, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">crowned Emperor, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of his Empire, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his divisions of the Empire, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his death, <i><a href="#Page_128">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">archbishoprics founded by, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles</span> the Fat, Emperor, union of the Frankish kingdoms under, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles V.</span>, Emperor, dominions of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his conquest of Tunis, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extension of Castilian dominion under, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles VI.</span>, Emperor, his Pragmatic Sanction, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles XII.</span>, of Sweden, his wars with Peter the Great, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles</span> of Anjou, his kingdom of Sicily, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his Italian dominion, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his dominion in Epeiros, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">occupies Acre, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles</span> the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, his schemes for a Burgundian kingdom, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of his death, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles</span>, Duke of Leukadia, his conquests and title, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles</span> the Good, Duke of Savoy, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charles Emmanuel</span>, Duke of Savoy, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Charolois</span>, under the Dukes of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">an appendage to Castile under Charles V., <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Lewis XIV., <i><a href="#Page_539">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chartres</span>, county of, united to Champagne, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">purchased by Saint Lewis, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chazars</span>, their settlements, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Russian advance against, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chersôn</span> (Chersonêsos), city of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by Vladimir, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">not the site of modern Cherson, <a href="#Page_516">516</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_73">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chiavenna</span>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chichester</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chios</span>, early greatness of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under the Zaccaria and the Maona, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under the Turks, <i><a href="#Page_414">ib.</a></i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_578" id="Page_578">{578}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chlodwig</span>, King of the Franks, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chosroes II.</span>, his conquests, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Christian I.</span>, King of Denmark, unites Denmark, Sleswick, and Holstein, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chrobatia</span>, Northern and Southern, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <span class="smcap">Croatia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chrobatia</span>, Northern, becomes Little Poland, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">passes to Austria, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Chur</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Church</span>, Eastern, its relations to Russia, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cibin</span>, gives its name to Siebenbürgen, <a href="#Page_435">435</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_49">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Circassia</span>, Russian advance in, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cispadane Republic</span>, the, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Clermont</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cleve</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Clissa</span>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Clontarf</span>, Irish victory at, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cnut</span>, his conquest of England, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his northern Empire, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Colony</span>, meaning and use of the word, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Columbia</span>, British, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Como</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Compostella</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Confederation of the Rhine</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Connaught</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Connecticut</span>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Conrad of Mazovia</span>, grants Culm to the Teutonic knights, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Constantine</span>, French conquest of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Constantine</span> the Great, divisions of the Empire under, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his new capital, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Constantine Porphyrogennêtos</span>, his description of the themes of the Empire, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Constantine Palaiologos</span>, his conquests in Peloponnêsos, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Constantinople</span>, foundation of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its moral influence, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Patriarchate of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">early Russian attempts on, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Latin conquest of, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won back under Michael Palaiologos, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Constanz</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">passes to Austria, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cordova</span>, bishopric, of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Caliphate of; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Caliphate</span>, Western.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Corfu</span>, Norman conquests of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by Margarito, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won from Venice by Epeiros, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">granted to Manfred, <i><a href="#Page_385">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">under Charles of Anjou, <i><a href="#Page_385">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">under Venice, <i><a href="#Page_385">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">summary of its history, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see also</i> <span class="smcap">Korkyra</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Corinth</span>, in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">a Dorian city, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins the Achaian League, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Macedonia, <i><a href="#Page_40">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">won from Epeiros by the Latins, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cornwall</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Coron</span> (Kôrônê), held by Venice, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost by her, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Corsica</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">early inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">province of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by Genoa, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to France, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of its incorporation with France, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cosmo de’ Medici</span>, Duke of Florence and Grand Duke of Tuscany, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cottbus</span>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Courtray</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cracow</span>, capital of Poland, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Austria, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to the duchy of Warsaw, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">republic of, <i><a href="#Page_520">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">second Austrian annexation of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Crema</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cremona</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Crete</span>, its geographical position, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">keeps its independence, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Rome, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">province of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost and recovered by the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Venice, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Turks, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">re-enslaved by the Treaty of Berlin, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Crim</span>, khanat of, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dependent on the Sultans, <i><a href="#Page_501">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Russia, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Croatia</span>, Slavonic settlement in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to the Eastern and Western Empires, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to Hungary, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of the Illyrian Provinces, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Croja</span>, won and lost by Venice, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Crotona</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Krotôn</span>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">{579}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Crusade</span>, first, its geographical result, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Crusaders</span>, take Constantinople, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their conquests compared with those of the Normans in Sicily, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cuba</span>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cujavia</span>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Culm</span>, granted to the Teutonic knights, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Poland, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cumæ</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cumania</span>, king of, a Hungarian title, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cumans</span>, settlements of, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dynasty of in Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">crushed by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cumberland</span>, (Strathclyde), Scandinavian settlements in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grant of, to Scotland, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">southern part united to England, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of the shire, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Curland</span>, Swedish conquest of, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tribes of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dominion of the Sword-brothers in, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">duchy of, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Curzola</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Korkyra, Black</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Custrin</span>, under Poland, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">passes to Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Cyprus</span>, Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Phœnician colonies in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost and won by the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Richard, <i><a href="#Page_372">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its connexion with Jerusalem and with Armenia, <i><a href="#Page_401">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Venice, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Turks, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under English rule, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Czar</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Tzar</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Czechs</span>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Czepusz</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Zips</span>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Dacia</span>, wars of, with Rome, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">made a province by Trajan, <i><a href="#Page_70">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">given up by Aurelian, <i><a href="#Page_70">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its later history, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Daghestan</span>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dago</span>, under the Sword-brothers, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Denmark, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dalmatia</span>, Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its wars with Rome, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman colonies in, <i><a href="#Page_62">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">province of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Slavonic settlement in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">history of the coast cities, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Venetian conquest in, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to Croatia, <i><a href="#Page_407">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Manuel, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fluctuates between Hungary and Venice, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409-412</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Lewis the Great, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken, lost, and recovered by Austria, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Danaoi</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Danes</span>, the, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlements, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their invasions of England, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Danish Mark</span>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Danube</span>, Roman conquests on, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">boundary of the Empire, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Gothic settlement on, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">crossed by the Goths, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Danzig</span>, mark of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost and recovered by Poland, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">commonwealth of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Prussia, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dardanians</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dauphiny</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Viennois</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Deira</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Delaware</span>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Delmenhorst</span>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Denmark</span>, extent of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquests and colonies of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with England under Cnut, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">bishoprics of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquers Sclavinia, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">advance of, in Germany, <i><a href="#Page_489">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">titles of its kings, <i><a href="#Page_489">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">keeps Rügen, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of its advance on the Slavonic lands, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its settlement in Esthland, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Sweden and Norway, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">with Norway only, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its wars with Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">gives up the sovereignty of the Gottorp lands, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">gets Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, <i><a href="#Page_509">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">recovers the Gottorp lands, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">gives up Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, <i><a href="#Page_513">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">incorporation of Holstein with, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_580" id="Page_580">{580}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Desnica</span>, Zupania of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">δεσπότης</span>, a Byzantine title, <a href="#Page_384">384</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_27">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dijon</span>, capital of the duchy of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Diocletian</span>, Emperor, division of the Empire under, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his conquests, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dioklea</span>, Zupania of, the germ of the Servian kingdom, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ditmarsh</span>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to Holstein, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">freedom of, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Danish conquest of, <i><a href="#Page_491">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dobroditius</span>, his dominion, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dobrutcha</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to Wallachia, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Roumania, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dôdekannêsos</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Naxos</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dole</span>, capital of Franche Comté, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Domfront</span>, acquired by William of Normandy, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dorchester</span>, bishoprics of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dorian</span> settlement in Peloponnêsos, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in Asia, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Douay</span>, becomes French, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dreux</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Drusus</span>, his campaigns in Germany, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dublin</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dulcigno</span>, originally Servian, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won and lost by Montenegro, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dunkirk</span>, held by England, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">bought back by France, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Durazzo</span> (Epidamnos), taken by the Normans, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by Margarito, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Venice, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won from Venice by Epeiros, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Charles of Anjou, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won by Servia, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">duchy of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">second Venetian conquest of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won by the Albanians, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Turks, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Durham</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dutch</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dyrrhachion</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Durazzo</span>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Eadmund</span>, his conquest and grant of Cumberland to Scotland, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Eadward</span> the Elder, extent of England under, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">East</span>, the, prefecture of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dioceses of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">East Angles</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">East India Company</span>, French, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Eastern Mark</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Austria</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ecgberht</span>, king of the West-Saxons, his supremacy, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Edessa</span>, restored to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Edinburgh</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Scots, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Egypt</span> under the Ptolemies, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Selim I., <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Eider</span>, boundary of Charles the Great’s empire, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Eleanor of Aquitaine</span>, effects of her marriages, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Elba</span>, annexed to the kingdom of Naples, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Êlis</span>, district of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">city of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins the Achaian league, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Elmham</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Elsass</span>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Germany, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ely</span>, bishoprick of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Embrun</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Emmanuel Filibert</span>, Duke of Savoy, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Emperors</span>, Eastern, position of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Emperors</span>, Western, position of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire, Roman</span>, greatest extent of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquests under, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its river boundaries, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">division of under Diocletian, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united under Constantine, <i><a href="#Page_75">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">division of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">reunited under Zeno, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">continuity of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">loses its eastern provinces, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">final division of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its political tradition unbroken in the East, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire, Western</span>, beginning of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Teutonic invasions and settlements in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">contrasted with the Eastern, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">divisions of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to Germany, <a href="#Page_124">124-126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored by Otto the Great, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">position of its Emperors, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to the Northern Slaves, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire, Eastern</span>, wars of, with Persia, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">contrasted with the Western, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of, in the eighth century, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its Greek character, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581">{581}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">its themes, <a href="#Page_149">149-152</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its dominion in Italy, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">position of its Emperors, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">falls mainly through foreign invasion, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its partial tendencies to separation, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">keeps the political tradition of the Roman Empire, <i><a href="#Page_363">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">distinction of races in, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its power of revival, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its loss and gain in the great islands, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations towards the Slavonic powers, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Bulgarian settlement in, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovers Greece from the Slaves, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its conquests of Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_377">377-378</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to Venice, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its fluctuations in Asia, <i><a href="#Page_378">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish invasions in, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Norman invasions in, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its geographical aspect in 1085, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under the Komnênoi, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">act of partition, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">losses and gains, <a href="#Page_387">387-391</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under the Palaiologoi, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of Timour’s invasion, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its final fall, <i><a href="#Page_391">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">states formed out of, <a href="#Page_391">391-393</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">general survey of its history, <a href="#Page_455">455-460</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with the Ottoman dominion, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire, Latin</span>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its end, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of Nikaia</span>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of Trebizond</span>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of Thessalonikê</span>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire, Serbian</span>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of Britain</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of Spain</span>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of Russia</span>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire, French</span>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of Austria</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of Hayti</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empires of Mexico</span>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of Brazil</span>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire, German</span>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Empire of India</span>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">England</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of the name, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">West-Saxon supremacy in, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Danish invasions, <i><a href="#Page_161">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">advance of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Scandinavia under Cnut, <i><a href="#Page_162">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">Norman conquest of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its ecclesiastical geography, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its wars with France, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its rivalry with France in America and India, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">slight change in its internal divisions, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations with Scotland, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">changes of its boundary towards Wales, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations with Ireland, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its settlements beyond sea, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its outlying European possessions, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its American colonies, <a href="#Page_559">559-565</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">West Indian possessions, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">other colonies and possessions of, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its dominion in India, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">English</span>, character of their settlement, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of the name, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Epeiros</span>, its ethnical relations to Greece, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the name, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of Pyrrhos, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">league of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman province of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Norman conquests in, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">granted in fief to Margarito, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">despotat of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its conquest of and separation from Thessalonikê, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Manfred and Charles of Anjou, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its first dismemberment, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Servian, Albanian, and Italian rule, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Venetian and Turkish occupation of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ephesos</span>, its early greatness, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Epidamnos</span>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its alliance with Rome, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Durazzo</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Epidauros</span> (Dalmatian), Greek colony, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">destroyed, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Eric</span>, Saint, king of Sweden, his conquests in Finland, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Erivan</span>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ermeland</span>, bishopric of, added to Poland, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Essex</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Este</span>, house of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Esthland</span> (Esthonia), Fins in, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Danish settlement in, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dominion of the Swordbearers in, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Sweden, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Russia, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Etruria</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Etruscans</span>, their doubtful origin and language, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">confederation of their cities, <i><a href="#Page_45">ib.</a></i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_582" id="Page_582">{582}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Euboia</span>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its position in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Macedonian influence, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Venice, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Turks, <i><a href="#Page_409">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Euphrates</span>, Asiatic boundary of the Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Europa</span>, Roman province of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Europe</span>, its geographical character, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its three great peninsulas, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its colonizing powers, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Aryan settlements in, <a href="#Page_12">12-15</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">non-Aryan races in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beginning of the modern history of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Buonaparte’s scheme for the division of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extended by colonization, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Euxine</span>, Greek colonies on, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Evora</span>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Exeter</span>, diocese of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ezerites</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Falkland Islands</span>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Famagosta</span>, under Genoa, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Faroe Islands</span>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Faucigny</span>, annexed to Savoy, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by the Dauphins of Viennois, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand</span>, Saint, king of Castile, his conquests, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Fermo</span>, march of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ferrara</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Finland</span>, Swedish conquests in, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Russian conquests in, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Fins</span>, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in Livland and Esthland, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Flaminia</span>, province of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Flanders</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">within the Burgundian circle, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">released from homage to France, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French acquisitions in, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Flemings</span>, their settlement in Pembrokeshire, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Florence</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its greatness, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Pisa submits to, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">rule of the Medici in, <i><a href="#Page_245">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Florida</span>, held by England and Spain, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acquired by the States, <i><a href="#Page_563">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">France</span>, effect of its geographical position, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin and use of the name, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325-327</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beginning of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its ecclesiastical divisions, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its annexations, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341-352</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with Austria, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">a nation in the fullest sense, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">great fiefs of, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">twelve peers of, <i><a href="#Page_328">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its incorporation of vassal states, <a href="#Page_329">329-341</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of the wars with England, <a href="#Page_337">337-339</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beginning of the modern kingdom, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">thorough incorporation of its conquests, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its colonial dominions, <a href="#Page_352">352-354</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its rivalry with England in America and India, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its barrier towns against the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of the Peace of 1763 on, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its annexations under the Republic and Empire, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of under Buonaparte, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restorations made by, after his fall, <i><a href="#Page_358">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">later annexations and losses, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">character of its African conquests, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its war with Prussia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">France</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with the kingdom of the West Franks, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Franche Comté</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Burgundy</span>, County of.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Francia</span>, meanings of the name, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Francia</span>, Eastern, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Francia</span>, Western, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Francis I.</span>, Emperor, exchanges Lorraine for Tuscany, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Francis II.</span>, Emperor, his title of ‘Emperor of Austria,’ <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Franconia</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of the circle, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Francia</span>, Eastern.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Frankfurt</span>, election and coronation of the German kings at, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">a free city, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Grand Duchy of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Prussia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Franks</span>, the, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlements, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of their kingdom under Chlodwig, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their conquest of the Alemanni, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Thuringia and Bavaria, <i><a href="#Page_117">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">of Aquitaine and Burgundy, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their position, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_583" id="Page_583">{583}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">their German and Gaulish dependencies, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">division of their kingdom, <i><a href="#Page_120">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of united under the Karlings, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their relations with the Empire, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their conquest of Lombardy, <i><a href="#Page_123">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Franks</span>, East, their kingdom grows into Germany, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Franks</span>, West, kingdom of, its extent, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with the duchy of France, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grows into modern France, <i><a href="#Page_143">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Frederick II.</span>, Emperor, recovers Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Frederick William I.</span>, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Frederick I.</span>, King of Prussia, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Freiburg</span>, joins the Confederates, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Freiburg-im-Breisgau</span>, conquered by France, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored, <i><a href="#Page_350">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">French</span> language, becomes the dominant speech of Gaul, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Friderikshamn</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Friesland</span>, East, annexed by Prussia, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of the kingdom of Hannover, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Friesland</span>, West, county of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Frisians</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Friuli</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Fulda</span>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Furnes</span>, Barrier Town, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Gades</span>, Phœnician colony, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">admitted to the Roman franchise, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Cadiz</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gaeta</span>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Galata</span>, colony of Genoa, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Galicia</span> (Halicz), kingdom of, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">twice annexed to Hungary, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Poland, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Austrian possession of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Galicia</span>, New, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gallicia</span>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Galloway</span>, incorporated with Scotland, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gascony</span>, Duchy of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded by the Peace of Bretigny, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gatinois</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gattilusio</span>, family of, receives Lesbos in fief, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gaul</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its geographical position, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">non-Aryan people in, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">prefecture of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its gradual separation from the Empire, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Teutonic invasions of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">West Gothic kingdom in, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">position of the Franks in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of Frankish kingdom in, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Burgundian settlement in, <i><a href="#Page_93">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">Hunnish invasion of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical divisions of, <a href="#Page_172">172-174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gaul</span>, Cisalpine, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gaul</span>, Transalpine, first Roman province in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its boundaries, <i><a href="#Page_57">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its divisions and inhabitants, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Romanization of, <i><a href="#Page_58">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">nomenclature of its northern and southern part, <i><a href="#Page_58">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gauls</span>, their settlements, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gauthiod</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gauts</span>, <span class="smcap">Geátas</span>, of Sweden, name confounded with Goths, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gauverfassung</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gdansk</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Danzig</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gedymin</span>, king of Lithuania, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Geldern</span>, <span class="smcap">Gelderland</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">division of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">United Province of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Geneva</span>, annexed by Savoy, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">allied to Bern and Freiburg, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored by France, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins the Swiss Confederation, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Genoa</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">holds Smyrna, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">holds Corsica, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cedes Corsica to France, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Piedmont, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with Venice, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her settlements, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">George Akropolitês</span>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_45">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">George Kastriota</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Scanderbeg</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Georgia</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Georgia</span>, state of, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gepidæ</span>, their kingdom, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by the Lombards, <i><a href="#Page_107">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Germans</span>, early confederacies of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">serve within the Empire, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Germany</span>, effect of its geographical character, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman campaigns in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Frankish dominion in, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">{584}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188-190</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beginning of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its extent, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192-195</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical divisions of, <a href="#Page_175">175-177</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its losses, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its changes in geography and nomenclature, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its eastern extension, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">the great duchies, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">circles of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">later history of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">late beginnings of French annexation from, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Buonaparte’s treatment of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">state of in 1811, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">the Confederation, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223-226</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">last geographical changes in, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its war with France, <i><a href="#Page_229">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">Empire of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its influence on the Baltic, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gex</span>, under Savoy, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ghilan</span>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gibraltar</span>, lost and won by Castile, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">occupied by England, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Glarus</span>, joins the Swiss Confederation, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Glasgow</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gnezna</span> (Gniezno, Gnesen), ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beginning of the Polish kingdom at, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">passes to Prussia, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Görz</span> (Gorizia), county of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Austria, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gothia</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Perateia</span> or <span class="smcap">Septimania</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gothland</span>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Goths</span>, their settlements in the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">defeated by Claudius, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">driven on by the Huns, <i><a href="#Page_88">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">their conquests in Spain, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">make no lasting settlement in the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Goths, East</span>, their dominion in Italy, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Goths, West</span>, extent of their dominions, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Goths, Tetraxite</span>, their settlement, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gotland</span>, power of the Hansa in, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by the military orders, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gottorp</span> lands, sovereignty of, resigned by Denmark, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Denmark, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gozo</span>, granted to the knights of Saint John, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Granada</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">final conquest of, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Graubünden</span>, League of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">loses its subject districts, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gravelines</span>, taken by France, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Greece</span>, one of the three great European peninsulas, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its geographical character, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its history earlier than that of Rome, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the name, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its chief divisions, <a href="#Page_19">19-21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">insular and Asiatic, <a href="#Page_19">19-23</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its Homeric geography, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its cities, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">leagues in, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquests in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Slavonic occupation of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">war of independence, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of formed, <i><a href="#Page_452">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">Ionian Islands ceded to, <i><a href="#Page_452">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">promised extension of, <i><a href="#Page_452">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Greeks</span>, order of their coming into Europe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their kindred with Italians and other nations, <a href="#Page_23">23-25</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their rivalry with the Phœnicians, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their colonies, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their revival of the name Hellênes, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Greenland</span>, Norwegian and Danish settlements in, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Norway, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Greifswald</span>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Guiana</span>, British, French, Dutch, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Guinea</span>, Dutch settlements in, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Guines</span>, made over to England, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Guipuzcoa</span>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Guthrum</span>, his treaty with Ælfred, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Habsburg</span>, House of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">scattered territories of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its connexion with the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hadrian</span>, surrenders Trajan’s conquests, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hadrianople</span>, taken by the Bulgarians, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by Michael of Epeiros, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Turks, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">treaty of, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">{585}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hadriatic Sea</span>, Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hainault</span> (Hennegau), county of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Holland, <i><a href="#Page_294">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">French acquisitions in, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Halberstadt</span>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Halicz</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Galicia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Halikarnassos</span>, held by the knights of Saint John, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish conquest of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Halland</span>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hamburg</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">one of the Hanse Towns, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hannover</span>, Electorate, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Great Britain, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Prussia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hansa</span>, the, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent and nature of its power, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hanse Towns</span>, the, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">surviving ones annexed by France, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">join the German Confederation, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Harold</span>, his Welsh conquests, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hayti</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Saint Domingo</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hebrides</span>, Scandinavian settlement in, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">submit to Scotland, <i><a href="#Page_553">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Heligoland</span>, passes to England, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Helladikoi</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hellas</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">‘continuous,’ <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">later use of the name, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hellênes</span>, use of the name in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">later history of the name, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its modern revival, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Helsingland</span>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Helvetic Republic</span>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hennegau</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Hainault</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Henry II.</span>, of England, his dominions, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Henry V.</span>, of England, his conquests, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">crowned in Paris, <i><a href="#Page_338">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span>, of France, unites France and Navarre, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Heraclius, Emperor</span>, his Persian campaigns, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Slavonic settlements under, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hêrakleia</span>, commonwealth of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hereford</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hertjedalen</span>, conquered by Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Herzegovina</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish conquest of, <i><a href="#Page_427">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">administered by Austro-Hungary, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hessen-Cassel</span>, Electorate of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Prussia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hessen-Darmstadt</span>, Grand Duchy of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hierôn</span>, king of Syracuse, his alliance with Rome, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hispaniola</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Saint Domingo</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hohenzollern</span>, House of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Holland</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Hainault, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <i><a href="#Page_302">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <span class="smcap">United Provinces</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Holstein</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">first Danish conquest of, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fluctuations of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">made a duchy, <i><a href="#Page_490">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">under Christian I., <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of the peace of Roskild on, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">incorporated with Denmark, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins the German Confederation, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">final cession of to Prussia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Homeric Catalogue</span>, the, <a href="#Page_26">26-29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Honorius</span>, Emperor of the West, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Huascar</span>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hugh Capet</span>, Duke of the French, chosen king, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hundred Years’ Peace</span> between Rome and Persia, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hundred Years’ War</span>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hungarians</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Magyars</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hungary</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to the Western Emperors, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">whether a Bulgarian duchy existed in, <a href="#Page_376">376</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_26">note</a></i>).</li> -<li class="isub1">its frontier towards Germany, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations with Croatia, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acquires Transsilvania, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquests of the Komnênoi from, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its struggles with Venice for Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Mongol invasion of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its wars with Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its conquest of Bosnia, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extension of under Lewis the Great, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish conquests in, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its kings tributary to the Turk, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered from the Turk, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acquisitions of by the Peace of Passarowitz, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">later losses and acquisitions of, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">separated from and recovered by Austria, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its dual relations to Austria, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">{586}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Huniades</span>, John, his campaign against the Turks, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Huns</span>, a Turanian people, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their invasions, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Iapodes</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Iapygians</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Iberia</span>, Asiatic, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Iberians</span>, a non-Aryan people, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Iceland</span>, Norwegian and Danish settlements in, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Norway, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kept by Denmark, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ikonion</span>, Turkish capital, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Illyria</span>, <span class="smcap">Illyricum</span>, Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquests in, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the name, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">prefecture of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">western diocese of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Illyrian Provinces</span>, incorporated with France, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">misleading use of the name, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Austria, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Illyrians</span>, their kindred with the Greeks, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">displaced by Slavonic invasions, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Immeretia</span>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">India</span>, French settlements in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Portuguese settlements in, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">English dominion in, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Empire of, <i><a href="#Page_567">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Indies</span>, division of, between Spain and Portugal, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ingermanland</span>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ionian</span> colonies in Asia, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ionian Islands</span>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to France, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to the Turks, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under English protection, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">added to Greece, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ireland</span>, the original Scotia, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">provinces of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Scandinavian settlements in, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its increasing connexion with England, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">English conquest of, <i><a href="#Page_557">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom and lordship of, <i><a href="#Page_557">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its shifting relations with England, <i><a href="#Page_557">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Great Britain, <i><a href="#Page_557">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Isle of France</span>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Isle of France</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Mauritius</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Istria</span>, Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">incorporated with Italy, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Slavonic settlements in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">March of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fluctuates between Germany and Italy, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">possessions of Venice in, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Austria, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Italians</span>, their origin, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their kindred with the Greeks, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">two branches of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Italy</span>, one of the three great European peninsulas, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its geographical position, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the name, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">growth of Roman power in, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">divisions of, under Augustus, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">prefecture of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">invaded by the Huns, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">rule of Odoacer in, <i><a href="#Page_94">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">rule of Theodoric in, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered to the Empire, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Lombard conquest of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Imperial possessions in, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">rule of Charles the Great in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Imperial kingdom of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its ecclesiastical divisions, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">changes on the Alpine frontier, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">system of commonwealths in, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">four stages in its history, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">growth of tyrannies in, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">a ‘geographical expression,’ <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dominion of Spain and Austria in, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">revolutionary changes in, <a href="#Page_252">252-55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French kingdom of, <a href="#Page_253">253-55</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">settlement of in 1814, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored kingdom of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its extension, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part not yet recovered, <i><a href="#Page_258">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ithakê</span>, in the Homeric Catalogue, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held in fief by Margarito, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ivan</span> the Great, of Russia, his conquests, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">styles himself Prince of Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ivan</span> the Terrible, of Russia, his conquests, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ivrea</span>, Mark of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Jadera</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Zara</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jaen</span>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jägerndorf</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jagiello</span>, union of Lithuania and Poland under, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jamaica</span>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jämteland</span>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">{587}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jatwages</span>, the, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Java</span>, Dutch settlement in, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jayce</span>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jedisan</span>, annexed by Russia, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jerseys</span>, East and West, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jerusalem</span>, patriarchate of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by Chosroes, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of the Latin kingdom, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by Saladin, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered and lost by the Crusaders, <i><a href="#Page_400">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">crown of, claimed by the kings of Cyprus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jezerci</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Ezerites</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jireček</span>, C. J. on Slavonic settlements, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_8">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jôannina</span>, restored to the Empire, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">John Asan</span>, extent of Bulgaria under, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">John Komnênos</span>, Emperor, his conquests, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">John Komnênos</span>, Emperor of Trebizond, acknowledges the supremacy of Constantinople, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">John Tzimiskês</span>, Emperor, recovers Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his Asiatic conquests, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jomsburg</span> Vikings, settlement of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Judæa</span>, its relations with Rome, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jung</span>, on the Roumans, <a href="#Page_435">435</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_50">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Justinian</span>, extent of the Roman power under, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jutes</span>, their settlement in Kent, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Jutland</span>, South, duchy of, united with Holstein, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">called Duchy of Sleswick, <i><a href="#Page_490">ib.</a></i></li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Kaffa</span>, colony of Genoa, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kainardji</span>, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kalabryta</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kamienetz</span>, ceded by Poland to the Turk, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kappadokia</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Rome, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Karians</span>, in the Homeric Catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Karlili</span>, why so called, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Karlings</span>, Frankish dynasty of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kärnthen</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Carinthia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Karolingia</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kars</span>, joined to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Russia, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Karystos</span>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kazan</span>, Khanat of, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Russia, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kent</span>, settlement of the Jutes in, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kephallênia</span>, in the Homeric Catalogue, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Norman conquests in, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held in fief by Margarito, <i><a href="#Page_397">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">commended to Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost and won by Venice, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Khiva</span>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kibyrraiotians</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kief</span>, Russian centre at, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">supremacy of, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Lithuanians, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Russia, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kilikia</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to the Empire, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kirghis</span>, Russian superiority over, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Klek</span>, Ottoman frontier extends to, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kleônai</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Köln</span> (Colonia Agrippina), <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its archbishops chancellors of Italy and electors, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">chief of the Hansa, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Germany, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kolocza</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kolôneia</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Korkyra</span>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">alliance of with Rome, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <span class="smcap">Corfu</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Korkyra, Black</span> (Curzola), Greek colony, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kôrônê</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Coron</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kôs</span>, Greek colony, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by the knights of St. John, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Maona, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kossovo</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Krain</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Carniola</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kresimir</span>, king of Croatia and Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Krotôn</span>, early greatness of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ktesiphôn</span>, conquered by Trajan, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kymê</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Cumæ</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kyrênê</span>, Greek colony, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Lakedaimonia</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lakonikê</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Λαμπαρδοί</span>, use of the form, <a href="#Page_369">369</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_25">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lancashire</span>, formation of the shire, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Langue d’oc</span>, extent of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of French annexations on, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">{588}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Languedoc</span>, province of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Laodikeia</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Laon</span>, capital of the Karlings, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Laps</span>, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Latins</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their alliance with Rome, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lauenburg</span>, represents the elder Saxony, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by the kings of Denmark, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins the German confederation, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">final cession of, to Prussia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lausanne</span>, annexed by Bern, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lausitz</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Lusatia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lazia</span>, allotment of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lechs</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Poles</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Leinster</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lemberg</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lêmnos</span>, becomes Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Leo IX.</span> Pope, grants Apulia as a fief to the Normans, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Leon</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">shiftings of, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its final union with Castile, <i><a href="#Page_531">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Leopol</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Lemberg</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lepanto</span> (Naupaktos) under Anjou, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to the Turk, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lesbos</span>, mention of in the Iliad, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">a fief of the Gattilusi, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lesina</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Pharos</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Leukas</span>, <span class="smcap">Leukadia</span> (Santa Maura), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">date of its foundation, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">commended to Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost and won by her, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Leuticii</span>, the, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Letts</span>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_53">note</a></i>).</li> -<li class="isub1">settlements of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lewis I.</span> (the Pious), Emperor, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lewis II.</span> Emperor, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lewis VII.</span> of France, effects of his marriage and divorce, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lewis IX.</span> (Saint) of France, growth of France under, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lewis XII.</span> of France, effects of his marriage, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lewis XIV.</span> of France, effects of his reign, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his conquests from Spain, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lewis XV.</span> of France, effects of his reign, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lewis</span> the Great, of Hungary, his conquests, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexes Red Russia, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Liburnia</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Libya</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lichfield</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Liechtenstein</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Liége</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Lüttich</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Liguria</span>, Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">province of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of the kingdom of Italy, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ligurian Republic</span>, the, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ligurians</span>, non-Aryan people in Europe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lille</span>, annexed by France, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Limburg</span>, passes to the Dukes of Brabant, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">duchy of, within the German confederation, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Limoges</span>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lincoln</span>, diocese of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lindisfarn</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lisbon</span>, patriarchate of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Portugal, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lithuania</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of the German conquest of Livland on, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its conquests from Russia, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined with Poland, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lithuanians</span>, settlements of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">long remain heathen, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Livland</span>, <span class="smcap">Livonia</span>, Finnish population of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">German conquests in, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dominion of the Sword-brothers in, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">momentary kingdom of, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Poland, <i><a href="#Page_504">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">by Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by Russia, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Livonian Knights</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Sword-Brothers</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Llandaff</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lodi</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lodomeria</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Vladimir</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Λογγιβαρδία</span>, use of the form, <a href="#Page_369">369</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_25">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lokrians</span>, their position in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">settle on the Corinthian Gulf, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lokris</span>, league of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lombards</span>, their settlement in Italy, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">take Ravenna, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">overthrown by Charles the Great, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lombardy</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Charles the Great, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">growth of her cities, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to Sardinia, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lombardy</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lombardy and Venice</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">London</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_589" id="Page_589">{589}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lorraine</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">seized by Lewis XIV., <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">exchanged for Tuscany, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">finally annexed to France, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Germany, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lorraine</span>, House of, Emperors of, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lothar I.</span>, Emperor, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lotharingia</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lothian</span>, granted to Scotland, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of the grant, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lothringen</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Lorraine</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Louisiana</span>, colonized by France, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to Spain, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered and sold to the United States, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Louvain</span> (Löwen), <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Low Countries</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Netherlands</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lübeck</span>, founded by Henry the Lion, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its independence of the bishop, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">one of the Hansa, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Denmark, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lübeck</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lublin</span>, Union of, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lucanians</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lucca</span>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Castruccio, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">remains a commonwealth, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Grand Duchy of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Tuscany, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lund</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lüneburg</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Luneville</span>, peace of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lusatia</span> (Lausitz), Mark of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won by Bohemia, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lüttich</span> (Liége), bishopric of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">added to Belgium, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French acquisitions from, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Luxemburg</span> (Lüzelburg), duchy of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French acquisitions from, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">within the German confederation, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">division of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">neutrality of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Luxemburg</span>, House of, kings of Bohemia, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Luzern</span>, joins the Confederates, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lydians</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lykandos</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lykia</span>, league of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">preserves its independence, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Rome, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lykians</span>, in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lyons</span>, in the kingdom of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Philip the Fair, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Macedonia</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its close connexion with Greece, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">not in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">growth of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by the Empire, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Macedonian</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Macon</span>, annexed by Saint Lewis, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Madeira</span>, colonized by Portugal, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Madras</span>, taken by the French, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Madrid</span>, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Magdeburg</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Prussia, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Magyars</span>, a Turanian people, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlements, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of their invasion on the Slaves, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">called Turks, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of the name, <a href="#Page_433">433</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_48">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mahomet</span>, union of Arabia under, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mahomet I.</span>, Sultan, Ottoman power under, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mahomet the Conqueror</span>, Sultan, his conquests, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of his dominions, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Maina</span>, name of Hellênes confined to, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by the Empire, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">independence of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Maine</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by William of Normandy, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Anjou, <i><a href="#Page_332">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Maine</span>, State of, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mainz</span>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its archbishops chancellors of Germany and electors, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Germany, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Maionians</span>, in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Majorca</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Malta</span>, taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Normans, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">granted to the knights of Saint John, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">revolutions of, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by England, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Man</span>, Scandinavian settlement in, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its later history, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">{590}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Manfred</span>, King of Sicily, his dominion in Epeiros, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">styled Lord of Romania, <i><a href="#Page_397">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mantua</span>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Manuel Komnênos</span>, his conquests, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Manzikert</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Maona</span>, the, its dominions, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Marche</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Marcomanni</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Margarito</span>, king of the Epeirots, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Maria Theresa</span>, Empress-Queen, her hereditary dominions, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of her marriage, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Marienburg</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Marseilles</span>, acquired by France, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mary</span> of Burgundy, effects of her marriage, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Maryland</span>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Massa</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Massachusetts</span>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Massalia</span>, Ionian colony, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Marseilles</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Matthias Corvinus</span>, king of Hungary, his conquests, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Maurienne</span>, Counts of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mauritania</span>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mauritius</span> (Isle of France), a French colony, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken and held by England, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Maximilian I.</span>, his legislation, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of his marriage, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mazanderan</span>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mazovia</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Poland, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Meath</span>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Meaux</span>, settlement of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mechlin</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mecklenburg</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Slavonic princes continue in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mediation</span>, act of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Medici</span>, the, rule of in Florence, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mediterranean Sea</span>, centre of the three old continents, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Megalopolis</span>, its foundation, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Megara</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins the Achaian League, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mehadia</span>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Meissen</span>, Mark of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Meleda</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Melfi</span>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Melinci</span>, <span class="smcap">Melings</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mendog</span>, king of Lithuania, his conquests, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mentone</span>, annexed by France, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mercia</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mesopotamia</span>, conquest of, under Trajan, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Diocletian, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Messana</span> (Messina), receives Roman citizenship, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered and lost by the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Normans, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">first Norman capital, <i><a href="#Page_395">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Messênê</span>, Dorian, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Sparta, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">foundation of the city, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Metz</span>, annexed by France, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Germany, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mexico</span>, Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">two Empires of, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mexico, New</span>, ceded by Spain, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Michael Palaiologos</span>, Eastern Emperor, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Michael</span>, despot of Epeiros, his conquests, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mieczïslaf</span>, first Christian prince of Poland, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Milan</span>, capital of kingdom of Italy, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Milan</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">temporary French possession of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">a Spanish dependency, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Milêtos</span>, its colonies, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Military Orders</span>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495-497</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mingrelia</span>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Minorca</span>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Misithra</span>, restored to the Empire, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mississippi</span>, colonization at the mouth of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">made the boundary of Louisiana, <i><a href="#Page_353">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mithridates</span>, king of Pontos, his wars with Rome, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Modena</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Piedmont, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Modon</span>, held by Venice, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost by her, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mœsia</span>, Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mohacz</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Moldavia</span>, Rouman settlement, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tributary to the Turk, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fluctuations of its homage, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to Wallachia, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">shiftings of the frontier, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Molossis</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Moluccas</span>, Dutch settlements in, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Monaco</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Montbeliard</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Monembasia</span>, restored to the Empire, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost by her, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mongols</span>, invade Europe, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Russia tributary to, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of their invasion on the Ottomans, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591">{591}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">decline and break up of their power, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Monmouthshire</span>, becomes an English county, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Monopoli</span>, lost by Venice, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Montenegro</span>, origin and independence of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its Vladikas, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins England and Russia against France, <i><a href="#Page_428">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its conquest and loss of Cattaro, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">later conquests and diplomatic concessions to, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Montferrat</span>, marquisate and duchy of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">homage claimed from by Savoy, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">partially annexed by Savoy, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Montfort</span>, Simon of, at Toulouse, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Moors</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Môraia</span>, origin and use of the name, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Moravia</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Moravia, Great</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">overthrown by the Magyars, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Morosini</span>, Francesco, his conquests, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Moscow</span>, patriarchate of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">centre of Russian power, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">advance of, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Moudon</span>, granted to Savoy, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Moulins</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mülhausen</span>, in alliance with the Confederates, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Munster</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Münster</span>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Murcia</span>, conquered by Castile, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Muret</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Muscovy</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mykênê</span>, its position in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">destruction of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mykonos</span>, held by Venice, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mysians</span>, in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Namur</span>, Mark of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Naples</span>, cleaves to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by King Roger, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">temporary French possession of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">title of king of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Parthenopæan republic, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to the Bourbons, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Narbonne</span>, Roman colony, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Saracen conquest of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Narses</span>, wins back Italy to the Empire, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nassau</span>, Grand Duchy of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Prussia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Natal</span>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Naupaktos</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Lepanto</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nauplia</span>, won from Epeiros by the Latins, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost by her, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Navarre</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of under Sancho the Great, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">break-up of, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its decline, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">union with, and separation from France, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">northern part united to France, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Navas de Tolosa</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Naxos</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by the Turk, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Negroponte</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_33">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Neopatra</span>, Epeirot dynasty of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Catalan conquest of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Netherlands</span>, their separation from Germany, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Imperial and French fiefs in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">an appendage to Castile under Charles V., <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French annexations in, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">barrier towns against France, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <span class="smcap">United Provinces</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Netherlands</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">divided, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Netz District</span>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Neufchâtel</span>, allied with Bern, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">passes to Prussia, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">granted to Berthier, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to the Swiss Confederation, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">separated from Prussia, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Neustria</span>, Lombard, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Neustria</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New Amsterdam</span>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New Brunswick</span>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New England</span>, settlements of, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">form four colonies, <i><a href="#Page_560">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New France</span>, settlement of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New Hampshire</span>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New Netherlands</span>, colony of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to New Sweden, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by England, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New Orleans</span>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_592" id="Page_592">{592}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New South Wales</span>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New Sweden</span>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to New Netherlands, <i><a href="#Page_562">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New York</span>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">New Zealand</span>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Newfoundland</span>, first settlements in, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">remains distinct from Canada, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nibla</span>, taken by Castile, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nidaros</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Trondhjem</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nikaia</span>, Turkish capital of Roum, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Alexios Komnênos, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Empire of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its extent and growth, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nikêphoros Phôkas</span>, Eastern Emperor, his Asiatic conquests, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nikomêdeia</span>, taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nikopolis</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nîmes</span>, Saracen conquest of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Aragon, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <i><a href="#Page_335">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nimwegen</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nish</span>, taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nisibis</span>, fortress of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nizza</span>, annexed by Savoy, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by Buonaparte, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Savoy, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">finally annexed by France, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nogai Khan</span>, overlord of Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Noricum</span>, conquest of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in the diocese of Illyricum, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Normandy</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">character of its vassalage, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">union of with Aquitaine, Anjou, and Britanny, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Normans</span>, their conquests in Italy and Sicily, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-395</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in England, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in Epeiros, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their conquests in Sicily compared with those of the Crusaders, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Northmen</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlements, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Northumberland</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">earldom of granted to David, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by England, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Norway</span>, its extent and settlements, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to England under Cnut, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its independence of the Empire, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Iceland and Greenland united to, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Sweden and Denmark, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its wars with Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Sweden, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Noto</span>, taken by Count Roger, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nova Scotia</span>, ceded to England, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Novara</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Novempopulana</span>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Novgorod</span>, beginning of, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">commonwealth at, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Russia represented by, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">does homage to the Mongols, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Muscovy, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Novgorod</span>, Severian, principality of, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Novi-Bazar</span> (Rassa), <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Numantia</span>, Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Numidia</span>, province of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nürnberg</span>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Nystad</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Obotrites</span>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ochrida</span>, taken by the Bulgarians, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, its extent, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Oczakow</span>, annexed by Russia, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Odessa</span>, does not answer to Odêssos, <a href="#Page_516">516</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_73">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Odo</span>, king of the West Franks, does homage to Arnulf, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Odoacer</span>, his reign in Italy, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">overthrown by Theodoric, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Oesel</span>, won by Denmark, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under the Sword-brothers, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ogres</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Magyars</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Oldenburg</span>, united with Denmark, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes a separate duchy, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Grand Duchy of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Olgierd</span>, king of Lithuania, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Oliva</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Oliverca</span>, ceded to Spain by Portugal, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Olynthos</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Opicans</span>, <span class="smcap">Oscans</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Opsikion</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Optimatôn</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Oran</span>, conquered by Spain, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Orange</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Orange River State</span>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Orchomenos</span>, its position in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its secondary position in historic times, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">destroyed by the Thebans, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Oreos</span>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Orkney</span>, Scandinavian colony, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">earldom of, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pledged to Scotland, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_593" id="Page_593">{593}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Osrhoênê</span>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ostmen</span>, their settlements in Ireland, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Otho de la Roche</span>, founds the lordship of Athens, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Otranto</span>, Turkish conquest of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Otto the Great</span>, Emperor, subdues Berengar, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">crowned at Rome, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ottocar II.</span>, king of Bohemia, his German dominion, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ottoman Turks</span>, their position in Europe, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with the Magyars and Bulgarians, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">with the Saracens, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their special character as Mahometans, <i><a href="#Page_442">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">their dominion compared with the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their origin, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect on, of the Mongol invasion, <i><a href="#Page_444">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">their first settlements, <i><a href="#Page_444">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">invade Europe, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Bajazet, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their conquests of Servia, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Thessaly and Albania, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">invade Hungary, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">overthrown by Timour, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">reunited under Mahomet I., <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Mahomet the Conqueror, <i><a href="#Page_446">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">take Constantinople, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their conquests in Peloponnêsos, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Bosnia and Herzegovina, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Selim and Suleiman, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their conquest of Hungary, <i><a href="#Page_447">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">greatest extent of their dominion, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">decline of their power, <a href="#Page_448">448-450</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their wars with Russia, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Oudenarde</span>, becomes French, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored, <i><a href="#Page_349">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Oviedo</span>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Paderborn</span>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Padua</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pagania</span>, originally Servian, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its extent, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Paionia</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Paionians</span>, in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Palaiologos</span>, House of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">branch of at Montferrat, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Palatinate</span> of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Bavaria, <i><a href="#Page_215">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pale</span>, fluctuations of the, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Palermo</span> (Panormos), a Phœnician colony, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Normans, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes the capital of Sicily, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Palestine</span>, its relations to Rome, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pampeluna</span>, diocese of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Navarre</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pannonia</span>, Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in the diocese of Illyricum, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Lombard kingdom in, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Bulgarian attempt on, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Panormos</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Palermo</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Papal Dominions</span>, beginning and growth of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its overthrow and restoration, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to the kingdom of Italy, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Paphlagonia</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Paphlagonians</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Parga</span>, commends itself to Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">surrendered to the Turks, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Paris</span> (Lutetia Parisiorum), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">capital of the duchy of France, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">capital and centre of the kingdom of France, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes an archbishopric, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Paris</span>, treaty of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Parma</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">given to the Spanish Bourbons, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">the duchy restored, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Piedmont, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Parthenopæan Republic</span>, the, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Parthia</span>, its rivalry with Rome, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Partition</span>, crusading act of, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Passarowitz</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Patras</span>, under the Pope, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Patriarchates</span>, the, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">‘<span class="smcap">Patrician</span>,’ title of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Patzinaks</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pavia</span>, old Lombard capital, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">county of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">‘<span class="smcap">Pax Romana</span>,’ <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pelasgians</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Peloponnêsos</span>, its geographical position, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Homeric divisions of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">changes in, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united under the Achaian League, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Slavonic settlements in, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">won back to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Latin conquests in, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594">{594}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">Venetian settlements in, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes an Imperial dependency, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by the Turks, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Venetian losses in, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Venice, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by the Turks, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pembrokeshire</span>, Flemish settlement in, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pennsylvania</span>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pentedaktylos</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Taÿgetos</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Perateia</span>, meaning of the name, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish conquest of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Perche</span>, united to France, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Perekop</span>, conquered by Lithuania, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">added to Poland, <i><a href="#Page_498">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">lost by Poland, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pergamos</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Persia</span>, wars of with Greece, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">with Rome, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Saracen conquest of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">revival of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Russian conquests in, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Peru</span>, Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Perugia</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Peter</span> the Great of Russia, his wars with Charles XII., <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Peter</span>, count of Savoy, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pharos</span> (Lesina), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span>, taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philip</span>, rise of Macedonia under, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philip Augustus</span>, King of France, his annexations, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philip</span> the Fair, King of France, effects of his marriage, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his momentary occupation of Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philip</span> of Valois, King of France, his attempt on Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philip</span> the Hardy, Duke of Burgundy, duchy of Burgundy granted to, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philip</span> the Good, Duke of Burgundy, his acquisitions, <a href="#Page_296">296-298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philippeville</span>, held by France, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philippine Islands</span>, conquered by Spain, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philippopolis</span>, first Bulgarian occupation of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">first Russian occupation of, <i><a href="#Page_377">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">finally becomes Bulgarian, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Phœnicians</span>, their colonies, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Phôkaia</span>, held by the Maona, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Phôkis</span>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">league of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Phrygians</span>, in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Piacenza</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">given to the Spanish Bourbons, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Picts</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with the Scots, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Piedmont</span>, joined to France, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">reunited with Sardinia, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">union of Italy comes from, <i><a href="#Page_256">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pietas Julia</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Pola</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pinerolo</span>, occupied by France, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pippin</span>, king of the Franks, conquers Septimania, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pisa</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">position of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquers Sardinia, <i><a href="#Page_238">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">subject to Florence, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Plataia</span>, destroyed by Thebes, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Podlachia</span>, conquered by Poland, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Podolia</span>, lost by Galicia, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">added to Poland, <i><a href="#Page_498">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to the Turks, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Poland, <i><a href="#Page_507">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Poitou</span>, annexed by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pola</span> (Pietas Julia), Roman colony, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Polabic</span> branch of the Slaves, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Poland</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its ecclesiastical relations, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to the Empire, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">wars of, with Russia, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">various tribes in, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its conversion, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its extent under Boleslaf, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">internal divisions of, <i><a href="#Page_478">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">consolidation of, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Pomerania falls away from, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquests of, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined with Lithuania, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Red Russia restored to, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Zips pledged to, <i><a href="#Page_437">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its acquisitions from the Teutonic knights, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acquires Livland, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations with Wallachia and Moldavia, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its wars with Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cedes Podolia to the Turk, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">partitions of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of the new kingdom, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Russia, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Poland, Little</span>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Poles</span> (Lechs), their settlements, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Polizza</span>, independence of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Polotsk</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595">{595}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pomerania</span>, <span class="smcap">Pomore</span>, <span class="smcap">Pommern</span>, its extent, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its early relations to Poland, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Danish conquests in, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">falls away from Poland, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its divisions, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">divided between Brandenburg and Sweden, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its western part incorporated with Sweden, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to Denmark and then to Prussia, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pomerelia</span>, purchased by the Teutonic knights, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Poland, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pondicherry</span>, a French settlement, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquests and restorations of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ponthieu</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acquired by William of Normandy, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">made over to England in 1<a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pontos</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of the Eastern Prefecture, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Portugal</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its growth, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of Algarve added to, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of, in the thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its African conquests, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its colonies, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">divides the Indies with Spain, <i><a href="#Page_542">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to and separated from Spain, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Posen</span>, Grand Duchy of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Potidaia</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Prag</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Prefectures</span>, of the Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_75">75-79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pressburg</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Prevesa</span>, held by Venice, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to the Turk, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Primorie</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Herzegovina</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Provençal</span> language, its fall, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Provence</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of Theodoric’s kingdom, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to the Franks, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of the kingdom of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Angevin counts of, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Provinces</span>, Roman, nature of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Eastern and Western, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Prussia</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">long remains heathen, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dominion of the Teutonic Knights in, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beginning of the duchy, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its geographical position, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">independent of Poland, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">growth of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its acquisition of Silesia, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of East Friesland, <i><a href="#Page_211">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its share in the partition of Poland, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513-515</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">losses of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovery and increase of its territory, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">head of North German confederation, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexes Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">war with France, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Prussia</span> Western, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Prussia</span> South, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Prussia</span> New East, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Przemyslaf</span>, king of the Wends, founds the house of Mecklenburg, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pskof</span>, commonwealth of, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Muscovy, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Puerto Rico</span>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Punic</span> Wars, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pyrenees</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Pyrrhos</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Quadi</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Quebec</span>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Queensland</span>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Rætia</span>, conquest of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ragusa</span>, origin of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">keeps her independence, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">prefers the Turk to Venice, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Austria, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Raleigh</span>, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rama</span>, Hungarian kingdom of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rametta</span>, taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ramsbury</span>, see of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rascia</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Dioklea</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rassa</span> (Novi Bazar), capital of Dioklea, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rastadt</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ravenna</span>, residence of the Western Emperors, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of the Gothic kings, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of the exarchs, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Lombards, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its ecclesiastical position, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Venice, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost by Venice, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Red Russia</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Galicia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Regensburg</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596">{596}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Revel</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rex Francorum</i>, title of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rheims</span>, position of the archbishop, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rhine</span>, the boundary of the Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">frontier of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rhodes</span>, in the Homeric Catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">keeps its independence, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Vespasian, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by the knights of Saint John, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">revolutions of, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">knights driven out from, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rhode Island</span>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Riazan</span>, annexed by Muscovy, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Richard I.</span>, of England, takes Cyprus, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grants it to Guy of Lusignan, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Riga</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under the Sword-brothers, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rimini</span> (Ariminum), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Riparanensia</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Robert Wiscard</span>, duke of Apulia, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his conquests in Epeiros, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rochester</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roesler</span>, R., on the origin of the name Magyar, <a href="#Page_433">433</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_48">note</a></i>).</li> -<li class="isub1">on the Roumans, <a href="#Page_435">435</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_50">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roger I.</span>, count of Sicily, his conquests, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roger II.</span>, king of Sicily, his conquests, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Romagna</span> (Romania), represents the old Exarchate, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of the name, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cities in, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Piedmont, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roman</span>, name kept on in the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">continued under the Turks, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roman Empire</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Empire, Roman</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Romania</span>, geographical name of the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Latin Empire of, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Romania</span> in Italy; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Romagna</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Romano</span>, lordship of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rome</span>, the centre of European history, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes the head of Italy, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nature of her provinces, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her Macedonian wars and conquests, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her rivalry with Parthia, <i><a href="#Page_41">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">wars of, with Persia, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Patriarchate of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her later history, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes the Tiberine Republic, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to the Pope, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">incorporated with France, <i><a href="#Page_253">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">restored to the Pope, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Italy, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roskild</span>, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">bishopric of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rostock</span>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rottweil</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rouen</span>, capital of Normandy, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roum</span>, Sultan of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roumans</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their northern settlements, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roumania</span>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">principality of, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of the Treaty of Berlin on, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roumelia</span>, Eastern, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Roussillon</span>, released from homage to France, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Aragon, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">finally annexed by France, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rovigo</span>, annexed by Venice, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rügen</span>, held by Denmark, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by Sweden, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rupertsland</span>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Russia</span>, its origin, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations towards the Turks, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">geographical continuity of its conquests, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of the name, <a href="#Page_480">480</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_62">note</a></i>), <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical relations of, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its imperial style, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Scandinavian settlement in, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">advance of against Chazars and Fins, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its rulers become Slavonic, <i><a href="#Page_481">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">attempts on Constantinople, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its isolation, <i><a href="#Page_482">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its first occupation of Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">divided into principalities, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes tributary to the Mongols, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of the German conquest of Livland on, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">revival of, <a href="#Page_499">499</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> -<li class="isub1">delivered by Ivan the Great, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">advance of, <a href="#Page_505">505-507</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511-517</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521-523</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with Sweden, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">wars with Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Poland, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lands recovered by, <i><a href="#Page_506">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">assumes the title of Empire, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597">{597}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">becomes a Baltic power, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its share in the partitions of Poland, <a href="#Page_513">513-515</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">no original Polish territory gained at this time by, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">new kingdom of Poland united to, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent and character of its dominion, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its territory in America sold to the United States, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Russia</span>, Red; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Galicia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ruthenians</span>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rutland</span>, formation of the shire, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ryswick</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Sabines</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sachsen-Lauenburg</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Lauenburg</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saguntum</span>, taken by Hannibal, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint Andrews</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint Asaph</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint Davids</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint Domingo</span>, Spanish settlements in, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French settlement in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">distinct from Hayti, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint Gallen</span>, abbey of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint John</span>, knights of, conquer Rhodes, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their conquests, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Malta granted to, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">driven out of Rhodes, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint John</span> of Maurienne, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint Lucia</span>, kept by England, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint Omer</span>, held by Spain, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint Petersburg</span>, foundation of, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saint Sava</span>, duchy of; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Herzegovina</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saladin</span>, takes Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Salamis</span>, its position in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Salerno</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Salisbury</span>, diocese of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Salona</span>, Roman colony, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">destroyed, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Salôna</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by the Turks, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saluzzo</span>, disputed homage of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to Savoy, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Salzburg</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes a secular electorate, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Austria, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by Bavaria, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Austria, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Samaites</span>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Samigola</span>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Samland</span>, Danish occupation of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Samnites</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their wars with Rome, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Sulla, <i><a href="#Page_51">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Samo</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Samogitia</span>, purchased by the Teutonic knights, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Lithuania, <i><a href="#Page_496">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Samos</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by the Maona, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sancho</span> the Great, king of Navarre, extent of his dominion, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">San Marino</span>, independence of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">San Stefano</span>, treaty of, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Santa Maura</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Leukas</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saracens</span>, their settlements in Europe, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">rise of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their conquests of Persia, Africa, and Spain, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their province in Gaul, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">greatest extent of their power, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquest of Sicily, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with the Ottoman Turks, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">end of their rule in Spain, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sarai</span>, capital of the Mongols, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sardica</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Sofia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sardinia</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its early inhabitants, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <i><a href="#Page_53">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">province of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">occupied by Pisa, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Aragon, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Savoy, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sathas</span>, M., referred to, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Savona</span>, march of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Savoy</span>, House of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">position and growth of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> -<li class="isub1">originally Burgundian, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to Geneva, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexes Nizza, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its claims on Saluzzo, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Bernese conquests from, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Italian and French influence on, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its decline, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its later history, <a href="#Page_288">288-289</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French annexations from, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">French occupation of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Italian advance of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Sicily and Sardinia, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">{598}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">boundaries of, after the fall of Buonaparte, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saxon Mark</span>, the, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saxons</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlement in Britain, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Saxony</span>, conquered by Charles the Great, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">duchy of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the name, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">break-up of the duchy, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">new duchy and electorate of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">circle of, <i><a href="#Page_209">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dismemberment of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Scanderbeg</span>, revolt of Albania under, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Scandinavia</span>, ecclesiastical provinces of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its momentary union with Britain, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with Spain, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Eastern and Western aspects of, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its barbarian neighbours, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdoms of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its influence on the Baltic, compared with that of Germany, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Scania</span>, originally Danish, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its momentary transfer to Sweden, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Hanseatic occupation of, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Schaffhausen</span>, joins the Confederates, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Schlesien</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Silesia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sclavinia</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Danish conquest of, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Scotland</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dioceses of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its greatness due to its English element, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">historical position of, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">analogy of Switzerland to, <i><a href="#Page_549">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">formation of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">settlements of the Northmen in, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acknowledges the English supremacy, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">different tenures of the dominions of its kings, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grant of Lothian and Cumberland to, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its shifting relations towards England, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with England, <i><a href="#Page_552">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Scots</span>, their settlement in Britain, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their union with the Picts, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Scutari</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Skodra</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Scythia</span>, Roman province of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sebasteia</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sebastopol</span>, answers to old Cherson, <a href="#Page_516">516</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_73">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sebenico</span>, under Venice, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Seleukeia</span>, independence of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to the Empire by Trajan, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Seleukids</span>, extent and decline of their kingdom, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Selim I.</span>, Sultan, his conquests in Syria and Egypt, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Seljuk</span> Turks, their invasions, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">driven back by the Komnênoi, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">weakened by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Selsey</span>, see of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Selymbria</span>, won back to the Empire, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Semigallia</span>, <span class="smcap">Semigola</span>, part of the duchy of Curland, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dominion of the Sword-brothers in, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Semitic</span> nations in Europe, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sena Gallica</span> (Sinigallia), Roman colony, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sens</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">divided, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Septimania</span> (Gothia), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Saracen conquest of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by the Franks, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">march of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Servia</span>, Slavonic character of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Simeon, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations to the Empire, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to the Empire, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">revolts from the Empire, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Manuel, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beginning of the house of Nemanja, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its possessions on the Hadriatic, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">loses Bosnia, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">advance of under Stephen Dushan, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419-420</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Empire of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">break up of the Empire, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">later kingdom of, <i><a href="#Page_426">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">conquests and deliverances of, <i><a href="#Page_426">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">revolts and deliverance of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">enlarged by the Berlin Treaty, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Servians</span>, never wholly enslaved, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fourfold separation of the nation, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Severia</span>, conquered by Lithuania, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Severin</span>, Banat of, attacked by Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Seven Weeks’ War</span>, the, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Seville</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Castile, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_599" id="Page_599">{599}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sforza</span>, House of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sherborne</span>, see of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Shetland</span>, Scandinavian colony, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pledged to Scotland, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Shires</span>, mentioned in Domesday, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">two classes of, <i><a href="#Page_555">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Shirwan</span>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Siberia</span>, khanat of, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Russian conquest of, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sicily</span>, early inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Phœnician colonies in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">the first Roman province, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">state of under Rome, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Saracen conquest of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by George Maniakês, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Norman kingdom of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-395</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its conquests from the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">never a fief of the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Charles of Anjou, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its revolt, <i><a href="#Page_397">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Aragon, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with Savoy, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">with Austria, <i><a href="#Page_251">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">with Naples, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its practical effacement, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with the Crusading states, <i><a href="#Page_398">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">compared with Venice, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sicilies, The Two</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">union of with Aragon, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of the Spanish monarchy, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">divided, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">reunited, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to Italy, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Siculi</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Szeklers</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sidon</span>, Phœnician colony, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Siebenbürgen</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_435">435</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_49">note</a></i>); <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Transsilvania</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Siena</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">commonwealth of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Florence, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sikanians</span>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sikels</span>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sikyôn</span>, in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">a Dorian city, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Silesia</span>, its early relations to Poland, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">passes under Bohemian supremacy, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to the Bohemian kingdom, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes a dominion of the House of Austria, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">the greater part conquered by Prussia, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Polish territory added to, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Silvas</span>, conquered by Portugal, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Simeon</span>, Tzar of Bulgaria, his conquests, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sind</span>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sinôpê</span>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sirmium</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sitten</span>, see of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Skipetars</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Albanians</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Skodra</span> (Scutari), kingdom of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Servian, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dominion of the Balsa at, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sold to Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by Mahomet the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Skopia</span>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Slaves</span>, their settlement and migrations, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with those of the Teutons, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their two main divisions, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">parted asunder by the Magyars, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlements within the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in Greece and Macedonia, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">remain on Taÿgetos, <i><a href="#Page_375">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">their relations to the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">general history of the Northern Slaves, <a href="#Page_472">472-485</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Slavia</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Slavinia</span>, name of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Slavonia</span>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Slavonic Gulf</span>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sleswick</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations with Denmark, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Christian I., <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of the Peace of Roskild on, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">guaranteed to Denmark, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">wars in, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">transferred to Prussia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Slovaks</span>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Smolensk</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Lithuania, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its shiftings between Russia and Poland, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Smyrna</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acquired by Genoa, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sobrarbe</span>, formation of the kingdom, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Aragon, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Social War</span>, the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sofia</span> (Sardica), taken by the Bulgarians, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Turks, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_600" id="Page_600">{600}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Solothurn</span>, joins the Confederates, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sorabi</span>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Spain</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_3">3</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_1">note</a></i>).</li> -<li class="isub1">its geographical character, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">non-Aryan people in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Celtic settlements in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Greek and Phœnician settlements in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its connexion with Gaul, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">first Roman province in, <i><a href="#Page_55">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">final conquest of, <i><a href="#Page_55">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">settlements of Suevi and Vandals in, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">West-Gothic kingdom in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">southern part won back to the Empire, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">reconquered by West-Goths, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Saracen conquest of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">separated from the Eastern Caliphate, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquests of Charles the Great in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">foundation of its kingdoms, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> -<li class="isub1">its ecclesiastical divisions, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its geographical relations with France, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its quasi-imperial character, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">with South-eastern Europe, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nation of, grew out of the war with the Mussulmans, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">king of, use of the title, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">African Mussulmans in, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">end of their rule in, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">divides the Indies with Portugal, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of under Charles V., <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its conquests in Africa, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its insular possessions, <i><a href="#Page_543">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">revolutions of its colonies, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its possessions in the West Indies, <i><a href="#Page_544">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Spalato</span>, its origin, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Venice, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Spanish March</span>, the, conquered by Charles the Great, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">remains part of Karolingia, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">division of, <i><a href="#Page_155">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Spanish Monarchy</span>, the greatest extent of, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">partition of, <i><a href="#Page_539">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sparta</span>, her supremacy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins the Achaian league, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Speyer</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Germany, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes Bavarian, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Spizza</span>, originally Servian, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Austria, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Spoleto</span>, Lombard duchy of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stalbova</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stati degli Presidi</span>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Steiermark</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Styria</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stephen Dushan</span>, extent of the Servian Empire under, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stephen Tvartko</span>, king of Bosnia, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stephen Urosh</span>, his conquest of Thessaly and title, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stettin</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stormarn</span>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Strabo</span>, his description of Hellas, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_2">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stralsund</span>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Strassburg</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">seized by Lewis XIV., <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Germany, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Strathclyde</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acknowledges the English supremacy, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">granted to Scotland, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Strigonium</span> (Gran), ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Strymôn</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Styria</span> (Steiermark), duchy of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sudereys</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Hebrides</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Suevi</span>, their settlements, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Suleiman</span>, the Lawgiver, his conquests, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his African overlordship, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sumatra</span>, Dutch settlement in, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Surat</span>, French factory at, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Susdal</span>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sussex</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sutherland</span>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sutorina</span>, Ottoman frontier extends to, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Svealand</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sviatopluk</span>, founds the Great Moravian kingdom, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sviatoslaf</span>, overruns Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">his Asiatic conquests, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Swabia</span>, circle of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical towns in, <i><a href="#Page_216">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sweden</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its position in the Baltic, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relation to the Empire, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its conquest of Curland, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Finland, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined with Norway and Denmark, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_601" id="Page_601">{601}</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">separated, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">growth of, compared with Russia, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">advance of under Gustavus Adolphus, <i><a href="#Page_507">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">wars of with Russia and Poland, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">advance of against Denmark and Norway, <i><a href="#Page_508">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its German territories, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">greatest extent of, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its settlements in America, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its decline, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its later wars with Russia, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">losses of, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Norway, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Swiss League</span>, beginning and growth of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268-274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Swithiod</span>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Switzerland</span>, represents the Burgundian kingdom, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">German origin of the Confederation, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">popular errors about, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">eight ancient cantons of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of on the Austrian power, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beginning of its Italian dominions, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">thirteen cantons of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its allied and subject lands, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent and position of the League, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its Savoyard conquests, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its relations with France, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">abolition of the federal system in, <i><a href="#Page_344">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">restored by the Act of Mediation, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Buonaparte’s treatment of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nineteen cantons of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">present confederation of twenty-two cantons, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sword-Brothers</span>, their connexion with the Empire, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">established in Livland, <i><a href="#Page_495">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">extent of their dominion, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to the Teutonic Order, <i><a href="#Page_496">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">separated from them, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fall of the Order, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sybaris</span>, Greek colony, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Syracuse</span>, Greek colony, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquest of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered and loss by the Eastern Empire, <i><a href="#Page_370">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">by the Normans, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Syria</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman province of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Saracen conquest of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">partially restored to the Empire, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Selim I., <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Szeklers</span>, settle in Transsilvania, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Tangier</span>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tannenberg</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Taormina</span> (Tauromenion), taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tarantaise</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tarentum</span>, (Taras), early greatness of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Normans, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tarifa</span>, taken by Castile, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tarragona</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to Barcelona, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tarsos</span>, restored to the Empire, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tartars</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Mongols</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tasmania</span>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tauros, Mount</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tauromenion</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Taormina</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Taÿgetos</span>, Slave settlement on, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tchernigof</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lost and recovered by Poland, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Temeswar</span>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tenda</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tênos</span>, held by Venice, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Terbounia</span> (Trebinje), <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Terra Firma</span>, compared with ἤπειρος, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_3">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Teutonic Knights</span>, their connexion with the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of their rule, <i><a href="#Page_495">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">extent of their dominion, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joined to the Sword-brothers, <i><a href="#Page_496">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">separated from them, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their losses, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their cessions to Poland, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their vassalage to Poland, <i><a href="#Page_497">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">secularization of their dominion, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Teutons</span>, their settlements, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their wars with Rome, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">confederacies among, <i><a href="#Page_84">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thasos</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thebes</span>, head of the Boiôtian League, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">destroyed by Alexander, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Theodore Laskaris</span>, founds the Empire of Nikaia, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Theodoric</span>, King of the East Goths, his reign in Italy, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thermê</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Thessalonikê</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thesprotians</span>, in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">invade Thessaly, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_602" id="Page_602">{602}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thessalonikê</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its effects on the Latin Empire, <i><a href="#Page_384">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">its extent under Boniface, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by Michael of Epeiros, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Empire of, <i><a href="#Page_385">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">separated from Epeiros, <i><a href="#Page_385">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">incorporated with the Empire of Nikaia, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sold to Venice, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thessaly</span>, Thesprotian invasion of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">subservient to Macedonia, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">province of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of the kingdom of Thessalonikê, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">added to Servia by Stephen Urosh, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish conquest of, <i><a href="#Page_420">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thionville</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thirty Years’ War</span>, the, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thopia</span>, House of, Albanian kings in Epeiros, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thorn</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Prussia, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thrace</span>, Greek colonies in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its geography, <i><a href="#Page_33">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Rome, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">diocese of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thracians</span>, in the Homeric catalogue, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thrakêsion</span>, theme of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thurgau</span>, won from Austria by the Confederates, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Thuringians</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by the Franks, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tiberine Republic</span>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tigranes</span>, king of Armenia, subdued by the Romans, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Timour</span>, overthrows Bajazet, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tingitana</span>, province of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tirnovo</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tobago</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tocco</span>, House of, effects of their rule in Western Greece, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Toledo</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Alfonso VI., <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tortona</span>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tortosa</span>, Aragonese conquest of, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Toul</span>, annexed by France, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Toulouse</span>, Roman colony, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">capital of the West Gothic kingdom, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">county of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Touraine</span>, united to Anjou, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Τοῠρκοι</span>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_48">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tournay</span>, becomes French, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tours</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">bishopric of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trajan</span>, Emperor, his conquests, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">forms the province of Dacia, <i><a href="#Page_99">ib.</a></i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Transpadane Republic</span>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Transsilvania</span>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by the Magyars, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Teutonic colonies in, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tributary to the Turk, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">incorporated with Hungary, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Transvaal</span>, annexation of, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Traü</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trebinje</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Terbounia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trebizond</span> (Trapezous), city of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Empire of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acknowledges the Eastern Emperor, <i><a href="#Page_422">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by the Turks, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trent</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">bishopric of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fluctuates between Germany and Italy, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">within the Austrian circle, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Bavaria, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Austria, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Triaditza</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Sofia</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trier</span>, taken by the Franks, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">chancellorship of Gaul held by its archbishops, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Germany, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trieste</span>, commends itself to Austria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trinidad</span>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tripolis</span> (Asia), county of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tripolis</span> (Africa), conquered by Suleiman, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trojans</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trondhjem</span> (Nidaros), ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Trondhjemlän</span>, ceded to Sweden, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Norway, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Troyes</span>, treaty of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tuam</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tunis</span>, conquests and losses of by the Turk, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Charles V., <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Turanian</span> nations in Europe, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Turks</span>, Magyars so called, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_48">note</a></i>).</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see also</i> <span class="smcap">Ottomans</span> and <span class="smcap">Seljuks</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tuscany</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">commonwealths of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grand duchy of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">exchanged for Lorraine, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Piedmont, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tver</span>, annexed by Muscovy, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tyre</span>, Phœnician colony, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tyrol</span>, within the circle of Austria, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by Bavaria, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Austria, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_603" id="Page_603">{603}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tzar</span>, origin of the title, <a href="#Page_512">512</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_70">note</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tzernagora</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Montenegro</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tzernojevich</span>, dynasty of, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Tzetinje</span>, foundation of, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Ukraine Cossacks</span>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ulster</span>, province of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">United Provinces</span>, the, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recognition of their independence, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">colonies of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">United States</span> of America, the greatest colony of England, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of, <a href="#Page_560">560-562</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acknowledgement of their independence, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their extension to the West, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their lack of a name, <i><a href="#Page_563">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">cessions to by Spain, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Upsala</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Urbino</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by the Popes, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Uri</span>, obtains the Val Levantina, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Utica</span>, Phœnician colony, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Utrecht</span>, its bishops, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">peace of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Val Levantina</span>, won by Uri, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Valence</span>, annexed to the Dauphiny, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Valencia</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Aragon, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Valenciennes</span>, annexed by France, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Valentia</span>, province of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Valladolid</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Valois</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">added to France, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Valtellina</span>, won by Graubünden, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to the French kingdom of Italy, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vandals</span>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their settlements in Spain and in Africa, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">end of their kingdom, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Varna</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Varus</span>, defeated by Arminius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vasco de Gama</span>, discovers Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vasto</span>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vaud</span>, conquered from Savoy, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">freed, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Veii</span>, conquered by Rome, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Venaissin</span>, annexed to France, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Veneti</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Venetia</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman conquests of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">province of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Venice</span>, her origin, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">patriarchal see of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her greatness, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">relations to the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with Genoa and Sicily, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her first conquests in Dalmatia and Croatia, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her share in the Latin conquest of Constantinople, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">compared with Sicily, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of the fourth Crusade on, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">inherits the position of the Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her dominion primarily Hadriatic, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her possession of Crete, Cyprus, and Thessalonikê, <i><a href="#Page_405">ib.</a></i></li> -<li class="isub1">her Greek and Albanian possessions, <a href="#Page_408">408-410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">loses and recovers Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">acquires Skodra, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her losses, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">her Italian dominions, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">losses of by the treaty of Bologna, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquest and loss of the Peloponnêsos, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to Austria, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">part of the French kingdom of Italy, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Austria, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">momentary republic of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united to Italy, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Verden</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held and lost by Sweden, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Verdun</span>, division of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">bishopric of annexed by France, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vermandois</span>, annexed to France, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Verona</span>, fluctuates between Germany and Italy, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">subject to Venice, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">to Austria, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Italy, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vespasian</span>, his annexations, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Viatka</span>, commonwealth of, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed by Muscovy, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Victoria</span> (Australia), <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vienna</span>, Congress of, <a href="#Page_520">520</a></li> -<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_604" id="Page_604">{604}</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vienne</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Viennois</span>, Dauphiny of, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vindelicia</span>, conquest of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Visconti</span>, House of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vlachia</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Wallachia and Roumania</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vlachia, Great</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Thessaly</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vlachs</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Roumans</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vladimir</span>, first Christian prince of Russia, takes Cherson, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vladimir</span>, on the Kiasma, supremacy of, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vladimir</span> (Lodomeria) annexed by Lewis the Great, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">under Austria, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Volhynia</span>, conquered by Lithuania, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovered by Russia, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Volscians</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">their wars with Rome, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vratislaf</span>, king of Bohemia, <a href="#Page_492">492</a> (<i><a href="#Footnote_65">note</a></i>).</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Wagri</span>, <span class="smcap">Wagria</span>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Waldemar</span>, king of Denmark, conquests and losses, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wales, North</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wales</span>, Harold’s conquests from, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquest of, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">full incorporation of, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wales</span>, principality of, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wallachia</span>, formation of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">shiftings of, <a href="#Page_438">438-440</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its union with Moldavia, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wallis</span>, League of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its conquests from Savoy, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">united with France, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">becomes a Swiss Canton, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">‘<span class="smcap">Wandering of the Nations</span>,’ <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Warsaw</span>, duchy of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Weleti</span>, <span class="smcap">Weletabi</span>, <span class="smcap">Wiltsi</span>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wells</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Welsh</span>, use of the name, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wessex</span>, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its growth and supremacy, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Westfalia</span>, duchy of and circle, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Westfalia</span>, Peace of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">West Indies</span>, French colonies in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">British possessions in, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Westmoreland</span>, formation of the shire, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Widdin</span>, twice annexed by Hungary, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">William</span> the Conqueror, his continental conquests, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">England united by, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">William</span> of Hauteville, founds the county of Apulia, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">William</span> the Good, king of Sicily, his Epeirot conquests, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Winchester</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wismar</span>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Witold</span>, of Lithuania, his conquests, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Worcester</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Worms</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">restored to Germany, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Württemberg</span>, county of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">electorate and kingdom of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its extent, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Würzburg</span>, bishopric of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">its Bishops Dukes of East Francia, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Grand Duchy of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">York</span>, archbishopric of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Zabljak</span>, ancient capital of Montenegro, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zaccaria</span>, princes of, hold Chios, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zachloumia</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zagrab</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Agram</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zähringen</span>, dukes of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zakynthos</span> (Zante), conquered by William the Good, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held in fief by Margarito, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">commended to Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tributary to the Sultan, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zalacca</span>, battle of, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zante</span>; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Zakynthos</span>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zara</span> (Jadera), Roman colony, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">held by Venice, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Peace of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zaragoza</span>, ecclesiastical province of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered by Aragon, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zealand</span>, province of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zealand</span>, Danish island, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zeno</span>, reunion of the Empire under, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zeugmin</span>, recovered by Manuel Komnênos, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zips</span>, pledged to Poland, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zug</span>, joins the Confederates, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zürich</span>, minster of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">joins the Confederates, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zutphen</span>, county of, annexed to Burgundy, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zuyder-Zee</span>, inroads of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li></ul> - - - -<p class="center"><i>Spottiswoode & Co., Printers, New-street Square, London.</i></p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /></div><div class="chap"> -<p class="ph3"><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</a></p> - - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In modern use we speak of <i>Spain</i> as only one part, though much the -larger part, of the peninsula, and of <i>Portugal</i> as another part. But -this simply comes from the accident that, for some centuries past, all -the other Spanish kingdoms have been joined under one government, while -Portugal has remained separate. In speaking of any time till near the -end of the fifteenth century of our æra, the word <i>Spain</i> must always -be used in the geographical sense, as the name of the whole peninsula.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See the first chapter of his eighth book (vol. ii. p. 139 of -the Tauchnitz edition). He makes four peninsulas within peninsulas, -beginning from the south with Peloponnêsos, and he enlarges on the -general character of the country as made up of gulfs and promontories.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Ἤπειρος is simply the mainland, and came only gradually to mean a -particular country. We may compare the use of ‘terra firma’ in South -America. In the catalogue (<i>Iliad</i>, ii. 620-635), after the island -subjects of Odysseus have been reckoned up, we read: οἵ τ᾽ Ἤπειρον -ἔχον, ἠδ᾽ ἀντιπέραι᾽ ἐνέμοντο. This must mean the land afterwards -called Akarnania. It was remarked at a later time that the Akarnanians -were the only people of Greece who did not appear in the catalogue.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> We shall come as we go on to two uses of the name in which Italy, -oddly enough, meant only the northern part of the land commonly so -called. But in both these cases the name had a purely political and -technical meaning, and it never came into common use in this sense.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Some may think that the Cisalpine Gauls ought to be excepted, as -the common Roman story represents them as having crossed the Alps from -Transalpine Gaul at a time which almost comes within the range of -contemporary history. But this is a point about which there is no real -certainty; and it seems quite as likely that the Gaulish settlements on -the Italian side of the Alps were as old as those on the other side.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> In a more minute study of the history it will be found that Latin -Africa held out against the Saracens very much longer than Syria -and Egypt. But for our purpose the two may be classed together in -opposition to those lands in Europe and Asia which always remained -Roman or Greek.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The geographical extent of the Frankish dominion before and after -the conquest of Charles is most fully marked by Einhard, Vita Karoli, -c. 15.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> While I was revising this chapter, I became acquainted with C. J. -Jireček’s <i>Geschichte der Bulgaren</i> (Prag, 1876), the third chapter -of which is devoted to an examination of the early settlements of -the Slaves in the Eastern peninsula. He makes it probable that they -were there earlier than is generally thought. They seem, exactly -like the Teutons, to have first entered the Empire as captives and -colonists, a process which may have begun as early as the second and -third centuries. He shows also that the march of Theodoric into Italy -had the effect of laying a large region open to their settlements. -But he leaves my general propositions untouched. It is not till the -sixth century that those Slavonic movements began which are of real -importance to historical geography.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The best account of the various names by which the East-Frankish -kings and their people are described is given by Waitz, <i>Deutsche -Verfassungsgeschichte</i>, v. 121 et seqq.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> So Wippo (2) describes the gathering of the men of the kingdom: -‘Cis et circa Rhenum castra locabant. Qui dum Galliam a Germanis -dividat, ex parte <i>Germaniæ</i> Saxones cum sibi adjacentibus Sclavis, -Franci orientales, Norici, Alamanni, convenere. De <i>Gallia</i> vero Franci -qui super Rhenum habitant, Ribuarii, Liutharingi, coadunati sunt.’ The -two sets of Franks are again distinguished from the Latin or French -‘Franci.’</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See special treatise on the Themes in the third volume of the Bonn -edition. The Treatise which follows, ‘de Administrando Imperio,’ is -also full of geographical matter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Unless we except the small part of Flanders held by the -Confederation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> On the marks, see Waitz, <i>Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichten</i>, vii. -62, et seq.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> No influence was more powerful for this end than the <i>Zollverein</i> -or customs union, which gradually united most of the German states -for certain purposes. But as it did not affect the boundaries or the -governments of sovereign states, it hardly concerns geography. Neither -do the strivings after more perfect union in 1848 and the following -years.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Compare the mention of Rudolf in the letter of Cnut, on his Roman -Pilgrimage, in Florence of Worcester, 1031. He is there ‘Rodulphus rex, -qui maxime ipsarum clausurarum dominatur.’</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> That Aosta was strictly Burgundian appears from the ‘Divisio -Imperii, 806’ (Pertz, Leges, i. 141), where Italy is granted whole -to Pippin, Burgundy is divided between Charles and Lewis; but it is -provided that both Charles and Lewis shall have success to Italy, -‘Karolus per vallem Augustanam quæ ad regnum ejus pertinet.’ The -Divisio Imperii of 839 is still plainer (Pertz, Leges, i. 373, -Scriptores, i. 434). There the one share takes in ‘Regnum Italiæ -partemque Burgundiæ, id est, vallem Augustanam,’ and certain other -districts. So Einhard (Vita Karoli, 15) excludes Aosta from Italy. -‘Italia tota, quæ ab Augusta Prætoria usque in Calabriam inferiorem, in -qua Græcorum et Beneventanorum constat esse confinia, porrigitur.’ As -Calabria was not part of Italy in this sense, so neither was Aosta.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, iv. 73.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Namely in the Illyrian Provinces and in the Ionian Islands. See -above, <a href="#Page_322">p. 322</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_139">p. 139</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_135">p. 135</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_292">p. 292</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_264">p. 264</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_284">pp. 284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Unless we except the momentary existence of the first Septinsular -Republic, to be spoken of below.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> The longer form Λογγιβαρδία clave to this theme, while the Greeks -learned to apply the contracted form Λαμπαρδοί to the Lombards of -Northern Italy.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> A temporary Bulgarian occupation seems clear from Einhard, Annals, -827, 828. But on the supposed existence of a Bulgarian duchy in the -present Hungary see Roesler, <i>Romänische Studien</i>, 201.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> It must be remembered that δεσπότης was and is a common Byzantine -title, with no worse meaning than <i>dominus</i> or any of the words which -translate it.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> On this very singular, but very obscure, little state see our -own Benedict (ii. 199) and Roger of Howden (iii. 161, 269), and -the Ghibeline Annals of Placentia, Pertz, xix. 468. See also Hopf, -<i>Geschichte Griechenlands</i>, vi. 161.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_379">p. 379</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> It is well to see this familiar title in Greek. The Duke (δοὺξ -Βενετίας) was δεσποτικῷ ἀξιώματι τιμηθεὶς, ἔχειν τε ἐξ ὅλου πρὸς τὸ -ὅλον ὃ τὸ τῶν Φράγκων ἐκτήσατο γένος τὸ τέταρτον καὶ τοῦ τετάρτου τὸ -ἥμισυ. George Akropolitês, 15. ed. Bonn.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> If this is what is really meant by <i>Laza</i> or <i>Lacta</i> in the Act of -Partition. Muratori, xii. 357.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See the Venetian Chronicle in Pertz, viii. 29, 32. After the -Venetian conquest the Duke’s name is placed after that of the Emperor -in religious ceremonies. But we see how slight was the real hold of -the Empire on these distant dependencies, when we find that, on the -submission of Croatia and Dalmatia to Basil the Macedonian, the tribute -of the cities was assigned to the Croatian prince.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Negroponte</i>—a wild corruption of <i>Euripos</i>—is strictly the -name of one of the Latin baronies in Euboia, and has been carelessly -transferred to the whole island, as Crete used often to be called -<i>Candia</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Ἄσπρη θάλασσα, as distinguished from the Euxine, the μαύρη θάλασσα.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Fallmerayer gives the name a Slavonic origin; Hopf and Hertzberg -make Μωραία a transposition of Ῥὡμαία. Neither derivation is -satisfactory; but either is better than the mulberry-leaf.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Grand Sire</i>, <i>Megaskyr</i>, = μέγας κύριος. See Nikêphoros Grêgoras, -vii. 5, vol. i. p. 239.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_388">p. 388</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_283">p. 283</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See below, <a href="#Page_425">p. 425</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_141">p. 141</a>. It was Thessaly, less <i>Neopatra</i> attached to Athens, -<i>Pteleon</i> held by Venice, <i>Zeitouni</i> by the Empire.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> ‘Basilissa Romæorum’ = Ῥωμαίων βασίλισσα. ‘Rom<i>æ</i>i’ is not -uncommonly used for the Ῥωμαῐωι of the East, as distinguished from the -‘Rom<i>an</i>orum Imperator’ of the West.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_377">p. 377</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_420">p. 420</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> He claimed (see Jireček, <i>Geschichte der Bulgaren</i>, p. 351) -to rule over the Greek, the Albanian, and the Servian lands, from -Hadrianople to Durazzo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> The history of George Akropolitês gives a narrative of these wars -which is worth studying, if only for its close bearing on the most -recent events.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_157">p. 157</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_158">p. 158</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> On the origin of the name, see Roesler, <i>Romänische Studien</i>, 159, -218, 260. There is something strange in Constantine calling the Finnish -Magyars Τοῠρκοι, in opposition to the really Turkish Patzinaks. His -Τουρκία and Φραγγία are of course Hungary and Germany. De Adm. Imp. 13, -40. pp. 81, 173. ed. Bonn.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Also called <i>Siebenbürgen</i>, a corruption of the name of the -fortress of <i>Cibin</i>, which has many spellings.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> I must have given far more faith to it than I do now when I -wrote <a href="#Page_71">p. 71</a>. Roesler’s book, <i>Romänische Studien</i>, has since put the -whole matter in a clear light; nor can I think that his arguments are -at all set aside by the answer of Jung, <i>Römer und Romanen in den -Donauländern</i>. Innsbruck, 1877.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_160">pp. 160-162</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_163">p. 163</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> A common name for these closely allied nations is sometimes -needed. <i>Lettic</i> is the most convenient; <i>Lett</i>, with the adjective -<i>Lettish</i>, is the special name of one of the obscurer members of the -family.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_130">p. 130</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> See Einhard, Annals A. 815, where we read, ‘trans Ægidoram -fluvium in terram Nordmannorum ... perveniunt.’ So Vita Karoli 12: -‘Dani ac Sueones quos Nortmannos vocamus,’ and 14, ‘Nortmanni qui Dani -vocantur.’ But Adam of Bremen (ii. 3) speaks of ‘mare novissimum, quod -Nortmannos a Danis dirimit.’ But the name includes the Swedes: as in i. -63 he says, ‘Sueones et Gothi, vel, si ita melius dicuntur, Nortmanni,’ -and i. 16, ‘Dani et ceteri qui trans Daniam sunt populi <i>ab historicis -Francorum</i> omnes Nordmanni vocantur.’</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_131">p. 131</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> See Adam of Bremen, iv. 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> The origin of Samo and the chief seat of his dominion, whether -Bohemia or Carinthia, is discussed by Professor Fasching of Marburg -(Austria) in the <i>Zweiter Jahresbericht der kk. Staats-Oberrealschule -in Marburg</i>, 1872.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> See Schafarik, <i>Slawische Alterthümer</i>, ii. 503.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> The Poles claim Boleslaf the First as the first king. But Lambert -(1067), who strongly insists on the tributary condition of Poland, -makes Boleslaf the Second the first king. The royal dignity was -certainly forfeited after his death.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> There can be no doubt that the Russian name strictly belongs to -the Scandinavian rulers, and not to the Slavonic people. See Schafarik, -i. 65; Historical Essays, iii. 386. The case is parallel to that of the -Bulgarians and the Franks, save that the name <i>Rus</i> is said to be, not -a Scandinavian name, but a name applied to the Swedes by the Fins.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> See above pp. <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> This document, granted at Metz in 1214, will be found in -Bréholles’ <i>Historia Diplomatica Friderici Secundi</i>, i. 347. It reads -like a complete surrender of all Imperial rights in both the German -and the Slavonic conquests of Waldemar. It may be that it seems to -have that meaning only because the retreating of Terminus was deemed -inconceivable.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Vratislaf, who reigned from 1061 to 1092, is called the first king -of Bohemia, but his royal dignity was only personal. The succession of -kings begins only with Ottocar the First, who reigned from 1197 to 1230.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_437">p. 437</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_448">p. 448</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Conquered by Sweden 1643, restored to Denmark 1645. Ceded to -Sweden 1658, but recovered the same year.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_467">p. 467</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> There is no doubt that the title of <i>Czar</i>, or rather <i>Tzar</i>, -borne by the Russian princes, as by those of Servia and Bulgaria in -earlier times, is simply a contraction of <i>Cæsar</i>. In the Treaty of -Carlowitz Peter the Great appears as Tzar of endless countries, but he -is not called <i>Imperator</i>, though the Sultan is.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_212">p. 212</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> It is however to be regretted that, in bringing back the old names -into these regions, they have been so often applied to wrong places. -Thus the new <i>Sebastopol</i> answers to the old <i>Cherson</i>, while the new -<i>Cherson</i> is elsewhere. The new <i>Odessa</i> has nothing to do with the old -<i>Odêssos</i>, and so in other cases.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_208">p. 208</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_228">p. 228</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> See also <a href="#Page_222">p. 222</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_449">p. 449</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_441">p. 441</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_154">p. 154</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_155">p. 155</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_4">p. 4</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_154">p. 154</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_335">p. 335</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_343">p. 343</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Conquered by England 1708. Ceded 1713. Recovered 1756. Ceded to -England 1763. Recovered 1782. Conquered by England 1798. Recovered 1802.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_447">p. 447</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 564.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_98">p. 98</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> The Tudor kings were doubtless of British descent; but they did -not reign by virtue of that descent, and they did not come in till ages -after the English kingdom was completely formed.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 580.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> It should be remembered that the principality became the appanage -of the eldest son only by accident. The first English prince, -afterwards Edward the Second, was not his father’s eldest son at the -time of his creation. The title moreover is newly created each time.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 48; and Macmillan’s Magazine, -April, 1880.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> The Latin <i>colonia</i> certainly does not imply independence; but, -the word <i>colony</i>, in our use of it, rather answers to the Greek -ἀποικία which does.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> It may be well to give the dates in order:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left">Plymouth</td><td align="left">1620</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Massachusetts</td><td align="left">1628</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New Hampshire</td><td align="left">1629</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Connecticut</td><td align="left">1635</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Newhaven</td><td align="left">1638</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Providence</td><td align="left">1644</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rhode Island</td><td align="left">1634</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Maine</td><td align="left">1638</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New Hampshire annexed by Massachusetts</td><td align="left">1641</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Rhode Island and Providence united</td><td align="left">1644</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Connecticut and Newhaven united</td><td align="left">1664</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">New Hampshire separated from Massachusetts</td><td align="left">1671</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Maine purchased by Massachusetts</td><td align="left">1677</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Plymouth and Massachusetts united</td><td align="left">1691</td></tr> -</table></div> -</div></div> - -<hr class="chap" /><div> - -<p>[Transcriber’s note: The following changes have been made to this text:</p> - -<ul class="non_index"><li>Page ix: ‘Kyrêne’ to ‘Kyrênê’—‘Crete, Cyprus, Kyrênê’.</li> - -<li>Page xxviii: ‘Brobant’ to ‘Brabant’—‘Brabant; Hainault’.</li> - -<li>Page xlii: ‘Lauenberg’ to ‘Lauenburg’—‘Saxony; Lauenburg;’.</li> - -<li>Page 31: ‘Peloponnêsian’ to ‘Peloponnesian’—‘Peloponnesian cities’.</li> - -<li>Page 94, sidenote: ‘B.C. 476-493’ to ‘A.D. 476-493’.</li> - -<li>Page 114, sidenote: ‘South-eastern’ to ‘South-western’.</li> - -<li>Page 208, sidenote: ‘121.’ to ‘1212.’—‘1180-1212.’</li> - -<li>Page 217: ‘Görtz’ to ‘Görz’—‘borderlands of <i>Görz</i>’.</li> - -<li>Page 240, sidenote: ‘Palaiologioi’ to ‘Palaiologoi’—‘Palaiologoi at Montferrat, 1306.’</li> - -<li>Page 320: ‘at’ to ‘as’—‘as it stood.’</li> - -<li>Page 352: ‘Napoleone’ to ‘Napoleon’—‘Napoleon Buonaparte was born’.</li> - -<li>Page 354: ‘theatened’ to ‘threatened’—‘seriously threatened’.</li> - -<li>Page 368: ‘setttlement’ to ‘settlement’—‘conquest and settlement’.</li> - -<li>Page 372: ‘begining’ to ‘beginning’—‘beginning of the eleventh’.</li> - -<li>Page 373: missing word ‘time’ added—‘to time enforced.’</li> - -<li>Page 379: ‘posssession’ to ‘possession’—‘Imperial possession’.</li> - -<li>Page 389: ‘Nikomédeia’ to ‘Nikomêdeia’—‘<i>Nikaia</i>, <i>Nikomêdeia</i>’.</li> - -<li>Page 396, sidenote: ‘Epirot’ to ‘Epeirot’—‘Epeirot conquests of William’.</li> - -<li>Page 407: ‘Kommênos’ to ‘Komnênos’—‘Under Manuel Komnênos’.</li> - -<li>Page 418, sidenote: ‘1343.’ to ‘1383.’—‘1348-1383.’</li> - -<li>Page 428: ‘Balza’ to ‘Balsa’—‘the house of Balsa’.</li> - -<li>Page 432, sidenote: ‘84’ to ‘884’—‘884-894.’</li> - -<li>Page 493: ‘burggraves’ to ‘burgraves’—‘burgraves of Nürnberg.’</li> - -<li>Page 512: ‘Ăbo’ to ‘Åbo’—‘Peace of Åbo’.</li> - -<li>Page 539, sidenote: ‘possesions’ to ‘possessions’—‘outlying possessions’.</li> - -<li>Page 550: ‘Northhumberland’ to ‘Northumberland’—‘part of Northumberland’.</li> - -<li>Page 561, sidenote: ‘1346’ to ‘1646’—’Maryland. 1646.’</li> - -<li>Page 564, sidenote: ‘Dependen’ to ‘Dependent’—‘Dependent confederacy.’</li> - -<li>Page 580: ‘ecclesiastial’ to ‘ecclesiastical’—‘Embrun, ecclesiastical province’.</li> - -<li>Page 583: ‘Geatas’ to ‘Geátas’—‘Gauts, Geátas’.</li> - -<li>Page 586: ‘Jagerndorf’ to ‘Jägerndorf’—‘Jägerndorf, principality of’.</li> - -<li>Page 587: ‘Kamenietz’ to ‘Kamienetz’—‘Kamienetz, ceded by Poland’.</li> - -<li>Page 587: ‘Korônê’ to ‘Kôrônê’—‘Kôrônê; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Coron</span>.’</li> - -<li>Page 587: ‘Koloneia’ to ‘Kolôneia’—‘Kolôneia, theme of’.</li> - -<li>Page 589: ‘Luzelburg’ to ‘Lüzelburg’—‘Luxemburg (Lüzelburg)’.</li> - -<li>Page 590: ‘Monbeliard’ to ‘Montbeliard’—‘Montbeliard, county of’.</li> - -<li>Page 592: ‘Komnenos’ to ‘Komnênos’—‘Alexios Komnênos, 381.’</li> - -<li>Page 594: ‘Phokaia’ to ‘Phôkaia’—‘Phôkaia, held by’.</li> - -<li>Page 594: ‘Julii’ to ‘Julia’—‘Pietas Julia; <i>see</i> <span class="smcap">Pola</span>.’</li> - -<li>Page 595: ‘remain’ to ‘remains’—‘long remains heathen’.</li> - -<li>Page 595: ‘Bradenburg’ to ‘Brandenburg’—‘united with Brandenburg’.</li> - -<li>Page 599: ‘Maniakes’ to ‘Maniakês’—‘recovered by George Maniakês’.</li> - -<li>Page 599: ‘Sinopê’ to ‘Sinôpê’—‘Sinôpê, 39’.</li> - -<li>Page 600: ‘Soluthurn’ to ‘Solothurn’—‘Solothurn, joins the Confederates’.</li> - -<li>Page 600: ‘610’ to ‘10’—‘its geographical character, 10’.</li> - -<li>Page 600: ‘Califate’ to ‘Caliphate’—‘Eastern Caliphate, 113.’</li> - -<li>Page 600: ‘Presidenti’ to ‘Presidi’—‘Stati degli Presidi’.</li> - -<li>Page 603: ‘Tzernoievich’ to ‘Tzernojevich’—‘Tzernojevich, dynasty of’.]</li></ul> -</div> - - -</div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Historical Geography of Europe., by -Edward A. 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