diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/61358-h/61358-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/61358-h/61358-h.htm | 26336 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 26336 deletions
diff --git a/old/61358-h/61358-h.htm b/old/61358-h/61358-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 6bd5082..0000000 --- a/old/61358-h/61358-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26336 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of A History of England, Period I Mediaeval Monarchy, by J. Franck Bright</title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; - margin-top: 1.5em; - margin-bottom: .5em; - word-spacing: 0.1em; - letter-spacing: 0.1em; - line-height: 1em; - font-weight: normal; -} - -h1 {font-size: 160%;} -h2 {font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.5em;} - -p { - margin-top: .5em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .3em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -.p1 {margin-top: 1em;} -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.p6 {margin-top: 6em;} - -.negin2 {padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: justify; margin: .3em 5% 0 2%;} - -.noindent {text-indent: 0em;} - -.gentable {font-size: 85%; white-space: pre; font-family: Courier, monospace; } - -@media handheld { - .gentable {display: none;} -} - -.pfs240 {font-size: 240%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs150 {font-size: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs120 {font-size: 120%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs100 {font-size: 100%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs90 {font-size: 90%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs80 {font-size: 80%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs70 {font-size: 70%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs60 {font-size: 60%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} - -.fs70 {font-size: 70%; font-style: normal;} -.fs80 {font-size: 80%; font-style: normal;} -.fs90 {font-size: 90%; font-style: normal;} -.fs135 {font-size: 135%; font-style: normal;} - -.bold {font-weight: bold;} - - -/* for horizontal lines */ -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 1.5em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 30%; margin-left: 35%; margin-right: 35%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%; - margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} -hr.fulla {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%; - border-top: thick solid;} - -hr.r30a {width: 30%; margin-left: 35%; margin-right: 35%; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -hr.r50 {width: 50%; margin-left: 25%; margin-right: 25%; - margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} - -@media handheld { -hr.chap {width: 0%; display: none;} -} - -/* for inserting info from TN changes */ -.corr { - text-decoration: none; - border-bottom: thin dotted blue; -} - -@media handheld { - .corr { - text-decoration: none; - border-bottom: none; - } -} - -/* for different code on screen versus handhelds */ -.screenonly { display: block; } -.handonly { display: none; } - -@media handheld { - .screenonly { display: none; } - .handonly { display: block; } -} - - -/* for non-image large letter dropcaps */ -p.drop-cap {text-indent: -.4em;} - -p.drop-cap:first-letter { - float: left; - clear: left; - margin: 0.11em 0.2em 0em 0em; - font-size: 250%; - line-height:0.7em; -} - -@media handheld { - p.drop-cap {text-indent: 0em;} - - p.drop-cap:first-letter { - float: none; - margin: 0; - font-size: 100%;} -} - - -/* for tables */ -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - -td {padding: .18em .3em 0 .3em;} - -.tdl {text-align: left; padding-left: 1.5em; text-indent: -1em;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} - -.tdrt {text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} -.tdrb {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} - -/* for spacing */ - -.pad1 {padding-left: 1em;} -.pad2 {padding-left: 2em;} -.pad3 {padding-left: 3em;} -.pad6 {padding-left: 6em;} - -.pad20pc {padding-left: 20%;} - -/* for page number dispay in margin */ -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - color: #A9A9A9; - left: 92%; - font-size: small; - font-weight: normal; - font-style: normal; - text-align: right; - text-indent: .5em; -} - -/* blockquote (/# #/) */ -.blockquot {margin: 1.5em 5% 1.5em 5%; font-size: 90%; } - -.blockquotx {margin: .2em 0 0 10%; font-size: 80%;} -.blockquotx p {text-indent: 0em; margin-top: 0em;} - -/* sidenotes */ - -/* Multiple sidenotes in a paragraph was hard to get working - on all devices -- web, .epub and .mobi (kindle). The "sn-box" - container with presence/absence of the "width" parameter is - the result. Kindle previwer (3.36.1) did not display as desired, - but loading to a Paperwhite ereader did display as expected. */ - -.sn-box {} - -@media handheld { - .sn-box { - width: 24%; - padding: 0em; - margin: .5em; - float: right; - clear: right; - } -} - -.sidenote { - width: 20%; - padding: 0.5em; - margin: 1em 0 .2em 1em; - float: right; - clear: right; - font-size: smaller; - color: black; - background: #eeeeee; - border: dashed thin; -} - -@media handheld { - .sidenote { - width: 20%; - padding: 0.5em; - margin: 1em 0 .2em 1em; - float: right; - clear: right; - font-size: smaller; - color: black; - background: #eeeeee; - border: dashed thin; - } -} -.sidenotex { - width: 20%; - padding: 0.5em; - margin: 1em 0 .2em 1em; - float: right; - clear: right; - font-size: smaller; - color: black; - background: #eeeeee; - border: dashed thin; -} - -@media handheld { - .sidenotex { - padding: 0.5em; - margin: 1em 0 .2em 1em; - float: right; - clear: right; - font-size: smaller; - color: black; - background: #eeeeee; - border: dashed thin; - } -} - - -/* general placement and presentation */ -.bbox {margin: 0em; - padding: .5em; - border: solid thin;} - -.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.wsp {word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.lsp {letter-spacing: 0.1em;} -.lsp2 {letter-spacing: 0.2em;} -.lht {line-height: 2em;} - -.caption {font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%; - text-align: center; padding-bottom: 0.50em;} - -.antiqua {font-family: Blackletter, Fraktur, Textur, "Olde English Mt", "Olde English", Diploma, England, Gothic, serif;} - -.pg-brk {page-break-before: always;} -.no-brk {page-break-before: avoid;} -.chapter {} - -/* Images */ -img {border: none; max-width: 100%; height: auto;} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - padding-top: .7em; - padding-bottom: .5em; - text-align: center; -} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 3em; - padding-bottom: 1em;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} -.footnote p {text-indent: 0em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; -} - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry-container {text-align: center; font-size: small;} - -.poetry {display: inline-block; text-align: left;} - -.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} - -.poetry .verseq {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 2.6em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -.poetry .verse0 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -.poetry .verse2 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 4em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -.poetry .verse4 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 4.9em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -.poetry .verse6 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 6em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -.poetry .verse8 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 8em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -.poetry .verse12 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 12em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} - -@media handheld { - .poetry {display: block; margin-left: 4.5em;} -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size: 90%; - padding: 0.5em; - margin-top: 5em; - margin-bottom: 5em; -} - -.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} - -/* custom cover.jpg */ -.customcover {visibility: hidden; display: none;} -@media handheld { - .customcover {visibility: visible; display: block;} -} - - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of England, by J. Franck Bright - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: A History of England - Period I, Mediaeval Monarchy - -Author: J. Franck Bright - -Release Date: February 9, 2020 [EBook #61358] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ENGLAND *** - - - - -Produced by Jane Robins, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, and the footnotes have been -placed at the end of the book.</p> - -<p class="handonly">The genealogical tables and the many sidenotes in some -paragraphs are best viewed using a smaller-size font.</p> - -<p class="handonly">The genealogical tables are displayed in image form -only on handheld devices, but are available in searchable text format in -the .txt and .htm versions of this ebook.</p> - -<p class="customcover">The cover image was created by the transcriber -and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -<p>Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a></p> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h1> -A HISTORY OF ENGLAND<br /> -<br /><br /> -<ins><hr class="r50" /></ins> -<span class="fs70"><em>MEDIÆVAL MONARCHY</em></span><br /> -<ins><hr class="r50" /></ins> -<br /> -<span class="fs70 bold">449–1485</span><br /> -</h1> -<p class="p6" /> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p6" /> - -<div class="bbox"> -<p class="pfs150"><em>A HISTORY OF ENGLAND.</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><em>By the</em> Rev. <span class="smcap">J. Franck Bright</span>, M.A., <em>Fellow of University -College, and Historical Lecturer in Balliol, New, and University -Colleges, Oxford; late Master of the Modern School in Marlborough -College</em>.</p> - -<p class="center">With numerous Maps and Plans. Crown 8vo.</p> - -<p>This work is divided into three Periods of convenient and -handy size, especially adapted for use in Schools, as well as for -Students reading special portions of History for local and other -Examinations.</p> -</div> - -<p class="negin2 fs90">Period I.—<span class="smcap">Mediæval Monarchy</span>: The Departure of the Romans, -to Richard III. From <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 449 to <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1485. 4<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs90">Period II.—<span class="smcap">Personal Monarchy</span>: Henry VII. to James II. -From <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1485 to <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1688. 5<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs90">Period III.—<span class="smcap">Constitutional Monarchy</span>: William and Mary -to the Present Time. From <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1689 to <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1837. 7<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> -</div> - -<p class="p2 pfs90">[<em>All rights reserved.</em>]</p> -<p class="p6" /> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> - -<p class="p1 pfs120">A</p> - -<p class="smcap pfs240">History of England</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs60">BY THE REV.</p> -<p class="p1 pfs120">J. FRANCK BRIGHT, M.A.</p> -<p class="pfs60 lht">FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, AND HISTORICAL LECTURER IN BALLIOL, NEW, AND -UNIVERSITY COLLEGES, OXFORD; LATE MASTER OF THE MODERN SCHOOL -IN MARLBOROUGH COLLEGE</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs90"><em>PERIOD I.</em></p> -<p class="pfs100">MEDIÆVAL MONARCHY</p> -<p class="pfs90">From the Departure of the Romans to Richard III.</p> -<p class="pfs90">449–1485</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs80">With Maps and Plans</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs100 lsp">RIVINGTONS</p> -<p class="pfs100 lsp2"><em>WATERLOO PLACE, LONDON</em></p> -<p class="pfs90 antiqua lsp wsp">Oxford, and Cambridge</p> -<p class="pfs70">MDCCCLXXVII</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs70">[<em>Second Edition, Revised</em>]</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk lsp2">PREFACE.</h2> - - -<p class="drop-cap">The object of this book is expressed in the title. It is -intended to be a useful book for school teaching, and -advances no higher pretensions. Some years ago, at a -meeting of Public School Masters, the want of such a book -was spoken of, and at the suggestion of his friends, the -Author determined to attempt to supply this want. The -objections raised to the school histories ordinarily used -were—first, the absence of historical perspective, produced -by the unconnected manner in which the facts were narrated, -and the inadequate mention of the foreign relations -of the country; secondly, the omission of many important -points of constitutional history; thirdly, the limitation of -the history to the political relations of the nation, to the -exclusion of its social growth. It was at first intended to -approach the history almost entirely on the social and -constitutional side; but a very short trial proved that this -method required a too constant employment of allusions, -and presupposed too much knowledge in the reader, to be -suitable for a book intended primarily for schools. It was -therefore resolved to limit the description of the growth of -society to a few comprehensive chapters and passages, and -to follow the general course of history in such a way as -to bring out as clearly as possible the connection of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> -events, and their relative importance in the general national -growth. This decision, though taken against his inclinations, -the Author can no longer regret, as the social side of -our history has been so adequately treated by Mr. Green -in his <em>History of the English People</em>, of the approaching -publication of which he was at the time quite ignorant. -On the same grounds of practical utility, it has been -thought better to retain the old and well-known divisions -into reigns, rather than to disturb the knowledge boys -have already gained by the introduction of a new though -more scientific division.</p> - -<p>The Author has not scrupled to avail himself of the -works of modern authors, though, in most cases, he has verified -their views by reference to original authorities. In the -earlier period the works of Professor <span class="smcap">Stubbs</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Freeman</span>, -and Dr. <span class="smcap">Pauli</span>; in the Tudor and Stuart period those of -<span class="smcap">Froude</span>, <span class="smcap">Ranke</span>, and <span class="smcap">Macaulay</span>; in the later period the histories -of Miss <span class="smcap">Martineau</span> and Lord <span class="smcap">Stanhope</span> have been of -the greatest assistance. Greater stress has been laid upon -the later than the earlier periods, as is indeed obvious from -the divisions of the work. With regard to the starting-point -chosen, it may be well to explain that the English invasion -was fixed upon, because it so thoroughly obliterated all -remnants of the Roman rule, that they have exerted little -or no influence upon the development of the nation—the -real point of interest in a national history. It is hoped -that the genealogies of the great families will assist in the -comprehension of mediæval times in the history of which -they played so large a part, and that the maps supplied -will suffice to enable the reader to follow pretty accurately,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> -without reference to another atlas, the military and political -events mentioned. A brief and rapid summary for the -use of beginners was originally projected to preface the -work, but the brevity required by a book of this description -rendered such an addition impossible without injury -to the more important part. An attempt has been made to -replace it by a very full analysis, which, in the hands of -a careful teacher, has been proved by experience a useful -method of teaching the main facts of history.</p> - -<p class="p1"><span class="smcap">Oxford</span>, 1875.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk">A LIST OF SOME USEFUL AUTHORITIES.</h2> - - -<p class="pfs90">BEFORE THE CONQUEST.</p> - -<p class="smcap fs90">General Histories.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Lappenberg’s <cite>England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings</cite>. Lingard’s -<cite>History of England</cite>. Sharon Turner’s <cite>History of the Anglo-Saxons</cite>. -Freeman and Palgrave have each published short books for the -young on the period.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90">Constitutional.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>All that is necessary to be known is to be found in Stubbs’ <cite>Constitutional -History</cite>. Treated more at length in Kemble’s <cite>Saxons in -England</cite>, and Sir F. Palgrave’s <cite>History of the English Commonwealth</cite>. -An excellent sketch in Freeman’s <cite>Norman Conquest</cite>. All -the ancient laws are collected in Thorpe’s <cite>Ancient Laws</cite>; sufficient -extracts to be found in Stubbs’ <cite>Illustrative Documents</cite>. The whole -history, including literature and society, is given in Green’s <cite>History -of the English People</cite> in a brief and very interesting form.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90">General Authorities.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Bæda’s <cite>Ecclesiastical History</cite>, for a century and a half after the -landing of Augustin. <cite>The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</cite>, which becomes -very important after the time of Alfred. Milman’s <cite>Latin Christianity</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">The English Conquest.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Gildas, and the earlier part of the <cite>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Establishment of the Church.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Kemble’s <cite>Saxons</cite>. Stubbs’ <cite>Constitutional History</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Alfred.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Asser’s <cite>Life</cite>. Dr. Pauli’s <cite>Life</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Dunstan.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Stubbs’ Preface to <cite>Life of Dunstan</cite> (Master of the Rolls’ series). -E. W. Robertson’s <cite>Essay on Dunstan</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Eadward the Confessor and Family of Godwine.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p><cite>Lives of Eadward</cite>, edited by Luard (Rolls’ series). Freeman’s -<cite>Norman Conquest</cite>, vol. ii.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Normandy.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Palgrave’s <cite>History of Normandy and England</cite>. Freeman’s <cite>Norman -Conquest</cite>. William de Jumièges. Orderic Vitalis. William -of Poitiers.</p></div> - - -<p class="p2 pfs90">NORMAN AND PLANTAGENET KINGS.</p> - -<p class="smcap fs90">General Histories.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Lingard. Lappenberg. Pearson’s <cite>Early and Middle Ages of England</cite>. -Hook’s <cite>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</cite>. Campbell’s -<cite>Lives of the Chancellors</cite>. Foss’s <cite>Judges of England</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90">Constitutional.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Stubbs’ <cite>Constitutional History</cite> and <cite>Illustrative Documents</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90">General Authorities.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Orderic Vitalis. <cite>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.</cite></p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">William I.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Eadmer’s <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Historia Novorum</cite>. Domesday-Book with Ellis’ Introduction.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">William II.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Palgrave’s <cite>William Rufus</cite>. Eadmer’s <cite>Life of Anselm</cite>. Church’s -<cite>Life of Anselm</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Henry I.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>William of Malmesbury. Henry of Huntingdon (Surtees Society).</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Stephen.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Gesta Stephani (Surtees Society).</p></div> - -<p class="fs90 pad2"><span class="smcap">Henry II.</span> and <span class="smcap">Becket</span>.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Dr. Giles’ <cite>Collection of the Letters of Becket, Foliot, and John of -Salisbury</cite>. Gervais of Canterbury till 1200 (<cite>Twisden’s Decem -Scriptores</cite>). Benedict of Peterborough, 1169-1192, and Roger of -Hoveden to 1201, with Stubbs’ Prefaces in the Rolls’ series. -William of Newbury, to 1198 (English Historical Society). -Lord Lyttleton’s <cite>Life of Henry II.</cite></p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Ireland.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Geraldus Cambrensis’ <cite>Conquest of Ireland</cite> (Rolls’ series, translated -in Bohn).</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Richard I.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Itinerarium Regis Ricardi</cite> (Rolls’ series). Richard of Devizes -(English Historical Society). Ralph of Diceto, 1200 (Twisden). -Several chronicles are translated in Bohn as <cite>Chronicles of the -Crusades</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">John and the Great Charter.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Roger of Wendover, who was continued by Matthew of Paris, -and William Rishanger (Rolls’ series). Chronicles of various -abbeys, such as Waverley and Dunstable. For the English -reader, Stubbs’ <cite>Illustrative Documents</cite>.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Henry III.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Matthew of Paris. Rishanger. <cite>The Royal Letters</cite> (edited by -Shirley in the Rolls’ series). <cite>The Rhyming Chronicle</cite> of Robert -of Gloucester to 1270. Blaauw’s <cite>Barons’ War</cite>. Wright’s -<cite>Political Songs</cite> (Camden Society). Brewer’s <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Monumenta Franciscana</cite> -(Rolls’ series).</p></div> - - -<p class="p2 pfs90">LATER PLANTAGENETS.</p> - -<p class="smcap fs90">General Histories.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Sharon Turner’s <cite>Middle Ages</cite>. Lingard. Dr. Pauli’s <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte -von England</cite>. Hook’s <cite>Archbishops</cite>. Campbell’s <cite>Chancellors</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90">Constitutional.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Stubbs. Hallam.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90">General Authorities.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Rymer’s <cite>Fœdera</cite>. Public Documents published chiefly by the -Record Commission. Various Rolls, especially <cite>Rolls of Parliament</cite>, -<cite>Statutes of the Realm</cite>, <cite>Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council</cite>. -Walter of Hemingburgh, to 1346. Thomas of Walsingham, -a compilation from the Annals of St. Albans Abbey (Rolls’ series).</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90">For Scotch History.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Hill Burton’s <cite>History of Scotland</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90">For French History.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Martin or Sismondi’s <cite>History</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Edward I.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Trivet (English Historical Society). Rishanger. Palgrave’s -<cite>Documents and Records illustrating History of Scotland</cite>. Freeman’s -<cite>Essay on Edward I.</cite> Modus tenendi Parliamentum -(Stubbs’ <cite>Documents</cite>). <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rotuli Scotiæ</cite> (Record Commission).</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Towns.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p><cite>Ordinances of the English Guilds</cite> (Early English Text Society), -with Brentano’s Preface.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Edward II.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Trokelowe, to 1323 (Rolls’ series). Anonymous Monk of Malmesbury, -to 1327. Thomas de la Moor (Camden Society). Adam of -Murimuth (English Historical Society).</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Edward III.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Froissart. John le Bel. Robert of Avesbury, to 1356 (Hearne). -Knyghton (Twisden’s <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decem Scriptores</cite>). Longman’s <cite>History of -Edward III.</cite></p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Wicliffe.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Shirley’s Preface to <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasciculi Zizaniorum</cite>. Vaughan’s <cite>Life of -Wicliffe</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Black Death.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Seebohm’s Essays in the <cite>Fortnightly Review</cite> for 1865.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></p> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Condition of the People.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Rogers’ <cite>History of Prices</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Richard II.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Walsingham. <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Annales Ricardi Secundi et Henrici Quinti</cite> (Rolls’ -series). <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chronique de la Traison et Mort de Richard</cite> (English -Historical Society). M. Wallon’s <cite>Richard II.</cite> is said to be the -best modern book on the subject. Wright’s <cite>Political Songs</cite> (Rolls’ -series).</p></div> - - -<p class="p2 pfs90">HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK.</p> - -<p class="smcap fs90">General Histories.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>As before, with Brougham’s <cite>History of England under the House of -Lancaster</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90">Old Histories.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>Fabyan, died 1512 (edited by Sir Henry Ellis). Hall, <cite>Henry IV.</cite> -to <cite>Henry VIII.</cite> Polydore Vergil (Camden Society). Stowe, -published 1592. Ellis’ <cite>Collection of Original Letters illustrative of -English History</cite>.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Henry IV.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Walsingham (Rolls’ series). Knyghton. <cite>Royal Historical Letters</cite> -(Rolls’ series).</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Henry V.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>Walsingham. <cite>Memorials of Henry V.</cite> (Rolls’ series). Titus -Livius <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vita Henrici Quinti</cite> (copied in part in the <cite>Gesta</cite>). <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gesta -Henrici Quinti</cite> (Historical Society). Monstrelet.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Henry VI.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p>William of Worcester to 1491 (completed by his son). <cite>English -Chronicle</cite> (Richard II. to 1471) (Camden Society). Continuator -of Croyland, 1459-1485. John of Westhampstead (Hearne). -<cite>Paston Letters</cite>, 1434-1485 (E. D. Gairdner). <cite>Memoir of John -Carpenter.</cite> <cite>Wars of the English in France</cite> (Rolls’ series). <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Procès -de Jeanne d’Arc</cite> (Historical Society of France).</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Edward IV.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p><cite>Arrival of Edward IV.</cite> (Camden Society). Warkworth, 1461-1474.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Edward V.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p><cite>Life</cite>, by Sir Thomas More.</p></div> - -<p class="smcap fs90 pad2">Richard III.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx pad1"> - -<p><cite>History</cite>, by Sir Thomas More. Miss Halsted’s <cite>Life</cite>. <cite>Letters of -Richard III. and Henry VII.</cite> (Gairdner, Rolls’ series).</p></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<div class="fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">ENGLAND BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 449-1066.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrb fs70">PAGE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Departure of the Romans</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Settlement of the various English tribes</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">449</td><td class="tdl">The Jutes,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">477</td><td class="tdl">The Saxons,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">520</td><td class="tdl">The Angles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">597</td><td class="tdl"><b>Conversion to Christianity</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Struggle for supremacy among the Saxon kingdoms</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Supremacy of Northumbria,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3" colspan="2">716-819 Supremacy of Mercia,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">800</td><td class="tdl"><em>Ecgberht</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Supremacy of the West Saxons,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Period of Danish Invasion</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">836</td><td class="tdl"><em>Æthelwulf</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">858</td><td class="tdl"><em>Æthelbald</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">860</td><td class="tdl"><em>Æthelberht</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">866</td><td class="tdl"><em>Æthelred</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">870</td><td class="tdl"><b>Danish Conquest of East Anglia</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">871</td><td class="tdl"><em>Alfred</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Appreciation of Alfred’s character,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Continued superiority of Wessex,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">901</td><td class="tdl"><em>Eadward the Elder</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">925</td><td class="tdl"><em>Æthelstan</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">940</td><td class="tdl"><em>Eadmund</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">946</td><td class="tdl"><em>Eadred</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Rise of Dunstan,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">955</td><td class="tdl"><em>Edwy</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">957</td><td class="tdl"><em>Eadgar</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Dunstan’s government,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Division of Northumbria,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">975</td><td class="tdl"><em>Eadward the Martyr</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Fall of Dunstan,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">979</td><td class="tdl"><em>Æthelred the Unready</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span> - <b>Third Period of Danish Invasion</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">991</td><td class="tdl">Battle of Maldon,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">994</td><td class="tdl">First Danegelt,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Æthelred’s Marriage with Emma,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1002</td><td class="tdl">Massacre of St. Brice,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Pernicious influence of Eadric Streona,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1008</td><td class="tdl">Thurkill’s invasion,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1013</td><td class="tdl">Swegen’s Great Invasion,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">England submits to Swegen,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1014</td><td class="tdl">Restoration of Æthelred,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1016</td><td class="tdl"><em>Edmund Ironside</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Five great battles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Division of the Kingdom,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1017</td><td class="tdl"><b>Cnut King of all England</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His patriotic government,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Disputed succession,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Importance of Earl Godwine,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1037</td><td class="tdl"><em>Harold</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1040</td><td class="tdl"><em>Harthacnut</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Restoration of the English Line</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1042</td><td class="tdl"><em>Eadward the Confessor</em>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Rivalry of Godwine and the French Party,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1051</td><td class="tdl">Godwine banished,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1052</td><td class="tdl">His return and death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1053</td><td class="tdl">Harold succeeds to his influence,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He subdues Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1066</td><td class="tdl"><b>Harold made King</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Claims of his rivals, Tostig and William of Normandy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">William’s preparations,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Tostig’s invasion,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">William lands,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Battle of Hastings or Senlac</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of Harold,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdc">——————————</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdc smcap">State of Society at the Conquest.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdc">——————————</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">THE CONQUEST.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">WILLIAM I. 1066-1087.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1066</td><td class="tdl"><b>Intended resistance of the English</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Election of Eadgar,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">William marches to London,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span> - <b>William is crowned</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His position as King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Transfer of Property,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The form of Law retained,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Castles built,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Appointment of Earls,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1067</td><td class="tdl">William revisits Normandy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Misgovernment by his Viceroys,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Consequent rebellion,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Insurrections</b> call him home,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1068</td><td class="tdl">His position in the North and West,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1096</td><td class="tdl">His devastations in Yorkshire,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1070</td><td class="tdl"><b>Complete subjugation of the North</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>William’s legislation</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His reform of the Church,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Appointment of foreign Bishops,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Stigand deposed,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Lanfranc Archbishop,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His Legislation,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He connects the Church with Rome,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">But William still Head of the Church,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1071</td><td class="tdl"><b>Final Struggle of the English under Hereward</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Wales held in check by the Counts Palatine,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Savage invasions from Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1072</td><td class="tdl">Malcolm swears fealty,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1075</td><td class="tdl"><b>Troubles in Normandy</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1076</td><td class="tdl">Conspiracy of Norman nobles suppressed,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Waltheof executed,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Quarrel between William and his Sons,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1079</td><td class="tdl">Reconciliation at Gerberoi,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Odo’s oppressive government,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1084</td><td class="tdl"><b>Cnut’s threatened invasion</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1085</td><td class="tdl"><b>The Domesday Book</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1087</td><td class="tdl">William’s death and burial,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">CONQUEST OF NORMANDY AND ORGANIZATION OF ENGLAND.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">WILLIAM II. 1087-1100.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1087</td><td class="tdl">William crowned by Lanfranc,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Appeases the English,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Checks Norman opposition,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1089</td><td class="tdl">Lanfranc dies,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Flambard succeeds him,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1090</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span> - <b>William’s quarrels with his Brothers</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1091</td><td class="tdl">War with Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1094</td><td class="tdl">Continued War with Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Troubles in Normandy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1095</td><td class="tdl"><b>Conspiracy of Mowbray</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1100</td><td class="tdl">Size of his Dominions at his death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Causes of his inferiority to his Father,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1089</td><td class="tdl">Disputes with the Church,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Bishoprics left vacant,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1093</td><td class="tdl">Anselm made Archbishop,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">William opposes his reforms,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">HENRY I. 1100-1135.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1100</td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry secures the crown</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Conciliates all classes,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His policy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His opponents,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1101</td><td class="tdl"><b>Robert seeks the crown</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Withdraws without bloodshed,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry attacks his partisans,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1102</td><td class="tdl"><b>Defeat of Belesme and Norman Barons</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Establishment of royal power,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Belesme received in Normandy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1105</td><td class="tdl">Consequent invasion of the Duchy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1106</td><td class="tdl"><b>Battle of Tenchebray, defeat of Robert</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1107</td><td class="tdl"><b>War with France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Louis supports William Clito,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">End of the War,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1113</td><td class="tdl">Treaty of Gisors,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Prince William acknowledged heir,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1115</td><td class="tdl">Renewed War with France and Anjou,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1119</td><td class="tdl"><b><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Battle of Brenville'">Battle of Brenneville</ins></b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Complete prosperity</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1120</td><td class="tdl"><b>Death of Prince William, and its consequences</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1124</td><td class="tdl">War with Anjou,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1128</td><td class="tdl">Death of William Clito,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Attempt to secure the succession to Matilda,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1135</td><td class="tdl">Death of Henry,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Wales held in check by colonies of Flemings,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Constant insurrections,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s Church policy</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1100</td><td class="tdl">Anselm refuses fealty,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He has to leave England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1106</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span> - Unsupported by the Pope,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Makes a compromise at Bec,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1102</td><td class="tdl">Synod of Westminster,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Frequent bad Church appointments,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry corrects them when possible,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Wretched condition of the People</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Their chief complaints,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Baronial tyranny,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Heavy taxation,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry cures what evils he can,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His strict Police,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Administrative machinery</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Local Courts,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Curia Regis,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Its political effect,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The National Assembly,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">FEUDAL OUTBREAK.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">STEPHEN. 1135-1154.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1135</td><td class="tdl">Strange character of the Reign,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Great power of the Church,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Stephen’s Charter,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Affairs in Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Early signs of disturbance,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1137</td><td class="tdl">War with Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Last national effort of the English,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1138</td><td class="tdl">Battle of the Standard,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Growth of Anarchy in England</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Creation of Earldoms and castles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Robert of Gloucester renounces his fealty,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Stephen’s mercenaries,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Jealousy between the old and new Administrations,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Stephen’s quarrel with the Church</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1139</td><td class="tdl">Consequent arrival of Matilda,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Civil War,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Continued quarrel with the Church,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1141</td><td class="tdl"><b>Robert of Gloucester, to bring matters to a crisis, fights the Battle of Lincoln</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Matilda seeks help from the Church and becomes Queen</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Importance of the Londoners,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Matilda offends both Church and Londoners</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Consequent revolution of affairs,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1142</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span> - Gloucester taken prisoner and exchanged for Stephen,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1146</td><td class="tdl">Renewal of the old anarchy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1147</td><td class="tdl"><b>Appearance of Prince Henry</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1148</td><td class="tdl">Death of Robert of Gloucester,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1152</td><td class="tdl">Henry’s marriage and increased power,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>The Church sides with him</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1153</td><td class="tdl">Meeting of the armies at Wallingford,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>The Church mediates a Compromise</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1154</td><td class="tdl">Death of Stephen,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Quotations from Chroniclers showing the miseries of the Reign,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">RECONSTITUTION OF THE MONARCHY—FORMATION OF THE NATION.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">HENRY II. 1154-1189.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1154</td><td class="tdl"><b>Main Objects of Henry’s Reign</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>He restores order in the State</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Friendship with Adrian IV.,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1157</td><td class="tdl">Master of England, Henry attacks Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Rise of Thomas à Becket,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1158</td><td class="tdl">He is employed in foreign negotiations,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1159</td><td class="tdl">Nevertheless there is war with France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Interesting points in it,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Scotch King serves Henry,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Introduction of Scutage</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Having reduced the State to order, Henry turns to the Church</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">General friendship of England and France with the Pope,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1161</td><td class="tdl">Election of Becket to Archbishopric,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He upholds the Encroachments of the Church,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1164</td><td class="tdl"><b>Quarrel with Becket, and Constitutions of Clarendon</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Becket refuses them,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Lukewarmness of Alexander III.,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The quarrel takes a legal form,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Comes before the Council,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry presses him with charges,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Becket leaves the Court before judgment is given,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1165</td><td class="tdl">He is received by the Pope,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">But Henry refuses to oppose Alexander,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1166</td><td class="tdl">Meanwhile he attacks Wales, and secures Brittany,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Becket excommunicates his enemies,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1167</td><td class="tdl">The Pope temporizes,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Critical position of Henry,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1170</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span> - <b>Coronation of young Henry</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Finding this step unpopular,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry submits</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Becket ventures to return to England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Becket’s death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry retires to the Invasion of Ireland</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Condition of Ireland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1169</td><td class="tdl">Invasion by Strongbow,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1171</td><td class="tdl">Henry himself invades Ireland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Irish Church adopts Romish discipline,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry’s reconciliation with Rome,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1174</td><td class="tdl"><b>Great Insurrection</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Crisis of the danger,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry’s penance at Canterbury,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Capture of the Scotch King at Alnwick,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s complete success</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Small diminution of Henry’s power, either temporal or ecclesiastical,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s Judicial and Constitutional changes</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Curia Regis,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Itinerant Justices,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Origin of the Jury,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Assize of Arms, Scutage,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Closing troubles with his Sons and with France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The causes of these troubles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1183</td><td class="tdl">First War, against Young Henry,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1184</td><td class="tdl">Second War, against Richard,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1187</td><td class="tdl">Third War,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1188</td><td class="tdl">Saladin Tax,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1189</td><td class="tdl">Last War, with Richard and Philip,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry’s ill success,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Disastrous Peace and Death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Importance of the Reign,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">RICHARD I. 1189-1199.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1189</td><td class="tdl">Persecution of the Jews,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">All Offices put up for sale,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1190</td><td class="tdl"><b>Richard starts for the Crusade</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Leaving England to Longchamp,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Richard quarrels with Philip in Sicily,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1191</td><td class="tdl">He conquers Cyprus,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Miserable condition of the Kingdom of Jerusalem,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrb">1187</td><td class="tdl">Jerusalem taken by Saladin,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1189</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span> - Acre besieged,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1191</td><td class="tdl">Arrival of the Crusaders,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Richard saves Acre,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Philip goes home,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Richard quarrels with Austria,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1192</td><td class="tdl">Truce with Saladin,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1191</td><td class="tdl"><b>John’s Behaviour in England</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Return of Philip,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Need of Richard’s return,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1192</td><td class="tdl">His imprisonment in Germany,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">John and Philip combine against him,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">England ransoms him,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1194</td><td class="tdl"><b>Richard’s return, John’s defeat</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">War with France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1199</td><td class="tdl">Richard’s death at Chaluz,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Development of the Administrative System,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CROWN AND THE NATION.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">JOHN. 1199-1216.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1199</td><td class="tdl"><b>John secures the crown</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His strong position,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1200</td><td class="tdl">His danger from France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Peace with Philip, and marriage treaty,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Marriage with Isabella de la Marche</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1201</td><td class="tdl">Homage of Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Outbreak in Poitou,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1202</td><td class="tdl"><b>John’s French Provinces forfeited</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1203</td><td class="tdl">Death of Arthur,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1205</td><td class="tdl"><b>Loss of Normandy</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1206</td><td class="tdl">Peace with Philip,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1205</td><td class="tdl"><b>Election of the Archbishop of Canterbury</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Stephen Langton,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1207</td><td class="tdl">Consecration at Viterbo, and John’s violence,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1208</td><td class="tdl">Interdict and flight of Bishops,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1209</td><td class="tdl">Excommunication,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1210</td><td class="tdl">Attack on Scotland, Ireland and Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Disaffection of the Northern Barons,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The King’s rapacity,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1211</td><td class="tdl">European crisis,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">League with Northern Princes,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1213</td><td class="tdl">John’s deposition,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Surrender of the Crown to the Pope</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span> - John’s improved position,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1214</td><td class="tdl">Renewed difficulties with Stephen Langton,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1215</td><td class="tdl"><b>John hopes to secure his position by victory in France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1214</td><td class="tdl"><b>Battle of Bouvines</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1215</td><td class="tdl"><b>Insurrection in England on his return</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Meeting at Brackley,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Capture of London,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Runnymede,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Political position of England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Terms of Magna Charta</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">John attempts to break loose from it,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1216</td><td class="tdl"><b>Louis is summoned</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">John’s death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">HENRY III. 1216-1272.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1216</td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s authority gradually established</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Difficulties at his accession,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Pembroke’s measures of conciliation,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1217</td><td class="tdl">Fair of Lincoln,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Louis leaves England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Renewal of the Charter,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1218</td><td class="tdl"><b>Papal attempt to govern by Legates</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Pandulf’s government,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1221</td><td class="tdl">His fall,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Triumph of national party under Hubert de Burgh</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Parties in England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1223</td><td class="tdl">Opposition Barons at Leicester,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Resumption of royal castles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1224</td><td class="tdl">Destruction of Faukes de Breauté,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Danger from France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1223</td><td class="tdl">Death of Philip,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1226</td><td class="tdl">Death of Louis VIII.,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">English neglect this opportunity,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Poitou remains French,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1227</td><td class="tdl">Hubert’s continued power,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Langton supports his policy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Change of Popes—increased exactions,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1228</td><td class="tdl">Death of Langton,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Quarrel of Henry and De Burgh</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1229</td><td class="tdl">Henry’s false foreign policy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1231</td><td class="tdl">Return of Des Roches,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrb">1232</td><td class="tdl">Twenge’s riots,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span> - Fall of De Burgh,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1233</td><td class="tdl"><b>Revolution under Des Roches</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Earl of Pembroke upholds De Burgh,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1234</td><td class="tdl">Edmund of Canterbury causes Des Roches’ fall,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1235</td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry becomes his own minister</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1236</td><td class="tdl">Henry’s marriage,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1237</td><td class="tdl"><b>Influence of the Queen’s uncles</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1238</td><td class="tdl"><b>Formation of a national party under Simon de Montfort</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Revival in the Church,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Grostête,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1243</td><td class="tdl">Loss of Poitou,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Prince Richard joins the foreign party,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1244</td><td class="tdl">Exactions in Church and State,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1247</td><td class="tdl"><b>Inroad of Poitevin favourites</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1248</td><td class="tdl">Discontent of the Barons,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Continued misgovernment,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1249</td><td class="tdl">Tallages on the cities,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1250</td><td class="tdl">Diversion of the Crusade,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">De Montfort’s government of Gascony,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His quarrel with the King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1253</td><td class="tdl">By his aid Gascony is saved,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The King’s money difficulties,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1254</td><td class="tdl"><b>The Pope offers Edmund the Kingdom of Sicily</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry accepts it on ruinous terms,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1256</td><td class="tdl">Consequent exactions,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1257</td><td class="tdl">Terrible famine,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Parliament at length roused to resistance</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Parliament at Westminster,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1258</td><td class="tdl"><b>The “Mad Parliament,”</b></td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Provisions of Oxford,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Opposition to the surrender of Castles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Exile of aliens,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Proclamation of the Provisions,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Government of the Barons,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1259</td><td class="tdl">Final treaty with France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry thinks of breaking the Provisions</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1261</td><td class="tdl">The Pope’s absolution arrives,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Quarrel between De Clare and De Montfort,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1262</td><td class="tdl"><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Return of De Monfort'">Return of De Montfort</ins>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1263</td><td class="tdl"><b>Outbreak of hostilities</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1264</td><td class="tdl">The Award of Amiens fails,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>War—Battle of Lewes</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Mise of Lewes,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Appointment of revolutionary government,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The exiles assemble at Damme,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span> - De Montfort desires final settlement,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Royalist movements on the Welsh Marches,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1265</td><td class="tdl">Parliament assembles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Conditions of Prince Edward’s liberation,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>De Clare forsakes the Barons</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He joins the Marchers,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Escape of Edward</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Leicester opposes Edward in Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Defeat at Kenilworth,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Battle of Evesham</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1266</td><td class="tdl">Dictum of Kenilworth,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1267</td><td class="tdl">De Clare compels more moderate government,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Constitutional end of the reign</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Views of the people on the war</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">SETTLEMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">EDWARD I. 1272-1307.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1272</td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward’s accession and character</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The first English King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His political views,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His legal mind,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His success,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His enforced concessions,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1275</td><td class="tdl">His first Parliament,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Statute of Westminster,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Establishment of Customs,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1278</td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward’s restorative measures</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">New coinage,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1279</td><td class="tdl">Statute of Mortmain,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Affairs in Wales</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1275</td><td class="tdl">Llewellyn’s suspicious conduct,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1277</td><td class="tdl">War breaks out,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Llewellyn submits, and is mercifully treated,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1282</td><td class="tdl">Second rising in Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of Llewellyn,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1288</td><td class="tdl">Execution of David,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1284</td><td class="tdl">Statute of Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Annexation of Wales</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1282</td><td class="tdl">Foreign affairs call Edward abroad,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1284</td><td class="tdl">The Sicilian Vespers,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrb">1286</td><td class="tdl">Edward acts as mediator between France and Aragon,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1288</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</a></span> - His award is repudiated,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1289</td><td class="tdl">Disturbances in England during his absence,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He returns, punishes corrupt judges, banishes the Jews,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Second period of the reign</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Relations with Scotland</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1290</td><td class="tdl">Extinction of the Scotch royal family,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Proposed marriage of the Maid and Prince Edward,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Invitation to Edward to settle the Succession,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of the Maid,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1291</td><td class="tdl">Meeting at Norham,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward’s supremacy allowed,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The claimants to the Scotch throne,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1292</td><td class="tdl">Edward gives a just verdict,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Balliol accepts the throne as a vassal,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1293</td><td class="tdl">Scotland appeals therefore to the English Courts,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The appeals not pressed to extremities,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Quarrel with France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward is outwitted, Gascony occupied,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Balliol in alliance with France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1295</td><td class="tdl"><b>First True Parliament</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1296</td><td class="tdl">Edward marches into Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Defeat of the Scotch at Dunbar,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Submission of Balliol and Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Constitutional opposition of Clergy and Barons</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1296</td><td class="tdl">Refusal of the Clergy to grant subsidies,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1297</td><td class="tdl">The Clergy outlawed,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Barons refuse to assist Edward,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Compromise with the Clergy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward secures an illegal grant,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Earls demand the confirmation of the Charters,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">They are granted with reservations,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Scotch insurrection under Wallace</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1299</td><td class="tdl">English Treaty with France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward invades Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Defeats Wallace at Falkirk</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Comyn’s Regency,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1301</td><td class="tdl"><b>Parliament of Lincoln</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Pope’s claims rejected,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1303</td><td class="tdl"><b>Third invasion and conquest of Scotland</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1306</td><td class="tdl">Bruce murders Comyn and rebels,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Preparations for a fourth invasion</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1307</td><td class="tdl">Edward’s death near Carlisle,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Constitutional importance of the reign</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">[xxv]</a></span></p> - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">RENEWAL OF THE STRUGGLE OF THE NATION AGAINST THE CROWN.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">EDWARD II. 1307-1327.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1307</td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward’s friendship for Gaveston</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1308</td><td class="tdl">The Barons demand his dismissal,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1309</td><td class="tdl">Gaveston’s return,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">General discontent,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Statute of Stamford,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1310</td><td class="tdl"><b>Appointment of the Lords Ordainers</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1311</td><td class="tdl">Useless assault on Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Ordinances published,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Policy of the Opposition,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Gaveston banished,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1312</td><td class="tdl">He reappears with the King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He is beheaded at Warwick,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1314</td><td class="tdl"><b>Renewal of the War with Scotland</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Bannockburn,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward refuses to treat,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Consequent disasters,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1315</td><td class="tdl">Wars in Wales and Ireland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Bruce’s invasion of Ireland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1316</td><td class="tdl">He is crowned King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1318</td><td class="tdl">He is killed at Dundalk,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1316</td><td class="tdl">Distress in England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Lancaster temporary Minister</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Power of the Despensers</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1318</td><td class="tdl">Temporary reconciliation,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1320</td><td class="tdl">Truce with Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Welsh Marchers quarrel with the Despensers,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward supports his favourites,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1321</td><td class="tdl">Hereford and Lancaster combine,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>The Despensers are banished</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">An insult to the Queen rouses the King to energy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward recalls the Despensers</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1322</td><td class="tdl">Pacifies the Marches,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Attacks Lancaster,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Battle of Boroughbridge</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Lancaster worshipped as a Saint,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Triumph of the Despensers</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Renewal of war with Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1323</td><td class="tdl"><b>Peace for thirteen years with Scotland</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Dangers surrounding the King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrb">1324</td><td class="tdl">Difficulties with France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1325</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[xxvi]</a></span> - <b>The Queen and Prince in France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1326</td><td class="tdl"><b>She lands in England</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Her party gathers strength,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The King is taken,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1327</td><td class="tdl">The Prince of Wales made King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Murder of Edward,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">BEGINNING OF HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR, AND CONSTITUTIONAL PROGRESS.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">EDWARD III. 1327-1377.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1327</td><td class="tdl">Measures of reform,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Mortimer’s misgovernment</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Fruitless campaign against Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Opposition to Mortimer,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1330</td><td class="tdl">Conspiracy and death of Kent,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward overthrows Mortimer</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward’s healing measures,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1332</td><td class="tdl"><b>Balliol invades Scotland</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward supports him,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Siege of Berwick,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1333</td><td class="tdl">Battle of Halidon Hill,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1334</td><td class="tdl"><b>Temporary Submission of Scotland</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward’s claims on France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>The Scotch, with Philip’s help, renew the War</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1337</td><td class="tdl">Edward therefore produces his claims,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward attacks France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1338</td><td class="tdl">His alliances on the North-east,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He is made Imperial Vicar,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Great taxation,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He lands in Flanders,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1339</td><td class="tdl">Deserted by his allies, he returns home,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1340</td><td class="tdl">Returns, and wins the Battle of Sluys,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Fruitless expedition to Tournay,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Sudden visit to England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Displacement of the Ministry,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1341</td><td class="tdl"><b>His dispute with Stratford</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward yields,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1342</td><td class="tdl">Loss of all his allies,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>New opening in Brittany</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1343</td><td class="tdl">Mediation of the Pope offered,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Decay of Papal influence,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1344</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">[xxvii]</a></span> - His mediation accepted conditionally, it fails,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward’s commercial difficulties,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1345</td><td class="tdl"><b>War breaks out again</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Derby hard pressed in Guienne,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1346</td><td class="tdl">Edward, to relieve him, lands in Normandy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Marches towards Calais,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Cressy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Neville’s Cross,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1347</td><td class="tdl">Siege of Calais,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Truce</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1349</td><td class="tdl"><b>The Black Death</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1355</td><td class="tdl"><b>Renewal of the War</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Destructive March of the Black Prince southwards,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The “Burnt Candlemas,”</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1356</td><td class="tdl">The Black Prince’s expedition northwards,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Poitiers,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Release of King David,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1357</td><td class="tdl"><b>Peace with Scotland</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Terrible condition of France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1359</td><td class="tdl">Reviving power of the Dauphin,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward again invades France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1360</td><td class="tdl">Want of permanent results induce Edward to make <b>The Peace of Brétigny</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Treaty is not carried out,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1364</td><td class="tdl">The War in Brittany continues,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1365</td><td class="tdl">Affairs of Castile,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1366</td><td class="tdl">France and England support the rival claimants,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1367</td><td class="tdl">Battle of Navarette,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1368</td><td class="tdl">Taxation in Aquitaine,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Barons appeal to Charles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1369</td><td class="tdl"><b>Renewal of French War</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Gradual Defeat of the English</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1370</td><td class="tdl">The Black Prince takes Limoges,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His final return to England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1374</td><td class="tdl">Loss of Aquitaine,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1372</td><td class="tdl">Naval victory of the Spaniards,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1375</td><td class="tdl">Discontent in England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Politics of the Time</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1376</td><td class="tdl">The Good Parliament,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of the Black Prince,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Lancaster regains power,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1377</td><td class="tdl">The Lancastrian Parliament,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Trial of Wicliffe,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Uproar in London,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of the King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">[xxviii]</a></span></p> - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">BEGINNING OF THE FACTION FIGHT AMONG THE NOBILITY.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">RICHARD II. 1377-1399.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1377</td><td class="tdl">Difficulties of the new reign,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Regency and administration of Lancaster</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Patriotic government,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1380</td><td class="tdl">Money wanted for the War in Brittany,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Poll Tax,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1381</td><td class="tdl"><b>Insurrection of the Villeins</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of Wat Tyler,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The insurrection suppressed,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Parliament rejects the Villeins’ claims,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1383</td><td class="tdl">Suspicions of Lancaster’s objects,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He deserts Wicliffe,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He is charged with the failure in Flanders,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1385</td><td class="tdl">Jealousy of him thwarts the Scotch invasion,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He is glad of the excuse to leave England to support his claims in Castile,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Gloucester takes Lancaster’s place</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>The King’s Favourites</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1386</td><td class="tdl"><b>Gloucester heads an opposition</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Change of Ministry demanded,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Impeachment of Suffolk,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Commission of Government</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1387</td><td class="tdl">The King prepares a counterblow,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Five Lords Appellant,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">They impeach the King’s friends,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Affair of Radcot,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1388</td><td class="tdl"><b>The Wonderful Parliament</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1389</td><td class="tdl">Gloucester’s unimportant Government,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Richard assumes authority</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1393</td><td class="tdl"><b>Final Statute of Provisors</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1394</td><td class="tdl">Expedition to Ireland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1397</td><td class="tdl">Marriage with Isabella of France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Richard’s vengeance after seven years’ peace</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1398</td><td class="tdl">Hereford and Norfolk banished,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His arbitrary rule alienates the people,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1399</td><td class="tdl">During his absence in Ireland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Hereford returns and is triumphantly received</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He captures Richard,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Makes him resign the Kingdom,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdc">———————</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdc smcap">State of Society.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdc">———————</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix">[xxix]</a></span></p> - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">MONARCHY BY PARLIAMENTARY TITLE.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">HENRY IV. 1399-1413.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1399</td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s position in English History</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Reversal of the Acts of the late King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Tumultuous scene in the First Parliament,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>The King’s insecure position for nine years</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1400</td><td class="tdl">Insurrection of the late Lords Appellant,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Imprisonment and secret death of Richard,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Hostile attitude of France and Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Useless and impolitic march into Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1401</td><td class="tdl">Insurrection Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Owen Glendower,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1402</td><td class="tdl">Quarrel with the Percies,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The pretended Richard,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Causes of the quarrel with Northumberland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1403</td><td class="tdl">The Percies combine with Glendower,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Shrewsbury,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1404</td><td class="tdl">Submission of Northumberland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Widespread Conspiracy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1405</td><td class="tdl">Flight of the young Earl of March,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Renewed activity of Northumberland, Scrope and Mowbray,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Events which secured Henry’s triumph,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Capture of James of Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1407</td><td class="tdl">Murder of Orleans,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1408</td><td class="tdl">Final defeat and death of Northumberland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s improved position</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His enforced respect for the Commons,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Climax of their power,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Explained by the King’s failing health,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1412</td><td class="tdl">Renewed vigour at the end of his reign,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s foreign policy</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>His alliance with the Church</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His persecuting Statute,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Views of the nation with regard to the Church,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s jealousy of the Prince of Wales</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">RENEWAL OF THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">HENRY V. 1413-1422.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1413</td><td class="tdl">Fortunate opening of his reign,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">General amnesty and release of prisoners,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1414</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx">[xxx]</a></span> - Signs of slumbering discontent,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Lollards,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s reason for the impolitic French War</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">State of France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Expulsion of the Burgundians from Paris,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Attempt at national government,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry’s double diplomacy and outrageous claims,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His preparations,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1415</td><td class="tdl"><b>He lands in France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Conspiracy of Cambridge,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Capture of Harfleur,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry compelled to retire upon Calais,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Battle of Agincourt</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The French Government falls into the hands of the Armagnacs,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1416</td><td class="tdl">Visit of Sigismund,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His position in Europe,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His close union with Henry,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Failure of his mediation,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1417</td><td class="tdl">Armagnac attacks Queen Isabella,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">She allies herself with Burgundy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Henry’s second Invasion</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1418</td><td class="tdl">The Parisians, anxious for peace, admit the Burgundians,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1419</td><td class="tdl">Fall of Rouen,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Negotiations for peace,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Attempted reconciliation of the French parties,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Murder of Burgundy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Young Burgundy joins England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1420</td><td class="tdl"><b>Treaty of Troyes</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1421</td><td class="tdl">English defeat at Beaugé,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Henry hurries to Paris,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1422</td><td class="tdl"><b>While re-establishing his affairs he dies</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of Charles VI.,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">LOSS OF FRANCE AND DESTRUCTION OF THE BARONAGE.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">HENRY VI. 1422-1461.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1422</td><td class="tdl"><b>Arrangements of the Kingdom</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Position of affairs in France</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1423</td><td class="tdl">Bedford’s marriage,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Release of the Scotch King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1424</td><td class="tdl">Battle of Verneuil,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Consequent strength of the English position in France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxi" id="Page_xxxi">[xxxi]</a></span> - It is disturbed by the consequences of Gloucester’s marriage,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>The first blow to the Burgundian alliance</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1425</td><td class="tdl">Rivalry of Beaufort and Gloucester,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1426</td><td class="tdl">Gloucester’s marriage with Eleanor Cobham,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Bedford again secures Burgundy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1428</td><td class="tdl">And attacks Orleans,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1429</td><td class="tdl">Battle of the Herrings,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Danger of Orleans,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Joan of Arc</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Causes of her success,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The siege is raised,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">March to Rheims to crown the Dauphin,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Unsuccessful attack on Paris,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1430</td><td class="tdl">Capture of Joan of Arc,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Coronation of King Henry,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1431</td><td class="tdl">Joan’s death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1432</td><td class="tdl">Increasing difficulties of the English,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">State of England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Conduct of Gloucester,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of the Duchess of Bedford,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Bedford re-marries. Second blow to the Burgundian alliance</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1433</td><td class="tdl"><b>Efforts at peace, and</b></td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1434</td><td class="tdl"><b>Rise of a War party under Gloucester</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1435</td><td class="tdl">Great Peace Congress at Arras,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Bedford’s death</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Consequent defection of Burgundy</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1436</td><td class="tdl">Obstinacy of the War party,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Continued ill success,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Danger from Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1437</td><td class="tdl">James’s death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1440</td><td class="tdl">Peace party procures the liberation of Orleans,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1442</td><td class="tdl"><b>Peace becomes necessary</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Rise of Suffolk</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1445</td><td class="tdl">Marriage of Henry with Margaret of Anjou,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1446</td><td class="tdl">Pre-eminence of Suffolk,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1447</td><td class="tdl">Gloucester’s death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">York takes his place,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1448</td><td class="tdl"><b>Ministry of Suffolk</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His unpopularity,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Renewal of the War,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1449</td><td class="tdl"><b>Fall of Rouen</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Popular outbreak against Suffolk,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1450</td><td class="tdl"><b>Murder of Suffolk</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Continued discontent,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxii" id="Page_xxxii">[xxxii]</a></span> - Jack Cade,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1452</td><td class="tdl"><b>York’s appearance in arms; Civil War begins</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He is duped into submission,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1453</td><td class="tdl">Imbecility of the King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1454</td><td class="tdl">Prince of Wales born,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">York’s First Protectorate,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Recovery of the King,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1455</td><td class="tdl">York again appears in arms,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">First Battle of St. Albans,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Character of the two parties,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1456</td><td class="tdl">York’s Second Protectorate,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1457</td><td class="tdl">With the Nevilles he retires from Court,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1458</td><td class="tdl">Hollow reconciliation of parties,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1459</td><td class="tdl">Renewed hostilities,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Blore Heath,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Flight of the Yorkists from Ludlow</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Lancastrian Parliament at Coventry</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1460</td><td class="tdl"><b>Fresh attack of the Yorkists</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Northampton,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Yorkist Parliament in London</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>York at last advances claims to the throne</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Lords agree on a compromise,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>York is defeated and killed at Wakefield</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1461</td><td class="tdl">The young Duke of York wins the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">The Queen, advancing to London, wins second Battle of St. Albans,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Sudden rising of the Home Counties,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Triumphant entry of Edward</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">HEREDITARY ROYALTY WITHOUT CONSTITUTIONAL CHECKS.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">EDWARD IV. 1461-1483.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1461</td><td class="tdl">Edward secures the crown,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Towton,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Yorkist Parliament,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1462</td><td class="tdl">With French help Margaret keeps up the War,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1464</td><td class="tdl">Battle of Hedgeley Moor,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Hexham,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1465</td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward’s triumph and popular Government</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Apparent security of his Throne</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Destroyed by his marriage, and the rise of the Woodvilles</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1466</td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiii" id="Page_xxxiii">[xxxiii]</a></span> - Power of the Nevilles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Their French policy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward’s Burgundian policy,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1467</td><td class="tdl"><b>Defection of the Nevilles</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1469</td><td class="tdl">Popular risings inspired by them,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Clarence’s weakness drives them to the Lancastrians,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1470</td><td class="tdl">Wells’ rebellion,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Flight of Warwick</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>He returns and re-crowns Henry</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1471</td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward gets help from Burgundy</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Clarence joins him,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Barnet,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Margaret lands in England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Battle of Tewkesbury,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Edward’s triumphant return to power</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Murder of Henry,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Clarence’s quarrels,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1476</td><td class="tdl">With Richard,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1477</td><td class="tdl">With Edward,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1478</td><td class="tdl">His trial and death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1475</td><td class="tdl">Edward joins Burgundy against France,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Failure of his expedition,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Treaty of Pecquigni,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Ambitious projects of marriage for his daughters,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1482</td><td class="tdl">Affairs in Scotland,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Edward supports Albany,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He gains Berwick,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1483</td><td class="tdl"><b>His death and character</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">EDWARD V. 1483.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1483</td><td class="tdl">State of parties at Edward IV.’s death,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Richard overthrows the Queen’s party</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He is made Protector,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">He quarrels with the new nobles,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Hastings’ death, and fall of his party</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_341">341</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Richard, with Buckingham’s help, secures the crown,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_341">341</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="p2 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">RICHARD III. 1483-1485.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdrt">1483</td><td class="tdl"><b>Richard’s position, and policy of conciliation</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">His strong position,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiv" id="Page_xxxiv">[xxxiv]</a></span> - Weak points in it,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Disaffection in the South,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of the Princes,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Projected marriage of Elizabeth and Richmond,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Defection of Buckingham</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Richmond’s first Invasion,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of Buckingham,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Failure of the Conspiracy</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1484</td><td class="tdl">The great Act of Confiscation,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Richmond’s continued schemes,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Richard’s efforts to oppose him,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Attemps to win'">Attempts to win</ins> the Queen,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Death of the Prince of Wales,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Lincoln declared heir,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt">1485</td><td class="tdl">General uneasiness in England,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Richard has recourse to benevolences,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Richmond lands at Milford</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Conduct of the Stanleys,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl"><b>Battle of Bosworth</b>,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrt"></td><td class="tdl">Richard’s character and laws,</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p class="p4 pg-brk" /> -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="LOM" id="LOM"></a>LIST OF MAPS.</h2> - -<div class="p2 fs80 wsp"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">1. SAXON ENGLAND</td><td class="tdl"><a href="#TN">At end of Book</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2. CRUSADES</td><td class="tdl pad3">” <span class="pad3">”</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3. FRANCE</td><td class="tdl pad3">” <span class="pad3">”</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">4. ENGLISH POSSESSIONS IN FRANCE</td><td class="tdl pad3">” <span class="pad3">”</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">5. NORTH OF FRANCE</td><td class="tdl pad3">” <span class="pad3">”</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6. ENGLAND AND WALES</td><td class="tdl pad3">” <span class="pad3">”</span></td></tr> -</table></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxv" id="Page_xxxv">[xxxv]</a></span></p> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk">INTRODUCTION.</h2> - - -<p class="drop-cap">The history of civilization can be traced in great lines which -have more or less followed a similar direction throughout -all Europe. The interest of a national history is to observe the -course which these lines have followed in a particular instance; -for, examined in detail, their course has never been identical. -The period occupied by what we speak of as English history -is that, speaking broadly, during which the great mediæval systems—feudalism -and the Church—have by degrees given place -to modern society, of which the moving-springs are freedom of -the individual, government in accordance with the popular will, -and freedom of thought. The object of a History of England is -therefore to trace that change as it worked itself out amid all the -various influences which affected it in our own nation. The peculiar -circumstances of the Norman conquest prevented the complete -development in England of either of the great Continental systems. -Neither the feudal system nor the system of the Roman Church are -to be found in their completeness in England. The separation of -England from the Empire, the entire destruction of the Roman occupation -by the German invaders, prevented that contact between German -and Roman civilization from which Continental feudalism sprang. -And though, if left to itself, the civilization of the early English -would have ripened into some form of feudalism, it was caught by -the Conquest before the process was completed. The Normans -brought with them, indeed, the external apparatus of the completed -system; but in the hands of their great leader, and grafted upon the -existing institutions of the country, it assumed a new form. The -power of the King was always maintained and the power of the -barons suppressed, while room was left under the shadow of a strong -monarchy for the growth of the lower classes of the nation. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvi" id="Page_xxxvi">[xxxvi]</a></span> -same way, the Church was always kept from assuming a position of -supremacy, and its subordinate relations to the State maintained. -The establishment of this new form of government may be held -to occupy the first period of our history since the Conquest, lasting -till the reign of John. During that time the barons, who had more -than once attempted to establish the same virtual independence as -was enjoyed by their fellows abroad, were taught to recognize the -power of the Crown. The legislation of Henry I. and Henry II., -and the establishment under the latter of a new nobility dependent -for their status upon their ministerial services, coupled with the incorporation -of the national system of justice with the feudal system -of the conquerors, united all classes of Englishmen and consolidated -the nation, but in so doing raised to an alarming degree the power of -the Crown. The miserable reign of John, and the tyrannical use he -made of the power thus placed in his hands, called attention to the -dangers which beset the administrative arrangements of his father. -The total severance of England from France, which took place in his -reign, and his rash quarrel with the Church, completed the work of -national consolidation, but placed the united nation in antagonism to -the throne. The nobility, which in other countries were the natural -enemies of all classes below them, were thus forced to assume the lead -of all who desired a reasonable amount of national freedom.</p> - -<p>The struggle to harmonize the relations which should exist between -the Crown and the subject occupies the second period of our history. -It assumes several forms; sometimes the dislike of foreigners, sometimes -a desire for self-taxation, sometimes it seems little more than an -outbreak of an over-strong nobility. But whatever its form, the -fruits of the struggle were lasting. The rival claims of King and -nation, acknowledged and regulated by the wisdom of Edward I., -gave rise to that balanced constitution which in its latest development -still exists among us. But it would seem that this great -advance in government had been somewhat premature. In other -nations institutions resembling our Parliament sprang into existence, -and faded away before the power of the Crown, an effect which can -be traced chiefly to the strong line of division separating the commonalty -from the nobles. Without support from the nobility, -and in all its interests in direct antagonism to it, the commonalty, -after supporting the Crown in the destruction of the baronage, -found itself in presence of a power to which it was unable to offer -any resistance. Several causes already mentioned had in England -weakened the sharp definition of classes, but there was a great risk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvii" id="Page_xxxvii">[xxxvii]</a></span> -even there of a similar failure of constitutional monarchy. It was as -the leader of the nobility that Henry IV. first rose into importance -in the reign of Richard II., and subsequently obtained the crown. -The limitation of the franchise in the reign of Henry VI., and the -consequent subserviency of Parliament, were steps towards the elevation -of an aristocratical influence, which, had it grown till its suppression -by the Crown was rendered necessary, would have reproduced -in England the historical phenomena visible in France. Fortunately -the nobility were not at one among themselves. The various sources -from which they derived their origin, the close family connections, -and personal interests, split them into factions, which, taking advantage -of a disputed succession, brought their quarrel to the trial of the -sword with such animosity that the nobility of England was virtually -extinguished.</p> - -<p>But while this faction fight, and the great French war which -preceded it, attract the attention chiefly during the third period -of the history, a quiet advance of great importance had been going -on, sheltered by the more obvious movements of the time. The -same spirit which had found its expression in the establishment -of the Constitution, had indirectly, if not directly, influenced every -class of the nation. The exclusive merchant guild had given place -to the craftsman’s guild. The wars in France, the alienation of -property fostered by the legislation of Edward I., the Black Death, -which had robbed the country of at least a third of its labouring -hands, had sealed the fate of serfdom, and established in England -the great class of free wage labourers. The same alienation, the -gradual increase and importance of trade, and the formation and -introduction of capital, had formed a middle class of gentry, from -which the successful merchant was not excluded. Nor had this -political growth been unaccompanied by an advance of thought. -The failure of the crusades, the last great exhibition of material -religion; the Franciscan revival; the philosophy of Bacon and his -successors; the bold declaration of independence on the part of -Wicliffe, and the grasping and repellent character of the Roman -Court, had shaken the Church to its foundations. The storm which -had shaken the surface of English society had left its depths unmoved -and undisturbed by the great work of extermination proceeding -overhead; these processes of growth had been gradually -continuing their course during the whole of the third period. Thus, -then, when Edward IV. emerged from the troubles of the Wars -of the Roses as King of England, his position, though it might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxviii" id="Page_xxxviii">[xxxviii]</a></span> -seem very similar to that of a king who had triumphed over his -nobility, was yet considerably modified. The nobility were no -doubt gone, but it was not the Crown which had crushed them. -The Church, indeed, threw all its influence on the side of the -Crown, but it was in the consciousness of the insecurity of its position -in the hearts of the people that it did so. The King and his -Commons stood face to face, with no intermediate class to check -their mutual action, but the Commons were already free, and headed -by a rapidly rising body of wealthy secondary landowners or -merchants. Nevertheless, the immediate effect of the destruction -of the nobility was completely to check constitutional growth, and -to establish a government which was little short of arbitrary.</p> - -<p>The Italian statecraft, which the influence of the Renaissance -rendered paramount, for the moment increased the tendency to -absolutism; and in the reign of Henry VIII., though a shadow of -popular government yet remained, the will of the king was little -short of absolute. What may be called the fourth period of our -history is occupied by the establishment of this arbitrary power, and -the gradual awakening of national life, under the influences of the -Renaissance, and of the circumstances which accompanied the Reformation, -which tended to modify it in the reign of Elizabeth. When -Protestantism and the vigorous young thought of the reawakened -nation became linked indissolubly with the fortunes of the -sovereign in her national war against Spain, the mere necessity -of the union tended much to put a practical limit to <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'the arbitrary of'">the arbitrary</ins> -character of the new monarchy. It was the <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'miscomprehension the'">miscomprehension of -the</ins> necessity of this union between king and people which produced -the contests which occupy our history during the reign of the -Stuarts.</p> - -<p>Bred in the theory of monarchy by Divine right, the logical -offspring of feudalism, when separated from the Empire and the -Church, the Stuarts were willing to accept the arbitrary power of -their predecessors, but would not acknowledge the necessity of -harmonious action with the people, on which alone, as things then -were, such arbitrary authority could rest. The middle class of -gentry had been increasing in power and influence till they were -now in a position to assume that leadership in the nation which the -destruction of the nobles had left vacant. And behind them there -was the bulk of the people, whose Protestantism, the religious -character of the late national struggle, and the love of truth -engendered by the Renaissance, had raised to enthusiastic Puritanism.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxix" id="Page_xxxix">[xxxix]</a></span> -The constitutional life, checked for a time by the Tudor monarchy, -again sprang into existence. In the struggle which ensued it was -the enthusiastic party which ultimately triumphed, and its leader, -Cromwell, is seen mingling his conscientious efforts at the establishment -of constitutional government with a religious fervour too great -to be sustained.</p> - -<p>But his rule, freed from those parts for which, as yet, the gentry -at all events were unprepared, established, definitely and for ever, -the necessity of recurring sooner or later to the constitutional principles -of the fourteenth century. In the Revolution of 1688 those -principles triumphed. But they triumphed in the hands no longer -of a great enthusiastic leader, but of a party, which found its chief -supporters in a limited number of noble houses, whose aristocratic -pride was injured by the arbitrary power of the sovereign, and whose -influence in the formation of Parliament promised them political -superiority under the establishment of parliamentary government. -From that time till the present the scene of the contest has been -changed. A party struggle of some thirty years gave place to the -unchecked predominance of parliamentary rule. And the last -period of our history has been occupied by the efforts of the excluded -nation to make their voice heard above that of a nominal representation, -consisting in reality of the representatives of a dominant class, -under the influence either of the great Whig families or of the -Crown.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xl" id="Page_xl">[xl]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xli" id="Page_xli">[xli]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—this heading was missing from original text">GENEALOGIES OF THE LEADING FAMILIES</ins></h2> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs80">(<em>The founder of the family a kinsman of William I.</em>)</p> - -<p class="pfs120">DE BOHUNS (<span class="smcap">Hereford</span>, <span class="smcap">Essex</span>, <span class="smcap">Northampton</span>).</p> - -<div class="p1 screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_xli.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_xli.jpg" width="425" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - Henry de Bohun = Maud, daughter of Geoffrey - | Fitz-Peter, Earl of Essex. - 1st Earl of Hereford. | - Hereditary Constable of England. | - One of the Guardians of the | - Charter. Taken prisoner at | - battle of Lincoln. Died 1220. | - | - +---------------+ - | - Humphrey, 2nd Earl of = Maud, daughter of Earl of Ewe. - Hereford. Made also | - Earl of Essex by Henry | - III. Godfather to Prince | - Edward. On Barons’ | - side. Taken prisoner | - at Evesham. Restored | - to favour. | - Humphrey = Eleanor, daughter of - Commanded on | Eve and William de Braose. - Barons’ side | - at Lewes. | - Taken prisoner | - at Evesham. | - Died 1266. | - | - Humphrey, 3rd Earl of Hereford = Maud, daughter of - and Essex. Restored to favour | Ingelram de Fines. - by Edward I. Fought in Scotland. | - Refused to fight for | - Edward I. Compelled him to | - ratify the Charter. Died 1298. | - | - Humphrey, 4th Earl of Hereford = Elizabeth, daughter - and Essex. Fought for | of Edward I. - Edward I. and II. in | - Scotland. Taken prisoner at | - Stryvelin; exchanged for | - Bruce’s wife. Refused to | - obey Edward’s order not to | - fight Despenser. Joined | - Lancaster’s insurrection. | - Killed at battle of | - Boroughbridge, 1322. | - | - 1 2 3 | - +--------------------------+---------------+------+ - | | | - John = Alice Fitz-Alan, Humphrey William = Elizabeth, daughter - 5th Earl daughter of 6th Earl Fought at | of Badlesmere, - of Hereford Earl of of Hereford Cressy. Made | widow of Edmund - and Essex. Arundel. and Essex. Earl of | Mortimer. - Died 1335. Northampton, | - 1337. | - Died 1360. | - | - +---------------+ - | - Humphrey = Joan, daughter of - 7th Earl of Hereford, | Richard, 9th Earl - Essex, and Northampton. | of Arundel. - Died 1372. | - | - +-------------------------------+----------+ - | | - Eleanor = Thomas of Woodstock, Mary = Henry IV., who thus became - sixth son of Edward Earl of Hereford, Essex, - III., who thus became and Northampton. - Constable. - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlii" id="Page_xlii">[xlii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - -<p class="pfs80 pg-brk">(<em>Family founded at the Conquest.</em>)</p> -<p class="pfs120">BEAUCHAMP<br /> -(<span class="smcap">Warwick</span>).</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_xlii.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_xlii.jpg" width="425" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - Walter de Beauchamp = Bertha de Braose. - Fought against John. | - Made peace with | - Henry III. One of | - the Barons-Marchers. | - Died 1235. | - | - Walcheline = Joan, daughter of - Died 1235. | Roger Mortimer, - | who died 1215. - | - William = Isabel, sister and - Fought in Gascony. | heiress of - and in Scotland. | William Maudit, - Died 1268. | Earl of Warwick. - | - William = Maud Fitz-John, - 1st Earl of Warwick. | widow of Girard - Distinguished in | de Furnival. - Edward I.’s wars. | - Died 1298. | - | - Guy = Alice de Toni. - 2nd Earl, “The Black | - Dog of Ardenne.” | - Caused Gaveston | - to be beheaded. | - Died 1315. | - | - Thomas = Catherine, daughter - 3rd Earl. Fought | of Roger Mortimer, - at Cressy and | 1st Earl of March. - Poitiers. Died | - of the plague | - at Calais, | - 1369. | - | - Thomas = Margaret Ferrars. - 4th Earl. Governor of Richard | - II. Joined Thomas of | - Gloucester. Condemned to | - death. Banished to Isle of | - Man. Kept in the Tower. | - Restored by Henry IV. Died | - 1401. | - | - Richard = 1. Eliz. de Lisle. - 5th Earl. Fought against the = 2. Isabel Despenser, - Percies at Shrewsbury. | daughter of Earl - Governor of Henry VI. | of Gloucester, - Lieutenant-General of | widow of Richard - France. Died 1439. | Beauchamp, Earl - | of Worcester. - | - +--------------------------------------+---+ - | | - Henry = Cicely Neville. Anne = Richard Neville, - 6th Earl, Premier | Became heiress | “The Kingmaker.” - Earl of England. | on her niece’s | - Duke of Warwick | death. | - (married at ten | | - years old). Died | | - 1445. | | - | | - | +-------------------------+ - | | | - Ann. Isabel = George, Ann = Prince Edward. - Died 1449. Duke of = Richard III. - Clarence. - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xliii" id="Page_xliii">[xliii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - - <div><a name="MOW" id="MOW"></a></div> -<p class="pfs80 pg-brk">(<em>Family founded at the Conquest.</em>)</p> - -<p class="pfs120">MOWBRAY (<span class="smcap">Nottingham</span>, <span class="smcap">Norfolk</span>).</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_xliii.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_xliii.jpg" width="425" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - William de Mowbray = Agnes, daughter of Earl of Arundel. - Strong against John. One of the | - 25 Guardians of the Charter. | - Taken prisoner at battle of | - Lincoln. Made peace with | - Henry III. Lands restored. | - Died 1222. | - Roger = Maud, daughter of Beauchamp - Died 1266. | of Bedford. - | - Roger = Rose, daughter of Richard de - Fought in Wales | Clare, Earl of Gloucester. - and Gascony. | - Died 1298. | - | - John = Aliva de Braose. - Fought in Scotland. | - Warden of the | - Marches towards | - Scotland, 1314. | - Joined Lancaster. | - Hanged at | - York 1322. | - | - John = Joan, daughter of Henry, - In favour with | Earl of Lancaster. - Edward III. | - Fought in | - France. | - Died 1361. | - | - John = Elizabeth, granddaughter - Died fighting against | and heiress of Thomas - the Turks at | de Brotherton, Earl - Constantinople, | Marshall, and Earl of - 1368. | Norfolk. - | - +----------------------------------------------+ - | | - John, made Earl of Thomas = Elizabeth, daughter - Nottingham, Earl of Nottingham, 1383. Earl | of Richard, Earl - 1377. Died Marshall, 1386. Governor | of Arundel. - 1379. of Calais. Helped to execute | - Arundel, his father-in-law, | - and Thomas of Woodstock. | - Had the lands of Arundel | - and of Thomas Beauchamp, | - Earl of Warwick. Duel with | - Hereford. Banished for | - life. Died at Venice, 1400. | - | - +-------------------------+-----------------+----+ - | | | - Thomas = Constance, John = Kate Margaret = Robert - Earl Marshall. daughter Earl of | Neville. | Howard. - Joined Scrope. of Holland, Nottingham, | | - Beheaded 1405. Duke of Duke of | John, became Duke of - Exeter. Norfolk. | Norfolk, and Earl - Died 1432. | Marshall after - | Anne’s death, 1483. - | - John = Eleanor Bouchier. - 3rd Duke of | - Norfolk, | - Died 1461. | - | - +----------------+ - | - | - John = Elizabeth, daughter of Talbot, - Earl of Warrenne | Earl of Shrewsbury. - and Surrey 1451, | - 4th Duke of | - Norfolk. Died | - 1475. | - Anne = Betrothed to Richard, - son of Edward IV. - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xliv" id="Page_xliv">[xliv]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs120 pg-brk">MORTIMERS (<span class="smcap">March</span>).</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_xliv.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_xliv.jpg" width="425" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - Roger, related to William I. - | - Ralph, fought at Hastings for William. Conquered - | and succeeded Edric at Wigmore. - | - Hugh, opposed accession of Henry II. Conquered - | by him. Died 1185. - | - Roger, constantly fighting the Welsh. Died 1215. - | - +-----------------+-----------+ - | | - Hugh--Strong partisan Ralph = Gladuse, daughter of Llewellyn, - of John. Strong | widow of Reginald de Braose. - Died 1227. against Welsh. | - | - Roger = Maud de Braose. - Fought in Gascony and against Wales. | - On Henry III.’s side against the | - Barons. Escaped to Wales after | - battle of Lewes. Planned Edward’s | - escape. Commanded 3rd division at | - Evesham. As reward was made Earl | - of Oxford. Sheriff of Hereford. | - Died 1282. | - | - +------+ - | - Edmund = Margaret, a Spaniard, - Wedding at Edward I.’s expense.| related to Queen Eleanor. - Died fighting against the | - Welsh, 1303. | - | - Roger = Joan of Genevil, daughter of - Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. | Lord of Trim in Ireland. - Paramour of Queen Isabella. | - 1st Earl of March, 1327. | - Hanged at Smithfield, 1330. | - | - Edmund = Elizabeth, daughter of - Lord Mortimer. | Lord Badlesmere. - Died 1331. | - | - Roger = Philippa, daughter of - Went to France with Edward III. | Montague, 1st Earl - Knighted there. Restored | of Salisbury. - to his Earldom of March, | - 1355. Died 1360. | - | - Edmund = Philippa, daughter of - 3rd Earl of March. Treated for | Lionel Plantagenet, - peace with France when only | Duke of Clarence. - 18. Lord-Lieutenant of | - Ireland, 1380. Died 1381. | - | - Roger = Eleanor Holland, - 4th Earl of March, ward to | daughter of Earl - Richard, Earl of Arundel. | of Kent. - Lieutenant of Ireland. | - Made heir-apparent, 1386. | - Died 1398. | - | - +-----------------------------+----------+ - | | - Edmund = Ann, daughter of Ann = Richard Plantagenet, son - 5th Earl of March. Earl of Stafford. | of Edmund of York, 5th - Ward to Henry IV. | son of Edward III. - Fought in France. | Beheaded 1415. - Lord-Lieutenant of | - Ireland. Died 1424. | - Richard = Cicely Neville, - Baron Mortimer, | daughter of the - Duke of York, | 1st Earl of - killed at | Westmoreland. - Wakefield, 1460. | - | - Edward IV. - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlv" id="Page_xlv">[xlv]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs80 pg-brk">(<em>Family founded at the Conquest.</em>)</p> - -<p class="pfs120">NEVILLES (<span class="smcap">Westmoreland</span>, <span class="smcap">Warwick</span>).</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_xlv.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_xlv.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - Ralph de Neville = Alice de Audley. - Commissioner to Scotland 1334. | - Warden of the West Marches, | - conjointly with Henry | - de Percy. Died 1367. | - | - +---------------------------------+---------+ - | | - John Lord Neville = Maud, daughter of Margaret = Henry Percy, - Lieutenant of Aquitaine | Lord Percy. 1st Earl of - 1379. Died 1388. | Northumber- - | land. - | - Ralph de Neville = 1. Margaret, daughter of Hugh, 2nd Earl - Guardian of the West Marches of Stafford, by whom he had nine - 1386. 1st Earl of children. Ralph his grandson by - Westmoreland 1399. For this wife became 2nd Earl of - assisting Henry IV., was made Westmoreland. - Earl Marshal of England. - Fought against the Percies - 1403. Died 1425. = 2. Joan Beaufort, daughter of - | John of Gaunt. - | - +-----------------------+------------------+-----------------+ - | | | | - Richard = Alice, William = Joan of George = Elizabeth | - Earl of | daughter Lord of Lord Beauchamp | - Salisbury. | and Falcon- Falcon- Latimer. daughter | - Warden of | heiress bridge, bridge. Died of 5th | - the | of the Earl of 1649. Earl of | - Marches. | Earl of Kent. Warwick. | - Beheaded | Salisbury. Died 1462. | - after | | - Wakefield, | | - 1460. | | - | | - +----------------+ | - | | - | | - | +----------------------+-------+----------------+----------+------+--+ - | | | | | | - | Edward = Elizabeth Robert, Kate = Duke of Eleanor = Lord | - | Lord Beauchamp Bishop Norfolk. Spencer | - | Abergav- heiress of of = Sir John = Henry | - | enny. the Durham. Woodville. Percy | - | Despensers. 2nd Earl | - | of North- | - | umberland. | - | | - | +------------------------+ - | | - | +---------------+ - | | | (& 4 others.) - | Anne = 1st Cicely = Richard - | | Duke | Duke of - | | of | York. - | | Buck- | - | | ingham. | - | | | - | | Edward IV. - | | - | +--------------+------------+ - | | | - | Humphrey = Margaret Henry = Margaret - | of Somerset. Tudor. - | - | - +-------------+ - | - | - | - +-------+-----------------+-----------+-------------------+---------+ - | | | | | - Richard = Anne Beauchamp, Thomas. John = Isabel George, | - Earl of | heiress of the Killed at Lord Ingolds- Arch- | - Warwick. | 6th Earl of Wakefield, Montague. thorp. bishop | - “The King | Warwick. On the 1460. Killed at of York, | - Maker.” | death of her Barnet Chancellor. | - Killed at | daughters her 1471. | - Barnet, | inheritance was | - 1471. | restored to her, | - | and by her | - | transferred to | - | Henry VII. | - | | - +---+--------------------+ | - | | | - Isabel = George, Duke Anne = Edward, Prince of Wales. | - of Clarence. = Richard III. | - | - +------------------------------+ - | - +--------------+-------------------+----+----------+-------------------+ - | | | | | - Joan = Fitz- Cicely = Henry Alice = Lord Eleanor = Thomas | - Alan, Beauchamp, Fitz- | Stanley, | - 16th Duke of Hugh. | who | - Earl of Warwick. | afterwards | - Arundel. = Earl of | married | - Worcester, | Margaret | - beheaded, | Tudor. | - 1470. | | - | | - Lord Strange. | - | - +------------------------+------------------------------+ - | | - Kate = Lord Margaret = De Vere, Earl of Oxford. - Bonville. = Lord Hastings. - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlvi" id="Page_xlvi">[xlvi]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs120 pg-brk">MARSHALLS AND BIGODS.</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_xlvi.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_xlvi.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - William Marshall = Isabel de Clare, heiress - Governor while Richard at | of Strongbow, Earl of - at Crusade. Made Earl of | Pembroke. - Pembroke 1199. John gave him | - Leinster 1208. Guardian of | - Henry III. Died 1219. | - | - 1 | 2 - +----------------------------------+-----+---------------+ - | | | - William, 2nd Earl of = 1. Alice, Richard, 3rd Earl | - Pembroke, one of the daughter of Pembroke. | - 25 Guardians of the of Earl of Fought against | - Charter. Fought Albermarle. Henry III. for | - against Llewellyn. 2. Eleanor, his castles in | - Captain-General in sister of Ireland. Killed | - Brittany. Died 1231. Henry III. in Ireland 1234. | - | - +------------------------------------+ - | - 3 | 4 - +-----------------------+---------+--------------------------+ - | | | - Gilbert, 4th Earl = Margaret, Walter, 5th Earl = Margaret, | - of Pembroke. daughter of Pembroke. daughter | - Opposed to of Acknowledged by of | - Henry III. William, Henry III. in Robert | - Killed at a King of in spite of the de | - tournament Scotland. family politics. Quincy. | - 1241. Died 1245. | - | - +---------------------------------------+ - | - 5 | 6 - +------------------------+--------+------------------------------+ - | | | - Ansolm, 6th = Maud de Maud = 1. Hugh Bigod, 3rd | - Earl of Bohun, Obtained | Earl of Norfolk. | - Pembroke daughter of office of | One of the 25 | - for eighteen Humphrey, Marshall on| Guardians of the | - days only. 2nd Earl of Anselm’s | Charta. Died 1225. | - Died 1245. Hereford. death. | 2. William of Warrenne, | - | Earl of Surrey. | - | 3. Walter of | - | Dunstanville. | - | | - +-------------------------------------------+ | - | | - | +------------------------------------+ - | | - | | - | 7 8 | 9 10 - | +----------------+----------+-----------+-----------------+ - | | | | | - | Joan = Warine Isabel = 1. Gilbert Sybil = William de Eve = William - | de Mont- Had de Clare. Had Ferrars, de Braose - | chensy. Kilkenny 2. Richard, Kildare Earl of of - | for her Earl of for her Derby. Brecknock. - | portion. Cornwall. portion. - | - +--------------------------------------+ - | - +-----------------------+-------------+ - | | - Roger Bigod = Isabel, sister of Hugh Bigod = Joan Burnet. - 4th Earl of Alexander, Made Chief | - Norfolk. A hot King of Justice by | - partisan of the Scotland. the Barons | - Barons. Made 1257. | - Governor of Orford | - Castle by the | - Barons after Lewes. | - Inherited the | - Marshallship | - through his mother. | - | - +-----------------------------+ - | - Roger Bigod = 1. Alice Basset, widow of Despenser. - 5th Earl of Norfolk. 2. Joan, daughter of Earl of Bayonne. - Compelled Edward to - ratify the Charter. - Made him his heir. - [Edward made his son - Thomas (de Brotherton) - Marshall and Earl of - Norfolk.] - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlvii" id="Page_xlvii">[xlvii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs80 pg-brk">(<em>Family founded at the Conquest.</em>)</p> - -<p class="pfs120">FITZ-ALAN (<span class="smcap">Arundel</span>).</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_xlvii.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_xlvii.jpg" width="425" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - John Fitz-Alan = Isabel, heiress of Albini, - Fought against John. | 4th Earl of Arundel. - Died 1239. | - | - John, 5th Earl = Maud de Verdun. - of Arundel. | - Died 1270. | - | - John, 6th Earl = Isabel de Mortimer. - Died 1272. | - | - Richard, 7th Earl = Alice de Saluce. - Died 1301. | - | - Edmund, 8th Earl = Alice Plantagenet, heiress of the - Received the confiscated lands of | Earl of Warrenne and Surrey. - Mortimer. Fought in Scotland. | - Beheaded by Mortimer 1326. | - | - Richard, 9th Earl = Eleanor, daughter of Henry - Restored by Edward III. | Plantagenet, Earl of Lancaster. - Died 1375. | - | - +-----------------------------+-----+-------+ - | | | - Richard = Elizabeth, daughter Thomas John = Eleanor Maltravers. - 10th Earl. | of William de Arundel, | - Fought in | Bohun, Earl of Archbishop | - France. | Northampton. of Canterbury. | - Beheaded | Chancellor. | - 1398. | Died 1413. | - | | - +------+--------+ John, 12th Earl = Eleanor Berkeley. - | | Lord Maltravers. | - Thomas Elizabeth = William, Died 1421. | - Restored by son of the | - Henry IV. 2nd Earl of John, 13th Earl = Maud Lovel. - 11th Earl. Salisbury. Fought in France | - Died 1415. = Thomas Mowbray. Died 1434. | - [See <a href="#MOW">Mowbray</a>.] | - | - +------------------------------+----+ - | | - William = Joan Neville, Humphrey - 15th Earl. | daughter of Earl 14th Earl. - Died 1487. | of Salisbury. - | - Thomas, 16th Earl = Margaret Woodville. - Died 1524. | - | - William, 17th Earl = Anne, sister of - Died 1543. | the Earl of - | orthumberland. - | - Henry, 18th Earl = Catherine Grey, - Imprisoned in | daughter of 2nd - Edward VI.’s reign. | Marquis of Dorset. - Died 1579. | - | - Mary = Thomas Howard, - who became Earl - of Arundel. - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlviii" id="Page_xlviii">[xlviii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs80 pg-brk">(<em>Family founded in Henry I.’s reign.</em>)</p> - -<p class="pfs120">DESPENSERS.</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_xlviii.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_xlviii.jpg" width="425" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - Hugh = Aliva Basset of Wycombe, - Joined Barons against | widow of Roger Bigod, - Henry III. Made | Earl of Norfolk. - Justiciary 1260. Had | - custody of the King | - after Lewes. Killed | - at Evesham, 1265. | - Hugh = Isabel, daughter of Beauchamp, - Fought at Dunbar, 1296. | 1st Earl of Warwick, - In favour with Edward | widow of Patrick Chaworth. - I. Favourite of Edward | - II. Banished by | - Parliament. Recalled. | - One of Lancaster’s | - judges. Earl of | - Winchester. Seized by | - Isabella. Hanged, | - aged 90, 1326. | - | - Hugh = Eleanor, daughter of Gilbert de Clare, - The favourite of Edward | Earl of Gloucester. - II. Excited the enmity | - of the Barons. | - Impeached and hanged, | - 1327. | - +--------------+-----------+ - | | - Hugh, Baron in Edward = Anne Ferrars. - Parliament, 1338. Died 1342. | - Fought in France and | - Scotland. Died 1349. | - | - Edward = Elizabeth de Burghersh. - Fought at | - Poitiers. | - Died 1375. | - | - Thomas = Constance, daughter - Made Earl of Gloucester, | of Edmund, 5th son - 1398. Degraded by | of Edward III. - Henry IV. Beheaded, 1400.| - | - +------------------------+-----+ - | | - 2. | 1. | - Richard Beauchamp = Isabel = Richard Beauchamp, Richard = Eliz., - 5th Earl of Warwick, | | Lord Abergavenny, daughter of - nephew of Earl of | | Earl of Worcester. Ralph, Earl - Worcester. | | of West- - | | moreland. - | | - Cicely Neville = Henry Elizabeth = Edward Neville, son of Ralph, - d. of Earl 1st Earl of Westmoreland, - of Salisbury. who thus obtained the - Baronies of Despenser and - Abergavenny. - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlix" id="Page_xlix">[xlix]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs120 pg-brk">LANCASTERS.</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_xlix.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_xlix.jpg" width="425" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - HENRY III. - | - +---------------+--------------+ - | | - Edward I. Edmund = Blanche, daughter of Robert - Proposed King of Sicilies. | of Artois, third son of - was Earl of Chester, 1246, | Louis VIII., widow of King - was given the land of | of Navarre. - Simon de Montfort. Made | - Earl of Leicester. Fought | - in Scotland, Wales, | - Gascony. Crusade, | - 1270–1272. Died 1295. | - | - +----------------------------+---------------+ - | | - Thomas = Alice, daughter Henry = Maud, daughter - Earl of Lancaster, of de Lacy, Earl of Leicester, | and heiress of - Lincoln, Earl of 1324. Helped to | Sir Patrick - Salisbury, Lincoln depose Edward II. | Chaworth. - Leicester, and and Guardian to Edward | - Derby. Fought Salisbury. III. Restored to his | - in Scotland. brother’s Earldoms, | - Headed the 1327. Captain-General| - party against in Scotland. Died | - both Gaveston 1345. | - and the | - Despensers. | - Taken prisoner | - at Boroughbridge. | - Beheaded at | - Pontefract, 1321. +--------------------+ - | - +----------------------+----------+ - | | - Henry = Isabel, d. 2. Ralph = Maud = 1. William de Burgh, - Captain-General | of Lord de Ufford | | Earl of Ulster. - in Scotland. Earl | Beaumont. | | - of Derby, 1338. | Thomas = Maud. Elizabeth = Lionel, - Fought in Flanders | de Vere, | Duke of - and Sluys. Earl | 8th Earl | Clarence. - of Lancaster and | of Oxford. | - Leicester, 1345. | Died 1371. Philippa = Edmund - Steward of | Mortimer - England. Duke of | (see - Lancaster and Earl | Mortimer). - of Lincoln, 1350. | - Died 1360. | - | - +--------------+-----------+ - | | - Maud = Lord Stafford. Blanche = John of Gaunt, Earl of Richmond, - = Duke of Zeeland. | who thus became Duke of Lancaster, - No children. | Earl of Derby, Lincoln and - | Leicester. - | - Henry IV. (Earl of Hereford, Derby, - Lincoln and Leicester, - and Duke of Lancaster.) - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_l" id="Page_l">[l]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs120 pg-brk">DE LA POLES.</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_l.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_l.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - William de la Pole = Catherine, daughter of - Great Merchant at Kingston, | Sir John Norwich. - advanced £1000 to Edward | - III., for which he was | - made a Banneret. | - | - Michael de la Pole = Katherine Wingfield. - Earl of Suffolk 1385. | - Impeached and exiled. | - Died at Paris 1388. | - | - Sir Michael = Katherine, daughter of - Restored to his Earldom | the Earl of Stafford. - 1399. In the French | - wars. Died at Harfleur | - 1415. | - | - +-----------------------+----+ - | | - Michael William, 4th Earl = Alice, grand- - 3rd Earl of Suffolk. Commanded at Verneuil and | daughter of - Died at Agincourt Orleans. Brought Margaret | Chaucer. - 1415. of Anjou over. Duke of | - Suffolk 1448. Impeached, | - banished, murdered in the | - boat, 1450. | - | - +-------------------+ - | - John de la Pole = Elizabeth, sister - Duke of Suffolk 1463. | of Edward IV. - Died 1491. | - | - +---------------------------+------------+------------+ - | | | - John, Earl of Lincoln. Edmund. Fought at Richard. Fought - Lord Lieutenant of first for Henry VII. for the French. - Ireland. Declared heir- Subsequently took Died at Pavia 1525. - apparent by Richard III. offence and withdrew His dukedom of - Joined Lambert Simnel. to his aunt Margaret Suffolk given to - Died at Battle of of Burgundy. Was given Charles Brandon. - Stoke 1487. up. Imprisoned in the - Tower. Executed as - a Yorkist 1513. - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_li" id="Page_li">[li]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs120 pg-brk">BEAUFORT (<span class="smcap">Somersets), and</span> STAFFORD (<span class="smcap">Buckinghams</span>).</p> - -<div class="p1 screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_li.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_li.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - John of Gaunt = Catherine Swinford. - | - 1 | 2 - +--------------------------------+------------------+-----------+ - | | | - John, Earl of Somerset = Margaret, daughter of Henry Beaufort, | - One of the accusers | Sir Thomas Holland, Cardinal Bishop | - of Gloucester, 1397. | Earl of Kent. of Winchester. | - Died 1410. | | - | | - +--------------------+ | - | 3 4 | - | +------------------+--------------------+ - | | | - | Thomas = Margaret Joan = Sir Ralph Neville, - | Earl of Dorset and Neville. first Earl of - | Exeter. Admiral 1404. Westmoreland. - | Chancellor. Fought at - | Agincourt. Died 1426. - | - | - +---------------------------------+ - | - | - 1 2 | - +-----------------+-------+------------------------+ - | | | - Henry. John = Margaret, daughter of | - Died Lieut.-Gen. in | Sir John Beauchamp. | - young. France. Killed | | - himself, 1444. | | - | | - Margaret = 1. Edmund Tudor, | - | Earl of Richmond. | - | 2. Sir Henry Stafford, | - | son of 1st Duke | - | of Buckingham. | - | 3. Thomas, Lord | - | Stanley. | - | | - Henry VII. | - | - +--------------------+ - | - 3 | 4 - +------------------------------+ - | | - Edmund, = Eleanor Beauchamp, Jane = James I. of - 1st Duke, 4th Earl | daughter of 5th Scotland. - of Somerset, fought | Earl of Warwick. - under Duke of Bedford. | - Beseiged Harfleur. | - Regent of France, | - 1445. Killed at St. | - Albans, 1455. | - | - +----------------+--------+------------+ - | | | | - Henry, Duke of Edmund John, Margaret = Humphrey, Earl of - Somerset, Beaufort, killed at | Stafford (son of 1st - beheaded after beheaded Tewkesbury. | Duke of Buckingham, - Hexham, 1464. after | who died at battle - Tewkesbury, | of Northampton). - 1471. | Killed at St. Albans - | 1455. [See genealogy - | of <a href="#EDWARD_III">Edward III.</a>] - | - +--------------------------------------------+ - | - Henry, 2nd Duke of Buckingham = Catherine Woodville. - Helped Richard III. Joined | - Richmond. Beheaded 1483. | - | - +-------------+ - | - Edward, Duke of Buckingham = Eleanor, daughter of Percy, - Restored by Henry VII. High | Earl of Northumberland. - Constable. Offended Wolsey. | - Beheaded 1521. | - | - +----------------------+ - | - Henry, Lord Stafford = Ursula, daughter of - restored in blood by | Sir Richard Pole - Edward VI., 1547. | and Margaret - Died 1562. | Plantagenet. - | - +-----------------------------+ - | | - Edward, Baron Stafford. Richard, whose grandson - became a cobbler. - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_lii" id="Page_lii">[lii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<p class="pfs120 pg-brk">WOODVILLES</p> - -<p class="pfs120">(<span class="smcap">Courtenays. Greys.</span>)</p> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_lii.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_lii.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="gentable"> - Richard de Widvile = Jacquetta of Luxembourg, - Seneschal of Normandy. | widow of Duke of Bedford. - Earl Rivers 1466. | - Beheaded 1469. | - | - +-----------------------+-----------+-----------+----------+ - | | | | | - Anthony = Elizabeth, John, Lionel, Richard, | - Lord heiress of Beheaded Bishop of 2nd Earl | - Scales. Lord Scales. 1469. Salisbury. Rivers. | - Earl Rivers. | - Guardian | - of Edward V. | - Beheaded | - 1483. | - | - +-----------------------------------+ - | - +----------+------------+----------------------+ - | | | - 2. Edward IV. = Elizabeth = 1. Sir John Margaret = Fitz-Alan, | - | | Grey a Earl of | - | | Lancastrian. Arundel. | - | | Died at St. | - +----------------+ | Albans 1455. | - | | | - | +-----------------------+ | - | + +--------------------------+ - | | | - | | | - | | +---------------------+--------+------------+ - | | | | | - | | Mary = Earl of Katherine = 2d Duke of Anne = Lord Bouchier. - | | Huntingdon. Buckingham. = Earl of Kent. - | | = Jaspar Tudor. = Sir Anthony - | | = Sir Richard Wingfield. - | | Wingfield. - | | - | +----------------------------+ - | | - | +------------+--------------+ - | | | - | Thomas, 1st = Cecily Sir Richard Grey - | Marquis of | Bonvile. Beheaded 1483. - | Dorset, | - | escaped to | - | Brittany | - | 1483. Restored | - | by Henry VII. | - | Died 1501. | - | | - | | - | Thomas Grey = Margaret Wotton. - | 2nd Marquis of Dorset. | - | A great General under | - | Henry VIII. Died 1530. | - | | - | Henry Grey = Lady Frances Brandon, - | 3rd Marquis of | daughter of Henry - | Dorset. Duke | VII.’s daughter Mary. - | of Suffolk. | - | Beheaded 1554. | - | | - | +--------------------+-------+ - | | | - | Lady Jane Grey = Guildford Katherine = Edward - | Dudley. Seymour. - | - +----------------------------+ - | - | - +------+-----+----------+-------+----------------------+ - | | | | | - Edward V. | Elizabeth = Henry VII. | | - | | | - | Katherine = Sir William Anne = Duke of - Richard, | Courteney, Norfolk. - Duke of | Earl of Devon. - York. | Suspected of - | treasonable - | intercourse with - | Edmund de la Pole. - | Imprisoned till - | 1509. Died 1512. - | - Edward Courtenay. Marquis = Gertrude Blount, - of Exeter. Involved in | daughter of - Henry Pole’s conspiracy. | Lord Mountjoy. - Beheaded 1539. | - | - Edward Courtenay, - Imprisoned from 1539 to 1553. - Proposed as a husband for - Elizabeth, 1554. In Wyatt’s - rebellion. Died at Padua 1566. - -</div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="ENGLAND_BEFORE" id="ENGLAND_BEFORE">ENGLAND BEFORE THE CONQUEST.</a></h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">Departure of the -Romans.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The dominion of the Romans in Britain had been complete. -The country, as far as the Frith of Forth, had been brought -under Roman civilization. But in England, as elsewhere, the continuance -of that form of civilization had produced -weakness; and the unconquered Britons of the North, -known by the name of Picts, broke into the Romanized districts, and -pushed their incursions far into the centre of the country. On all -sides, the nations outside the Empire were breaking through its -limits and threatening its existence. The danger which threatened -the very heart of the Empire, from the advance of the Goths into -Italy, compelled the Romans in 411 to withdraw their legions from -Britain, and leave the inhabitants of the island to fight their own -battles with the Picts. When these enemies formed an alliance with -the pirates of Ireland, known by the name of the Scots, and with the -German pirates of the North Sea, known as English or Saxons, -the civilized Britons were unable to make head against them, and -found it necessary to seek for aid among the invaders themselves -They therefore made an arrangement with two Jutish chiefs or -Ealdormen, Hengist and Horsa, to come to their assistance. The -German rovers consisted of three nations—the Saxons, the inhabitants -of Holstein, who had advanced along the coast of Friesland; -to the north of them the Angles or English, who inhabited Sleswig; -and still further to the north, the Jutes, whose name is still perpetuated -in the promontory of Jutland.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">The Jutish -settlement -in Kent. -449.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Saxons in -Sussex. -477-495.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Angles in -East Anglia. -520.</div> -</div> - -<p>The first landing-place of the Jutish allies of the Britons was in -the Isle of Thanet, separated at that time by a considerable -inlet from the British mainland. Their aid -enabled the Britons to drive back the Pictish invaders. -But their success, and the settlement they had formed, enticed many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -of their brethren to join them, and their numbers were constantly -increasing. Increase of numbers implied increased demand in the -way of payment and provisions. Quarrels arose between the new-comers -and their British allies. War was determined on. The inlet -which divided Thanet from the mainland was passed, and at -Aylesford, on the Medway, a battle was fought, which, though it -cost Horsa his life, put the conquering Barbarians into possession of -much of the east of Kent. The victory was followed by the extermination -of the inhabitants; against the clergy especially the anger -of the conquerors was directed. The country was thus cleared of the -inhabitants, and the new-comers settled down, bringing with them -their goods and families and national institutions. This process was -repeated at every stage of the conquest of the country, which thus -became not only a conquest but a re-settlement. The Jutish -conquest of Kent was followed, in 477, by an invasion of the Saxons, -who, under Ella, overran the south of Sussex, and -captured the fortress of Anderida near Pevensey; and -in 495, by a fresh Saxon invasion under Cerdic and -Cymric, who passed up the Southampton water and established -the kingdom of the West Saxons. A momentary check was given -to the advance of the conquerors, in 520, at the battle of Mount -Badon. But almost immediately fresh hordes of Angles began -conquering and settling the East of England, where they established -the East Anglian kingdom, with its two great -divisions of Northfolk and Southfolk. Between that -time and 577, the date of a victory at Deorham, in -Gloucestershire, the West Saxons had overrun what are now Hampshire -and Wiltshire, Oxfordshire, Berkshire, and the valley of the -Severn, reaching almost as far as Chester; while the Angles, entering -the Humber and working up the rivers, established themselves on the -Trent, where they were known as Mercians or Border men, and formed -two Northern kingdoms, that of Deira in Yorkshire, and that of -Bernicia, extending as far as the Forth. The capital of this last-named -kingdom was Bamborough, founded by Ida, and called after -his wife Bebba, Bebbanburgh, or Bamborough.</p> - -<p>The junction of these two kingdoms under Æthelfrith, about -600, established the Kingdom of Northumbria; thus was begun -the process of consolidating the several divided English kingdoms. -This tendency to consolidation is marked by the title of Bretwalda, -which is given to the chief of the nation dominant for the time -being. The name had been applied to Ella of Sussex, to Ceawlin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -of Wessex, and was held at the time of the establishment of the -Northumbrian power by Æthelberht of Kent. There were thus -two pre-eminent powers among the English—Northumbria, under its -king Æthelfrith, claiming supremacy over the middle districts of -England, including the Mercians and Middle English; and Kent, -under Æthelberht, paramount over Middlesex, Essex, and East -Anglia; while a third kingdom, that of Wessex, though large in -extent and destined to become the dominant power, was as yet -occupied chiefly in improving its position towards the west. Beyond -these lay the district still in the possession of the Britons. The -possessions of this people were now divided by the conquest of the -English into three—West Wales, or Cornwall; North Wales, which -we now call Wales; and Strathclyde, a district stretching from the -Clyde along the west of the Pennine chain, and separated from -Wales by Chester, in the hands of the Mercians, and a piece of -Lancashire in the hands of the Northumbrians.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Conversion of -the English. -597.</div> - -<p>It was while the kingdoms of Northumbria and Kent were thus -in the balance that the conversion of the English to the -Christian faith began. Æthelberht of Kent had married -Bercta, the daughter of the Frankish King of Paris. -She was a Christian; and Gregory the Great at that time occupying -the Roman See, which was rapidly rising to the position of supremacy -in the Christian Church, took advantage of the opening thus afforded, -and despatched a band of missionaries under a monk named Augustine -to convert the people. In 597 they landed in Thanet. By the -influence of the Queen they were well received, and established themselves -at Canterbury, which has ever since retained its position as the -seat of the Primacy. The Kings of Essex and East Anglia followed -the example of their superior Lord, and became Christians. The -Northern kingdom was still heathen. But Eadwine, who succeeded -Æthelfrith on the Northumbrian throne, surpassed his predecessor in -power. On Æthelberht’s death, he received the submission of the -East Anglians and men of Essex, and conquered even the West -Saxons. Kent alone remained independent, but was compelled to -purchase security by a close alliance with Eadwine, who married a -Kentish princess. With her went a priest, Paulinus; and priest and -Queen together succeeded in converting Eadwine, and bringing the -Northern kingdom to Christianity. Heathenism was however not -extinct. It found a champion, Penda, King of the Mercians. In -alliance with the Welsh king he attacked and defeated Eadwine, in -633, at the battle of Heathfield, and united under his power those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -who were properly called Mercians and the other English tribes south -of the Humber. He also conquered the West Saxon districts along -the Severn, and thus established what is generally known as the -Kingdom of Mercia. Paulinus had fled from York after the battle -of Heathfield. But the contest between heathen and Christian was -renewed by Oswald, Eadwine’s successor; for Paulinus’ place was -taken by Bishop Aidan, a missionary from Columba’s Irish monastery -in Iona, who had established an Episcopal See in the Island of Lindisfarne. -From thence missionaries issued, who continued the work of -conversion, to which Oswald chiefly devoted his life. Birinus, sent -from Rome, with the support of Oswald, succeeded in converting -even Wessex, and establishing a Christian church at Dorchester. -Penda still continued in the centre of England to uphold the cause -of heathendom. At the battle of Maserfield he conquered and slew -Oswald, and re-established his religion for a time in Wessex. But at -length, in 655, he succumbed to Oswi, Oswald’s successor, and with -him fell the power of heathendom. It seemed as though Irish -Christianity, and not Roman, would thus be the religion of England. -But Rome did not suffer her conquests to slip from her hand. A -struggle arose between the adherents of the two Churches. The -matter was brought to an issue in 664 at a Council at Whitby. The -Roman Church there proved predominant. And this victory was -followed by the appointment of Theodore of Tarsus, an Eastern -divine, to the See of Canterbury. Under him the English -Church was organized. Fresh sees were added to the old ones, which -had usually followed the limits of the old English kingdoms. -Canterbury was established as the centre of Church authority. -Theodore’s ecclesiastical work tended much both to the growth of -national unity and to the close connection of Church and State which -existed during the Saxon period. The unity of the people was expressed -in the single archiepiscopal See of Canterbury and in the -Synods; while the arrangement of bishoprics and parishes according -to existing territorial divisions connected them closely with the -State.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Supremacy of -Mercia. -716-819.</div> - -<p>The contest for supremacy between Mercia and Northumbria still -continued. After the fall of Penda, the supremacy of the Northern -kingdom was for some time unquestioned. But sixty years later, -during the reign of three Christian kings, Ethelbald, -Offa, and Cenwulf (716-819), Mercia again rose to great -power. Offa indeed came nearer to consolidating an -empire than any of the preceding kings, although he is not mentioned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -among the Bretwaldas. It is said that he corresponded on -terms of something like equality with Charlemagne; and the great -dyke between the Severn and the Wye which bears his name is -supposed to mark the limits of his conquests over the Britons.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Ecgberht. -800-836.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Consolidation -under the West -Saxons.</div> -</div> - -<p>With these princes the supremacy of Mercia closed, for a great -king had in the year 800 ascended the throne of Wessex. -Ecgberht had lived as an exile in his youth at the court -of Charlemagne, and there probably imbibed imperial notions. -During his reign of thirty-six years he gradually brought under his -power all the kingdoms of the English, whether Anglian or Saxon. -In 823, at the great battle of Ellandune, he defeated the Mercians so -completely that their subject kingdoms passed into his power. Four -years later Mercia owned his overlordship, and Northumbria immediately -after yielded without a struggle. These great kingdoms -retained their own line of sovereigns as subordinate kings. Ecgberht -continued the hereditary struggle against the British -populations, with the West Welsh or Cornish, and the -North Welsh or Welsh, and in each instance succeeded -in establishing his supremacy over them. North of the Dee, however, -his power over the British population did not spread. Thus -the kingdom of the West Saxons absorbed all its rivals, and established -a permanent superiority in England.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Period of Danish -invasion. -790-1013.</div> - -<p>Already, however, a new enemy, before which the rising kingdom -was finally to succumb, had made its appearance; a year before his -death, Ecgberht was called upon to defend his country -from the Danes. This people, issuing from the Scandinavian -kingdoms in the North of Europe, had begun -to land in England, to harry the country, and to carry off their spoil. -At first as robbers, then as settlers, and finally as conquerors, for two -centuries they occupy English history. Their first appearance in -this reign was at Charmouth in Dorsetshire. Subsequently, in -junction with the British, they advanced westward from Cornwall. -This led to the great battle of Hengestesdun, or Hengston, where -the invaders were defeated (835). It seems not unnatural to trace -the appearance of the Northern rovers in England to the state of the -Continent. Driven from their own country by want of room, -obliged to seek new settlements, they found themselves checked by -the organized power of Charlemagne’s empire. They were thus -compelled to find their new home in countries they had not yet -visited. The reign closed with the capture of Chester, the capital of -Gwynedd, the British kingdom of North Wales.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Æthelwulf. -836-857.</div> - -<p>The reign of Æthelwulf, the successor of Ecgberht, was chiefly -occupied in constant war with the Danes. Various -success attended his efforts. The great battle at Ockley -(851), where they were heavily defeated, for a time kept them in -check; but, on the whole, the invaders constantly gained ground, -and at last, in 855, for the first time so far changed their predatory -habits as to winter in the Isle of Thanet. Another characteristic -of Æthelwulf’s reign is the connection with Rome which he established. -When his youngest son Alfred was still a child, he sent -him to Rome, where the young prince was anointed; and two years -afterwards he himself took the same journey, was received on the -road by Charles the Bald, King of France, and spent a whole year -in Italy. He there re-established the Saxon College, and by his -engagement to supply funds for its support seems to have originated -the well-known Peter’s Pence. His connection with Charles the -Bald was further cemented by his marriage with Judith, daughter -of that king. After Æthelwulf’s death she married her stepson -Æthelbald, was divorced by him, returned to France, married -Baldwin of Flanders, and was the ancestress of Matilda, wife of -William the Conqueror. These connections show the rising importance -of England, and the entrance of the country into the general -politics of Europe. Something in Æthelwulf’s government, perhaps -his lengthened absence abroad, or the step he had taken in getting -Alfred anointed, excited discontent. His eldest surviving son, -Æthelbald, conspired with other nobles to exclude him from the -country, and he was forced to consent to a compromise, accepting as -his own kingdom, Kent and the Eastern dependencies of Wessex, -while his son ruled over the rest of the kingdom.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Æthelbald. -858-860.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Æthelberht. -860-866.</div> -</div> - -<p>On his death he bequeathed his own dominions to Æthelberht, -his second son, while Wessex was, upon the death of -Æthelbald, to pass in succession to his two sons, Æthelred -and Alfred. In spite of this will, on the death of Æthelbald -five years later, Æthelberht of Kent succeeded in -making good his claims to Wessex also, and upon -Æthelberht’s death, after a reign of five years, marked only by -renewed attacks of the Danes, both kingdoms passed without question -to Æthelred.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Æthelred. -866-871.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Danish conquest -of East Anglia. -870.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was during the reign of Æthelred that the Danes first established -themselves permanently in the country. In 867 -Ingvar and Hubba, said to be the sons of Ragner Lodbrog, -a great Scandinavian hero, invaded England. Legend says<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -that this invasion was intended to exact vengeance for the death of -their father, who had been cruelly put to death by Ella of Northumberland. -There are chronological difficulties in the way of accepting -this story, which are increased by the fact that the Danish -landing was really in East Anglia. Thence, in 867, they advanced -into Northumbria and took York. The anarchy in which Northumbria -lay, caused by the rival claims of Osberht and Ella to the -throne, rendered its conquest easy. In 868, they marched towards -Mercia, and took Nottingham. Burhred, the King of Mercia, then -implored the aid of Æthelred and his brother Alfred, who so far -succeeded that they drove the Danes back to Northumbria. From -thence, in 870, an invasion, under many leaders, whose connection is -not very clear, was directed against East Anglia. They were there -joined by Guthrum, another Danish leader, and their combined -forces pressed victoriously onwards through Croyland, to Peterborough, -Huntingdon, and Ely. After defeating the English at -Thetford, they took Edmund, the Saxon King of East Anglia, -prisoner, and, upon his refusal to accept the pagan -religion, put him to death. For his constancy he was -honoured with the title of Saint Edmund. East Anglia -was thus completely in possession of the Danes, and Guthrum took -to himself the title of king. East Anglia became henceforward for -some time the principal point of Danish settlement in England. -From thence the invaders passed into Wessex, under the command of -Bagsecg and Halfdene. They were vigorously met by Æthelred. -They pushed on, however, as far up the Thames as Reading, near -which town a series of battles was fought,—at Englefield, where the -Danes were beaten; at Reading, where the fortune of the day was -changed; and subsequently at the great battle of Ashdown, where -the victory of the English was regarded as being due to Alfred, who, -being in command of half the army, attacked and defeated the -enemy, while his brother was losing the precious moments in prayer -for success. Though the victory of Ashdown was complete, it did not -close the war. Almost immediately afterwards we hear of battles at -Basing and at Merton, in which the Danes were again successful. -These battles took place just before the death of Æthelred.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Alfred. -871-901.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Treaty of -Wedmore.</div> -</div> - -<p>He was succeeded at once by his brother Alfred. Another victory -of the Danes at Wilton compelled Alfred to make peace. -For a time the Danes withdrew from Wessex, and -employed their energy in subjugating Mercia. Burhred, who had -married Alfred’s sister, was driven from the throne, and retired to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -Rome to die. A Danish agent, named Ceolwulf, was put in his -place, and the country laid under heavy contribution. But Ceolwulf -in his turn was displaced, and the Danes took possession of much of -the country themselves, conquering among other places the five great -towns, Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, and Stamford, known -as the five Danish Burghs, or, with the addition of York and -Chester, the seven Burghs. They also carried their invasions northward, -and Cumberland and part of Strathclyde were overrun and -peopled by them, under the command of Halfdene. Nor was the -treaty with the East Anglian Danes permanent. Guthrum sailed -round the coast and captured Wareham and Exeter. To oppose -them on their own element, Alfred introduced a new form of ship, -of greater size and length than had hitherto been used, and succeeded -in winning a great naval victory in Swanage Bay. But the Danish -forces were gradually closing round him. London and Essex had -been taken, and a colony of Danes had conquered South Wales. At -length, attacked in all directions, his kingdom of Wessex was practically -limited to the country of the Somersœtas; and, unable to -make head against his enemies, the King took refuge among the -impassable morasses of the river Parret. It is during this time of his -exile that the well-known story of the burnt cakes is told. But -while apparently completely beaten, Alfred succeeded in gathering -a new army, issued from his seclusion, and attacking the Danes at -Edington (878), near Westbury, completely defeated them. The consequence -of this battle was the Treaty of Wedmore. By -this treaty the kingdom of East Anglia was surrendered to -the Danes, and a line was drawn to separate their kingdom from that -of Wessex. This line from the Thames ran along the Lea to Bedford, -then along the Ouse till it struck Watling Street, and then followed -Watling Street to the Welsh Border. The greater part of Mercia was -thus restored to Wessex. In exchange, Anglia and Mercia beyond -this line were ceded to the Danes, who were to hold them as vassals -of the West Saxon king, and who were to become Christians. The -limits of their occupation are still to be traced by the occurrence of -the termination “by” in the names of the towns; it was in many -instances appended to the name of the Danish holder of the manor. -Guthrum, on his baptism, took the name of Æthelstan, and many -difficulties in the chronology of the legends of the time may be -solved by supposing that the Æthelstan mentioned in them is -Guthrum, and not the Æthelstan who reigned in the year 925. -This treaty, although it curtailed the supremacy of Wessex, made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -the kingdom in fact stronger, and secured a temporary rest for the -whole of England. Mercia, that part of it at least which remained -English, was governed by its Alderman Æthelred, and by the King’s -daughter Æthelflæd, known as the Lady of the Mercians. On the -death of Gutred, the Danish King of Northumbria, Alfred re-established -his power there, and the peace and prosperity of England were -further increased by the fact that the energy of the Danes was for the -present chiefly directed against France and Belgium. Guthrum died -in 890, and though the treaty was confirmed by his successors, the -defeat of the Danes in Belgium threw fresh invaders into the kingdom. -In 893, Hasting, a well-known sea-rover, in alliance with the -Anglians and Northumbrians, committed fresh ravages in all directions; -but at last, having ventured up the Lea, Alfred hit upon the -expedient of draining the river, and leaving their ships aground. -After this they were glad to retreat, but lesser expeditions were constantly -vexing the coast. The reign of Alfred is thus divided into -two periods of Danish war, between which, and at the close of his -life, there occurred intervals of peace.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Appreciation of -Alfred’s character.</div> - -<p>It has been usual to attribute to Alfred most of the marked peculiarities -of English civilization, the formation of shires, -the establishment of juries, and so on. Such assertions -will not bear examination. As a lawgiver, he collected -the laws of the three principal states over which he ruled—Kent, -Mercia, and Wessex—which had been already recorded by the Kings -Æthelberht, Offa, and Ine. As a warrior he was on the whole -victorious, and understood the necessity of establishing a fleet, which -he appears to have constructed on a different principle from that of -the Danes, the ships being longer, and serving less as mere stages on -which to fight. As a governor he was impartial and strict; his -police was severe, the system of mutual responsibility became universal, -and under him the idea of morality began to mingle with the -idea of injury to the commonwealth, which had been the Saxon -notion of crime. His son Eadward, who succeeded him, was probably -as great as his father, but he had not the love of literature -which forms the marked characteristic of Alfred’s public life. It has -been questioned whether Alfred could himself read; however this may -have been, he was so conscious of the necessity of literature for the -people that he set himself to work to make translations for them. -“The History of the World on Christian Principles,” by Orosius, -Bede’s “History of the Anglo-Saxon Church,” and Boethius’ “Consolation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -of Philosophy,” were the works he translated. Besides his -own literary work, he established conventual schools at Shaftesbury and -Athelney, and probably a more general one at Oxford. The love of -the people, whom his indefatigable energy saved from their barbarous -and pagan invaders, has attributed to their hero an original genius -of which there are no distinct proofs. What is really known of him -is, that he was an able, honest, persevering governor, gifted with that -power and habit of method and organization which is perhaps more -useful in advancing early civilization than greater and more splendid -gifts. Upon Alfred’s death, though England, as a whole, had suffered -by the loss of the country granted to the Danes, -or, as it was called, the Danelagu, Wessex had assumed -a position of superiority, and was regarded as the representative state -of the English. This position it fully vindicated during the reigns -of Eadward, Alfred’s son, who succeeded him, and of the four next -kings, till the kingdom of Wessex grew to be the kingdom of England, -and exerted an imperial supremacy over the whole island.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Supremacy of -Wessex.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Eadward the -Elder. -901-925.</div> -</div> - -<p>Eadward’s first difficulty was with his cousin Æthelwulf, the son -of Alfred’s elder brother Æthelred. This prince claimed -the throne. He landed in England, was driven to Northumbria, -where he was chosen king, and then, in company -with Eohric, the King of East Anglia, marched up the Thames -to Cricklade. He was however defeated, and with his ally killed by -a portion of the English army near the Ouse. The consequence was -the renewal of the acknowledgment of the supremacy of Wessex by -Guthrum II. of East Anglia. In conjunction with his sister, the -Lady of the Mercians, Eadward attempted to secure himself from -further molestation by the erection of numerous stone castles. These -castles, which seem to have been built on a new and better plan than -any before erected, became also in many instances the origin from -which towns sprang; for laws were passed creating them into -markets, and forbidding bargains to be made without the walls. -Some sort of monopoly of trade was thus secured for fortified posts. -On the death of Æthelflæd, Mercia, both Anglian and Danish, -submitted to Eadward’s authority. He continued the active government -of his sister, and went on with her work of fortress-building. -An invasion by the Danes of Northumbria in conjunction with the -Welsh, who hoped to find Mercia unguarded, was signally defeated. -The Welsh kings swore alliance to Eadward, and the Danes of -Northumbria, and even the Kings of Scotland and Strathclyde, -acknowledged him as their “father and lord.” Eadward was thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -in fact master of the whole of England, and had completed more -thoroughly the work of Ecgberht. The greatness of his position is -clearly marked by the marriages of his children with the greatest -Princes of the Continent. One married Charles the Simple of -France, a second Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, a third Otto I., -Emperor of Germany.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Æthelstan. -925-940.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Brunanburh. -943.</div> -</div> - -<p>The greatness Eadward had thus secured descended to his son -Æthelstan, with whom the grandeur of the Saxon monarchy -reached its highest point. He married one of his -sisters to a Northumbrian prince, Cytric, receiving his allegiance for -Benicia from the Tees to Edinburgh, and, on the death of Cytric, -incorporated the country with his own dominions. Cytric’s two sons -fled, the one to Ireland, where the Danes received him willingly, -the other (Guthrith) to Constantine, King of Scotland. The consequence -of the escape of these princes became evident in after years. -In 934, Constantine and his heir Eorca, Owen or Eugenius, King -of Cumberland, made war upon England, but were defeated and -compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Æthelstan. The -attention of the English King was subsequently drawn abroad, -where he upheld the cause of his nephew, Louis de Outre-Mer, son -of Charles the Simple, against the attacks of his brothers-in-law, the -German Otto and Hugh of Paris. It was while thus employed that -the Scotch kingdoms again rose in insurrection. A great conspiracy -against Æthelstan appears to have been formed, at the head of which -were Anlath, son of that Guthrith who had fled to Scotland, -Constantine, Owen, and several princes of the Danes from Ireland. -Their object was the re-establishment of the Danish power in -Northumbria. The attempt was completely thwarted by the great -battle of Brunanburh, near Beverley, in Yorkshire. -Not long after this decisive victory Æthelstan died. -His splendid reign is further marked by legislation of a -more original description than that of his predecessors. He ordered, -among other things, that every man should have a lord who should be -answerable for him to justice, and rendered more systematic the -arrangement of mutual responsibility, which appears to have been -one of the principles of Saxon police.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Eadmund. -940-946.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Eadred. -946-955.</div> -</div> - -<p>His younger brothers, Eadmund and Eadred, followed in his -footsteps, defeating the Northumbrian rebels, who from -time to time elected kings of their own, but were -completely conquered by Eadred. He so thoroughly -incorporated the country with his own, that its ruler could no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -longer claim the title of king. Both Bernicia and Deira were bestowed -as an earldom on Osulf, who had assisted in the conquest -of the rebels, and remained in the hands of his family till the Norman -Conquest. Eadmund also maintained his supremacy over Scotland, -with which country his relations were of a very friendly nature, -as he granted a part of the kingdom of Strathclyde, consisting of -Cumberland and Galloway, to King Malcolm, to be held by military -service.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Rise of Dunstan.</div> - -<p>The policy of Eadred and of his successors seems so closely connected -with the rise of Dunstan, that it may be justly attributed -to him. The monkish historians, to whom we owe -our knowledge of this great man, have overlaid his history with mythical -stories, and have given him a character and policy to suit their -own purposes. In their eagerness to secure the name of the greatest -statesman of the age in support of their pretensions against the -secular clergy, they have drawn him as a youth of miraculous gifts, -of severe monkish asceticism, whose claim to greatness consisted in the -establishment of the Benedictine rule. In the same way they have -painted his opponent King Edwy [Eadwig] in the blackest colours. -The common story tells us that, after a childhood passed in learning, -so deep as to excite a suspicion of magic, illness drove Dunstan to the -cloister at Glastonbury; that he there established the Benedictine -rule, entering with such vehemence into its spirit that his asceticism -almost turned his brain. On the accession of Edwy, the young king, -it is said, deserted the assembly of the nobles, to pass his time in the -company of the beautiful Ælfgyfu [Elgiva], his mistress. Dunstan -is represented as violently dragging the unworthy king back to his -proper place, as securing the banishment of Ælfgyfu, and with his -partisans cruelly putting her to death upon her return. Edwy is -then described as raging fiercely against all the monks in his -kingdom. In truth, it is in politics rather than in ecclesiastical -discipline that Dunstan’s greatness must be sought, and he must -take his place in history rather as a conciliatory and patriotic -governor than as an ascetic and violent churchman.</p> - -<p>Born at the beginning of King Æthelstan’s reign, and trained -partly at Glastonbury, where he found and studied books left by -wandering Irish scholars, and partly at the King’s Court like other -young nobles of the time, an illness induced him to devote himself to -the Church. His interest secured him the Abbey of Glastonbury at -the early age of seventeen. He shortly returned to the Court, became -the King’s treasurer, and as an influential minister joined himself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -to the party which he found pre-eminent during the reign of -Eadred. That king was a constant invalid, the influence of the -Queen Mother was paramount, and she was supported by the chiefs -of East Anglia and those whose views were national rather than provincial. -The kingdom of Northumbria was in a state of ceaseless -confusion. Again and again the Danes and Ostmen raised insurrections -there. Wulstan, the Archbishop of York, with constantly -shifting policy, at one time supported the insurgents, at another persuaded -the Northern Witan to submit to Eadred. At length, in a -final insurrection, he was overcome and imprisoned. The affairs in -Northumbria had to be settled. It is here that the national policy -of the dominant party made itself felt. Contrary to the views of -the Wessex nobles, who would have wished for active interference of -the government, the kingdom was reduced to the condition of an -earldom under Osulf. But English supremacy being thus established, -Wulstan was released, and self-government both in Church and State -permitted. This conciliatory policy was interrupted by the death of -Eadred.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edwy. -955-957.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Eadgar. -957-975.</div> -</div> - -<p>The new King Edwy, nephew of Eadred, was a mere child, and a -palace intrigue, headed by Æthelgyfu and her daughter -Ælfgyfu, who had obtained influence over the lad, drove -the Queen Mother Eadgyfu from the Court, and established the power -of the Wessex party. Unpopular among the Wessex nobles and in his -own monastery, Dunstan was driven abroad, and took refuge in Ghent. -But his party was still strong in England. Indignant probably at a -violent resumption of grants from the Folkland, the nobles of England, -with the exception of Wessex, set up Edwy’s younger brother Eadgar -as a rival king, and were sufficiently powerful to oblige Edwy to divide -the kingdom and content himself with the territories of Wessex -south of the Thames. Dunstan was recalled by his partisans. He -received from King Eadgar the sees of Rochester and of -London; and when, on the death of Edwy, Eadgar succeeded -to the undivided sovereignty of the kingdom, Dunstan rose with -him, and became his chief minister and Archbishop of Canterbury.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Dunstan’s -government.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Division of -Northumbria.</div> -</div> - -<p>As minister, Dunstan had both Church and State to reform. In -both, decay had made great progress. The increased importance -of the English King had raised him to a position -very different from that of the tribal monarch. Along with the -King had risen his dependants, the old members of the Comitatus. -His Thegns or servants, rendered rich by grants of the public land, -had gradually succeeded the old nobility by birth, of the German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -races. The troubled situation of the country had driven the freeholders -more and more to seek safety by placing themselves and -their land in a state of dependence on the Thegns. Even as early as -Alfred every man was obliged to have a lord. At the same time the -spirit of provincialism was strong, each district which had been a -separate kingdom wishing to maintain its own independence. Dunstan -seems to have understood that a change in the character of the -monarchy was inevitable, and that national unity could only be -secured by upholding that change, placing the monarch in what may -be regarded as an imperial position over the subject kingdoms, and -allowing the separate districts as much self-government as possible. -Within the kingdom of Wessex itself, and perhaps of Mercia also, he -established a strict police, and suppressed disorder with a strong -hand. Beyond that, the largest freedom was permitted. Thus, the -subordination of Northumbria was further secured by -its division into three parts. The district between -the Tees and the Humber was intrusted to Oslac. From the Tees to -the Tweed remained in the hands of Osulf, while the Lothians -between the Tweed and the Forth were given out on military service -to the King of Scotland; and in subsequent history it was this -district, peopled with English and Danes, which formed the civilized -centre of the Scottish kingdom. But, when the supremacy of -Wessex was thus secured, the Danes of the North were allowed to -keep their own customs and make their own laws. Similarly, -friendship with the Northmen of Ireland was maintained, and -through their friendship the King was enabled to keep up a powerful -fleet, which constantly sailed round the coasts, and kept them free -from foreign invasion. The tradition that Eadgar was rowed upon -the Dee to Chester by eight tributary kings, whether the fact be true -or not, points to the imperial position which Dunstan had secured for -him. In the Church the same policy was pursued. The great disturbances -of the kingdom had thrown much power into the hands of -the Church, the most permanent element of society. This increase of -influence had been followed by an increase of secularity. The bishops -became statesmen, and even commanders of armies. The older form -of monasticism died out. Marriage of priests was constant. Livings -began to be handed on from father to son. There was some chance -of the establishment of an hereditary priestly caste. In Ghent, Dunstan -had become acquainted with the Benedictine rule lately established -there. He saw its efficiency for securing discipline among the -clergy. Like other strong rulers, he regarded anarchy with aversion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -and was therefore anxious to introduce the rule into England. He -intrusted the work to his friend Æthelwold, whom he made Bishop -of Winchester, and to Oswald, whom he raised to the See of Worcester. -In Wessex and Mercia he carried out his reform with vigour, -even with violence: but, as in his secular government, he kept himself -under the restraints of prudence. Thus, when Oswald was -appointed Archbishop of York, he made no efforts to restrain the -marriage of the clergy, and in Dunstan’s own See he yielded to the -prejudices of the people, and allowed the abbeys to continue in the -hands of secular clerks. The title of Eadgar the Peaceful, and a -reign of seventeen years unbroken by any great foreign war, attest -the success of Dunstan’s policy.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Eadward the -Martyr -975-979.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Fall of -Dunstan.</div> -</div> - -<p>But with Eadgar’s death, and the accession of his son Eadward, this -prosperous state of things ended. For a time Dunstan -held his own, but not without strong opposition. Again -and again he had to plead his cause before the Witan. -And at one synod, at Calne, it was intended to bring the matter to a -crisis. Beornhelm, a Bishop of the Scottish Church, was brought -forward as a champion by his enemies. His eloquence was carrying -the assembly with him, and Dunstan could only appeal to heaven -for assistance. Nor was that assistance denied; by accident or -design, the floor of the upper chamber where the meeting was held -gave way in that part where Beornhelm and his friends were seated, -and they were hurried to swift destruction, while Dunstan’s triumphant -party remained uninjured on the floor above. But even -miraculous interferences did not suppress the enemies -of the Prelate. A conspiracy, in which Ælfthryth -[Elfrida], the mother of Ethelred, seems to have been chiefly engaged, -was formed; and Eadward, returning from the chase, was killed at -her castle at Corfe.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Æthelred the -Unready. -979-1016.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Third Period of -Danish invasion.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Maldon. -991.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The first -Danegelt. -994.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Æthelred’s -marriage with -Emma.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Massacre -of St. Brice. -1002.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Pernicious -influence of -Eadric Streona.</div> -</div> - -<p>Eadward the Martyr, as his monkish chroniclers call him, being -thus disposed of, his brother, Æthelred the Unready, -ascended the throne. Dunstan, compelled to assist at -the coronation, did so only to denounce curses on the -new king He had to withdraw from Court. His policy was at an -end. Mercia and the North fell away from Wessex. The King’s -own character, at once weak and cruel, was not such -as to inspire confidence; and we accordingly enter -upon a period of almost inexplicable treasons, weakness, and disorder. -The Danes reappear on the coast, and what has been spoken of as the -third period of Danish invasion begins. The fleets were no longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -merely piratical expeditions, but were commanded by kings of whole -countries, and towards the end of the period the object was no longer -plunder, or even settlement, but national conquest. The change -was closely connected with the gradual consolidation of the three -Northern kingdoms of Europe—Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, -in each of which, as in England, one sovereign had now become -paramount. The chief personage in these invasions is Swegen or -Swend, son of the King of Denmark. In the year 982 he made his -appearance on the English coasts, and Southampton, Chester, and -London were either taken or destroyed. The kingdom was in no -condition to offer a firm resistance. Internal dissensions had already -begun. The King was at enmity with the whole of Dunstan’s party. -We hear of a fierce quarrel with the Bishop of Rochester. The -allegiance of Mercia and Northumbria was more than doubtful. -East Anglia, where resistance to a kindred people might have been -least expected, alone succeeded in checking the Danes. There, -under Brihtnoth, the great battle of Maldon was fought, -which forms the subject of one of the greatest of the -Anglo-Saxon poems. Such single instances of resistance -were of no real avail. Sigeric of Canterbury, who had succeeded to -Dunstan’s position and policy, and was therefore by no means -unfriendly to the Danes as the opponents of Wessex, induced the -King to entertain a fatal plan of buying off the invaders. With the -consent of his Witan, he raised £10,000, with which he bribed the -Danish hosts. This was the origin of the tax known as -Danegelt, which became permanent, and lasted till the -reign of Henry II. The effect of such a bribe was naturally -only to excite the Northern robbers to further efforts. Accordingly, -in 994, Swegen and Olaf of Norway made their appearance, and England -was assaulted by the national fleets of Denmark and Norway. -Divided by faction, undermined by treason, and without a leader, -the English knew no expedient but the repetition of bribes. Olaf, -as a Christian, was indeed induced to return to his own country, but -Swegen’s invasions were continuous. Supported by the disloyal -chiefs of the North, he ravaged in turn Dorsetshire, Hampshire, -Sussex, and Kent. And when, in the year 1000, a temporary lull -occurred, Æthelred, with a madness which seems almost inconceivable, -insisted on quarrelling, first with the King of Cumberland, who -is said to have refused the disgraceful tribute demanded of him, -though willing to serve with his forces against the Danes, and -afterwards with the Normans in France. An expedition undertaken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -against this people with ridiculous ostentation was easily defeated. -A peace was made, and hostility changed into alliance, -cemented by the marriage of the King with Emma, a -Norman Princess. In her train came certain followers, -who obtained high office and military commands, and added a fresh -element of weakness to already weakened England. But though -contemptible in the field, with the craft and cruelty of a weak mind -Æthelred planned the massacre of all the Danes in -Wessex. Many of these were settled quietly in different -parts of the country, or billeted and living on friendly -terms with their landlords. On the 13th of November 1002, on the -festival of St. Brice, the cruel plan was carried out. Among other -victims was a sister of Swegen’s who had become a Christian; she was -put to death with circumstances of unusual barbarity, it is said, at the -instigation of Eadric <em>Streona</em>, or <em>the Gainer</em>. This man -henceforward plays a prominent part in the history. -Though of low birth, he had contrived to make himself -the favourite of the King, whose daughter he subsequently married. -Selfish, unscrupulous, and treacherous, his influence as the King’s -adviser was most pernicious; while, if it suited his own ends, he -never hesitated to betray his master. So completely is he identified -with the disasters of England, that there is scarcely any criminal act -of the reign that is not traced to him. But his repeated treasons do -not seem to have destroyed the trust which Æthelred and his nobler -son Edmund placed in him. After the massacre of St. Brice the -Danes naturally sought revenge. Exeter was taken by the treachery -of Hugh the Frenchman, one of Emma’s followers. Wiltshire and -Salisbury were deserted by the traitor Ælfric. Again East Anglia, -under Ulfcytel the Ealdorman, made the only show of resistance; -but here too, treason, not of the commander but of the soldiers, -themselves of Danish origin, proved fatal. Famine and civil quarrels -added to the misery of the English. Again Eadric is visible, -ruining rival Thegns, and advising still further use of bribes. In -1006, he had succeeded in getting made Ealdorman of the Mercians. -His family rose with him, and in 1008, when at last a great national -fleet was collected, the quarrels of his brother Brihtric and his -nephew Wulfnoth destroyed its utility.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Thurkill’s -invasions.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Swegen’s -invasion.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">England submits -to Swegen. -1013.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the same year, a fresh host, one division of which was commanded -by Thurkill or Thurcytel, one of the most -formidable of the Danish sea kings, made its appearance -In 1010, the English were again defeated at the battle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -Ipswich, and the country was in a condition of absolute collapse. -Mercia and Wessex itself were overrun. The cause of Æthelred -looked so hopeless, that Eadric the Gainer thought it time to change -sides, and after the capture of Canterbury and the death of the -Archbishop St. Alphege, the Witan was collected under Eadric, -without the participation of the King, and a further large tribute -paid, while by some arrangement, probably the cession of East -Anglia, Thurkill was drawn to the English side. This step of -Thurkill seems to have opened Swegen’s eyes at once -to the inutility of single invasions, and to the possibility -of himself effecting some similar arrangement. He felt confident -of the support of Northumbria and Mercia against Wessex. -He therefore moved his fleet to the Humber, and advanced to York. -He had not miscalculated. The whole of the Danelagu joined him, -and with this assistance, leaving his son Cnut behind him in command -of the fleet in the Humber, he advanced into Wessex. His -success was constant. Oxford was taken, and the royal town of -Winchester. At Bath the Danish conqueror received the submission -of the Thegns of the West. London, which we find constantly -rising in importance, alone held out, nor was it till Æthelred -deserted the city that it surrendered. But then, there -being no longer any opposition, Swegen was, in fact, -King of England. Æthelred sought and obtained an -asylum in Normandy, till recalled by Swegen’s death the following -year.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Restoration of -Æthelred. -1014.</div> - -<p>The Danes acknowledged Cnut as King, but the bulk of the English -wished to retain the House of Cerdic, if Æthelred -would pledge himself to rule better. This he promised -to do, and his cause for a time was successful. Cnut had -to retreat to his ships. Nevertheless, we hear of another large tribute, -but it was paid probably to a fleet of Danish auxiliaries serving upon -the English side. Eadric had of course again joined the victorious -party; but again his persistent treachery was the destruction of the -country. He enticed Sigeferth and Morkere, Thegns of the Five -Danish Burghs, to Oxford, and there murdered them. Sigeferth’s -widow was kept a prisoner, and taken in marriage by Edmund Ironside, -Æthelred’s son. This prince thus acquired possession of the Five -Burghs, and secured an influence which enabled him to take up a -position in opposition to Eadric. On the renewal of the invasion by -Cnut both Eadric and Edmund collected their forces; but, angry at the -new rivalry he was experiencing, Eadric led his troops to join Cnut.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -Wessex was thus thrown open, and by a strange inversion of affairs, -Edmund, with Utred of Northumberland, occupied the northern part -of England, while the Danes, under Cnut and Eadric, held Wessex -and the South. In 1016, Æthelred died.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edmund Ironside. -April to -Nov. 1016.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Five great -battles.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Division of -England.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Witan of the South immediately, under the influence of the -conquerors, elected Cnut as his successor, but London -and the rest of the Witan chose Edmund. It was plain -that Wessex could acknowledge Cnut only through fear, -and thither Edmund betook himself, and collected troops. As if to -prove what the English could do if well commanded, in a few weeks -he fought, on the whole successfully, five great battles. -At Pen Selwood in Somerset; at Sherstone, where the -English were only prevented from winning by a trick of Eadric’s, -who, raising the head of another man, declared it was the head of -the slain English king; at Brentford; and afterwards, when Eadric -had again changed sides, at Otford in Kent; and Assandun in Essex. -In this last battle the whole forces of England were arrayed. The -sudden withdrawal of Eadric, who was commanding the Magesætas, -or men of Hereford, secured a victory for the Danes, and Edmund had -to retreat across England into the country of the Hwiccas, or Gloucestershire. -Not yet wholly beaten, he was preparing for a sixth -battle, when he was persuaded to make an arrangement similar, -though not identical, with that which Alfred had made -with Guthrum. He surrendered to Cnut Northumberland -and Mercia, retaining for himself Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, -and London. On St. Andrew’s Day of the same year, Edmund -Ironside died, a misfortune, like most other <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'acts of villany'">acts of villainy</ins> of the -time, attributed to Eadric. With him fell the hope of the English. -The treachery of Eadric, the folly of Æthelred, met with their reward, -and Cnut was acknowledged King of England.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Cnut. 1017.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The four -Earldoms.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Cnut’s patriotic -government.</div> -</div> - -<p>Indeed, Edmund’s sons were so young that it was not probable -that the Witan would elect them. The only other claimant was -Edwy, Edmund’s brother. To secure himself against -him, Cnut is said to have employed Eadric to put him -to death; and though he escaped on that occasion, he was certainly -outlawed, and all the old members of the royal family -were kept abroad. The children of Æthelred and Emma, Edward -and Alfred, were in Normandy with their mother. The children of -Edmund Ironside, Edward and Edmund, were sent first to Sweden, -and then to Hungary, where Edward married Agatha, niece of the -Emperor Henry II. Cnut’s object, on finding himself King of England,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -appears to have been to obliterate, as far as possible, the idea of -conquest, to rule England as an English king, and making that -country the centre of his government, to form a great Scandinavian -Empire. To this end, pursuing the policy of Dunstan, he divided -England into four great earldoms, representing the old -kingdoms. Northumberland and East Anglia were -intrusted to Danes; Mercia was given to Eadric; Wessex he kept in -his own hands. Eadric’s influence had compelled Cnut thus to promote -him, but he so mistrusted him, that within a year he caused -him to be put to death. In the same year he sent for Queen Emma -from Normandy, and married her, though she must have been much -older than himself, with the object apparently either of -connecting himself with the late dynasty, or of securing -the friendship of the Normans. The next year the Danish fleet was -sent home. Englishmen were again put in high office. Thus Leofric -was made Earl of the Mercians, and Godwine, of whom we now -first hear, and whose origin and rise is variously related, was made -Earl of Wessex, presumably the second man in the country. Thus, -too, Cnut flattered the feelings of the English by moving the body of -St. Alphege, who had been killed by the Danes twelve years before, -with all honour to his own Church at Canterbury; and thus, too, he -did not scruple to fill the English bishoprics with Englishmen, and -even to promote them to high office in Denmark. During his reign -England was at peace within its own borders, while Scotland was -brought to submission. In 1031, Malcolm, King of the Scotch, -and two under-kings, did homage to the English King. A strong, -well-ordered government was established, supported for the first -time by a standing body of troops, known as the House-carls. Early -in the reign Eadgar’s law had been renewed with the advice of the -Witan, and, in 1028, Cnut promulgated a code of his own, which is -little else than repetition of former laws and customs. But the proof -of his good government is this, that just as the law of the great -Eadgar was looked on as typical, and demanded by Cnut’s Witan, -and as after the Conquest the Confessor’s law was demanded, so we -find the people of the North demanding Cnut’s law,—in each case -law meaning system of government. His importance as a king is -marked by the respect shown him on his pilgrimage to Rome in the -year 1027. There, as he tells his people in a letter which he sent -them, he negotiated with the Pope, the Emperor, and King Rudolph -of Burgundy, for the free passage of English pilgrims and merchants; -he received large gifts from the Emperor, and made the Pope promise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -to lessen his extortions upon granting the Pallium or Archiepiscopal -cloak. His daughter by Queen Emma, Gunhild, was, moreover, -thought a fitting wife for Henry, afterwards the Emperor Henry III. -Cnut died still young in 1035.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Disputed -succession.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Importance of -Earl Godwine.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Harold. -1037.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Harthacnut. -1040.</div> -</div> - -<p>With him fell his plans, both of the Scandinavian Empire and of -good government in England. His sons, Harold and -Harthacnut, in no way inherited his greatness; they -appear to have been little better than savage barbarians. The succession -was disputed between them. Godwine and the West Saxons -obtained the South of England for Harthacnut, while Harold reigned -in the North. But as Harthacnut did not come to England, but -remained in his kingdom of Denmark, Godwine was -the practical ruler. This great Earl, whose sympathies -were wholly national, was accused of putting to death Alfred, the -son of Æthelred and Emma, who seems to have taken advantage of -the absence of Harthacnut to aim at re-establishing himself in Wessex. -But as the actual murderers were the men of Harold whom Godwine -had opposed, it would seem that the charge was a false one. The -continued absence of Harthacnut enabled Harold to -secure the whole of the kingdom, over which he -reigned for two years. On his death, in 1040, Harthacnut -stepped unopposed into his position. His short -reign was marked by no great events. Godwine, having cleared -himself by oath and by compurgation (in which a large number of -Earls and Thegns joined) of the charge of murdering Alfred, -remained in power. A tyrannical use of the King’s House-carls in -collecting a tax produced an outbreak in Worcester, which was -punished with brutal severity. And when the King fell dead, -while drinking at a bridal feast, the English were glad to be rid -of a line of such barbarous sovereigns, and to restore the House of -Cerdic in the person of the late king’s half-brother Edward, who, -in the absence of direct descendants of the Danish house, entered -almost unopposed on the kingdom.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward the -Confessor. -1042.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Rivalry between -Godwine and the -French party.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Godwine -banished. -1051.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Return and -death of -Godwine. -1052.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was the eloquence of Godwine which overcame the slight opposition -offered to Edward’s election, and secured him the throne. -This nobleman thus reached the summit of his power, and -two years afterwards his daughter Edith became the King’s -wife. Edward’s education and training had rendered his tastes and -policy as decidedly French as those of Godwine were national. There -thence arose, and continued throughout the reign, a constant enmity -between the two parties—the Frenchmen, whom Edward brought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -over in great numbers and employed particularly as bishops, and -the national party, headed by Godwine and his sons. -It is the progress of this quarrel which forms the history -of the reign, side by side with the efforts of Godwine to -push his family prominently forward in opposition to the family of -Leofric, Earl of Mercia. On the one hand, the King lavished favours -upon his foreign followers. A Frenchman, Robert of Jumièges, -became Bishop of London, and afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury; -Ulf, another Norman, became Bishop of Dorchester in Oxfordshire; -Ralph, the son of Edward’s sister and the Count of Mantes, was made -an Earl; and Eustace of Boulogne, her second husband, was loaded -with honours. On the other hand, Godwine succeeded in securing -for members of his own family the earldoms of Somersetshire and -Herefordshire, and of the East and Middle Angles. The crisis of the -rivalry at length arrived. It arose from an outrage committed by -the followers of Eustace on the citizens of Dover. The townsmen -rose against the insolent Normans and drove them from the city; -and when Godwine, as Earl, was called upon to punish the citizens, -he positively refused unless they were fairly tried before the Witan. -Both sides took up arms,—Godwine and his sons on one side; the -King, with Siward of Northumberland, Leofric of Mercia, and his -own French partisans on the other. The armies faced each other in -Gloucestershire; but Godwine, unwilling to press matters to extremity, -accepted the proposal of Leofric that the question should be referred -to the Witan. When the Witan assembled, the King was there with -a great army. Overawed by this force, the Witan, recurring to the -old charge against Godwine and to a late act of violence on the part -of his son Swend, ordered Godwine and his sons to appear before -them as criminals. This they refused to do unless hostages were -given, and as this demand was refused, they would not appear, and -were outlawed. Godwine and three sons retired to -Baldwin of Bruges, Leofwine and Harold to Ireland. -The French party were triumphant. Robert, as we have -seen, was made Archbishop, William, another Frenchman, succeeded -him as Bishop of London, and Odda, probably an Englishman in the -French interest, was given the western part of Godwine’s earldom. -Harold’s earldom was given to Ælfgar, son of Leofric. At the same -time, to complete the French influence, William of Normandy came -over to England, and, as he always declared, received a promise of the -succession from his cousin Edward.</p> - -<p>The administration of foreigners was so unpopular and so unsuccessful,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -that Godwine and his family thought that an opportunity -had arisen for their return. Unable to procure their restoration by -peaceful means, they determined upon using force; and after various -expeditions, but feebly opposed by the English, who at heart wished -them well, Godwine found himself strong enough to sail up the -Thames; and so preponderating was the feeling of the country in his -favour, that, as the King refused justice, it was agreed that the -matter should be referred to the Witan. What their decision would -be was not doubtful, so the French prelates and earls and -knights, who had been building feudal castles, at once -fled, and Godwine and his sons came back in triumph. -Stigand, a priest, who had been originally appointed by -Cnut to an abbey raised at Assandun in memory of the Danish -victory over Edmund Ironside, and who had acted as principal -mediator, was elected to the Archbishopric of Canterbury, left vacant -by the flight of Robert. The next year Earl Godwine died suddenly, -while at dinner with the King.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> His death restored the balance -between the two great families. While Harold succeeded to the -earldom of the West Saxons, and the vacant earldom of Northumbria -was given to his brother Tostig, East Anglia was restored to Leofric’s -son Ælfgar. Earl Siward of Northumbria had died in 1055.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Importance of -Earl Harold.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of -Edward. -1066.</div> -</div> - -<p>The succeeding years are marked by the gradual increase of the -power of Harold and his family. In 1055 Earl Ælfgar -was outlawed, and his earldom given to Gurth, Harold’s -brother. The exiled Earl, making common cause with Griffith -[Gryffydd] of Wales, defeated Ralph, the French Earl of Herefordshire. -To repair this disaster the war was intrusted to Harold; he -prosecuted it with success, and Herefordshire, which he had thus -rescued, was added to his earldom. The death of Leofric still further -increased the power of the House of Godwine, although Ælfgar, the -late Earl, was allowed to succeed him; and finally, Essex and Kent -were formed into an earldom for Leofwine, the remaining brother of -Harold. Godwine’s sons now possessed all England, with the exception -of Mercia. The last probable heir to the throne—the Ætheling -Edward, the son of Edmund Ironside—had been brought over from -Hungary, but had died almost immediately after reaching England.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -And when, in 1063, Harold, by employing his men as light troops, -succeeded in the final subjugation of Wales, his greatness was such -that he must almost certainly have been regarded as the next king. -Three years afterwards, in January 1066, King Edward, -the last male descendant of Cerdic who reigned in -England, died. His last year had been troubled by a -great insurrection of the Northern counties against the rule of Tostig. -The house of Leofric had had a stronghold in the North, and Tostig’s -injudicious vigour in attempting to reduce the barbarous population -to order had excited great discontent. His energy seems more than -once to have led him into murder. The Northumbrian therefore -deposed him, and elected Morcar [Morkere], the grandson of Leofric, -in his place. His brother, Edwin of Mercia, who had succeeded -his father Ælfgar, made common cause with him; and Harold, -whose policy was always conciliatory, found it necessary to persuade -the King to confirm Edwin and Morkere in their possessions. -Tostig retired as an exile to Bruges. While England was thus -troubled, the King died—a good man, devoted to the Church and -the monks, and therefore afterwards canonized, but as a king -unfitted by his pliant character, and more especially by his love of -foreign favourites, to rule over England at such a difficult crisis.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Harold elected -king. -1066.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Claims of -William of -Normandy.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Witan at once assembled, and used its power of election. This -power was usually exercised within the limits of the royal family; -but on this occasion, as there was no claimant of the royal house but -Edmund Ironside’s grandson, the child Eadgar, the Witan looked -beyond their usual limit, and elected almost unanimously -the great Earl Harold. Though thus King of England -by the most perfect title, he found himself opposed -by two enemies. On the one hand was his brother Tostig, the exiled -Earl of Northumberland, who had been a favourite of the late king, -and had perhaps himself hoped to be elected; and upon the other -Duke William, who, out of a variety of small and insufficient -pretexts, had constructed a very formidable -claim to the crown of England. He asserted that the -Confessor had promised him the kingdom, that he was the nearest -of kin, and that Harold had himself sworn to him to be his man, -to marry his daughter, and to own him allegiance. The circumstances -under which this last event had taken place are not very -certain; but it seems to be true that Harold, on some occasion, had -been shipwrecked on the coast of France and taken prisoner, and -held to ransom, according to the barbarous custom of that day, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -Guy, Count of Ponthieu, lord of the country. The intervention of -William as superior lord rescued him from his disgraceful position. -He spent some time in friendly intercourse at William’s court, and -there probably, as was not unusual, made himself the Duke’s man, -and did homage. Such an act could be only personal, and could -have nothing to do with the kingdom of England, and even as a -personal tie was not very binding. It was his knowledge of this -which induced William to play the well-known trick upon Harold. -When the Earl had taken what he believed to be only a common oath -of homage, the cover of the table on which his hands had been -placed was withdrawn, and he found he had been swearing upon -most sacred relics. With regard to the other claims, it may be said -that Edward the Confessor, in accordance with the constitution -of England, could not promise the crown to any one, and, moreover, -had nominated Harold on his deathbed; while, although William -was the cousin of the late king, it was only through Edward’s -Norman mother, Emma, that he was so. But when put forward -artfully, and mingled with coloured accounts of the injuries suffered -by the French in England at the return of Godwine, these claims -seemed very plausible to the French, especially when backed by the -influence of the Papal See wielded by Archdeacon Hildebrand, -afterwards Pope Gregory VII. The Papal support was won partly -by representing Harold as a perjured man, partly because the -Normans in Italy were regarded as the great champions of the Papal -See, but chiefly because Godwine and Harold had throughout sided -rather with the party of the secular clergy in England than with that -of the monks,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and had been national in their views with regard to the -Church as well as in other matters. The Pope, Alexander II., was led -by Hildebrand to see the opportunity offered, and expressed his approbation -of the expedition by sending a consecrated ring and banner.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">William’s -preparations.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Tostig’s -invasion.</div> -</div> - -<p>William, immediately after the death of the Confessor, sent to -demand the crown, which was of course refused. He -then proceeded to collect troops, not only his own -Norman feudatories, but also large bodies of adventurers from other -parts of France. Aware of the intended invasion, Harold collected -his forces, and occupied the Southern coast. But William was so -long in coming, that Harold’s militia army, anxious to return to their -agricultural works, and straitened for food, could not be kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -together. He was left with his immediate followers, his House-carls -and Thegns. Just then, when his great host had disappeared, news -was brought to him that Tostig had invaded the North -of England. Foiled in a weak attempt upon the South -near Sandwich, and refused aid by William of Normandy, Tostig had -fallen in with the fleet of Harold Hardrada, King of Norway. This -king was a great warrior, who had served in the armies of the -Byzantine Empire, and fought in Africa and Sicily. He was easily -persuaded to join Tostig, and reinforced by the Earls of Orkney, they -together sailed up the Ouse, and reached Fulford on the way -to York. Edwin and Morkere, the sons of Ælfgar, whose sister -Harold had lately married, honestly opposed them, but after a -severe battle they were beaten. Arrangements by which the -North was to join Harold Hardrada were being made at Stamford -Bridge upon the Derwent, when Harold, who had hastened with -extreme rapidity from the South, fell upon the invaders. They were -taken by surprise, and some, but slightly armed, were overcome; but -the bridge over the Derwent was held with determination, and a fierce -battle was fought on the other side. The English were entirely triumphant, -both Tostig and Harold Hardrada being slain. The Norwegian -fleet was forced to withdraw. This was on the 25th of September.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Landing of -William.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Hastings. -Oct. 14.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of -Harold.</div> -</div> - -<p>On the 28th King William landed at Pevensey. Harold was still -at York when the news reached him. He hastily -gathered what troops he could round the nucleus of his -own immediate followers who had been with him at Stamford -Bridge. All the South of England joined him gladly, both from -Wessex and East Anglia. But Edwin and Morkere, in their jealousy -of the rival house, forgot their patriotism and Harold’s good deeds to -themselves, and deserted him. With such an army as he had, Harold -took up his position upon the hill of Senlac, where Battle Abbey now -stands. This hill runs out from the North Sussex hills southward -like a peninsula. There Harold erected palisades, and -arranged his men with a view to defensive action only. -This step was rendered necessary by the difference of -the armies; the English fought all on foot, a large proportion were -irregularly armed militia, and the hand javelin—not the bow and -arrow—was their national missile. The Normans, on the other -hand, fought as chivalry on horseback, and had many archers. Once -in the plain Harold’s army might have been crushed by the charge -of the mailed cavalry. But repeated charges uphill against an -entrenched foe, stubborn and heavily armed, could not but wear out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -the mounted knight. Our descriptions are all from Norman sources, -and the contrast between the religious Norman and the jovial -Englishman is fully brought out. On the one side, the night is said -to have been passed in prayer, and on the other in revelry. There -were certainly, however, priests and monks upon the side of the -English, and probably this story is a monkish exaggeration. Harold -drew up his forces with his own picked troops upon the front of the -hill, between the dragon banner of Wessex and his own banner -adorned with a fighting man. The backward curves of the hill were -occupied by his worse armed troops. He himself, with his brothers -Gyrth and Leofwine, took their place beside the standard. The -French advanced in three divisions,—the Bretons, under Alan, on -the left; the Normans, under their Duke and his two brothers, -Robert and Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, in the centre; the adventurers, -under Roger of Montgomery, on the right. They galloped forward, -preceded by Taillefer, a minstrel, tossing his sword aloft and singing -songs of Charlemagne. But their efforts were vain. The heavy axe -of the English hewed down man and horse if any reached the -barricade, and the French had to draw back. The Bretons began -the flight, and the Normans soon followed, but the English militia -were not steady enough to withstand the excitement of victory. The -veteran centre stood firm, but the troops opposed to the Bretons broke -from their position in pursuit. William saw his advantage, rallied -his troops, drove back the pursuers, and made a second vehement -assault upon the barricade. The Earls Gyrth and Leofwine were -killed, the barricade in part removed, but still Harold held his -ground, and William had to have recourse to stratagem before he -could secure a victory. His present comparative success had been -caused by the accidental over-eagerness of the English. He determined -to try whether he could not again induce them to break their -line. The Normans turned in apparent flight, the English, heated -by the long fight, rushed forward in pursuit. The Norman cavalry -turned round and rode down their pursuers, and, driving them before -them, again charged up the hill; while the archers, whose skill had -been somewhat foiled by the shields of the English, were ordered to -drop a flight of arrows upon the heads of Harold and his men. The -plan was fatally successful; the battle was still stubbornly contested, -though no longer in serried ranks, when Harold fell, -pierced in the eye by an arrow. With him disappeared -all hope of English success. His body was found, and buried under -a cairn by the sea, till afterwards removed to his minster of Waltham.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="STATE_OF_SOCIETY" id="STATE_OF_SOCIETY">STATE OF SOCIETY</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">449-1066</span></h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">The Mark -system.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The chief interest in the Conquest is the change that it is always -said to have exercised in the character of the institutions of -England. It used to be asserted that the feudal system was introduced, -and completed as a wholly new system to the English, after -the Conquest; and Hume speaks of the division of the kingdom into -so many knights’ fiefs, into so many baronies, as if there were complete -reorganization of the whole constitution. Modern inquiry -tends to confirm what would naturally have been supposed, that the -whole of the elements of the feudal system existed in England as in -other Teutonic countries before the arrival of the Normans. The form -which the civilization of the Scandinavian and Teutonic -nations took seems to have been that of a collection of -village communities, such as may be seen at work at present in India. -The district occupied by such community was called the Mark, and was -divided into three parts, in each of which every free member of the -community had his share, but which were cultivated in strict accordance -with the customary system of agriculture which no one might break. -There was first the village, then the arable mark (cultivated land), -then the common pasture, and beyond that the waste. Every freeman -had a share in the arable and in the common pasture, but he -was bound to sow the same crops as his neighbours, and to follow the -same arrangement, which appears to have been simple and barbarous. -The common fields, or mixed lands as they are called, were divided -into three strips by broad grassy mounds; one was sown with -autumn crops, one with spring crops, and the third left fallow. In -the same way, though under somewhat varying rules, the grass mark -was partitioned. Frequently all enclosures were removed at the -close of the hay harvest, and the cattle grazed in common, as they -were allowed to do also in the stubble of the arable mark. Lands -were probably redistributed at certain intervals of time, and the -power of devising hereditary property by will was strictly restrained.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -Traces of common fields cultivated on the threefold system, and of -customary cultivation, are still to be found in England, and were -plentiful in the last century.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">German -institutions.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Division -of ranks.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Comitatus.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Growth of -feudalism.</div> -</div> - -<p>But though this system would appear to have been common in nations -of Germanic origin, it can be gathered from the Germania -of Tacitus that other political institutions existed in Germany. -Thus, the subdivisions of the Tribe were called Pagi, which seem -to answer to the English Hundred. The Pagus was under the official -chieftainship of an elective head called the Princeps, answering to the -Saxon Ealdorman. This Pagus, which may perhaps have been originally -a division of a hundred heads of families, supplied a hundred -warriors to the host, a hundred assessors at the Judicial Court of the -Princeps. Below this we come to the Vicus or township, which was probably -organized upon the Mark system above described, or on some -modification of it. The commanders in war, or Duces, were elected, -probably from among the Principes, for each special occasion. It is, -moreover, clear that private property had begun to exist. In pastoral -life, where the common right of grazing would be the chief common -privilege, there would be no difficulty in one man possessing more -cattle than another. Neither would it be a great step to grant to such -wealthier men, upon the redivision of the common arable mark, extra -shares for the support of slaves or dependent freemen whom his wealth -had attracted around him. There also existed a variety of ranks, which -may be roughly divided into three classes,—the noble or -<em>eorl</em>, who must have owed his nobility to birth; the freeman -or <em>ceorl</em>, possessing his own homestead, his own share in the common -land, and dependent on no man; and the <em>læt</em> or dependent workman, -cultivating his lord’s land. Besides these, there were actual slaves or -<em>theows</em>, consisting of men who had lost their liberty either as captives, -or for debt, or for some other easily conceivable causes. It does not -appear that nobility of birth gave any additional political rights, -although personal consideration was awarded to the noble. It was the -possession of free land which made a man a full member of the tribe. -The læts, however, were probably dependent only as regarded their -lord, in every other respect free. Thus, like other members of the -community, their death had to be atoned for by the payment of a -sum of money or <em>weregild</em>, although the sum was smaller than in the -case of freemen. They probably formed a considerable part of the -armed force of the nation. The class may have consisted originally -of a conquered population of kindred blood, or of men who voluntarily -put themselves into a state of dependency upon their richer neighbours<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -for security, or because for some reason they had become landless. Side -by side with this democratic constitution, there was a peculiar institution -known as the <em>Comitatus</em>. Each Princeps was allowed to -collect around him, under a tie of personal dependence, -a body of professed warriors, who were bound to him by the closest -ties of honour; and the importance of each chief must have depended -in a great degree upon this following. In case of conquest, it would -naturally be the duty of the conquering chief to see to the welfare of -his followers, and to give them grants, which might either be grants -in perpetuity, or only the right of present possession, and which would -be drawn from the conquered land remaining over after its distribution -among the body of freemen. To cultivate these grants, the comrades -of the king would have had to employ their own dependants, and -these dependants would settle in villages, which took the form of -village communities, except that the rights, which in the free communities -would be vested in the whole body of the freemen, were in -this case vested in the lord. We here have the germ of the relation -between vassal and lord. But this element of feudalism -soon acquired greater strength. The conquering chief -would take upon himself the title of king, claim descent from the gods, -and make his line hereditary. As the position of the king advanced, the -position of the comrade or Gesith would advance also. As the king -of a tribe became the king of a nation his dignity would greatly -increase, and with his that of his followers, who, as the court -became more formal, would accept as honours duties about the household, -and the word <em>Gesith</em>, comrade, changed into <em>Thegn</em> or servant. -In times of war such nobles by service became natural leaders of the -people, and the position of the chief men of the village proportionately -sunk. So that there arose a class of nobles in immediate -connection with the crown, possessing property not belonging to a -village community, and exercising rights of lordship over its inhabitants. -It is not difficult to see in what a superior position they were -thus placed; what powers of encroachment they might have; and -how willingly, in times of danger, village communities would put -themselves in the same position with regard to them, as that occupied -by those settlers on the Thegn’s lands, who had always acknowledged -them as their lords. We have therefore two sources from which feudalism -might have arisen; the village headman, in accordance with what -seems to be a general law, as his powers came to be legally defined -(especially in the matter of collecting the king’s taxes), would be -regarded as the hereditary lord of the village, and would obtain the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -right of permanently enclosing his share of the common land; while -the king’s Thegn, side by side with him, would plant his own subject -villages, and accept by what is called <em>commendation</em> the supremacy -of such villages as might offer it to him.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Saxon -institutions -introduced -into England.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Land.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Saxons then brought with them, in their invasion of England, -their threefold division of rank, their association or -township, their Pagus or Hundred, the Mark system, the -principle of election to public functions, and the Comitatus -or personal following of their chiefs. The conquering -Principes or Ealdormen became kings. The country in all probability -was divided out with some degree of regularity between -villages, similar in constitution with those of Continental Germany. -There was no necessity for these apportionments being equal. But a -certain number of villages, whatever their property was, were divided -into Pagi or Hundreds. This explains the inequality of those divisions. -The unoccupied land was left in the king’s hands to reward -his chief followers. On these demesnes, and on the public -lands, the <em>læts</em> found their homes, with such of the conquered race as -remained; and from time to time fresh estates were granted as fresh -conquests increased the surplus land. From this land also the monasteries -were endowed. The portion allotted to each free household was -called the <em>Hide</em>. Land held by hereditary possession or by original -allotment was called the <em>Ethel</em>. That held by grant from the public land -and by charter was called <em>Bocland</em> (<em>i.e.</em> book-land). The land neither -partitioned nor granted was the common property of the nation, and -was called <em>Folcland</em>. As all land, whether bocland or folcland, could -be let out, and was so treated on various conditions, there was much -variety in the tenures of that class of people who did not possess free -land of their own.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Judicial -organization.</div> - -<p>Whether the mark system prevailed to any great extent or not, (and -this is a somewhat uncertain point,) practically it was the township which -formed the lowest part of the general organization. The -hundred was a collection of townships, the shire a collection -of hundreds. The chief officer of the township, the town reeve, was -elected by the freeholders of the township, and with four of their number -represented that township in the Court of the Hundred, of which the -township was a subordinate division. Townships established upon the -lands of lords also had their reeve, but probably he was appointed by the -lord. Their constitution was the same, but the proprietor of the soil took -the duties and privileges which in a free township belonged to the freeholders. -Such townships formed manors. It was from the township<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -also that the burghs or towns arose. The Saxons had a natural dislike -for town life, and we must not look for the arrangements of the borough -to the remnants of Roman civilization. But when the village grew very -large the same constitution as existed in the township was employed, -the freeholders within the limits of the borough forming the municipal -body. Such boroughs may also frequently have arisen from an -agglomeration of townships. They would then be analogous to the -hundred. The existence of two or three parishes in most boroughs -leads to the same conclusion; for, ecclesiastically, the limits of the -township and the parish were the same. Such towns, growing up -naturally round the dwellings of wealthy men or of the king, would -generally be either on folcland, and as such, dependent upon the crown, -or upon the land of some lord on whom they would then depend. -When the national system became organized, there would thus be the -Court of the Township, with its counterpart in the dependent Township -of the Manor Court. Above that, the Hundred Court, presided -over by the Hundred-man, while the township were represented by -their Reeve and four members. And above that there was the Shire -Court or Gemot. The shires were not, properly speaking, part of -the original organization. They seem to be in most cases the old -sub-kingdoms. The Court, therefore, of the Shire represented the -National Court. Over these sub-kingdoms or shires was appointed a -royal officer, shire-reeve or sheriff, representative of the king for -judicial and fiscal purposes. There is no proof that he was an -elective officer. Beside the sheriff, who represented the central -authority, was the Ealdorman, who had the command of the military -force of the shire and the third of the fines levied. He was the -representative of the old sub-king. He was a national officer, -appointed by the king and by the central assembly of the nation, the -Witana-Gemot. He sat with the sheriff in the Shire Court, but it -would seem that the sheriff was the official whose presence constituted -the court. In all the courts it was a principle that the suitors of the -court, those, that is, who were liable to its jurisdiction, were also the -judges; that is to say, the courts were essentially popular. The -whole body present settled the disputes or judged the crimes of -the individuals, the chief officer being, in fact, the chairman. Practically, -in the Shire Court, twelve chief Thegns or chief freeholders -sat with the sheriff as judges, representatives of the whole body. It -was also a principle, at all events originally, that no superior court -should have jurisdiction till the inferior courts had done their best -towards the settlement of the disputed point.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> - -<p>Ecclesiastically, the parishes were co-extensive with the townships, -the bishoprics in a great degree co-extensive with the shires or ancient -kingdoms.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Growth of -territorial -jurisdiction.</div> - -<p>In process of time, the position of the king somewhat changed. -He began to be regarded as the one lord of the land. From being -the King of the Saxons he gradually became the King of England. -His personal relation became territorial. The folcland became royal -demesne, and the king came to be regarded as the origin of justice. -This change, among other causes, tended much to the -growth of a system which was in fact incipient feudalism. -The national courts constantly became more the private -courts of great lords. The connection between the possession of land -and the judicial power grew constantly stronger. It had early been the -custom to establish in the favour of lords to whom grants were made -Liberties, or <em>Soken</em>, as they were called; that is, land was granted -exempted from the jurisdiction of the Hundred. The judicial rights -of the Hundred, together with the payments accruing from them, -were vested in the lord who received the grant. These rights are implied -in the words <em>sac</em> and <em>soc</em>. As townships on a lord’s land became -manors, so these Liberties, on which there were many townships, -became private Hundreds. They were probably, before the Conquest, -not exempted from the jurisdiction of the Shire. It has been already -mentioned that, either by commendation or by the encroachment of -local magnates, freemen (allodial proprietors as they were called) took in -many cases the position of dependants. Their property then assumed -the character of bocland, or land held by charter, instead of hereditary -freehold. By commending themselves to a lord they would free themselves -from the burden of military duty, which would then fall upon -the lord as proprietor of the land. Justice would be more easily obtained -from the neighbouring court of the lord than from the distant court -of the Hundred or county. Protection from invasion or from the -violence of neighbours would be gained. Again, the police regulation, -by which all landless men were obliged to seek a lord, would -strengthen the idea of the necessity of dependence.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, the Franchises and territorial jurisdictions went on -increasing till the ideas of possession of land and jurisdiction began -to go constantly together. The Thegn, who only possessed five -Hides, had his court. In the time of Cnut a further step was taken. -The wealthy landowner, under the name of Landrica, represented -the king in his district, and had jurisdiction over the lesser freeholders. -While, to crown all, the new position of the king gave him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -the sole jurisdiction over the holders of bocland, to which, as we -have seen, allodial property was gradually assimilating itself. In all -these ways private and territorial jurisdictions were strengthened, -and enabled very largely to encroach upon the national and popular -courts. The position of the Landrica was little else than that of a -feudal baron, and the independence of the great hereditary official, -so marked a characteristic of Continental feudalism, was almost reproduced -in England, when Cnut divided the kingdom into four great -Earldoms.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Central -government. -The Witan.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Increased power -of the King.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Finance.</div> -</div> - -<p>To pass from the local government to the central. It has been -seen that justice and municipal law were carried on through a -series of free assemblies or Gemots; so too the general meeting, or -Gemot of the nation, constituted the chief legislative and judicial -assembly. This was called the Witan or wise men, or the -Witana-Gemot or assembly of wise men. It was doubtless -originally the National Assembly of all free men, but by an -easy change which befalls all such assemblies, attendance on it grew -awkward to the multitude, and was shortly confined to those who bore -office about the court, the king’s Thegns and bishops. The principle of -representation was not understood, and the freemen, although they -possessed an inherent right to be present, were not in fact represented, -except in so far as the presence of friendly and neighbouring Thegns -might be held to represent them. The power of the Witan was great -and various, being in theory the power of a free nation. They could -elect and discrown a king, and practically did elect him, though -usually from among the nearest relatives of the late king. A remnant -of this elective form of the monarchy still exists in our form of -coronation. Peace and war were discussed in the Witan. The -co-operation of the Witan was necessary to authorize alienation of -public land; and to them ultimate judicial appeals were made. -Early in the eleventh century, however, the king had so far improved -his position that he was able to grant land without their -leave, and also to call to his court cases not yet completed -in the lower courts. The same change in the character of -the king, which has been already mentioned, shows itself here also. He -was originally the leader of a free tribe, perhaps of a clan, but gradually -as his dominion extended his power rose also; and his personal influence, -though somewhat undefined, was paramount. The great king -could always wield the Witan as he pleased. His office was, as has -been said, elective, but under certain restrictions. It seems to have been -regarded as necessary that he should be an Ætheling (or born in legitimate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -wedlock), and in England. With this limit, and with a certain -preference allowed to the eldest son, and to the one whom the dying -king nominated, the choice of the Witan was free; and, practically, -the prince of the royal house best fitted for the immediate circumstances -of the kingdom was chosen. Thus the king’s brother was -sometimes chosen instead of his son, who, in his turn, might succeed -his uncle to the exclusion of his uncle’s children. This preference for -the best man over the nearest relative continued after the Conquest, and -renders erroneous the appellation of usurper when applied to the early -Norman kings. The arrangements of finance, as far as -they can be understood, were very simple. Upon every -citizen, whether agricultural or urban, there was laid a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinoda -necessitas</i>, that is to say, the duty of serving in war, the repair of -bridges and public roads, and the maintenance of fortifications. It -is plain, therefore, that the wants of the crown were chiefly personal, -that what we consider the chief expenses of government, justice, -maintenance of public works, and military expenditure, were supported -by the people themselves, without the interposition of government. -The expenses of the crown would be discharged very largely -from the public property or folcland reserved to the nation, and from -such taxes as were rendered necessary from time to time to support -the grandeur and hospitality of the king as national representative.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Police.</div> - -<p>The system of police was based on the idea of mutual responsibility. -Frankpledge or <em>frithbohr</em>, by which is meant the division -of the country into sections of ten men mutually responsible -for one another, cannot be proved to have existed before the Conquest. -On the other hand, its principle no doubt existed. Every man, -by the law of Cnut, was bound to be in a Hundred and a <em>tithing</em>. -This latter term cannot be accurately defined, but it was a subdivision -of the Hundred. By the laws of Æthelstan and Eadgar every landless -man was compelled to have a lord to answer for him in the courts, -and every man a surety to answer for him if he were absent when -legally required.</p> - -<p>From this sketch it will be seen that, with regard to classes, there -must have been at the time of the Conquest <em>Thegns</em>, who were to all -intents and purposes feudal barons; <em>Sokmen</em>, those freemen who -owed suit to the lord’s soke or court; a certain number of <em>Eorls</em> or -nobles by birth, who would most likely have become assimilated to -the Thegns; <em>freeholders</em>, holding land in common where it had not -yet come under the suzerainty of a lord (this same class of freemen -degenerated under various circumstances and with varying tenures<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -into villeins, or dependent cultivators, under lords); and absolute -slaves, consisting originally probably of the conquered race, and -added to by criminals and outlaws, or others who had lost their rights -as freemen.</p> - -<p>There was here every element of the feudal system. Even the -tenure of land upon military service existed. The main distinction -between the condition of England and that of the Continent, where -the feudal system had been fully established, lay in this,—there still -existed a certain number of freemen whose land was their own. They -were indeed obliged to acknowledge the jurisdiction of a lord, but -they were free to choose their own lord. They were suitors to his -court, but he did not possess their land. The feudal system in its -completed form may be regarded as exhibiting two peculiar features:—jurisdiction -was in the hand of large landowners; and the lord was -regarded as the possessor of the land over which he exercised jurisdiction. -In England, one feature alone had become prominent. The -judicial power was in the hand of large landowners; but their jurisdiction -extended over men whose land they did not possess, but who -were owners of their own property, and able to attach themselves to -any lord they liked. With the Conquest, while the judicial power -was restrained, the connection between that power and the possession -of land over which it was exercised became absolute.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Church.</div> - -<p>The Church occupied a position of very great importance. It was -the guardian of the morality of the country, and as such -had a share in all secular jurisdictions; but it was the -remnant of a national Church, not closely united to the Roman See. -It was therefore inclined to be somewhat disorderly. Its bishops were -appointed properly by the king and the Witan, but latterly the power -had practically been with the king alone. These bishops obtained -their license from the Pope. But the case of Archbishop Stigand, to -whom the Pope had not sent the Pallium, shows how little weight -was given to this proceeding. Similarly, the lower clergy had formed -the habit of marrying, contrary to Papal laws, and although there was -a growing feeling that this was wrong, the practice still continued -while the monks were constantly attempting to break free from their -rules and establish themselves as canons.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Effects of the -Conquest.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Restraints upon -feudalism.</div> -</div> - -<p>To such a civilization came William, who had seen the evils of -Continental feudalism in his own country, and had -secured his position only after long struggles. He -claimed England, not as a conqueror, but as the legitimate sovereign, -nominated by Edward the Confessor, and as such was accepted by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -the Witan, and crowned in London after the battle of Senlac. His -natural policy was, therefore, to continue such institutions as were -not yet feudal, and thus his arrival checked that natural growth -of feudalism which was running its course in England as in other -Teutonic countries. On the other hand, it was impossible from -his position that he should do otherwise than introduce many -feudal institutions. He had brought with him many of his vassals, -who held from him in feudal tenure; and it was necessary, when, -from the confiscated lands of Harold and his family and of the -other nobles who either opposed his entrance into England or -afterwards revolted against him, he made large grants to reward the -adventurers of whom his army mainly consisted, he should make -those grants in accordance with the system with which he was -acquainted in exchange for military service, and saddled with the -usual feudal burdens. While he thus, on the one hand, was the -national English sovereign, on the other he was the supreme landowner -and feudal lord. Under this double influence, the tenure of -land, following the universal tendency of Europe, became wholly -feudal and military. But the other side of feudalism—with its -isolation, the virtual independence of the feudatories (among whom -the king was but the first among his peers), and the suppression of -national jurisdiction, which were the chief characteristics of French -feudalism—was kept in careful restraint. Thus, the whole machinery -of justice, the Hundred Court and the Shire Gemot were retained -under presidency of the sheriff, side by side with that territorial -jurisdiction which he could not refuse to his feudal vassals. The -police system of mutual responsibility was kept up and systematized -under the name of <em>frankpledge</em>, and on the whole nation still lay -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinoda necessitas</i>. The Witan remained, although its members -were now feudal vassals; the laws as they existed were for the most -part perpetuated, though certain emendations were made, such as -the law of Englishry,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> for the protection of his Norman subjects, and -the liberty allowed to the different nationalities to be tried according -to their own law. At the same time, the further to restrain the -independent power of the great feudatories, the great -earldoms which Cnut had created were broken up, with -the exception of three border counties, Chester, Durham, and Kent; -the business of the counties was transacted by the sheriff, who was a -royal officer, and the earldoms were either of one county only, or if -of more than one, of counties far apart. As a final court of appeal,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -he established the Curia Regis, formed of the Justiciary (who was -the king’s representative and regent when he left the country), with -a staff of justices, consisting originally of the officers of the household, -but tending gradually to consist of new nobility appointed by the king -for the purpose. This was the final court of appeal, and could draw -to it any suit from the county court. But the chief restriction upon -military feudalism, which rendered its appearance in England impossible, -was, that each freeholder swore allegiance, not to his immediate -lord, but to the king. Abroad, if a great noble went to war with the -king, his vassals were doing right in following him; in England, they -were committing treason.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">William’s -position.</div> - -<p>This oath was exacted after the great work of the Domesday Book -was completed. This book consisted of a registration of all the -lands in the kingdom, made by commissioners, after inquiry upon -oath of the chief men and lesser freeholders of each district. By -it not only were the limits of property settled, but the king knew -what resources he could rely upon both in men and money. The -king’s power was nominally limited by the “counsel and consent” of -the National Council, which was at once the old English Witan -and a feudal assembly, but its power was really nominal. The -taxes seldom called for interference, as they were derived principally -either from the old national dues, the <em>ferm</em> of the shire (a fixed rent -of the old public lands and royal domains), the danegelt, and the -proceeds of fines or feudal aids. The army was also completely in -the king’s hands; as national sovereign, the old national militia was -at his command; as feudal sovereign, he could claim the military -service of his vassals, which was defined in every case by the -Domesday Book, while the whole people were bound to -him by oath. We thus see William the Conqueror -occupying the position of a practically irresponsible monarch, with -a mixed monarchy of national and feudal character, but, with the -exception of some parts of the administration of justice, carried on -wholly under feudal forms.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Church.</div> - -<p>As regards the Church, two important changes were made. As -the champion of orthodoxy, William, by means of his -Archbishop, Lanfranc, restored the Roman discipline to -the Church, and connected it closely with the See of Rome. And, -secondly, he separated the ecclesiastical jurisdiction from the secular. -The bishops withdrew from the county court (perhaps finding their -position there useless now that those courts had sunk in importance), -and established courts of their own. During William’s reign no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -inconvenience arose from this, but the inherent defects of the step -became obvious when Henry II. attempted to reorganize the kingdom -after the disorder of Stephen’s reign. The Conqueror’s police was -unusually strict. It became the common saying that a man laden -with gold could pass unharmed through the country. He abolished -the penalty of death (which was, however, speedily resumed), and -substituted mutilations of various kinds. He also repressed the -right which the Saxon laws had allowed of killing the murderer -or the thief when taken red-handed. It has been suggested that -the great forests he created, and the care with which they were -maintained, is to be attributed as much to the king’s desire to -maintain an efficient staff of police always ready as to his great love -of hunting.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="WILLIAM_I" id="WILLIAM_I">WILLIAM I.</a><br /> -<span class="fs80">1066–1087.</span></h2> - - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_040.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_040.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1027 = Matilda of Flanders. - | - +---------------+-----+------+----------+ - | | | | - Robert, Duke William II. Henry I. Adela = Stephen, Earl - of Normandy. | of Blois. - d. 1134. | - +-----------+-----------+ - | | | - Theobold Stephen Henry, Bishop of - Winchester. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - Malcolm III., | Philip I., | Henry IV., | Sancho II., 1065. - 1057. | 1060. | 1056. | Alphonso VI., 1072. - - POPES.--Alexander II., 1061. Gregory VII., 1073. Vacancy one year. - Victor III., 1086. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chief-Justices._ | _Chancellors._ - | | - Stigand, | Odo of Bayeux, and William | Herfast, afterwards Bishop - 1052–1070. | Fitz-Osbern, 1067. | of Elmham, 1068. - Lanfranc, | William de Warenne, and | Osbern, afterwards Bishop - 1070–1089. | Richard Fitz-Gilbert, | of Exeter, 1070. - | 1073. | Osmund, afterwards Bishop - | Lanfranc, Geoffrey of | of Salisbury, 1074. - | Coutances, and Robert, | Maurice, afterwards Bishop - | Count of Mortain, 1078. | of London, 1078. - | | William de Beaufeu, Bishop - | | of Thetford, 1083. - | | William Giffard, 1086. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Intended -resistance of -the English.<br /><br /> -Election of -Eadgar.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The death of Harold left England without a king. As yet, -although William had expected the immediate submission of -the whole country, no such course was thought of. The idea -which occupied men’s minds was the election of a new -king, who might continue the defence of the country. -The two sons of Ælfgar, the great northern Earls -Edwin and Morkere, whose jealousy of Harold had been one of -the chief causes of his disaster, found themselves, now that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -House of Godwine was practically destroyed, the most prominent -leaders of the English. They came to London, and there, collecting -about them such nobles and important people as they could readily -find, they held an assembly which in some sort represented the -Witan. They probably expected that the crown would be given to -one of themselves, and that the hour for the triumph of the Mercian -house had arrived. They were disappointed in their hopes. Of -properly qualified candidates there were none, but the Southern -Witan preferred to place the crown upon the head of -the grandson of Ironside, the heir of the old royal -house, and elected the Ætheling Eadgar, young though he was.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> It -does not seem however that he was actually crowned, that ceremony -being postponed till the feast of Christmas.</p> - -<p>After the slaughters of the late battles, the means of resistance in -the Southern counties must have been much diminished, and when -Edwin and Morkere completed their treasonable conduct by again -withdrawing their troops, and, though they had accepted the election, -refused to give practical support to the defence of Wessex, immediate -opposition to the Conqueror became hopeless. No further combined -action was possible and no other great battle was fought.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">William’s march -to London.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Receives the -crown at Berkhampstead.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Coronation of -William.</div> -</div> - -<p>Meanwhile William, disappointed in his hopes, proceeded with his -own foreign forces to make good his conquest. He -determined to subdue the South-eastern counties before -he advanced against London. He marched eastward, took Romney, -and captured the castle and town of Dover, and had reached -Canterbury, when he was seized with an illness which kept him -inactive during the whole month of November. Thence he sent an -embassy which secured the great town of Winchester, and thence in -December he moved to attack the capital, but contented himself -with burning the suburb of Southwark, and passed on westward on -the southern side of the Thames, which he did not cross till he -reached Wallingford, intending to pass northward and thus cut the -city off from the unconquered country. With this view he marched -to Berkhampstead in Hertfordshire. But his progress had -broken the spirit of the Londoners, and he was there -met by Eadgar, Ealdred the Archbishop of York, and -others, who submitted to him, and offered him the crown. After -a feigned rejection of it, till he had further secured the kingdom, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -accepted it at the earnest request of his followers, and marching into -London, was crowned at Christmas. The ceremony -was performed by Ealdred of York in the place of -Stigand of Canterbury, whose appointment to the See had not been -strictly canonical; it was impossible that William, one of whose -professed objects was the reform of the uncanonical Church of -England, should receive his crown from the hands of a schismatic. -Stigand’s importance as the chief official of the English prevented -William from taking immediate steps against him. He was therefore -present at the ceremony, but though William thus, and for some -time afterwards, temporized with him, his ruin was already determined. -The coronation was performed with the usual English -ceremonies; the name of the King was proposed for election to those -who were present, and the shout of acquiescence excited the alarm -of the Norman troops outside the church. They proceeded to set -fire to buildings in the neighbourhood; the assembled multitude -rushed from the church to extinguish the flames, and William was -left almost alone with the officiating ecclesiastics. But the ceremony -was completed in the midst of fears and misgivings of those within -the Cathedral, and of uproar and confusion without.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">William’s -position -as king.</div> - -<p>William was thus crowned King of England, having received the -crown from the hands of the Witan, and having been -nominally elected by the popular voice. His position -was in strict accordance with the claims he had raised, and he -proceeded to pursue a policy in harmony with it. He had come to -claim his rights against a usurper, he had obtained those rights, and -would henceforth make them good while strictly following the forms -of law. As crowned King of England, opposition to him was -treasonable, and the property of traitors legally confiscated. It is -clear that this position gave him great advantages, and would induce -many a weak-hearted or peaceful Englishman to accept without -opposition the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de facto</i> king, while it enabled William to hide the -harsh character of the conqueror under the milder form of a monarch -at war with rebellious subjects.</p> - -<p>In pursuance of this policy, no sudden change was made in the -constitution or social arrangements of the country. In the first -period of his rule, William merely stepped into the place and -exercised the rights of his predecessor; but those rights he found -sufficient to secure his own position and to reward his followers. -For these purposes it was necessary for him to give to Normans -much of the conquered land, by which means he would spread as it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -were a garrison throughout the country, and at the same time -gratify his adherents.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Transfer of -property. -The form of -law retained.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Castles built.</div> -</div> - -<p>He started from the legal fiction that the whole of the land, as -the land of traitors, was confiscated. The folcland he -made crown property, thus completing a change which -had been long in progress. The large domains of the -House of Godwine were by the destruction of that house -naturally at his disposal, as was also the property of those who had -fallen in arms against him at Hastings or been prominent in opposition. -The land thus gained he granted to his followers, not making a new -partition of it, but putting a Norman in the place of the dead or outlawed -Englishman who was legally regarded as his ancestor. To complete -this process, and appropriate all the conquered land, would obviously -have been impolitic; and very shortly after his coronation he appears to -have allowed a general redemption of property. Proprietors submitted, -paid a sum of money, and received their lands back as fresh grants -from the Conqueror. In addition to this, many of the smaller -Thegns and free Ceorls were too insignificant to be disturbed, and -in many instances some little fragment of their dead husband’s -property was given in contemptuous pity to the widows, saddled -frequently with some ignoble tenure. Still further to -complete the subjection of the country, in every conquered -town of importance a castle was erected.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Appointment -of Earls.</div> - -<p>In addition to his grants of land, William had the government of -the country to attend to, and the vacant earldoms to -fill. In doing this he was guided by his past experience, -and in the fully conquered parts of England was careful not -to put any earl into the position occupied by the great earls of the -last days of the Anglo-Saxon monarchy. In this respect, as in some -others, the spirit of feudalism had been making rapid strides in -England, and the great earls, as well as the great cities, were bidding -fair to assume the position of the feudatories and free cities of -the Continent. William was careful to return to older precedent, -and to confine his earldoms to one shire. The importance of this -in English history is great, as it obliged the nobility to work -in alliance with the commonalty, and secured national rather than -aristocratic progress. Thus his two most trusted servants, to whom -in his absence he left the vice-regency of the kingdom, William -Fitz-Osbern and his brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, were respectively -but Earls of Hereford and of Kent. William thus arranged that -part of England which he had really conquered. In the North<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -he as yet continued the existing state of things. Edwin and Morkere -did homage and received their Earldoms back again. Waltheof -remained Earl of Nottingham, and Copsige (Copsi or Coxo) was -given the earldom of the Northern province of Northumberland. -To secure the allegiance of these great unconquered Earls, William -took them with him when in March he went to revisit his native -duchy. The kingdom he left in charge, the South to Odo of -Bayeux, the North to William Fitz-Osbern.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">William revisits -Normandy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Misgovernment -by his viceroys -and consequent -rebellion.</div> -</div> - -<p>His retirement from England has sometimes been traced to an evil -intention of enticing his new subjects into a more -serious rebellion, that he might conquer them more -completely. His natural desire to display his triumph in his own -country would seem to supply a sufficient reason, without attributing -to him such double dealing. The effect of his absence, however, -was in fact to produce such an insurrection. In the -midst of his conquests and confiscations he had always -kept a strong hand upon his followers, and his police -was good. The case was different under the government -of his viceroys. The rapacity and licentiousness of the conquerors -made itself heavily felt. Discontent began to show itself in the -North, in the West, and in the South; and the native English, -despairing of their unaided efforts, began to seek assistance from -abroad. The news of this danger brought William back to England -in the December of 1067. But already a revolt in Bernicia, as the -Northern division of Northumberland was called, had produced the -death of the newly-made Earl Copsige. Eadric the Forester in the -West of England, in union with the Welsh, had ravaged Herefordshire, -and the men of Kent had obtained assistance from Eustace -of Boulogne in a fruitless attack upon Dover. It was the dread of -more important foreign allies which brought William back. The -English efforts to get aid from Henry IV. of Germany, or from -the Prince of Norway, had been frustrated either by William’s -intrigues or by the character of the Princes to whom they applied, -but Swend of Denmark seemed likely to embrace their cause.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">William -returns.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Insurrection -in the West. -Taking of -Exeter.</div> -</div> - -<p>On his return, William found that although his lieutenants had -repressed actual insurrections, the unconquered districts -both of the North and West of England were gloomy -and threatening. Want of union was still the bane of the English; -the insurrection of Exeter and the West had been suppressed before -York and the North moved. The party of Harold and his family -was strong in Exeter and the Western shires. At Exeter, indeed, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -is probable that what remained of the family of Godwine was -at this time collected. William marched against the -city, harrying Dorset as he passed. The position of -Exeter was characteristic. As in the case of the great -earldoms, so in that of the great cities, the feeling of -local independence had been rising, and the chief men of Exeter seem -to have had some thought of making their city a free town. They -offered to own the King’s supremacy and to pay his taxes, but refused -to admit him within their walls. The one point of William’s -policy which is most prominent is his determination to establish -the strength of the monarchy, as against local interests. He -therefore rejected the proposition, and marched upon the city. The -civic chiefs offered to submit, but the people repudiated their -arrangements, and stood the siege. The city was captured by means -of a mine. Harold’s family fled—Gytha, his mother, to the islands -in the Bristol Channel, his sons to Ireland. As usual, a castle was -built in the city; the tribute of the town considerably increased; -both Devonshire and Cornwall completely subdued, and the same -process of partial confiscation which had marked the first steps of the -Conqueror carried out there. The earldom of Cornwall, and a large -quantity of property, was given to Robert of Mortain, William’s -half-brother. The conquest of the West was completed by the -subjugation of Gloucestershire and Worcestershire.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Insurrection in -the North.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">William’s -position in -the North and -West.</div> -</div> - -<p>This insurrection was hardly over when a general confederation -against the Conqueror was set on foot in the North. -Edwin and Morkere, and Eadgar, the nominal king, -combined with Eadric the Forester, and had good hopes of assistance -from the Welsh, from Malcolm Canmore of Scotland, and from Swend -of Denmark. This help was not forthcoming; civil war hindered the -Welsh, and Malcolm and Swend were not ready. The feeling -against the Normans was, however, very strong, many of the -inhabitants of Yorkshire taking to the woods rather than submit. -The insurrection was a failure. Again Edwin and Morkere showed -complete want of energy, submitted, and were received into favour. -Such a desertion destroyed all unity of action; their armies dispersed -to their own homes. A certain number of the insurgents -retired and held Durham, others took refuge in Scotland, -but William found no opposition; York submitted, -and the usual castle, the constant badge of conquest, -was built there. On his homeward march through -Lincolnshire, the town of Lincoln and that part of England was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -also subjugated, while, at the same time, Malcolm of Scotland sent -an embassy, and commended himself to William. At the close of 1068 -William was actual possessor of England as far northward as the -Tees; but Cheshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, and part of Herefordshire -were still unconquered; Durham, Northumberland, and -Scotland were his only by the tie of homage.</p> - -<p>At this time it is said that a considerable number of his Norman -followers, disliking to leave their homes so long, returned to Normandy, -throwing up their estates in England. This movement has -been exaggerated, as Hugh de Grantmesnil, who is mentioned as the -leader of the returning Normans, undoubtedly held property in England -afterwards. It is, however, probable that some returned, for -William at this time discharged many of his mercenaries, acting -henceforward more completely as English king.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Revolt in the -North.</div> - -<p>At the midwinter meeting of the Witan he proceeded to act as -though the North was completely conquered, and granted -the earldom of Northumberland, vacant by the flight -of Gospatric, to his follower Robert de Comines. But the reception -of this new earl showed how unsubdued as yet the northern earldom -was. He reached Durham, and was received by the Bishop Æthelwine; -but when his troops treated the city as though they had -conquered it, the inhabitants rose and put him and his men to -death. The spirit of insurrection spread, and the citizens of York -at once also rose and slew one of the commanders there, Robert Fitz-Richard. -This blow, which seems to have been concerted, was immediately -followed by the return of Eadgar and the other exiles -from Scotland. William hurried thither in person, re-established his -authority, and built a second castle, which he put into the hands of -William Fitz-Osbern. He then withdrew into the West of England, -conscious probably that the Northern insurrection was only one of -his dangers, for Swend of Denmark had at length sent a fleet to the -assistance of the English, the sons of Harold were landing in Devonshire, -and Eadric the Wild was threatening the north-west of his -dominions. In fact, we have in this year the great final struggle of -the English, and the Norman dominions were assaulted upon all -sides.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Futile -insurrections -against -the Normans.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">William’s -devastation -in Yorkshire.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Complete -subjugation -of the North. -1070</div> -</div> - -<p>As usual, however, the want of proper concert and of any acknowledged -and heroic leader rendered the English efforts -futile. The sons of Harold were disastrously defeated -by Count Brian of Brittany, their wandering and ill-disciplined -troops conquered in two battles in one day, and they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -themselves, escaping to Ireland, are heard of no more. This was in -July. In September the Danish fleet approached. It touched, but -was beaten off, both in Kent and in East Anglia, and finally entered -the Humber, where it was joined by the great English exiles. -Thence the combined English and Danish army moved upon York, -while Eadric, in Staffordshire and the Welsh border, moved forward -and besieged Shrewsbury, and the men of the West, though unaided -by the sons of Harold, rose and besieged the castle of Montacute in -Somersetshire. These two lesser insurrections William could afford -to leave to his lieutenants; Bishop Geoffrey of Coutances relieved -Montacute, and William Fitz-Osbern and Earl Brian apparently -completed the subjugation of the West, compelling Eadric the -Forester to retire after he had destroyed Shrewsbury, and re-establishing -the Norman influence in Devonshire. William himself -hastened to the scene of greatest danger. Already the castles of -York were taken, as the story tells us chiefly by the prowess of -Waltheof; but having completed this object the army had foolishly -dispersed, and the Danes, lying in the Humber, were occupying -Lindesey and the north of Lincolnshire. There William’s sudden -march surprised them, and they were compelled to withdraw to the -other side of the Humber. William then set quietly to work, with -his army, which had now joined him, at the reconquest -of Yorkshire. Staffordshire and Nottingham were -secured, and after a lengthened delay at the passage of -the Aire, during which he was probably engaged in negotiations with -the Danes, he moved on practically unopposed to York. He there -re-established his two castles, and proceeded to give the inhabitants of -the country a lesson they were not likely to forget. He set to work -systematically to lay waste the whole of the territory from the -Humber to the Tees. Every house, every store of food, the very -cattle themselves were included in the great burning. The completeness -of the destruction is marked by the entries of “Waste,” following -each other in unbroken succession in the Domesday Book. For nine -years the country was left untilled, the towns wholly uninhabited, -and the few survivors lived like beasts of the field, feeding upon unclean -animals, and reduced even, in their utter want, to eat human -flesh. Having completed this terrible work, William -kept his Christmas in state at York. He pursued his -advantage further, and, as the winter went on, advanced -and secured the hitherto unconquered town of Durham. -The North of England was at length completely conquered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> - -<p>But the North-west, the counties of Cheshire and Shropshire, was -still unsubdued, and in the dead of the winter William made his -way, in the midst of unspeakable difficulties, through the wild moorland -and hill country which joins the Peak district with the higher -mountains of the Pennine range. The conquest of Chester, and the -ravaging of the neighbouring counties, completed his work. And -when, early in the year Osbern, the commander of Swend’s fleet, -yielding to the diplomacy and bribes of William, sailed away to his -own land, the conquest of England may be said to have been finished.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">William’s -legislation.</div> - -<p>For the moment free from military difficulties, William proceeded -to the regulation of his Conquest. He is said now to -have re-enacted the laws of Edward, and although it is -probably a legend that he issued a complete code of laws, it is likely -that he took the opportunity of declaring the re-enactment of existing -laws, with such changes as he chose to introduce. Two ordinances -which seem to belong to this period exist. One, ordaining that peace -and security should be kept between English and Normans, and the -laws of Edward, with regard to land and other matters, upheld, with -the addition of such as the King had added for the advantage of the -English people. The second, enacting a heavy fine for the death of -any one of his soldiers, which fine is to be made good by the Hundred -in which the murder was committed; this was for the defence of his -troops against lawless patriotism, and grew into the law of Englishry, -by which an unknown corpse was always presumed to be that of a -Frenchman, and the fine inflicted, unless the English nationality of -the murdered man was proved.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">His reform of -the Church. -Appointment of -foreign Bishops.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Stigand -deposed.</div> -</div> - -<p>But William had always kept before him, as an object, the change -and reform of the English Church, which till this time -had been strictly national, its laws having been enacted -by the mixed secular and ecclesiastical Witan, and the -bishop having presided side by side with the secular -judges in the shire gemot. The intention of William, whose enterprise -had been undertaken with the full concurrence of the Roman -See, whose interests he, as well as the Normans of Sicily, had much at -heart, was to Romanize this national Church. For carrying out that -scheme he looked to the gradual displacement of bishops of English -birth, whose places could be filled with foreigners. This connection -with Rome is marked by the re-coronation of the King in 1070 by -the Papal Legates, immediately after which the attack -upon the English Church began. The Primate Stigand -was the first victim. With him the King had hitherto temporized;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -when he was charged with holding the See of Winchester with -his own archbishopric, with having obtained the Pallium from the -false Pope Benedict X., and with having accepted his bishopric during -the lifetime of his predecessor Robert. He was deprived of both his -bishoprics, and kept a prisoner at Winchester. His brother Æthelmær -was removed from the bishopric of the East Angles. Æthelwine -of Durham was also deprived and outlawed, and Ethelric, -Bishop of Selsey, deposed. The Archbishopric of York, too, was -vacant by the death of Ealdred, so that William had here a good -opportunity for carrying out his plans.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Lanfranc made -Archbishop.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Lanfranc’s -legislation -connects the -Church with -Rome.</div> -</div> - -<p>The most important appointments were the two archbishoprics. -For his new Primate he selected Lanfranc, an Italian -priest, at this time Abbot of the little monastery at Bec, -whose learning and importance were such that he had already been -offered and had refused the Primacy of Normandy. It was not without -much show of opposition on his part that he accepted the Archbishopric -of Canterbury; but, when once appointed, he proved himself -a most efficient instrument in carrying out the plans of the King. -To the other vacant bishoprics, in almost every case, chaplains of -the King were appointed. The changes thus begun were carried -out gradually during the whole reign, and were in fact an offshoot -of the great movement for the revival of the Papacy -being carried out in Europe by Hildebrand. Having -first, for the purposes of centralization, established the -supremacy of the See of Canterbury over that of York, Lanfranc -set on foot the habit of holding separate ecclesiastical councils after -the great National Meetings had been dissolved; the bishops withdrew -from the county court, and established ecclesiastical courts of -their own; as far as possible regular canons were put in the place of -the secular canons, of whom many of the chapters consisted; and -although the archbishop had sufficient sense to tolerate those of the -clergy who were already married, for the future such marriages were -strictly prohibited.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">But William -still head of -the Church.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The change -good on the -whole.</div> -</div> - -<p>The effect of such legislation was to separate the clergy from the -laity, and to connect the Church much more nearly with Rome. -This policy, which in after times was the source of so much evil, was -rendered harmless during the reign of William by his great power and -decision. He always claimed the position of supreme -head of the Church in England, nor would he suffer any -encroachments from the Papal See. On more than one -occasion he exhibited this determination. To the end of his reign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -he insisted upon giving the ring and staff to his bishops. He would -not allow any of his soldiers to be excommunicated without his leave, -and when Hildebrand, occupying the Papal throne as Gregory VII., -demanded that he should both pay Peter’s pence and declare himself -the Pope’s man, he replied, the money he would pay, as his predecessors -had, that the homage he would refuse, as he had neither himself -promised it, nor had his predecessors paid it. In many respects the -change was doubtless for the better. The bishops were -on the whole more learned men, and education was improved. -The spirit of self-denial for the sake of the -Church, and the consequent establishment of foundations and cathedrals, -was revived, and the Church, brought into better discipline, -was more able to play its proper part of mediator and peace-maker in -an age of violence. The distribution of patronage was not, however, -without its dark side. In many instances ecclesiastical position was -given in reward of services to men qualified rather to be soldiers than -clergymen; and complaints exist of the tyrannical manner in which -these soldier-abbots or bishops behaved to their English inferiors.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Final struggle -against the -Normans under -Hereward. -1070.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">William -conquers him. -1071.</div> -</div> - -<p>The conquest of England was completed, as we have seen, in 1070. -But it was six years more before William enjoyed the throne -in peace. The remnant of the conquered nation gathered around -a national hero, called Hereward, in the Fen country. -His origin is not certain, but he seems to have been a -Lincolnshire man who had been deprived of his property -by a Norman intruder. He first appears as assailing -with a host of outlaws the monastery of Peterborough, where one -of those soldier abbots just mentioned, Turold by name, had been -lately appointed. He is next heard of when, in 1071, the Earls -Edwin and Morkere, who had seen the destruction of their old -earldoms, while living in inglorious ease, half prisoners half guests -at the Norman court, at length awoke from their lethargy and -attempted to renew the war. Edwin was killed as he fled, stopped -by the flooding of some river; Morkere succeeded in joining the -insurgents at Ely. Hereward’s fastness was known by the name of -the Camp of Refuge. There were collected many of the noblest of -the old English exiles; and legend speaks of the presence of several -people who were undoubtedly not there; but, at all events, Æthelwine, -the deposed Bishop of Durham, was with the patriots.</p> - -<p>The attack was intrusted to William of Warenne, Earl of Surrey, -and Ivo of Taillebois, under the superintendence of William himself, -who came to Cambridge. The difficulties of the situation were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -overcome by the building of a great causeway across the fens. The -defence of the camp is described as lengthened and heroic, -but before the end of the year it seems to have been -captured, and Morkere and Æthelwine both prisoners. -Hereward himself escaped, and in 1073 is mentioned as leading the -English contingent in William’s attack on Maine. The legend -describes how, while living in peace with the king, he was surprised -at his meals by a band of Normans, and after a terrific combat, in -which he slew fifteen or sixteen Frenchmen, was finally overpowered -by numbers. In sober fact, his end seems to have been peaceful, -as he appears in Domesday Book as holding property both in Worcester -and Warwick.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Wales held in -check by the -Earls of Chester -and Shrewsbury.</div> - -<p>From the English William had no further trouble; with the -neighbouring kingdoms he had still some difficulties. -With the Britons in Wales, the old Earls of Mercia -and the house of Leofric had had friendly connection; -but all sign of this had ceased upon the Conquest. The wars -carried on against them were however local in character; for, -contrary to his usual practice, William had established upon the -West March two palatine counties of Chester and Shrewsbury. In -these counties the whole of the land belonged to the earl and his -tenants, and the king had no domain. They were, therefore, like -the great feudal holdings of France. Chester he at first placed in -the hands of Gerbod the Fleming, his stepson, and, upon his withdrawal -to the Continent, in those of Hugh of Avranches, surnamed -Lupus, a man of whom the chroniclers speak much evil as at once -licentious and tyrannical. Together with his lieutenant, Robert of -Rhuddlan, he waged continual war with the Welsh. The same task -fell to Roger of Montgomery, Earl of Shrewsbury, who took advantage -of the disputes among the Welsh Princes, and succeeded so far as -to build and hold, far in Wales, the castle of Montgomery, called after -his own property in the neighbourhood of Lisieux in Normandy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Scotland’s -savage invasions.</div> - -<p>Malcolm Canmore had throughout appeared as the supporter of the -conquered English, and at his court the exiles had been -constantly received. This did not prevent him from -pushing his ravages into the Northern counties; nor -did they cease when he received Eadgar Ætheling and his sisters on -their flight to the North (1070). This was followed by acts of -extraordinary barbarity. Gospatric, who had found favour with -William, and accepted the Earldom of Northumberland, attempted a -counter invasion into the Scotch district of Cumberland. In rage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -at this Malcolm gave orders to spare neither sex nor age. The old -and the infants were slaughtered, the able-bodied men and maidens -were carried off into slavery, so that there were few Scotch villages -where there were not English slaves. Malcolm, however, grew -milder under the influence of his wife Margaret, Eadgar’s sister, and -the effect of the presence of the numerous English, either refugees -or slaves, was such that the Lowlands became thoroughly Anglicised.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">William makes -Malcolm swear -fealty. -1072.</div> - -<p>In 1072, William himself revenged the inroad of the year 1070, -by marching into Scotland and receiving the oath of -fealty of Malcolm at Abernethy on the Tay. It is -mentioned that the last great noble who had held out -against him, Eadric the Wild, accompanied him on this expedition, -which marks not only the Conquest of England, but the -assumption on the part of William of that Imperial position in Great -Britain which the great English kings had held.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Trouble in -Normandy. -1075.</div> - -<p>His foreign neighbours also gave William some trouble. The -province of Maine, which he had conquered in 1063, -threw off his allegiance. The citizens of Le Mans had -risen in insurrection against their lords, and formed -themselves into a free commune; but Geoffrey of Mayenne, a nobleman -whose help they had sought, betrayed the burghers in their -efforts to reduce one of the neighbouring nobility, and they were -obliged to call in the assistance of Fulk of Anjou, who had claims upon -the province. William reduced Le Mans, but was obliged to make -a peace with Fulk, who had strengthened himself by an alliance with -the Bretons; and, by the treaty of Blanchelande, William’s son -Robert took the government of Maine, but did homage for it to -Anjou.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Conspiracy of -Norman nobles -suppressed. -1076.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Waltheof -executed. -1076.</div> -</div> - -<p>While affairs on the Continent were thus occupying his attention, -in 1075 a conspiracy of his own nobles in England broke -out. Ralph of Gwader (or Wader), the son of Ralph -the Staller and a Breton lady, had been intrusted with -the Earldom of Norfolk. Roger, the son of William Fitz-Osbern, -had succeeded to the Earldom of Hereford. These two nobles -sought to ally their houses, and, against the will of William, Ralph -married Emma, Roger’s sister. At the bridal feast Waltheof of Nottingham, -the one remaining English Earl, was present, and there a -conspiracy was entered into, apparently on account of the strong hold -which William kept over his nobles, and in the interests of more perfect -feudalism. The kingdom was to be divided among the three -earls, one of whom was to be king. Waltheof had been well treated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -by the King, and married to his niece Judith. His conscience seems -to have pricked him, and he confessed all to Lanfranc, at that time -governing England. The conspiracy was at once suppressed; Norwich -alone, under Emma, the new married bride, made a brave defence. -Ralph fled to Brittany. Roger was taken prisoner, and spent -his life in captivity. Waltheof was at first received into favour, but -afterwards, it is believed at the instigation of his wife, he was tried -before the Witan and found guilty of death. The sentence was -executed in secret outside the town of Winchester. During his imprisonment -the Earl’s penitence had been deep, and it -was while still on his knees uttering the Lord’s Prayer -that the impatient executioner smote off his head. The -national hero, dying in this religious state of mind, speedily became -the national saint. His remains were removed to Crowland, which -he had much benefited, and miracles were worked at his tomb. The -confiscation of the property of these two earldoms, and the death of -Queen Edith, the widow of the Confessor, threw great property into -the hands of William, who did not reappoint to the earldoms.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Quarrels between -William -and his sons.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Reconciliation -at Gerberoi. -1079.</div> -</div> - -<p>From this time onward William lived generally in Normandy, -leaving England to the care of Lanfranc and Odo of Bayeux. The -great success of his reign had indeed been reached, and the remaining -years were disturbed by constant disputes with his sons -and with his suzerain the King of France. Already, -when pursuing Ralph of Gwader on his retreat into -Brittany, and besieging him in the town of Dol, he had found -himself checked by the union of Philip of France with Alan Fergant -of Brittany, and had found it advisable to marry his daughter Constance -to that nobleman as the price of peace. So, too, to lessen the -jealousy the King of France might naturally have felt at his vassal’s -great aggrandisement, he had made the Norman barons swear fealty -to his son Robert as his heir, and had caused him to do homage in his -place for Maine. Robert desired to make this nominal position real; -and, as a part of the same feudal movement perhaps which produced -the conspiracy of 1075, he demanded Normandy and Maine of his -father. His demand was refused; and when, during an expedition -of William against the Count of Mortagne, an accidental quarrel arose -between Robert and his brothers, in company with many of the -younger nobility he broke into open rebellion. With these, after an -unsuccessful attempt at Rouen, he fled to Hugh of Neufchâtel. -Beaten thence, he wandered from court to court, assisted by his -mother Matilda, against William’s will. At length he found an ally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -in Philip, who established him in 1079 in Gerberoi, near the borders -of Normandy. It was there that father and son met -face to face, and that William was unhorsed by Robert. -The siege of Gerberoi had to be raised, and William -underwent the humiliation of seeking a reconciliation with his son, -a reconciliation which was of short duration, as in 1080 Robert again -fled from court.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Odo’s oppressive -government.</div> - -<p>In all directions ill success was attending William. He had been -defeated at Dol and at Gerberoi; his son Robert in the period between -his two quarrels had failed in an expedition against Scotland; he had -just lost his son Richard in the New Forest; and in 1083 he lost -his wife, to whom he was deeply attached. Meanwhile Odo had been -ruling with extreme severity. In suppressing an insurrection -in Northumberland he had been guilty of -extortion and of cruel punishment even of the innocent. In his -general government he seems to have been extremely avaricious. In -the year 1082 his wealth and pride had risen to such a point that he -thought of attaining to the Papacy. This he intended to secure by -violent means. He purchased a magnificent palace in Rome to win -the favour of the people, and even collected an army, in which Hugh -of Chester took service, to cross the Apennines. William met him -and apprehended him at the Isle of Wight; nor could the complaints -of the Pope, which we cannot conceive to have been very earnest, -produce any effect. He was seized, as the King affirmed, not as -Bishop but as Earl of Kent, and remained in prison till the King’s -death. Odo’s oppressions had been very severe, and the condition of -England no doubt had become much worse since the complete subjugation -of the country, and now, in addition to a famine which had -just wasted the country, a heavy direct tax was laid on all land, and -worse than that, a vast host of foreign mercenaries was quartered on -all the King’s tenants, for a great danger was threatening.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Cnut’s -threatened -invasion. -1084.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Domesday -Book. -1085.</div> -</div> - -<p>Cnut was on the throne of Denmark. He had been one of the -commanders in Swend’s disastrous expeditions; he had -married Adela the daughter of Robert of Flanders, -one of William’s chief Continental enemies, and had -now determined to invade England. He had induced the King -of Norway to join him, and their combined fleets were expected. -William took ruthless precautions against his enemies. The old tax -of the Danegelt was reimposed, and all the land along the coast was -laid waste. The people were even ordered to shave and change their -dresses, that the Danes might not easily recognize them. Disputes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -among the leaders, and the death of Cnut, prevented the invasion. -But it was probably the difficulties which William had found in collecting -his taxes and troops on this occasion which induced him to set on -foot the great survey which produced the Domesday -Book. For this purpose commissioners were appointed, -who went through England, and in each shire inquired -of the sheriff, priests, reeves, and representatives of the inhabitants, -the condition of the land and its value, as compared with what it -had been in the reign of the Confessor. The whole of this great work -was completed in one year. On its completion a great assembly was -held on Salisbury Plain. It was, in fact, a vast review, attended by -no less than 60,000 persons. In this assembly was passed the important -ordinance which ordered that every man should be not only -the man of his immediate lord, but also the man of the king. This -was in direct opposition to the usual rule in feudal countries. The -whole assembly took the oath to William. This great piece of work, -which rendered England one nation, was a fitting conclusion to -William’s reign.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">William’s death -and burial. -1087. Sept. 9.</div> - -<p>In the following year a war broke out for the possession of the -Vexin claimed by the King of France. Angered by a coarse jest of -that monarch, William entered the country and ruthlessly ravaged it, -and at the destruction of the town of Mantes, his horse -stepped upon a burning coal and threw him forward -upon the pummel of the saddle; the bulk of the King -aggravated the injury, which in a few days caused his death. -Before he died he released his prisoners. No sooner had the breath -left his body than his attendants are said to have fled. He owed -his burial not to his son, but to the kind offices of a neighbouring -knight, and when brought to his Church of St. Stephen’s at Caen, it -was not till the clergy had paid the price of the grave that Anselm -Fitz-Arthur, whose property had been seized to make room for the -Church, would allow his body to be buried.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="WILLIAM_II" id="WILLIAM_II">WILLIAM II.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1087–1100.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_056.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_056.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - Malcolm III., 1057. | Philip I., | Henry IV., | Alphonso VI., - Donald Bane, 1093. | 1060. | 1056. | 1072. - Duncan, 1094. | - Donald Bane, 1094. | - Edgar, 1097. | - - POPES.--Urban II., 1088. Pascal II., 1099. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chief-Justices._ | _Chancellors._ - | | - Lanfranc, 1070–1089. | Odo of Bayeux, 1087. | William Giffard, 1087. - Anselm, 1093–1109. | William de S. Carilepho, | Robert Bloett, 1090. - | 1088. | Waldric, 1093. - | Ranulf Flambard, 1094. | William Giffard, 1094. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">1087.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">While the late King was on his deathbed, he had been induced -to declare his wishes with regard to his kingdoms. In -pursuance, perhaps, of a wise policy, and with the wish to keep -up and increase the nationality of England, he gave his -hereditary dominions to his son Robert, England to his -second son William. He told his son Henry to bide his time, and -gave him £5000 in money.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">William is -crowned by -Lanfranc, and -appeases the -English.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Opposition of -the Normans -checked. -1088.</div> -</div> - -<p>William at once hurried to England to secure his succession, and, -winning the support of Lanfranc, was in less than three -weeks crowned by him. At Winchester he found the -King’s treasure, from which he distributed gifts among -the churches in England, and a sum of money for the -poor in every shire. A promise of laws more just and mild than -their forefathers had known, attached the English to him for a time. -Thus supported by the Church and by the conquered people, who -could not but rejoice at the separation of England from Normandy, -it was only the Norman Baronage he had to fear.</p> - -<p>In Normandy the character of the new Duke Robert, who was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -mere knight-errant, induced the great nobility to get rid of the royal -garrisons from their castles, and otherwise to establish their feudal -independence. A similar movement was begun in England, -where Odo of Bayeux, liberated at the late King’s -death, had returned to his county of Kent, and now found -himself at the head of a strong party who disliked the separation -of their conquered possessions from their hereditary property. -Among the adherents of the party we find such names as the two -great bishops, Geoffrey of Coutances and William of Durham, Robert, -Count of Mortain, Roger of Montgomery, Earl of Shrewsbury, his son -Robert of Belesme, and Hugh of Grantmesnil, with others. Odo -occupied the castle of Rochester, and against it William led a body of -English, collected by a threat that all who had remained behind -should be proclaimed “nithing,” or worthless. The efforts of the -discontented barons in other parts of England were checked, and -finally the castle of Rochester was captured. Odo of Bayeux and the -Normans of the garrison were allowed to march out, which they did -amid the revilings of the besiegers, and to retire to France. The King -thus secured his position in England.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Lanfranc dies. -Ralph Flambard -succeeds him. -1089.</div> - -<p>He had hitherto been kept in some restraint by the influence of -Lanfranc; but when that prelate died in 1089, his coarse, -licentious, sceptical and avaricious character began to -display itself. His chief minister was Ralph Flambard, -a Churchman, who, like many others, was of low parentage, but -who seems to have recommended himself to William by his skill -as a financier. One of the plans attributed to him was a more -accurate completion of the Domesday survey, and the measurement -of the hides of land there returned. This would have been harmless -enough, but there must have been many other more flagrant exactions, -though very likely covered by some form of law, to account -for the hatred with which he was regarded. Although his office is -not mentioned, he was probably justiciary.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">William’s -quarrels with -his brothers -in Normandy. -1090.</div> - -<p>While England was groaning under the exactions of this man, so -that “men would rather wish to die, than to live under -his power,” the attention of the King was chiefly engaged -in intrigues with the nobles of Normandy. The easy -character of Duke Robert, and the rising anarchy among -the nobles, afforded abundant opportunity. On one occasion it was -the citizen Conan of Rouen with whom he was in correspondence; -and when this plot was discovered, and Prince Henry, at that time -acting with Duke Robert, had thrown the traitor from the cathedral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -tower, it was a quarrel between Grantmesnil and Curci on the one -side, and Robert of Belesme on the other, which gave him an opportunity -of mixing in the affairs of the duchy. In 1091, however, the -brothers came to an agreement, and a treaty was made at Caen, by -which they engaged that the survivor should succeed to the possessions -of his brother; and meanwhile Eu, Fécamp, Mont S. Michel, Cherbourg, -and some other territories, were given to William, who in return -promised to conquer Maine for Robert. Twelve barons of either -party swore to the observance of this treaty.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Feb. 1091.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry obtains -Domfront.</div> -</div> - -<p>Prince Henry, finding himself completely ignored by this arrangement, -took possession of the rock of St. Michel, and bade -defiance to his brothers. After a siege of some duration -he was driven thence; but in the general anarchy of the duchy he -found a home at Domfront, where the citizens begged -him to be their lord, on the condition that he would not -give them up to any other. It is doubtful whether he could have -kept possession of this strong place, had not William’s attention been -engaged by the affairs of Scotland.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">War with -Scotland. -1091.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">1093.</div> -</div> - -<p>Malcolm had renewed hostilities, and William found it necessary -to march in person against him. His expedition was -not successful. The weather destroyed a fleet which -accompanied it, and, by its inclemency, caused much -loss to his army. His presence, however, was sufficient in some -degree to overawe Malcolm; a compromise was effected; Malcolm -again did homage, and received back certain properties in England -of which he had been deprived, and which were perhaps manors -which had been given him as resting-places when he came to do -homage to his suzerain. At the same time, William turned aside into -the district of Cumberland, which was a dependency of the Scotch -crown. He re-established Carlisle, and filled the county with -peasants brought from the South of England from destroyed villages -in the neighbourhood of Winchester. In this he disregarded the -interests of the Scotch King, the immediate lord of the country, who -therefore complained, and was invited to meet William -at the next assembly at Gloucester. There, on the -refusal of William to do him justice, a new quarrel broke out, and -Malcolm was shortly afterwards killed, while invading England, at -Alnwick, by Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Continued war -with Wales. -1094.</div> - -<p>In the neighbourhood of Wales, too, fighting was almost perpetual. -Not only did the great Earldoms of Shrewsbury and Chester -increase their borders, but many knights took advantage of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -frequent civil divisions of the Welsh to push westward and set up their -castles. The course of the war had lately been in favour -of the Welsh rather than of the Normans, and in 1095 -William thought it necessary to lead an army against -them. His attempt was not successful, nor was a repetition of it two -years later more so. The nature of the ground was too difficult for -the advance of a great army, and William, thus a second time repelled, -had again to trust to the self-interest and courage of individual Norman -settlers. This plan he strengthened by granting to Normans portions of -land as yet unconquered. Thus two members of the house of Montgomery, -brothers of Hugh, Earl of Shrewsbury, Roger and Arnulf, did -homage for lands in Powys and Dyfed, and Hugh de Lacy for lands to -the west of Herefordshire. This guerilla warfare was successful, and -Hugh of Chester was just succeeding in winning back Anglesey, which -had been taken from him, when an invasion of Magnus of Norway -checked for the time the Norman success. The Earl of Shrewsbury, -while assisting Hugh of Chester, lost his life, and was succeeded by -Robert de Belesme, his brother. On the whole, the English frontier -constantly advanced, and the border counties were thronged with -castles either of the great Earls or of individual adventurers.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Troubles in -Normandy. -1094.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Conspiracy of -Mowbray -crushed.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">William obtains -Normandy from -Robert. -1096.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Size of his -dominions at -his death, -1100.</div> -</div> - -<p>Intrigues and irregular fighting had meanwhile been constant in -Normandy. In 1094 King Philip of France had been -called in by Robert, but nothing of importance arose -from this. But it gave rise to a curious act of extortion -on the part of William, who summoned 20,000 men from England, -evidently the old English County Militia, and on their arrival at the -coast dismissed them, taking from them the ten shillings a head, -viaticum, or journey-money, they had received from their counties. -In 1095 a great conspiracy of the nobles in England, -headed by Mowbray of Northumberland, came to light. -Mowbray threw himself into Bamborough castle, which -could not itself be taken, but immediately opposite to it another -castle, called Malvoisin, was raised, and the garrison of this “ill-neighbour” -found means to decoy Mowbray out of his stronghold and to -take him prisoner. The danger which threatened William was thus -got over; while the following year the object of his wishes came -into his hands, when Robert, eager to join a crusade -which had just been preached, pledged Normandy to -him for the sum of £6,666. His new situation as ruler -of Normandy brought William into hostility with the neighbouring -countries, and especially with Maine, where Hélie de la -Fléche made head against him, and, with the assistance of Fulk IV.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -of Anjou, succeeded in beating him off from Le Mans. William’s -power was now, in spite of this repulse, very great, and the King of -France, with whom he became involved in war in 1097 on the old -subject of the Vexin, looked with anxiety at the growth of his great -vassal, especially when a close friendship arose between him and the -Duke of Poitiers and Guienne. This conjunction, giving the English -King a grasp of France all round the seaboard, made men believe -that his ambition reached to the throne of France, especially as -Philip had but one son, Louis. The strange death of -William put an end to all such thoughts. He was hunting -in the New Forest, whither he had been warned not -to go, and there met his death; whether by an accidental arrow -from the bow of Walter Tyrrel, or falling forward upon the point of -an arrow as he stooped over his prey, or slain by the hands of some of -those whom his cruelty and avarice had made his implacable enemies, -is uncertain. The flight of his attendants, and the unceremonious -treatment of his corpse, seemed to favour the last supposition.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Causes of -William’s inferiority -to his -father.</div> - -<p>In spite then of his unamiable character; of the difficulties which -had beset him from his somewhat questionable title; -of the natural impulse towards feudal isolation of his -barons; of troublesome neighbours; and occasional want -of success in his expeditions; Rufus had on the whole succeeded -in his plans, as far as his external circumstances were concerned. It -was in his domestic government, especially with regard to the -Church, that his inferiority to his great father is most obvious. -Unlike the Conqueror, he was unable to see, or if he saw, to care -for the national advantages which sprung from a well-organized -Church. With a similar determination to be a perfect king in -his own dominions, he asserted that opinion by violent acts against -the Church itself, by appointments of the worst description, and by a -life from which all show of decency was banished. As long as Lanfranc -lived, he kept some restraint upon himself, but upon his death -he began to show his real temper.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Disputes with -the Church.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Bishoprics left -vacant.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Repenting after -illness, he -makes Anselm -Archbishop.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Anselm -unwillingly -accepts. -1093.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Anselm’s -reforms.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">William -opposes him.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was a critical time in the history of the Church. The quarrel -about investitures was raging in Europe. The skill of -Lanfranc and the power of the Conqueror had, as we -have seen, prevented the quarrel from reaching England during that -King’s reign; and to the end of Gregory’s life, 1085, he had kept up -friendly, even flattering, relations with the English King. When -Henry IV. had, in 1080, raised the Anti-Pope Guibert to the Papal -throne under the name of Clement III., Lanfranc had contrived not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -to commit himself to either party, but, on the whole, it is probable, -that during his life the regular Popes, Victor III. and Urban II., who -succeeded him in 1088, were acknowledged in England. On his -death advantage was taken of the Schism practically to acknowledge -neither Pope, and to leave the abbeys and bishoprics vacant. Indeed, -we are told that it was openly asserted that it was a privilege of the -King of England to acknowledge the Pope or not as he pleased. -Thus for four years the archbishopric was unfilled, along -with several other important ecclesiastical preferments, -and the want of discipline in the Church grew worse and worse. -Ralph Flambard, as administrator of the diocese of Lincoln, was -unlimited in his extortions. The Norman Church dignitaries marched -between lines of armed men to church. The Bishop of Wells demolished -the houses of the canons to build his own palace, and even -the religious and moral scruples of the English monks were laughed -at by their licentious superiors. In 1093 the King fell very ill, and -for the time became repentant and religious; he proceeded -to listen to the wishes of his people and fill up -the vacant appointments. The most important of these -was the archbishopric. For this post he selected Anselm of -Aosta, Abbot of Bec. This man was a Piedmontese, who had been -attracted to Normandy by the fame of Lanfranc, and had entered -the Abbey of Bec under him. Upon Lanfranc’s removal to Caen -he was made Prior, and afterwards Abbot. Both his character and -attainments commanded the veneration of the age; and at the -present time he had been invited by Hugh the Fat, Earl of Chester, -to come over and assist him in establishing a Benedictine abbey at -Chester. For this purpose, and charged with a mission from his -monastery, he was induced much against his will to come to England. -In the first access of the King’s repentance—after issuing a royal -proclamation promising afresh the freedom of captives, the good laws -of King Edward, and the punishment of evil-doers—he proceeded so -far to action as to appoint Anselm Archbishop. It was not without -something like actual violence that Anselm was forced -to accept the Episcopal staff. The great importance of -the primacy and Anselm’s view of the King’s character -are well shown by some words that are attributed to him: “England’s -plough is drawn by two supereminent oxen, the King and the -Archbishop of Canterbury.... Of these oxen one is dead, and the -other, fierce as a savage bull, is yoked young to the plough, and in -place of the dead ox you would yoke me a poor feeble old sheep with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -the wild bull.” The feeble old sheep, however, was a very decided -ecclesiastic. He insisted at once upon the restoration of the whole of -the lands of the See of Canterbury, more even than Lanfranc had held. -He declared that he would publicly acknowledge Pope Urban. And -when, after his consecration, on his presenting the King with £500 -of silver, the King demanded £1000, he withdrew his intended -present and distributed all to the poor. Nor was it as a defender of -ecclesiastical rights that he was pre-eminent. He set himself to check -as far as it was possible the shameless and abominable -vice that was rampant in England. Among other signs -of the degraded licentiousness of the times was the effeminate foppery -of the courtiers. Against their long hair and sharp-peaked shoes the -Archbishop was never weary of inveighing. The King’s absence -from England put an end for a time to the disputes between the -Archbishop and the King, but upon his return Anselm demanded -leave to obtain his pall from Pope Urban. This open acknowledgment -of the Pope William wished to avoid, and at a council, summoned -to consider the matter, the deposition of Anselm appears to -have been suggested. The bishops, creatures of the King, basely -deserted their chief; and the wisdom of the Baronage of England, -under the guidance of Robert, Count of Mellent, who throughout this -and the preceding reign appears as the good adviser to the sons of the -Conqueror, alone saved him from that disgrace. Unable to refuse -Anselm’s wish absolutely, the King contrived to persuade the Pope -to send <em>him</em> the pall, but Anselm stoutly refused to receive it from -secular hands, and ultimately triumphed so far as to be allowed to -take it himself from the high altar of the Cathedral of Canterbury. -For the moment the primate was triumphant, the -cowardly bishops sought his absolution. Bishoprics -which fell vacant were at once filled up. The Irish and Scotch -prelates acknowledged Anselm’s superiority. But William, cunning -and implacable, was not to be thus foiled. If the churchman could -not be touched, the feudal tenant could; and Anselm was accused -of insufficient performance of his duty in supplying military followers -for an expedition into Wales. In 1097, unable to withstand the royal -violence, he left England, and made his way to Rome. He there -was present at two great councils, that of Bari in 1098, where the -orthodox doctrine as to the Holy Ghost was established; and one at -Rome in 1099, where a curse was laid on all laymen who conferred -ecclesiastical investitures and upon all churchmen who received -them. Upon William’s death Anselm returned to England.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="HENRY_I" id="HENRY_I">HENRY I.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1100–1135.</span></h2> - - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_063.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_063.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1068 = Matilda of Scotland. - | - +--------------+----------------+ - | | - William, Duke of Normandy. Henry V. = Matilda = Geoffrey of Anjou. - d. 1119. d. 1167. | - | - Henry II. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - Edgar, 1097. | Philip I., 1060. | Henry IV., 1056. | Alphonso VI., 1072. - Alexander I., | Louis VI., 1108. | Henry V., 1106. | Alphonso VII.,1109. - 1106. | Lothaire II., | | Alphonso VIII., - David I., 1124. | 1125. | | 1134. - - POPES.--Pascal II., 1099. Gelasius II., 1118. Calixtus II., 1119. - Honorius II., 1124. Innocent II., 1130. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chief-Justices._ | _Chancellors._ - | | - Anselm, 1093–1109. | Robert Bloett, 1100. | William Giffard, 1100. - Ralph of Escures, | Roger the Poor, Bishop | Roger the Poor, 1101. - 1114–1122. | of Salisbury, 1107. | William Giffard, 1103. - William of Corbeil, | | Waldric, 1104. - 1123–1135. | | Ranulf, 1108. - | | Geoffrey Rufus, 1124. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Henry secures -the Crown. -1100.<br /><br /> -He conciliates -all classes.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Henry had been hunting in the New Forest when his brother -William was killed, and rode at once to Winchester to secure -the King’s treasure. As the rights of primogeniture -had not yet been established, and he was very obviously -a fitter man to be King than his brother Robert, the -slight opposition offered by the treasurer was speedily overruled, and -the Sunday following (August 5, 1100) he was crowned -at Westminster. To secure his position, however, he -found it necessary to conciliate all parties. The Church he won by -the immediate filling of vacant sees, and by the recall of the exiled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -Anselm. William Giffard, the chancellor of Rufus, was made Bishop -of Winchester; Girard of Hereford, Archbishop of York; while both -Norman and Saxon laity were bound to him by a charter, by which -he laid some constitutional restrictions upon the despotism established -by his father. In that charter he promised to abolish all oppressive -duties, and to confine his demands to his just claims as feudal lord; -rendering the same agreement obligatory on his tenants towards their -vassals. False coining was checked, the right of leaving personal -property by will granted, and the law of King Edward, which meant the -old institutions of the country, re-established. He likewise thought -it well to win the heart of the people by marrying a Princess of English -descent, Matilda, niece of Eadgar Ætheling, daughter of Margaret -and Malcolm of Scotland. Further to show his disapproval of his -brother’s policy, he arrested Ralph Flambard, who, however, found -means to escape to Normandy, and was made Bishop of Lisieux.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">His policy.</div> - -<p>Henry had thus declared the policy he intended to pursue, the -policy of his father rather than of his brother. He -meant to be at once a friend and master of the Church, -and a national sovereign of the English, a character which became a -prince who had been born in that country. That position implied a -power much more centralized than that of a feudal suzerain; and in -England his chief policy was directed throughout his reign to -upholding his mastery over the Church and over refractory barons -who aimed at more perfect feudalism. He was in heart however a -Norman, and, in pursuit of his objects, did not shrink from using his -English subjects with great severity. Similarly, his chief foreign -difficulties were produced by his wish to win the Duchy of Normandy, -and having won it to rule it in the same masterful spirit -in which he ruled England. We find then in his reign ecclesiastical -disputes, disputes with the feudal barons of both England and -Normandy, wars for the conquest of the duchy, and consequent -complications with his suzerain the King of France. Mixed with -these are stories, chiefly from Saxon sources, of cruel and unjust -exactions and acts of injustice, tolerated, if not ordered, against his -Saxon subjects.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">His supporters.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His opponents.</div> -</div> - -<p>His views found supporters in the two sons of that Roger de -Beaumont, to whom his father had left the regency of -Normandy when he first came to England. These were -the two great Earls, Robert, Count of Mellent,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> afterwards Earl -Leicester, and his younger brother Henry, Earl of Warwick, the elder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -of whom had received no less than ninety-one manors from the -Conqueror, and was the most influential and wisest statesman of the -day. On the other hand, he was constantly opposed -by his brother Robert, a military prince of the feudal -type, and Robert de Belesme of the House of Montgomery, possessor -of the Earldoms of Alençon in France and of Shrewsbury in England, -and by right of marriage of the county of Ponthieu.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Robert of -Normandy -seeks the -English Crown. -1101.</div> - -<p>Robert heard of his brother’s accession to the throne while on his -journey home from the Holy Land. He had served with credit -throughout the first crusade, especially at Dorylæum and at Ascalon. -He had declined the offer of the crown of Jerusalem, and on his return -home had married Sibylla, the daughter of Geoffrey -of Conversana. He was a man of extravagant and -profligate habits, and speedily squandered the fortune -which his wife had brought him, but the entreaties of English -exiles, and of those discontented nobles who longed for an easier -rule than they could expect from Henry, roused him to assert his -claim to the English crown. Robert of Belesme and his brothers, -Walter Giffard, Robert Malet, Ivo of Grantmesnil, even William of -Warrenne, Earl of Surrey, closely connected with the royal house, -joined his party.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Withdraws -without -bloodshed.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry attacks -his partisans.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Defeat of -Belesme. -Establishment -of royal power -in England.</div> -</div> - -<p>But the English were true to the King. Fitz-Hamon, Bigot, and -the Earl of Mellent, added their influence to the same side. It was -probably chiefly the talents of Mellent, and the threat of excommunication -from Archbishop Anselm, which brought about a peaceful -solution of the difficulty. A treaty was arranged by which Robert -renounced his claims in exchange for the Cotentin and -3000 marks a year. It was also stipulated that a complete -amnesty should be extended to the partisans of -either prince in his brother’s country. It was not Henry’s intention -however to carry out this part of the stipulation, and no sooner had -Robert left the country than the King proceeded to take steps against -the two leaders of his brother’s faction, Ivo of Grantmesnil and -Robert of Belesme. Ivo had been a crusader, and was -one of those who had fled from the siege of Antioch, -being let down the wall with a rope. He had thus earned the title -among the witty Normans of the “Rope-dancer,” and finding his -credit gone he withdrew from England. His share in the earldom of -Leicester was given to Robert of Mellent, who subsequently acquired -the rest of the earldom. Alarmed by these measures of the King, -William de Warrenne induced Robert foolishly to come over to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -England to negotiate for the safety of his partisans. His position -there was one of great jeopardy, and he was glad to retire, having -renounced his money payment, but having secured the restitution of -William in his Earldom of Surrey, of which he had been deprived. -The withdrawal of Robert from the contest allowed Henry to turn -his undivided attention to the destruction of Robert de Belesme, the -head of the Norman party in England. From him he won the -castles of Nottingham and Tickhill, and subsequently -that of Bridgenorth, to which he had retreated. When -many of the barons combined to seek his pardon, Henry, -still resting on the support of the English, refused to -listen to them, and proceeded to win from him his last stronghold, -the Castle of Shrewsbury. Upon this Belesme withdrew with his -two brothers into Normandy, and the disaffection of the aristocracy -was permanently checked.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Belesme -received in -Normandy. -Consequent -invasion of the -Duchy. 1105.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Tenchebray. -1106.</div> -</div> - -<p>It had been stipulated that the brothers should not receive each -other’s exiles. In spite of this Robert of Normandy, -enraged at the persecution of his partisans, restored to -Belesme his continental property. Henry consequently -on his side continued his measures against Robert’s -partisans. He first banished the Count of Mortain, -Earl of Cornwall, who claimed also the Earldom of Kent in succession -to Odo of Bayeux, the possession of which would have -rendered him the most powerful noble in England, and then -proceeded to Normandy to continue his attacks upon Belesme. -He alleged not only the reception of his exiles, but the general -misgovernment of Robert, as an excuse for his proceedings; and in -truth, under that Prince, Normandy had become a scene of anarchy. -As an instance of this it is mentioned, that on his arrival a church -was pointed out to him full of property sent there for safety from -the hands of the marauding barons. He captured the towns of -Caen and Bayeux, and found allies in the persistent enemies of the -Dukes of Normandy, Fulk Count of Anjou, and Hélie de la Fléche, -who had succeeded in regaining the County of Maine. With Count -Robert of Flanders also he renewed friendly relations. With such -support he proved too strong for the Norman Duke, and -before the Castle of Tenchebray a battle was fought, on -the anniversary of the battle of Hastings, which ended -in favour of the King. Duke Robert himself, the Count of Mortain, -and Eadgar Ætheling, who had been serving with the Duke, were -taken prisoners. Eadgar was liberated, and died in peace in England<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -some years after; but Duke Robert and the Count of Mortain -were imprisoned for the rest of their lives. Normandy and England -were thus again united.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Wars with -France. -1107.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Louis upholds -William Clito as -claimant to the -Duchy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">End of the war. -Treaty of Gisors. -1113.</div> -</div> - -<p>The possession of Normandy brought Henry into more immediate -contact with France. Louis VI. was upon the throne -of that kingdom, the first of those great kings to whom -the monarchy owed its ultimate triumph over feudalism. -It was natural that he should look with jealousy on the vast strength -of his great vassal, and should attempt to curtail that power which -the supineness of his predecessor had allowed to accumulate. A -constant border warfare was the consequence, rendered the more -possible by the doubtful position of such counties as Maine, Evreux, -the Vexin, Blois, and Alençon, the counts of which were for ever -changing their allegiance. Louis had no difficulty in -finding a pretender to the Norman Duchy whom he -might use as his instrument in opposing the English -King. William, the son of Robert, had fallen into Henry’s hands, -and had been by him intrusted to the care of Hélie de St. -Saen. In 1110, in connection apparently with a movement of disaffected -nobility (for Braiose, Malet, and Bainard are mentioned -as being exiled at that time), Hélie fled with the young Prince, and -sought to raise all the neighbouring princes in his cause. Their -efforts were not successful. Henry’s arch-enemy, Robert of Belesme, -fell into the King’s hands at Bonneville, where he had presented -himself with extraordinary effrontery, trusting that a message with -which he was charged from the King of France would give him the -security due to an ambassador. The same year Theobald of Blois, -acting for Henry, defeated the French King at Puysac. And when -Henry himself succeeded in capturing the town of Alençon, and in -attaching the Count of Anjou to his interests, by giving him his heir, -William the Ætheling, as a husband for his daughter, Louis found -it desirable to conclude a peace at Gisors, by which he resigned -his claim of suzerainty over Maine, Belesme, and Brittany, -and left entirely unmentioned the rights of -William, son of Robert. There followed a period of -some years, during which Henry was able to live in tolerable peace -in England.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Prince William -acknowledged -heir.</div> - -<p>His position was, indeed, unusually strong. His son was contracted -to the daughter of the Earl of Anjou; his natural daughter to -Conan, son of Alan Fergant of Brittany; and, in the following year, -his daughter Adelaide or Matilda was married to the German Emperor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -Henry V. He took this opportunity of securing the succession to -his son William, to whom, in the years 1115-1116, -he succeeded in inducing the barons both of England -and Normandy to promise their allegiance. But this -cessation of hostilities was not of long duration.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Renewal of the -war.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Depression of -Henry.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Brenneville, -and complete -prosperity. -1119.</div> -</div> - -<p>The causes of war had not been removed. There was still -chronic disaffection among the Norman barons, who -disliked the firmness of Henry’s rule; constant jealousy -upon the part of the French King; and the Pretender William, -the Clito as he is called, was an ever-ready instrument for their -hands. Thus the border warfare was renewed, and we hear of -the disaffection, not only of the King’s great barons, but of his -allies, both Robert of Flanders and Fulk of Anjou adopting -William’s cause. Other distresses likewise came upon -Henry. He lost his wife Matilda, and his firm and -sagacious minister, Robert of Mellent. But, in 1118, prosperity -again returned to him. The Count of Flanders was killed in an -attack upon the Count of Eu. Money or negotiation won back -the friendship of Fulk, and in the following year a battle between -a few knights at Brenneville, at which both Henry -and Louis were present in person, was regarded as so -decisive a victory for the English, that, by the mediation -of Pope Calixtus, a new Treaty was arranged, and William’s -interest completely disregarded. Thus was triumphantly closed the -second of Henry’s wars in France.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Death of Prince -William and its -consequences. -1120.</div> - -<p>At this period of his greatest prosperity a blow fell <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'upon Henry which'">upon Henry -from which</ins> he is said never to have recovered. He was -returning in triumph to England, when a certain -Thomas Fitz-Stephen, whose father had conveyed the -Conqueror to England, claimed the privilege of conveying the royal -party. To gratify him, Prince William, with the king’s natural -daughter Matilda, the Countess of Perche, and other young nobles, -consented to embark in his ship called the “Blanche Nef.” They -remained behind the rest of the fleet and celebrated the occasion in -festivity, which ended in the drunkenness of the crew. As they rode -upon the harbour of Barfleur in the moonlight they suddenly struck -upon the rocks of the Ras de Catte, and there was barely time for the -young Prince to escape in a boat from the sinking ship. The cries of -his sister are said to have induced William to return towards the -wreck, when the hurried rush of the despairing crew capsized his -boat, and all on board were drowned. Of the whole crew of the ship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -one only, Berold, a butcher of Rouen, survived, owing his safety to -the warmth afforded him by his rough garb of undressed sheepskins. -With fear and trembling the news was broken to Henry by the young -son of Count Theobald of Blois. Henry is said to have fallen fainting -from his seat, and from that time onwards never to have relaxed into -a smile.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Insurrection of -the Duke of -Anjou.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of -William Clito.</div> -</div> - -<p>The death of Prince William was not only a domestic misfortune. -By it was broken also the tie which bound the Count of -Anjou to Henry’s interests. It was a natural jealousy -of his great neighbour, the Norman Duke, which had -induced Fulk to act in alliance with Henry. When Robert’s imprisonment -put Henry on the throne of Normandy, he in turn -became the object of Fulk’s enmity. The state of the Duchy, where -a disaffected party constantly existed, afforded him ample opportunity -of giving effect to that enmity. Thus, in 1124, Henry was again -recalled to Normandy to suppress a rebellion in favour of William -Clito, who was supported by Anjou. Not only Anjou but France -was inclining to join the rebels, and it was only by instigating his -son-in-law the Emperor to attack France that Henry could manage -to make head against his opponents. As it was, however, a fortunate -surprise by which all the leaders fell into his hands enabled -him to crush the rebellion, and again induced the foreign powers to -desert William. The King of France indeed did not wholly give -him up; but in 1127, after investing him with several important -territories, he brought him forward as a claimant to the throne of -Flanders, to which he had a claim through his grandmother, Matilda, -the Conqueror’s wife, who was a daughter of Baldwin, Count of -Flanders. Against him Henry supported the claims of Diederik or -Dirk, Count of Alsace, the last count’s nephew, and -his rightful heir. The matter came to war, and in July -1128, before Alost, Prince William was wounded, and died of his -wounds. Henry was thus rid of his most formidable opponent.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Attempt to -secure the -succession to -Matilda.</div> - -<p>It remained for him to secure the succession for his daughter -Matilda, and he induced all the great men of England -to acknowledge her, and swear to support her claims. -The list of those who swore was headed by the Archbishop -of Canterbury, followed by the King’s nephew, Stephen -of Boulogne, and his natural son, Robert of Gloucester. They -always declared that they accepted the oath on the condition -that she should not be married to a foreigner without their consent, -and therefore many of them held themselves absolved from their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -oath, when she was betrothed and ultimately married to Geoffrey, -son of the Count of Anjou.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Death of Henry.</div> - -<p>The close of his reign was chiefly occupied in arranging disputes -in consequence of this marriage. It was while still -in Normandy on this business, though his presence was -imperatively demanded in England to suppress an insurrection -in Wales, that he died, as it is said, of the effects of a hearty meal -of lampreys on the 1st of December 1135.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Welsh held in -check by -colonies of -Flemings.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Constant -insurrections.</div> -</div> - -<p>Throughout the reign he had had considerable difficulties with the -Welsh, for although, as has been said, many Norman -knights and barons had established strongholds among -them, they were by no means subdued. They took -part in the insurrection of Robert of Belesme; and Henry, conscious -that they would be difficult to conquer, hit upon the plan -of establishing among them colonies of Flemings, many of whom -had come over with the Conqueror, and still more about the -year 1106, driven from their country by inundations. The land -granted them was in the western part of Wales, near Haverfordwest -and Tenby, where they acted at once as a military post, and, through -their knowledge of manufacture and agriculture, as an instrument of -civilization. In 1114 the Welsh rose under Gryffith. The occupation -of Caermarthen and Cardigan, where Gilbert Strongbow, Earl of -Strigul, was at that time commanding, separated the Flemings from -the English, and Henry was compelled to march to their rescue. -This insurrection was suppressed by Robert of Gloucester, himself -the son of Gryffith’s sister.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Small insurrections continued. -In 1122 Henry again went in person to Wales, -but, on the whole, the inhabitants were kept in subjection by the -Flemings and by numerous Norman castles till 1134, when they were -provoked to a new outbreak, so important that the King was preparing -to cross from Normandy to suppress it, when he died.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s Church -policy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Anselm refuses -fealty.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Anselm has to -leave England.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Unsupported by -the Pope, makes -compromise at -Bec. -1106.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Synod of -Westminster.</div> -</div> - -<p>At home the great points of Henry’s reign were those which form -the domestic history of all feudal monarchies, the -relation of the Church and State, and the maintenance -of police. With regard to the Church his views were those -of his father. He was ready to support and increase its influence; -he was not ready to give up any of the prerogatives which his predecessors -had possessed. He thus reversed all the action of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -brother, recalled Anselm at once with marked honour, and filled up -the vacant benefices. But the Archbishop during his exile had -mixed in Continental politics, at that time consisting almost entirely -of the question of investitures. He returned home determined to -assert to the full the independence of the Church. He therefore -refused to swear fealty, and do homage to the King, -or to consecrate those bishops who had received their -investitures from him. Henry, supported by his lay counsellors, -was equally determined to uphold the rights of the crown. The -matter was referred to the Pope, Pascal II. The Papacy had -enemies enough already, and could not afford to drive to extremities -a Prince so powerful, and in the main so friendly, as Henry. The -reply which was returned was ambiguous. Henry again commanded -the Archbishop to perform his usual duties. A second application to -Rome produced no better result. Anselm was urged to perseverance. -Henry’s ambassadors were given to understand that, as long as his -appointments were good, the King should not be interfered with. Firm -in his own views, but uncertain as to the Pope’s wishes, Anselm had -no course open to him but to visit Rome in person. He -there met with but lukewarm support, and withdrew to -Lyons, while Henry laid hands upon all the revenues of the archbishopric. -For some time Anselm rejected all offers of compromise; -but when, after all his efforts, he could induce the Pope to go no -further than the excommunication, not of the King, but of some of -his ministers, he lost heart, and, in 1106, a compromise was arranged -at Bec, by which Henry retained the really important part of investiture, -the oaths of fealty and homage, while resigning the -idle symbol of the gift of ring and crozier. This compromise, -which was the same in effect as that made -sixteen years afterwards at Worms between Henry V. -and Calixtus II., set at rest for the present that rivalry between -Church and State which the policy of the Conqueror had introduced. -The decrees of a Synod held at Westminster, 1102, by -Anselm before going to Rome, show the abuses which -the ecclesiastical disputes of the last reign had introduced. They are -directed against such habits as simony, marriage of the clergy, the -assumption of lay dress by ecclesiastics, the holding of secular courts -by bishops, the adoration of unauthorized saints and relics, and -vindicate the claims of the Church to be considered as the chief -civilizing agent of the time by forbidding the selling of men for -slaves.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Frequent unfit -appointments in -the Church. -Henry corrects -them when -possible.</div> - -<p>It was not always that the Church appeared in such an amiable -light. Henry no doubt, on the whole, attempted to -make good appointments, but interest or desire to -reward an ardent partisan sometimes put an unfit person -into office. Thus Henry of Poitou was given the -Abbey of Peterborough, although he already held an -abbey in France, apparently as a reward for the support he gave the -King in upholding the illegality of the marriage between William -Clito and Sibylla of Anjou on the score of consanguinity. “He -came like a drone to a hive,” says the chronicler; “all that the bees -draw towards them the drones devour and draw from them, so did -he.” It is fair to say that Henry, when he found out how bad a -person he had appointed, had him removed. “It was not very long -after that that the King sent for him, and made him give up the -Abbey of Peterborough, and go out of the land.” Thus, again, after -a great distribution of abbeys in 1107, it is remarked “that the -abbots were rather wolves than shepherds.” Such complaints are -however usually uttered by English writers, and the plight of the -conquered people was evidently very miserable.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Wretched -condition of -the people.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Extracts from -old chroniclers.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was a time of great suffering on more accounts than one, and -the suffering was of a kind to fall chiefly upon the -lower orders. Agriculture was so rough that any little -irregularity in the seasons produced a failure of the -crops, and the habits of the people were such that any infectious -disease was liable to become a pestilence. The constant warfare, -either against his vassals or his enemies, which the King carried on, -was the cause of frequent taxation, against which no class in the -State had it in their power to remonstrate; while the natural and -artificial causes of suffering were further aggravated by the frequent -issue of false coin. Thus we find year after year such entries as -these in the chroniclers:—“The year 1105 was very -miserable, because of the failure of the crops, and the -ceaseless taxation.” “The year 1110 was full of wretchedness, -because of the bad season, and the tribute the King demanded for his -daughter’s dowry.” “In this year (1124) were many failures in -England in corn and all fruit, so that between Christmas and -Candlemas the acre seed of wheat was sold for six shillings; and -that of barley, that is three seedlips for three shillings, the acre seed -of oats for four shillings, because there was little corn, and the penny -was so bad that a man who had at market a pound could by no -means buy therewith twelvepenny-worth.” “In this same year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -(1125) was so great a flood on St. Lawrence’s mass day that many -towns and men were drowned, and bridges shattered; corn and -meadows totally destroyed, and for all fruits there was so bad a -season as there had not been for many years before.” “In that -year (1131) there was so great a murrain of cattle as never was in -the memory of man.” This carried off neat, swine, and domestic fowls -alike. And when the harvest was good the pestilence came. “This -year (1112) was a very good year, and very abundant in wood and -field, but it was a very sorrowful one through a most destructive -pestilence.” Or again, the year 1104, “It is not easy to recount -all the miseries the country suffered this year through various and -manifold illegalities and imposts which never ceased nor failed, -and ever as the King went there was plundering by his followers -on his wretched people, and at the same time often burnings and -murders.”</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Their chief -complaints.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Baronial tyranny.</div> -</div> - -<p>In these extracts, which might be largely multiplied, the chief -causes of the people’s misery are mentioned. Heavy -taxes, famines, floods, pestilence, false money, and purveyance. -To attempt to rectify such of these as were within the -power of man, was one main part of Henry’s duty. To that was -added the work of suppressing, by a centralized royal power, the -excesses of the feudal barons. What crying necessity there was -that they should be suppressed is made plain by the stories related -of Robert of Belesme, their chief. He is spoken of as guilty of the -most unheard-of barbarities, as having scorned the -ransoms of his captives to torture them by newfangled -instruments; he found delight in seeing men and women impaled -and struggling in the agonies of death. “He was a man,” says -William of Malmesbury, “intolerable for the barbarity of his -manners, remarkable besides for cruelty;” and, among other instances, -he relates how, on account of some trifling fault of its -father, he blinded his godchild, who was his hostage, by tearing out -the poor little creature’s eyes with “his accursed nails.”</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Heavy taxation.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry cures -what evils he -can.</div> -</div> - -<p>One complaint of his people Henry systematically disregarded. -He could not afford to do without his taxes, and on all -classes on this point he leant with a heavy hand. But -in other respects, as far as in him lay, he rectified abuses of administration, -and established a vigorous and effectual police. The evils -of purveyance had become extreme; no property was safe from the -hands of the followers of the court, and when they found larger -supplies than they wanted, “if it was liquor they washed their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -horses’ feet in it, or food they wantonly destroyed it.” But Henry -made a regulation for the followers of his court, at -whichever of his residences he might be, stating what -they should take without payment from the country -folk, and how much, and at what price they should purchase, punishing -the transgressors by heavy fine or loss of life. So with regard to -false coinage, immediately after the complaint of high prices in the -year 1124, it is mentioned that Henry at once sent from Normandy -to England, and commanded that all the moneyers should have their -right hands cut off, and be otherwise mutilated. Bishop Roger -of Salisbury sent all over England, commanded them all to come -before him, and then and there punished upwards of fifty. Henry was -careful, indeed, in other ways with regard to the money, having the -whole of the coinage broken to prevent the refusal of broken silver -pennies; for it seems to have been the custom to break the coinage -to see that the money was good, and tradesmen not unfrequently -refused the broken coins.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">His strict -police.</div> - -<p>Against offences of violence Henry was equally vigorous. At -one single court held in Leicestershire by Basset the -Justiciary, during the King’s absence in 1124, no less -than forty-four thieves were condemned and hanged, besides others -mutilated. “He sought after robbers and counterfeiters with the -greatest diligence, and punished them when discovered,” says William -of Malmesbury. Rivalling his father also in other respects, he -restrained by edict the acts of his courtiers, thefts, rapine, and the -violation of women, commanding the delinquents to be deprived of -sight. He also displayed singular vigilance against the mint masters, -suffering no man who had been guilty of “deluding the innocent by -the practice of roguery” to escape without losing his hands. “A -good man he was,” says the Saxon Chronicle, “and all men stood in -awe of him; no man durst misdo against another in his time. He -made peace for man and beast. Whoso bare his burden of gold and -silver, no man thirst do him aught but good.”</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Administrative -machinery.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Local courts.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Curia Regis.</div> -</div> - -<p>To carry out this strict police some apparatus was necessary, which -at the same time should serve the purpose of diminishing -the power of the great nobles, and that of beginning -at all events, by its centralizing influence, to re-form the conquered -people and their conquerors into one nation. The rudiments of such -an apparatus Henry found already existing in the arrangements which -the Conqueror had made. The system of frankpledge, increased and -adapted to the more general feudal form of society, supplied him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -with an efficient system of police. There was no man in the kingdom -but some one was answerable for him. If he was a vassal, his -lord. If he was a freeman, the knot of freemen of which he was a -member. As courts to carry out this system, there -were the old Hundred and Shire gemots. These Henry -strengthened and, it would seem from one existing order, restored -when in any way decayed to their original purity. To these courts -criminal cases belonged, and civil suits between vassals of different -lords. Questions between vassals of the same lord seem to have -fallen within the jurisdiction of the lord. But these inferior courts, -although they were excellent for police purposes, and as a check -upon the powers of the baronial courts, would have done little -towards the formation of nationality had they not been brought into -connection with a superior court of which the king was chief. This -central court consisted of the King in his ordinary council, which, -since the Conquest, was known as the Curia Regis. -Over it was the justiciary, who was the King’s representative, -his regent during his absence, the head of his administration, -both judicial and financial, at all times. Under him was a -selection of barons, the chief officers of the royal household, and -those best qualified for judicial purposes. The clerks of this court -were placed under a head, who was the chancellor. The judges -themselves sat for financial purposes in the exchequer chamber, and -were spoken of as the barons of the exchequer. For general business -they were called justices, and their head the chief-justice. The -organization of this court dates from the reign of Henry I. The office -of chief justiciary had been founded by William the Conqueror, but the -regular formation of the Exchequer Court was the work of Roger, -Bishop of Salisbury, in the hands of whose family the direction of the -machinery remained for nearly a century.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> It was afterwards, as we -shall see, brought to its completion by Henry II., but all its essential -parts are to be found in the reign of his grandfather. It was as -officers of finance that the justices first began to traverse the country. -The sheriffs could not always be trusted in their own localities, and -change of property and other causes gave rise to difficult questions, -requiring to be settled by the immediate intervention of the King’s -officers. From financial questions their authority naturally passed to -questions of justice, and their connection with the local courts was -further strengthened when Henry united several sheriffdoms under -one of his justices. Following a natural tendency, the men employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -for these offices were not the great barons, but new men, who rose by -their talents, and were naturally upholders of the royal power and -of order in opposition to the anarchical baronial party.</p> - -<p>To sum up; after the year 1108, when the local courts were re-established, -both the Hundred and county courts were the same in -constitution and in arrangement as before the Conquest. But they were -connected with the central government; because matters in which the -King was interested were set aside for the consideration of the Curia -Regis, or travelling justiciary sent out from that body; and because -the Norman lawyers had introduced the practice of issuing writs from -the King’s court, whereby the King, in virtue of what is called his -“equitable power,” that is, his power of securing justice where the -law did not give it, prescribed the method of action in certain difficult -cases. The Hundred court was sometimes a lower court for the -arrangement of small debts; the Bailiff of the Hundred then presided. -Sometimes it was the great court held only twice a year; the sheriff -then presided, the court exercised criminal jurisdiction, and was -known as the “Court Leet.” It also saw to the filling up of the -divisions of ten men required by the system of Frankpledge; this was -called “the view of frankpledge.” The court was then known as “the -Sheriff’s Tourn.” Below these local courts were the feudal manor -courts, the old motes of the township, now become the courts of the -lord. But we must not suppose that the authority of the sheriff and -the local courts (now virtually royal courts) was universal. Certain -great lords enjoyed franchises, that is, exercised jurisdiction over several -manors. If the lord had “sac and soc,” his court had the authority -of the Court Leet. If he had “the view of frankpledge,” the suitors -at his court were free from attendance at the Sheriff’s Tourn. His -court was then in all points like the Hundred court, but independent -of the sheriff. This double system Henry had apparently to submit -to, watching the baronial power as well as he could, by means of -the local courts and travelling justices.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The National -Assembly.</div> - -<p>It is to be carefully remembered that though the Curia Regis, -representing the King’s council, attested charters, and revised and -registered laws, it had no legislative authority. Both the imposition -of taxes and the making of laws still rested with the King and his -great council, the representative of the Witan, which -had become a feudal court, and consisted chiefly of the -King’s vassals. Their “counsel and consent” was a necessary condition -of all legislation.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="STEPHEN" id="STEPHEN">STEPHEN.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1135–1154.</span></h2> - - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_077.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1105 = Maud of Boulogne. - | - +-------------+------------------------+ - | | - Eustace, Earl of Boulogne. William, Earl of Boulogne. - d. 1152. d. 1159. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - David I., 1124. | Louis VI., 1108. | Lothaire II., | Alphonso VIII., - Malcolm IV., 1153. | Louis VII., 1137. | 1125. | 1134. - Frederick I., 1152. | | Conrad III., | - | | 1138. | - - POPES.--Innocent II., 1130. Celestine II., 1143. Lucius II., 1144 - Eugenius III., 1145. Anastasius IV., 1153. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chief-Justice._ | _Chancellors._ - | | - William of Corbeuil, | Roger, Bishop of | Roger the Poor, 1135. - 1123–1136. | Salisbury. | Philip, 1139. - Theobald, 1139–1161. | 1135–1139. | - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Stephen’s -accession.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">On Henry’s death, according to the oath of the nobles, Matilda, -late Empress, now wife of Geoffrey of Anjou, -should have become Duchess of Normandy and Queen of -England. But the principle of hereditary succession was by no -means firmly established; a female sovereign was not desirable for a -feudal country; her child Henry was an infant; and the nobles -held that the conditions of their oath of fealty had been broken when -Matilda had married a foreigner. There was therefore almost a -unanimous feeling that one or other of the Princes of Blois, grandsons -of the Conqueror, Theobald the elder brother, or Stephen, Count -of Mortain and Boulogne, should ascend the throne. Steps were -being taken in Normandy to induce Theobald to come forward, -when news was brought to him that the superior quickness of his -brother Stephen had already secured the crown in England, where, -though not without some demur, the influence of the Church, headed -by his brother Henry of Winchester, had secured him success.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Strange -character of the -reign.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Great power of -the Church.</div> -</div> - -<p>There followed a period of twenty years without a parallel in the -history of England. It was the only time during which -the feudal baronage assumed that position of practical -independence which it was always aiming at, which it -frequently enjoyed abroad, but which the wise management and -strong government of the Conqueror and his two sons had rendered -impossible in England. The weak title of the King, and the constantly -urged claim of the Empress, joined with the personal character -of Stephen, who seems to have been unable to refuse a request, -afforded an opportunity to the barons of asserting virtual independence -and fighting for their own interests, while nominally upholding -one or other of the claimants to the throne. The same causes -affected the Church, which was now able to make good -that commanding position which the legislation of the -Conqueror had given it, although up to this time the strong hand of -the King had rendered the position worthless. The only organized -power in the midst of anarchy, it was enabled to use its influence -to the full. It was the Church that set Stephen on the throne; it -was his quarrel with the bishops which lit up the civil war in England; -the success of the Empress was of no avail till she was -accepted by the Church; her attack upon Henry of Winchester was -the signal for her discomfiture; it was the mediation of the Church -which ultimately produced a cessation of the war.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The interest of -the reign.</div> - -<p>The facts of the reign are few and in themselves unimportant. -To the growth of the constitution it added nothing. -It is nevertheless interesting as exhibiting the effects of -unbridled feudalism, and as preparing the way for the great work of -consolidation perfected by Henry II.; on the one hand by the -misery and disgust excited by the lawless outrages of the barons; -on the other by the overwhelming power thrown into the hands of -the Church, which could not co-exist with any true national -monarchy.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Stephen’s -charter.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Affairs in Wales.</div> -</div> - -<p>On his coronation, Stephen, in general terms, promised to uphold -the good laws of his predecessors. At the first great -council of his reign he issued a more explicit charter, -securing to the Church their property and privileges, and promising -to suppress illegalities on the part of the sheriffs. The character of -the reign rendered such a charter quite inoperative. The insurrection -in Wales, which had been bringing Henry to England -when he died, continued. Its conduct fell chiefly to -Ranulf, Earl of Chester, and Richard Fitz-Gilbert of Clare. Stephen’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -presence on the borders did not succeed in checking it. Richard -Fitz-Gilbert was killed, and he left the country as before to be conquered -by the gradual advance of the lords marchers.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Early signs of -disturbance.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">War with -Scotland. -1137.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Its connection -with an English -conspiracy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of the -Standard. -Aug. 22, 1138.</div> -</div> - -<p>Already, it would seem, the yielding character of Stephen had been -discovered. Already barons began to take advantage of -it. Roger Bigot seized the Castle of Norwich, and -wrested from the King the earldom of that county and of East -Anglia. Robert of Bathenton and Baldwin of Redvers, in Devonshire, -began to rebel. They were indeed both conquered, but such -movements mark the temper of the times. In 1137 Stephen found -himself strong enough to cross to Normandy, where Geoffrey of Anjou -was making war upon his provinces. His success there was not -great. He purchased from Geoffrey a cessation of hostilities. Meanwhile -the Northern frontier of England had become a scene of war. -David of Scotland, the nephew of Eadgar Ætheling, and -uncle through his sister Matilda of the Empress, had -himself some claims to the English throne. But these -he declared that he waived, wishing to abide true to the oath he had -taken to support his niece. He, however, demanded that his son -Henry should be allowed to do homage to Stephen for Cumberland, -and that he himself should receive the counties of Northumberland -and Huntingdon, which he claimed in right of his wife, the daughter -of Earl Waltheof. Though he himself declared that he had no desire -for the English throne, there is mentioned by one chronicler<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> a general -conspiracy of the native English with their exiled -countrymen, of whom the south of Scotland was full, -for the purpose of taking advantage of the condition of -the country to put to death the Normans, and to place the crown -upon David’s head. The plot was discovered by the Bishop of Ely, -who was at once Bishop and Governor of that district, which had -been formed by the last king into a modified county palatine. He -told his discovery, and many of the conspirators were hanged, but -many others found a refuge in Scotland. At length, in 1138, -David entered England with a large army, and pushed forward -as far as Northallerton in Yorkshire. He was there met by -the forces of the Northern bishops and barons, gathered under -the command of Walter Espec, Thurstan, the aged Archbishop of -York, William of Albemarle, Roger of Mowbray, and other barons. -They gathered round a tall mast borne upon a carriage, on which, -above the standards of the three Northern Saints, St. Peter of York,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -St. John of Beverley, and St. Wilfred of Ripon, was displayed a -silver pyx bearing the consecrated wafer. The motley -army of the Scots, some armed as the English, some in -the wild dress of the Picts of Galloway, after a well-fought -battle, broke against the full-clad Norman soldiers, and were -killed by the arrows, which had now become the national weapon of -the English; 11,000 are said to have fallen on the field. But, in -spite of the victory, Stephen, conscious of his general weakness, -accepted an unfavourable peace, by which Northumberland was given -to Prince Henry.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Growth of -anarchy in -England.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Creation of -earldoms and -castles.</div> -</div> - -<p>All this time the spirit of lawlessness had been increasing. “Many -persons,” says the chronicler,<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> “emboldened to illegal -acts, either by nobility of descent or by ambition, were -not ashamed, some to demand castles, others estates, and -indeed whatever came into their fancy, from the King. When he -delayed complying with their request ... they, becoming enraged, -immediately fortified their castles against him, and drove away large -booties from his lands.” “He created likewise many earls where -there had been none before; appropriating to them rents which had -before belonged to the crown. They were the more greedy in -asking, and he more profuse in giving, because a rumour was pervading -England that Robert of Gloucester would shortly espouse the -cause of his sister.” The creation of earldoms had been rare under -the three first Norman kings, and as those offices died out their -places had not been filled. It is said, indeed, that in 1131 there -were but three earls in England, Robert of Gloucester, and the Earls -of Chester and Leicester.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> As the earl received the third penny of -the fines of his earldom, the creation of earls manifestly -impoverished the crown. But Stephen appears to have -gone beyond the filling up of regular earldoms, and to -have created titular earls,<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> with grants of royal demesne lands to -support their dignity. The building of castles<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> was the great sign of -the anarchical condition of England, implying private war and all -the other horrors of the worst forms of continental feudalism.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Robert of -Gloucester -renounces his -fealty. -1138.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Stephen’s -mercenaries.</div> -</div> - -<p>This anarchy began to assume a form when Robert of Gloucester, -alleging his previous oath to Matilda, and asserting that the conditions -on which he had accepted Stephen had not been kept, renounced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -his fealty. His influence was in his earldom, and in the West of -England; the headquarters of his party was Bristol; -and his agent during his absence was Milo, Constable -of Gloucester, afterwards Earl of Hereford. Nearly all -the West, and by no means the West only, declared for -Matilda. But in most cases the rival claims to the throne were used -as an excuse merely. Change of sides was common, and there are -instances of leaders excluding their own nominal partisans from -strongholds they had won.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> At first the insurrection was unsuccessful. -Stephen, conscious of his weakness, had collected -mercenaries from Flanders and from Brittany. The -condition of the country made them eager to come. In Stephen’s -time numbers of freebooters from Flanders and Brittany flocked to -England in expectation of pillage.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The chief leader of the Flemings -was William of Ypres; the Bretons were commanded by Alan the -Black of Richmond, Hervé of Léon, and Alan of Dinan. With the -aid of these Stephen speedily regained the great castles he had lost, -such as Bath, Castlecary, Harptree, and Shrewsbury; and might perhaps -even yet have established his authority, when an act of supreme -folly set him at variance with the Church.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Jealousy -between the -old and new -administration.</div> - -<p>The new administrative class was represented by Roger of Salisbury, -who had succeeded in procuring for his nephew Alexander -the bishopric of Lincoln, for Nigel the bishopric of Ely, while -his illegitimate son Roger was Chancellor. The vast wealth and -influence of this family encouraged them to build castles, and Devizes, -Sherborne, Malmesbury, and Salisbury were strongly fortified. The -family of Beaumont, Earls of Mellent, had been generally firm -supporters of the crown and of authority. They now -seem to have seen with jealousy their position as -the chief advisers to the crown occupied by men of law, -ecclesiastics, yet without the sanctity which befits the -ecclesiastical profession. At their instigation, and at that of their -friends, the King took the ill-advised step of beginning his assault on -his castle-building barons by demanding the surrender of these -bishops’ castles. The Bishops of Lincoln and Salisbury were suddenly -arrested at an assembly held at Oxford (1139); the Bishop -of Ely took refuge in the castle of Devizes. Thither the King betook -himself, with his two prisoners, as some accounts assert, kept entirely -without food, one in a cow-stall and the other in a hovel. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -treatment of the bishops, and a threat of hanging Roger the Chancellor, -produced the surrender of Devizes as well as the other three -castles.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Stephen’s -quarrel with the -Church.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Consequent -arrival of -Matilda. -Sept. 30, 1139.</div> -</div> - -<p>The success was dearly bought. The King’s brother, Henry of -Winchester, upheld the dignity of his order. He summoned -a council, produced a Papal letter declaring -him legate, proceeded to lay his charges against the -King before the council, and advised him to submit to canonical -punishment. Stephen’s case was defended by Aubrey de Vere, who, -when the aggrieved bishops spoke of an appeal to Rome, declared -that the King advised them not to do so, as whoever went might find -it difficult to return; and himself appealed to the jurisdiction of -the Pope. This threat, and an ominous appearance of -drawn swords around the meeting, prevented the bishops -from proceeding to extremities; but none the less had -Stephen forfeited their support. The immediate effect was the -arrival of Gloucester and the Empress in the South of England.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Civil war.</div> - -<p>After a short stay at Arundel, the Empress withdrew to join her -brother, who had preceded her, at Bristol. There had been a -friendly meeting with Henry of Winchester upon their arrival, and -it was the same Henry who escorted the Empress to join her brother.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> -The scene of confusion became still more confused. -Brian Fitz-Count<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> held Wallingford for the Empress; -Milo of Gloucester regained many of the Western castles which -Stephen had won. In Cornwall, Reginald of Dunstanville, a brother -of the Earl of Gloucester, upheld, though without much success, the -cause of the Empress. In Wiltshire, Fitz-Hubert, a Fleming, and -Fitz-Gilbert fought nominally for the Empress, really for themselves, -till Fitz-Gilbert enticed Fitz-Hubert, who had refused admission to -the partisans of the Empress for whom he was nominally fighting, -to the Castle of Marlborough, and there hanged him.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Continued -quarrel with -the Church.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Robert, to -bring matters -to a crisis, -fights the battle -of Lincoln. -Feb. 2, 1141.</div> -</div> - -<p>The quarrel between Stephen and his bishops grew worse and worse. -Roger of Salisbury died in 1139. The Bishop of Winchester -demanded the See for his nephew. Again Waleram -of Mellent thwarted the Church, and his request -was refused. At the Whitsuntide festival (1141) held in London, -but one bishop,<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and that a foreign one, was with the court. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> -state of uncertain anarchy was becoming highly distasteful to Robert -of Gloucester. An opportunity occurred of bringing matters to a -crisis. Ranulph, the Earl of Chester, had hitherto played fast and -loose with both parties, and the King had parted from him at Lincoln, -which he possessed in right of his mother Lucia, believing him -to be his partisan. But, a few days after his departure, Ranulph and -his brother William of Roumare, surprised the castle, on which the -King, who was a good soldier and very rapid in his movements, -suddenly came back and besieged it. Ranulph escaped -from the castle to Robert of Gloucester, who seized the -occasion to bring on a pitched battle. With Ranulph, -his own partisans, and the Welsh, he reached the Trent, -passed it with some difficulty, and appeared suddenly -before Lincoln. A great battle ensued, in which the victory fell to -Gloucester, and Stephen was himself taken prisoner.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Matilda seeks -help of the -Church, and -becomes Queen.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Importance of -the Londoners. -1141.</div> -</div> - -<p>Of course this defeat somewhat changed the balance of affairs. -Cornwall was regained for the Empress, and her influence reached -eastward as far as Bedford and Nottingham. But she -could not hope in any true sense to obtain the crown -without the consent of the all-powerful Church. At -once therefore negotiations were opened with Henry of Winchester. -Having won his adherence, and with it that of the greater part of the -bishops, she went from Gloucester, accompanied by the Bishop of Ely -and other supporters, to Winchester. In an open plain without the -city she swore to follow the advice of the Legate on Church matters. -Her oath was attested by Milo, afterwards Earl of Hereford, Earl -Gloucester, Brian Fitz-Count, and others. A council of the Church -was held a few days after. The Legate addressed -the assembly, and declared his adhesion to Matilda. -It is to be observed that he waited a day to receive -the citizens of London, who were “as it were nobles by reason of -the magnitude of the city.” Both the Londoners and many of the -nobility besought for the release of Stephen, but their request was -refused, and many of the royal party executed. Having obtained -the castle of Oxford from Robert of Oilli, Matilda proceeded to London; -but there the haughtiness of her behaviour soon produced the -ruin of her cause.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Matilda’s -opportunity, -but she -offends both -Church and -Londoners.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Consequent -revolution of -affairs.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Gloucester -taken prisoner, -and exchanged -for Stephen. -1142.</div> -</div> - -<p>It seems as though, if he could only have regained his liberty, Stephen -himself and his partisans would have been willing now to retire from -the contest. The Earls of Leicester and Mellent, hitherto staunch supporters -of the King, together with his old friend Hugh, the Bishop of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -Rouen, went so far as to offer the crown to Stephen’s brother -Theobald. But that prince declined to receive it, and even advised -them to transfer their offer to Geoffrey of Anjou, on the -sole condition that Stephen should be liberated. Taking -advantage of such an opportunity as this, while supported -by the friendship of Henry of Winchester and the -Londoners, Matilda might have made her throne secure, but she at -once took steps which alienated both. To Henry of Winchester, who -must naturally have felt the ties of relationship towards his brother, -she refused the natural request that Stephen’s son Eustace might be -placed in possession of his father’s foreign fiefs. From the Londoners -she demanded a heavy tallage, in spite of their complaints that they -had been already stripped by taxations. King Stephen’s Queen, to -whom many of the fugitives from Lincoln had betaken themselves, -made use of the discontent thus excited to advance against London. -The inhabitants rose, and the Empress barely escaped with a few -followers to Oxford. The insurgents demanded the liberation of -Stephen. In this demand the Bishop of Winchester now -joined, and the Empress besieged him in his castle outside -the town of Winchester. But her besieging army was -soon itself besieged, its communications and means of subsistence cut -off, and she found herself obliged to retire. The Earl of Gloucester -therefore despatched her before him to Devizes, while he -himself covered her retreat. But he was hotly pursued -and taken prisoner. This neutralized all his previous -successes. After some negotiations the great prisoners -were exchanged, and the state of parties fell back very much to its -position before the battle of Lincoln.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Renewal of the -old anarchy. -1146.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Appearance of -Prince Henry.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of Robert -of Gloucester. -1148.</div> -</div> - -<p>Of decided successes on either side there were none. In 1142, the -Empress, hard pressed at Oxford, barely made her escape with two -knights, all clothed in white, across the snow. In the following -year Stephen, on the other hand, suffered a defeat at -Wilton. The same struggle for individual liberty on -the part of the barons was apparent everywhere. Thus -the Cathedral of Coventry was changed into a fortress by a baron of -the name of Marmion, the Abbey of Ramsey by Mandeville. Nor -did the retirement of several of the hotter spirits from the contest to -join in a crusade which St. Bernard was then preaching materially -change the aspect of affairs. But, in 1147, new actors -begin to appear upon the scene. Wearied with the long -useless struggle, Matilda withdrew to France. But to take her place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -her son Prince Henry came over to England. As it were to -match him, Stephen brought his son Eustace prominently forward. -This change of persons is still more clearly marked by -the death of the great Earl of Gloucester, a man to whom -many acts of cruelty in accordance with the temper of -the time could be attributed, but who, if we may judge from the -testimony of William of Malmesbury, was far superior in character -and civilization to most of those by whom he was surrounded.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s marriage -and increased -power.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Church sides -with him.</div> -</div> - -<p>The withdrawal of the Empress and the appearance of Henry -made a considerable difference in the views of those barons in England -who were not wholly selfish. Stephen had been tried and -failed. They had no longer to fear the rule of a woman. And thus -we find Robert of Leicester, second son of the great Earl of Mellent, -who had hitherto served Stephen and done him good service in Normandy -against the Angevins, giving in his adherence to the young -prince. In company with his cousin Roger of Warwick, he held the -town and castle of Worcester for him, and succeeded in driving off -the royal army. Henry’s accession to the county of Anjou upon the -death of his father Geoffrey, in 1151, and still more his -marriage with Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis, -heiress of Poitiers and Guienne, changed the character of -the war. He was no longer a poor claimant, at best the son of a count, -but had been suddenly transformed into one of the most powerful -princes in Europe. In addition to this, since the death of Pope -Innocent in 1144, the Papal See had been taking a more -decided course against Stephen. The legatine authority -had been withdrawn from Henry of Winchester, whose relationship -with Stephen made his action always doubtful, and been given to -Theobald the Archbishop, but Stephen, with his usual want of -address, contrived to quarrel with him, and he therefore threw his -whole weight upon the side of Henry.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Meeting of the -armies at -Wallingford. -1153.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Church mediates -a compromise. -1153.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of -Stephen. -1154.</div> -</div> - -<p>Thus, when Henry contrived to form a truce with his rival the -French King, and to enter England with a considerable army, the -country was much disposed to receive him. Many of the nobility -began to declare for him. The Beaumonts, as we have seen, were -already his friends. The Countess of Warwick placed her castle in -his hands. Robert of Leicester supplied him with provisions, and he -marched in good hope to relieve Wallingford, which, defended -by Brian Fitz-Count, Stephen was now besieging. -There the two armies met; but the desire for peace was -so general, that they both demanded that negotiations should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -opened. Nothing was then settled, but the armies separated. -Stephen proceeded to besiege Ipswich, where Bigot had declared for -Henry, and Henry, taking Nottingham on the way, was marching to -relieve it, when the heads of the Church saw their opportunity, -and Theobald and Henry of Winchester combined -to mediate a peace. This was the more easy on account -of the death of the young Prince Eustace. On the 7th of November -the Treaty of Pacification was concluded at Winchester. It was a -compromise. Stephen was to remain King of England during his -life; Henry was to be accepted as his son and heir; Stephen’s son -William was to do homage to Henry for all his large possessions in -England and in Normandy. There then followed an arrangement -for restoring the administration which the war had ruined. The -castles were to be razed, the coinage reformed, the sheriffs replaced, -the crown lands resumed, the new earldoms extinguished, foreigners -banished, and administration of justice restored.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> After this treaty -Henry’s duties summoned him chiefly to France; and -Stephen, for the short remnant of his life, remained -undisputed King of England. He died on the 25th of -October 1154.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Quotations from -chroniclers. -The miseries of -this reign.</div> - -<p>Two short extracts from chroniclers give a more complete view of -the misery which attended this lawless period than any -fresh description could do. William of Newbury says: -“Wounded and drained of blood by civil misery, England -lay plague-stricken. It is written of an ancient people, ‘In those -days there was no king in Israel, and every man did that which was -right in his own eyes;’ but in England, under King Stephen, the -case was worse. For, because at that time the King was powerless, -and the law languished because the King was powerless, though -some indeed did what seemed right in their own eyes, many because -all fear of King and law was taken off them, did all the more greedily -what by their natural instincts they knew to be wrong.... -Neither King nor Empress was able to act in a masterful way, or -show vigorous discipline. But each kept their own followers in good -temper by refusing them nothing lest they should desert them.... -And because they were worn out by daily strife, and acted less -vigorously, local disturbances of hostile lords grew the more vehement. -Castles too rose in great numbers in the several districts, and there -were in England, so to speak, as many kings, or rather tyrants, as -lords of castles. Individuals took the right of coining their private<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -money, and of private jurisdiction.” We have here the effects of the -loosened hold of the crown,—castles, private war, private coinage, -private justice. The Saxon Chronicle supplies us with a picture of -the effect of these feudal usurpations upon the lower ranks of the -people:—</p> - -<p>“When the traitors perceived that Stephen was a mild man, and -soft and good, and did no justice, then did they all wonder. They -had done homage to him and sworn oaths, but held no faith; for -every powerful man made his castles and held them against him, and -they filled the land full of castles. They cruelly oppressed the -wretched men of the land with castle works. When the castles -were made, they filled them with devils and evil men. Then they -took those men that they imagined had any property, both by night -and by day, peasant men and women, and put them in prison for -their gold and silver, and tortured them with unutterable torture; -for never were martyrs so tortured as they were. They hanged them -up by the feet and smoked them with foul smoke; they hanged them -up by the thumbs or by the head, and hung fires on their feet; they -put knotted strings about their heads, and writhed them so that it -went to the brain. They put them in dungeons, in which were -adders, and snakes, and toads, and killed them so. Some they put -in a ‘cruset hûs,’ that is in a chest that was short and narrow and -shallow, and put sharp stones therein, and pressed the man therein, -so that they brake all his limbs. In many of the castles were -instruments called a ‘lāŏ (loathly) and grim;’ these were neck-bonds, -of which two or three men had enough to bear one. It was so made, -that is, it was fastened to a beam, and they put a sharp iron about the -man’s throat and his neck, so that he could not in any direction sit, -or lie, or sleep, but must bear all that iron. Many thousands they -killed with hunger; I neither can nor may tell all the wounds or all -the tortures which they inflicted on wretched men in this land; and -that lasted the nineteen winters while Stephen was King; and ever -it was worse and worse. They laid imposts on the towns continually; -and when the wretched men had no more to give, they robbed and -burned all the towns, so that thou mightest well go all a day’s -journey, and thou shouldest never find a man sitting in a town, or -the land tilled. Then was corn dear, and flesh and cheese and -butter; for there was none in the land. Wretched men died of -hunger; some went seeking alms who at one while were rich men; -some fled out of the land. Never yet had more wretchedness been in -the land, nor did heathen men ever do worse than they did; for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -everywhere at times they forbore neither church nor churchyard, but -took all the property that was therein, and then burned the church -and altogether. Nor forbore they a bishop’s land, nor an abbot’s, nor -a priest’s, but robbed monks and clerks, and every man another who -anywhere could. If two or three men came riding to a town, all the -township fled before them, imagining them to be robbers. The -bishops and clergy constantly cursed them, but nothing came of it, -for they were all accursed, and forsworn, and lost. However a man -tilled, the earth bare no corn; for the land was all foredone by such -deeds, and they said openly that Christ and His saints slept. Such, -and more than we can say, we endured nineteen winters for our -sins.”</p> - -<p>A people who had suffered these things must certainly have sighed -for a strong government, by whatever hand it should be wielded; and -miserable though the reign had been, it tended towards the consolidation -of nationality.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="HENRY_II" id="HENRY_II">HENRY II.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1154–1189.</span></h2> - - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_089.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_089.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1133 = Eleanor. - | - | - +-------+-------+--+------------------+-----+------------------+ - | | | | | | - Henry. | Geoffrey = Constance John Matilda = Henry | - d.1182. | | of Brittany. the Lion | - Richard. | of Saxony. | - Arthur. | - | - +------------------------------------+ - | - +-----------+-----------+ - | | - Eleanor = Alphonso IX. Joanna = William II., - King of Sicily. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - Malcolm IV., | Louis VII., 1137. | Frederic I., | Alphonso VIII., 1134. - 1153. | Philip Augustus, | 1152. | Sancho III., 1157. - William, 1165. | 1180. | | Alphonso IX., 1158. - - POPES.--Adrian IV., 1154. Alexander III., 1159. Lucius III., 1181. - Urban III., 1185. Gregory VIII., 1187. Clement III., 1187. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chief-Justices._ | _Chancellors._ - | | - Theobald, 1139–1161. | Robert, Earl of | Thomas à Becket, - Thomas à Becket, | Leicester, 1154–1167. | 1154–1162. - 1162–1170. | Richard de Lucy, | Ralph de Warneville, - Richard, 1174–1184. | 1154–1179. | 1173–1181. - Baldwin, 1185–1190. | Ranulf Glanville, | Geoffrey, the King’s - | 1180–1189. | son, 1181–1189. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Main objects -of Henry’s reign.<br /><br /> -First acts of -his reign.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The consolidation of the nation was the great work of Henry of -Anjou. He brought to it great gifts, sagacity, masterful -courage, a legal and judicial mind; while his training, as the prince of -widely extending countries, prevented the intrusion of -petty local interests into his views for his people’s good. -The lessons of the last reign were not lost on him. Before all things -he desired a strong government and good order. In pursuing these -objects he took for his model his grandfather and great-grandfather, -and worked out in greater and more systematic detail the policy they -had begun. And though in his efforts to subordinate the Church -he may seem to have run counter to the legislation of his great-grandfather,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -it will be seen that in many points his policy was really -the same. In the earlier part of his reign work lay ready -to his hand, and the compromise at Winchester had -already marked out his line of action. He could not immediately -come to England, being detained by an insurrection in Guienne. -But when he had settled this, and, by a humility of bearing he knew -well how to feign, secured the friendship of Louis VII., he crossed the -Channel, and at once proceeded with his reforms.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">He restores -order in the -State.</div> - -<p>He renewed the charter of the City of London; fixed a short period -during which the Flemish auxiliaries, who had already -probably begun to return home, should leave the country; -recalled grants of the royal domains which had been -made in Stephen’s reign; re-established the old number of limited -earldoms; and proceeded to lay hands on both the royal castles which -individual barons had appropriated and those private fastnesses with -which the country had become covered. Their number is variously -estimated, by some it is put as high as 1150. It was not without -some opposition that he carried out this work. It was chiefly in the -North and West that difficulty occurred. Before the year was -over he had received the submission of William of Albemarle, who -was nearly independent in Yorkshire. In February of the next year -he expelled Peveril, who had been guilty among other things of poisoning -the great Earl of Chester, from his Earldom of Nottingham. -He followed up his success by compelling the border barons, Roger, -son of Milo, Earl of Hereford, and Hugh Mortimer, a descendant of -the same family as Robert de Belesme, to surrender their fastnesses. -To complete his dominion at home he marched against Malcolm of -Scotland, who was occupying the three Northern counties. These -he compelled him to resign, obliging him to do homage for the county -of Huntingdon, which he claimed as a descendant of the old Earl -Waltheof. Throughout all the earlier part of the reign the Scotch -King appears as a great English baron, following the King to his -wars.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Friendship of -Adrian IV.</div> - -<p>Henry even thus early began to think of curbing the overgrown -power of the Church; and Henry of Winchester, in fear of what -might happen, thought it better to lay aside his episcopal robes and -retire for a time to Clugny, from which, however, he was soon induced -to return. An event, indeed, soon occurred which rendered -the King’s position with the Church peculiarly strong. -In 1154 Nicolas Breakspear ascended the Papal throne, -the only Englishman who ever attained that honour. The connection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -between England and the Papal See, always close since the -Conquest, was drawn even closer, and the Pope made a grant of the -schismatical country Ireland to the English King; a grant the enjoyment -of which Henry postponed till a more convenient season. -Henry’s widely spread dominions kept him constantly moving, and -in 1156 the affairs of his native county summoned him to France. -He left his kingdom in charge of Robert of Leicester, his great -justiciary.</p> - -<p>The difficulty in Anjou arose from the claim raised by his younger -brother Godfrey to that province. This claim rested upon a doubtful -will, by which his father was said to have intended Anjou for -Godfrey if Henry was called to the throne of England. By force of -arms Henry reduced the country; and his brother withdrew on the -receipt of certain payments, being shortly after called by the burghers -of Nantes to become lord of their town. This affair was scarcely -settled when Henry hurried back to England, there to complete his -conquest of the Scotch King, by obliging him to surrender his strong -castles of Bamborough, Newcastle and Carlisle, and again to do -homage for Huntingdon, on which occasion, however, the clause -“Salvis omnibus dignitatibus suis” was introduced into his oath. -This, with the surrender of castles by Hugh Bigod in Norfolk, and -of William, called of Warrenne, son of the late King, and Earl of -Surrey, completed the subjugation of the feudal nobles, and rendered -him absolute master of England.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Master of -England, Henry -attacks Wales.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Rise of Thomas -à Becket.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">He is employed -in foreign -negotiation. -1158.</div> -</div> - -<p>Wales alone gave him further trouble. Thither, in 1157, he led an -army against Owen Gwynneth at the instigation of his -fugitive brother Cadwallader. The expedition was not -successful; on this, as on subsequent occasions, Henry -found it impossible to reduce the Welsh in their mountain strongholds. -It is noteworthy, as affording the first instance of scutage, or money -payment in exchange for personal service, which was in this instance -demanded of knights holding from the clergy; and for the shameful -flight of Henry de Essex, the royal standard-bearer, which gave rise -afterwards to a remarkable judicial duel. In the year 1163 Robert -de Montfort impeached Henry de Essex for cowardice and treachery. -The matter came to the ordeal of battle, and Essex being conquered, -forfeited all his lands, and retired as a monk to the Abbey of Reading. -This, and the confiscation of the property of Peveril, already mentioned, -are the only two instances of confiscation during the reign.</p> - -<p>It was during this prosperous period of the King’s reign that -Thomas à Becket becomes prominent. The son of a citizen of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -London, his talents had been early seen and employed by Archbishop -Theobald. In 1143 he had succeeded in getting -for his patron the legatine authority over England, and -afterwards that Papal bull which prevented the crowning of King -Stephen’s son Eustace. He was richly rewarded by livings in the -Dioceses of Oxford, London, and Lincoln, and, in 1154, with the position -of Archdeacon of Canterbury. The recommendation of the -Primate soon placed him about Henry’s court. He was appointed -chancellor, and as such was the chief clerk of the Curia Regis, kept -the King’s seal, and had the management of vacant ecclesiastical -benefices. He was further intrusted with the guardianship of the -Tower of London, and with the castle of Eye in Berkhampstead, thus -occupying a position partly secular, partly ecclesiastical. In this -situation he exhibited all the splendour of a great noble; kept a -magnificent table, followed the sports of the field, and was a proficient -in knightly exercises. Henry found much pleasure in his -society, and employed him in delicate negotiations. Thus, -in the year 1158, he was sent to arrange a match -between Margaret of France and Henry’s son Henry. -His magnificent embassy dazzled the eyes of the Frenchmen and -was completely successful. The object of the arrangement was to -win the friendship of Louis, and prevent him from interfering with -the King’s plans on Nantes, where he meant to make good his claim -as successor to his brother Godfrey, who had lately died. A meeting -with Louis was effected on the river Epte. Henry accompanied him -back to Paris, and received from him the child princess, whom he intrusted -to the care of Robert of Neuburg, Justiciary of Normandy. -Strong in this new-formed friendship, Henry found no difficulty in -securing Nantes, and thereby a hold upon Brittany.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Nevertheless -there is war -with France. -1159.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Interesting -points in it.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Scotch King -serves him.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Introduction -of scutage.</div> -</div> - -<p>In spite however of his apparent agreement with Louis he soon -found himself at open war with him. Queen Eleanor’s -grandfather, on going to the Crusades, had mortgaged -the county of Toulouse to Raymond of St. Gilles. The -mortgage money had not been repaid, as Raymond of St. Gilles still -held the city. This nobleman had married the French King’s sister -Constance. When therefore Henry raised the claim of his wife, the -French King openly adopted the cause of Raymond.<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Henry determined -to have recourse to arms, and in 1159 raised an -army for the purpose. The war is interesting, not so -much in itself, as in two or three collateral points connected with it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -Thus Malcolm of Scotland came with forty-five ships, and a Welsh -prince likewise joined the army. Again, the presence -of Becket at the head of an unusually well-equipped -body of 700 men is mentioned. He is said to have urged the King -to active measures against the French monarch. But Henry—who -was surprised at finding his lately made friend in arms against him, -and opposing with all his power a claim he had once himself urged, -and who by no means wished to drive matters to extremity—showed -some scruple in attacking his suzerain, and contented himself with -gaining his object by laying waste the country and capturing the -castles. At the same time he contracted an engagement between his -son Richard and Berengaria, the daughter of Count Raymond of -Barcelona, the son-in-law of the King of Aragon,<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> and in fact Governor -of that country. But the most important point -about the war was the introduction of the habit of money -payments in exchange for military service. This measure had been -adopted previously with respect to the Church in the war with -Wales. On the present occasion the sum is said to have amounted -to £180,000.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> There were many advantages in the change. The -King was enabled to hire mercenaries, and dispense with the irregular -services of his feudal followers; he got contributions from the Church -lands, and was enabled to do without the hated tax of the Danegelt, -at the same time that he struck a blow at the military importance of -his feudal barons.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Having reduced -the State to -order, Henry -turns to the -Church.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">General -friendship -of England -and France with -the Pope.</div> -</div> - -<p>Thus far the course of Henry’s reign had been one of unbroken -prosperity. He had settled and increased his dominions -both in England and on the Continent, had on the -whole gained in his opposition to his suzerain the King -of France, and had strengthened himself by prudent -marriages for his children. He was henceforward, except for a very -few years, to be plunged in disputes and difficulties. It has been -mentioned that the Church in England had reached a position of -great pre-eminence during the troubled period of Stephen’s reign.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -The policy of the Norman kings had been always to support the -Church to the utmost, to keep on good terms with Rome, but at the -same time to make good the supremacy of the power of the king in -his own dominions. William the Conqueror, it will be remembered, -had entirely separated the spiritual from the temporal jurisdiction. -Before the arrival of the Normans, all offences not strictly ecclesiastical -had been tried and punished in the County and Hundred -courts, where both bishop and aldermen presided side by side. In -withdrawing the bishop from the secular courts, William had desired -to raise the character of the clergy by confining them more completely -to spiritual matters. But an abuse had easily grown up, which produced -a directly opposite effect. As the pretensions of the Church -rose, not only were spiritual questions to be tried in the spiritual -courts, but spiritual men were also withdrawn from the secular -jurisdiction, and the doctrine became prevalent that the cleric -could be only tried by his ecclesiastical superior.<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Now ecclesiastical -courts could not inflict corporal punishments. Censures, -excommunications, and penances were their weapons. Consequently -clerks might and did commit every sort of crime without -suffering any punishment. To Henry’s love of justice and order -this was most repugnant. But at the same time that he wished to -curtail the license of the clergy, and to establish the superiority of -the royal jurisdiction, he distinctly upheld the policy of his predecessors -in supporting the Roman See. It was a critical time for -that power. The great Frederick Barbarossa was upon -the throne of Germany and attempting to establish with -regard to himself and the Pope on a larger scale what -Henry was anxious to do in England. With a comprehensive view -of the struggle, he had invited the Kings of England and France to -join him in united action for the establishment of the supremacy of -the secular power. His overtures had not been received; and when, -upon the death of Hadrian, in 1159, after a stormy conclave, the -Italian party elected Rolando Bandinelli, under the title of -Alexander III., and the imperial party Cardinal Octavian, as Victor -IV., the two Western kings gave in their adhesion to Alexander. -When expelled from Italy, they received him with extreme honour -at Chateauroux, where they acted as his grooms, leading his horse -between them. He finally found shelter in the French town of -Sens.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Election of -Becket to -Archbishopric. -1161.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Becket upholds -encroachments -of the Church.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry produces -Constitutions of -Clarendon. -1164.</div> -</div> - -<p>In 1161, Theobald the Archbishop died, and it seemed to Henry -that the opportunity had arrived for carrying out his -reforming plans. Without difficulty he secured the -election of his Chancellor, believing that he would serve -him still in that capacity. But such were not the views of Becket. -He found himself in a position where he might not only serve but -rival the King, and he at once became the ambitious and fanatical -ecclesiastic. His manner of life was wholly changed, fasts and -penances took the place of his former gaiety; the ostentation which -he still exhibited was for others and not for himself; he scarcely -touched food while his guests were feasting; and poor saints and -beggars took the place of the courtiers who had formerly thronged -his hall. He did not wait to be attacked, but himself began the -quarrel with the King. He at once insisted on resigning his temporal -offices. He then demanded homage from some barons whom he -declared to be liegemen of the See of Canterbury and not of the King. -He refused in bold outspoken words to pay the usual tax for the -sheriff at a court at Woodstock. But these were only slight -beginnings. A meeting of the clergy was held at Westminster, -and the great subject of ecclesiastical jurisdictions -was raised. A very bad instance had just excited the -King’s attention. A clerk of the name of Philip Brois had committed -a murder and received no punishment. At the assizes of Dunstable, -Simon Fitz-Peter, the King’s Justice, had found him guilty of the -murder, but Becket insisted on his being withdrawn from the secular -jurisdiction, and sentenced him to two years’ loss of his benefice. To -Henry this seemed at once an insult to his authority and a mere -fostering of crime. He determined upon action, and demanded of -the bishops whether they would accept the ancient customs of the -country. Many of the clergy Henry knew he could rely upon, such -for instance as Becket’s old enemy Roger of York, and -Gilbert Foliot, Bishop of London. He did not expect to -meet much opposition anywhere. With much persuasion -Becket certainly accepted the customs. Henry, determined that there -should be no question on this matter, caused these customs to be -drawn up in the form of Constitutions, and presented to a great -council held at Clarendon. There Becket distinctly broke his word -and retracted.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Becket refuses -them.</div> - -<p>Bishops and laymen, knowing the King’s character, besought Becket -not to risk the fortunes of the Church by further opposition. For a -moment he seemed to yield, but the next day, when his final answer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> -was to be given, he again refused to sign them. He stated his -objections fully. His arguments were based principally -on the Canon law of Gratian<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> and the False Decretals. -The Body of Customs, as presented to him, consisted of sixteen clauses. -By these, which did not pretend to be new legislation, but a recapitulation -of the old practices of the country, the line was sharply drawn -between criminal and ecclesiastical cases; the criminal clerk being -amenable to the civil jurisdiction: questions with regard to land -claimed by the clergy were to be referred to a jury: as also cases of crime -where there was no accuser: the King was made the ultimate hearer -of appeals, except by his own special leave: bishops were restrained -from leaving the country without leave, or from excommunicating -the King’s men: elections to bishoprics were to be held in the King’s -chapel, in the presence and with the consent of those whom he should -summon: and the newly-elected officer was to swear fealty to the King.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> -Other minor matters with regard to the position of the Church were -also settled, but it is these chiefly which were to secure the supremacy -of the crown. Becket is said to have particularly objected to any -subordination of clerks to secular jurisdiction; to have held that -one punishment for one offence was enough, and that the Church -should look to; and to have regarded with displeasure any restrictions -laid upon the right of clerical jurisdiction or excommunication.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> -Ultimately, however, he was certainly induced to accept and -to seal them. On retiring from the council he at once began to show -signs of repentance, and got absolution for what he had done from -the Pope.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Lukewarmness -of Alexander -III.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The quarrel -takes a legal -turn.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Comes before -the council.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry presses -him with -charges.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Becket leaves -the court before -judgment is -given.</div> -</div> - -<p>Alexander’s position was peculiar, and, as in the case of Anselm, it -was too important to him in his present difficulties to -retain the friendship of England for him to allow himself -to side very strongly with Becket. Throughout the -quarrel it is the Archbishop who urges the Pope onward, and not the -Pope the Archbishop. Such lukewarmness suited neither party, and -Henry summoned another council for 8th of October at Northampton.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -Two days before the council the Archbishop arrived. He did not -receive the kiss of peace, and it was plain that matters -were coming to extremities. Again the Archbishop -began the attack. He lodged some complaint against a -nobleman, and had justice promised him; but was then in his turn -charged with delaying justice, in the case of an official of the Treasury -called John the Marshall, who demanded a piece of land in his court. -Marshall summoned him before the royal court, and he was now told -that the case would come on before the council on the following day. -On that day therefore the court sat in judgment upon -the Archbishop. He was found guilty. The extreme -penalty, which would have been the seizure of all his moveables, was -remitted, and a heavy fine of £500 substituted. No sooner was this -charge finished than a fresh charge was brought against him, and £300 -demanded of him, which he had borrowed upon the castles of Eye -and Berkhampstead. On the following day a sum of 500 marks, -which he had borrowed for the expedition to Toulouse on the King’s -security, was demanded. Becket declared it was a gift. -He found fresh securities, and retired in dudgeon. He -found his hall deserted by the knights and barons. -Then followed the final blow. As chancellor he had had the administration -of vacant ecclesiastical and baronial benefices; and now he -was ordered to account for a sum of not less than 30,000 marks. -On accepting the bishopric, he had been discharged from all liability -by Prince Henry and Richard de Lucy the Justiciary. The demand -was manifestly an unjust one, and the greater part of the bishops -appealed against it. The temporal nobles refused to allow the -appeal, as it had yet to be proved that the King was a party to the -discharge. Sickness kept the Archbishop confined to his house for some -days. Meanwhile the bishops attempted to make him yield, and -finally for the most part deserted him, and betook themselves to the -court. The Archbishop was determined to meet the charge in all the -magnificence of his office, and went to the council with his cross and -other insignia. The bishops, overawed by this unusual demonstration, -which they regarded as a challenge to the King, went to him, -leaving the accused Archbishop sitting alone with a few friends. -They tried in vain to get the King’s demand lessened, and changed -for the fine usual in Kent, which was only forty shillings. Henry, -in wrath, merely asked whether the Archbishop had made up his mind -to accept the Constitutions. Becket refused to plead upon any charge -except that of John the Marshall, and at length openly declared that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -he placed himself and the Church under the guardianship of the Pope -and of God. The disturbance was great. The King wished the bishops -to declare the sentence. They earnestly entreated not to be called upon -to judge their superior, and finally the duty was left to Robert of -Leicester the Justiciary. But the Archbishop would not let him speak. -“How can you judge me who appeal to a higher power? And do -not thou Earl of Leicester venture to judge thy spiritual father!” -He rose, and, leaning on his cross, swept from the hall. As cries of -“traitor” arose behind him, his old worldly vehemence got the better -of him, and he turned and cried, “Might I but wear weapons, I should -soon know how to clear myself of the charge of treason.” -As he passed on his way through the streets people knelt -and demanded his blessing. A final answer was required -of him the following day, but in the night, in the midst of wild -weather, he secretly left Northampton, and after a difficult flight, on -the 2nd of November contrived to cross to Gravelines.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">He is received -by the Pope. -1165.</div> - -<p>On the very same night, an embassy, consisting of his chief enemies—the -Bishops of York, London, Exeter, Chichester and Worcester, -together with John of Oxford, the King’s chief adviser in this matter,—crossed -to seek the Pope. The Archbishop put himself under the -protection of the King of France at Soissons; and the two parties -carried their case before the Pope at Sens, where John of Salisbury, -Becket’s emissary, had already been winning him friends. The -King’s embassy entreated that legates might be sent to finish the -case in England. But Alexander, although the Peter’s Pence from -England were absolutely necessary to him, refused their request. -Upon receipt of this information, the King drove abroad -all friends and dependants of the Archbishop, who had -succeeded meanwhile in getting a favourable reception -from Alexander. Till 1170 he remained abroad, carrying on his -struggle with the King.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">But Henry -refuses to -oppose -Alexander.</div> - -<p>Of course, during that time Henry could not afford to let his other -business rest. But it is the quarrel with the Archbishop which gives -its complexion to the history of those years. In 1165 the Pope was -enabled to return to Italy, but Frederick of Germany, still refusing to -acknowledge him, at an Assembly at Wurtzburg caused Cardinal -Guido to be elected under the title of Pascal III. in the place of -Octavian, who was just dead. Henry seized the opportunity. He -had already forbidden all intercourse between England and the Pope, -and he now despatched an embassy, headed by John of Oxford and -Richard of Winchester, to attempt to act in consort with Frederick.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -This was in reply to a demand on the part of the Emperor, who had -sent his chancellor, Reginald of Cologne, to ask for two -of Henry’s daughters in marriage, the one for his son, -the other for Henry the Lion of Saxony. The ambassadors -declared that there were fifty bishops ready to accept the anti-pope. -However, matters did not reach this point: Alexander still -temporized. The clergy of England were very averse to deserting the -legitimate Pope, and the old policy of the Norman kings had yet a -strong hold upon Henry.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Meanwhile he -attacks Wales, -and secures -Brittany. -1166.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Becket -excommunicates -his enemies.</div> -</div> - -<p>Meanwhile, leaving the quarrel in abeyance, he again invaded -Wales, again without much success. He was more successful -in the following year in his designs on Brittany. -“He dealt,” says the Chronicler,<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> “with the nobles of the -district of Le Mans according to his pleasure, and the -region of Brittany, and with their castles....” A treaty of marriage -between his son Geoffrey, and Constance, the daughter of Conan of -Brittany and Richmond, having been entered into, this Earl made a -grant to him of the whole of Brittany, with the exception of Guingamp, -which had descended to him from his grandfather. The King -received the homage of all the barons of Brittany at Thouars. -Thence he came to Rennes, and by taking possession of that city, the -capital of Brittany, he became lord of the whole duchy. While thus -triumphing, he received news that Becket, weary of the Pope’s procrastination, -had gone to the Church at Vezelay, and there, after -explaining the Constitutions of Clarendon, had excommunicated -John of Oxford, Richard of Ilchester, and -Richard de Lucy, the King’s Counsellors, and Joscelin of -Balliol, and Ranulph de Broc, who had entered into possession of his -confiscated estates. This step caused considerable anxiety, and the -bishops and abbots of England met and appealed to the Pope, thus -postponing the execution of the excommunication. The Archbishop, -in reply, bid them carry the excommunication at once into effect, and -at the same time excommunicated Godfrey Ridel, the Archdeacon -of Canterbury, for not remitting to him the income of his see. In -anger, the King threatened to expel from England the whole Cistercian -order, as a punishment for allowing the Archbishop to dwell in -their monastery. To avoid this, Becket withdrew to Sens.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Pope -temporizes.</div> - -<p>The appeal however went on, and, to the surprise of every one, the -Pope, who had perhaps been bribed, at length appointed -legates to examine the dispute. In 1167, John of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -Oxford, the King’s ambassador, came home in triumph, declaring that -the excommunications had been removed. Naturally therefore -Becket dreaded the approach of the legates. By means of his -influence with the French many obstacles were thrown in their way, -and as a fresh declaration that his views were unchanged, he excommunicated -Gilbert of London. At length the legates obtained meetings -both with Becket and Henry. In neither instance were they -satisfactory. Becket refused to withdraw the convenient words -“saving our order,” and Henry would hear of no half measures. -However, their temper was on the whole conciliatory, and they -removed the excommunications conditionally. This friendly feeling -on the part of the Pope was still further shown by his suspending the -Archbishop for a time from the exercise of his office. In fact, the -Pope had just been driven from Rome by Barbarossa, and Henry’s -support was indispensable to him. All this made no difference to -Becket, who, on Palm Sunday, repeated his excommunications, and -contrived at length to get them smuggled over into England, where, -with striking effect, Gilbert of London was suddenly suspended in the -midst of the celebration of mass in his own church.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Critical -position -of Henry.</div> - -<p>The political difficulties under which Henry was at this time -struggling may have given fresh courage to the Archbishop, -for, both during 1167 and 1168, there was war -with Louis of France and with his other neighbours. The Count -of Flanders was even threatening a descent on England, while the -Counts of Marche, Angoulême, and Limousin, counting on the succour -of the French, were laying waste Henry’s southern dominions. This -difficulty he left in the hands of his General, Count Patrick of -Salisbury, while he himself was called upon to suppress disturbances -in Brittany. His fortunes were indeed at a very low ebb. In presence -of these difficulties, Henry found it necessary to lower his tone; -a peace with his enemies was patched up at Montmirail. There too -a commission from the Pope awaited him, and he found himself -obliged to consent virtually to the demands of Becket. As however -he refused to give his refractory Archbishop the kiss of peace, which -was regarded as the only sure sign of reconciliation, the quarrel was -not yet terminated. Although the point at issue was a small one, -both parties continued obstinate.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Coronation of -Young Henry. -June 14, 1170.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Finding this -step unpopular, -Henry submits.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Becket ventures -to return to -England.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His death. -Dec. 29, 1170.</div> -</div> - -<p>Henry, determined to show his authority, caused his son Henry to -be crowned in England by the Archbishop of York. -This was a distinct invasion of the rights of the Archbishop -of Canterbury, for the coronation was performed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -in the southern province. It produced so great an outcry, that -Henry felt he had gone too far, especially as he had neglected to have -Henry’s wife, the French princess, crowned with him, which Louis -regarded as a great insult. With this feeling against him, Henry -consented to a meeting at Fretheval, and there yielded -what was required of him, embracing the Archbishop, -raising him from the ground, when he knelt before him, -and holding his stirrup for him to remount. The quarrel seemed -ended, but some slight delays occurred before Becket could return to -England, and more than one warning message was sent to him that -England was no safe place for him. When he demanded a safe conduct -from Henry, it did not promise any true reconciliation that -John of Oxford was sent as his escort. He ventured -however, but found the feeling in England, among the -laity at all events, very strong against him, and was -bidden to withdraw to his city of Canterbury. Although conscious of -the power of his enemies, he continued his obstinate course, excommunicated -the Archbishop of York, De Broc, and other lay holders of -the property of the See, whom he found it difficult to dispossess. -When the King heard of this conduct, the anger which had been -boiling within him, but which circumstances had obliged him to suppress, -broke loose, and he accused his courtiers of caring nothing for -him since they suffered this audacious priest to live. Four knights -took him at his word, hurried across to England, collected followers -among his enemies, and proceeding to Canterbury, demanded the -immediate removal of the excommunication. The monks in terror -hurried the Archbishop to the Cathedral, and wished to shut the doors, -believing him then in safe sanctuary, but he would not allow any -sign of weakness. Headed by the knights, the armed -mob broke in, still demanded the removal of the excommunication, -were still refused, and killed him at the altar.</p> - -<p>The outcry which rose throughout Europe told Henry that he had -lost his cause. He at once declared himself innocent, refused food, -took on him all the outward signs of penitence, and despatched a -mission to exculpate him at the court of the Pope. Though -Alexander was very angry, he was persuaded to send legates for a -formal inquiry. Henry did not await their coming, but as a means -of employment and retirement, proceeded to carry out an intention -he had long had of conquering Ireland.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Henry retires -to the invasion -of Ireland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Condition of -Ireland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Invasion by -Strongbow. -1169.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry himself -invades Ireland. -1171.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Irish Church -adopts Romish -discipline. -1172.</div> -</div> - -<p>His opportunity there indeed had fully come. The country, -divided among petty chieftains, had from time to time been gathered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -under the command of one chief king. When his authority was at -all strong, some little order existed; when he was -weak, wild disorder reigned. The present holder of -that position was Roderic O’Connor of Connaught. -In 1153, Diarmid, or Dermot, King of Leinster, had carried off -the wife of O’Ruark, Prince of Breffni, or Leitrim. When -O’Connor gained the crown of Tara in 1166, he proceeded to punish -the offender who fled to England, and, collecting -round him some Welsh adventurers, returned home. -Still unable to cope with his enemies, he sought Henry in Guienne, -did homage to him, and received leave to collect an army in -England. In 1169, the half-brothers Robert Fitz-Stephen and -Maurice Fitz-Gerald crossed over to Wexford. This advance-guard -was followed by a stronger party of Welshmen under Richard of -Clare, Count of Strigul, surnamed Strongbow, who, deeply in debt, -had lost his possessions in England, and was glad to seek -some elsewhere. He took Waterford, and married Eva, -Dermot’s daughter; while Dublin, which belonged to the -Danes who had settled in Ireland, was captured by Milo of Cogan. In -1171 Dermot died, and Strongbow succeeded to the crown of Leitrim as -his heir. Henry was not pleased with the rapid success of his vassal, -and proceeded to deprive him of his English property. In vain were -ambassadors sent to the King; he refused them admittance. It was -only when the Earl surrendered Waterford, Dublin, and his other -castles, to the King, that Henry secured to him his other conquests. -Matters were in this condition when Henry determined himself to visit -Ireland. After a month spent in preparation, he reached -Waterford with a fleet of 400 ships in October. Here -Strongbow did homage to him for Leinster, and several -Irish princes acknowledged him for their chief. From Roderic -O’Connor he had to be contented with such slight acknowledgment as -the acceptance of his envoys, De Lacey and William Fitz-Aldelm, might -imply. With the Church he was more successful. All the archbishops -and bishops took the oath of fealty. At a synod held at -Cashel the Roman discipline was introduced; and in 1174, -bulls from Rome, authorizing the collection of Peter’s -Pence and the conquest of the country, were received and accepted. -In a wooden palace, built outside the walls of Dublin, Henry -exhibited the splendours of the English crown, and granted out the -conquered lands to his vassals. Hugh de Lacey received the Earldom of -Meath, and was made Viceroy; Fitz-Bernard received Waterford,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -De Courcey and others were instructed to carry on the work of -conquest; and English colonists were placed in Dublin and other -devastated towns. Having made these arrangements, Henry returned -to Normandy, where his presence was much required. But his conquest -was by no means completed; disturbances arose at once upon -his departure; nor was it till 1175 that Roderic was subdued. He then -sent delegates to make his submission to the King at a council held at -Windsor. A treaty was arranged, which acknowledged him as chief -of all the Irish princes, with the exception of Henry and his knights. -He consented to pay a yearly tribute. But except in the conquered -countries, Irish law (the Brehon law as it was termed) held good -throughout Ireland, and English law only within those provinces which -had been thoroughly subdued and were called the English Pale.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Henry’s -reconciliation -with Rome. -1172.</div> - -<p>It was partly to meet the Papal legates that Henry returned from -Ireland. He met them at Avranches, and there swore -that he had nothing to do with the murder of the Archbishop, -and promised adhesion to Pope Alexander in -opposition to the German anti-pope, free intercourse with Rome, the -abrogation of the Constitutions of Clarendon, and personal attendance -at a crusade, either in the East or in Spain, within three years, meanwhile -paying the Templars to undertake this duty for him. Although -this seemed a complete submission, it in fact left the question of the -supremacy of the civil power open.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Great -insurrection -of 1174.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Crisis of the -danger. -1174.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s penance -at Canterbury.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Capture of the -Scotch King at -Alnwick.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s complete -success.</div> -</div> - -<p>All his dominions seemed now at peace, but a great danger was -brewing. His son Henry, since his coronation, had already, at the -instigation of the French King, his father-in-law, demanded the actual -possession of some portion at least of his kingdom, and this combination -caused him well-grounded apprehension. He took the opportunity -of the general peace of his kingdom to negotiate a marriage for -his son John with the daughter of Count Humbolt of Savoy, and promised -to give with him as her dowry Chinon, Loudon, and Mirabeau. -The young king Henry protested against this treaty, and suddenly -disappearing from court, took refuge with Louis VII. at -St. Denis. The old king understood only too well what -this meant. Shortly, there was a universal insurrection throughout -all his dominions. It is not difficult to understand. His domestic -relations were not happy, although he was very fond of his children; -his wife was constantly urging them to disobedience. His dominions -were widespread, and consisted of various races; his hand was heavy -upon the feudal nobility, when the English nobles had not yet forgotten -the charms of the late reign; while the defeat which the King had sustained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -in his quarrel with Becket gave a false impression of his weakness. -The discontent was very general. While Louis recognized the -young Henry as the rightful king, and entered into his quarrel in -company with the Counts of Blois, Boulogne, Flanders, and others, -the nobles of Aquitaine rose in insurrection, the princes Richard and -Geoffrey made common cause with the insurgents, William the -Lion of Scotland was engaged to take part with them, and the great -Earls of the middle and north of England, Leicester, Ferrars of Derby, -Chester, and Bigod, joined in the general alliance. Henry, though -alarmed, did not despair. His policy had led him to trust much to -his auxiliaries, and with these he determined to withstand the feudal -malcontents. Leaving his generals to resist the attack from Flanders -and France, he won a great battle before Dol in Brittany, took the -great Earl of Chester prisoner, and re-established his power in that -province. Meanwhile, Leicester had been besieged by Lucy, his -justiciary in England; the efforts of William the Lion, who demanded -Northumberland and refused homage for Huntingdon, were thwarted -by the brave defence of the border castles; and an invasion of -Flemings from the East, headed by the Earl of Leicester, was defeated -at Farnham, near Bury St. Edmunds. But the existing truce with -France terminated at Easter; the king of that country was able to -enter actively into the war; and Henry’s successes, and the large offers -he made his sons, seemed alike unavailing. Hostilities began again, -and Henry was obliged to take the command in person in his hereditary -provinces, Maine and Anjou, where he was received with -enthusiasm. The troops of his son Richard were conquered; while -in England the King’s natural son, Geoffrey Plantagenet, and Richard -de Lucy, made head against the nobles in the East and a fresh invasion -from Scotland; but were still so pressed, that -messengers were sent in haste to summon Henry across -the Channel. It was indeed a moment of great danger. -Philip of Flanders and his allies, to whom Kent had been promised, -were assembling a fleet at Whitsand; the Scotch invaders had reached -Alnwick. Henry hastened home. But before he proceeded -to active measures, in deference to the popular -feeling, which attributed his difficulties to the Divine anger at Becket’s -death, he made a pilgrimage and did penance at the shrine of the -martyr. Immediately after this while still in anxious -doubt as to the fate of his kingdom, news was brought -him that Ranulf de Glanvill had surprised the Scotch at -Alnwick, and that William the Lion and many of his nobility<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -were prisoners. A few days afterwards the town of Huntingdon -was taken, and Hugh, the Bishop of Durham, who had joined the -insurgents, conquered. By July all the English nobles had returned -to their allegiance, and Prince David had withdrawn the Scotch -troops. The same rapidity which saved England saved -Normandy also. The sudden arrival of the King before -Rouen raised the siege of that place, which had been hard pressed, -and before long a peace between Henry and Louis was made, by -which all the French conquests were restored, and the young King -Henry’s dependants had to abjure the fealty which they had taken -to him. The great insurrection which for a moment had threatened -the existence of Henry’s monarchy was thus over. To his sons -Henry was merciful. To Richard he granted two castles in Poitou, -with half its revenues; to Geoffrey, similar terms in Brittany. They -were required to renew their allegiance. William of Scotland was -forced to content himself with harder terms. He was only released -upon condition of appearing at York in the following year -with all his barons, and swearing fealty to Henry as his suzerain. -He and his brother did homage for Scotland, for Galloway, and -for their English possessions; while the Scotch clergy acknowledged -the supremacy of the Archbishop of York. In the following year -the young Henry left his French patron and reconciled himself completely -with his father.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Small diminution -of Henry’s -power, either -temporal or -ecclesiastical.</div> - -<p>This outbreak may be regarded as a consequence of Henry’s defeat in -his dispute with Becket. The King had shown how little that defeat -had weakened his real power in temporal matters. His -appointments to the vacant bishoprics, which were a -necessary consequence of the termination of that quarrel, -prove how little he had really lost even in -influence. Of the six bishoprics which were filled up, three were -given to avowed partisans of the King. Winchester fell to Richard -of Ilchester; Ely, to Godfrey Ridel, Becket’s great opponent; and -Lincoln to Geoffrey Plantagenet; while, shortly after, the Bishopric -of Norwich was given to John of Oxford, who had been Henry’s chief -agent throughout the Becket difficulty. Such disputes as still existed -in the Church ceased to have political meaning, and assumed the -form of quarrels between the monks and the secular clergy. It was -thus that Richard, the Prior of Dover, a man in the royal interests, -was elected to succeed Becket after a lengthened dispute between the -monks of the Holy Trinity at Canterbury, who claimed the right of -election, and the other bishops of the province. Henry’s influence was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -naturally employed in favour of the episcopal candidate, but he contrived -to confine the dispute within the limits of the ecclesiastical body.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s judicial -and constitutional -changes.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Curia -Regis.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Itinerant -justices.</div> -</div> - -<p>The period which elapsed between the suppression of the great -rebellion and the outbreak of the quarrel between Henry and his -sons is the period of his greatest power. It is at this time that we -find the greatest marks of his activity as a lawgiver. The year 1176 -is marked by the great Assize of Northampton, an expansion -of a similar Assize of Clarendon in the year -1166, the fruit perhaps of his experience in the late rebellion, -and the knowledge gained by his inquiries into the conduct -of the sheriffs in 1170. That inquiry, which was called for by the -complaints of the exactions of the sheriffs, proved to him that their -conduct had not been free from peculation, and led him to believe -that the employment of local nobles as his chief officials was dangerous. -He took the opportunity of making a general examination -of the judicial system of the country, the fruit of which was the concentration -and organization of the Curia Regis, and the -arrangements embodied in the Assize of Northampton. -The King’s court consisted originally, as has been already mentioned, -of all those tenants who held their land direct from the crown -(tenants <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in capite</i>), and was the ordinary feudal court, and the natural -parent of our present Parliament, and especially of the House of -Lords. But for the ordinary despatch of business, whether judicial -or financial, what may be regarded as a permanent committee of this -body of immediate holders was employed. This committee consisted -of the great officers of the household, such as the chancellor, treasurer, -marshal and others, and other selected barons closely connected with -the royal household. The head of this committee, or Curia Regis, -was the great justiciary, the King’s representative. The royal chaplains -or clerks were formed into a body of secretaries, at the head of -which was the chancellor. The Curia Regis at first attended the -King and had a twofold duty; when they sat as judges its members -were called justices, in financial questions they sat in the exchequer<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> -chamber, and were called barons. This administrative system, which -had been organized in Henry I.’s reign, was entirely destroyed by the -wild reign of Stephen. Its reconstitution was the great work of Henry -II. In the earlier part of his reign the visitations were renewed upon -the old system, the itinerant justice being usually either -the great justiciary, chancellor, or some other great -household officer. In the year 1168 four barons of the exchequer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -performed this duty; in 1176 the country was divided into six circuits. -This number was not permanent, several alterations were -made in it. Nor was the number of visitations thoroughly established. -By Magna Charta in John’s reign commissions are promised -four times a year, but shortly afterwards it would seem that the -general journey of the itinerant justices was every seven years, until -the reign of Edward I. It is to be remembered that these visitations -were for all sorts of objects; for hearing civil cases, for inspecting the -working of criminal jurisdiction, and, perhaps before all things, for -arranging the financial matters of the country, and superintending the -sheriffs in all matters connected with the exchequer. The itinerant -justices during their circuits superseded the sheriff’s authority and -presided in his courts. They were also allowed to enter and preside -in the baronial courts. It has been mentioned that these courts were -in most respects complete Hundreds. The two parallel systems, now on -certain occasions presided over by the same official, were thus assimilated -and brought into immediate connection with the central authority. -This administrative organization gave rise to what is of much political -importance, a new class of barons, new men who had risen by their -talents and by the King’s favour, whose interests were therefore on -the side of order and of the crown. At one period, in 1178, Henry -II. appears to have found his new ministers untrustworthy, at all -events in that year he restricted the Curia Regis to five persons, -keeping the highest appellate jurisdiction in the hands of himself and -the old Curia Regis, which may henceforth be regarded as the King’s -<em>ordinary council</em>. The name Curia Regis has thus passed through -three phases; a feudal court, a permanent committee of the feudal -court, and a restricted committee of that committee. In these various -bodies we have the sources of all the judicial bodies in England. -The feudal court, with certain additions, became the Parliament; -without those additions the Great Council, retaining its natural prerogative -of final court of appeal, and represented now by the House -of Lords. The permanent committee, or ordinary council, is represented -by the privy council, still retaining some of its judicial powers. -From its body of clerks, headed by the chancellor, arose the courts of -Chancery. While the limited committee was divided shortly after -the Magna Charta into three courts, the exchequer, the common -pleas, and the king’s bench, at first with the same judges for all, but -by the end of Edward III.’s reign with a separate staff.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of jury.</div> - -<p>Henry’s legal mind, which thus organized the administration, -introduced many improvements In judicial procedure. It is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -this reign that can be traced the origin of trial by jury. This -method was not employed first in criminal cases, but -in carrying out inquiries of various kinds. As soon -as such inquiries came to be made on oath, the beginning of the -jury system had arrived. As early as the great Domesday survey, -the sheriff, barons, freeholders, the priest, the reeve, and six -villeins of each township, had been all examined upon oath. Judicially -this method of inquiry was first applied in civil cases. By -the ordinance of the Grand Assize, a choice was given to any person -whose right to the possession of land was called in question. He -might either if he pleased defend his claims by the old-fashioned -appeal to battle, or he might have his right examined by twelve freeholders -on their oath, selected by four freeholders also on their oath, -nominated by the sheriff. These sworn freeholders were evidently -at first witnesses; twelve others were subsequently added to them, -who, from their neighbourhood or other reasons, might be supposed -to be better acquainted with the facts. This took place in Edward -I.’s reign. The double jury was then separated, the original twelve -playing their part as jurors of the present day, judging of the facts -asserted by the second twelve, who represent the witnesses. In 1166, -by the Assize of Clarendon, the same process was extended to -criminal cases; that is to say, twelve lawful men from each hundred, -and four from each township, were sworn to inquire whether there were -any criminal, or receiver of criminals, in their district, and to present -the same to the itinerant justices or to the sheriffs. These criminals -were then put to the ordeal without further investigation. This was -the origin of the grand jury. The abolition of ordeal rendered some -substitute necessary, and ordinary trial by jury was the consequence.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Scutage.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Assize of arms.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Assize of Northampton in 1176 was, as has been said, a repetition -in stronger terms of the Assize of Clarendon. It is moreover -interesting, as giving a notion of the duties of the itinerant -justices, who on this occasion were six in number. Not only -was the examination of crimes in their hands, but they had to -arrange the law with regard to tenure of land, reliefs of heirs, -dowers of widows, and other such matters, and to exact fealty from -all classes of the commonwealth, and to see to the complete destruction -of private castles, and the secure guardianship of those -of the crown. These latter points were probably rendered necessary -by the Rebellion of 1174. The same feeling of mistrust of his -feudal barons which dictated these precautions was the cause of two -other measures of this reign. The military service of the tenants in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> -chief was changed into a money payment called scutage. This -money enabled the King to hire men for his foreign -wars, and to dispense with the service of his barons; -while, by the Assize of Arms in 1181, the national militia of -England, the old <em>fyrd</em> of the Saxons, to follow which -was one of the duties of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinoda necessitas</i>, was -reorganized, and the arms required of each class in the country -carefully defined.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s -importance -in Europe.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Closing troubles -with his sons -and France.</div> -</div> - -<p>At the same time that Henry was thus organizing his authority in -England, his position in Europe was a great one. Two -of his sons were married or betrothed to daughters of the -King of France. Of his three daughters, the eldest was -the wife of Henry the Lion of Saxony, the rival of Frederick Barbarossa; -the second, Eleanor, was Queen of Castile; the third, -Joanna, though still a child, was taken to Sicily as the bride of -the Norman king of that country, which at this time was the -dominant power of the Mediterranean. His importance indeed was -such that he seemed of all the kings in Europe most firmly seated on -his throne, and was selected on account of his power and character, as -well as for family reasons, as arbitrator between Alphonso of Castile -and his uncle Sancho of Navarre, and as the strongest ally to whom -Henry the Lion could have recourse when he was stripped of his German -possessions. This befell him in consequence of his desertion of -Frederick Barbarossa before his invasion of Lombardy, which terminated -in the great battle of Legnano. But in the midst of his -greatness there were two dangers constantly besetting Henry; on the -one hand was the King of France, on the other were his own children. -Not only did the great power of a feudatory naturally excite the -French King’s jealousy, Henry had pursued a crooked policy with -regard to the marriage of his sons; he had refused to -surrender to Louis the Vexin and Bourges as he had -promised to do upon their marriages. There was thus a -constant opportunity for quarrel. On the other hand, with regard -to his sons, his measures had been still more unfortunate. Anxious -to secure his succession, and conscious probably that his kingdom was -too large to be held by one hand, he had caused his eldest son to be -crowned, thus exciting the envy of his brothers; while, at the same -time, he had given them large duchies, which rendered them nearly -independent of him. In addition to this, his dislike for his wife had -rendered her a constant enemy, while his foolish affection for his -youngest son John gave still further cause of offence. When therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -as was likely to happen, any of his sons determined to oppose -him, they were certain of assistance from France, and of bad advice -from their mother.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">First war; -against young -Henry. -1183.</div> - -<p>It is difficult to arrange the constant brief wars which characterized -the close of his reign, complicated as they are by the rising interests in -the affairs of the East, which were gradually bringing on the third -Crusade. They may perhaps be divided into four; the first extending -to the death of young Henry; the second to the death of Geoffrey of -Brittany; the third from 1184 to a peace negotiated in the interests of -the crusades in 1188; and the last, the quarrel with Richard and John, -which terminated with the King’s death. The first of these broke out -in 1183. Richard had entered with zest into the wild -feudal life of Poitou and Aquitaine, and had been very -successful there. He had even pushed his arms to -Bayonne, in the territories of the Basques, and to the borders of -Navarre. This had aroused the envy of his elder brother. This -young prince, who regarded himself, and was regarded by many, as -the flower of knighthood, was capable of any amount of hypocrisy -and double dealing, and seems to have so far cajoled his father as to -persuade him to demand from his younger brothers homage to the -elder. This Richard positively refused to give. But his arbitrary -rule in Poitou and Aquitaine had made him many enemies, at the -head of whom was the wild intriguing noble, at once warrior and -troubadour, Bertram de Born. With these young Henry allied himself, -and, with the aid of his brother from Brittany, pressed so heavily -upon Richard, that the old king had to come to his assistance. At -this crisis the young king caught a fever and died, forgiven but unvisited -by his father. The King took advantage of his son’s death -to pursue his success, and succeeded in subjugating the refractory -barons, and re-establishing peace. Conscious that the young King -Philip II. of France, who had succeeded to the throne in 1180, and -over whom he had once had much influence, had been mixed in his -son’s rebellion, Henry tried to make peace with him too. Philip met -the request by a demand for the restitution of Gisors and the dower -of his sister Margaret, young Henry’s widow, and it was with much -difficulty that temporary peace was patched up; but it was finally -arranged that part of the dowry should be restored, and Gisors transferred -to Richard on his marriage with the Princess Alice.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Second war; -against Richard. -1184.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Third war. -1187.</div> -</div> - -<p>Constantly unwise in his conduct to his sons, Henry now demanded -from Richard, perhaps as a recompense for his assistance, a part of -Aquitaine, to be given to his favourite son John. This Richard refused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -to give, and consequently both John and Geoffrey of Brittany -attacked him. But though Geoffrey was thus ready -enough to quarrel with his elder brother, it was from -no love of his father that he did so. He, as well as -Richard, was hurt by Henry’s evident partiality for John. He -took the opportunity of putting in his own claim for Anjou. -On Henry’s refusal, he at once fled to France, where he was as -usual well received. His death relieved his father for the time -from his opposition, but sowed the seed of further difficulties; -for on the one hand his province Brittany was at once divided -between the French and English faction, and on the -other King Philip II. raised claims as overlord to the -guardianship of his young son Arthur. There was a growing disinclination -however on all sides to plunge into war; for the Pope -was constantly urging a general peace, and the combination of -Christian princes for the great Eastern Crusade. A succession of -weak princes, and the unnatural and artificial character of the feudal -kingdom of Jerusalem, together with the rise of the new Mahomedan -power of the Saracens under Saladin, had reduced European power in -the East to a very low ebb; and in 1184, Heraclius, the Bishop of -Jerusalem, had found it necessary to come over, to attempt to -persuade the Kings of England and France to embark in a new -crusade. But to Henry, although under a pledge to join such an -expedition, the idea of leaving his European dominions in their -present critical situation was very distasteful, and he consequently -postponed taking action. The feeling however that a crusade was -imminent rendered hostilities more difficult; so that when, in 1187, -the arbitrary behaviour of Richard in Aquitaine had produced fresh -difficulties with France, which as usual terminated in the flight of -Richard and the junction of his interests with those of his father, -the news of the great battle of Hettin, in which the flower of the -Christian army of Jerusalem had been entirely destroyed, and the -arrival of William of Tyre for the purpose of exciting the enthusiasm -of the West, put a sudden end to the hostilities; and, in 1188, the -two kings met in perfect friendship under the old elm in the neighbourhood -of Gisors, which was their usual place of treaty, and joined -with apparent heartiness in taking the Cross. Upon this occasion -Henry imposed upon England the tax, known as the Saladin tax, -which was a tenth on all property, and in the collection of which the -King’s officers were to work hand in hand with the Church.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Last war; with -Richard and -Philip. -1189.</div> - -<p>But nothing could keep the restless Richard in order; before the year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -was over, he was engaged in fresh quarrels with Geoffrey of Lusignan -and Raymond of Toulouse. After mutual demands for -the ransom of some captives, Richard advanced in arms -against Raymond, who applied to his suzerain Philip for -assistance. This open attack on his dominions Philip could not put -up with. At length he declared himself the open enemy of the -English. It was in vain that his great feudatories reminded him that -he was under the crusader’s vow, in vain that a meeting was held at -Gisors. The enmity of the kings was only thereby inflamed, and, in -token of his eternal hostility, Philip had the old elm of reconciliation -hewn down. One would have supposed that Richard, the cause of -the quarrel, would have clung to his father; nor is the reason for his -not doing so very plain. Perhaps it may be traced to his father’s -refusal to give him up Alice, the French King’s sister, for his wife, -wishing it is said to make her his own; perhaps it was continued -jealousy of his brother John. Certainly he did betake himself to the -French court, and with him many others of Henry’s French feudatories -fell away. Henry thus found himself in a difficult situation; -broken in mind and body, his resources strained to the utmost by the -late heavy taxation of England, and his nobles rapidly deserting him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Henry’s -disastrous -peace and death.</div> - -<p>His health appears to have influenced his mind. He remained -inactive at Le Mans, while Philip overran Maine and threatened -to besiege Tours. At length Le Mans, where Henry was with his -son Geoffrey, was taken. The city where he had himself -been born was the particular object of Henry’s love. -He felt its loss as a heavy blow, and though he knew his -weakness, could not bring himself to retreat to Normandy, where his -chief strength lay. With a sudden accession of energy, he reappeared -in Anjou. But his appearance had no effect. One by one the fortresses -of Maine were captured, and Philip constantly approached -Tours. When that town fell, Henry’s spirit was quite broken. He -agreed to an interview with Richard and Philip on the plain of -Colombières, to make his submission. Almost fainting, and held -upon his horse by his attendants, in the midst of a violent thunderstorm, -he met his undutiful son, and brought himself to give him the -kiss of peace, whispering as he did so, however, “May God not let me -die until I have taken me due vengeance on thee.” The terms of his -submission were complete. He promised to give up the Princess -Alice; he allowed his nobility to swear fealty for their lands to his -son Richard; he promised to pay Philip 50,000 marks for the restoration -of his conquests. He had asked, in exchange, for a list of those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -nobles who had joined Richard in rebellion. When he found at the -head of the list the name of his beloved son John, his heart was -broken. “I care no more for myself nor for the world,” he said. A -day or two longer he lingered, and was carried to Chinon, murmuring -at intervals, “Shame, shame, on a conquered king,” and there died, -attended only by his natural son and Chancellor Geoffrey.<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Importance of -the reign.</div> - -<p>It is scarcely possible to place the importance of this reign too high, -or to overvalue the work of Henry II. We find in his -reign the organization of almost all departments of the -government subsequently completed by Edward I. The arrangements -of the Curia Regis and the reforms in judicial procedure have been -already mentioned. The exchequer also was put on a new footing. -It now becomes possible to see with some clearness the sources and -amount of the royal revenue. To the revenues derived from the -domain lands and from the Danegelt, the Norman kings had added -feudal dues. Both the proceeds of the royal domain and of the Danegelt -appear to have been farmed. The farm of the counties amounted -in Henry II.’s reign, after the deductions caused by the grants both -of Stephen and of Henry, to about £8000 a year. The Danegelt, -originally two shillings on every hide, amounted in Henry I.’s reign -to about £2500. As this is about a tenth of what the tax would have -produced had it been fully exacted, it must probably also have been -farmed to the sheriff, who collected what he could of it, and paid a -fixed sum to the exchequer. This unsatisfactory tax came to an end -in Henry II.’s reign, perhaps through the agency of Becket. The -other source of revenue was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Donum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Auxilium</i>, contributions -paid by vassals to assist their lords. The first term applied to the -counties, the second to the towns. These names became the general -names of all irregular imposts, which are also sometimes called hidage, -scutage, or tallage, the tallage being the aid raised from towns, the -scutage the aid raised from knights’ fees, the hidage the aid raised -from tenants in socage. The importance of the scutage as a commutation -for military service has been already dwelt upon. Recourse appears -to have been had to these scutages only three or four times during the -reign. To these sources of revenue are to be added the fees from the -law courts, and the incomes arising from feudal incidents, such as -wardship, marriage, and reliefs. The whole income of the country -was perhaps about £50,000. The taxes seem to have been assessed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>by Barons of the Exchequer, aided by the declaration of the knights -as to their own holdings, by juries in the case of minor tenants. -But it was not only in details of administration that Henry showed -his character. He constantly summoned great councils, and as his -power was so great and centralized that he could certainly have acted -without them, this appears to show a fixed intention on his part to -assume the position of a national and constitutional king. The -general effect of his work at home was to form the nation. Normans -became English. The English no longer felt themselves a conquered -people. Their oppressors, the feudal nobility, were destroyed or kept -in restraint. The new nobles were chiefly ministers of the crown, -and all sections of the people looked to the King as the national -representative. The importance of Henry’s reign abroad was scarcely -less striking. His immense continental dominions made him one of -the great powers of Europe. His close contact with France, and the -difficulties which it produced, began the hereditary policy of opposition -to that country which has characterized the whole of English -history. On the other hand, though he may have had no clear view -of what he was doing, he set on foot also the lasting friendships of -the nation. The marriage of his daughter with the Guelph Duke -brought England into constant friendship with Germany, and caused -Otho, the son of Henry the Lion, to be brought up in England, and to -be regarded as an English prince. The marriage of his other daughter -with Spain set on foot that connection which lasted even beyond the -Reformation. His work as a whole may be summed up in the words -of Professor Stubbs: “He was faithful to the letter of his engagements. -He recovered the demesne rights of the crown, so that his -royal dignity did not depend for maintenance on constant taxation. -He restored the usurped estates; he destroyed the illegal castles, -and the system which they typified; he maintained the royal hold -on the lawful ones, and the equality and uniformity of justice which -their usurpers had subverted; he restored internal peace, and with it -plenty, as the riches of England in the following reign amply testify. -He arranged the administration of justice by enacting good laws and -appointing faithful judges. He restored the currency; he encouraged -commerce, he maintained the privileges of the towns; and, without -encouraging an aggressive spirit, armed his people for self-defence. -He sustained the form, and somewhat of the spirit of national representation. -The clergy had grounds of complaint against him for -very important reasons; but their chief complaints were caused by -their preference for the immunities of their class to the common safeguard -of justice.”</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="RICHARD_I" id="RICHARD_I">RICHARD I.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1189–1199.</span></h2> - - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_115.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_115.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1157 = Berengaria of Navarre. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - William, 1165. | Philip Augustus, | Frederick | Alphonso IX., - | 1180. | Barbarossa, 1155. | 1158. - | | Henry VI., 1191. | - | | Philip, 1198. | - - POPES.--Clement III., 1187. Celestine III., 1191. Innocent III., 1198. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chief-Justices._ | _Chancellors._ - | | - Baldwin, 1185–1190. | Hugh of Durham, and | William Longchamp, - Reginald Fitz-Jocelin, | William Earl of Essex, | 1189. - 1191. | 1189. | Eustace, Bishop of - Hubert Walter, 1193. | William Longchamp, 1190. | Ely, 1197. - | Walter of Rouen, 1191–1194. | - | Hubert Walter, 1194–1198. | - | Geoffrey Fitz-Peter, | - | 1198–1199. | - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Richard seems -to begin well.<br /><br /> -Persecution of -the Jews.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Richard began his reign with some show of penitence. He -got absolution for his disobedience to his father, -and gave his friendship to the existing ministers, with -the exception of the Seneschal of Anjou and Ranulf de Glanvill. -It is possible that the government of this great justiciary had been -over arbitrary, for in England, where his mother acted principally -for him, Richard is said to have freed all those prisoners who were -confined by the orders of his father or the justiciary, but demanded -bail for those who were legally imprisoned. He also seems to have -punished the severity of some of the sheriffs. His coronation pomp -was interrupted by a strange disturbance. The Jews had been ordered -to absent themselves from the ceremony. This strange people had -been admitted to England by the Conqueror; the only capitalists of -the time, their ability and willingness to lend money rendered them -invaluable both to the rising industry of the country and to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -crown; and to their knowledge is due much of the growth in -science which was beginning to be made in this century. So great -was their use, in spite of the heavy usury they demanded, that they -were allowed to establish themselves in various towns, in districts -known as Jewries, to build synagogues, and follow their own customs. -They were not however admitted to full citizenship. The Jewries, -like the forests, were not under the protection of the common law of -the country, but were entirely in the King’s power. In spite of the -evident advantages derived from their presence in England, their -wealth, their foreign manners, their high usury, and their strange -worship rendered them objects at once of contempt and hatred to the -people. Some of them, in spite of the order forbidding their presence, -showed themselves at the ceremony of the consecration. They were -assaulted by the soldiery. This gave a signal to the -the crowd who attacked the detested people in all parts of -the city. Nor was this all; the same feeling spread throughout -England. In some places the Jews gained safety by conversion; but -early in 1190, in Norwich, in Stamford, and in York, many were -put to death. In the last-mentioned place, the Jews sought refuge -in the castle, and being besieged there, determined to die together. -Firing the tower, they first killed their own women and children, -and then sprang with them into the flames.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">All offices put -up for sale.</div> - -<p>In fact, the Crusades brought with them a passion for adventure -and licentiousness, as well as religious enthusiasm. This spirit was -now abroad in England, and the King, with his wild love of adventure -at any price, was its fitting representative. For the sake of adventure, -honesty, good government, and national honour, were sacrificed. Thus -there was scarcely an office which was not openly put up -up for sale; cities bought their charters, judges their seats on -the bench, bishops their sees. Thus too Hugh de Pudsey bought the -Earldom of Northumberland for £1000; and Longchamp, the Bishopric -of Ely for £3000; while the King relinquished all the advantages -his father had won over William the Lion of Scotland for 10,000 -marks; it was for Huntingdon alone that the Northern King did -fealty to Richard.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Starts for the -Crusade, leaving -England to -Longchamp. -1190.</div> - -<p>Having by such unjustifiable means procured money for his purposes, -entirely regardless of the misery he could scarcely -fail to leave behind him, Richard crossed over to France -to join his forces with those of Philip Augustus. Such -precautions as he did take against maladministration -in England were not of the wisest. He put the whole power into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -hands of William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, whom he made at once -Chancellor and Chief Justiciary, securing for him also the authority -of Papal Legate. But Longchamp was a man who could not fail to -have many enemies. Of low extraction, and regarded as merely the -favourite of Richard, he was fond of exhibiting his grandeur in the -most ostentatious manner; moreover, in making him justiciary Richard -supplanted Hugh de Pudsey, to whom the office had already been -given. Pudsey did not surrender without some opposition. He -obtained from the King letters patent, naming him justiciary north -of the Humber; when he exhibited these to Longchamp, the Chancellor -contrived indeed to entrap him to London, and there made him -surrender his claims, but he had made himself a powerful enemy for -life. Richard also, as a second precaution, made his brother John, and -his half-brother Geoffrey, who had got the Archbishopric of York in exchange -for the chancellorship, promise not to enter England during his -absence. But he afterwards unwisely absolved John from his vow. -He thus left behind him in England a possible claimant to the succession, -whose power as a baron was very great, for he was the possessor of -Derbyshire, the inheritance of the Earl of Gloucester, which he had -obtained by marriage, and of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, and Somerset, -which Richard had himself given him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Quarrels with -Philip in Sicily.</div> - -<p>The death of William II. of Sicily, and of the French Queen -Isabella, delayed the Crusade till June 1190. But at the end of that -month, the Kings set out towards their first point, which was Sicily, -Philip by Genoa, Richard by Marseilles. At the same time, a fleet of -more than a hundred sail left the harbours of Brittany and Guienne. -On reaching Sicily the friendship of the two kings was -at first most edifying, but it was not long before various -causes of dispute arose between them. To the inhabitants of the -island the Crusaders seemed a horde of new invaders. The overbearing -character of Richard exasperated the feelings of jealousy thus -aroused. The conciliatory manners of Philip, on the other hand, were -such that he was known as the Lamb, in contradistinction to Richard, -who was called the Lion. The difference of feeling with which they -were regarded was plainly shown when, on the occasion of some quarrel, -the town of Messina was closed against Richard, while Philip was admitted -within its walls. The enemies of the French King suggested -indeed that his mildness was a proof of treasonable lukewarmness -towards his fellow Crusaders. These suspicions were afterwards confirmed. -On the death of William II.,<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Tancred, an illegitimate son of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -William’s brother Roger, had seized the throne, despoiling of her rights -Constance, the daughter of Roger and the wife of Henry VI. of Germany, -and keeping in some sort of confinement Richard’s sister Joanna, the -widow of William the Good, and retaining the dowry secured her -by her husband’s will. The enmity thus excited in Richard’s mind -gave way, after a lengthened dispute, to the natural feeling of friendship -between the two Norman houses. Joanna and her dowry were -given back to Richard; and at one of the meetings between the two -princes, Tancred informed him of a plot on the part of the French to -fall treacherously on the English army. Philip does not seem to -have denied the charge, and it was perhaps the consciousness of his -guilt which prevented him from making any effectual opposition -when Richard repudiated his sister Alice. Contrary to the national -feelings, and on purely political grounds, Richard had been contracted -to this princess by his father. He now, throwing over this unnatural -match, sought for himself a wife from Spain, a country then and for -long afterwards connected by close friendship with England. This -wife was Berengaria, the daughter of Sancho I. of Navarre. Though -unavenged, the insult was felt. From that time onwards Philip and -Richard were enemies.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Conquers -Cyprus. -1191.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Jerusalem -taken by -Saladin. -1187.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Acre besieged. -1189.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Arrival of the -Crusaders.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Richard saves -Acre.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Philip goes -home.</div> -</div> - -<p>At length the armies broke up from Sicily and sailed for Acre. -With the three leading ships of the English fleet were Berengaria and -the King’s sister Joanna. Richard brought up the rear. Two of the -Queen’s vessels were wrecked upon the Isle of Cyprus, and their crew -imprisoned by Isaac, the ruler of that island. This monarch, a -descendant of the Emperor John Comnenus, banished from Byzantium, -had established himself with the title of Emperor in the Isle of -Cyprus. He was an inhuman tyrant, the dread of pilgrims and of -shipwrecked sailors. He tried to entice the two queens to land, -but luckily Richard’s fleet arrived. The Cyprians were driven from -Lymesol, where the King established his court. He -there received Guy of Lusignan, the nominal King -of Jerusalem, completed his marriage with Berengaria, -and made a treaty with Isaac. But when the Emperor sought to -evade his engagements, Richard conquered the rest of the island, and -organized it in the feudal fashion. On the 8th of July he reached -Acre. The arrival of this warlike prince raised the spirit of the -besiegers, who were in a very depressed condition. The siege had -lasted since 1189, having been undertaken by Guy of Lusignan, who -saw the importance of the place, if he was to continue to hold his kingdom. -This was indeed a doubtful question. The Christian fortunes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -had sunk very low. Among the Mahomedans power after power -had arisen with rapid success, and sunk as rapidly under the attacks -of its own slaves or vassals. As the Abbassid Caliphs yielded to the -Seljukian Turks, the Seljukians in their turn yielded to the Atabeks. -The power of this race was brought to its height by Noureddin, who -established his rule at Damascus, and extended it even into Egypt. -Saladin, the son of Ayub, had attended his uncle Shiracouh, when he -destroyed the rule of the Fatimite Caliphs in Egypt, and brought that -province under the power of Noureddin. On Noureddin’s death, -Saladin acquired possession of Egypt, to which he subsequently added -the provinces of Damascus and Aleppo, and raised an empire which -reached from Tripoli in Africa to the Tigris. It was this new warlike -power which had overwhelmed the kingdom of Jerusalem. Baldwin -IV.,<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> King of Jerusalem, became a leper. His sister Sybilla married -Guy of Lusignan, a French prince of weak character, who succeeded to -the throne. His elevation excited the jealousy of Raymond, Count of -Tripoli, the greatest of his vassals. By his treacherous advice, Saladin -attacked Tiberias. To complete his treachery, Raymond persuaded -the Christians to take up a position in a camp destitute of water, -and withdrew with his forces at the moment of attack. -The destruction of the Christians was complete. In a -few months Jerusalem itself was taken, and Tyre and -Tripoli the only places left in Christian hands. Tyre was defended -with success by the bravery of Conrad of Montferrat, who, in consequence -of this success, was regarded as the great champion of the -Christians. He had married a young sister of Sybilla of Lusignan, -and upon the death of Sybilla, holding that the right went to the -living princess, his wife, rather than to Lusignan, the husband of the -dead princess, he demanded the throne. Meanwhile Guy besieged -Acre, thirty miles south of Tyre, and was there surrounded -by an army under the command of Saladin, -and cut off from all assistance except by sea. It was under these -circumstances, in the midst of the disputed succession to the throne, -that the third crusade had begun. Frederick Barbarossa, who had -marched with the Germans by land, perished on the road, and the -Duke of Swabia reached the camp with only five thousand wearied -men. The arrival of the hosts of England and France by sea changed -the aspect of affairs; and the kingdom might have -regained had it not been for the bad feeling which existed -between Richard and Philip, which found new food in the rivalry of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -the two claimants for the crown of Jerusalem. Conrad of Montferrat -at once allied himself with the French monarch; Guy of Lusignan, -whose family in Languedoc were English vassals, attached himself to -Richard. Directed by the enthusiasm of Richard, who, whenever -mere fighting was the question, came prominently -forward, the arms of the besiegers were successful, and -Acre fell. The superiority which Richard acquired in actual warfare -added fresh fuel to Philip’s anger. There were besides certain -circumstances in his own kingdom, where he had lately acquired -Flanders, which seemed to require his presence. He therefore -withdrew from the crusade, leaving the Duke of Burgundy with a -part of his army under Richard’s command. Had -Richard been a general as well as a soldier, he had still -forces enough to have brought this crusade to a successful issue. As -it was, it consisted but of a series of brilliant but useless skirmishes. -Even the great battle of Arsouf, which Richard won in September on -his way to Joppa, brought him no nearer his object.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Richard -quarrels with -Austria.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Truce with -Saladin. -1192.</div> -</div> - -<p>The presence of Philip in France, in close proximity to his own -dominions, made him wish to be at home; and in 1192 he began -negotiations with Saladin. He might even yet have been successful. -In the course of the year he marched within sight of the Holy City. -But his allies insisted that the capture was impossible, -and he withdrew to Ascalon. There all causes for giving -up his enterprise became stronger. The split with France -widened. He quarrelled deeply with the Archduke of Austria, and -with the faction of Conrad of Montferrat, who was also intriguing -with Saladin. News of the disturbances in his own kingdom reached -him. Everything urged him to go home. He summoned a council -to settle the dispute as to the kingdom, was astonished when Conrad -was named, but unwillingly gave his consent. At this very time, -in what appeared to be only too opportune a moment for Richard, -Conrad was murdered, as there seems no reason to doubt, by two -members of the sect of the Assassins sent by the Old Man of the -Mountain;<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> but the crime was soon fastened upon Richard. For -the present, however, he was free to take advantage of the death of -Montferrat. Sure of the incompetence of Lusignan, he gave the -kingdom to Henry of Champagne. To save appearances, he made one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -more rapid advance towards Jerusalem, but halted within sight of the -city, apparently overborne by the argument that an attack on Egypt -would be more profitable. Hearing that Saladin was besieging -Joppa, he hastened to the relief of that town, and there -won his final victory. Both he and Saladin were worn -in health and weary of the strife. A three years’ truce -was arranged between them. By this it was agreed that Ascalon -should be shared with the Turks, while the Christians should possess -from Joppa to Tyre, the Counts of Tripoli and Antioch should be -included in the treaty, and pilgrims have free access to Jerusalem. -He then set off on his homeward voyage.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">John’s behavior -in -England. -1191.</div> - -<p>It was indeed time for the King to return. Richard had left -William of Ely the chief command both in Church and State. An -ambitious upstart, of ostentatious habits, William speedily roused -against himself the bitterest hatred. He had one dangerous enemy -who could give a voice to this unpopularity. This was the King’s -brother John, who wished to secure what he believed -would be the speedy succession to the throne, while -William sought to give a seeming legality to his -position by upholding the claim of young Arthur of Brittany. -Hence arose two great factions in the kingdom. The King, hearing -in Sicily of the misdeeds of his Chancellor, had commissioned -Archbishop Walter of Rouen, and William, the heir of -Strongbow of Pembroke, if necessary, to remove him from the regency; -at all events to join themselves with him and Fitz-Peter in a committee -of government. Archbishop Walter shrank from the task. -The quarrel came to an issue at Lincoln, which Gerard of Camville held -in the interests of John, and which the Chancellor claimed for the -crown. John seized the royal castles of Nottingham and Tickhill, -and the question was brought before a meeting at Winchester, where -a compromise was effected. A second cause of quarrel occurred, when -the Bishop caused Geoffrey, the King’s natural brother, the new Archbishop -of York, who had landed in England contrary to his oath, to be -apprehended in the very church at Dover. The two brothers made -common cause. They demanded satisfaction for Geoffrey, and summoned -a meeting between Reading and Windsor. Meanwhile the -Chancellor suddenly left Windsor, and shut himself up in the Tower -of London, and the meeting reassembled in St. Paul’s. There all -the charges against the Chancellor were produced; Hugh of Durham -produced his old grievances, Geoffrey of York his late injuries. The -Tower was ill provided with food; the Chancellor was obliged to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -appear and to plead; but now at length Richard’s envoys produced -their authority. Longchamp was dismissed from his offices. Walter -of Rouen was put in his place, and the fallen Chancellor took refuge -in France. The Pope received him, and excommunicated his enemies; -but as usual this proceeding, when against the popular feeling, had -but little effect.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Return of Philip -Augustus.</div> - -<p>Meanwhile Philip Augustus had been returning from the Holy -Land. In December 1192 he reached Paris, and early -in the following year demanded from the Seneschal of -Normandy the restoration of his sister Alice, the Castle of Gisors, and -the towns of Aumale and Eu, which he said that Richard had promised -him. On the refusal of this request he began to tamper with -John, begging him to come to him, when Normandy and England -should be assured to him. John was stopped from immediate action -by the influence of Queen Eleanor, but the disorder in the country -was becoming flagrant. Richard’s French vassals in Aquitaine were -with difficulty suppressed.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Need of -Richard’s -return.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His imprisonment -in Germany.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">John and Philip -combine against -him.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was plain that the return of the King alone could save the -kingdom. Yet those English pilgrims who returned -home before Christmas were surprised to find the King -yet absent. He did not come, and the gloomy news -was at length noised abroad that he was in a dungeon in Germany. -He had attempted to return by sea, but afraid to travel through -France, he had made his way up the Adriatic, intending to cross -Germany to the dominions of his friend and relative the Duke of -Saxony. Travelling in disguise, he had been discovered while in the -Duchy of Austria; and the Archduke, whose anger he had roused at -Ascalon, made him his prisoner. He shortly after sold him to Henry -VI., Emperor of Germany. The capture of the King, -whose name was in every one’s mouth, strongly excited -the feelings of Europe, and steps were immediately -taken for his liberation. But to John his imprisonment served only -as a means of aggrandizement. He hurried abroad, did homage to -Philip, purchasing his favour with Gisors, the Vexin, and with Tours, -and pledging himself not to make peace with his brother without -Philip’s permission. He tried to persuade the English justiciaries -that his brother was dead, and secured, with his auxiliaries, -Wallingford and Windsor. Philip, too, basely took -advantage of his rival’s position, used all his -influence to lengthen his imprisonment, broke off -the feudal connection between them, and invaded his dominions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -Richard’s subjects were, however, remarkably true to him. The -justiciaries, assisted by Queen Eleanor, boldly opposed John in England, -and the burghers of Rouen put Philip to a shameful flight.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">England -ransoms him.</div> - -<p>In Germany Richard did homage to Henry for England. The -connection of England with Germany makes it possible that there -may have been some political meaning in this act. Some general -action against France, or against Apulia, may have been thought of. -But it came to nothing. It was afterwards cancelled by Henry himself, -and has been generally regarded as a mere formality. However -formal the act of homage may have been, Richard was certainly -much connected with the German Empire. He mixed authoritatively -in the next imperial election, after the death of Henry VI. in 1198; -and it was chiefly by his influence that Otho, his nephew, a prince of -the Guelphic royal family, and generally regarded as an English -prince, was elected to succeed him. Of more immediate importance -to England than this connection was the sum of money demanded -for the King’s ransom. The form of a trial was gone through at -Spiers. All the charges which had been brought against him in the -East were repeated;—his friendship with Tancred, his victory over -Isaac, the murder of Conrad, his insults to Austria, even his final -treaty with Saladin. He replied frankly and eloquently to these -charges, and it was finally agreed that he should be -liberated on the payment of 100,000 marks of silver, and -50,000 additional as a contribution to the Emperor’s proposed march -against Apulia. He was to be liberated as soon as the first sum was -paid; for the payment of the second hostages were to be left. With -considerable difficulty the money was collected, chiefly from the -estates of the Church; and after some further difficulties, caused by -the intrigues of Philip Augustus, in 1194, on the 13th of March the -King landed at Sandwich.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Destruction of -John’s party.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">War with -France.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Richard’s death -at Chaluz. -1199.</div> -</div> - -<p>His appearance in England at once destroyed the influence of John’s -party. Hubert the Justiciary had been doing his best -to suppress it; such castles as still held out surrendered -at the presence of Richard. His residence in England was short. -He caused himself to be re-crowned, to remove the stain of his captivity, -had recourse to his old nefarious means of gathering money, -and then, weary of idleness, crossed into the more troubled country -of France. With Philip it was impossible that he should have peace. -An almost continuous war between the kings occupied -the rest of the reign. Richard never displayed the -talents of a general, and the war dwindled into an uninteresting series<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -of petty skirmishes. These were usually decided in favour of Richard. -Once, in the year 1196, united action among the enemies of France -seemed to threaten Philip with a heavy blow. Raymond of St. Gilles, -Richard’s old enemy, married his sister, Joanna of Sicily; the Count -of Flanders, the Bretons, and the Count of Champagne joined in the -league; and in the following year, Count Baldwin of Flanders succeeded -in taking Philip prisoner, but he was freed on promising -peace; nor for want of leaders did the alliance get much beyond the -ordinary petty warfare of the time. At length, in 1198, a truce was -patched up by the Papal influence, but before disbanding his troops, -Richard led them to attack the Castle of Chaluz, where the Count of -Limoges was said to be keeping some treasure which the -King claimed. He was there wounded in the shoulder, -as he rode round the walls, and the wound proved fatal. -During his illness the castle was taken, and all the garrison hanged, -with the exception of Bertrand de Gourdon, who had discharged -the fatal arrow. He was reserved for the King’s own judgment. -“What have I done,” asked the King, “that you should take my life?” -“You have killed my father and my two brothers,” answered he, -“and I would willingly bear any torture to see you die.” King -Richard is said, in spite of his merciless temper, to have ordered his -life to be spared. Mercadi, the chief of his mercenaries, was not so -scrupulous; he had him flayed and hanged.</p> - -<p>Although the King himself was but a few months in his own -country, the conduct of affairs in England possesses some interest, as -showing the further advance of the administrative system established -by Henry II. After the King’s return from his captivity, and final -triumph over the machinations of John, the kingdom was left in the -hand of Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury. He had been -trained by Glanvill, and belonged to the class of officials created by -the late King. It was through his activity that, while the ransom -was still being collected, the kingdom was reduced to tranquillity, and -John’s castles captured in the name of the King. On Richard’s withdrawal -to his native dominions, Hubert held the three high offices of -Justiciary, Archbishop, and Papal Legate. The whole government of -the kingdom was virtually in his hands. It was carried on by him -in harmony with the system in which he had been trained; and in -the instructions given to the justices, for a great visitation of the -kingdom in the year 1194, we find the superiority of the central to -the local courts still further increased by an order, that sheriffs should -not act as justices in their own counties. The dangerous power of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -these officers was for the time destroyed, when afterwards by the -Magna Charta they were forbidden to hold the pleas of the crown at -all, that is to say, all business in which the crown was interested -was removed from their jurisdiction to that of the central courts. -The demands of Richard for money were incessant. And on one -occasion, when a large carucage, or tax upon every carucate of land, -was demanded, which was in fact a renewal of the Danegelt in -another shape, a fresh survey of the country, established by sworn -and representative witnesses, and very similar to the Domesday -survey, was ordered. In this system of representative inquiry for -financial purposes is to be found the beginning of the representative -system subsequently employed in Parliament. So heavy were the -taxes, that opposition was finally excited, and Hugh of Lincoln -followed the example of Thomas à Becket, and refused payment from -his Church land. It was apparently in connection with this opposition -that Hubert, in 1198, withdrew from his secular work, and was -succeeded by Geoffrey Fitz-Peter. Politically, the strength of the -crown exhibited in these transactions, the very completeness and -excellence of Henry’s system, tended to change the interests of the -various classes in England. The crown, hitherto the champion of -the people against the feudal barons, began to overstrain its power, -and all classes were gradually forced into opposition to it,—a work -completed by the greater and less glorious tyranny of John, and by -the increased feeling of nationality excited among the barons, when -the loss of Normandy severed them entirely from France.</p> - - <div><a name="GEN_JER" id="GEN_JER"></a></div> -<div class="p2 screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_125.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter pg-brk"> -<img src="images/i_125.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - _Lines of Jerusalem and Sicily._ - - Godfrey de Bouillon, 1st King of Jerusalem; his brother Baldwin I., - 2nd King. - - Baldwin II., cousin of Godfrey, 3rd King. - | - Melisenda = Fulk of Anjou. - | - +--------+------+ - | | - Baldwin III. Almeric. - | - +----------------+----------------+------------+ - | | | - Baldwin IV., Sybilla = Guy of Lusignan. Elizabeth = Conrad of - the leper. Montferrat. - - ======================================================================= - - Tancred of Hauteville, descended from Rollo, Duke of Normandy. - | - +----+------------------------+ - | | - Robert Guiscard, Roger. - conquered Sicily, | - 1090. Roger, 1st King of Sicily, 1130–1154. - | - +----------------------+-------+------------+ - | | | - Roger, died 1148. William I., 1154. Constance = Henry VI., - | | Emperor. - Tancred, 1189. William II., 1166 = Joanna. - -</div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="JOHN" id="JOHN">JOHN.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1199–1216.</span></h2> - - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_126.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_126.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1167 = 1. Hadwisa of Gloucester. - = 2. Isabella de la Marche. - | - +-------+----+----------+-----+-------------------+ - | | | | | - Henry III. | Jane=Alexander Isabella=Frederick Eleanor = 1. William of - | II. II. Pembroke. - Richard. = 2. Simon de - d. 1272. Montfort. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - William, 1165. | Philip Augustus, | Philip, 1198. | Alphonso IX., - Alexander II., 1214. | 1180. | Otho IV., 1209. | 1158. - | | | Henry I., 1214. - - POPE.--Innocent III., 1198. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chief-Justices._ | _Chancellors._ - | | - Hubert Walter, | Geoffrey Fitz-Peter, 1199. | Hubert Walter, 1199. - 1193–1205. | Peter des Roches, 1214. | Walter Grey, 1205. - Stephen Langton, | Hubert de Burgh, 1215. | Peter des Roches, 1213. - 1207–1228. | | Walter Grey, 1214. - | | Richard de Marisco, 1214. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">John secures -the crown.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">King Richard had nominated John as his successor, having -never renewed the recognition of Arthur of Brittany which -he had made in Sicily. The new King at once set about securing his -possession. He succeeded in laying hands upon the -treasury at Chinon and the castles of Normandy. In -Brittany, Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, there were signs of opposition. -The barons put forward the claim of Arthur; Constance, his mother, -took the young prince to the court of Philip, and that king proceeded -in his name to master the towns and fortresses. But the assistance -of his mother Eleanor, who had taken possession of her old -inheritance Poitou and Aquitaine, enabled John to make successful -opposition to the invasion, and on the 25th of April he was crowned -at Rouen, and felt himself strong enough to establish his claims in -England. Thither he had already sent the chief of his brother’s -ministers—Hubert Walter, the Archbishop of Canterbury; Fitz-Peter, -justiciary, and afterwards Earl of Essex; and William Marshall, -Earl of Pembroke. These ministers had already obliged the -nobles to tender their oath of allegiance; and John, on his arrival in -May, was crowned at Westminster, taking the usual oaths to guard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -the Church, to do justice, and to repeal bad laws, but giving no -further charter. The Archbishop is said to have begun the coronation -with the declaration that the throne was elective, an assertion -received with acclamation by those who were present. He is said -afterwards to have declared that he took this step, knowing the King’s -character; he was, however, throughout his life a devoted servant of -the crown.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">His strong -position.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His danger -from France. -1200.</div> -</div> - -<p>John’s position at the beginning of his reign was good. He was -accepted in England; he was strong enough to refuse -the Scottish King’s demands on Northumberland and -Cumberland; the Counts of Flanders and Boulogne made offers of -friendship; and Otho of Germany even pressed him not to make -peace with the French king, promising to come to his assistance. It -was from Philip only that he appeared to have to dread any danger; -for that king’s early friendship for him had now changed to hatred, -as he declared because he had accepted his continental dominions -without asking leave of him, his feudal superior. We have thus early -the key to the policy of Philip Augustus, who was determined -to make use of the letter of the feudal law to -bring his great vassal into subjection and establish royalty -in France. He had a ready weapon in the person of young Arthur, -who had already done homage to him for Maine, Anjou, Touraine, -and Brittany. The efforts of the Church were however constantly -exerted to keep the peace between these rivals; and Philip had a -difficulty on his own hands which induced him to desire peace. He -had married Ingelborga of Denmark, but had almost immediately -separated from her and married Agnes de Méranie. The cause of -the divorced princess was warmly taken up at Rome, and in this -year Innocent III. had laid France under an interdict.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Peace with -Philip, and -marriage treaty.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Marriage with -Isabella de la -Marche.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Homage of -Scotland.</div> -</div> - -<p>Under these circumstances a treaty was patched up. John promised -to young Louis, the heir of France, the hand of -his niece Blanche of Castile, and along with her the -Earldom of Evreux; at the same time pledging himself -not to assist his nephew Otho against the rival Emperor of Germany, -Philip of Swabia. Philip in return secured to England the disputed -province of the Vexin, and for the time dropped the claims of Arthur. -A formal interchange of homage was then made; on the part of -John for his French possessions, on the part of Louis for his newly -acquired earldom, on the part of Arthur for his provinces in France. -John at once began to destroy his good position. A large aid -gathered before his coronation, and another for the purpose of paying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> -a sum of money demanded by the late treaty, had already excited -anger in England. He now proceeded to rouse the displeasure of -some of his chief French nobles. He put away his wife Hadwisa, -the daughter of the Earl of Gloucester, and was beginning to treat -for the hand of a Portuguese princess, when he suddenly -fell in love with Isabella, the daughter of the Count of -Angoulême, and carried her off from her betrothed husband, -the Count de la Marche. Before the storm broke, however, he -was able to oblige the Scotch king, with whom he had been in constant -correspondence, to meet him at Lincoln, and there to do him -homage, and to swear to be his liegeman for life, limb -and land. It must be supposed that this was real personal -homage for the kingdom of Scotland, as William the Lion’s claims -on the Northern counties were still postponed.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Outbreak in -Poitou.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">John’s French -provinces -forfeited. -1202.</div> -</div> - -<p>But the King’s difficulties soon began. Wishing to collect an -army to suppress disturbances in Poitou, he was met by a refusal -from his barons, who assembled at Leicester, and demanded the -establishment of their rights. The disturbances in Poitou -were caused by the insurrection of the Count de la -Marche, full of anger at losing his wife. Deserted by his barons, -John was unable to suppress the insurrection. He had been invited -to Paris, and received with every demonstration of friendship; but -while there the barons of Poitou, following the policy of Philip -Augustus, and it is fair to believe induced by him, lodged formal -complaints with the French king as their suzerain. John was called -upon to plead before the feudal Court of Peers. He refused, averring -that the Duke of Normandy had never transacted business with his -suzerain except personally upon the borders of his own duchy. -Philip seized the opportunity, urged that the Duke of Normandy was -at the same time Count of Poitou, obtained judgment -against John, declared all his fiefs forfeited and again -raised the claims of Arthur. War was the immediate -consequence. The defection of the Count of Boulogne opened the -west of Normandy, and that side of the country was speedily in the -hands of the French.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Death of -Arthur. -1203.</div> - -<p>Arthur himself now appeared in arms, renounced John, and entered -Poitou in alliance with the insurgent barons. He there besieged -Mirabeau, where the old Queen then was lying ill on her return from -a journey into Spain, whither she had gone to fetch the Princess of -Castile, according to the treaty with the French King. The capture -of the castle seemed inevitable, when John, with one of those sudden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -acts of vigour which broke his indolent life, suddenly came upon the -besiegers, and surrounded them, rescued his mother, and took the young -prince captive. The war became still more vehement. The Bretons -claimed the restoration of their prince. Philip moved his army to the -Loire, and town after town was captured, while John lay in sensual enjoyment -at Rouen. The Norman barons, unused to an unwarlike governor, -deserted to Philip, and John was compelled to return to England. -He had hardly reached it when the terrible rumour spread -that the young Prince Arthur had disappeared. His fate -is variously related. The more commonly accepted story -is, that, imprisoned at Falaise, under the care of Hubert de Burgh, he -escaped, by the good will of his custodian, from the designs of John, -who had sent to have his eyes put out. He was thence removed to -Rouen, to the charge of Robert de Vipont, and murdered, perhaps by -his uncle’s own hand, and his body thrown into the Seine.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Loss of -Normandy. -1205.</div> - -<p>However he may have died, his death raised a storm of indignation. -Philip pressed more boldly forward. In March 1204, Chateau Gaillard, -the key of Normandy upon the Seine, was taken. One after the other, -Caen, Bayeux, Coutances, Lisieux, and all the country to Mont -St. Michel, were captured; Rouen alone remained. John was again -summoned before the Peers at Paris. Philip even prepared to invade -England, and to make good there the claims of the Counts of Brabant -and Boulogne, who had married the granddaughters of -King Stephen. In June, Rouen was compelled to capitulate, -and in the following year, Loches and Chinon, -south of the Loire, yielded, and Rochelle, Niort, and Thouars, in -Poitou, were the only towns left in the possession of the English.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Peace with -Philip. -1206.</div> - -<p>Meanwhile John had tried in vain to assemble an effective army in -England. He had raised money and collected troops, but it would -seem that they were disaffected; for at the urgent entreaties -of his faithful servants, Hubert of Canterbury -and William Marshall, they were disbanded. One -futile attempt was indeed made from Rochelle, and John boasted -loudly of his capture of Montauban, but he was none the less compelled -in October of this year to make a two years’ peace with Philip. -The connection between England and Normandy was thus for ever -broken; henceforward the country was thrown upon its own resources, -and its life and interests became more distinctly national.</p> - -<p>Many causes had been at work to separate the interests of the crown -and nation, but before mentioning them it will be necessary to speak of -the second great event of John’s reign, his dispute with Innocent III.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Election of the -Archbishop of -Canterbury.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Election of -Stephen -Langton. -1207.</div> -</div> - -<p>In July 1205, had died Hubert of Canterbury, whose influence as -minister of the crown had been paramount during this -and the preceding reign. The right of election to the -metropolitan See had been constantly disputed between -the monks of the cathedral and the suffragan bishops of the province. -The younger monks thought to steal a march upon their -rivals, and, even before the Archbishop had been buried, had elected -Reginald, the sub-prior. Without waiting for the King’s approval, -which had been invariably required during the reigns of the Norman -kings, they hurried the Archbishop elect abroad, binding him not to -disclose his election till he reached Rome. His vanity got the better -of his wisdom; he boasted of his good fortune. A rumour of what -had been done reached the ears of the King. The elder monks took -fright, betook themselves to John, and received orders from him, in -complete disregard of the claims of the bishops, to elect John de -Grey, Bishop of Norwich, one of his ministers. He was elected, invested -with the temporalities, and messengers stating the fact were at -once sent to Rome. It was now the turn of the bishops to complain. -In point of fact, the last three archbishops had been elected by the -common consent of the bishops and monks, and with the approval of -the crown. The older right was decidedly with the bishops, and -they too despatched messengers to the Papal Court. A claim raised -by three distinct parties, and brought to his court to settle, was -exactly the opportunity Innocent desired. There was much in the -position of England and the English Church which he would have -wished to see changed. The election of bishops and archbishops, -under whatever forms it had been carried on, had been virtually in -the hands of the crown. Many of these appointments had been given -to Churchmen, who had devoted their chief time to the great administrative -system which Henry II. had perfected.<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The mixture of lay -and ecclesiastical elements was very objectionable to the Pope; while -if there was one thing more than another which he was desirous of -suppressing, it was the independence of national churches as represented -by their bishops. Innocent, therefore, now ruled that the -bishops had not the slightest voice in the matter, that the monks -alone had from time immemorial possessed the right of election, -although it had accidentally fallen into abeyance. He thus robbed -both king and bishops of their share in the election, and then declaring -that the election of Reginald in the present instance had been -irregular, bade the monks, a considerable number of whom had come<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -to Rome, proceed at once to the election of his old friend and fellow-student, -Stephen Langton, cardinal priest of St. Chrysagonus. -He so far acknowledged the existence of John -as to write him several letters pressing him to receive -the Archbishop. On the rejection of these overtures, foreseeing that -he was entering on an important struggle, he arranged a peace with -Philip of Swabia, the rival of Otho the Guelph, the Papal candidate -for the throne of Germany, and proceeded to consecrate the new -archbishop with his own hands at Viterbo.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">John’s violence.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Interdict and -flight of bishops. -1208.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Excommunication. -1209.</div> -</div> - -<p>John had already quarrelled with the bishops, because they had -refused, at a council held at St. Albans, to give him a contribution -which he had required, for the assistance of this same Otho, who -was his nephew. The news therefore of the consecration -at Viterbo at once moved him to violence. The monks -of Canterbury were driven from their monastery, and when, in the -following year, an interdict which the Pope had intrusted to the -Bishops of London, Ely and Worcester, was published, his hostility -to the Church became so extreme, that almost all the bishops fled; the -Bishops of Winchester, Durham and Norwich, two of -whom belonged to the ministerial body, being the only prelates -left in England. The interdict was of the severest -form; all services of the Church, with the exception of Baptism and -extreme unction, being forbidden, while the burial of the dead was -allowed only in unconsecrated ground; its effect was however weakened -by the conduct of some of the monastic orders, who claimed exemption -from its operation, and continued their services. The King’s anger -knew no bounds. The clergy were put beyond the protection of the -law; orders were issued to drive them from their benefices, and lawless -acts committed at their expense met with no punishment. While -publishing the interdict, the Pope had threatened still further measures, -and the King, conscious of his unpopularity among the barons, -sought to secure himself from the effects of the threatened excommunication -by seizing their sons as hostages. Nevertheless, though -acting thus violently, John showed the weakness of his character by continued -communication with the Pope, and occasional fitful acts of favour -to the Church; so much so, that, in the following year, Langton prepared -to come over to England, and upon the continued obstinacy of -the King, Innocent, feeling sure of his final victory, did -not shrink from issuing his threatened excommunication. -John had hoped to be able to exclude the knowledge of -this step from the island, as his father Henry had done; but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -rumour of it soon got abroad, and its effect was great. The fidelity -even of the ministers was shaken, and one of them rose from the -council table, asserting that it was unsafe for a beneficed clergyman -any longer to hold intercourse with the excommunicated King.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Attack on the -other insular -nations, -Scotland.</div> - -<p>In a state of nervous excitement, and mistrusting his nobles, the -King himself perpetually moved to and fro in his kingdom, seldom -staying more than a few days in one place. None the less did he -continue his old line of policy. Sums of money were still frequently -demanded, and sent out of the kingdom to support the cause of Otho, -who, having procured the assassination of his rival, was again -making head in Germany. Nor did he refrain from carrying out a -policy which in any other king would have been accepted as national -and good. The loss of the French provinces had thrown -England back upon itself, and the country now seemed -inclined to seek a surer foundation for its power in the -more complete subjection of the immediately surrounding nations. -Thus William the Lion of Scotland was compelled, by the advance of -an English army, to make a treaty which was in fact a complete submission -to England. He was obliged to pay a large sum of money, and -to give up into the hands of John his daughters Margaret and Isabella, -as well as hostages drawn from the noblest families of the country; -while some years later, in 1212, his son Alexander appeared in London, -and was knighted and swore fealty to the King.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Ireland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Wales.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Disaffection of -the Northern -barons.</div> -</div> - -<p>Shortly after this success in the North, John betook himself to -Ireland, where quarrels had arisen between the angry -Irish nobles, and where Hugh de Lacy had suppressed -his rival John de Courcy, and, being enfiefed with the kingdom of -Ulster, had arrogated to himself rights closely touching upon royalty. -John raised supplies from the English towns, and crossed over to -Waterford. He there succeeded in establishing order, and having -introduced the English form of administration, returned to England, -leaving John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich, behind him as his -representative. He then directed his arms towards -Wales. Along the marches of that country there was -constant strife, as the Lords Marchers erected new castles and encroached -upon their neighbours. In 1211 the King marched through -the country, and received at the foot of Snowdon the submission of -Llewellyn, his son-in-law,<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> and other princes. A fresh outbreak, -accompanied by the usual cruel slaughter of the garrisons of the -castles, roused his anger. At Nottingham he had all the Welsh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -hostages he had taken under the late treaty hanged, and was preparing -for further vengeance when news reached him of the -discontent of the Northern barons. He was induced -therefore to direct his arms against them, filled Northumberland -with his foreign mercenaries, and seized fresh hostages -from his suspected nobles.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The King’s -rapacity.</div> - -<p>These wars had but afforded still further opportunities for the -King’s rapacity; from which every class in the kingdom -was now suffering. Those classes even which John -had hitherto somewhat spared now felt the pressure. There was a -universal persecution of the Jews, who were all suddenly apprehended, -and many of them tortured to declare their wealth. He is said to -have extracted 60,000 marks from the race. The clergy too had been -obliged to find him £100,000; the Cistercian monks some £30,000, or -£40,000, and subsequently, in 1212, another £12,000 was wrung from -them, because the chief of the order, acting as Papal Legate, had, during -the Albigensian crusade, injured Raymond, the King’s brother-in-law.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">League with -Northern -princes.</div> - -<p>While he had been thus, even in the pursuit of national objects, -estranging by his tyrannical conduct his own subjects, John had -been carrying on his opposition to the Pope outside the limits of -the kingdom; and events in Europe were rapidly approaching a -crisis. Otho, the Guelphic Emperor, upon the death of his rival, -had so completely succeeded, that in 1209 he had been solemnly -crowned Emperor in Italy. But no sooner had he gained his object -than the inevitable rivalry between Pope and Emperor again arose, -and in a few years he had forfeited the Pontiff’s favour so completely -as to become the object of his greatest hatred; he had even been -excommunicated, while the Pope found a new protegé in the young -Frederick of Sicily, whose anti-papal tendencies were not at that -time suspected. Similarity of circumstances rendered still closer -the bond of union between John and his nephew, and in 1211 -a league of excommunicated leaders was formed, including -all the princes of the North of Europe; Ferrand -of Flanders, the Duke of Brabant, John, and Otho, were -all members of it, and it was chiefly organized by the activity of -Reinald of Dammartin, Count of Boulogne. The chief enemy of -most of these confederates was Philip of France; and John thought -he saw in this league the means of revenge against his old enemy.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">John is deposed -1213.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Surrender of -the crown to -the Pope.</div> -</div> - -<p>To complete the line of demarcation between the two parties, -Innocent, who was greatly moved by the description of -the disorders and persecutions in England, declared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -John’s crown forfeited, and intrusted the carrying out of the sentence -to Philip. In 1213 armies were collected on both sides, Philip was -already on the Channel, and John had assembled a large army on -Barhamdown, not far from Canterbury. But Innocent probably -never intended to proceed to extremities. To embroil two Christian -nations would have been to thwart one of his greatest objects, -which was a new crusade. But he knew his man; he knew the -weakness which was hidden under the violence and ostentatious -passion of John, and he also well knew from his emissaries in -England the widespread disaffection there. While the army was -still lying in its camp, there appeared at Dover Pandulf, -as the Pope’s Legate. He demanded and obtained an -audience with the King, and there explained to him the -gravity of his position. He found means to bring home to his mind -the perfect insecurity of his position at home, while John, from his -own experience, knew both the power and the skill of Philip. The -consciousness of his danger destroyed his boastful obstinacy, and he -made an unconditional submission. The paper which he signed was -drawn up almost in the very words of the demands of Pandulf. He -offered to plead before the Papal Court; he promised peace and a good -reception to Langton, the other bishops, and banished laity; he was to -restore all Church property, and to make restitution for all loss since the -interdict. Having accepted these conditions, the King went further. -On the 15th of May, at Dover, he formally resigned the crowns of -England and Ireland into the hands of Pandulf, and received them -again as the Pope’s feudatory.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">John’s improved -position.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Renewed -difficulties -with Stephen -Langton.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was not without ulterior objects that John took this disgraceful -step. He believed that he saw in it a way out of all his -difficulties, and the means of revenging himself upon -his enemies. He had no intention of allowing his new position to -interfere with his continental alliances, and it was to their success -that he looked to re-establish his power. When Philip of France -was no longer the agent of Papal authority, he believed that it would -be possible for him to resist the storm that was gathering round -him. He expected that one great victory would go far to give him -back his lost French dominions, when the prestige of success, the -friendship of the Church, and the increase of power derived from -his regained dominions, would make him master of the situation in -England. At first all seemed to work as he wished. Pandulf -immediately hurried to France, and forbade Philip to attack the -Pope’s new vassal. The opportune attacks of Ferrand of Flanders<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -diverted the French army towards the dominions of that prince; the -English fleet which was sent to assist the Flemings destroyed the -whole French shipping in the port of Damme; the Archbishop -Langton was received with honour, John threw himself at his feet, -reconciled himself with the Church, issued writs to all the churches -to inquire into the amount of damages to be restored, and ordered a -great council to meet at St. Albans to settle finally the restitution -of the Church property. He then summoned his barons to meet him, -and join him in an attack upon Poitou. But he was mistaken, both -in the character of the Churchman, in whom he hoped to find an -obedient servant of the Papal See, and in the amount of dissatisfaction -among his nobles. The barons of the North refused to follow him, -and the meeting at St. Albans resulted, not in a settlement of -Church difficulties, but in the open declaration of the complaints of -all classes. A few weeks after, Langton, who had seen through the -character of John, and was full of hatred of his tyranny, met an -assembly of malcontents at St. Paul’s in London, and there declaring -that he had found documentary proof of their rights, -produced the coronation charter of Henry I., which -was at once accepted by the barons as the declaration -of the views and demands of their party.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">John hopes to -remove them by -victory in -France. -1214.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Bonvines. -1214.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the meantime, two events had happened disastrous to the royal -cause. Nicholas of Tusculum had arrived as Papal Legate, and the -justiciary Godfrey Fitz-Peter had died. The Legate, ignorant of the -feelings of the English, and eager to support and make real the Papal -authority, had thoroughly adopted the King’s cause. He threatened -the clergy unless they at once accepted the arrangements which the -King offered; and although it was the very thing which had before -excited the anger of the Pope, he proceeded to fill vacant benefices -with the devoted adherents of the royal party. In the place of the -experienced Fitz-Peter, who, however far he might have strained the -administrative power of the crown, had yet exercised a wholesome -restraint on the King, Peter des Roches was raised to the office of -justiciary, and appointed to be the representative of the crown during -John’s absence in France. The people saw themselves, as they thought, -both in spiritual and temporal matters in the hands of the tyrant. -A great success abroad might yet have checked the -growing disaffection. The King led an army to Rochelle. -At first he was successful everywhere. He overran -Poitou, and crossing the Loire captured Anger, but the -Poitevin barons had been too deeply injured by him to be faithful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -friends; their disaffection soon compelled him to retire. But the -great confederation was at work upon all sides. The Count of -Flanders was pressing in upon the North, Otho was advancing from -Germany. In July a junction was made at Valenciennes. Thither -Philip now betook himself; he was followed faithfully by most of -his great nobles, and by the militia of the chartered cities. The -whole success of his policy was at stake. A defeat would ruin the -object of his life—the establishment of the royal power in France. -For Otho too the stake was high; the triumph of the Guelphic -house in its long war against the Hohenstaufen would be the fruit of -victory. For such prizes the battle of Bouvines was fought, -at a small place upon the little river Marque. The fortune -of the day was with the French; in all directions they -were victorious. Both for Otho and John the defeat may be said to -have been final; the Emperor withdrew to his hereditary dominions, -in Brunswick, where, after some not very important fighting, he died -in 1218. John returned, having lost his last hope of re-establishing -his power at home by foreign conquests.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Insurrection in -England on his -return. -1215.</div> - -<p>He returned to England to find himself in a worse position than -ever; for Innocent had found out the errors his legate had committed, -and recalled him; and John had lost another of his most -trusty counsellors by the death of the Bishop of Norwich. Thus left -to his own resources, with his usual folly he took the opportunity of -demanding a heavy scutage from those barons who had not followed -him abroad. The nobles of the North rose. A meeting -was held in November at Bury St. Edmunds, and it -was there determined that they would make their formal -demands upon the King in arms at Christmas time. John was -keeping his Christmas at Worcester; but having no doubt heard of -the action of the barons, hurried to London, where they appeared -before him in arms. He demanded till Easter for consideration. -The time was given him. He used it in an attempt to sow dissension -among his enemies. He granted to the Church the free right of -election, hoping thereby to draw Langton from the confederation. -He took the oaths of the crusader to put himself more immediately -under the guardianship of the Church, and hastily summoned troops -of mercenaries from Poitou.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Meeting at -Brackley.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Capture of -London.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Runnymede.</div> -</div> - -<p>The barons at once reassembled at Brackley. At their head was -Fitz-Walter, an old enemy of the King, and William -Marshall, son of the Earl of Pembroke. Their strength -consisted of the nobles of the North—and they were spoken of as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -Northerners,—but many barons from other parts of England joined -them, and in spite of various compromises offered by the King, they -laid siege to the castle of Northampton. They there received -messages of adherence from the mayor and citizens of -London, into which city they were received in May; -and thus masters of the greater part of England, and of the capital, they -compelled John to receive them and hear their demands -at Runnymede, a meadow by the Thames’ side not far -from Staines. There was signed, on the 15th of June, the paper of -forty-nine articles, which they presented, and which were afterwards -drawn up into the shape of the sixty-three articles of the Great -Charter.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Political -position -of England.</div> - -<p>That Great Charter was the joint work of the insurgent lords, and -of those who still in name remained faithful to the -crown. In many points this rising of the barons bears -the appearance of an ordinary feudal insurrection. Closer examination -proves that it was of a different character. The very success of -Henry II in his great plan of national regeneration had tended to -change the character of English politics. Till his time, the bulk of -the people had regarded the crown on the whole as a defence against -their feudal tyrants. In the pursuit of good government he had -crushed the feudal nobles, and had welded Norman and English into -one nation. In so doing, he had greatly increased the royal power; -for in those early times good government invariably implied a strong -monarchy. In patriotic hands his work might have continued. But -when the increased royal power passed to reckless rulers, such as -Richard and John, it enabled them to play the part of veritable -tyrants. They had used this power in ruthlessly pillaging the people. -The great justiciaries, Hubert and Fitz-Peter, content with keeping -order and retaining constitutional forms, had almost of necessity lent -themselves to this course, while lesser officials had undoubtedly -acted with arbitrary violence. The interests of the King and his -ministers had thus become separated from those of the nation. To -oppose this tyranny, nobles and people could now act in concert. The -struggle was no longer between King and people on one side against the -nobles on the other, but nobles and people had joined against the King. -Besides this political change, a great revolution had taken place -in the character of the nobility itself. The feudal nobles, the friends -of the Conqueror, had for the most part given place to a new nobility, -the sons of the counsellors and ministers of Henry II. In the centre -of England alone did remnants of the old feudal families remain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -The insurrection then, coming from the North, was the work not of -feudal barons but of the new ministerial baronage. Again, the claims -raised, although, inasmuch as the monarchy was still in form a feudal -monarchy, they bear a resemblance to feudal claims, were such as -might have been expected from men trained in the habits of administration. -They were claims for the redress of abuses of constitutional -power, and were based upon a written document. In addition to -this, they were supported by the clergy, who were never and could -never be feudal in their views, and by the towns, whose interests -were always opposed to those of the feudal nobility. There is -another thing to be recollected; the Charter, as ultimately granted, was -not the same as the demands of the barons. A considerable number -of the older barons, of the bishops, and even the Archbishop himself, -remained ostensibly true to the King, and were present at Runnymede -as his followers. We are told that it was the younger nobles -who formed the strength of the reforming party. Nevertheless, with -the exception of the King’s actual ministers, and of those foreigners, -the introduction of whom was one of his gravest errors, the whole of -John’s own following acknowledged the justice of the baronial claims, -sympathized with the demands raised, and joined in putting them -into the best shape. The movement was in fact, even where not in -form, national.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Magna Charta.</div> - -<p>The terms of the Charter were in accordance with this state of -affairs. To the Church were secured its rights and the -freedom of election (1). To the feudal tenants just -arrangements in the matters of wardship, of heirship, widowhood, and -marriage (2-8). Scutage and aids, which John had from the beginning -of his reign taken as a matter of course, were henceforward to be -granted by the great council of the kingdom, except in three cases, -the deliverance of the king from prison, the knighting of his eldest -son, and the marriage of his eldest daughter (12). The same right -was secured by the immediate tenants to their sub-tenants. The -great council was to consist of archbishops, bishops and abbots, -counts and greater barons, summoned severally by writ, and of the -rest of the tenants in chief, summoned by general writ to the sheriff -(14). The lands of sub-tenants, seized by the king for treason or -felony, were to be held by him for a year only, and then to be handed -over to the tenant’s immediate lord (32). Similarly the crown was -no longer to claim wardship in the case of sub-tenants, nor to change -the custom of escheated baronies, nor to fill up vacancies in private -abbeys (43, 46). These are all distinct regulations of feudal relations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -The more general acts of tyranny of the crown were guarded -against, by fixing the Court of Common Pleas at Westminster (17); -by the settlement of land processes by itinerant justices in the counties -where the disputes arose (18); by the limitations of punishments within -reasonable limits (20-22); by the restriction of the powers of constables, -sheriffs, and other royal officers, both in the matter of royal lawsuits -and of purveyance (28-31); by an article (36), which is held to -foreshadow the Habeas Corpus Act, stipulating the immediate -trial of prisoners; and by other articles (38-40), which are held to -foreshadow trial by jury, and which forbid the passing of sentence -except on the verdict of a man’s equals, and witness upon oath. -Other points secured their liberties to the free towns and to -merchants. This Charter was to be guaranteed by the appointment -of a committee of twenty-five nobles, any four of whom might claim -redress for infractions of it, and upon refusal proceed to make war -upon the king.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">John’s attempts -to break loose -from it.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Louis is -summoned. -1216.</div> -</div> - -<p>This Charter, which with its final clause implied absolute submission, -John never intended to keep. No sooner were -his first ebullitions of anger over, than he proceeded to -take steps for destroying it. Messengers were at once -sent to Rome to get it annulled, and to Poitou to collect mercenaries. -Troops came over in crowds, and the barons in alarm ordered -William D’Aubigné to attack the castle of Rochester. He seized it, -but was there besieged, and compelled to surrender to John’s mercenaries. -All the common men of the garrison were hanged. John’s -other message was equally successful. A letter from Innocent -announced that he totally disallowed the Charter, and ordered Langton -to excommunicate the King’s enemies. This he refused to do, -and other excommunications and interdicts were also futile. John’s -temporal weapons were more successful. He overran England with -his mercenaries, burning, slaying and harrying with -vindictive fury, and so superior was he in the field, that -the barons found themselves obliged to summon Louis -of France to their assistance. Louis’ wife was John’s niece, and they -probably intended to use this slender connection to change the -dynasty.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">John’s death.</div> - -<p>His success was not very rapid, though at first he seemed to have the -game in his hands. He wasted his time and lost his opportunity before -the castles of Dover and Windsor. His conduct also in bestowing fiefs -upon his French followers began to excite the jealousy of the English; -and John’s cause was again wearing a more hopeful appearance, when,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -marching from Lincoln, which he had lately conquered, he crossed -the Wash, with all his supplies which he had lately drawn from -Lynn. The rise of the tide destroyed the whole of his train, and -broken by his loss, or perhaps poisoned, or perhaps a -victim to his greediness, he died on the 19th of October -at Newark. In July of the same year he had lost his great protector -Innocent III.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="HENRY_III" id="HENRY_III">HENRY III.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1216–1272.</span></h2> - - -<div class="p2 screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_141.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_141.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1207 = Eleanor of Provence. - | - +-------------------+---+-------------------+ - | | | - Edward I. Edmund, Earl of Lancaster. Margaret = Alexander III. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - Alexander II., | Philip Augustus, | Philip, 1197. | Henry I., 1214. - 1214. | 1180. | Otho IV., 1208. | Ferdinand III., - Alexander III., | Louis VIII., 1223. | Frederick II., | 1217. - 1249. | Louis IX., 1226. | 1218. | Alphonso X., - | Philip III., 1270. | Interregnum, | 1252. - | | 1250. | - - POPES.--Honorius III., 1216. Gregory IX., 1227. Celestine IV., 1241 - (vacancy 1241). Innocent IV., 1243. Alexander IV., 1254. Urban IV., - 1261. Clement IV., 1265 (vacancy 1268). Gregory X., 1271. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chief-Justices._ | _Chancellors._ - | | - Stephen Langton, | Hubert de Burgh, | Richard de Marisco, - 1207–1228. | 1215–1232. | 1214–1226. - Richard le Grand, | Stephen Segrave, | Ralph Neville, - 1229–1231. | 1232–1234. | 1226–1244. - Edmund Rich, | Hugh Bigot, | Walter de Merton, 1261. - 1234–1240. | 1258–1260. | Nicholas de Ely, 1263. - Boniface of Savoy, | Hugh le Despencer, | Thomas Cantilupe, 1265. - 1245–1270. | 1260. | Walter Giffard, 1265. - | Philip Basset, 1261. | Godfrey Giffard, 1267. - | Richard Middleton, - | 1269–1272. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Difficulties at -Henry’s accession.<br /><br /> -Pembroke’s -conciliatory -measures.<br /><br /> -Fair of Lincoln.<br /><br /> -Louis leaves -England.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Immediately upon the death of John, William Marshall, Earl -of Pembroke, and Gualo, the Papal Legate, the leaders of John’s -faithful followers, declared Prince Henry king. It was -a moment of extreme danger. The Scotch had advanced -as far as Carlisle, the Welsh were harassing the Marches, -the East and South of England were in the hands of Louis and the -revolted barons, the court could with difficulty uphold its influence -in the West. But Marshall was a man of tried experience, of trustworthy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -character, and, though a firm adherent of the crown, no friend -to tyranny. The presence of the French prince in England shocked -all national prejudices. Pembroke set on foot a policy -of conciliation, and attempted to unite all parties against -the foreigner. He at once separated the cause of the -young Henry from that of his father by accepting the Charter. He -wrote friendly letters to the leaders of the revolted barons, and found -assistance in the ecclesiastical weapons wielded by Gualo. One by -one the insurgents, feeling themselves sure of constitutional treatment -at the hands of Pembroke, joined the royal party. Pembroke found -himself strong enough to risk a battle. Louis had received reinforcements, -and with the insurgent nobles who still upheld his cause -marched to Lincoln, where, though the town was in his possession, -the castle still held out for the English king. Thither -Pembroke betook himself, determined to bring on a -decisive engagement. Gaining access to the town through the castle, -his troops fell upon the French in the streets, and completely routed -them, capturing nearly all the English leaders. London and its -neighbourhood alone remained to Louis, and when a great French -fleet, under Eustace the Monk, which was bringing him assistance, was -completely defeated by Hubert de Burgh and D’Albiney, Louis felt -that his cause was lost, and consented to treat. The -English, who only wanted to get rid of him, granted -easy terms, including the freedom of most of their prisoners. They -even advanced 10,000 marks towards defraying the heavy fine which -Gualo on the part of the Church demanded as an expiation for -disobedience to the Roman See, and Louis was escorted with all -honour to the sea coast, and retired.</p> - - - -<p>With Louis the great obstacle to the settlement of the country was -gone. Pembroke continued to act in a conciliatory spirit. A pardon -was issued, including all political offenders; peace with Scotland -was secured; and the Charter, together with the charter of the forests, -was again signed. It underwent, however, some changes. The King -was no longer acting under coercion; restrictions which Pembroke -considered inexpedient were therefore removed. His object appears -to have been to reproduce as far as possible the state of things existing -in the reign of Henry II. The destruction of castles erected during -the late reign was therefore ordered, and the clause of the Charter -forbidding the levy of scutage without the consent of the barons -omitted. The reconciliation thus effected was in fact the triumph of -the crown; the offices were filled with adherents of John. But in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -the hands of Pembroke the regained power of the crown would have -been constitutionally employed.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Papal attempt -to govern by -legates.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Pandulf’s -government.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His fall.</div> -</div> - -<p>His death opened the door to a strange attempt on the part of the -Papal See. The influence of Gualo, the Papal Legate, -had been great. It had been so because John’s resignation -of his crown was regarded at Rome as no vain formality, -but as a real cession. But Gualo, a man of somewhat weak -character, was no match for Pembroke, and was unfitted to make good -the authority which Rome was inclined to claim. He was recalled, -and a much more energetic legate appointed in the person of Pandulf, -now Bishop elect of Norwich. His appointment represents -an effort on the part of Rome to govern England as a conquered province -by means of its legates. The natural governor of England during -the minority of the sovereign was the great justiciary Hubert de Burgh. -But Pandulf assumed authority over him, and his letters amply -prove how overbearingly he used it. His government was -at first successful. The dangers of a French invasion were -averted by a renewal for four years of the Peace of Chinon. The -friendship of Scotland was secured by the marriage of Henry’s sister -Jane with the Scotch king. A splendid coronation, and an ostentatious -ceremonial at the removal of Becket’s bones to the Cathedral of -Canterbury, seemed to show the restored grandeur both of King and -Church; while a Bull from Pope Honorius commanded the restoration -of the royal castles, which the poverty of the King had, in many -instances, obliged him to pledge to their governors. But Pandulf’s -conduct was too overbearing to be endured. Langton, as the head -of the English Church, and therefore no friend to the immediate -government of Rome, tried to curb him by demanding -his obedience as one of his suffragan bishops. The Pope -declared him free from this obedience so long as his consecration to -the See of Norwich was uncompleted. Langton finally betook himself -to Rome, and there, by what means we know not, succeeded in obtaining -an order for his recall, accompanied by a promise that no resident -legate should be appointed in England during his own lifetime.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Triumph of -national part -under Herbert -de Burgh.</div> - -<p>Hubert de Burgh at once took his proper position as regent, -supported by the national Church; and the attempt at -immediate rule from Rome may be said to have failed, -though throughout the reign England was regarded as in -a special manner a fief of the Papal See, and, as Pope Innocent IV. -said afterwards, “a well of wealth from which Rome might draw unlimitedly.” -For eight years Hubert ruled England well. He was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -unduly grasping of money, he was occasionally arbitrary, but on -the whole his government was directed to the honest support of the -Great Charter, and the destruction of that foreign influence under -which England was suffering.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Parties in -England.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Opposition -barons at -Leicester. -1223.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Resumption of -royal castles.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Destruction of -Faukes de -Breauté. -1224.</div> -</div> - -<p>The centre of this influence was Peter des Roches, who had the care -of the King’s person. These two ministers, Hubert and -Peter, were the representatives of the different sides of that -quarrel which gives its tone to the whole reign. The characteristic feature -of the period is the growth of national feeling. This feeling had -been outraged by John by the introduction of foreign favourites. The -claims of the Pope on England, the tyranny which he exercised on the -national Church, and the constant bestowal of English livings upon -foreigners, had a similar effect in shocking the feelings of the clergy. -Thus while the Pope and King appear throughout the reign as the -favourers of foreigners, the national party both in State and Church were -closely connected. As yet, indeed, the King was too young for such a -part; the representative of the foreign party was Des Roches. Round -him gathered themselves all classes of malcontents, consisting chiefly -of those foreign mercenaries whom John had raised to power, and who -were occupying the royal castles, of Llewellyn of Wales in close connection -with them, and of the nobles of Ireland. Des Roches’ influence -at Rome secured for this party on most points the support of -the Pope. For two years they were constantly thwarting the government -of De Burgh. The necessities of the government had obliged -him to be severe in the collection of money; but there was some -slight colouring for the charge of undue severity which was laid -against him. An uproar in London, headed by Constantine Fitz-Alulf, -an old partisan of the French invaders, had been followed by -the summary execution of that demagogue. Attacks both in Wales -and in Ireland upon the property of William Marshall, who was -thoroughly English in his views, were the first signs of the coming -storm. A Bull which De Burgh obtained from Honorius declaring -the King of age, and demanding the restitution of the castles, -brought matters to a crisis. Under this provocation the barons and -Peter des Roches proceeded to action. An attack on London was -planned, but failed. But the discontented nobles openly -appeared before the King; and Peter des Roches formally -charged Hubert with treason, and demanded his -dismissal. Led by the Earl of Chester, they retired, and kept Christmas -with great pomp at Leicester. The Justiciary and the King -determined to hold a rival meeting at Northampton. The royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -appeal for help was warmly answered. The force collected at Northampton -was too strong for the malcontents. Excommunication -issued against them by Stephen Langton -completed their discomfiture. They separated and obtained peace -as a price of the surrender of the castles. There was one exception, -Faukes de Breauté, who contrived to retain his strongholds. This -man, a mercenary of John, had risen to be the sheriff of six counties, -the governor of several castles, and a Baron of the Exchequer. -Hubert determined to complete his victory by -destroying him. His opportunity occurred, when Faukes’ -brother William laid hands on the travelling justice Henry Braibroc -and imprisoned him at Bedford. With extreme rapidity De Burgh -marched against him and captured Bedford. Faukes fled to join his -former comrades; but it was in vain that both Chester and Peter des -Roches, now at one with the Justiciary, petitioned in his favour, -De Burgh remained unmoved, and De Breauté was stripped of all -his offices, and condemned to perpetual exile. He betook himself -to Rome, where he managed to obtain the ear of the Court, and -still further increased the difficulties of the English government.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Danger from -France. Death -of Phillip.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">English neglect -the opportunity.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Poitou remains -French.</div> -</div> - -<p>Although he had thus worsted his domestic enemies the Justiciary -was surrounded with difficulties. Philip Augustus had -died in 1223, and had been succeeded by his son Louis -VIII., the old enemy of England. He had begun his -reign with a threat of renewed war, to which the disturbed state of -Poitou and Guienne afforded a constant opportunity. In those -countries there was a succession of unceasing disputes between town -and town and noble and noble; the country roughly forming itself -into two parties, the towns and the nobles. In 1224, war had in fact -broken out. Henry had sought the friendship of the German -Emperor Frederick against France, and connected himself with Peter -Duke of Brittany, and when Louis appeared at the head of a great -army, nominally for a war against the Albigenses, it seemed probable -that its real aim was the English provinces. Louis’ unexpected -death changed the state of affairs. The new king was a child in the -hands of his mother Blanche, and the French nobles took -the opportunity to loosen the connection between themselves -and the crown which Philip II. had established, and thus -destroyed for the present the possibility of united national action. -But although, on the first slackening of authority, all Poitou passed -into the English hands, the chance of forming a united opposition -among the discontented French nobles was allowed to pass unused.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -One by one even the old allies of the English returned to their -allegiance to France. At length, Richard, the King’s -brother, who had the title of Count of Poitou, and -had commanded his army, joined in the general pacification.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Hubert’s -continued power.</div> - -<p>It was the financial difficulties of the government which had chiefly -prevented the success of this war. The opposition to Hubert de -Burgh was constant, and it had only been upon condition of again -signing the Charter that the King had been able to raise -a fifteenth for the French war. This tax was probably -the first raised in strict accordance with the terms of the Charter. De -Burgh was honestly desirous, in opposition to the arbitrary views of -his rival Des Roches, that the King should rule constitutionally, and -both by proclamation and by official letters he took care to spread a -knowledge of the Charter in the country. Although Henry was -declared of age in 1227, when he was twenty, the government of De -Burgh practically continued. He was made Earl of Kent, and -declared Justiciary for life; and his victory was completed by the -absence of Peter des Roches, who thought it better to withdraw for a -time to the Crusades. His rule was not very popular among the -nobles: not only was he naturally disliked by the chiefs of the -adverse party, he even quarrelled with Richard, the King’s brother, -and with William Marshall. Such an act indeed as the following -could scarcely have failed to make him enemies. An inquisition was -issued to examine into the title deeds<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> of all tenants in chief, who -were obliged to make good their titles by large payments. The sum -derived from this inquiry amounted to £100,000.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Langton supports -his policy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Change of -Popes: increased -exactions.</div> -</div> - -<p>The support which the Justiciary invariably received from Langton -bears witness to the national character of his government. -The Archbishop’s efforts to free the Church from -its foreign slavery were perhaps even more laborious than those of -the Justiciary. Already the system which reached such excesses -afterwards had been established. Gualo and Pandulf had been but -single instances of a number of Roman officials who had grown rich -on gifts of English benefices; and now the Roman Court determined, -under the pretext of raising money for the Crusade, to demand both -in France and England two benefices in each diocese and each abbey -for the exclusive use of Rome. In neither country was the demand -allowed. Otho, a Papal legate, held a council in 1226 at Westminster, -and brought forward the demand. The clergy would probably -have had to yield, had not the Archbishop, by private negotiations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -with the Pope, succeeded in getting the Legate’s commission -withdrawn. The clergy then expressly declared that by the laws of -England they were free from such exactions. That England was -allowed thus to escape, and that the exactions were comparatively so -light in these first years of the reign, is due to the character of -Honorius and to the interest which he always took in the young -King, whom he regarded as his special vassal and ward. The case -was different when he was succeeded by Gregory IX., -the nephew of Innocent III., and the heir to his imperious -temper. It was fortunate that his constant war -with the German Emperor prevented him from meddling much -with English politics.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Death of -Langton. -1228.</div> - -<p>But this period, during which England was governed by such -patriotic leaders as De Burgh and Langton, working in harmony with -one another, was coming to a close. In 1228, the Archbishop -died, and was succeeded, after a disputed election, -by Richard Chancellor of Lincoln, who was authoritatively -nominated by the Pope. The new Archbishop did not live long, -and was in his turn succeeded, also on the nomination of the Pope, by -Edmund Rich, a man of great sanctity and singleness of purpose. In -the following year, a quarrel occurred between the King and the -Justiciary, which was probably the beginning of that nobleman’s fall.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Quarrel of -Henry and -De Burgh.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s false -foreign policy.</div> -</div> - -<p>Henry, now that he was of age, had become anxious to distinguish -himself by regaining some of his continental dominions. -To this he was pressed by the discontented French -nobles, more especially by the Count of Toulouse, -who was suffering from the Albigensian crusades, by the Counts -of Brittany and of the provinces in the north-east of France. -In other words, he was thinking of throwing England back -into that position of entanglement and dependence -which had hitherto prevented the formation of the -national spirit. This was exactly opposed to the Justiciary’s views. -He was unable to change the King’s mind; but when Henry -arrived at Portsmouth, where his army was assembled, he found the -ships insufficient for its transport. Full of rage, he turned upon -Hubert, abusing him as a grey-haired traitor, and affirming that he -was bribed by France. The expedition had to be postponed, which -was fortunate, as the scutage which had been demanded from the -Barons and the Church had indeed been granted, but not yet collected. -It was not till the end of April 1230 that the armies sailed. Although -the expedition was unwise in itself, it was well timed. With the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -exception of the Count of Champagne, nearly all the French Barons -were in arms, or ready to rise, against the Queen Regent Blanche; -but Henry was incapable of seizing the opportunity. He tried diplomacy -instead of war, but it was in vain that he persuaded many of -the Barons of Poitou to join him; Blanche found means to break up -the confederation against her. This change in the aspect of affairs -compelled Henry to make a truce, and before the end of the year -he returned home, leaving a small army behind him.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Return of -Des Roches.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Twenge’s riots.</div> -</div> - -<p>Under pretext of continuing the war, a new scutage was demanded -and granted, not without opposition from the clergy; but finally a -peace for three years was concluded in July 1231, which was again -renewed for five years in 1235. We may suppose, although Henry -declared that he was on perfectly good terms with the Justiciary, that -their great difference on foreign policy made his suspicious mind -inclined to listen willingly to the insinuations of Des -Roches, his evil genius, who in this year returned from -the Crusade. Every difficulty of the Justiciary was artfully taken -advantage of. Among other things laid to his charge was the insecure -state of the Welsh borders. He was even represented as fostering a -strange lawless opposition to the encroachment of Rome, which had -been showing itself in the kingdom. A secret society, part lay, part -clerical, had been formed to check the habit of granting English -livings to foreign priests, thus not only destroying the funds of the -English clergy, but overriding the rights of private patronage. The -society wrote letters to all ecclesiastical bodies, threatening them -with vengeance if they paid the incomes of the foreign interlopers. -The associates did not confine themselves to threats; -several foreign priests were robbed and outraged. The -head of the conspiracy, Sir Robert Twenge, boldly justified his -conduct to the King, and was allowed to depart unharmed, and carry -his complaints direct to Rome. The rioters were said to have shown -in their justification letters from the Justiciary.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Fall of -De Burgh.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Effects of -taking sanctuary.</div> -</div> - -<p>It is scarcely possible that this could have been true; but, together -with the disturbances on the Welsh Marches, it formed -the chief among a series of very trivial charges which -were brought against Hubert, and produced his fall. On the 29th of -July 1232, he was suddenly suspended from all his offices. His place -was taken by Stephen de Segrave, a close ally of Des Roches. Peter -de Rivaux, probably the Bishop’s son, was made treasurer, and other -favourites of the Bishop were raised to office. Hubert, aware of the -strength of his enemies, took refuge in the Priory of Merton in Surrey.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -He was granted a few weeks to prepare his defence, and to get ready -accounts which were demanded of all the money that had ever passed -through his hands. Supposing that he was thus at liberty for the -present, he went to Bury St. Edmunds to join his wife, but on his -journey thither, at Brentwood, he was, by order of the Court, assaulted, -and fled for refuge to the sanctuary of a neighbouring chapel. He -was torn from his refuge, and hurried to London. The favour he -had gained in the eyes of the people and his whole political aim are -well shown in the words that are reported to have been used by a -smith when ordered to put irons on him: “Is not this that true and -noble Hubert who has so often snatched England from the devastating -hand of the foreigners, and made England, England?” The -Church obliged Henry to restore him to his sanctuary, and the love -with which he was regarded was shown by the touching offer of his -own chaplain, Luke, Bishop of Dublin, to give himself up in his -place. The effect of taking sanctuary was, that the -fugitive was bound to swear before the coroner that he -would leave England for ever. This exile he was bound to seek -within forty days, leaving the coast within a tide after his arrival -there, or, if the wind made that impossible, walking daily into the -sea to show his willingness to do so. Hubert could not bring himself -to abjure England; he would not therefore leave his sanctuary, and -being surrounded by his enemies, was starved into submission. He -was treated mercifully; his Crown fiefs were taken from him, his -own property he retained, but he was kept in confinement in the -Castle of Devizes.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Revolution -under Des -Roches. -1233.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Earl of Pembroke -upholds -Hubert.</div> -</div> - -<p>Once in command of the government, Peter des Roches pushed -headlong to the attainment of his objects. The friends of -De Burgh were swept from the Court. The offices were -filled with foreigners. Henry was persuaded to bring over -2000 troops from France. But Hubert was not the only Englishman -among the nobility. Richard Marshall of Pembroke, the second son -of the great Regent, and now his representative, raised the voice of -patriotism, and declared to the King that as long as foreigners were -ruling none of his English counsellors would appear at Court. Des -Roches answered insolently that the King and his foreigners would -soon bring rebels to reason. At assemblies at Oxford -and at Westminster the same sort of language was used. -By Peter’s advice, the King began to proceed against his -discontented subjects. He deprived Gilbert Basset of his property, -and ordered the apprehension of his brother-in-law Siward; they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -fled to the Earl Marshall, their property fell to Rivaux. In August, -a day was appointed for the delivery of hostages by the suspected -nobles. Pembroke, the Marshall, hearing that there was a plot -against his life, retired to his Welsh possessions. The King summoned -troops to meet him at Gloucester. The Marshall and his friends were -outlawed without trial; fresh foreign troops came thronging over, -and civil war began. The King’s army did not fare well, and the -clergy began to take up the cause of the Marshall. They protested -against the confiscation of a peer’s property without trial. “There -are no peers in England,” said Des Roches, “as in France; the King -may sentence whom he will, and drive them from the country.” The -clergy could not hear such absolute principles unmoved. They -threatened Des Roches and his favourites with excommunication; -and when the King demanded their censure upon the Marshall for -an attack upon Gloucester, they said the city was his, and they found -no grounds for censure.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edmund of -Canterbury -causes Des -Roches’ fall. -1234.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry becomes -his own -minister.</div> -</div> - -<p>Meanwhile, afraid for his life, De Burgh had escaped from Devizes -and again taken sanctuary. Again he was illegally torn from it, -again the Church remonstrated, and he was again restored. A sudden -inroad into Wiltshire under the Marshall’s friend Siward set him at -liberty, and he immediately joined the Marshall at Strigul. Again -and again the royal troops were worsted; and at length, -in 1234, at a meeting of the clergy at Westminster, Archbishop -Edmund took the matter up, explained to the -King the wretched effects of trusting to his foreign -counsellors, warned him that excommunication would most likely -fall upon him too, and induced him at length to order the Bishop of -Winchester to retire and attend to his spiritual work in his diocese. -For a month longer the war went on, or rather attacks continued to -be made upon the followers of Peter. But in May, news arrived that -Richard Marshall had been treacherously killed in Ireland at the -instigation of Des Roches. This was more than the King himself -could bear, and the Archbishop received orders to restore to favour -all those whom Des Roches had outlawed. Gilbert Marshall received -the property and office of his late brother, and Hubert was allowed -to retain the earldom of Kent and his own property. This change -was followed by the removal of Peter’s creatures. After some years -of absence, he himself returned to England, was received into favour, -and died in his diocese in 1239.</p> - -<p>The fall of Des Roches was not productive of such advantageous -changes in the government as might have been expected. Segrave<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -held for a few years the office of Justiciary. On his death the office -was not renewed till after the Parliament at Oxford. Ralph Neville -continued in more or less favour as Chancellor till 1244, -when that office also fell into abeyance. The King -practically became his own minister, and unfortunately -his views of government had more in common with those of Des -Roches than with those of De Burgh. It is true that the growing -power of the Great Council, which was gradually gaining the name of -Parliament, prevented any great infractions of the Charter, and compelled -the King again and again to renew that document, though -always in exchange for an aid. The frequency of renewal, however, -seems to show repeated efforts on the part of the King to free himself -from it; nor was the state of his treasury such as to enable him to do -without legitimate sources of revenue. The real faults of his reign -were not illegal extensions of the royal power, but the readiness with -which he allowed and even joined in the exactions of the Papal See, -and the total absence of national objects which distinguish his rule, -which may be traced to his culpable partiality to foreigners. From -the year 1236 till the Parliament of Oxford, these errors were continually -on the increase.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s -marriage.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Influence of the -Queen’s uncles.</div> -</div> - -<p>The first great influx of foreigners was caused by his marriage. In -1236, he married Eleanor, the second daughter of Count -Raymond Berenger of Provence, and sister of the Queen -of France. From that moment, the Court was in the hands of the -Queen’s relatives. It was especially the Queen’s uncles -into whose hands patronage fell. William, Bishop of -Valence, was the first. To him was given the vast property of -Richmond in Yorkshire, which had previously belonged to the Counts -of Brittany, and the King had almost succeeded in securing for him -the Bishopric of Winchester when news of his death was brought. -He was succeeded by another uncle, Peter of Savoy. Richmond was -handed on to him; Pevensey and Hastings were intrusted to him, -and the wardship of the Earl of Warrenne, which completed his -power in the south-east corner of England. To increase his influence, -he brought over numbers of young foreign ladies, and married them -to some of the great Earls of England. The death of Edmund Rich, -Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1240, allowed the King to secure that -See, after an interval of five years, for another of his uncles, Boniface, -whose violence and warlike bearing, as well as his youth, made him -a strange contrast to his predecessor. Peter de Aigue Blanche, -another Savoyard, was made Bishop of Hereford, and afterwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -became Henry’s disreputable agent in the business of the Sicilian -monarchy. This lavish support of foreigners naturally caused great -discontent in England, and was repeatedly the subject of complaints -in the Great Council. Thus, in 1236 and 1237, there were three -stormy councils, nor was the money the King required granted till -the sanctions of the Magna Charta were again renewed. The arrival -of the Cardinal Otho as Papal Legate did not mend matters; his -efforts at reconciliation were useless, and he soon tuned his attention -to collecting money for the Church. At this time, for a very short -period, it seemed as if Richard Earl of Cornwall, the King’s brother, -might have assumed the post of leader of the English party; but his -patriotic efforts were short-lived. A few years after he married the -Queen’s sister, and threw his influence upon the side of the foreigners.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Formation of a -national party -under Simon -de Montfort.</div> - -<p>A far greater man took the post he thus resigned. Simon de -Montfort, destined to be the real national leader of -England, was rising into importance. The sister and -heiress of Count Robert of Leicester had married the -Count of Montfort, and died in 1204. In 1215, the whole English -property had been given to Ralph Earl of Chester. Simon de -Montfort, the Conqueror of the Albigenses, never possessed it, -but his eldest son Almaric, after the death of the Earl of Chester, -in 1232, demanded the property and honours of Leicester for -his younger brother Simon, who was thus acknowledged as the -owner of the property. He held the bason of water as High-Steward -at the Queen’s coronation, shortly after married the King’s sister, the -widow of William, second Earl of Pembroke, and succeeded in getting -that marriage acknowledged by Gregory IX. in 1238. Like all those -who had to do with Henry, he was obliged to bear extraordinary -changes of fortune from the fickle character of the King. An angry -quarrel drove him abroad, and, in 1240, in company with Richard of -Cornwall, he set out for the Holy Land.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Revival in the -Church.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Grostête.</div> -</div> - -<p>During their absence the government of England grew continually -worse. Men began to weary of the personal government of the King. -For several years the great offices of justiciary and chancellor had been -left unfilled, and their duties performed by subordinate officials, upon -whom the King lavished his favours. One of the chief of these was -Mansell, who is said to have held no less than 700 livings, and to -have been in the yearly receipt of 8000 marks. The Church was -gradually driven to make common cause with the lay -opposition. It was a time of spiritual revival. The -great monastic orders had lapsed into the position of wealthy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -landowners. The work which in the early times they had so well -performed, the civilization of the country districts, was over. They -had become lazy and luxurious. The prelates had for the most part -deserted their spiritual calling and become statesmen. The Church -as a whole, as represented by the Pope, had misused its influence. -Crusades had become the instruments of temporal aggrandizement, -or of revenge upon the personal enemies of the Pope. A spiritual -revival had been set on foot almost at the same time by St. Dominic -and St. Francis d’Assisi, who had founded the two great orders of -Dominicans and Franciscans, the Black and Grey Friars. The vow -of poverty, evaded by the older orders, had become a reality. The -establishments of the Friars had met with great success; thousands -thronged to be enrolled in their orders. They had rapidly spread -over Europe, and had lately arrived in England, and there begun -their work of regeneration. They had laboured chiefly in the -towns and among the most wretched outcasts of society, and had -there called into life new religious energy, mingled with hatred -towards their wealthy predecessors the old monks, and with a consciousness -of personal equality in the sight of God, which tended -much to strengthen the democratic feeling which supplied Simon de -Montfort with his strongest support. Their teaching had not -affected the lower classes alone; numbering among them many -learned men, they speedily got possession of the education at Oxford, -and found a friend in Grostête, the learned Bishop of -Lincoln. The reforms which the Church demanded -were carried out by him as far as possible in his diocese; and under -his guidance, and that of Edmund Rich, the Church of England was -becoming at once spiritual and national. The folly of the King, who -filled the high ecclesiastical offices with foreign favourites, the -exactions of the Pope, who, acting hand in hand with him, placed -hundreds of benefices in the hands of Italian priests, compelled all -that was best in the Church to throw itself absolutely on the side of -the reformers.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Affairs of -Poitou.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Loss of Poitou. -1243.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Prince Richard -joins the foreign -party.</div> -</div> - -<p>Ecclesiastical and secular misgovernment went on side by side. -Disastrous expeditions to France, and consequent exactions from the -people, were intermingled with the visits of Papal emissaries, to wring -from the wretched clergy contributions for the Papal war against -the Hohenstaufen. In 1242, the King undertook to regain -Poitou. Richard of Cornwall had been nominal -Count of that province, when, in 1241, Louis gave his brother -Alphonse the same title. The most important nobleman in the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -was the Count de la Marche, who had married Henry’s mother. He -at first did homage to the new Count, but afterwards, urged it is -supposed by his ambitious wife, renounced his fealty, and demanded -assistance from Henry. The King therefore landed in the following -year in Gascony. De la Marche soon began to repent of what he had -done, and Henry, never a very active warrior, was disheartened by -his treachery. The armies at length met near Taillebourg, on the -Charente. Afraid of being surrounded, Henry employed his brother -Richard, who had gained general favour with the French by liberally -ransoming prisoners in the Crusade, to secure an armistice. He took -the opportunity of falling back to Saintes, where he was almost -surprised by the pursuing enemy. After this he was gradually -driven backwards to the Garonne, while Marche and his revolted -barons again accepted their French lord. The year was wasted in -fruitless negotiations with the discontented Count of Toulouse, and -in collecting money and troops from England. Henry quarrelled -with his own nobles, who gradually left his army; and early in 1243 -returned to England, having accepted a peace, which -deprived him of the whole of Poitou and of the Isle of -Rhé. Gascony was now the only part of France remaining to the -English. It was during this campaign that Richard of -Cornwall met and married Sancha, the Queen’s sister, -throwing up from this time all chance of leading the -national party, and attaching himself to the foreigners.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Exactions in -Church and -State. -1244.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Council at -Lyons.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Futile attempts -to check -exactions. -1246.</div> -</div> - -<p>Such a war did not tend to the popularity of the King. The -exchequer had been empty, money was stringently and -often illegally exacted. A new Pope, Innocent IV., -was elected, and the exactions from the English clergy -resumed more vigorously than ever: for the Pope was carrying on -the contest he had inherited against Frederick II., and was now -summoning at Lyons the council his predecessor had -failed to collect, in hopes of destroying for ever the -power of the Hohenstaufen. His agent, Master Martin, travelled -through England, pillaging the clergy till the English could bear it -no longer, and the barons joined with the Church in demanding his -dismissal. The foreign element in the Church too continued its -baneful activity. Boniface, the Archbishop, laid waste his rich see, -cutting down the timber and sending the profits abroad, while the -King attempted, though in vain, to secure the Bishopric of -Chichester for Robert de Passelewe. The nation determined to -demand its rights at the Council of Lyons. The English ambassadors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -there took an opportunity of charging the Pope with not being contented -with his Peter’s Pence and the yearly 1000 marks -which John had promised, with sending his messengers -to make further exactions, and with filling English benefices -against the will of their patrons with Italian priests. 60,000 -marks a year thus passed into the hands of foreigners, ignorant of the -language, and mostly living abroad. The Pope vouchsafed no answer, -but shortly afterwards issued a Bull forbidding pluralities, and promising -to respect the rights of patrons. The Bull remained a dead -letter; and the very next year 6000 marks were exacted, and foreign -priests were as plentiful as ever, admitted to their benefices under -what was spoken of as “non obstante” clauses, which set aside all -previous Bulls. The feeling in England against the Pope, who -exacted, and the King, who allowed the exactions, grew more and -more determined.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Inroad of -Poitevin -favourites. -1247.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Discontent of -Barons.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Continued -misgovernment.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Tallages on -the cities.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Diversion of -the crusade. -1250.</div> -</div> - -<p>In 1247 matters grew still worse. A fresh swarm of foreigners -arrived in England; De la Marche was dead, and the -King’s half-brothers came over and were at once received -with favour and honoured with profuse gifts. Chief -among them was William of Valence, and his brother Aymer, who, -in the year 1250, was made Bishop of Winchester, though he was -never consecrated. The foreign policy of England was by these men -managed for their own interests. Thus on the death of Raymond -Berenger, Provence was allowed to pass into the hands of Charles of -Anjou, who had married the Queen’s youngest sister; and thus Henry -made use of a crusade, on which he said that he was going, to demand -large sums of money from the people. In 1248 the crisis seemed -approaching. At a meeting of Parliament many charges were raised -against the favourites; and the feeling against the King’s -personal government, which had long been growing, -found vent. In blind security, Henry continued his course. The -King’s revenue, squandered in empty magnificence or -lavish grants to his foreign friends, became more and -more dilapidated. Money had to be borrowed. All men with an income -of £20 were compelled to take up their knighthood; and afraid -to have recourse to illegal aids from the nobility, the King turned -upon the cities, more especially London, and demanded -and obtained great tallages from them. The crusade -constantly supplied him with an excuse for these exactions; yet even -when the King of France was taken prisoner in Egypt, Henry and his -crusaders made no movement. He contented himself with appointing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -a day for his expedition; the expedition itself did not take place. -Innocent indeed had other ends in view; he was bent -far more on the destruction of the Hohenstaufen than on -the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre. Frederick II. had -died in December 1250, and the Pope’s energies were now directed -to driving those who remained of this family from their kingdom of -the two Sicilies.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Montfort’s -government -of Gascony.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His quarrel -with the King.</div> -</div> - -<p>Far indeed from assisting Louis, Henry had regarded his absence -as an opportunity for regaining his power in the south of France. -Gascony was in a state of complete confusion, chiefly through the -insurrections of Gaston of Bearn and assaults from the King of -Navarre. To bring it into order, Henry had, in 1248, appointed -Simon de Montfort his governor there. His government -had been completely successful, and at length, in -1250, Gaston was sent a prisoner to England. In his -foolish soft-heartedness, Henry at once pardoned and released him. -But the vigorous government of Simon had excited the displeasure -both of the nobles and of the towns. They sent an embassy under -the Archbishop of Bordeaux to lay charges against him before Henry. -The King, fickle and jealous, listened to them; and Leicester was -summoned home. He had almost ruined himself in his efforts to -carry on his government well, and an angry scene of -personal recrimination occurred, the King charging him -with treason, while Simon demanded repayment for the money he -had expended. It shows the state of personal contempt into which -the King had fallen, that Leicester could venture to give him the lie -direct. But the King could not do without him; by the influence -of the Earl of Cornwall the quarrel was adjusted, and De Montfort -returned as he believed to his government. His back was scarcely -turned when the King appointed in his place his young son Edward, -and ordered the Gascons not to obey De Montfort. Feeling himself -thus freed from his charge, De Montfort went to Paris. The -opinion of his abilities was so high, that he was offered the regency -of France; but slighted though he had been at home, he was still -true to his adopted country, and declined the flattering offer.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">By Leicester’s -aid Gascony -is saved.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s money -difficulties.</div> -</div> - -<p>Left to himself, Henry found the Gascons more than he could -manage. He collected indeed much money for the expedition; the -Charter being renewed as usual as the price of a grant. The -Jews had to advance money, the towns were tallaged. -But, after all, things would have gone badly had not -Leicester again patriotically offered his services, and taken command<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -of the disturbed province. With his assistance, and with money -obtained from England, by dint of lying letters, narrating the extreme -danger of the King from the approach of a vast army of Christians -and Saracens under the King of Castile, peace was made with -Alphonso X., at that time the King of Castile, and a marriage arranged -between Edward and his daughter the Princess Eleanor. This expedition -therefore had on the whole been successful; but it plunged the -King still deeper into money difficulties, while his constant -demands for money, and the dishonest means he -had taken to secure it, had lowered him still further in the eyes of -the people. His foolish ambition and his adherence to the Papal -See completed what his long reign of misgovernment had begun.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">The Pope offers -Edmund the -kingdom of -Sicily. -1254.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry accepts -Sicily on -ruinous terms.</div> -</div> - -<p>It has been said that the Pope’s chief object was to remove the -Hohenstaufen from their Italian dominions. As early as 1252, -seeking some prince whom he might set in their place, -and being assured of the fidelity of the English King, -he offered the throne of Sicily to Richard of Cornwall. -That Prince, remembering that Henry, Frederick’s son, -was his own nephew, and too prudent to trust himself blindly to the -Pope, declined the offer. But when young Henry died in 1253, and -Sicily fell into the hands of Conrad and of his half brother Manfred, -the Pope repeated his offer to King Henry’s son Edmund. By him -it was foolishly accepted; Conrad also died, and a great opportunity -was opened for the Pope’s intrigues. There were three parties in -Sicily: the German party, who upheld a son of Conrad, the Italian -Gibellines, who obeyed Manfred, and the Sicilians, who followed -Peter Rufus, the Emperor’s lieutenant. The Pope succeeded in bribing -the leader of the German party, and his views seemed on the -point of realization, when he died. He was succeeded by Alexander -IV., who was reputed a moderate man, but who accepted all the -arrangements of his predecessor. Henry had returned from Gascony, -after a costly visit to Paris, deeply in debt. The Charter of London -was again set aside, and a heavy tallage inflicted; the Jews were -again compelled to pay large sums of money; and the Barons in Parliament -were loudly complaining of grievances, and demanding -the appointment of a Parliamentary Justiciary and Chancellor. In -the midst of all these difficulties, the King was foolish -enough to accept the Sicilies on ruinous terms. Two -hundred ounces of gold yearly, and the support of 300 -knights, were to be promised, the expenses of the war to be paid, and -an army at once sent to claim the kingdom. The Pope kept the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -management of this war in his own hands, but the Bishop of Hereford, -Henry’s envoy, was allowed to make the King responsible for -the outlay. The Pope began immediately to send his creditors direct -to Henry, and twice before the end of the year 1256, a Papal Legate -of the name of Rustand had appeared in England, raised money of -unknown value from the English Church, and freed the King from -his Crusader’s oath, that he might employ his forces against Sicily.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Consequent -exactions.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Terrible famine. -1257.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Parliament at -length roused -to resistance.</div> -</div> - -<p>The English Church was indeed at his mercy. Boniface of -Canterbury lived abroad, and was completely in the -Papal interest, the Archbishopric of York was vacant, -the Bishops of Winchester and Hereford were creatures of the King. -Henry himself was acting in complete harmony with the Pope, who -had several times granted him a tenth from the clergy, and had given -him the incomes of all vacant benefices, and of intestates. The -Church was driven into close union with the rapidly rising baronial -opposition, and was obliged to regard its temporalities as ordinary -baronies. Scotland and Wales were again becoming troublesome, -and the lukewarmness of the English Barons prevented successful -resistance to their inroads. To add to the difficulties of -England, 1257 was a year of fearful want. The weather -was so bad that the harvest stood rotting in the fields even in -November. Wheat rose from two shillings to fifteen or twenty the -quarter. The harvest of 1258 promised to be as bad. Thousands -were dying of hunger.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> And when, in the midst of this misery, the -Pope’s Legate (who in 1257 had stated the amount of debt to the -Pope to be 136,000 marks, and had succeeded in wringing 52,000 -marks from the clergy) repeated his demand the following year, and -threatened an interdict unless the debt was at once paid, Englishmen -of all classes felt that the time for action had arrived, -and, taking advantage of the absence of the Earl of -Cornwall, who was abroad attempting to make good his -election to the German Empire, the Barons assembled at a Parliament -held at Westminster determined upon reform.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Parliament at -Westminster.</div> - -<p>It was a stormy scene. William de Valence and Simon de -Montfort almost came to blows. William spoke of Montfort as “an -old traitor, and the son of a traitor.” “No, no,” said -Simon, “I am no traitor, nor traitor’s son; my father -was very different from yours,” referring to the constant treasons of -the old Count de la Marche. He then poured out his grievances, the -squandering of the royal property on favourites, the folly, in the face<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -of such financial difficulties, of accepting the Sicilian throne, and the -admission of Papal legates to rob the clergy. At length a sort of -compromise was arrived at, and aid was promised if the Pope would -lower his demands, and the King on his side promised reform, a -promise to which several of his chief favourites had to put their -signatures. The King also pledged himself to give full consideration -to the Barons’ demands at a Parliament to be assembled at Oxford at -Whitsuntide, and to leave the question at issue to be decided by a -commission of twelve from either side, whose verdict should be final.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Mad Parliament. -1258.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Provisions of -Oxford.</div> -</div> - -<p>On June 11th, this Parliament met. It is known by the name of “The -Mad Parliament.” The Barons, of whom there were about -a hundred,<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> appeared in arms, under the pretext of the -war with Wales, in reality to overawe the King’s violent step-brothers. -At that Parliament the promised commission of twenty-four was -chosen. The King’s Commissioners, with the single exception of John -of Plesseys, Earl of Warwick, were men pledged to the old evil courses, -either by their relationship with the King or by the favours they -had obtained from him. At the head of the Barons appeared Richard -de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, the natural head of the English party, -and De Montfort, himself indeed a foreigner, but of such high ability -and character that he was indispensable to his party. To these -twenty-four was intrusted the duty of securing reform. They were -not like the twenty-five guardians of the Charter, pledges for the -carrying out of the treaty, but a committee representing for the time -the executive authority of the Crown. These Barons chose a council -of four, John Mansell, the King’s secretary, the Earl of Warwick, and -two Bigods (the Earl of Norfolk and his brother). These in their -turn were to nominate a council of state or executive ministry of -fifteen. The predominance of the baronial party is shown by the -fact that of those fifteen two-thirds were on the Barons’ side.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> This -Council of fifteen produced the Provisions of Oxford, and -appointed new officers. Hugh Bigod was chief justice, -John of Peterborough, treasurer, Nicholas of Ely, chancellor. The -royal castles were ordered to be placed in the hands of Englishmen; -and three times a year a Parliament was to be held, consisting of -the fifteen, and twelve members of the old twenty-four representative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -Barons. These are said to be representatives of the commonalty -of England, but it does not as yet appear that the commonalty -meant anything but the baronage. These Provisions were -accepted and sworn to by the King, Prince Edward, and the Barons, -and subsequently, on his return to England, by Richard, King of the -Romans.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Opposition to -the surrender -of castles.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Exile of aliens.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Proclamation of -the Provisions.</div> -</div> - -<p>The article which demanded the surrender of castles by foreigners -met with much opposition.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The King’s step-brothers -refused to surrender theirs. Simon de Montfort, as -a foreigner, on the other hand, showed a good example -by surrendering two of those he had in charge.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> When William de -Valence refused this order, “I will have the castles,” said De Montfort, -“or your head.” The threat was too serious to be disregarded; the -foreigners crept off in the night, and went to Winchester, where they -hoped that Aymer de Valence would afford them protection. -The Barons at once pursued them. They were -obliged to yield, and were exiled. The Barons then proceeded to -check the bad government of the sheriffs. Four knights from each -shire (a step towards the coming admission of the lower gentry -to Parliament) were appointed to inquire into the question; and it -was arranged that the sheriffs should be elected yearly. The -Londoners readily accepted the new order of things; and -finally, in October, the Provisions were solemnly proclaimed, -together with the Magna Charta, in Latin, French and -English. In this the King declared his full adhesion to the Oxford -Ordinances. It was countersigned by thirteen of the <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'fifteen counsellers'">fifteen -counsellors</ins>. This is the first public document issued in the English -language, and may be regarded as a sign of the real question at -issue during the reign: Was England to be, in fact, England, and -the English to be a nation?</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Government of -the Barons.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Final treaty -with France. -1259.</div> -</div> - -<p>The <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'fifteen counsellers'">fifteen counsellors</ins> were intrusted with the duty of producing -other reforms before the following Christmas. This they -neglected to do, and it was only in October 1259 that -they produced another series of Provisions. These by no means -answered the expectations of the Barons, and were so moderate that, -after the cessation of the war, they were incorporated in the Statute -of Marlborough, 1267. They were chiefly directed to prevent -encroachments on feudal rights. Prince Edward had earnestly -pressed for the production of these Provisions. He was at this time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -a strong reformer, and it was perhaps on account of the inefficient -character of the reforms now produced, that a quarrel arose between -Leicester and Gloucester, in which, we are told, that Leicester was -supported by Edward, Gloucester by the King. The government was -meanwhile practically in the hands of the fifteen. They -felt that their chief work was in England, and therefore -freed themselves as much as possible from foreign complications. -They made peace with Wales, entirely renounced all -claims upon Sicily, and made a definitive treaty with France. By -this treaty Bordeaux, Bayonne and Gascony, with the addition of the -Bishoprics of Limoges, Cahors and Périgord, which the honesty of the -French King restored, were to be held by England as fiefs of France; -all claim on Normandy, Anjou, Touraine and Poitou was to be given -up; and the King of France promised to give a sum of money for the -maintenance of five hundred knights for two years, to be used only -for the good of England or the Church. This last article proved -afterwards a source of danger to the baronial cause.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Henry thinks -of breaking -the Provisions.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Pope’s -absolution -arrives.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Quarrel between -De Clare and -De Montfort.</div> -</div> - -<p>Their whole government seems to have given satisfaction; but it -was not likely that Henry should calmly submit to their -domination. With the peculiar faculty of making his -religion compatible with bad government and dishonesty, -which was the characteristic of this King, he applied, almost -immediately after the Parliament of Oxford, to the Pope for an absolution -from his promises. A visit twice repeated to the King of -France gave rise to the suspicion that he was concerting measures -with that monarch; and, in 1261, he was certainly fortifying the -Tower. In April of that year an answer of Alexander -IV., entirely absolving him from his vows, reached him. -He ordered it to be publicly read, proceeded to give some castles into -the hands of foreigners, and proclaimed that he would no longer consent -to the restraint imposed upon him. The Barons met at Kingston; -and, unwilling to proceed to extremities, agreed to refer their -differences to the King of France, whose character for honour stood -high, though in this instance rumours were afloat that he was already -pledged to the King’s interest.<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> The King would probably -not have ventured on this course had not a quarrel -arisen in the baronial party, which deprived them of -their ablest leader. It is not certain what the cause of quarrel was, -but as early as 1259, De Clare and Montfort had exchanged hot -words, and from that time De Montfort had been very much abroad,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -and the leadership of the baronial party entirely in the hands of De -Clare. In 1262, a second absolution reached the King, and was by -his orders publicly promulgated by Mansell, by the Archbishop -of Canterbury, and by the Bishop of Norwich.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Return of De -Montfort.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Outbreak of -hostilities.</div> -</div> - -<p>But meanwhile a stronger leader than Richard Earl of Gloucester -had appeared in England, and the King’s attempts at -recovering his authority were peremptorily checked. -The Earl of Leicester, hearing of the death of Gloucester, had returned -from abroad, and found himself the unquestioned chief of the party. -With himself he associated the late Earl’s son, young Gilbert de -Clare, and matters soon seemed to be coming to extremities. -Llewellyn of Wales, apparently in the baronial interest, attacked the -lands of Roger de Mortimer and of that foreign Bishop of Hereford -who had been the King’s agent at Rome. A general persecution -of all those who could not speak English -followed in the border counties. The Bishop of Hereford’s treasures -were seized, and he himself had to fly abroad. At the same time the -Bishop of Norwich, who was disliked for having published the absolution, -was attacked. John Mansell was driven into France; while, on -the other hand, Prince Edward, who had hitherto remained true to the -Statutes of Oxford, was reconciled to his father, and appeared in arms -against the barons. The people of London joined in the general disturbance. -The Queen had to leave London and retire to Windsor. -On her way thither, as she was passing up the river, she was assaulted -and maltreated by the Londoners, an event which Prince Edward is -said not to have forgotten.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Award of -Amiens. -1264.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">It fails.</div> -</div> - -<p>While the parties were thus already beginning to appeal to arms, -in January 1264, the King of France published his -verdict at Amiens. It was entirely in favour of the -Crown, and annulled the Provisions of Oxford, especially -declaring that the King had right to employ aliens as the governors -of his castles. The verdict was clear enough, and Henry believed -that it put him entirely in the right. On the other hand a clause -was added of which the Barons took hold to support their cause. By -this it was asserted that the verdict was not intended to derogate in -anything from the royal privileges, charters, liberties and laudable -customs of the kingdom. With this loophole for variety of opinion, the -award left the main question unsettled, although it enabled a certain -number of those who were pledged to the Provisions, but disliked the -Barons’ rule, to join the King. Among others, his brother Richard, -the King of the Romans, took advantage of this opportunity. Still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -unwilling to press their claims to the uttermost, the Barons offered -to accept the award, excepting only the one clause, which -was in fact the point for which they were fighting, that, -namely, which permitted the employment of aliens. The Londoners -would not even go so far as this.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">War, and battle -of Lewes. -May 14.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Mise of -Lewes.</div> -</div> - -<p>The King refused their offer, and war became inevitable. It -began by the capture of Northampton by Prince Edward, -and gradually drifted southward, till the two armies met -at Lewes. The King occupied the town, with the castle -and priory; the Barons, the down to the west. The battle ended in -a decisive victory for the Barons. Prince Edward, carried away by -his anger against the Londoners, whom he despised and hated, was -induced to pursue an advantage he had won over them too far. -Richard, the King of the Romans, was misled into an attack upon a -cage-shaped litter, which he believed to contain De Montfort, who -had been wounded by a fall from his horse. De Montfort had purposely -left it in his rear, together with his standards and baggage; it -really contained only four refractory Londoners of the King’s party. -These two errors on the part of the enemy secured the victory to De -Montfort; and when Prince Edward returned from his pursuit, he -found the battle lost, and the struggle only prolonged by the fighting -round the castle at Lewes. De Montfort, evidently the victor, offered -to put an end to the bloodshed by an immediate truce; -and an agreement known as the Mise of Lewes was made, -by which the questions at issue were to be settled by a court of -arbitration consisting of two Frenchmen and one Englishman. The -two Princes, Edward and Henry d’Almeyne, were to remain in captivity -meanwhile, in exchange for their fathers, the King and his -brother Richard, who had been taken prisoners; and the prisoners on -both sides were to be released.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Appointment of -revolutionary -government.</div> - -<p>De Montfort was for the time completely master of the country. -He at once proceeded to act with vigour to bring the country into order. -The King’s peace was proclaimed everywhere. The prisoners were -exchanged, and till the open question with regard to the election of -sheriffs should be settled, guardians of the peace were appointed for each -county. In the offices thus created, as well as in those of the King’s -Council, the friends and followers of Simon were put. A Parliament -was then called, which assembled in June, at which it is probable -that knights of the shire were present. At this Parliament -a committee of three was appointed, who nominated -nine others, in whose hands the government was to be -placed. If the nine could not come to agreement, the final decision<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -remained with the three, who were the Bishop of Chichester, -Simon de Montfort, and Gilbert de Clare. At the same time the -affairs of the Church were put in order, its grievances being left to -the settlement of three bishops appointed by statute.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Exiles assemble -at Damme.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Montfort -desires final -settlement.</div> -</div> - -<p>De Montfort thus seemed in a fair way to make his position durable; -but unfortunately three important men had made their escape from -Lewes:—these were the Earl of Warrenne, Hugh Bigod and William -de Valence. These three fugitives betook themselves to -Damme, in Flanders, where the Queen, in company -with the exiled foreigners, Archbishop Boniface, Bishop of Hereford, -Peter of Savoy, and John Mansell, had assembled an army of hired -troops. Great preparations were made to meet the expected invasion, -but the winds were so contrary that the ill-provided army, weary of -waiting, separated. The closeness of the danger, however, induced -Simon to send ambassadors to France, to urge on the completion of -the settlement according to the Mise of Lewes. The embassy was at -the same time to try and make terms with the Papal -Legate, who had been quickly despatched to uphold the -cause of so good a vassal of Rome as Henry. They -were unsuccessful in both their objects. The Queen had been -beforehand with Louis, and the Legate, who shortly afterwards -ascended the Papal throne as Clement IV., replied only by excommunication. -The Bull, however, was taken by the mariners of the -Cinque Ports before reaching England, and thrown into the sea; and -the excommunication did not take effect.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Royalist -movements on the -Welsh Marches.</div> - -<p>Meanwhile, the royalist barons on the Marches of Wales, especially -Mortimer, Clifford and Leybourne, began to bestir -themselves. Some of them even pushed as far as -Wallingford, where Prince Edward was a prisoner, and -attempted, though in vain, to liberate him. The liberation of this -Prince was now the chief object of the royalists, and the pressure -put upon Leicester was so great, that he had, though unwillingly, to -consent to measures which should bring it about. There was indeed -every reason to desire that he should be freed. The part he had -played in the late disputes had been highly honourable; he had -remained true to the Provisions of Oxford, till the breaking out of -the war seemed to render it his imperative duty to assist his father; -and from his subsequent conduct it is plain that, although he must -have disliked the present restrictions upon the royal power, there was -much in the national policy of the Barons with which he sympathized. -All those who resented the assumption of power by Montfort,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -while desiring a reform in government, would have found in -him a welcome leader.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Parliament of -1265.</div> - -<p>It was principally for this object that the famous Parliament of -1265 was called. To it were summoned only twenty-three -peers, friends of De Montfort, though the great -Northern and Scotch barons, who had strongly supported the King at -Lewes, also received safe conducts. Of the higher clergy there were -no less than one hundred and eighteen, a number by no means unprecedented, -but which seems to show how completely the Church -sympathized with the Barons. There were also knights of the shires—two -from each county. Even from the time of the commission for -forming the Domesday Book, elected knights had been occasionally -consulted upon the affairs of their county; since Henry II.’s reign, -although they had never been properly summoned to Parliament, -this practice had been more frequent. But the addition of two -burghers from the chief cities was wholly new, and although the -practice was not continued without a break, this, says Hallam, is the -epoch at which the representation of the Commons becomes distinctly -manifest. To De Montfort it was of the greatest importance -that the general acquiescence of all important classes of the country -in his government should be shown.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Conditions of -the Prince’s -liberation.</div> - -<p>The assembly thus formed had first of all to consider what was to -be done with the present insurgents and with the exiles, and, secondly, -on what conditions Prince Edward might be with safety liberated. -On the first point it was decreed that the barons of the Welsh -Marches should be exiled to Ireland for three years, and the fugitives -from Lewes were summoned to stand their trial before their peers, a -summons to which, of course, they paid no attention. The other -question was more important, but the conditions were -finally arrived at on which the Prince might be set at -liberty. There was to be complete amnesty for all that -was past; the King and Prince were never to receive their former -favourites; the royal castles were to be placed in trustworthy hands; -the great charters of liberty were to be again established; the Prince -was not to leave the country for three years, and must choose his council -by the advice of government; and the county of Chester, with its -castle, together with the castles of the Peak and Newcastle, were to be -given up to De Montfort. For this, however, an equivalent was to -be given from De Montfort’s county of Leicester. All these arrangements -were made under the most solemn sanctions. On the last -article much of the abuse of Leicester for avarice and self-seeking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -has been rested. But, in fact, the position of the lands commanding -the Scotch and Welsh borders afforded a sufficient political -reason for requiring their cession. A copy of this arrangement was -sent to each sheriff, and the great charters of liberty publicly read, -with a solemn threat of excommunication against all who should -break them.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Defection of -De Clare. -He joins the -Marchers.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Escape of -Edward.</div> -</div> - -<p>These arrangements tended to the establishment of a peaceful -government and to the healing of faction; but unfortunately there -was constant jealousy of De Montfort among his colleagues, -arising probably in part from his foreign birth -and royal connections, in part from the truly popular -nature of his views, with which the Barons had but little sympathy. -Again, as on a previous occasion, De Clare, the leader of -the English Barons, deserted him, and began to intrigue with his -enemies. At the same time, William de Valence landed in his lordship -of Pembroke. By the instrumentality of Mortimer, Edward made -his escape from Ludlow Castle; and the invaders, the Prince, the -Lord Marchers, and Gloucester opened communications one with -the other. The trick by which Edward effected his -escape is well known. On pretence of racing, he wearied -the horses of his guardians, and then galloped from them on a -particularly swift horse that had just been sent him, which he had -kept fresh. The danger had become so pressing that Leicester -advanced against the invaders in the South of Wales: but while in -that distant corner of the country, the Prince, with the men of Chester, -who willingly joined their old governor, marched down the Severn -and took Gloucester, thus cutting Leicester off from the rest of -his supporters.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Leicester -opposes Edward -in Wales.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Defeat at -Kenilworth.</div> -</div> - -<p>De Montfort at once recognized that Edward was his chief enemy, -and turned back to meet him, at the same time summoning -to his aid his son the younger Simon, who was -with an army at Dover. Had he executed this duty intrusted -to him satisfactorily, Edward would either have been enclosed -between the two armies, or De Montfort largely reinforced. As it -was, he wasted some time at Kenilworth, his father’s chief stronghold, -and foolishly suffered his troops to encamp outside the walls of the -castle. A female spy brought Edward news of his enemy’s -mistake, and a sudden onslaught scattered De Montfort’s -reinforcement in disgraceful flight. Edward tried to check De Montfort’s -return by breaking down all the bridges over the Severn, but a -way was at length found to cross the river about four miles below<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -Worcester, and the baronial army reached Evesham in the full -expectation of speedily meeting their friends.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Battle of -Evesham. -Aug. 4.</div> - -<p>As they marched out in the early morning on the 4th of August, -they saw a well-ordered army approaching, and Leicester’s barber, -who happened to be the longest-sighted man amongst then, at -first recognized all the standards as belonging to young De Montfort; -only after he had ascended a church-tower did he perceive the -emblems of De Clare and Edward mingled with them. De Montfort -was thus greatly outnumbered and surprised. As the enemy -approached in three well-arrayed divisions, “Ah,” said -he, “that arrangement is not your own, I have taught -you how to fight.” Then, as it became evident that he -had neither time nor men to secure the victory, he added, “God have -mercy on our souls, for our bodies are the Prince’s.” The stories -of the fidelity of his party are touching. He begged his partisans to -fly while there was time. They refused to leave him, while his son -Henry begged him to make good his retreat, and leave him alone to -fight the battle. He was not a man to listen to such advice. At -length the assault came. He saw the best of his followers and his son -killed or disabled around him. But still, though his horse was -killed under him, “like a giant,” says one, “like an impregnable -tower for the liberties of England,” says another of the Chroniclers, -he fought on, wielding his sword with both hands, till he fell overpowered -by the assault of numbers. Three hours completed the -battle, which was little else than a massacre. “Thus lamentably fell -the flower of all knighthood, leaving an example of steadfastness -to others. But since there is no curse more baleful than a domestic -enemy, who can wonder at his fall? those who had eaten his bread -lifted their heels against him, they who loved him by word of mouth -lied in their throat.”<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Kenilworth -and the Fens -hold out. -1266.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Dictum of -Kenilworth.</div> -</div> - -<p>The victory produced a complete reaction in England. Castle after -castle opened its gates to the royalists. At Kenilworth alone, which -Simon had defended with extraordinary machines which his skill as -an engineer had invented, and in the inaccessible marshes in the East of -England, the baronial party still held out. The conqueror proceeded -at once to act with reckless severity. The whole of Leicester’s -property was confiscated and given to Prince Edward, all his followers -were deprived of civil rights and property, and all acts of the government -since the battle of Lewes were declared null. This was the -work of a Parliament summoned at Winchester, where of course there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -is no sign either of county or of borough representation. After London, -which made some opposition, was conquered, and for -the time disfranchised, all efforts were directed against -Kenilworth. This stronghold had become a centre -from which, as from the Eastern Fens, disorderly bodies -pushed out to wreak their vengeance on the King’s followers. The -defence was heroic. It seemed plain that the reaction had been -carried much too far. One party at all events of the royalists, with -Prince Henry d’Almeyne and perhaps Prince Edward at its head, -desired a more conciliatory policy, and at length, at the end of the -year, a Commission of twelve was established to attempt to produce -peace. Under their management, a Parliament and Convocation was -held, the Magna Charta again acknowledged, even by the Papal -Legate, and those who had been disinherited were allowed to regain -their lands by paying a certain number of years’ income to the new -possessors. The sons of Lord Derby and Leicester were -alone excepted. In accordance with this arrangement, -called the Dictum of Kenilworth, the castle was surrendered.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">De Clare -compels more -moderate -government.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Constitutional -end of the -reign.</div> -</div> - -<p>The insurgents in the Fens afterwards submitted on the same -terms, but not before Gilbert de Clare had again changed sides, -making it plain to the government that however much -jealousy of De Montfort might have broken the baronial -moderate party, the feelings which had dictated the Provisions of -Oxford were still unconquered. Under these circumstances -it was found necessary to take further measures to insure -moderation of government. In May 1267, Magna Charta was again -enacted, and from this time forward kept. The offices were given -into the hands of Englishmen, and Englishmen only. The Sicilian -project had become impossible, indeed the crown had been given -to Charles of Anjou; and, finally, Prince Edward, whose -influence might have been dangerous, had withdrawn -from England on a crusade, and taken many English -nobles with him. The Barons’ war had thus, although in its outward -form a failure, secured its main object—tolerable constitutional -government, and the establishment of a national rule. In 1272 the -King died.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Views of the -people on the -revolution.</div> - -<p>It is always difficult to know how far the popular feeling is engaged -in political revolutions. The great bulk of the -nation is never the originator of such changes. The -fate of a country is settled by the conduct and thought -of its educated men, though the mass of the people plays a very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> -prominent part as an instrument in the hands of its leaders. There -is much to make us believe, however, that the movement of the -Barons was in reality a national one. More particularly is this -true in the case of Simon de Montfort. He is constantly spoken -of by contemporary writers with admiration. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Il eime dreit, et -att le tort,”</span> (He loves right and hates the wrong), says one poet. “It -should, however, be declared,” says the Chronicler of Melrose, “that -no one in his senses would call Simon a traitor, for he was no traitor, -but the most devout and faithful worshipper of the Church in England, -the shield and defender of the kingdom, the enemy and expeller -of aliens, although by birth he was one of them.” The Londoners -were his devoted adherents, while the character of the Parliament -which he summoned after the battle of Lewes was certainly popular. -It seems fair to believe that he was the unselfish supporter of the -national policy.</p> - -<p>Again, all the writers of the time, with very few exceptions,<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> whether -chroniclers or poets, were in favour of the baronial party. When -some of the leaders seem flagging in their energy, they were cheered -by such words as these,—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> -<div class="stanza"> -<p class="verseq">“O Comes Gloverniæ, comple quod cæpisti,</p> -<p class="verse0">Nisi claudas congruè, multos decepisti.”</p> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<p class="verseq">“O tu Comes le Bygot, pactum serva sanum</p> -<p class="verse0">Cum sis miles strenuus, nunc exerce manum.</p> -<p class="verse0">O vos magni proceres, qui vos obligatis,</p> -<p class="verse0">Observate firmiter illud quod juratis.”</p> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">Again, in one political poem of the day we have the question at issue -argued out in a manner which shows the advance of political knowledge, -and in a constitutional tone which would become a modern -Whig. “All restraint does not deprive of liberty. He who is kept -from falling so that he lives free from danger, reaps advantage from -such keeping, nor is such a support slavery, but the safeguard of -virtue. Therefore that it is permitted to a king all that is good, but -that he dare not do evil—this is God’s gift.... If a prince love his -subjects, he will be repaid with love; if he reign justly, he will be -honoured; if he err, he ought to be recalled by them whom his unjust -denial may have grieved, unless he be willing to be corrected; if he -is willing to make amends, he ought to be raised up and aided by -those same persons.... If a king be less wise than he ought to be, -what advantage will the kingdom gain by his reign? Is he to seek -by his own opinion on whom he should depend to have his failing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -supplied? If he alone choose, he will be easily deceived. Therefore -let the community of the kingdom advise, and let it be known what -the generality thinks, to whom their own laws are best known. Since -it is their own affairs that are at stake, they will take more care and -will act with an eye to their own peace.... We give the first place -to the community; we say also that the law rules over the king’s -dignity, for the law is the light without which he who rules will -wander from the right path.”</p> - -<p>That proclamations should be published in English is also a significant -fact, and it may on the whole be considered that this war was -practically the conclusion of foreign domination in England. It -is the great honour of Edward I. to have perceived this so clearly, -that he willingly accepted the new national line of policy which the -Barons had marked out, and he may be regarded as our first purely -national monarch.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="EDWARD_I" id="EDWARD_I">EDWARD I.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1272–1307.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_171.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_171.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born, 1239 = 1. Eleanor of Castile. - | - +---------+---------+---------+---+------+-----------------+ - | | | | | | - John. Henry. Alfonso. Edward II. Eleanor = Henry | - d. 1271. d. 1274. d. 1284. of Bar. | - | - +------------------------------------------------------+ - | - +----+----------------+-------------------+ - | | | - Joan = Gilbert, Margaret = John of Elizabeth = 1. John of - Earl of Brabant. Holland. - Gloucester. 2. Humphrey - de Bohun. - = 2. Margaret of France. - | - +--------------+---------------+ - | | - Thomas, Earl of Norfolk. Edmund, Earl of Kent. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - Alexander III., | Philip III., | Rodolph, 1272. | Alphonso X., - 1249. | 1270. | Adolphus, 1291. | 1252. - Margaret, 1286. | Philip IV., | Albert, 1298. | Sancho IV., - Interregnum, 1290. | 1285. | | 1284. - Baliol, 1292. | | | Ferdinand IV., - Interregnum, 1296. | | | 1295. - Robert I., 1306. | | | - - POPES.--Gregory X., 1271. Innocent V., 1276. Adrian V., 1276. - John XX., 1276. Nicholas III., 1277. Martin IV., 1281. Honorius IV., - 1285. Nicholas IV., 1288. Vacancy, two years. Celestine V., 1292. - Boniface VIII., 1294. Benedict X., 1303. Vacancy, one year. - Clement V., 1305. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chancellors._ | _Chief-justices._ - | | - Robert Kilwardby, | Walter de Merton, 1272. | Ralph de Hengham, - 1273–1278. | Robert Burnell, 1273–1292. | 1273–1289. - John Peckham, | John Langton, 1292. | Gilbert de Thornton, - 1279–1292. | William Greenfield, 1302. | 1289–1295. - Robert Winchelsey, | William de Hamilton, 1304. | Roger Brabazon, 1295. - 1294–1313. | Ralph de Baldock, 1307. | - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Edward’s -peaceful -accession. -1272.<br /><br /> -His journey -home, -1274.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Edward was still abroad when the news of his father’s death -was brought to him. His accession had been so -long looked forward to as a happy termination to the -difficulties of the last reign, that what might have been a -dangerous crisis passed over peacefully. An assembly was summoned -at Westminster, not only of the nobles, but also of the representatives -of the lower estates, and there an oath of fidelity was taken to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -absent King. Three prominent nobles seem to have assumed the -position of governors; the Archbishop of York, as head of the clergy, -Edmund of Cornwall, the King’s brother, as representative of the -royalty, and Gilbert of Gloucester, as chief of the baronage. Under -them the government pursued its old course. Hearing that things were -going well in England, Edward did not hurry home. He returned by -Sicily and Rome, where he induced the Pope to visit upon the young -De Montforts the murder of Henry D’Almeyne, whom they had -killed at Viterbo. Thence he passed into France, joined in a great -tournament at Châlons, where jest was changed to earnest, and a -rough skirmish ensued, known as the little battle of Châlons. True -to his legal obligations, he did homage at Paris for his French -dominions, demanding what as yet had not been fulfilled, the completion -of the late definitive treaty in France: and after settling, -not without application to the French King as feudal -superior, his quarrels with Gaston de Bearn in Gascony, -and establishing friendly relations with Flanders, -he returned in 1274 to England, and there, on the 18th of August, -was crowned and received the homage of his Barons, and that, among -others, of Alexander III. of Scotland. Shortly after, he appointed as -his chancellor Robert Burnell, who served him throughout his life as -chief minister, while Anthony Beck, Bishop of Durham, was his chief -agent in all diplomatic matters.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The importance -of the reign.</div> - -<p>From the reign of Edward began what may be properly spoken of -as the <em>English</em> monarchy. The last reign had brought prominently -forward the two great points which constituted the -nationality of the country. Primarily the object of the -baronial party had been to separate England from the overwhelming -importance of its foreign connections, and to prevent it from becoming -a mere source of wealth to foreign adventurers. In this the baronial -party had succeeded. While declaring themselves national, they had -been obliged to have recourse for support to other elements of the -nation than those from which the ruling class had hitherto been formed. -The advance of these new classes had, as has been seen, been gradual. -Already, in earlier reigns, the principle both of election and representation -had been, on more than one occasion, accepted. But it was the -formal admission both of knights of the shire and of burghers to -parliamentary privileges, even though the practice had not been continued, -which rendered it impossible long to ignore the growing feeling -that all classes should in some way be consulted about what -interested all.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward the -first English -king.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His political -views.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His legal mind.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His success.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His enforced -concessions.</div> -</div> - -<p>Edward was well fitted, both by position and character, to play the -part of the first English king. He had given distinct -proofs in the earlier part of the late baronial quarrels -that a good and national government was what he -desired. But it would be wrong to suppose that he was at all inclined -to what we should now call liberal policy. In the latter part of his -father’s reign he had made it clear that to his mind a strong monarchy -was a necessary condition of good government. It was only gradually, -and in accordance with a love of symmetrical government which -strongly characterized him, that he recognized the advantage -of the complete admission of the hitherto unprivileged -classes to the rights of representation. He set before him as -his object the establishment of a good and orderly government in the -national interests, but carried out by a strong, nay despotic monarch, -subjected only to the restrictions of the law. This is indeed another -prominent characteristic of the King, in which he went along with -the tendencies of the age. His mind was essentially -legal, and just at this time the Roman and civil law were -forcing their way into prominence throughout Europe. In Edward -and his great rival Philip IV. of France, we have, allowing for their -differences in personal character, instances of the same course of -action. They both intended to make use of feudal law, interpreted -more or less by the Roman law, and pressed to its legal and logical -conclusions, to strengthen the monarchy. It is thus that we find -Edward constantly enacting statutes and constitutions, making use of -feudal claims to compel the submission of his neighbours, and -exerting to the full, sometimes even beyond the limits of honesty, -the rights the constitution gave him, but never wilfully transgressing -what he regarded as the law. He was successful in -carrying out the two first branches of his threefold -policy; in the third he failed. Good government he established by -a series of admirable administrative enactments, and by that power -of definition which a living historian<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> has attributed to him, in spite of -the difficulties presented by the independent position of the Church, -and by the disorders still remaining from the late troubled times. -Nationality he was able to foster both by foreign wars and by his -great plan of connecting all the kingdoms of Great Britain. But in -his efforts to establish an absolute monarchy, he was met by the -financial difficulties into which the late reign had plunged the Crown, -and by that entanglement in foreign politics which the English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -possessions in France, of which he was not yet quite free, continually -caused. Urged by his wide schemes to have recourse to -arbitrary means for replenishing his treasury, he excited -again an opposition similar to that of his father’s reign, and found -himself obliged to make concessions which effectually prevented any -of his successors from attempting to render the Crown independent.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">First Parliament. -Statute of -Westminster. -1275.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Establishment -of customs.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His restorative -measures. -1278.</div> -</div> - -<p>The first years of the King’s reign were employed in restoring -order to the government and the finances. His first -Parliament met at Westminster in 1275, where was -passed a great restorative measure known by the name -of the First Statute of Westminster. It was so wide and far-reaching -that it might be called a code rather than an Act. Its object is said -by a contemporary writer to have been to “awake those languid laws -which had long been lulled asleep” by the abuses of the time. It -secured the rights of the Church, improved the tardy processes of -law, and re-established the charters, further limiting the sums -which could be demanded for the three legal aids. At the same -Parliament, an export duty on wool and leather, the -origin of the customs, was granted to the King, the -more readily, perhaps, as his firmness had lately re-established the -wool-trade with Flanders. During the next three or four years other -less popular measures were taken with a view to replenish the King’s -treasury. Commissions were issued to inquire into the exact limits -of the grants of the late King to the clergy, and to inquire into the -tenure of property throughout England, with the twofold -view of establishing the rights of property disturbed -by the late war, and of clearly defining the -revenue due to the Crown.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">New coinage.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Statute of -Mortmain. -1279.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was not till the year 1278 that the effect of this commission was -seen. Orders were then issued to the itinerant justices to make use -of the evidence which had been obtained, and to issue writs of “quo -warranto,” to oblige owners to make good their titles. This was the -occasion of the well-known answer of Warrenne, Earl of Surrey, who -presented his sword to the judge, saying, “This is my title-deed, with -this my ancestors won my land, with this will I keep it.” The temper -thus shown by one of his most faithful followers prevented Edward -from pushing matters to extremity. During these years was set on -foot also the practice of demanding that those who were wealthy -enough should receive knighthood. The practice was kept up during -the reign, but the property counted sufficient for the holder of that -dignity varied from £20 to £100 a year. The King’s activity reached<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -in all directions. Another commission was issued to inquire into the -conduct of sheriffs. The coinage, much clipped and -debased, was renewed; it was ordered that its shape -should always be round, as the prevalent method of clipping had been -to cut the pieces into four, so that the exact edge could not be known. -At length, in 1279, Edward proceeded to regulate one of the great -abuses of the Church. Not only had that body become exorbitantly -rich, but the privileges which it claimed had begun to be detrimental -to the Crown; and when, in the earlier part of the year, Peckham, -Archbishop of Canterbury, produced and authorized, at a meeting at -Reading, some canons tending to the independence of the Church, -the King was determined to strike a blow in return. As corporations -could not die, land which had passed into their possession was -free from the fines and payments due from an incoming heir, which -were thus lost to the feudal superior. Moreover, and this touched the -Crown more nearly, it had become a habit to give property to the -Church, and fraudulently to receive it back again as a Church fief, -and thus free from feudal services. By the Statute of -Mortmain, which was now passed, it was forbidden, -without the King’s consent, to transfer property to the -Church.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Wales. -1275.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Llewellyn’s -suspicious -conduct.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">War breaks out. -1277.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Llewellyn -submits.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His merciful -treatment.</div> -</div> - -<p>Meanwhile, while Edward had been thus busied at home, affairs in -Wales had begun to attract his attention. Llewellyn had -always been in close alliance with the Leicester party, -and had shown his dissatisfaction at the accession of Edward by -refusing to come to the assembly which swore fealty to the new -King. Edward, who wished honestly to heal the late differences, had -summoned him to his coronation, and had again been refused. Had -he not desired a peaceful solution of the difficulty, he would -certainly now have proceeded to extremities. But no less than six -opportunities were given to the Prince of appearing -in England, to set himself right; on every occasion he -had refused to do so. The suspicions which his conduct -excited received a strong confirmation when it was known that he was -contemplating a marriage with the daughter of De Montfort. It is -probable that this marriage was to be carried out in pursuance of -some scheme for continuing the disturbances of the last reign. -Fortunately the lady was captured, with her brother Almeric who -was escorting her, on her way to Wales. This brought matters to a -crisis. In 1276, Llewellyn, who had refused all approaches to friendship, -demanded, in the language of an independent prince, a treaty,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -and the restoration of his wife. In November of that year Edward, -acting in concert with his Parliament, ordered his army -to meet him at Worcester, and the war began. Even the -strength of his country did not enable Llewellyn to hold out against -the superior power and ability of the English King. A fleet of ships -from the Cinque Ports cut him off from Anglesea, and mastered that -island, while the English army forced him back towards the mountains -of Snowdon. He was induced to treat. The -terms given him were stringent. The Cantreds or -Hundreds between Chester and Conway were given up to the -English. Anglesea alone he was allowed to keep in full, on the payment -of 1000 marks, while a few baronies around Snowdon were -left in his hands, to prevent his title of Prince of Wales being a -mere empty honour. Besides this, he had to pay 50,000 marks for -the expenses of the war, and a tribute of 1000 marks. Once conquered, -however, and brought to complete submission, -his treatment was generous. The money payments were -at once remitted. His brother David, his enemy, and a probable -source of discomfort to him, was kept in England and pensioned; -and finally, he came to England, and received his wife, their marriage -being nobly celebrated by the King.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Second rising -in Wales. -1282.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of -Llewellyn.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Execution of -David. -1283.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Statute of -Wales. -Annexation of -Wales. -1284.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Statute of -Winchester. -1285.</div> -</div> - -<p>In less than three years the whole arrangement was again destroyed. -David, though he had fought for Edward and been well rewarded, -suddenly deserted to his fellow countrymen. He attacked -the Castle of Hawardyn, and, in company with his -brother Llewellyn, besieged Rhuddlan and Flint. Edward -at once advanced against them. Hard pressed, the brothers -divided their forces. David continued to fight in the North, while -his brother betook himself to South Wales. He was there surprised, -defeated, and killed, on the River Wye, and his head sent -to Edward, and displayed in London, in scorn adorned with -an ivy crown, in allusion to some prophecy that he should be crowned -in London. David was shortly afterwards compelled to surrender. -A Parliament had been summoned to grant supplies; some difficulty -had arisen, and before an answer could be given, a fresh one was -called at Shrewsbury, (moved afterwards to Acton Burnell, the seat of -the Chancellor,) by which the unfortunate Prince was -tried, and condemned to death. This Parliament afterwards -proceeded to the settlement of the conquered -country, by what is known as the Statute of Wales. By this a -considerable part of English law and English institutions, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -some modifications to suit the prejudices of the Welsh, were introduced. -The conquest was completed by the famous presentation -to the people of the King’s new-born heir, under -the title of the Prince of Wales. There was henceforth -no longer any pretence of feudal supremacy; Wales -was annexed to the English Crown. The following year the -Parliament at Winchester produced the Statute known by the name -of that city, which arranged the defence of the country -upon a national basis. Of that piece of legislation, as -well as of others before and after it, more will be said -by and by. In the year after this, Edward left England, placing -the government in the hands of his brother Edmund.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Foreign affairs -call Edward -abroad.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Sicilian Vespers.</div> -</div> - -<p>It will be necessary to turn for a moment to Edward’s foreign -relations to explain the necessity of his journey abroad. He had the -misfortune, like his predecessors, to be master of Aquitaine, and as -Duke of that province a vassal and peer of France. He -was, moreover, cousin of the King of France, and brother-in-law -of the King of Castile. Although a definitive -treaty had been made between Henry III. and the French King, it -had never been properly carried out; Edward had, as in duty bound -done homage for his French possessions, and had from time to time -renewed his claims. He had even been allowed in 1279, in right of -his wife, to take possession of Ponthieu. There was, nevertheless -a constant feeling of distrust between the French King and his too -powerful vassal. Edward had therefore done his best to cement his -friendship on the side of Spain. But, in 1282, an event happened -which enabled him to secure a settlement of his French claims, and -to assume the important position of mediator in a great foreign -quarrel. A war seemed imminent between Castile and France, when -Peter III. of Aragon, for whose favour both parties had been intriguing, -suddenly raised a large army, the destination of which was said to be -Africa, but which shortly after proved to be intended for the conquest -of Sicily from the French. This put an end to the quarrel with -Castile, and brought Aragon forward as the Spanish power against -which the French energies were directed. Charles of Anjou had -received from the Pope the grant of the Two Sicilies when the Barons -of England had obliged Edmund to renounce it. He had made good -his position with extreme cruelty; and now the Sicilian people entered -into that famous conspiracy known by the name of Sicilian -Vespers, and massacred the French throughout the -island. They then proceeded to give themselves to Peter III. of Aragon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -in concert with whom they had certainly been acting. He was successful -in his enterprise. His admiral, Loria, had everywhere defeated -the fleets of Anjou, and in 1284 had taken prisoner Charles, Prince of -Salerno, the Duke of Anjou’s heir. For a short time there seemed -some possibility of the quarrel being ended by a single combat -between Peter and Charles; formal preparations were made, and -Edward was entreated to preside as umpire. But chivalrous though -he was, he was too much of a statesman to give his consent to so trivial -a form of settlement; and, in 1285, Charles died.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward mediator -between -France and -Aragon. -1286.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His award is -repudiated.</div> -</div> - -<p>His quarrel was taken up by the French King, and matters had -reached this point when Edward thought it necessary to go abroad -(especially as a new King, Philip IV., had just come to the throne), -to arrange if possible a question which, involving not only his own -interests, but also the authority of the Pope, was one of -European interest. He succeeded in inducing Philip -IV. to allow the justice of his claims with regard to the -provinces to be united to Gascony, and proceeded the -following year to act the part of mediator between the Courts of -France and Aragon. He was trusted absolutely in this negotiation, -and after some difficulty hoped that he had arrived at some conclusion, -when he had succeeded in obtaining the freedom of Prince Charles -of Salerno, although the terms of liberation were very -hard. Large sums of money were to be paid, and Sicily -was to be given up to the Spanish Prince, James. But no sooner -was Charles at liberty than he repudiated these conditions; and -Edward, disgusted with his want of faith, and thinking probably that -it was wiser not to plunge too deep into European politics, determined -to return home, neglecting the offered opportunity of forming -an alliance with Aragon, which might have formed some counter-poise -in Southern Europe to the power of France and of Rome.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Disturbances in -England during -his absence. -1289.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward -returns.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Punishes corrupt -judges.</div> -</div> - -<p>His presence at home indeed was much wanted. The moment -the back of the great ruler was turned, and the weight -of his hand removed, it became evident that much -time would be necessary before his arrangements could -restore more than external order to the deeply disturbed society of -England. Fresh disturbances had arisen in Wales, where Rhys ap -Meredith had been roused to rebellion by the strictness with which -the English law was carried out. Nor had the Regent’s army, under -Gilbert de Clare, succeeded in capturing him. It seems indeed that -several of the greater nobles had begun to show discontent, and in -1288, Surrey, Warwick, Gloucester, and Norfolk had all appeared in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -a disorderly fashion in arms. There were other disturbances too in -the lower strata of society. The Statute of Winchester was not yet -fairly in operation, bands of outlaws appeared in the forest districts, -and among others, one Chamberlain had fallen upon a fair held at -Boston in Lincolnshire, and had burnt the town. The -presence of the King restored order, but the fundamental -cause of the misgovernment was laid open to him by his faithful -Chancellor, Burnell. Like Henry II., he had employed as his judges -professional lawyers, and they had not been proof against -the great temptations of their office. The judges were -corrupt, and justice was bought and sold. Very serious charges were -brought against them in October; all except two, who deserve to be -mentioned, John of Methingham and Elias de Bockingham, were -convicted. The chief baron, Stratton, was fined 34,000 marks, the -chief justice of the King’s Bench, 7000, the master of the rolls, 1000; -while Weyland, chief justice of the common pleas, fled to sanctuary, -was there blockaded, and after his forty days of safety had to abjure -the realm. His property, which was confiscated, is said to have -amounted to 100,000 marks.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Banishes the -Jews. -1290.</div> - -<p>At the same time the King banished all the Jews from the kingdom. -Upwards of 16,000 are said to have left England, nor did -they reappear till Cromwell connived at their return in -1654. It is not quite clear why the King determined -on this act of severity, especially as the Jews were royal property, -and a very convenient source of income. It is probable, however, -that their way of doing business was very repugnant to his ideas -of justice, while they were certainly great falsifiers of the coinage, -which he was very anxious to keep pure and true. Earlier in the -reign he had hanged between 200 and 300 of them for that crime, -and they are said to have demanded 60 per cent. for their loans, -taking advantage of the monopoly as money-lenders which the -ecclesiastical prohibition of usury had given them. Moreover, about -this time, the great banking-houses of Italy were becoming prominent. -With them Edward had already had much business, and their system -of advances upon fairer terms was much more pleasing to him. From -this time onwards the money business of England was in their hands.<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">End of First -Period of the -reign.</div> - -<p>We have now reached what may be considered as the close of the -first period of Edward’s reign, which had been occupied -by legislation and by the conquest of Wales. From -this time onwards, it is the conquest of Scotland, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -the great constitutional effort of the reign, intermingled with foreign -affairs, which we shall have to observe.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Relations with -Scotland.</div> - -<p>It is uncertain when Edward’s thoughts were first directed to the -Northern kingdom, but events had been rapidly occurring, -which threw Scotland almost entirely into his hands. -Quite early in the reign he seems to have wished, as was natural -for one of his legal mind, to have the disputed question of homage -cleared up. Again and again homage had been paid to his predecessors; -but, except in the case of William the Lion’s homage to -Henry II., it had been always open to the Scotch King to assert that -it was for fiefs in England, and not for Scotland, that his homage -was rendered. Even that clear instance had been annihilated by the -subsequent sale of the submission then made by Richard I. It would -seem in fact that the claim to overlordship was really based upon -much earlier transactions. Scotland consisted of three incorporated -kingdoms—the Highlands, or kingdoms of the Scots, Galloway, which -was part of the British kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Lothians, -which had undoubtedly been a part of the Anglian kingdom of -Northumbria. In the time of the English Empire the King of -Scots and all the people had chosen Eadward the Elder as father and -lord; that is to say, they had what is technically called commended -themselves to the English King. Strathclyde had been conquered by -Eadmund, and by him had been granted to Malcolm as a fief, on condition -of military tenure; while afterwards the Lothians had been -granted by Eadgar to the Scotch kings as an English earldom. Thus, -on various grounds, all parts of the Kingdom of Scotland acknowledged -the English King as their overlord. When England fell into -the hands of the Normans, William, professedly assuming the position -which his predecessor had held, would naturally expect the same -homage to be paid to him. It is equally certain that the Scotch -kings would object to pay it. It had therefore been a constantly -open and disputed question till the time of Edward. Meanwhile the -feudal law, which had not existed at the time of the original commendation, -had grown up and been formulated. Edward, as we have -seen, intended to use it to the full. He therefore desired the uncertain -acknowledgment of the old supremacy to be brought, as it had -never hitherto been, within the precise and clearly-defined limits of -feudal overlordship. The character of Alexander III. was such as to -strengthen such ideas. In 1275, his wife, Edward’s sister Margaret, -had died. The tie of relationship thus broken, Edward had demanded -and received, in 1278, a homage, which he declared to his chancellor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -was complete and without reservation;<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> and since that time, more -than once, Alexander had seemed to acknowledge the supremacy.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Extinction of -the Scotch royal -family.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Proposed -marriage of the -Maid and Prince -Edward.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Accepted with -restrictions. -1290.</div> -</div> - -<p>But it was the rapid extinction of that monarch’s family which -brought matters to a crisis. Margaret had had two -sons and one daughter, Margaret. Both the sons had -died young, and the daughter had married Eric, King -of Norway, with the promise that she was to retain her rights to the -Scotch succession. In accordance with this, when she died in her -first confinement, her little child of the same name, spoken of as the -Maid of Norway, was, in 1284, declared heiress of the throne. In -1286 King Alexander died. He had married again, but had no -children; the crown would therefore have naturally come to the -Maid of Norway. During her absence, a regency, consisting of the -Bishops of St. Andrews and Glasgow, the Lords Fife, Buchan, and -Comyn, and others, was appointed. But already other claimants had -come forward, and their respective parties had begun a civil war. To -Edward it seemed the opportunity had arrived of establishing his -rights without violence. A marriage between his son and the Maid -of Norway at once occurred to him. For this he had -secretly cleared the way by obtaining from the Pope a -dispensation to enable these cousins to marry. Armed -with this, but acting ostensibly in the Norwegian interest, he contrived -to bring about a meeting at Salisbury between commissioners -on the part of Eric, of the Scotch government, and of himself, at which -it was agreed that the young Queen should be received in Scotland -free of matrimonial engagements, but pledged not to marry except by -the advice of Edward and with the consent of her father. Almost immediately -after this, the plan of the marriage was made public, and -was at once willingly accepted by the Scotch, who were anxious to -be saved from a civil war, but who, while accepting it, -took care, at a parliament held at Brigham in 1290, to -guard with scrupulous care the independence of the -kingdom.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Invitation to -Edward to -settle the -succession.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of the -Maid.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of the -Queen.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Meeting at -Norham. -1291.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was not exactly thus that Edward understood the treaty. He at -once despatched Anthony Beck, Bishop of Durham, to act in unison -with the guardians of Scotland, as Lieutenant of Queen Margaret and -her husband, at the same time demanding possession of the royal -castles, ostensibly for the purpose of preserving the peace of the kingdom. -The governors of the castles declined to give them up, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -seven great Earls wrote to Edward, as though to a superior, begging -him to curb the power of the regency, while, on the -other hand, a member of the regency, the Bishop of -St. Andrews, also wrote, begging Edward to approach the -border to assist in keeping order, and to appoint a king if the rumour -which had been spread of the death of the Maid of Norway should -prove true. The report was true, Margaret had died on -her journey from Norway in the Orkney islands; and -acting on these two letters, which he construed as an invitation, -Edward summoned a meeting at Norham, to be held after Easter -1291. The delay was probably occasioned by a heavy blow which -had fallen on Edward. In November he had lost his much loved -wife Eleanor. It is one of his titles to our respect, that in a licentious -age he was remarkably pure, and that no word was ever -breathed against his perfect fidelity as a husband. After -a period of bitter sorrow, and a pompous funeral, each stage of the -journey being subsequently marked by a beautiful cross, he returned -again in the following year to his Scotch plans. At -that meeting he put forward his claim as superior and -overlord of the kingdom, saying that it lay with him in -that capacity to put an end to discord. He ended by asking that his -title should be acknowledged, in order that he might act freely. A -delay of three weeks was demanded, at which time the assembly -met again on Scotch ground opposite the Castle of Norham. An -answer seems to have been meanwhile sent, but the King had -regarded it as not to the point; and at the assembly itself no -objections were raised to his claim. All the competitors acknowledged -his authority in set words, and the case was put into Edward’s -hands.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward’s -supremacy -allowed.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The claimants.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward gives a -just verdict. -1292.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Balliol accepts -the throne as a -vassal.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Scotland appeals -to the -English Courts. -1293.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The appeals not -pressed to -extremities.</div> -</div> - -<p>There were a great number of claimants; but three only established -a case worth consideration. These were Bruce, Balliol, -and Hastings. The claims of all these went back to David -I. This king had three grandsons; Malcolm IV., who was childless, -William the Lion, whose direct descendants had just come to an end, -and David, Earl of Huntingdon, from whom all three -claimants were descended. He had had three daughters; -Margaret, the eldest, whose grandson was Balliol, Isabella, the second, -whose son was Bruce, Ada, the third, whose grandson was Hastings. -Besides these three, Comyn was also a grandson of Margaret, but -being a son of a second daughter, his claims were obviously inferior to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> -those of Balliol.<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> To decide these claims, Edward, as lord superior, -established a great court; forty of Bruce’s friends, forty of Balliol’s, -and twenty-four members on the part of Edward, were to constitute -it. Edward seems to have proceeded with the full intention -of giving a just and legal judgment, and after -several meetings, in November 1292, a decision was -arrived at in favour of John Balliol. Meanwhile, during the settlement -of the question, Edward had taken possession of the Scotch -castles, had appointed the great officers of the kingdom, and had -caused the regents to exact an oath of fealty to him as -superior lord. The new King accepted the throne distinctly -as a vassal of England, and finally, to make his -dependence perfectly clear, did homage after his coronation. He did -not find his new position free from difficulty. He found that the letter -of the feudal law to which he owed his elevation could be turned -against himself. It was indeed unnatural to expect the Scotch -to submit to the inconveniences without claiming the advantages of -that law. Balliol had not been long on the throne before they asserted -that, if he was a vassal, appeals would lie from his -judgments to the English courts. In the following -year two or three such appeals were made, one from a -goldsmith, and one from Macduff, Earl of Fife. When summoned -to appear before the English courts, Balliol refused to -come. He made his appearance however at the Parliament held in -the autumn of 1293, and there declared that, as King of Scotland, he -could not act without the advice of his people. A delay was given<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -him for the purpose of consulting his parliament; he did not take -advantage of it. The case of Macduff was therefore given against -him by the English baronage in his presence. He was fined to Macduff -700 marks, to Edward 10,000. On the protest of Balliol, a fresh -delay was allowed, nor does Edward seem to have been -in any way disposed to do more than make good his -legal position. It is plain, however that the position -of vassal king, with its awkward and probably unexpected incidents, -disgusted Balliol; and political events soon enabled him to make his -displeasure felt.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Quarrel with -France.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward outwitted. -Gascony -occupied. -1294.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">First true -Parliament.</div> -</div> - -<p>Philip IV., the new King of France, was as legal in his mind as -Edward, but more dishonest. It was as plain to him that it was -desirable to unite France by annexing Guienne, as it -was to Edward that it was advantageous to England to -annex Scotland. They set about their designs in somewhat the same -way. The sea was at this time regarded as a sort of no man’s land, -where incessant fighting little short of piracy was allowable. There -were plenty of instances of battles between English and French -merchant-ships. The Normans are said to have infested the whole -coast of France from Holland to Spain. The Cinque Ports mariners -were probably not much behind them. At last a formal meeting was -arranged in 1293, where the matter was to be fought out. An empty -chip marked the point of contest, and there the fleets of France and -England fought a great battle, which terminated in the defeat of the -French. Edward, who knew Philip’s character and the resources of -the feudal law, was anxious to do what he could to clear himself of -complicity in the quarrel; but no representations of his were attended -to by the French King, and Philip summoned him to appear before -the French Parliament. As the English offenders were not given -up, and as Edward declined to appear, the Constable of France took -possession in the King’s name of Edward’s French provinces. With -much more important matters in hand, and with the knowledge probably -of what Balliol’s conduct was going to be, Edward tried all he -could to settle the matter peacefully. He sent over to France his -brother Edmund, whose wife<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> was the mother of the French Queen. -Through the instrumentality of these Queens a treaty was arranged, -by which the summons to Paris was annulled, and a -personal meeting at Amiens arranged, pending which the -strongholds of Gascony were to be put in Philip’s -hands. Edmund withdrew the English army, and dismissed the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> -commander, St. John, and at the same time demanded a safe conduct -for his brother at the proposed meeting. But Philip refused the -safe conduct, declared himself dissatisfied with the surrender of the -towns, and refused to leave the country which he had occupied. -Fresh insulting messages were sent to Edward, and, in 1294, Edmund -returned to England, and war became necessary. Great preparations -were made; alliances were formed on the north-east of France; -money was granted by Parliament. This proving insufficient, no less -than half their property was demanded from the clergy. An insurrection -in Wales, and the news that an alliance had been formed -between Philip and the Scotch, rendered the preparations useless.</p> - -<p>It was plain to Edward that it was worth risking his foreign -dominions to consolidate his power as King of Great Britain. For -the present, therefore, he left Gascony alone, and turned his arms -against Scotland. Engaged at once in a war with France, with Scotland, -and with Wales, he found it necessary to raise supplies from all -branches of his subjects. A genuine Parliament was -therefore called in October, in which all estates were -represented, and which has been considered the true origin of our -Parliament as it now exists. The three Estates granted the supply as -different orders; and it was not without difficulty that the clergy, -suffering from the late enormous exaction, were induced to grant him -a tenth. The other estates seem to have come readily to his assistance -at this great crisis.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward marches -into Scotland. -1296.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Defeat of Scotch -at Dunbar.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Submission of -Balliol and -Scotland.</div> -</div> - -<p>In March a large army was assembled at Newcastle, and while the -Scotch crossed the borders and ravaged Cumberland -with savage ferocity,<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Edward pushed forward into -Scotland. In three days Berwick was captured. While -still before that place, he received from Balliol, who seems to have -been under some constraint, renunciation of his allegiance; and -before the end of April brought his army, under the Earl of Surrey -and Warrenne, to Dunbar. The Scotch advanced to meet him, -occupying the higher ground; but foolishly mistaking the movements -of the English army in the valley for a flight, -they left their strong position, and were hopelessly -routed, with a loss of 10,000 men. This battle decided the fate of -Scotland. Several of the great Earls and many knights were taken -prisoners. The King met no further opposition in his march through -Edinburgh to Perth. On the 10th of July, Balliol made his submission,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -was allowed to live under supervision in the Tower of London, -whence he afterwards proceeded to Normandy; and -Edward henceforth acted no longer as feudal superior, -but as King. At a Parliament held at Berwick, he received -the fealty of the clergy, gentry, and barons of Scotland, whose -names, filling thirty-five skins of parchment, are still preserved among -the English archives. Scotland was left as much as possible in its -old condition, but the Earl of Warenne and Surrey was made -Guardian; Hugh de Cressingham, Treasurer; William of Ormsby, -Justiciary; and an Exchequer was established in the English fashion. -At the same time the coronation stone of Scone was removed to -Westminster, where it still is. Edward had thus completed his first -conquest of Scotland. Both legally and politically, his conduct is -justifiable. The consolidation of Great Britain was a most desirable -object. The French alliance, the invasion of England, and the -renunciation of vassalage, constituted by feudal law a sufficient cause -for confiscating the possessions of a vassal prince. But this leaves -untouched the question, how far it is right to annex a free people -against their will? It must be remembered that the submission of -Scotland had been made by the nobility only, who were in fact -Normans, and many of them English Barons.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Refusal of the -clergy to grant -subsidies. -Nov. 3. 1296.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Clergy outlawed.</div> -</div> - -<p>Freed from danger on the side of Scotland, Edward was now at -liberty to turn his attention towards France. But his late exertions had -caused great expenditure, to which had been added the subsidies by -which he had been compelled to purchase the alliance of the Princes -on the north-east of France. To meet this necessity, a Parliament -was summoned at Bury St. Edmunds, at which the -Barons and Commons gave fresh grants. But the -clergy, driven to extremity by the King’s late demands -upon them, found themselves in a position to refuse. Benedict of -Gaita had lately been elected Pope, under the title of Boniface VIII., -and had at once entered upon a policy resembling that of the great -Popes of the twelfth century. He had issued a Bull known by the -name of “Clericis Laicos,” in which he had forbidden the clergy to pay -taxes to their temporal sovereign. Backed by this authority, Archbishop -Winchelsea refused in the name of the clergy to make any -grant to Edward. The clergy, it was said, owed allegiance to two -sovereigns—the one temporal, the other spiritual. Their obedience -was due first to their spiritual chief. An exemption from taxation -of the Church, which had rapidly been growing enormously wealthy, -would have crippled Edward’s resources. He had already accepted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -the principle, that all should be consulted and all pay in matters -touching the advantage of all. He proceeded at once, therefore, to -meet the claim in his usual legal fashion. If the clergy would not -help him, he would not protect the clergy. The Chief Justice was -ordered to announce publicly from the bench in Westminster -Hall, that no justice would be done the clergy -in the King’s Court, but would nevertheless be done to all manner of -persons who had any complaint against them. Nor was this sentence -of outlawry a vain one; the tenants began at once to refuse to pay their -rents, the Church property was seized, and the owners could get no -redress. This severe treatment induced many of the clergy to make -their submission, but the Archbishop still held out.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Barons too -refuse to help -Edward.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Compromise -with the clergy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward secures -an illegal grant.</div> -</div> - -<p>Matters thus remained till another Parliament met at Salisbury -in February 1297, when, the Barons only being summoned, the -King explained his plan for the war with France. He was under -pledge to pay subsidies, and to bring an army to his allies in Flanders. -This army he would personally command. He wished his Constable -and Marshall, the Earls of Hereford and Norfolk, to take charge of a -second army destined for Guienne. These two noblemen positively refused. -They had learnt law from their King, and alleged -as their excuse, which was evidently only a technical one, -that they were only bound to follow the King in person. -They then withdrew from the Assembly, which broke up, with nothing -done. The King, in want of money, gave free vent to his arbitrary -temper, seized the wool of his merchants, and ordered large requisitions -of provisions to be made in the counties, for which, however, he promised -future payment. In the following March, Winchelsea had a -personal interview with the King, in which he appears to have -arranged some sort of temporary compromise; for immediately -afterwards a meeting of the clergy was held, in -which he recommended them to act each for himself as best he could. -Determined to proceed in spite of all opposition, the King summoned -the whole military force of the kingdom to meet him at London on -the 7th of July. There the Earls still refused to do their duty, and -fresh officers were appointed in their place. The King reconciled -himself with the clergy, and appointed the Archbishop one of the -counsellors who were to act as advisers to his young son Edward, in -whose hands he left the government. He also induced -those nobles and Commons who were with him, though -in no sense a Parliament, to make him a money grant. They gave him -an eighth of the moveables of the barons and knights, a fifth of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -cities and boroughs. This grant was given expressly for a promised -confirmation of the charters. This seems to show what the real point -at issue was. The King’s excessive arbitrary taxation had aroused -the old feeling which had produced the baronial wars of the preceding -reign. The clergy were also asked for a grant in a convocation -held upon the 10th of August. It was there decided that there was -good hope that leave would be given them to make a grant. On this -the King acted, and ordered a levy of what amounted to a fifth on all -their revenue, both temporal and spiritual.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">The Earls demand -the confirmation -of the -charters.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">It is granted -with reservations.</div> -</div> - -<p>Shortly after this, he received the demands of the refractory Earls, -complaining of the non-observance of the charters, of the tallages, -aids and requisitions, and of the tax on wool. Declining to give an -answer at present, on the 22nd of August he set sail for Flanders. -On the very next day the Earls appeared in the Exchequer Chamber, -and peremptorily forbad the collection of the irregularly -granted eighth, until the charters had been signed which -had been the express condition of the grant. The necessity -for concession had become obvious, and in a Parliament summoned -on the 6th of October, the promised confirmation was given -by the Prince. The Earls, who appeared in arms, with troops, -insisted upon the addition of some supplementary clauses, which have -since been known as the statute “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De tallagio non concedendo.</span>” -They further demanded that the late grant should be considered -illegal; it was therefore cancelled, and a new constitutional grant of -a ninth was made in its place. Prince Edward’s confirmation -was renewed by the King in person at Ghent. -It was again renewed, in 1299, with an unsatisfactory -clause “saving the rights of the Crown,” which the King was obliged -subsequently to remove, and finally, in 1301, at the Parliament -of Lincoln. The charters thus confirmed were the amended charter -of Henry III., the additions to it were contained in the supplementary -articles of the two Earls, which forbid what had hitherto -been undoubtedly constitutional, the arbitrary tallaging of towns -and taxing of wool. They contained however a clause “saving the -old rights of the King,” and Edward took advantage of this afterwards, -in 1304, to continue the old wool-tax and to tallage the towns -in his own domain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Appearance of -Wallace.</div> - -<p>It was the dangerous condition of his affairs which induced the -King to yield to the pressure of the Barons; for in the spring of -1297, Wallace had made his appearance in Scotland. The younger -son of a small proprietor in Elderslie, and without means -of his own, he had established his fame as a guerilla -leader. In the woods and mountains he collected a band of outlaws, -with whom he attacked isolated parties of English, all of whom were -at once put to death. His cruelties especially against the nuns and -priests are described as most revolting. Cressingham, Treasurer of -Scotland, foolishly despised him, and thus allowed the insurrection -to gain head. He was joined by Sir William Douglas; but on the -whole was both disliked and despised by the Scotch nobility. At -length, as his followers had increased to an army, and threatened the -fortress of Stirling, it became necessary to take measures against him. -Warrenne, Earl of Surrey, and Cressingham, raised an army, and -advanced to the Forth. The armies met early in September at -Cambuskenneth, near Stirling. The river is there spanned by a -narrow bridge, at the north end of which the Scotch were strongly -posted. With overweening folly, Cressingham insisted on an immediate -advance across the bridge. The natural consequence followed; -when a small portion of the English had crossed, and were thus cut -off from support, the Scotch fell on them and completely routed them. -Warrenne, an old and feeble man, took to hasty flight, and the army -was in fact destroyed. This victory was followed up by a fierce -invasion of the north of England. Wallace seems to have collected -troops by violent means; he then led them across the English border, -and sweeping it lengthwise from Newcastle to Carlisle, “he left -nothing behind him but blood and ashes.”<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> His cruelties were indeed -beyond description, and could not but have filled the English with -horror, something akin to that which the English in India must have -felt at the outbreak of the mutiny.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Treaty with -France. -1299.</div> - -<p>Edward’s expedition to Flanders had been a failure. The people -in the cities, angry with his interference in the wool trade, were -opposed to him; his allies had been tampered with by -Philip, who had also won a victory over them at Furnes; -the Pope was urging peace; and Edward, who always -regarded his French affairs as secondary, made a truce before the end -of the year 1297, which two years afterwards ripened under the -arbitration of Boniface to the Treaty of Chartres. By that treaty, -Guienne was restored to the English King, who withdrew his support<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -from his Flemish allies; while Philip in return gave up the cause of -the Scotch. The treaty was cemented by a double marriage. Edward -himself married Margaret, the French King’s sister; while his -son Edward was betrothed to Isabella, Philip’s daughter.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward returns -and invades -Scotland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Defeats Wallace -at Falkirk.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Comyn’s -regency.</div> -</div> - -<p>Shortly after his return, Edward advanced to revenge the insults -of Wallace, who had meantime unwisely taken the title of the -Guardian of the Kingdom, thus still further exciting the -jealousy of the nobles. He retired before the English -army, laying waste the country behind him, and Edward -had almost been starved into a retreat, when two Scotch Earls told -him that Wallace was in the woods in his immediate neighbourhood. -Edward at once advanced to meet him. Wallace, with his infantry -formed into solid squares, awaited his attack. Such horse as he had -fled without striking a blow. The arrows of the English archers -broke the squares, and the 7000 heavy armed English cavalry had no -difficulty in completing the victory. Wallace fled, and -resumed his outlaw’s life, nor does he again play a -prominent part in history. In 1305, he was betrayed by one of his -own followers named Jack Short to Sir John Monteith, by whom he -was given up to the English King, and suffered death, with all the -extreme penalties of the law.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> The bitter feeling his outrages had -caused in England made any other fate impossible. But though -Wallace sinks into obscurity, his work had not been -without effect. The southern counties were so ravaged -that the King could not maintain an army there, and had to retire -from the country, which passed into the hands of a temporary -regency, at the head of which was Comyn.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Parliament of -Lincoln.</div> - -<p>For several years the steps taken for the reduction of Scotland -were marked by great weakness. Edward’s energy was paralyzed, -partly by the affairs in France, partly by questions arising with -regard to the charters in England. Frequent complaints had been -raised with regard to infringements of the Charter of Forests. It was -to settle these complaints, and to discuss an extraordinary claim -raised by Pope Boniface, that a Parliament was assembled -at Lincoln in 1301. With regard to the charter the -King yielded, and a considerable disafforesting of districts illegally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -included within the limits of the forests took place. Pleased with the -King’s constitutional conduct, the baronage joined heartily in the -rejection of the Papal claim. Boniface had issued a mandate desiring -the King to abstain from all further attacks on Scotland, “which -did and doth still belong in full right to the Church of Rome.” This -mandate was delivered while Edward was in Scotland, and Boniface’s -position as arbiter between Edward and the King of France prevented -him from at once rejecting it. It is probable that Boniface was -only asserting his position as guardian of international law, but -the English treated the claim as serious. When it was brought before -Parliament, the baronage replied that the kingdom of Scotland never -had belonged to the See of Rome, and that they, the Barons of England, -would not allow Edward, even if he wished it, to surrender the -rights of the Crown. It was not till 1303 that Edward was able to -resume his conquest of that kingdom. Early in that year he ordered -his Barons to assist John Segrave, Governor of Scotland, in marching -from Berwick to Edinburgh. But that General mismanaged his march, -and as he approached Roslin on the way to Edinburgh, in three divisions, -he was fallen upon by Comyn, and his army defeated in detail.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Fresh invasion -of Scotland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Second conquest -of Scotland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Bruce murders -Comyn, and -rebels.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Preparations for -fourth invasion.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward’s death -near Carlisle.</div> -</div> - -<p>The King had thus much to revenge when, in June, he began his -march. On this occasion he was accompanied by a fleet -to bring his supplies. He thus avoided the difficulty -which the desolate state of the country had hitherto presented. He -pushed onward into the far North. On returning he took up his -abode for a time in Dunfermline. Most of the Scotch Barons there -sought and obtained pardon, and at length Comyn, who had been the -leader of the rebellion, made a treaty in Fife, by which the Lords -agreed to suffer any pecuniary fine Edward thought fit, and the -castles and government were to be in Edward’s hands. One stronghold -only refused to obey this treaty. Sir William Oliphant held -the fortress of Stirling, and it required three months to -reduce its gallant defenders to submission. This was the -last opposition Edward had to fear; he at once admitted the Scotch -to pardon, and settled the country, placing his chief confidence -apparently in Wishart, Bishop of St. Andrews, John de Mowbray -and Robert Bruce. It was soon seen how little reliance could be put -on the first and last of these Commissioners.</p> - -<p>Robert Bruce was the grandson of the claimant of the Scotch -throne; his grandfather had been an English judge, his father a -constant friend of Edward. It was only by marriage that the family -had acquired the estates of Carrick and Annandale. He was therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -to all intents and purposes an Englishman, or rather a Norman -Baron, possessed of that peculiar characteristic of the race which -rendered it in fact a race of adventurers, with the constant hope of -winning great things before their minds. The instances of Norman -Barons who had won earldoms, kingdoms and empires, were too -numerous not to have had effect upon aspiring members of the race. -Bruce had up to this time played a somewhat vacillating game, but -on the whole, perhaps because of his feud with Balliol, he had -remained faithful to Edward. He seems now to have thought his -opportunity had arrived. It may perhaps have been the King’s -growing infirmities that encouraged him. At all events, -early in February 1306, he murdered in the church of -Dumfries Comyn, who, in accordance with the interpretation -of the law which Edward had recognized, stood next to the -Balliols in succession to the Scotch throne, and who, since he had last -submitted to Edward, had been true to him. Bruce then, joined by -a few nobles, raised the standard of revolt. He proceeded at once to -Scone, and there, in March, was crowned by Wishart and other of -Edward’s Commissioners. This unexpected insurrection from those -whom he had trusted roused Edward to extreme anger. With great -pomp, at a meeting at Westminster, he knighted his son, and took a -solemn oath to avenge John Comyn’s death. Carlisle -was the point of rendezvous, but already Bruce had been -defeated at Methven near Perth by Aymer de Valence, Earl of -Pembroke, and was wandering barefoot and in misery among the -hills and woods of the country. He was reduced to demand the pity -of the King, but was refused; and a severe ordinance was issued that -all abettors of the murder of Comyn should be hanged, and that all -those who assisted Bruce should be imprisoned. The ordinance was -carried out with severity. Nigel Bruce, two Seatons, the Earl of -Athole and Simon Fraser, were all executed, and the Countess of -Buchan, who had crowned Bruce, was imprisoned, with ironical -cruelty, in a crown-shaped cage. But Bruce himself was not taken, -and issuing from his fastnesses, he inflicted many losses by surprise -upon the English. He even in his turn defeated the Earl of Pembroke, -and shortly after the Earl of Gloucester; and -Edward was rousing himself to attack him, though -scarcely able to mount his horse, when he died upon the march.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Constitutional -importance of -the reign.</div> - -<p>The mere narration of the political facts of the reign, although it -brings out prominently much of Edward’s greatness, gives no idea -of the real constitutional importance of his work. Not only was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -he the first truly English King, both by his circumstances and political -views, but he became, in virtue of his love of order and -legal arrangement, the completer of the English Constitution. -In the first place, it is to him that we owe the perfection -of the Parliamentary system, of the complete representation -in Parliament of the three Estates of the realm, the Lords, Commons, -and Clergy. For it is plain that it was his intention to combine the -three, although the clergy refused to accede to his wish, and preferred -to tax themselves separately in Convocation; a body which however, as -will be afterwards seen, also owes its representative arrangements to him. -The gradual introduction of the representative system of the counties -has been mentioned. Again and again, on special occasions, knights, -to represent the shire and to give information with regard to their -counties, had been summoned. Simon de Montfort had even introduced -representation of the boroughs; but this was regarded as wholly exceptional. -Nevertheless, Edward was not long in seeing both the justice -and advantage of the system. In the first Parliament of his reign, -when enacting the first great Statute of Westminster, a healing and -restorative measure applicable to the whole country, he said that he -made it with the consent of the <em>commonalty</em>; there were possibly -representatives of the counties present; more probably their consent -was arrived at in some other way. At the same time, the high view -which he took of his own constitutional position is marked by a change -in the ordinary form of enactment. Statutes had hitherto been enacted -“by the counsel and consent of Parliament.” The alteration of a few -letters changed the meaning of this phrase. The present statute was -said to be enacted “by the King by the advice of his Council and the -assent of Parliament.” The legislative power was thus made to reside -in the King and his Council. It is the power thus claimed which -gave rise to the legislative, or rather the ordaining power claimed by -the King in Council, which was afterwards frequently complained -of by the Parliament. But Edward, in spite of these pretensions, -accepted the view that all should be consulted where the interests of all -were at stake. This was of course chiefly in the matter of taxation, -and the convenience as well as the justice of the method which Simon -de Montfort had set on foot soon became evident to his mind. -From the beginning of this reign, the method of taxation had been -changed. Instead of an aid, raised from the land, it had become a -subsidy raised by an assessment on the moveables of the people. -Most frequently the proportion granted was a tenth or fifteenth, but -in these early times every variety of proportion was granted. As yet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -however, these taxes had been collected locally in accordance with -arrangements made by Exchequer officers, sheriffs, or the county court. -In 1282, the King, being in want of money for his Welsh wars, proceeded -by his ordinary method. The sums raised locally were insufficient; -while his Barons were with him at the wars it was inconvenient to -hold a Parliament; writs were issued therefore to the sheriffs and -archbishops to collect their two Estates, the Commons and the clergy, -at two centres, York and Northampton. At these meetings were present -four representative knights from each county, and all freeholders -of more than one knight’s fee. The Commons made their grant of a -thirtieth. The assemblies of the clergy declined, until the parochial -clergy were represented. For this purpose the election of Proctors -was then ordered, and they have since formed a regular part of the -Convocation. These negotiations were not completed when what -is called the Parliament of Acton Burnell was summoned to settle -the affairs of Wales. At that meeting there were present no clergy, -and representatives of twenty towns only, summoned separately. -In 1290, a further proof is given that for taxation by subsidy the -representation of the Commons was beginning to be considered -necessary. In that year an old-fashioned feudal aid was granted for -the marriage of the King’s daughter. It was granted by the baronage -for the whole commonalty, and was in the old form of land-tax, -but the Commons being subsequently present, it was changed -at their request to a fifteenth. It was possible for the baronage -to grant the aid upon military tenants, but the rest of the -people could not be reached. Two principles had by this time been -established,—that the clergy should be fully represented, and that -for subsidies upon the whole kingdom it was both convenient -and just that the Commons should in some way be represented; -but it was not yet held necessary for feudal matters, or for questions -touching the baronage only, that the Commons should be -present. Indeed, at this very Parliament, the statute “Quia Emptores” -was passed by the Barons before the Commons assembled. -All these preparatory steps found their completion in the Parliament -of 1295, when writs were issued to the Archbishops to appear -themselves, and to send Proctors to Westminster; to the Prelates and -Barons, as Peers, and to the sheriffs, summoning the knights of the -counties, and two burghers from each town.<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> There was thus a -Parliament complete in all its parts, such as it has since remained. -We must not suppose, however, that the Estates acted in common, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -that the Commons had much voice in the deliberation. At this very -Parliament of 1295, the grant of each order was different, nor was it -till 1318, in Edward II.’s reign, that the Commons can be considered -as perfectly incorporated in the Legislative Assembly. The constitutional -view at present was, that the King, with the assent of -his Barons, granted the petitions of the Commons and the Clergy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Great statutes -of the reign.</div> - -<p>The great statutes which were passed in these various Parliaments -must now be mentioned. Those which were of most general -national interest were the First Statute of Westminster, -which, as has been before said, revived and re-established -the old constitutions of the country, and limited the -employment of feudal aids; and the Statute of Winchester, passed -in 1285, which was a re-enactment and completion of the Assize -of Arms established by Henry II., and aimed at once at the defence -and police of the country. It laid upon the counties, under heavy -penalties, the duty of indicting felons and robbers, ordered the -police arrangements of walled towns, the enlargement and clearing -of the edges of public roads, and further defined the arms which -each class of the population was bound to procure for the preservation -of the land. Constables and justices were to be appointed -to see to the proper observance of this statute, from whom subsequently -grew the justices of the peace. Some such statute was -indeed very necessary, and even its stringent provisions were not -sufficient to establish order. In 1305, England was full of riotous -outlaws, who were willing to hire themselves out for purposes of -private outrage when they were not plying their own trade of -robbery; these were known by the name of “trail-bâtons.” To -suppress them it was found necessary to issue commissions to -travelling justices, empowering them to act summarily towards such -breakers of the peace. Their strictness is mentioned in the political -songs of the day. It was impossible, it was said, any longer to beat -your children, you were at once punished as a trail-bâton.<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> Even the -stringency of these measures of suppression mark Edward’s love -of order. Lastly, must be mentioned the great Acts for the confirmation -of the charters, which are sometimes regarded as the statute “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De -tallagio non concedendo.</span>” From this time forward arbitrary tallages, -though occasionally used, began to be regarded as illegal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> - -<p>There were also two great statutes bearing almost entirely upon -the feudal relations of landed proprietors. The first was the statute -of “Quia Emptores” (1290), which forbad subinfeudation and -the formation of new manors. Its original object was to prevent feudal -lords from being defrauded of their dues. Henceforward, property -alienated ceased to belong in any sense to the subordinate grantor, and -returned to the property of the lord superior of the whole estate. The -effect, unforeseen by the enacters, was to increase the number of independent -gentry holding immediately from the crown or from the great -lords. The second statute is known by the name of the Second Statute -of Westminster, or “De donis conditionalibus.” When an estate had -been given to a man and to his children, it had hitherto been held -sufficient that the child should be born. The estate had then -become the absolute property of the man to whom it had been -granted, and he could alienate it at his will. It was now enacted -that he had but a life interest in it, that if his children were not -living at his death, it reverted to the original grantor. Thus was -established the power of entail. There remains one great statute to -be mentioned, the Statute of Mortmain. This was aimed against the -increasing power and wealth of the Church, and against a legal trick -by which laymen had freed themselves from feudal liabilities. It had -become a custom to give property to the Church and to receive it -back as tenant of the Church, thus freed from obligation to lay -superiors. At the same time, even though this device was not used, -the accumulation of property in the hands of the Church withdrew it -from many feudal duties. It passed, it was said, “in mortuam -manum”—into a dead hand. All transactions by which lands or -tenements could in any way pass into mortmain were now forbidden. -The same spirit which produced these laws had been felt in the administration -of justice, where the three courts of Exchequer, King’s Bench -and Common Pleas were finally separated, and each provided with a -full staff of officials. Even from this short sketch of the work of -Edward I. may be gathered the great constitutional importance of -the reign.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="EDWARD_II" id="EDWARD_II">EDWARD II.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1307–1327.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_197.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_197.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1284 = Isabella of France. - | - +-----------+------------+--+-----------------+ - | | | | - Edward III. John, Earl of Joan = David II. Eleanor = Duke of - Cornwall. Gueldres. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - Robert I., 1306. | Philip IV., 1285. | Albert, 1298. | Ferdinand IV., - | Louis X., 1314. | Henry VII., 1308. | 1295. - | Philip V., 1316. | Louis IV., 1313. | Alphonso XI., - | Charles IV., 1322. | | 1312. - - POPES.--Clement V., 1305. Vacancy for two years. John XXII., 1316. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chancellors._ - | - Robert of Winchelsea, | John Langton, 1307. John de Salmon, 1320. - 1308–1313. | Walter Reynolds, 1310. Robert de Baldock, 1323. - Walter Reynolds, | John de Sandale, 1314. Adam de Orleton, 1327. - 1313–1327. | John de Hotham, 1318. - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><em>Note.</em>—The names of the Justiciaries, who now became legal rather than political -officers, are no longer given. Throughout, the names under the head of Spain are those -of the Kings of Castile.</p></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap">The reign of Edward II. affords the best apology for any -excessive exertions of power which can be laid to the charge of -Edward I. It is plain that there existed a readiness on the part of -the nobles to take advantage of any weakness in the government of -their ruler; on the part of the clergy to reclaim the liberties of their -order; and of the lower classes to find a popular hero in every -opponent of the government. It would seem indeed that there was -no alternative between a strong and practically despotic government -and anarchy. It was not till the feudal barons of England had had -their fill of anarchy in the Wars of the Roses, and had destroyed themselves, -that constitutional government, in our sense of the word, had -a chance of existence, and our sympathies are constantly divided -between the Church and barons, whose efforts alone promised freedom, -and the power of the encroaching ruler, who alone ensured order. -For the weakling who could secure neither one nor the other we can -feel no sympathy. In the reign of Edward II. we feel as if we had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -fallen back again to the time of his grandfather. The great question -at issue throughout is the same—Shall foreigners, or indeed any other -king-chosen favourites, supersede the national oligarchy of great -barons? The constant prominence of this question (which in the -present reign was further embittered by the personal character of one -at least of the favourites) renders it very difficult to distinguish the -part played by real patriotic demands for good government and for -constitutional limits to the royal power. It is pretty clear that the -favourites were the chief cause of the disturbances of the reign; but, -on the other hand, the evident advantages offered by some of the -baronial claims, and the love of the populace, who ranked even -Lancaster with its saints, compel us to believe that these turbulent -disturbers of the peace were worthy of some sympathy.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward’s -friendship for -Gaveston.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Barons demand -his dismissal. -March 3, 1308.</div> -</div> - -<p>When the late King died in the neighbourhood of Carlisle, he -believed that the war with Scotland would have been carried on by -his son, of whom he was very fond; while he thought he had secured -him from that danger which he had already foreseen would beset his -reign, by insisting on the dismissal of his favourite, Piers Gaveston. -Gaveston was a young man of Gascon or Basque origin, -of greater refinement apparently than the rough barons -of England, their equal, if not their superior, in martial -exercises, and possessing those courtly tastes for music and the arts -which marked the young King. But Edward disappointed his -father’s hopes. He had already (before his father had insisted on the -dismissal of Gaveston) gone so far as to beg for him, though in vain, -the royal county of Ponthieu. On his father’s death he immediately -recalled him. A hasty and ineffectual march into Scotland, where -Aymer de Valence was left as lieutenant, was all that came of the -great preparations at Carlisle, and the King’s mind seemed to be -occupied in lavishing favours on his friend. He gave him the Earldom -of Cornwall, hitherto an appanage of some royal prince. He -seized the property of Walter, Bishop of Lichfield, who in the late -reign had opposed him in his office as treasurer, and bestowed it on -Gaveston; and after that young man had, by his ostentation, by his -success in the lists, and by a reckless use of his happy gift of applying -nicknames, excited the anger of the great nobles, Edward was foolish -enough, on leaving England to do homage for his French dominions, -to leave him as Governor of the country. Consequently, no sooner -was he crowned than the Barons demanded in Parliament -the dismissal of the favourite. The demand could not -be refused, and Edward promised to accede to it, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -proved at the same time how determined he was to evade his promise, -by not only bestowing fresh grants on Gaveston, but by appointing -him Lord Deputy of Ireland. There for a year he reigned with -almost royal power.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Gaveston’s -return.</div> - -<p>The quarrel thus begun became the chief question of the reign. All -other matters, even the conquest of Scotland, were subordinated -to it; and while it was continuing, Bruce was quietly subduing -fortress after fortress, and subjugating the whole south of Scotland. -In the following year, the King still further showed his untrustworthiness -by receiving Gaveston back in England. He -met him with great marks of affection at Chester, having -probably had recourse already to that dangerous expedient, a -Papal dispensation from his promises. In fact, again like his grandfather, -Edward found it expedient throughout his reign to keep on -very friendly terms with the Pope, and to back his authority by the -undefined power which the Head of the Church still wielded. It has -been seen how even his great father was unable to resist this temptation. -Clement V., an obsequious servant of the French King, and -reigning at Avignon, was very different from the formidable Boniface -VIII. There was no difficulty in persuading him to renew the old -alliance with the sovereign which placed the Church at his mercy. -Moreover, at this time he was anxious, in the interests of his master, -to procure Edward’s co-operation in the unprincipled destruction of -the order of the Temple. Philip IV. of France, urged by an avaricious -desire to confiscate the vast property of this order, had set on -foot the most extraordinary reports of their licentiousness and blasphemy. -In October 1307, all their establishments were laid hands -on, the inmates imprisoned, their wealth confiscated. He then, in -union with the Pope, begged all his neighbours to adopt a similar -course. Edward II. consented, and in January 1308, all the Templars -in England were imprisoned. They were tried by the Church on the -accusation of the Pope. In France, torture, and the skill of Philip’s -lawyers, had produced certain confessions, on which the King acted, -and the Order was there destroyed, its Grand Master, James de Molé, -being burnt as a heretic. In England, not even torture, which was -now first used,<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> could produce any important revelations. The inquiries -lasted till 1311. Eventually, certain supposed proofs of heterodoxy -having been produced, some of the Knights were confined in monasteries, -the Order suppressed, and their property given to the Hospitallers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">General -discontent -and Statute -of Stamford.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Appointment of -the Lords -Ordainers.</div> -</div> - -<p>The effect of Gaveston’s return, and the renewal of Papal influence, -was of course to increase the discontent, till, on the 27th -of July, at a Parliament held at Stamford, the King -was compelled to give his consent to a statute of reform. -By this the first Statute of Westminster was renewed, the undue -power exercised by the constables of the royal castles, and the extortions -of the officers of the royal household, were checked; all old -taxes upon wool and hides beyond the legal customs were removed; -while, at the same time, a general letter was directed to the Pope, -begging him to abstain from his exactions. The storm continued to -rise. Very shortly after this, the great Earls of Lancaster, Lincoln, -Warwick, and others, refused to appear at a meeting at York, if -Gaveston were present. A meeting summoned in London at the -beginning of the following year met with no better success. The -Barons threatened to appear in arms if they appeared at all. The -King, in fear, concealed Gaveston for a time; the Barons then indeed -came, but came only to demand a complete reformation in the -government, to which the King was compelled to give his consent. -The precedent in his grandfather’s reign was then followed. From -the present March to Michaelmas of the following year -the government was placed in the hands of a commission -of twenty-one members, who were to produce ordinances -of general reform. Pending the production of these ordinances, -some preliminary articles were at once established. For the payment -of the King’s debts grants were to be recalled, and his expensive -housekeeping was to be limited. To satisfy the national feeling, and -in the hope of lightening the taxes, the Italian house of the Frescobaldi, -who had hitherto farmed them, was to be deprived of that advantage, -and Englishmen alone were to be employed in their collection; -and before all things, the charters of liberty were to be observed.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Useless assault -on Scotland. -1311.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Ordinances -published.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Policy of the -opposition.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Gaveston -banished.</div> -</div> - -<p>Hoping, probably, to gain popularity for himself and his favourite, -and to be thus able to get rid of the Barons’ interference, Edward -determined on an expedition to Scotland; but the great -Barons, on the plea that they were busied with their -ordinances, refused to accompany him. Some of his -immediate adherents, such as Gloucester, Warrenne, his half-brother, -Thomas, Earl of Norfolk,<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> and Gaveston, alone went with him. His -hopes of gaining popularity by victory were disappointed. The -Scotch retired before him. Though Gaveston crossed the Forth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -he could not bring on an engagement; and when the English -retreated, the Scotch hung upon their rear, and pursued their advantages -into the county of Durham. In his necessity, the King was -driven to illegal actions. He appropriated the property of the Earl -of Lincoln and of the Bishop of Durham, and taxed the province of -Canterbury. The Parliament, therefore, was in no improved temper -when Edward, leaving Gaveston in the protection of Lady de Vescy, -went to meet it in London in October. The Ordinances -were there produced. In addition to the articles already -granted, there were others which seem to explain the policy of the -opposition, and to show the chief forms of misgovernment -at that time prevalent. No war was to be carried -on without consent of Parliament;—taken in connection with the -conduct of Bohun and Bigod in the last reign, with the abstention of -the Barons from the war with Scotland, and with the treaty between -Bruce and Lancaster, which will be afterwards mentioned, this -seems to show that the Barons desired a complete settlement of -England before engaging in foreign wars. All taxes upon wool and -other exports since the coronation of Edward I. were to be removed:—the -Barons seem to have seen that export duties are a tax on production, -and are advantageous in the long run to foreign manufactures -only. The great officers of state were to be nominated with consent -of Parliament; while, to complete the system, the sheriffs, whom -Edward I. had made elective, were to be nominated by these great -officers; in other words, the royal power was to be restricted by a -baronial oligarchy. Parliament was to be held at least once a year, -which, considering that his father had held at least three Parliaments -a year, seems to show a tendency on the part of the King to arbitrary -government. Bad companions were to be removed from the King, -and his household reformed. Many of these companions are mentioned -by name, and appear to have been foreigners. The King’s -tastes had collected around him foreigners connected with display of -the arts, and on them he had lavished favours, which excited the -national feeling. But the chief attack after all was upon Gaveston, -his countryman De Beaumont, and his sister, Lady de Vescy. It was -ordered that Gaveston should leave the kingdom by the -port of Dover on the 1st of November, and never -again enter any territory belonging to the English Crown.<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">His reappearance -with -the King. -1312.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The baronial -chiefs.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Gaveston -beheaded at -Warwick.</div> -</div> - -<p>In pursuance of these Ordinances, Gaveston left England, and took<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -refuge in Flanders. But before the year was over he again appeared -in England, and joined Edward as he hurried to the North, to be, as -he believed, less within the reach of his enemies. At Knaresborough, -Edward thought himself strong enough to put forward -a proclamation declaring the banishment of Gaveston -contrary to the Constitution. He readmitted him to -favour, and restored him his property. It was even reported that he -was intriguing to secure him a retreat in Scotland. This flagrant -violation of his word set all England against the King. The old -Archbishop Winchelsea of Canterbury, as in the last reign, became a -centre of revolution; he excommunicated Gaveston, while the -Barons, at the head of whom were now the Earls of -Lancaster and Hereford, proceeded to take active measures. -This Lancaster was the eldest son of Edmund, brother of -Edward I. His power in England was enormous; he was Earl of five -counties. From his father he had received Lancaster and the -confiscated estates of De Montfort and Ferrers, the Earldoms namely -of Leicester and Derby; he had married the heiress of the De Lacys, -and upon the death of the Earl of Lincoln had succeeded to the -Earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury. He began that opposition, -which will be frequently mentioned afterwards, of the younger -branch of the Plantagenets to the reigning house. Hereford, the -son of the great Humphrey Bohun, was the hereditary chief of the -baronial party. He had married Elizabeth, the King’s sister. The -leaders of the baronial party agreed to repair to those parts of -England where they had most influence. Lancaster proceeded northwards -so rapidly, that the King had to fly before him, and was nearly -captured at Newcastle, where Gaveston’s jewels and horses fell into -Lancaster’s hands, and thence he took ship for Scarborough. Lancaster -took up his position in the middle of England, while the rest -of the baronial party besieged Gaveston in that fortress, where he was -soon obliged to surrender. This he did to the Earl of Pembroke, -who was no enemy to the King, upon a promise that if he could not -come to terms with the Barons he should be restored to Scarborough. -Pembroke persuaded him to go with him to his castle at Wallingford, -but on the way, during a temporary absence of Pembroke, he was -surprised by Warwick, who hated him for having nicknamed him -“The Black Dog,” brought to his castle of Warwick, -and there beheaded on Blacklow Hill. The King was -naturally full of anger, nor did he, in fact, ever forgive -Lancaster, but he yielded to necessity, being perhaps in a particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -good humour at the birth of a son and heir; and the Barons, who -appeared in arms at Ware, all received pardon in exchange for some -slight concessions, among others for the restoration of Gaveston’s -jewels. It was not, however, till the close of the following year that -the pardons were completed, Edward having in the meantime been -to France.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Renewal of war -with Scotland. -1314.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Bannockburn.</div> -</div> - -<p>This closes the first period of the reign, but it is plain that the -Barons were not yet satisfied. Their chief enemy was removed, but -their policy was not accepted. Thus, when in 1314 the -King collected a large army, many of them still held -aloof, though they sent their forces. If Scotland was to -be saved it was time for energetic action. One by one the fortresses -had been taken. Stirling still held out, but the Governor promised -to capitulate unless relieved before St. John’s Day. By a rapid -march Edward reached the place before the fatal day. But Bruce -was ready to receive him. He had arranged his troops a little to the -south and east of the castle, with his right resting on the -little brook Bannockburn. His position was carefully -prepared. His front was partly covered by a marsh, and where this -ceased and waste land began he had dug shallow pitfalls, with -a pointed stake in each, to check the advance of the heavy cavalry, -of which the English army then consisted. His left was defended by -the cliffs of the castle. Edward Bruce commanded the right, Thomas -Randolf the left, Walter Stewart and James Douglas the centre, -a small rearguard was commanded by Bruce himself. On the eve -of St. John’s the English attempted to secure Stirling, but were -beaten back by Randolf. On the morning of the 24th of June, the -Abbot of Inchaffray said mass in the Scotch army. As they knelt, -Edward exclaimed, “See, they beg pardon.” But Ingram of Umfranville, -a Scotch nobleman, by his side, replied, “Yes, sire, but of -Heaven, not of you.” Immediately after this the battle began, and -already the weight of the English men-at-arms and the flights of -arrows were thinning the Scotch ranks, when Bruce fell upon the -flank of the archers with his reserve. The fortune of the day was -still doubtful, when troops were seen advancing with flying standards -behind the Scotch. They were the camp followers of Bruce’s army, -who were eagerly pushing forward to watch the fight, but the English -believed it was the arrival of reinforcements. They had already -found enough to do, and did not wait the new arrivals. The flight -soon became a disorderly rout. The horses stumbled and fell in the -pitfalls or stuck fast in the morass, and the Scotch pursued ruthlessly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -With difficulty the King, under the guidance of the Earl of Pembroke, -escaped from the field, and sought safety with a few hundred -men in Dunbar, whence he took ship to Berwick. The Earl of -Gloucester, with great numbers of Barons and Knights, were left dead -upon the field, and during the retreat the Earl of Hereford was -captured at Bothwell. He was subsequently exchanged for the -Bishop of Glasgow and Bruce’s wife and daughter, who had long -been in honourable custody in England.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Edward refuses -to treat. Consequent -disasters.</div> - -<p>Edward thought for a moment of renewing the war, and again -summoned a fresh army; but the condition of England -rendered further action impossible. The discontented -Earls attributed the disaster to the refusal of the King -to accept the Ordinances, and to the influence of his new favourites -Beaumont and Despenser. Money, too, was wanting; and the King’s -renewed efforts to obtain it from the clergy by means of the new -Archbishop Walter were met with firm opposition. But though war -was useless, he would not listen to Bruce’s overtures for peace, -obstinately refusing to regard that Prince in any other light than that -of a rebel. The North of England was thus left open to the fierce -inroads of the Scotch.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Wars in Wales -and Ireland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward Bruce’s -invasion of -Ireland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">He is crowned -King. -1316.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Is killed at -Dundalk.</div> -</div> - -<p>The loss of the English prestige was more disastrous than the -immediate loss of the battle. The Welsh and Irish -thought their opportunity had arrived for obtaining their -independence. The Welsh insurrection was indeed subdued after a -year of fighting; but it required three years before Ireland was again -secured to the English Crown. In that country Edward I. had done -but little. It was in its usual state of disorder. The feuds among -the Norman adventurers, to whom the conquest had been left, were -scarcely less constant or bitter than the wars among the native tribes -who surrounded them. Against these tribes, however, they exercised -the greatest cruelties. To be an Irishman was to be excluded from -all justice, to be classed at once as a robber and murderer. The news -of the Battle of Bannockburn induced the Irish to beg the assistance -of Bruce, and to offer him their crown. He declined it for himself, -but his brother Edward, as ambitious as the Scotch King, accepted -the offer. In May 1315 he landed, supported by the -great tribe of the O’Niells, and probably also by the -Norman Lacys, and was victorious over the combined -forces of the Butlers and De Burghs. In vain did Edward send -John of Hotham, a clergyman, to attempt some combination among -the English and the Irish tribes. The English dislike to the royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -lieutenant Butler prevented union, and in May 1316, O’Niell of Tyrone -gave up his claim to the Irish throne to Edward Bruce, -who was crowned King. But a series of separate attacks -upon the natives was more successful. At Athenry the -O’Connors were almost exterminated. The arrival of King Robert in -Ulster, and a march in winter to Limerick and Dublin, produced no -permanent effect, and at length, in 1317, Roger Mortimer, landing -with a considerable army, succeeded in establishing some order. The -Lacys were executed for treason; the tribes began quarrelling among -themselves; and finally, in 1318, Edward Bruce fell in -a battle, in which he was defeated by John of Birmingham, -in the neighbourhood of Dundalk. The English government -was re-established in all its oppression.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Distress in -England.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Lancaster -temporary -minister. -1316.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Power of the -Despensers.</div> -</div> - -<p>Meanwhile, England itself had been in a miserable plight. 1315 -and 1316 were years of fearful famine. Prices rose to -an unprecedented height. Wheat was sold for 40 marks -a quarter; and Parliament still further aggravated the evil by -fixing a maximum price, which for a time closed the markets -altogether. Terrible diseases followed in the wake of the famine. -Again and again the northern counties were mercilessly ravaged; -whole districts and dioceses were glad to compound with the Scotch -for safety. An attempt was made by a Parliament in this year to -re-establish the national prosperity, by obliging the -King to accept Lancaster as his chief minister. Lancaster -accepted this position, upon the condition that he -should be allowed to resign if the King refused to follow his advice, -or if men objectionable to Parliament were admitted to the King’s -Council. For a moment there was peace. The Ordinances were -accepted, and ordered to be published throughout the country. But -it was not in the King to act honourably when the fortunes of his -favourites were at stake; and Lancaster soon found himself thwarted -by the ever-increasing power of the Despensers. It was -in vain that Pope John XXII. was called in as a mediator. -His legates were equally unsuccessful in their attempts to -heal the domestic quarrels of the country and to establish a truce with -Scotland. Bruce refused to treat unless he was acknowledged as -King. He continued his enterprises, and captured the town of -Berwick. The legates could do nothing but put him under the ban -of the Church.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Temporary -reconciliation -in England.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Truce with -Scotland. -1320.</div> -</div> - -<p>At last, in 1318, a crisis was reached. The necessity of union -against Scotland began to be obvious. The Despensers were for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -time removed from England, and a committee in the interest of -Lancaster was appointed to watch the royal action in the intervals -of Parliament. This temporary adjustment of affairs -in England was followed before long by a truce with -Scotland. Edward tried and failed in an attempt to -regain Berwick. Another furious invasion had ravaged the North of -England, in which no less than eighty-four towns and villages were -burned. It was plain that the Scotch were too strong for him. At -the same time Bruce was anxious to be rid of the excommunication, -and agreed to waive his claim to the -obnoxious title. Under these circumstances there was -no difficulty in treating.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">The Welsh -Marches quarrel -with the -Despensers.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward quarrels -with the -Marchers.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Hereford and -Lancaster -combine. -1321.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Despensers -banished.</div> -</div> - -<p>It soon became evident that the late attempts at compromise between -the two parties in England were hollow. The question had to be tried -by an appeal to arms. Nothing could induce the King to get rid of -his favourites, nor the opposition to act in common with them. It -was a little private quarrel, and no great question, which -at length blew the smouldering discontent to a flame. -The marriage of young Hugh Despenser with the -daughter of the Earl of Gloucester, who had died at Bannockburn, -had introduced a new and objectionable power into the midst of the -Welsh Marches. A quarrel arose about a vacant fief, and the -Marchers made common cause against the favourite. The King -ordered the question to be settled before his own court, -and subsequently before Parliament; but Hereford refused -to appear unless the Despensers were removed. -As the King vindicated his favourites, and refused to remove them, -Hereford marched northward, joined Lancaster, and made a formal -agreement with him that there should be no peace till -the Despensers were gone. The confederates came in -arms to the Parliament held at Westminster, found -themselves completely master of the King, presented him with eleven -articles of reformation, and procured from him, irregularly, and in -spite of the protestations of the clergy, the condemnation -and banishment of the Despensers. This condemnation -was afterwards formed into a statute, and a pardon given to -all those who had compelled the King to grant it.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Insult to the -Queen rouses -Edward to -energy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">He recalls the -Despensers. -Pacifies the -Marches.</div> -</div> - -<p>But though Edward had temporarily yielded, parties were so -evenly balanced that very little turned the scale. Young Despenser -was serving as admiral on the coast of Kent. He was therefore safe -from such personal attacks as Gaveston had been exposed to, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -King was able to repair to the coast and concert measures with him. -As the Queen was travelling from London to Canterbury to meet him, -she was refused admittance to the royal castle of Leeds by the -Governor, Badlesmere. Angry at this insult, the King -attacked the castle and hanged the garrison. It seems -to have been felt that, in insulting the Queen, the opposition -party had gone much too far. The King was able to recall -the Despensers, several of the nobles declared that the late sentence -of banishment had been procured by overwhelming force; and as he -marched towards the West against the Welsh Marches, his brothers, -the Earls of Norfolk and Kent, and several others of the -greater nobility, followed his standard. By occupying -the valley of the Severn, he separated the Marchers from -Lancaster, who was collecting troops at Doncaster. Mortimer and -most of the Marchers came to terms, and surrendered. Hereford -with several others, broke through the royal army, and joined Lancaster. -The King’s enemies were now collected into one body, and he -rapidly turned against them. To secure support, and probably in -pursuance of their usual policy, the rebel lords had entered into a -treaty with the Scotch. Bruce was to come to their assistance, but -no conquests that he should make were to be permanent. The price -of his help was to be peace, and the acknowledgment of his royal -title.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Defeats -Lancaster at -Boroughbridge.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Lancaster -worshipped as -a saint.</div> -</div> - -<p>On the approach of the King, the rebels fell back, and were intercepted -at Boroughbridge by Sir Andrew Harklay, Governor of -Carlisle. On attempting to cross the bridge, Hereford -was killed from below; while the fords were so strongly -guarded that the passage of the river seemed impossible. -Lancaster, with some hundred barons and knights, surrendered. He -was taken to Pontefract. The accusations against him, including his -treasonable compact with Bruce, were stated before a committee of the -King’s Barons, and condemnation passed against him unheard. He -was beheaded, with all circumstances of indignity. A considerable -number of barons suffered either with him or immediately after. -Thomas of Lancaster appears to have been an ordinary feudal party -leader, with a policy which was directed chiefly to domestic reforms -and to the curtailment of the royal power. At the same time, the -commonalty of England must have understood that, however selfish -that policy might have been, it yet led, in the existing -state of society, to improvement in the condition of the -lower orders. Not otherwise can we explain the fact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -that miracles before long were worked at the tomb of Lancaster, and -his memory so worshipped and honoured by the people, that the King -found it necessary to surround the place of his execution with armed -men.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Triumph of the -Despensers.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Renewal of war -with Scotland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Peace for -thirteen years.</div> -</div> - -<p>The triumph of the Despensers seemed complete. The elder of -them was made Earl of Winchester. Their policy too -was at once adopted. The Ordinances were revised, -all that could touch the King’s prerogative was cut out. It -was ordered especially that hereafter no baronial committee should -dictate laws to the King, but he “should make all laws concerning -the estate of the crown or of the realm in Parliament, with the -consent of the prelates, earls, barons, and universality of the realm.” -The two years’ truce being now out, the King marched -to Scotland, but, like all others of this reign, the -expedition came to nothing. No important battle was fought. -Want of food compelled the English to return, followed by -their indefatigable enemies. So close were they upon their heels, -that at a place called Byland, in Blackmoor Forest, Edward was as -nearly as possible surprised. So unexpected was the attack, that -treason was at once suspected. To the astonishment of all, Sir -Andrew Harklay, who had been made Earl of Carlisle for his services -at Boroughbridge, was proved, for some unexplained -reason, to have been in correspondence with Bruce. For -this treason he was executed. Such constant failures became ridiculous, -and at length, Edward, acknowledging Bruce’s title as King, -made a treaty with him for thirteen years.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Dangers -surrounding -the King.</div> - -<p>It seemed for the moment that Edward’s troubles were over. -The baronial party was crushed, their intercourse with -the Scotch had damaged their reputation; the assumption -on their part of the sole power of legislation had -produced some reaction. The truce with Scotland had secured -Edward from danger from the North. There seemed no reason why -he and his favourites should not rule almost as they wished. In -fact, however, the crisis of his reign was approaching; dangers surrounded -him on every side. That the baronial party was still alive -and active was soon made evident by a plot to liberate all the -political prisoners. The plot indeed miscarried, but Mortimer -found means to make good his escape from the Tower, and, taking -refuge in France, became a centre round which disaffection might -gather. Want of money, too, was a constant source of danger; while -the meagre grants made by Parliament showed how general was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -national feeling against the government of the favourites. Nor was -the Church in much better temper than the Barons and the Commons. -On more than one occasion the King had quarrelled with the national -Church, which found an active, able, and somewhat unscrupulous -champion in Adam Orleton, Bishop of Hereford. This man had -been deeply implicated in the baronial movements, had been deprived -of his temporalities, and thus became a determined enemy of the -King. While quarrelling with the national Church, Edward had -shown no vigour in opposing Rome. On two occasions he failed in -procuring the election to bishoprics of his nominees, and yielded -without a struggle to the authority of the Pope. But submission to -Rome had now become a sure way of gaining unpopularity both -among clergy and laity. On the death of Boniface VIII., the grandeur -and independence of the old Papal system had come to an end, but -its constant demands upon the national churches were by no means -lessened; and such exactions had become more intolerable now that -the ill-gotten wealth which they supplied found its way into the -hands of a Pope holding his court at Avignon, a mere creature of -the French King: to the old dislike of Papal supremacy there was -now added the national dislike of France.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Difficulties -with France. -1324.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Queen and -Prince in France. -1326.</div> -</div> - -<p>To crown Edward’s difficulties, he found himself involved in a dispute -with France. In 1322, Charles IV., son of Philip the -Fair, had ascended the throne. It at once became evident -that he intended to pursue his father’s policy. He demanded -personal homage from King Edward. His ambassadors could -procure nothing but the threat that, unless it was paid, Guienne would -be seized. In the little town of Saint Sardos, in the Agenois, a quarrel -between the people and their English Seneschal brought the matter -before the French King. He summoned Edward before his court. It -was clear that the old machinery of feudal supremacy was again to be -set in motion. War in fact actually began; the French armies captured -Ponthieu and the Agenois. It was in vain that King Edward offered -justice to the aggrieved inhabitants of Saint Sardos in his own courts, -in vain that he sought the mediation of the Pope. He was himself -entirely in the hands of the Despensers; and those noblemen, afraid -probably to allow the King to get beyond the reach of their personal -influence, used all their power to prevent him from going himself to -France. It was at last decided that Queen Isabella, -the French King’s sister, should go to Paris, and try if -she could come to some arrangement. She procured -leave for her eldest son Edward to represent his father, and do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> -homage for Guienne. But, when the young Prince reached Paris, -he was in no haste to return. In fact, the Queen had fallen in love -with Mortimer, and had passed entirely under his influence and that -of the other baronial exiles; and under the skilful management of -Orleton, Mortimer and his friends were engaged in a great conspiracy. -It was in vain that the King perpetually wrote to demand her return. -She pleaded personal dread of the Despensers, and complained of the -King’s ill-usage. For a woman living in adultery with her husband’s -enemy, such charges are perhaps not worth much; but it does seem -probable that as a high-spirited woman she had much to bear from -the King’s partiality for his favourites, many of whom were men of -the lower ranks of life.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">She lands in -England.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Her party -gathers strength.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The King is -taken. -1326.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Prince of Wales -made King.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Murder of the -King.</div> -</div> - -<p>The conspiracy was so widespread, and so judiciously managed, -that her cause was soon regarded as a national one. Nobles, clergy, -and commonalty seem alike to have been in her interest. At the -instigation of the Pope, she was obliged to leave Paris, but she took -the opportunity of going to Hainault, and there contracting a -marriage between her son Edward and the daughter of the Count, -and of engaging that Prince to assist her in her enterprise. On -the 24th of September she landed with her foreign -auxiliaries at the mouth of the Orwell. She was -joined by the King’s brothers, by his cousin Henry of Lancaster, -and by all the nobility of the East. The Archbishop of Canterbury -supplied her with money. London rose in her favour. The -skilful management of the Bishop of Hereford won her allies on -all sides, and the King found it necessary to fly before -her advance. Leaving the Earl of Winchester in Bristol, -he tried with young Despenser to reach Lundy Isle in the Bristol -Channel. The wind prevented him, and he was driven to land in -Wales. Bristol was taken by the Queen without a siege, and the -King finally fell into the hands of his pursuers in Wales. -He was put into the charge of Henry of Lancaster, -brother of the late Earl, at Kenilworth. William Trussel, -whom the Queen had made her judge, superintended the trial of the -Despensers and their friends, and they were all put to death. In -December the Parliament met at Westminster, and swore fealty to the -Queen and Prince. The Bishop of Hereford put the question -whether Edward or his son should henceforward rule. The assembly -declared for the Prince, who accepted the situation, binding -himself to six articles, which seem to represent the -complaints against the King, and which laid to his charge, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> -rule of favourites, the contempt of good advice, the loss of Scotland, -acts of violence against the clergy and the nobles, and the refusal of -justice. Isabella pretended to be angry at this act of deposition, but -her pretence could deceive nobody. Finally, a deputation -waited upon the unfortunate Edward, and procured -his resignation. He was hurried from fortress to fortress, and before -long met a cruel death in Berkeley Castle.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Character of -the opposition.</div> - -<p>Throughout the baronial efforts of the reign, constitutional views -and personal interests had been closely interwoven. -The single-minded patriotism of Simon de Montfort -had been entirely absent. It was the personal ambition of a Prince -of the blood, of enormous wealth and influence, which had supplied -the baronial party with their first leader. The vindictive feelings -of personal dislike had produced an unjustifiable murder of the royal -favourite. Success had been followed by an unconstitutional appropriation -of all the powers of government. To support their supremacy -the Barons had not shrunk from an alliance with their national -enemies. To secure a second triumph and revenge they had adopted -the cause of an adulterous Queen and her worthless favourite. Yet -throughout, the pretence of their action had been the maintenance of -the old constitution, and the act which closed the reign was a formal -declaration on the part of Parliament of a constitutional right of the -nation to depose a sovereign who proved himself unfit for his high -position.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> - -<div class="p2 screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_212.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter pg-brk"> -<img src="images/i_212.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - EDWARD III., died 1377. - | - 1 2 | 3 5 +---+ - +-------------------+---+-----+----------------------------+---| A | - | | | | +---+ - | | | | - Edward, = Joan, William, Lionel, = Elizabeth | - the Black | daughter died Duke of | de Burgh. | - Prince, | of Earl 1335. Clarence, | | - died 1376. | of Kent, died 1368. | | - | widow Philippa = Edmund | - | of Sir T. | Mortimer, | - | Holland. | Earl of | - | | March. | - Richard II., | | - died 1400. Roger, = Alianore | - Earl of March, | Holland, | - declared heir- | daughter | - apparent, died | of Earl | - in battle in | of Kent. | - Ireland, 1398. | | - | | - +----------------------------------------+ | - | | - | +---------+ - +-------+-----------+ +------------+ | - | | | | Edmund = Isabel, - Edmund, Anne = Richard, | Duke of | daughter - died 1424. | Earl of | York, | of Pedro - | Cambridge | Earl of | Castile. - | beheaded at | Cambridge, | - | Southampton | died 1402. | - | for conspiring | | - | against +--------------+ - | Henry V., 1415. - | - Richard = Cicely - Duke of York, | Neville, - fought against | daughter of - Henry VI. | Earl of - Killed at | Westmoreland. - Wakefield, | - 1460. | - | - +-----------------------+------------------------------+ - | | | - Edward IV. = Elizabeth George = Isabel, daughter of | - died 1483. | Woodville. Duke of Earl of Warwick | - | Clarence, (The King-maker). | - | killed | - | 1478. | - Edward V., | - died 1483. +---------------------------------------+ - | - | - +-------------------+------------+------------------+ - | | | - Richard III. = Anne, daughter Elizabeth = John Margaret = Duke of - died 1485. | of Earl of | de la Burgundy. - | Warwick, widow | Pole. - | of Edward, son | - | of Henry VI. | - | John. - Edward, Declared heir-apparent, - died 1484. d. at Battle of - Stoke, 1487. - - - +---+ 4 6 - | A |--------+-----------------------------+ - +---+ | | - | | - Katherine = John = 1. Blanche, Thomas, = Eleanor - Swinford | of Gaunt, | daughter of | de Bohun. - | Duke of | of Duke of Woodstock, | - | Lancaster, | Lancaster Duke of | - | died 1399. | = 2. Constance, Gloucester, | - | | daughter strangled | - John, | of Pedro at Calais | - Earl of | of Castile. 1397. | - Somerset. | | - | Henry IV. = Mary de Anne = Edmund - | died 1413. | Bohun. | Stafford. - +------+ | | - | | Humphrey, = Anne - | | First Duke Neville. - | | of Buckingham - | | killed at - | | Northampton - | | 1460. - | | - | +--------+---------+----------------------+ - | | | | | - John Owen = Katherine = Henry V. Thomas, John = 1. Anne of | - | Tudor | daughter of | died Duke of Duke of Burgundy. | - | | Charles VI. | 1422. Clarence, Bedford = 2. Jacquetta | - | | | killed at died of Luxembourg. | - | | | Beaugé, 1435. | - | | | 1421. | - | | | +------------------+ - Margaret = Edmund Henry VI. = Margaret | - | Earl of died | of Anjou. Humphrey = Jacqueline - | Richmond 1471. | Duke of of Hainault. - | died 1456. | Gloucester, - | | rival of - | | Beaufort, - | | died 1446. - | | - | Edward = Anne, daughter - Henry VII., killed at of Earl of - died 1509. Tewkesbury Warwick (The - 1471. King-maker). - -</div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="EDWARD_III" id="EDWARD_III">EDWARD III.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1327–1377.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_213.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_213.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1312 = Philippa of Hainault. - | - +-------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+---------+ - | | | | | | - Edward, = Joan of | Lionel, John of Edmund, Thomas of - the Black | Kent. | Duke of Gaunt, Duke of Woodstock, - Prince, | | Clarence, Duke of York, Duke of - d. 1376. | William, d. 1368. Lancaster, d. 1402. Gloucester, - | d. 1335. d. 1399 d. 1397. - Richard II. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain (Castile)._ - | | | - Robert I., 1306. | Charles IV., 1322. | Louis IV., | Alphonso XI., 1312. - David II., 1329. | Philip VI., 1328. | 1314. | Pedro, 1350. - Robert II., 1370. | John, 1350. | Charles IV., | Henry II., 1368. - | Charles V., 1364. | 1347. | - - POPES.--John XXII., 1316. Benedict XI., 1334. Clement VI., 1342. - Innocent VI. 1352. Urban V., 1362. Gregory XI., 1370. - - _Archbishops._ - - Simon Mepeham, 1328. - John of Stratford, 1333. - Thomas Bradwardine, 1349. - Simon Islip, 1349. - Simon Langham, 1366. - William Whittlesey, 1368. - Simon Sudbury, 1375. - - _Chancellors._ - - Henry of Burghersh, 1327. Robert of Sadyngton, 1343. - John of Stratford, 1330. John of Offord, 1345. - Richard of Bury, 1334. John of Thoresby, 1348. - John of Stratford, 1335. William of Edington, 1356. - Robert of Stratford, 1337. Simon Langham, 1363. - Richard Bynteworth, 1338. William of Wykeham, 1367. - John of Stratford, 1340. Sir Robert Thorpe, 1371. - Robert of Stratford, 1340. Sir John Knyvet, 1372. - Sir Robert Bourchier, 1340. Adam Houghton, 1377. - Sir Robert Parnynge, 1341. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Measures of -reform.<br /><br /> -Mortimer’s -misgovernment.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">As the conquest of England by Queen Isabella and Mortimer -had been ostensibly undertaken for purposes of -reform in the government, and freedom from the influence -of favourites, the first measures taken were such -as might befit a reforming party. The charters of liberty were -solemnly renewed, and the removal of the more obvious abuses -promised, the judgment against Lancaster and his friends was reversed, -and the government nominally placed in the hands of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -council of regency, formed of four Bishops, four Earls, and six Barons. -Nevertheless, the real power remained in the hands of Mortimer; to -him and to the Queen a considerable portion of the royal revenues -were diverted, and before long all trace of reform had disappeared, -and Mortimer, forgetful of the pretext which had secured -him his position, and of the fate of his predecessors, became -to all intents and purposes himself a favourite, giving to that -word the meaning which best describes it, an irresponsible and all-powerful -minister. He even surrounded himself, we are told, with a -guard of 180 knights, and altogether adopted an ostentatious bearing -which could not but create enemies; at the same time his connection -with the Queen excited the displeasure of all respectable men.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Fruitless -campaign -against -Scotland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Peace.</div> -</div> - -<p>His early government was rudely interrupted by an invasion from -Scotland. The truce was not yet expired, but the opportunity was -too good to be lost. To the English the renewal of war -was distasteful, and measures were taken to avoid it. -A meeting was arranged with the Scotch King, but the -conclusion was so evidently foregone, that Robert summoned his -army to assemble on the very day appointed for the meeting, -and while the negotiations were still going on, the Scotch crossed the -borders in force. The campaign against them was not successful. -More used than the English to rapid movements, capable of living -upon much less, and able to supply themselves with that little from -an enemy’s country, the Scotch constantly avoided a great battle. -Twice was Edward deceived by a simple stratagem of the Scotch, -who left the watchfires burning, while they secretly decamped, and -he was finally obliged to close the campaign without a battle. It -became necessary for Mortimer and Edward to treat, and the Queen -offered her daughter Jane as the price of peace. In March 1328, that -peace was concluded; Robert’s son, David, was to marry Jane; the -English were to use their best endeavours to have the ecclesiastical -censures which hung over Bruce removed, and on the -payment of £20,000, promised to give up all claims -upon the Scotch crown, and to acknowledge Bruce as king.</p> - -<p>Though the English nobles had long disliked the Scotch war, and -had at all events made use of their pretended dislike as a weapon of -opposition to the government, they now, with true party spirit, and -moved probably more by dislike to Mortimer than by any patriotic -feeling, declared themselves horrified at the disgraceful treaty, and -held aloof from the Parliament which ratified it. Dislike to the -government was in truth growing to a head. Associations were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -formed to uphold the ordinances of the last reign. At length, at a -Parliament called at Salisbury, to be present at the creation of new -peers—when Mortimer was made Earl of March; Prince John, Earl -of Cornwall; and James Butler, Earl of Ormond—Prince Henry of -Lancaster, the brother and successor of Earl Thomas, and other malcontents, -refused to appear. Shortly afterwards it was heard that -they were in arms at Winchester. The King’s uncles, the Earls of -Kent and Norfolk, had hitherto supported Lancaster, but as Mortimer -drew near with his army, they suddenly deserted him. This caused -the failure of the insurrection, and Lancaster and his friends were -obliged to submit to hard terms, purchasing their freedom with half -their incomes, and the pledge that they would no longer oppose the -government.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Conspiracy and -death of Kent. -1330.</div> - -<p>It is not to be supposed that this ineffectual insurrection put an -end to the discontent. During the whole of the following year, -while Edward was absent in France, rumours began to prevail that -the old King was still alive, and in the Spring Parliament of 1330, -the country was astonished by the sudden apprehension of Edmund, -Earl of Kent, the King’s uncle. He and many other -nobles, among others the Archbishop of York and -Bishop of London, had undoubtedly joined in a conspiracy -nominally for the restoration of the late King. The examinations -made it evident that this insurrection had been fomented by -the agents of Mortimer, and that Kent had fallen a victim to their -machinations. He confessed his complicity in the scheme, and was -beheaded. Mortimer doubtless was glad of the opportunity of thus -weakening the party of his enemies. Among the petitions of the -Commons in the first Parliament of the reign was one against the -exactions of the royal Princes; this renders it probable that they -had taken upon themselves to exact purveyance, and Mortimer -might rely upon the popular feeling being with him in this act of -violence.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Edward -overthrows -Mortimer.</div> - -<p>But a more important enemy now made his appearance. Edward, -who had been married to Philippa of Hainault in 1328, had now a -son, afterwards the Black Prince, and therefore could not but -feel that he had reached man’s estate. He was weary of the -domination of Mortimer, and could hardly have looked with favour on -the man who had killed his father and his uncle, and was now living -in adultery with his mother. He determined to assume -the reins of government, and, in alliance with the Barons, -suddenly seized Mortimer during the sittings of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> -Parliament at Nottingham, and procured his speedy trial and execution. -To the Queen he acted firmly but mercifully; he allowed her -£3000 a year; he subsequently even increased this income, and during -her lifetime paid her a yearly visit of ceremony, but he refused to -allow her any influence in the government, and she passed the -remaining twenty-seven years of her life in privacy at Risings Castle.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Edward’s healing -measures.</div> - -<p>The young King was satisfied with the vengeance he had taken, -and proceeded by acts of leniency to heal party feeling, -restoring the forfeited inheritances to the sons of those -who had lately suffered, and extending his kindness to the wives even -of Mortimer, and Gournay his father’s murderer. He made common -cause with those nobles who had hitherto been discontented. Henry -of Lancaster became a prominent member of his council; the great -seal was placed in the hands of John of Stratford, the author of the -bill of deposition in the last reign.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Balliol invades -Scotland.</div> - -<p>Edward’s attention was almost immediately drawn to Scotland. -Robert Bruce had died in 1329, leaving his son David -still a child, so that the government fell into the hands -of a succession of regents. Scotland had <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'been so closly'">been so closely</ins> connected -with England, that many barons held property in both kingdoms. -During the war of independence, these properties had naturally been -confiscated on both sides. At the peace of 1328 they should have -been restored. On the part of Scotland this was not done. The -party of Balliol and of Comyn was by no means extinct, and the -disinherited lords gathered round Edward Balliol, the son of John, -who thus became the head of a formidable body of men, whose -interests were strongly opposed to the government of the Bruces. They -suddenly determined on an expedition to restore if possible Balliol -to the throne. Sailing from Ravenspur in Yorkshire, Balliol and his -friends landed at the mouth of the Tay, defeated, with much loss, -the Regent at the battle of Duplin, pushed onwards towards Perth, -and, while his English ships annihilated the Scottish squadron in the -river, was crowned at Scone; thus in seven weeks from the time he -left England he had apparently secured the crown. His repulse was -almost as rapid as his success. In three months the friends of Bruce -had rallied, and Balliol, unable to make head against them, had -been driven from the country.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward supports -him.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Siege of Berwick -and battle of -Halidon Hill. -1333.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Submission of -Scotland. -1334.</div> -</div> - -<p>Edward, while ostensibly discountenancing Balliol’s movement -in England, had, in truth, determined to make use -of his success; and a treaty was arranged between -them, by which Balliol promised to own the supremacy of England<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -and to give up Berwick, while the two kings were mutually to -defend each other against all enemies. He made a show of deferring -the question first to Parliament, and upon failing to obtain an -answer, to the judgment of the Pope and the French King. But -there were seldom wanting excuses for a war with Scotland. Border -disturbances speedily arose, and in 1333, acknowledging the treaties -he had made, he advanced to the siege of Berwick. Archibald -Douglas, the then Regent, came with an army to relieve -this important fortress. To oppose him the English had -taken up a strong position to the west of their lines -upon Halidon Hill. A swampy ground was before them, and as the -Scotch knights fell into disorder in the marsh, the English archers -“made their arrows flee as thick as motes on the sunne-beme.” It -was in vain that the nobility bravely attempted to storm the hill. -They were defeated with fearful loss, the Regent, four Earls, the -prime of their nobility, and 30,000 common soldiers fell upon the -field. On the following day Berwick opened its gates. Balliol -proceeded to take possession of the kingdom; fortress after fortress -fell; the young King David was taken to the Court of Philip VI. of -France, and found refuge in Chateau Gaillard in Normandy. As the -price of his assistance Edward received the oath of fealty -from the Scotch, and the part of Scotland to the east of -Dumfries and Linlithgow. As long as Edward was not -otherwise employed, Balliol remained upon his throne; but events -soon occurred abroad which called the English King away, and -Balliol was again driven from his kingdom.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward’s claims -on France.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Philip helps -the Scotch.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Claims -consequently -produced. -1337.</div> -</div> - -<p>As early as 1329, on the death of Charles the Fair, the third and last -of the sons of Philip IV., Edward, the son of the daughter of that -King, laid claim to the French throne.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> His rival was Philip of -Valois, the son of Charles of Valois, Philip IV.’s brother, and, granting -the existence of the Salic law, the undoubted heir; for all the three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -last kings had died without male issue. Edward’s claims then rested -upon three principles; females were excluded from the -French throne, or Joan, Queen of Navarre, daughter of -Louis X., would have succeeded. The male issue of such females -were not excluded; but, thirdly, they must be born during the lifetime -of their grandfather, or else the children of the daughters of the -three last kings would have a better claim than he had. The question -had been properly tried by the Peers of France, and Philip -of Valois had been declared King, and in 1331 Edward had himself -done homage to him for Guienne. There was however a standing -quarrel with regard to certain towns of the Agenois which Charles IV. -had conquered. These, Edward understood, were to be -restored to him, while Philip VI. declined to surrender -them. This quarrel might perhaps have been passed over, but the -reception of David on his flight from Scotland, and the assistance -which Philip gave to the party opposed to Balliol, by degrees -rendered war inevitable; and when once this became obvious, it was -clearly good policy on the part of Edward to make his claims as -national as possible, and instead of trusting to such -secondary causes of hostility as were afforded by Philip’s -refusal to surrender a few unimportant towns in a distant -dependency, or his intrigues for the restoration of the Bruce -dynasty, he at once, with the consent of Parliament, asserted his claim -to the French throne.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward’s -alliances on the -North-east. -1338.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Is made Imperial -Vicar.</div> -</div> - -<p>There was at present in England a Frenchman whose influence is -said to have had much to do with determining Edward to this step. -This was Robert of Artois. On the death of his grandfather a dispute -had arisen as to the succession of the country. The fief did not follow -the ordinary feudal custom, but fell to the nearest of blood. Matilda, -the daughter of the late Count, therefore succeeded in preference -to her nephew Robert. Philip V. had married her daughter, and -during his lifetime and that of his two brothers, Robert had been -compelled to be content, but on the accession of Philip of Valois he -demanded restitution. During the trial which ensued he produced as -evidence charters which were proved to be forgeries, and in 1337 -took refuge in England, where Edward adopted his cause, and used -him as a sort of set-off to David Bruce, whose cause the French King -had taken up. The great war with France was a distinct breach in -the policy of Edward I. But the present King was not the great -statesman his grandfather had been. A false chivalry had gradually -been taking the place of the old feudal sentiment, and Edward was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -open to be moved both by the impulses of a spurious knight-errantry -and by personal motives of ambition and passion. When once -engaged in the war, however, he acted both energetically -and prudently. His marriage with Philippa of Hainault, -and the close commercial interdependence of England -and the countries on the North-east of France, gave him an -opening which he eagerly employed. He entered into alliances with -the Princes of that neighbourhood, with Brabant, Gueldres, Juliers -and Cologne. In Flanders, where the great mercantile cities were at -enmity with their count, who was on his side supported by the French -influence, he allied himself heartily with James Van Artevelt, the -Brewer of Ghent, the acknowledged chief of the burgher party. He -took advantage also of the fierce dispute at that time raging between -the Emperor Louis of Bavaria and the Pope, who was a mere creature -of the French crown, to secure not only the Emperor’s -friendship but the title of Imperial Vicar. This title gave -something of a national character to that alliance of German Princes -which he had arranged. But all these alliances, though they promised -so fair, were both expensive and hollow. In every case they assumed -the form of subsidies, the foreigners promising to supply troops in -exchange for English money. On the other hand, Philip, although -unable to take actual possession, took seisin of Guienne, that is, he sent -an officer to each of the great towns, and declared that he had taken -possession of it. He had also, as was natural in the disturbed state -of Germany, found some friends in that country.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Great taxation.</div> - -<p>Edward had set himself right in the eyes of his people by a public -declaration of the state of affairs; and relying on the good feeling -thus established, and on the favour of the mercantile classes, whose -interests he had forwarded by his efforts, though often mistaken ones, -to improve the growth and manufacture of wool, he -proceeded to raise taxes with an unsparing hand. Not -content with the subsidies granted him, he laid tallages on the towns, -collected forced loans, induced Parliament to grant him half of the -last wool crop, even seized large quantities of wool for which he -promised to pay in the course of two years, and laid an extra tax of -40s. the sack on the cost of exportation. He thus obtained abundant -money for his present need, although he found he had gone rather -too far, when, in the following year, Parliament petitioned for the -removal of the “Maletolte,” or additional wool tax.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">He lands in -Flanders. -1338.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Deserted by his -allies. Returns -to England. -1340.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Returns and -wins battle of -Sluys.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Fruitless -expedition -to Tournay.</div> -</div> - -<p>In 1338 he landed with a large army in Flanders, where the people -who had lately driven away their count, and were anxious to secure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -for their cities the monopoly of the English wool trade, received him -gladly. But all his efforts came to nothing. He could -not bring the French King to an engagement, and shortly -became aware of the instability of his foreign allies; in -spite of his title as Imperial Vicar they were little inclined to follow -him, and speedily found pretexts to desert him. He had -to retire to Flanders, but by no means lowered his tone. -On the contrary, at the instigation of the people there, -he now first took on himself the title of King of France. But he had -now to return to England to collect fresh supplies. These were -granted him freely, the Parliament giving him the ninth lamb, the -ninth fleece, and the ninth sheaf. His back was no sooner turned -than Philip began to attack Flanders, and with the aid of the Genoese -collected a considerable fleet to prevent his return. On the 24th of -June, the English fleet, with Edward on board, found -the French at Sluys, where a great sea-fight took place, -ending in the complete destruction of the French. They -had fought in three lines, connected by chains, imitating as far as -possible a land army. The English, after a little manœuvring, had -fallen upon them thus huddled together, had thrown them into inextricable -confusion, and driven many of the crews in their terror to -seek refuge by leaping overboard. So great was the disaster, that -none but the jester durst inform Philip of it. “What cowards those -English are,” said he, “they had not the courage all to jump overboard -as the French did.” In spite of this glorious beginning of the -campaign, the year was as unfruitful as the last; simultaneous -advances on St. Omer and Tournay both proved -failures. Philip, who had been intriguing with the -English allies, knew better than to come to a fight, and Edward -was not sorry to conclude a truce at the instigation of Jane of -Hainault, the sister of Philip. This truce, signed at Esplechin in -September, was to last till the following midsummer, and comprehended -the allies of both parties.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Sudden visit to -England and -displacement of -ministry.</div> - -<p>Edward’s position was most irritating; his allies were deserting -him; in spite of his stringent exactions, his finances were exhausted; -he was so deeply in debt that the Flemings, who regarded his -presence as a security against France, kept him as it were in pledge. -He could not bring himself to believe in such complete failure of his -hopes. He was easily led to listen to evil counsellors, who whispered -to him that his ministers at home were defrauding him in the matter -of the taxes. Suddenly, he set sail with a few of his most trusted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -friends, leaving behind him some nobles in pledge to his creditors, -and arrived in London in the dead of the night of the 30th of November. -He immediately displaced his ministry, his Chancellor, -his Treasurer, the Master of the Rolls, and imprisoned -several of the judges and officers of the Exchequer. -On the bishops he could not lay hands; they claimed the -privileges of their order. However, commissions of inquiry were -issued to find charges against the late government, new sheriffs were -appointed, and, apparently in mistrust of clerical influence, Robert de -Bourchier was appointed chancellor.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Dispute with -Stratford. -1341.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward yields.</div> -</div> - -<p>As had happened so frequently before in English history, the -champion of liberty was found in the ranks of the Church. The -President of the Council, John of Stratford, Archbishop -of Canterbury, retired to his See, and thence wrote to -Edward at length, refusing to answer to the charges -brought against him, except before his peers in Parliament. At the -same time he warned the King to remember his father’s fate, and -begged him not to act as he was now doing against the Charter. He -wrote also to the new officials, declaring that the late grants had been -given under conditions which must not be broken, that they were -to be collected only from those represented in Parliament, and not -from the clergy who were not represented there, at the same time -threatening with excommunication all who should disturb the peace -of Church and State. In vain the King threatened; his want -of money compelled him to summon a Parliament (April 23). -An attempt was still made to exclude the Bishops. Whenever they -appeared they were refused admittance to the Parliament, and -directed to the Exchequer Chamber. At length the baronage grew -thoroughly angry, and the King was compelled to admit the Archbishop, -but at the same time left the House in anger, and betook -himself to the Commons. The Peers were firm in their demand that -no Peer should be tried except by his peers in Parliament. At last -the King yielded. All the Estates joined in begging -him to admit Stratford to his favour, and promising him -in exchange for this submission assistance in his necessities. Large -help was granted, and the rights claimed thrown into the form of a -statute, securing the privilege of the peerage, the immunity of the -clergy from the exactions of temporal officials, and ordering that at -the beginning of each Parliament the great officers should temporarily -resign their offices, to give time for an examination of their -conduct. In October, the King having secured his grants, thought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -fit to revoke the statute, and was not ashamed to avow that he had -“wilfully dissembled as he ought” to avoid the dangers which -threatened him. The statute was cancelled in 1343, but the -privileges then granted were not questioned.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Loss of all -his allies. -1342.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">New opening -in Brittany.</div> -</div> - -<p>As arranged, the truce with France continued till midsummer -1342. During that time Edward found that his German -allies had completely left him, and that even Louis of -Bavaria had been won over to Philip. This change in the -Emperor’s policy was caused by a wish to obtain Philip’s mediation -with his enemy the Pope. He excused it by urging that the treaty of -Esplechin had been made without his consent. Thus left without -allies, and impoverished by his late subsidies, which indeed, in the -absence of money, he had in some instances been obliged to pay in -raw wool, Edward might have been content to leave -France alone, had he not obtained a new footing in -Brittany. The war there was again a war of succession. John III. -of Brittany had three brothers, Guy, Peter, and John Earl of Montfort. -Guy and Peter died before their brother the Duke. Guy had -a daughter, Jane, who as heir of the duchy had married Charles of -Blois, the French King’s nephew. But upon the death of John, his -sole surviving brother, John Earl of Montfort claimed the duchy, -and did homage to Edward as King of France. The Peers of France -adjudged the duchy to Charles of Blois, and the two kings armed in -favour of their respective allies. Charles was at first successful, and -took John of Montfort prisoner. The war was, however, carried on -with enthusiasm by his wife, Jane of Flanders. She had the good -wishes of the people, and held out during the winter in the fortress -of Hennebone. She was almost reduced by famine, when the arrival -of Sir Walter Manny, who was followed later in the year by Edward -himself, raised the siege. But the country now became the battleground -between England and France. Edward on the one hand, and -the French King’s eldest son on the other, entered the duchy, but so -little was effected, that at the end of the year a truce for three years -and eight months was entered into, the matters at issue being referred -to the Pope.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Pope’s -position -as Arbiter -of Europe.</div> - -<p>It is somewhat surprising to see how constantly the judgment of -the Papal See is appealed to, even more frequently than -in earlier times, when its authority was of greater weight. -No doubt the spiritual position of the Popes had constantly -been used as a means of interference in secular questions, and -by mere force of encroachment the Pontiff had come to be regarded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -as the natural arbiter of Europe. But behind this there lay a more -real ground for the exercise of the Papal authority. The Papal Curia -had in fact inherited a certain portion of the powers and duties of -the Roman Empire. During the vigour of Imperial institutions difficulties -arising between various states included within the limits of the -Empire were settled by the Emperor, who thus became the guardian of -international law. When the Empire lost its universal character, and -the German Kaiser (whatever vague notions of universal power may -have hung about his title) became practically the sovereign only of a -part of Europe, he lost the power of enforcing his decisions in the -case of quarrels between Princes, who were in fact his equals. -National quarrels must therefore have been settled by the sword -alone, had not the Court of Rome, still claiming universality, -still supplying trained lawyers and adequate courts, afforded an -opportunity for continuing in some degree the system of international -arbitration. The natural inclination of a spiritual power towards -peace rendered still more easy this transfer to the Papacy of the -guardianship of the international relations of Europe. The thirteenth -century had been remarkable for its systematizing character. Powers, -acknowledged by common practice and consent but not reduced to -system, began to be defined; and as Edward I. in England and -Philip IV. in France had brought into fixed and legal shape the lax -constitutions of their several kingdoms, so Boniface VIII. had -attempted to render Rome a formal court of appeal in all questions -of international law. It was thus that we find Wallace and the -guardians of Scotland appealing to Rome in their quarrel, and the -Pope asserting his supremacy over the Scotch kingdom at the close of -the reign of Edward I., and thus that we constantly find the Kings of -Europe appealing to the decision of the Papal Curia.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Mediation of the -Pope offered. -1343.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Decay of Papal -influence.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Mediation -accepted -conditionally.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The King’s -commercial -difficulties.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Mediation fails.</div> -</div> - -<p>But although the Papal See thus comes constantly forward -as mediator in the quarrels of princes, and though cardinals were -repeatedly charged with missions of peace in all directions, -since the French had caused the overthrow of -Boniface VIII. it had no longer its old influence or its -old character. Seated at Avignon, the Pope was completely in the -hands of the French King; while the rising spirit of freedom, the -abuse of crusades which had been frequently employed -against Christian princes, and the infinite exactions -invented by the papal lawyers, had roused the temper of the people -against him. The English Parliament, therefore, was doing a less -difficult thing than the Parliament of Lincoln in Edward I.’s reign,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -when it insisted that the mediation specified in the treaty should be -regarded only as that of a private man, without special -authority or sanctity, and coupled even that modified -acceptance of the offer with a strong protest against provisors. -Having thus protested against the Pope, not without covert -allusion to the King’s own connection with him, the people made -grants, which were terribly wanted to save the King from his impoverished -condition. The great Italian house of the -Bardi was ruined by the great advances it made to him; -the German merchants of the Steelyard, the only corporation -of German merchants in London, had got a grant of much of the -taxes; the subsidies, as we have seen, had been paid in raw wool, -seized at the rate of £6 the sack, and sold at £20; the main point of -Bishop Stratford’s defence had been that the enormous interest on -the royal loans swallowed up at once all the money that was collected. -But for the timely and liberal grants of the people the government -must apparently have stopped. Meanwhile, the Pope was preparing -his decision; but it was impossible to expect an honest -verdict from him, and though, by the treaty, Philip -should have restored his prisoners, he still kept De Montfort and -others in prison.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">War breaks out -again. -1346.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Derby hard -pressed in -Guienne.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward to -relieve him lands -in Normandy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Marches towards -Calais.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was plain that the war would soon be renewed. The Parliament -in the year 1344 made their grants on the express understanding that -this was the case, and that Scotland was waiting to join in the quarrel. -In 1345 the expected event took place. The close connection between -England and Artevelt has been mentioned. It was of the last importance -to the Flemings that England should help them against their -Count, and supply their looms with wool. Artevelt now offered to -make the Prince of Wales Count of Flanders; and in all -probability the attack upon France would have been in -the old direction, had not a quarrel between the weavers -and the fullers in the Flemish towns produced the murder of their great -leader. It was in Gascony that the war actually broke out. Thither -the Earl of Derby,<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> the son of Henry of Lancaster, had been sent, and -he had there won a great victory over the French at Auberoche. He -was soon, however, hard pressed by Philip’s eldest son, the Duke of -Normandy, and driven to stand a siege in the fortress of -Aiguillon, on the Garonne. Meanwhile, a great fleet and -army had been collected, apparently for the purpose of -relieving them. But while sailing down the Channel Edward suddenly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> -changed his course, it is believed on the advice of Geoffrey of -Harcourt, a French refugee, and landed at La Hogue in -Normandy. His object was to draw the Duke of Normandy -northward, and thus to relieve Derby, while he -himself marched through France into Flanders, and joined his -Flemish allies, who had already crossed the French frontiers. But in -executing this manœuvre, Edward found all the bridges over the -Seine broken, and the French King in force upon the other side, -evidently desirous of hemming him in between his own army and -that of his son advancing from the south. It was in vain that -Edward pushed even to the suburbs of Paris, Philip -would not be provoked to break his plan of the campaign. -It became absolutely necessary for Edward to cross the river. -A rapid feint upon Paris left the broken bridge of Poissy open. -Edward hurried back, mended the bridge, and the river was passed.</p> - -<p>The tables were now turned. It was the French King who wanted, -Edward who avoided, battle. He pushed on, destroying the country -as he went, till a fresh obstacle met him at the Somme. With Philip -and his vastly superior army immediately in his rear, his position -became critical. A peasant was induced to show him the ford of -Blanchetaque, near Abbeville, where the river could be crossed. -Even that ford was strongly defended, and only won after a sharp -skirmish in the midst of the water. The returning tide checked the -pursuit of the French, and enabled Edward, who had at length -determined to bring matters to a decisive issue, to choose his ground -in the neighbourhood of Cressy.<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> There was fought the first of that -great series of battles, in which the small armies of the English -showed themselves superior to overwhelming numbers of French.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Change in the -character of the -army.</div> - -<p>The cause of this superiority lay partly in the skill of the English -archers, but still more in the practised discipline of -regular volunteer soldiers, when opposed to an army -still formed upon the feudal model. The wars with -the Scotch had taught the English a lesson they had not been -slow to learn. Edward I. had been a soldier of the old school; -the strength of his armies had always consisted in the heavy armed -cavalry, in which man and horse had been laden with defensive -armour to the utmost limits of their capacity; the infantry had been -entirely a secondary consideration. But Wallace had proved at -Cambuskenneth, and (even though defeated) at Falkirk, the power of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a><br /><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> -resistance which resides in firmly arranged bodies of infantry. Bruce -at Bannockburn had shown still more plainly the weakness of heavy -cavalry upon ground not exactly suited for their particular form of -fighting. Edward III.’s chief claim to greatness as a soldier rests on -the readiness and skill with which he adopted the idea supplied him -by Bruce and Wallace. The difficulties of keeping together a feudal -array during a lengthened foreign campaign, the comparative cheapness -of an equipment of foot-soldiers, the increasing number of freemen -not employed upon the soil, were all likewise inducements to -change the character of the army. The cavalry employed in the -French wars was insignificant in comparison to the infantry. The -midland counties supplied the army with archers, Wales with -ordinary infantry. This change in the army, itself in part the fruit -of social growth, reacted on society. Regular hired troops required -trained commanders; and there thus grew up a class of professional -soldiers, whose existence dealt a heavy blow to the hitherto unquestioned -superiority of the feudal leaders.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_226.jpg" width="475" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> - CRESSY<br /> -<em>August 26. 1346.</em><br /> -<br /> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left">1. Edward III.</td><td align="left">4. Genoese.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">2. Northampton & Arundel.</td><td align="left">5. Alençon.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">3. Prince of Wales.</td><td align="left">6. Philip VI.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="pad6">(<em>From Sprüner.</em>)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Battle of Cressy. -Aug. 26.</div> - -<p>The hired army of the English, and the professional soldiers -who commanded them, formed a far more efficient body of -troops than was supplied by the feudal levies and noble -leaders of the French. The English were arranged in three divisions, -the foremost of which was nominally commanded by the Prince of -Wales. From the summit of the hill, Edward had a general survey -of the field. As usual, the archers began the battle; their flights of -arrows threw the Genoese crossbow-men, to whom they were opposed, -into confusion. The confusion once begun, the very numbers of the -French did but add to it. The Duke of Alençon, and the Count of -Flanders, with their followers, cut their way through their own -troops before they could reach the English men-at-arms. While these -successfully held their ground, the remaining masses of the French -were decimated by the English arrows, nor could any sufficient -support be given to Alençon. At length, as night closed in, Philip -left the field, and the further disconnected efforts of individual French -commanders were useless. The English could hardly believe their -good fortune, and Edward, fearing a return of their enemies, kept -them under arms during the night. The loss of the French was -enormous; the heralds appointed to examine the field reported the -death of eleven princes, 1200 knights, and 30,000 of inferior rank. -The English had killed considerably more than their own numbers; -but their little army was quite insufficient to advance into France, and -Edward, following his original plan, marched on to the siege of Calais.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Battle of -Neville’s Cross. -Oct. 17.</div> - -<p>The battle was on the 26th of August. Already some days before, -Lionel of Clarence, who had been left in command of England, -had summoned troops for the defence of the Scotch border; and Philip -now wrote strongly to David, begging him to make a diversion. -David was not sorry to answer to the call. Cumberland was -overrun, and the Bishopric of Durham; but the English levies, -inspirited by the courageous language of the Queen, and -under the joint command of the Percies and Nevilles, -defeated him completely at Neville’s Cross, David himself -being taken prisoner. The battle of Cressy had relieved the -Earl of Derby, who was again overrunning the south-west of France. -The year closed in triumph for the English arms in all directions.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Siege of Calais. -1347.</div> - -<p>This year of success was shortly crowned by the fall of Calais. -Edward had attacked that city by way of blockade, -shutting his army round it, and guarding the approaches -by the sea with his ships. All the efforts of the French King to relieve -it had been useless, and the slow process of famine at length obliged -its defenders to surrender. The inhabitants had not been free from -the usual crime of seafaring life at that time—they were the rivals in -piracy of the Cinque Ports and St. Malo. They had but little -mercy to expect from the King. Eustace de St. Pierre, an important -citizen, offered to give himself up, with a certain number of friends, -to bear the first brunt of the King’s anger, hoping thereby to save his -fellow-citizens. Barefooted and bareheaded, with ropes round their -necks, Eustace, with his devoted friends, appeared before the King. -Irritated with the long defence of the town, and their former -misdeeds, Edward would hear of no mercy; it was only at the -urgent prayer of Queen Philippa that the lives of the deputation -were spared. The advantages of the possession of Calais were -obvious. It afforded an excellent entrance into France in the -immediate neighbourhood of the King’s Flemish allies, and supplied -him also with a good central mart for the national commerce, which -in the existing state of trade was a thing much desired. The inhabitants -were therefore given their choice of being French or -English; those who refused to become English were expelled, and -their places occupied by English colonists, and the whole “staple”<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> -trade of England was for a certain number of years confined to this -town, which accordingly became prosperous.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Truce.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Black Death. -1349.</div> -</div> - -<p>It is somewhat strange to observe the smallness of the effect of the -late great victories. Edward seemed no nearer his objects than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -before he had won them. The exhaustion of his own kingdom -was almost equal to that of France, and shortly after the fall of -Calais, a truce was made for a few months, and afterwards -from time to time extended. One cause, no doubt, -of the general quietness which prevailed at this time in Europe was -the presence of the Black Death, a terrible scourge, -which, after passing over Europe, reached England in -1349. Its ravages were fearful. It is calculated that at least a -third, if not a half, of the whole population of England was swept -away. Such calculations are based partly upon the mortality among -the clergy: more than one half of the priests in Yorkshire died, -more than two-thirds of the beneficed clergy of Norfolk. In Norwich -alone 60,000 people are said to have perished. So fearful a plague -unavoidably changed the whole relation between employer and -employed, and while famine was threatening the country, while -farms could no longer be worked or harvests gathered for want of -hands, there was a natural disinclination to continue the war.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Renewal of -the war. -1355.</div> - -<p>It was not, therefore, till the year 1355 that the war was renewed. -Meanwhile, Philip of Valois had died, and been succeeded by his -son John, and at the instigation of the Pope, following his usual -pacific course, in 1354, a treaty had been set on foot. Edward, regarding -his claim to the French throne as hopeless, was willing to -accept a peace, if the French King would give him the province of -Aquitaine in full sovereignty. English plenipotentiaries appeared -at Guisnes ready to conclude the treaty, but the -French envoys then declared that they would never -surrender a fragment of the French sovereignty.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Destructive -march of the -Black Prince. -1355.</div> - -<p>Edward had no choice, therefore, but to renew the war. He -now possessed two points whence an attack on France was easy; -while he pushed out from Calais, the Black Prince was to lead an -army from Bordeaux. As so often happened upon the northern -frontier, the operations were without fruit; and the King was hastily -recalled to England by the news that the Scots had surprised Berwick, -and were over the Borders. The Black Prince’s expedition -was more successful. He marched at the foot of -the Pyrenees, and all through Languedoc to Narbonne, -and to Carcassonne, plundering and burning in all directions, destroying -in seven weeks more than five hundred towns or villages. Such -brutal and destructive war had indeed become habitual to the English.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_230.jpg" width="450" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> -POITIERS.<br /> -<em>September 19. 1356.</em></div> -</div> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">The Burnt -Candlemas.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Black Prince’s -expedition -north. -1356.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Poitiers.</div> -</div> - -<p>The King’s return checked the advance of the Scots. Purchasing -the property and rights of Edward Balliol, he advanced into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a><br /><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -country, determined to treat it as a land of rebels. He systematically -destroyed every building, and laid waste the country for -twenty miles from the coast. But his severity was of no -avail; famine again drove him home, and the Scots again hung upon -his retreating forces. The following year the Black Prince attempted -a repetition of his last exploit. But he now pressed northwards, and -had reached the neighbourhood of Poitiers, when the -news that a large French army was near forced upon -him the danger of his situation, thus wholly separated -from his base of operations. The army which threatened him was -commanded by King John in person, and all the French princes -were with him. So irresistible did it seem, that Edward would have -listened to any good terms, but John would hear of nothing but unconditional -surrender, and the English, remembering their success at -Cressy, determined to fight. Again, what was regarded as their -extraordinary good fortune, but which was no doubt their superior -organization, secured them complete victory. On a -piece of ground difficult of access, except by a narrow -road exposed to the fire of the archers, and covered by enclosed -country, the hedges of which were lined by the same class of troops, -he awaited the assault of the French. The consequences can be -easily conceived. The heavy armed Frenchmen in the road formed a -target for the arrows; the confined space encumbered with wounded -men and horses made the confusion irremediable. The first body of the -French being thus disposed of, the Black Prince with his men-at-arms -attacked the second, while the third, alarmed by a flank attack -of six hundred English horse whom the Prince had detached for that -purpose, left the field. Between the Prince and the second body of -the French the conflict was a fierce one. It eventually terminated in -the complete victory of the English, and the capture of King John.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Release of -King David.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Peace with -Scotland.</div> -</div> - -<p>This victory was followed by a truce for two years, and Edward -had time to attend more particularly to the state of his affairs with -regard to Scotland. King David had been a prisoner, honourably -treated, in England since his capture at the battle of Neville’s Cross. -More than once the national party in his country had attempted -to come to terms for his release. His character, however, was not -such as to induce them to be eager on the matter; and he himself -seems to have preferred the comfort of England to the position of -King among his unruly subjects. He had been so obsequious, that he -had twice during these ten years visited Scotland as Edward’s agent, -for the purpose of obtaining, if possible, the submission of those who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -were contending for his throne. But the Stewart, who was the head -of the national party, refused the recognition of English supremacy, -and no terms could be arrived at. In 1354 Edward thought he had -gained the success of his plan. David was to be released -for 90,000 marks. As we have seen, the intervention of -the French, followed by the fearful vengeance of Edward in that -expedition which is known as the Burnt Candlemas, put an end to -this treaty. Now, when all hope of help from France was gone, they -renewed their negotiation, and David was at length released upon -the promise of 100,000 marks, in ten yearly payments, a promise confirmed -by the delivery of important hostages. Edward -knew that he was really releasing a willing subject, and -that it was probable that the failure of payment, or the party -quarrels of the country, would before long put the kingdom into his -hands.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Terrible -condition -of France.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Reviving power -of the Dauphin. -1359.</div> -</div> - -<p>He was, at all events, free to act against France. On the capture -of its King, that country had fallen into the wildest -disorder. The Free Companies, as the hired bodies of -soldiery were called, from which both armies had been recruited, -freed from their engagements, pillaged the helpless country. In their -misery the lower commonalty broke out in fierce insurrections. The -people of Paris, under the Provost of the Merchants, Stephen -Marcel, enacted those scenes of revolution with which that city has -been too often familiar. Wearing the red cap of liberty, the mob -burst into the palace, killed two of the Dauphin’s most trusted -counsellors before his eyes, and drove that Prince to Compiègne. -Charles of Navarre, grandson of Louis X., who was surnamed the -Bad, broke from the prison in which he had been confined, made -common cause with the Parisian mob, roused his tenants in Normandy, -where he had much property, to insurrection, and called in -the English King. What with the Jacquerie,<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> the fierce plunderings -of the soldiery, the attacks of England, and the riot in Paris, the -condition of France was in the last degree terrible. However, the -murder of Stephen Marcel in Paris, and the success of -the Dauphin in compelling Charles the Bad to enter into -treaty with him, somewhat changed the aspect of affairs. -Nor would the Dauphin consent to yield any part of France to his -English conquerors.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward again -invades France.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Want of permanent -results -induces Edward -to make the -peace of -Brétigny. -1360.</div> -</div> - -<p>Thus the time of truce wore away in useless negotiations. As it -ended, Edward renewed his invasions. Sir Walter Manny poured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -with an army of German hirelings over Picardy and Artois. Edward, -accompanied by all his sons except Thomas, whom he -left at home as ruler, pushed into the heart of Champagne, -tried in vain to take Rheims, where he hoped to be crowned, -and purchased the neutrality of the Duke of Burgundy. <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'But, succesful'">But, successful</ins> -and destructive as these invasions were, they were only vast -plundering excursions; there was little systematic action, no gradual -conquest of the country, no firm basis of operations. The very -destruction which they caused roused the national spirit, and while -Edward pushed to Paris, and tried in vain to excite the Dauphin to -a general engagement, the Norman fleet was ravaging England in the -neighbourhood of Winchelsea. Moreover, the wasted country could -not support the invading armies unassisted by a proper commissariat, -and as Edward, retiring from before Paris, was met -by a fearful tempest, which seems to have forced upon -him the difficulties of his position, he expressed himself -ready to listen to the terms of peace which the envoys -of the Legate and the Dauphin offered him. Thus, on -the 8th of May, the great peace of Brétigny was made. The terms -were, of course, very favourable to the English. Not only Gascony and -Guienne, but all Poitou, with the counties of Xaintonge, Agen, -Périgord, Limoges, Cahors, Rovergue, Bigorre, and in the north, -Montreuil, Ponthieu, with Calais and Guisnes, were to be the possessions -of the English crown, freed from all feudal claims. In return, -all claim to the crown of France was given up, together with all -claims in Normandy, Touraine, Anjou, Maine, Brittany, and Flanders. -King John was to be liberated on the payment of 3,000,000 -pieces of gold.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> Scotland and Flanders were to be left to themselves.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Treaty not -carried out. -1364.</div> - -<p>Edward thus appeared, even though he had not made good his -claims to the crown, to have regained and put on a better footing the -much disputed provinces of the south-west. But it was one thing to -make such a treaty and another to secure its being carried out. The -very misery of France produced a reaction. Though King John -himself returned to France to collect it, his enormous ransom was not -forthcoming. The barons of Poitou declared that they would not be -severed from the French crown; while the hatred to the English was -kept alive by the great bands of discharged soldiers, who, joining -themselves to the great Free Companies, swept across France, put the -Pope himself to ransom, and finding no congenial employment elsewhere,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -quartered themselves on the people. At the head of the party -who were set against the completion of the treaty was -Charles the Dauphin. His accession upon the death of -John, who had honourably returned to England when -he found himself unable to pay his ransom, marked a change in the -national policy of France. Under the new King, it was managed -that the renunciations required by the treaty should not be carried -out. There were other causes also at work which promised a speedy -renewal of the war.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">War in Brittany -continues.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Affairs of -Castile.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">France and -England support -the rival -claimants.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Navarette.</div> -</div> - -<p>By the treaty it had been expressly stipulated that the quarrel -between De Montfort and Charles de Blois might be continued, -though it was added, that whichever party conquered was bound to -swear fealty to France. Du Guesclin, a soldier of a -different class from the ordinary feudal leaders who had -risen to eminence during the late wars, was sent to support the -claims of Charles. The news of his arrival was at once followed by a -similar step on the part of the English. Chandos, an English general, -marched from Guienne to support De Montfort. A battle was fought -at Auray, in which De Montfort’s party were successful, and -Charles de Blois killed. The Free Companies too, of which the best -known are those of Calverley and Knowles, still ravaged France, and -were a constant cause of complaint. The English themselves had to -take part against them, but at length the means taken by King -Charles to rid his kingdom of this burden again brought the French -and English into contact. The provinces of the south-west of France -had been erected into the independent duchy of Aquitaine, and given -to the Black Prince, who held his court at Bordeaux. Thither, -when driven from his country, Pedro the Cruel, of Castile, betook himself. -This king had secured his throne by a series of -murders. His natural brother, Henry of Trastamare, -had fled and taken refuge with the French King. When Pedro carried -his cruelty to the pitch of putting to death his wife, Blanche de -Bourbon, a French princess, the court of France had determined to -assist Henry to dethrone his brother, and had intrusted Du Guesclin -with the duty of enlisting the Free Companies for this purpose. His -attempt had been successful; Pedro had taken flight, Henry had -ascended the throne. But Pedro, as a fugitive king, found ready -support at the hands of the Black Prince, thoroughly imbued with -the false chivalry of the day. It was whispered to the -Free Companies that their loved commander had an expedition -on foot. In numbers they deserted from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -French army, and gathered round the Black Prince, who was thus -enabled to cross the Pyrenees at Roncesvalles at the head of 30,000 -men. The rival armies met at Navarette. The French -were completely beaten, Du Guesclin taken prisoner.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Taxation in -Aquitaine.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Barons appeal -to Charles. -1368.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Renewal of war.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Gradual defeat -of the English.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Black Prince -takes Limoges.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His final return -to England.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Loss of -Aquitaine. -1374.</div> -</div> - -<p>But Pedro, again upon the throne, forgot his engagements to his -protector, and the Black Prince returned to his duchy, broken -in health by the hardships of the campaign, and ruined by -its expenses. It became necessary to lay heavy taxes upon his -subjects. Those subjects were already discontented; the barons -of Poitou objected to the English supremacy, and had applied to -Charles as their suzerain. Charles had been fomenting their discontent, -and had sent secret envoys to raise a similar feeling -among the barons of Ponthieu in the north. To these -malcontents were now added the Counts of Armagnac, and other -barons of the northern slope of the Pyrenees, who regarded the infliction -of the tax as a breach of their privileges; and after keeping the -matter in abeyance for a year, till he was ready to strike, King -Charles, taking advantage of the non-completion of the -renunciations, proceeded to treat the Black Prince as a -vassal, and summoned him before his court. The Prince -answered he would appear at the head of 60,000 men-at-arms. The -threat was idle. Before, in his distressed position, he could make -any vigorous preparation, the French troops had begun to conquer the -outlying parts of his province, and a declaration of war was at once -issued. But several years of peace, during which the -exhausted country had begun to recover itself, had disinclined -the English to renew the war. The King appears to have -grown old before his time, and to have thought only of enjoying in -pleasure the fruits of his successful youth. Preparations went on but -slowly, while insurrections among the nobles, and the pressure of the -French army, continually increased around Guienne. There the -Black Prince was so ill that he could not himself take the field. -His brother Edmund of Cambridge, Chandos and Knowles, were -indeed with him, but could scarcely make head against -the insurgents. An attack upon Poitou failed, and -Chandos lost his life. None of the English plans met with success. -Knowles indeed, placed in command of Calais, marched again -successfully to Paris, but the long wars had given birth to a new race -of French generals, and Du Guesclin, now Constable, prevented any -great success. At length the Black Prince roused himself, and took -the field. At his mere name the French armies began to dissolve, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -he advanced triumphantly to Limoges, a town he had much favoured, -and on which he intended to wreak his vengeance. -The wall was mined, and the town taken. Men, women, -and children, to the number of 3000, were pitilessly murdered. In -the midst of this cruel slaughter, the Prince could show his knighthood -by sparing and honouring some French gentlemen -who made an unusually gallant resistance. It was his -last triumph. Early in 1371 he returned to England, broken and -dying. There is no need to trace the progress of the war further. -The gradual advance of the French could not be checked. The -English armies might march far into the country, as -one under Lancaster did in 1373, but the French invariably -avoided a general action; and thus, by 1374, -England had lost all her possessions in France, with the exception -of Calais, Bordeaux and Bayonne, and a few towns upon the -Dordogne.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Naval victory of -the Spaniards. -1372.</div> - -<p>The sequel of the Black Prince’s friendship for Pedro of Castile -deserves to be noticed. Upon the withdrawal of the English, Henry -of Trastamare again conquered Pedro, and the brothers having met in -Henry’s tent, a quarrel ensued, terminating in a personal struggle and -the death of Pedro. Henry thus regained the throne; and subsequently -two daughters of Pedro married two of Edward’s sons, -Lancaster and Cambridge. Upon the Duke of Lancaster’s assuming -the title of King of Castile, Henry entered actively -into the war, and at a great naval battle off Rochelle -in June 1372, completely destroyed the English fleet -under the Earl of Pembroke. At length a truce was agreed on, -which, though it never ripened into a peace, continued from time to -time during the rest of the reign.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Discontent in -England.</div> - -<p>A strange change of fortune thus clouded the end of what -promised to be a glorious reign. Edward, making war in the spirit of -a knight-errant, and trusting completely to the courage of his troops -on the day of battle, had neglected all the precautions which the -conquest of a country requires. He had been successful neither as a -strategist nor as a statesman, and his war with France, adorned with -splendid victories, and for one moment promising to establish on a -firm footing the English power in the South of France, had ended in -a more complete overthrow of that power than had been seen since -the time of King John. It was natural that the close of such a -reign should be marked by some expressions of discontent -among the people. Old before his time, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -hands of a woman of the name of Alice Perrers, whose ostentation -was constantly shocking the public eye, Edward had fallen under the -influence of bad advisers, and had let the reins of government slip -into the hands of John of Gaunt, his third son.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Politics of -the time.</div> - -<p>To understand the politics of this time, we have to rid ourselves of -both the names and ideas of the present day. The lines -which divided classes were much more distinctly marked. -Political life was confined entirely to the upper ranks. The House -of Commons, which we are in the habit of regarding as a popular -assembly, and which was, in fact, the most popular assembly of that -time, was in part entirely aristocratic, in part representative of the -moneyed interests of the country. Below this no class could make -its voice heard at all, and this moneyed and aristocratic House of -Commons was only beginning by slow degrees to force itself into -political power. It had, in fact, consisted at first of two separate -orders,—the knights of the shire, who represented the lesser nobility, -and the burgesses. The knights had naturally joined without difficulty -in the deliberations of a baronage who were socially their equals; -the burgesses had busied themselves almost exclusively with financial -questions touching their own order. Various causes had gradually -tended to draw the two lower orders together, and by the beginning -of the reign of Edward III., the division of Parliament into two -Houses, of which the lower consisted of knights and burgesses, had -been completed. Indeed, the Act of 1321, passed when Edward II. -was victorious over the barons, had acknowledged the claims of the -burgesses to share in the proceedings of Parliament. The practical -government of the country had hitherto been in the hands of the -House of Lords. There were thus three distinct classes, the baronage, -the upper or represented commonalty, consisting of knights and burgesses, -and the lower commonalty. Power was as yet in the hands of -the baronage. When, therefore, no common cause was driving the -baronage to united action, as among all governing classes, there was -certain to be a difference of view, and the baronage would be -divided into parties. On the other hand, the upper Commons, -just forcing their way upwards, were inclined to be sometimes subservient -to the wishes of the Barons, sometimes ready to join that -one of the baronial parties which seemed to give them the greatest -promise of political assistance. The lower, or unrepresented Commons, -unable to make themselves heard, had been of no political -account; although a series of events had lately contributed to put -them in such a position that their friendship was worth having, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -to enable them soon to speak with arms in their hands, in a way -which was very terrible. Each of these classes had its own particular -interests, and made their combinations with the other classes to suit -the advance of those interests. The Barons desired power, the -higher Commons good administration, especially of the finances; the -lower Commons such improvements in their position as they afterwards -claimed under Wat Tyler. Hitherto, in the main, the interest -of the baronage had been the restriction within fixed limits of the -royal authority; they had hitherto been the guardians of the -constitutional growth of the country, and their rebellions and -opposition, whatever selfish leaven may have been mixed with them, -deserve to be regarded as efforts towards popular liberty. About -the period which we have now reached, this guardianship of the -Constitution passed into the hands of the upper Commons. The -Barons themselves having now acquired a preponderance in the -government, it was their encroachments rather than the King’s -which had to be guarded against. In principle, the safeguards of the -Constitution had been established by Edward I., and were therefore -no longer the subject of contention. The baronage was no longer -interested to secure power, but to enjoy a power already secured. -They thus fell into parties whose real object was to appropriate that -power. For that purpose, like other political parties, the rival -Barons would seek to attach to themselves any of the other sections -of society, and would therefore adopt those principles and those -party cries which seemed to promise them the most success. It -becomes, therefore, impossible to say that this or that baronial -insurrection was popular or constitutional. For their own objects, -the most disorderly Barons might attach themselves to the Commons, -to the lower classes, or to the King. Their divisions had, in fact, -become party struggles for power.</p> - -<p>Now the chief questions at that time exciting England were the -position of the Church, the continuation of the war with France, and -the management of the finances. On any of these questions the -baronage might form itself into parties, which might seek their own -advantage by adopting the interests of other sections of society. It is -in this way that must be explained the apparent contradictions in the -conduct of the Parliament at the close of Edward’s reign. For many -years there had been growing a strong dislike to the Church in -England. The oppressions of the Popes, the selfish character of their -government at Avignon, the loss of spirituality on the part of the higher -clergy, from whose ranks the statesmen of the time were largely drawn,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -and the deterioration of the mendicant orders, together with the idea -always prevalent in England of the supremacy of the state, had given -birth to a party who desired the pre-eminence in all matters of the laity,—a -party which is of course connected with the doctrinal views at this -time brought forward by Wicliffe. The existence of this lay party is -clearly shown by the proceedings of the year 1340, when for the -first time a lay Chancellor, Sir Robert Bouchier, was appointed in -the place of Stratford. When the baronage were divided, the natural -leaders of the parties were the royal princes. Thus, when circumstances -had put the reins of power into the hands of John of Gaunt, -he fortified himself by assuming the leadership of the lay party, -which found its adherents in all sections of society, but no doubt -mainly among the barons, jealous of the great part played in -the government by the clergy, the vast wealth which the Church -held, and which is calculated at more than a third of the land, and -rendered self-confident by their successes in the French war. Already -schemes for the confiscation of Church property had been publicly -mentioned, and the Commons, with the approbation of John of Gaunt, -had in 1371 petitioned for the removal of all the clergy from the higher -offices of state. The Bishop of Winchester, William of Wykeham, had -surrendered the great seal, which, together with the offices of the -exchequer, had been put into the hands of laymen. There are many -proofs that the class which was represented in the Commons partook -strongly of the dislike to the Church. But any claim to popularity -which Lancaster’s administration might have advanced on this ground -was destroyed by their mismanagement of the finances and the disasters -of the foreign war. In fact, there is little doubt that the ecclesiastics -he had displaced were far better governors than the partisans he had -put in their places. Another party was therefore formed, at the head of -which was the Black Prince, a party consisting of those who preferred -the old system of government, and which included the higher -clergy and the financial reformers. It has been pointed out that the -disastrous government of John of Gaunt had found its partisans -chiefly among the Barons. On the whole, therefore, the Commons -attached themselves to the party of the Black Prince. For the time -a restoration of good government and well-managed finance seemed -to them of more importance than the overthrow of the Church, -especially as their interests as a class seemed to lead in the same -direction. The struggle came to an issue in the Good Parliament, -which met in April 1376. The Commons presented a remonstrance, -which, after enumerating their financial grievances, and asserting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -the mismanagement of the Government, demanded a change in -the council; in other words, a change of ministry. The clergy, -and William of Wykeham among them, again came into office. -They were not content with this, but impeached—and this is -the first instance of parliamentary impeachment—Lord Latimer, -the Chamberlain. A considerable number of the other officers -were arrested and thrown into prison, and Alice Perrers was forbidden -to use her influence under pain of banishment. They were -still discussing further reforms, when the death of the Black Prince -deprived them of their chief support. Afraid that John of Gaunt -had views on the succession, they insisted on the immediate recognition -of the Black Prince’s son; and a deputation waited on the old -King at Eltham to receive an answer to their complaints and petitions. -These, as might be expected, were chiefly directed against the -encroachments of the Papacy, in hatred to which all parties in -England joined. Still the King’s reply shows the influence of the -newly restored clerical counsellors. Enough, he said, had been done -in the way of legislation, he would continue his personal appeals to -the Pope. Parliament then separated.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Death of Black -Prince. Lancaster -regains -power.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Lancastrian -Parliament. -1377.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Trial of -Wicliffe.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Uproar in -London.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of -the King.</div> -</div> - -<p>It at once became plain that the Black Prince’s death had again -thrown the power into the hands of John of Gaunt. -The power of the new Privy Council disappeared, Lord -Latimer was pardoned, Peter de la Mare, the speaker of -the Good Parliament, was thrown into prison, William of Wykeham -was again driven from the court. The Parliament -which assembled next year was thoroughly in the Lancastrian -interest. Sir Thomas Hungerford, the Duke’s -steward, was elected Speaker, the proceedings against Alice Perrers -withdrawn, and a new form of tax—a poll-tax of 4d.—granted. But -the clergy did not thus easily yield their ground. They attacked -the apostle of the lay party, Wicliffe. He had to appear -before Courtenay, Bishop of London, in St. Paul’s. He -came, supported by Lancaster and by the Marshall, Henry Percy, -a close adherent of that party of which Lancaster was the head. -An unseemly brawl arose in the church. Lancaster threatened to -drag Courtenay out of the church by the hair. The Londoners were -already so ill disposed to Lancaster, that measures were in preparation -to remove their mayor, and put the government of the town in the -hands of a royal commission. The insult to their Bishop -roused them to fury. It was only by Courtenay’s intervention -that Lancaster’s house was saved from demolition; and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -wretched man was killed under the supposition that he was Henry -Percy. Lancaster escaped, and the city had to make some sort of reparation; -but the quarrel was scarcely quieted when the -King died. Deserted by his mistress, who is said to -have torn the rings from his dying hand, and by his servants, the -wretched old man died, tended only by a single poor priest.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="RICHARD_II" id="RICHARD_II">RICHARD II.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1377–1399.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_243.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_243.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1397 = 1. Anne of Bohemia, 1382. - = 2. Isabella of France, 1396. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - Robert II., | Charles V., | Charles IV., | Henry II., 1368. - 1370. | 1364. | 1347. | John I., 1379. - Robert III., | Charles VI., | Wenceslaus, | Henry III., 1390. - 1390. | 1380. | 1378. | - - POPES.--Gregory XI., 1370. Urban VI., 1378. Boniface IX., 1389. - [Also Clement VII., 1378. Benedict XII., 1394.] - - _Archbishops._ - - Simon Sudbury, 1375. - William Courtenay, 1381. - Thomas Arundel, 1397. - - _Chancellors._ - - Sir Richard le Scrope, 1378. Michael de la Pole, 1383. - Simon Sudbury, 1379. Thomas Arundel, 1386. - William Courtenay, 1381. William of Wykeham, 1389. - Lord Scrope, 1381. Thomas Arundel, 1391. - Robert de Braybroke, 1382. Edmund Stafford, 1396. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Difficulties of -the new reign.<br /><br /> -Regency.<br /><br /> -Patriotic -government.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The young King was but a child, and there was a prospect of a -long minority, affording an ample field for the intrigues of party. -The position of the kingdom too was such as to promise -a time of considerable difficulty. The war with France -had been put off by a succession of truces, but was still threatening, -and England was in no condition to meet it. An invasion actually -took place. French troops landed in the Isle of Wight, and laid -waste the country. Moreover, the last reign had closed amidst -domestic difficulties. The Lords therefore thought it right to take -the settlement of the kingdom into their own hands. At a great -council it was determined to form a Council of Regency, drawn from -all orders represented in Parliament, to assist the great -officers of the crown. The dangers which beset the -country induced all parties for a time to rally honestly round the -throne. The royal princes, who might become party leaders, were on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> -that account excluded from the Council. The national party again -gained the majority in the Commons, and again elected -De la Mare as their Speaker. But the Commons had no -wish to drive matters to extremity, or to change the existing balance -of power. They fell back into their old position, which they had -temporarily felt themselves obliged to desert, declined to have anything -to do with matters of state; and when told to consider the best -means for the defence of the kingdom, they pleaded their inability to -answer, named a council of peers whom they thought qualified for -the purpose, and made overtures of friendship by placing Lancaster’s -name at the head of the list. Lancaster, who desired power and had -no fixed principles, accepted the position, first making a solemn -denial of all the calumnious reports which were afloat about him, and -thus again became practically Prime Minister. But the Commons -showed that they intended to keep their own great object, economical -management of the finances, steadfastly in view, by insisting that the -subsidy, which was granted at once upon this reconciliation, should -be paid into the hands of two treasurers named by themselves. They -also demanded, as a further guarantee of good government, that the -great officers of state and the judges should be chosen by the Lords, -and publicly named to the Commons. The King was left unrestrained -in the choice of those who should be about his person. At the next -Parliament, held at Gloucester in 1378, they still pursued the same -policy, and refused to grant a new subsidy till the accounts of that -last granted had been exhibited to them. It was plain that the -constant repetition of subsidies was much disliked.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Money wanted -for war in -Brittany. -1380.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Poll-tax.</div> -</div> - -<p>But the continuation of war in Brittany soon made fresh demands -for money necessary. This war had closed by a sudden -revulsion of feeling on the part of the Bretons, who had -been roused to extreme anger by the annexation of -the province by the French King. But on his death they became -equally hostile to their late friends the English, and drove them from -the country. To supply this want of money, new methods of taxation -were devised. A poll-tax, graduated from £6, 13s. 4d. on the Duke -of Lancaster, to 4d. on the ordinary labourer and his -family, was granted, but produced not half the sum required. -Further demands were made, and the consent of the Commons -purchased by reforms of the household, and by the establishment -of a Parliamentary finance committee. Even the new grants thus -purchased did not suffice, and at the end of the year 1380, a poll tax -graduated from £1 to 1s. per head was imposed on every male and female.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Insurrection of -the Villeins. -1381.</div> - -<p>The exaction of this tax, which fell proportionately with much -greater weight on the lower, unrepresented orders, produced the -great insurrection known as Wat Tyler’s insurrection. -Many causes had been at work, not in England -only, but throughout Europe, to excite discontent -among the labouring classes. The severity and rough inquisitorial -spirit with which the present impost was collected was beyond -what they could bear. In Essex, under Jack Straw, at Dartford, -under Wat Tyler, whose daughter had been subjected to insult, -and at Gravesend, where Sir Simon Burley had laid claim to -a labourer as his villein, insurrections broke out. Wat Tyler -was chosen for the general leader, accompanied by John Ball, the -popular itinerant preacher. But the insurrection was not confined -to these counties only, it extended from Winchester to Scarborough. -It was in all respects a revolutionary movement. Manor-houses -were pillaged and destroyed, and the court rolls, where the villeins’ -names were written, were burnt. Officials, those who had served on -juries, justices, and even lawyers, were put to death. The rebels were -particularly embittered against John of Gaunt, swearing to admit no -king of the name of John, and refused all taxes except the customary -tenth and fifteenth.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Death of -Wat Tyler.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Insurrection -suppressed.</div> -</div> - -<p>The insurgents entered Southwark, and pillaged the palace of Lambeth; -on the following day penetrated into London, freed the prisoners -in Newgate, destroyed Lancaster’s house of the Savoy, and showed their -national spirit by killing some fifty Flemish merchants. The King -was alone in London; he offered to meet them at Mile End. He -there received their petition, which demanded not political but social -rights,—the abolition of villeinage, the reduction of rent to fourpence -an acre, the free access to all fairs and markets, and a general pardon. -The King granted their demands; and charters were at once drawn -up for every township. But, in the meanwhile, the more advanced -leaders, disliking the moderation of the bulk of their followers, broke -into the Tower and ransacked it. On the following day, the King -came across these men in Smithfield. Tyler was at their head. He -advanced to have a personal interview with the King, and was -suddenly killed by Walworth, the Lord Mayor, as he played with his -dagger, an action which was construed as a threat. The -young King, with remarkable presence of mind, rode -forward to the astonished rebels, declared that he would be their -leader, and induced them to follow him to Islington, where they -found themselves in the presence of Sir Robert Knowles and 1000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -soldiers. They at once yielded, and demanded the King’s mercy; -he declined to punish them, and dismissed them to their homes. -When time had thus been gained, the crisis was over. -Richard found himself at the head of an army. Several -defeats and numerous executions broke the spirit of the rebels, and -the insurrection was suppressed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Parliament -rejects the -villeins’ claims.</div> - -<p>In autumn the Parliament met. The King declared he had recalled -his charters, but asked the Commons to consider the propriety -of abolishing villeinage. The ignorance and want of sympathy with -the feelings of the class below them, which existed among the representative -Commons, was then made evident. No men, they said, -should rob them of their villeins. The charters were -therefore finally revoked; and not only the charters, -but the general pardon also: at least 250 persons were -exempted from it. Meantime, the House of Commons made political -capital out of the insurrection; they declared that the cause of the insurrection -was not the social oppression of the labourer, but their own -grievances, purveyance, the rapacity of the officers of the Exchequer, -the maintainers, or bands of robbers who carried on depredations -in some counties, and the heavy taxation. This was followed by a -further inquiry into the royal household.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Lancaster’s -government.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">He deserts -Wicliffe.</div> -</div> - -<p>Lancaster continued in power for three years longer. His ministry -was unmarked by success; and the feeling against him, which had -been exhibited in the insurrection, found frequent expression. -With regard to Church reform he had completely -changed his tactics. When Wicliffe passed beyond his attacks upon -the abuses of the Church, and touched its doctrine, questioning even -the fundamental point of Transubstantiation, Lancaster -withdrew his support. Although Wicliffe was so far -upheld by Parliament, that a statute which had been passed for the -suppression of his “poor priests” was repealed, he was unable, without -Lancaster’s assistance, to withstand the power of the Church, and -was compelled to make some form of recantation before he regained -his living of Lutterworth, where he died in 1384. But Lancaster -reaped no advantage from this change in his conduct. Every disaster -was still laid to his charge, and the old suspicion that he harboured -covert designs upon the throne still clung to him. The great schism -was at this time dividing the Catholic Church. For seventy years -the Papacy fixed at Avignon had been the servant of the French -king: the Babylonish captivity the Italians called it. Gregory -XI. restored the Papacy to Rome, but his death was followed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> -a double election. The French cardinals elected Clement VII., -the Roman cardinals Urban VI.; and the Christian world was -divided in its allegiance. In the interests of Pope Urban, who was -received in England, the Bishop of Norwich, a remarkable prelate, -who had distinguished himself in the suppression of the late insurrection, -was engaged to lead an army against France. He selected -the old road of attack. The Flemish citizens, in spite of the death of -their great leader, Philip Van Artevelt, and of a crushing defeat they -had received from the French chivalry at Rosbecque, continued their -enmity to France. The Bishop was to act in concert with them.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Is charged with -the failure in -Flanders.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Jealousy of him -thwarts the -Scotch invasion. -1385.</div> -</div> - -<p>His expedition failed; it was currently reported that -Lancaster had thwarted it. A certain friar came to the -King offering to prove traitorous designs on the part of -Lancaster. Sir John Holland, the King’s half-brother, and a partisan -of Lancaster’s, into whose charge he was given, killed him. His death -was no doubt suspicious. His story against Lancaster was believed. -In 1385, Scotland, which had been subsidized by France, became -troublesome. Richard led an army against it; but the -advice of De la Pole, the King’s chancellor and favourite -minister, who pretended to dread the designs of Lancaster, -induced Richard to retreat, and the expedition came to nothing. -Moreover, still further to mark his fear of Lancaster, Richard declared -Roger, Earl of March, his presumptive heir. The enmity -between March and Lancaster, in which perhaps may be traced the -first beginnings of the Wars of the Roses, had been already marked in -the last reign. Peter de la Mare was the steward of the Earl of -March, while Sir Thomas Hungerford, the speaker of the following -Parliament, occupied the same office in the household of Lancaster.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">He is glad to -have to support -his claims in -Castile.</div> - -<p>John of Gaunt, thus mistrusted and opposed, was glad to -embrace the opportunity of leaving England, which was -offered him by affairs in Spain, where he wished, in -union with the Portuguese, to push the claim to the throne of Castile, -which he derived from his wife, the daughter of Pedro the -Cruel.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Gloucester takes -his place.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The King’s -favourites.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Gloucester -heads an -opposition.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Change of -ministry -demanded. -Impeachment of -Suffolk.</div> -</div> - -<p>He was at once succeeded in his influence and in his party -leadership by a far more dangerous man, another uncle -of the King, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester. Meanwhile -the politics of England had changed, and had fallen back -into their normal condition. We have seen that the King had -been allowed the free selection of his own household. He had -surrounded himself by men not drawn from the higher<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> -baronage.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> His chief favourite was De Vere, whom he had made -Earl of Oxford, and subsequently Duke of Ireland, -and to whom he had intrusted the government of -that disturbed country; while his ministers nominated by Parliament -were also men who owed their position to their capacity -rather than to their birth. The chief of these was Michael de la -Pole, the chancellor, whom the King had raised to the rank of -Earl of Suffolk. He was thus open to the old charge of favouritism. -The Lancastrian party had set themselves against his favourites. -Already one of them, the Earl of Stafford, had been killed by Sir John -Holland, and Gloucester found no difficulty in forming a -powerful party among the barons, taking for his cry the -reform of the administration, and seeking to excite the -national feeling, by keeping alive the animosity against France, towards -which country Richard was much drawn; while the specious pretext of -reform as usual attracted the Commons. In 1386, Gloucester took advantage -of a threatened invasion from France to produce charges against -the administration. The King’s officers, it was said, had used the public -revenues for their own purposes; the Commons had been impoverished -by taxes, the landowners could not get their rents, and tenants -were compelled to abandon their farms through distress. The three -last of these charges were traceable, not to government, but to economical -changes, but served well as a party catchword; and so successful -were they, that in a Parliament held at Westminster, Commons -and Lords united in demanding a change of ministry. -After a contest of three weeks the King yielded. Suffolk -was dismissed, and his dismissal was immediately followed -by his impeachment. The charges brought against -him were held to be partly proved, and he was sentenced to be kept -in prison during the King’s pleasure. After the dissolution of Parliament -he was released. His place was taken by Arundel, Bishop of Ely.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Commission of -Government.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The King -prepares a -counterblow. -1387.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The five Lords -Appellant in -arms impeach -the King’s -friends.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Affair of -Radcot.</div> -</div> - -<p>This blow, though severe, was followed by a worse one. The old -baronial policy of establishing a committee of reform was renewed. To -intimidate the King, the statute of the deposition of Edward II. was -produced in Parliament. The estates having declared that unless he -granted their requests they would separate without his permission, he -was finally compelled to authorize a commission of -eleven peers and bishops, to inquire into abuses and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> -regulate reform. Their duty was a very wide one, touching the -household, the treasury, and all complaints out of the reach of law. -The partisans of Gloucester formed the majority of this committee, -of which the Duke himself and his chief friend, Lord Arundel,<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> were -members. It was arranged that the power of the committee should -last for one year only. It does not seem to have brought to light -any great abuses, nor was its government sufficiently superior to that -which had preceded it to justify its establishment. Richard had no -mind to submit to a limitation of his prerogative which seemed so -little called for. He set to work with his usual secretiveness. At -Shrewsbury, and again at Nottingham, he inquired -of the judges how far the late conduct of the reformers -was constitutional. Their reply was strongly in favour -of the prerogative. They declared the late measures treasonable, and -its authors liable to capital punishment, denied the power of Parliament -to impeach, and declared Suffolk’s condemnation false. Fulthorpe, -one of the King’s judges, though sworn to secrecy, at once told -Gloucester of the King’s questions. Consequently, when Richard -had made all preparations for a sudden <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup d’état</span>, he was alarmed -to find that Gloucester, Arundel, and Nottingham, had reached -London the same day as himself, with a numerous army. -At Waltham Cross the Earls of Derby and Warwick -joined them, and they proceeded to appeal, or, as we -should say, accuse of high treason, the Archbishop of -York, the Duke of Ireland, the Earl of Suffolk, Robert Tresilian the -judge, and Sir Nicholas Brember, whose influence had been employed -to secure London for Richard. The accused sought refuge in flight, -and the Duke of Ireland succeeded in raising troops in the West, and -attempted to bring the matter to the issue of battle. -But the Lords Appellant were beforehand with him; -he was unable to cross the Thames, as he hoped, at Radcot; and being -there surrounded, with difficulty escaped by swimming the river.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">The Wonderful -Parliament.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Gloucester’s -unimportant -government.</div> -</div> - -<p>The appellants, now masters of the kingdom, made a thorough -clearance of all who could be considered King’s favourites. Eleven of -his intimate friends were imprisoned, a number of the lords and -ladies of the Court removed, and in February 1388, a Parliament -known as the “Wonderful or merciless Parliament” -assembled, which, in a long session of 122 days, was -employed almost entirely in destroying the enemies of Gloucester. -His appeal was heard, and all the five accused gentlemen were found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> -guilty; three escaped, Tresilian and Brember were put to death. -Some of the judges were likewise executed, some pardoned on the intercession -of the bishops, and four knights, old and intimate friends -of Richard, of whom Sir Simon Burley is the best known, were also -impeached and beheaded. Parliament closed with an ordinance, -declaring that the treasons for which these men had suffered were not -established by any statute, and should not form a precedent; and by -exacting a repetition of Richard’s coronation oath. For a year, -Gloucester ruled at his will, without any marked success. -The Percies were defeated by the Scotch at Otterbourne, -and an invasion from France was only averted by the -incessant dissensions which had arisen in that country during the -minority of Charles VI. Before the end of Gloucester’s administration, -however, truces were concluded with both Scotland and France.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Richard assumes -sole authority. -1389.</div> - -<p>Richard appears to have been able to dissemble profoundly; he -had been most submissive to his conquerors, who believed their power -safe, when, at a council in the spring of 1389, he quietly asked -Gloucester how old he was. Gloucester replied that he was twenty-two. -“Then,” said the King, “I am certainly old enough to -manage my own affairs. I thank you, my lords, for your -past services; I want them no longer.” He then proceeded -to change the ministry, removed Arundel from the chancellorship,<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> -and took the government into his own hands. Although the -ministry was changed, there was no great reversal of policy, no -punishment of the Lords Appellant. On the contrary, the King, -under the advice, it is probable, of William of Wykeham, seemed -determined to ignore party, and to attempt a moderate government. -He declared that he would be bound by the decisions of the late -Parliament, employed among his most intimate counsellors, Derby, -who had been one of the appellants, and the Duke of York, who had -been on the commission of 1386; and it would appear that he did not -even remove Gloucester from his councils. In pursuance of this -national and healing policy, in the following year, the chief officers -temporarily resigned their offices, that their administration might be -examined. The Commons found not the slightest cause of complaint, -and they were reinstated at once. This peaceable state of affairs -continued till 1397. During the whole of that time, we must -believe that Richard was only waiting his opportunity. There were -indeed some signs of his secret thoughts. Some of his banished -friends were relieved or obtained places in Ireland. On the death of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> -Robert de Vere he succeeded in obtaining the Earldom of Oxford for -his uncle, Aubrey de Vere; and a year or two afterwards he brought -his friend’s body, which had been embalmed, from abroad, and before -it was reburied, had the coffin opened, and gazed with much emotion -upon the dead man’s face. But outwardly such unity reigned, that -national matters could be considered, and the period is marked by the -completion of the quarrel with the Papacy with regard to Provisors, -and by an expedition to Ireland.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Final Statute of -Provisors.</div> - -<p>England, it has been said, embraced the cause of Urban VI. In -his gratitude he had given the King the nomination to -the two next vacant prebends in all collegiate churches. -But the appointment by the Pope of an Abbot of St. Edmunds, in -1380, produced a repetition of the Statute of Provisors of Edward -III.’s reign.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> Still the laws were repeatedly evaded, the Pope always -presenting to benefices which fell vacant at Rome. As the cardinals -generally died at Rome, this was a large exception. In 1390, the -29th of January of that year was settled as a term. All Provisors -before that year were legal; all after, together with the introduction -of any Papal letter of recommendation, absolutely illegal. In 1391, -the new Pope, Boniface IX., declared all these enactments void, and -proceeded to grant Provisors. Consequently, in 1393,<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> was drawn -up the final Statute of Provisors, or Præmunire. By this any man -procuring instruments of any kind from Rome, or publishing such -instruments, was outlawed, his property forfeited, and his person -apprehended.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Expedition to -Ireland. -1394.</div> - -<p>The following year the King made an expedition to Ireland. The -condition of that country had long demanded attention. -Since the invasion of the Bruces, the native tribes had -made considerable advances on all sides, but their -domestic dissensions prevented any permanent success. A far greater -evil was the condition of the Irish of old English race. The -want of strong central authority had allowed the individual chieftains -to establish something like royal power in their own dominions; -they were gradually falling back into barbarism, and in a way very -unusual among conquering races, had been gradually adopting the -manners and laws of the conquered race around them. Among them, -as among the natives, perpetual discord and fighting existed. So -disorderly were they, that Edward III. had ordered that no official -places should be occupied except by men born in England; and -Lionel of Clarence, who had been appointed to bring the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> -into order, had, in 1364, procured, at the Parliament of Kilkenny, -statutes, directed not against the Irish, but against the English -settlers, making the adoption of Irish habits, and of the Brehon -or Irish law, high treason. Earlier in the reign, Richard had -appointed his favourite De Vere to restore order. His success had -been prevented by the attack upon him by the Lords Appellant -in 1387. The King now, in the year 1394, determined to go in -person. His measures were just and moderate, and he succeeded in -inducing all the native princes to swear fealty.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Marriage with -Isabella of -France. -1397.</div> - -<p>He was called home by the excesses of the Lollards, as the -followers of Wicliffe were called. They had prepared a petition, containing -a forcible exposition of their own tenets, and a vigorous attack -on the priests. The Church demanded the presence and protection of -the King, who, on his arrival in England, expelled the Lollards from -Oxford. At the same time he contracted a marriage, -consonant with his known French views, with Isabella, -the daughter of Charles VI. of France, a Princess of ten -years of age. In 1397, the marriage ceremony having been performed, -the young Queen was crowned. It seems possible that it was in reliance -upon this new friendship with France that the King now determined -to execute his long dissembled vengeance. The seven years of peaceful -government had allayed suspicion, and won him popularity. -Lancaster, who had returned from Spain, had ceased to take a very -prominent part in the government, and had, moreover, been gratified -by the legitimization of his children by his mistress Catherine Swinford. -His son, the Earl of Derby, had deserted his former associates, -and was one of the King’s advisers. Mowbray of Nottingham, -another of the Lords Appellant, had also been won over. The Duke -of York had throughout been friendly disposed to the King. On the -other hand, Gloucester had been continually acting in a spirit of -covert hostility. He had made political capital by opposing the French -match, and by publicly speaking against the extravagances of the royal -household, which appear to have been very great. Froissart, indeed, -mentions a story, which however needs confirmation, that he had -combined with Warwick and the Arundels in a plot to seize the King.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Richard’s -vengeance after -seven years’ -peace.</div> - -<p>Richard carried out his plans of vengeance with his usual secrecy -and skill. Suddenly, Warwick, Arundel and Gloucester -were apprehended, and sent to different and distant -castles. He then proceeded against them as they had -themselves proceeded against his friends. They were appealed of -treason by a number of Earls in the royal interest. Rickhill, one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> -justices, was sent to Calais to obtain Gloucester’s confession, and a -Parliament was assembled at Westminster, in which the good will of -the Commons had been already secured. As a preliminary measure, -all pardons to Gloucester, Arundel and Warwick were revoked. An -impeachment was then brought against the Archbishop Arundel, and -the appeal against the Duke and the two Earls was heard. Arundel -refused to plead anything but his pardon. This having already been -revoked, he was at once condemned and executed. The Earl -Marshall, to whom Gloucester had been intrusted, was ordered to produce -him, but replied that the Duke was dead. It seems almost certain -that he had been murdered by Richard’s orders at Calais. The -Archbishop was condemned to banishment for life; and Warwick, -who pleaded guilty, was exiled to the Isle of Man. Lord Mortimer, -who was also involved in the accusation, fled to Ireland, and was -outlawed. A shower of new titles was lavished on the obsequious -Lords. Derby and Rutland were made Dukes of Hereford and -Albemarle; Nottingham, Duke of Norfolk; De Spencer, Neville, -Percy and Scrope, respectively, Earls of Gloucester, Westmoreland, -Worcester and Wiltshire. A statute was passed making it treason to -levy war against the King, and declaring the penalty of treason -against any one who should attempt to overthrow the enactments of -this Parliament. The next Parliament at Gloucester, in 1398, acted in -the same obsequious manner. The Acts of the Wonderful Parliament -were repealed. To the grant of a subsidy was added the tax on -wool and hides for life; and a permanent committee of twelve peers and -six commoners was appointed to represent Parliament for the future.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Hereford and -Norfolk -banished.</div> - -<p>The new Dukes of Hereford and Norfolk alone remained unpunished -of the old Lords Appellant of 1386. These two men, who -had shared in the destruction of their former associates, had now -quarrelled, and Hereford brought a formal charge against -Norfolk of treasonable conversation. To the Parliamentary -committee this question was now referred, and -by them laid before a court of chivalry; at the same time the committee -enacted laws in the royal interest, exactly as though it had been the -Parliament. It was agreed that the dispute between the two dukes -should be settled by the arbitrament of battle. The lists were prepared -at Coventry, but as the combatants were about to engage, the King -took the matter into his own hands, and, on what principle it is impossible -to conceive, punished both; Hereford he banished for ten years, -Norfolk for life. Richard had thus destroyed his old enemies, rid -himself of the constraint of Parliament, and was practically despotic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> -“Then the King began to rule,” says Froissart, “more fiercely than -before. In those days there were none so great in England that -durst speak against anything that the King did. He had council -meet for his appetite, who exhorted him to do what he list. He still -kept in his wages 10,000 archers. He then kept greater state than -ever, no former king had ever kept so much as he did by 100,000 -nobles a year.”<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">His arbitrary -rule alienates -the people.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">During his -absence in -Ireland, -1399.</div> -</div> - -<p>He acted in accordance with his position. He raised forced loans, -meddled in the administration of justice, and went so far as to declare -no less than seventeen counties outlawed, for having, as -he asserted, favoured the Lords Appellant before the -affair at Radcot Bridge. But he overrated his real -power. His government had been accepted because it had been -constitutional and moderate. The change which was evident since -his acquirement of the sole authority induced the people to give the -credit of that moderation to Hereford, who had been a chief member -of that council, and who was a popular favourite. Thousands had -attended him as he left England for his banishment, and excitement -spread through the country when the King, in contravention of his -promise and of law, refused him the succession to his father’s title -and property upon the death of that prince. Regardless of the -discontented feeling of the people, Richard unwisely -determined upon another expedition to Ireland, to complete -his work there, and to exact vengeance for the -death of the Earl of March, whom he had named as his successor. -The kingdom was thus left vacant, and in the charge of the Duke of -York, whose subsequent conduct proved that he shared in the -national feeling.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Hereford -returns and is -triumphantly -received.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Captures -Richard.</div> -</div> - -<p>The new Duke of Lancaster took advantage of this act of folly to -land at Ravenspur in Yorkshire, declaring loudly that he came but to -demand his family succession. The Percies, the old -friends of the Lancastrians, received him with gladness, -and his march southwards soon became formidable. The -King’s ministers, Wiltshire, Bussy, and Greene, fled for refuge to -Bristol. Thither York also betook himself, thus leaving the capital -open. Lancaster, now at the head of a powerful army, also drew to -the West. As he came within reach of the Duke of York, civilities -were exchanged, which proved that he had no opposition to fear from -him. Bristol opened its gates. The King’s favourites were seized -and executed, and the King, who had landed in Wales from Ireland,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> -with the Duke of Albemarle and other nobles, saw his army rapidly -dissolve, and had to take refuge in the castle of Conway. -Henry of Lancaster found himself joined by all the -nobility. He commissioned Percy of Northumberland to procure -a meeting with Richard at Flint. The proposed meeting was a trap -to catch the King; as he rode from the castle with Northumberland, -Richard found himself in the midst of hostile troops. When he was -introduced to the presence of Lancaster, he knew that his fate was -sealed, and with his peculiar power of accepting circumstances, was -entirely submissive in his behaviour.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Makes him -resign the -kingdom.</div> - -<p>A Parliament had been summoned to meet in September; but -before that time, Richard was induced to make a formal resignation -of the kingdom. Not content with this, when the Parliament met, -Henry caused the coronation oath to be read. It was contended that -Richard had broken it, and therefore forfeited the crown. The Bishop -of Carlisle alone raised his voice in favour of the fallen -King, and demanded that he should at least be heard in -his defence. His interference was, of course, in vain. -The deposition of the King was voted. The throne being thus vacant, -the Duke was not long in laying claim to it. In a curious document, -in which he mingled the claims of blood, of conquest, and the necessity -of reform, he put forward his demands. They were unanimously -admitted. The Archbishop of Canterbury took him by the hand and -led him to the throne. It was his cue to act with strict legality, yet -he could not afford to do without a Parliament so obviously devoted -to his interests. As that Parliament had expired by Richard’s -deposition, he immediately issued writs for a new one, returnable in -six days, thus rendering it absolutely impossible to make any new -elections. It was with the Parliament thus secured that he began his -reign.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="STATE_OF_SOCIETY_2" id="STATE_OF_SOCIETY_2">STATE OF SOCIETY.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1216–1399.</span></h2> - - -<p class="drop-cap">Although the narration of political facts implies much of the -history of the country, it leaves out of sight much that -touches the real life of the people. During the last hundred years -great social changes had been going on, and great social progress -made. In fact, till the end of the reign of King John, the social, -like the political history of the country scarcely deserves the name -of national. The description of any feudal society will in a great -measure suit it. But the national existence had been worked out -in the reign of Henry III., and was completed and finally established -by the great time of Edward I. From that time onwards, -continuous change and growth had been visible, and that growth had -been national. The great fact of all modern history is the breaking -up of the feudal and ecclesiastical system of the middle ages, and the -introduction, as political and social elements of weight, of the middle -and industrial classes. It is the beginning of that process which constitutes -therefore the history of this period. The points to observe will -be, therefore, the growth and advance of the commons, the decay of -the aristocracy. But it is as yet quite impossible to speak of the -commons as one body. The line which divided the class which sent -its representatives to Parliament, and which was already becoming of -political importance, from the mass of the labouring part of the -nation, was very clearly drawn, and the characteristics, the employments, -and the feelings of the one class, as well as the causes of their -advance, will be very different from those of the other. A brief -sketch has been already given of the gradual introduction of the -commons into Parliament. But it still remains to explain and -illustrate the sources of their wealth, their aristocratic tendencies, -and the prevalence among them of a strong distaste for the pre-eminent -position occupied by the Church. It was their wealth which gained -them admission to Parliament, and the way in which that wealth -was gained which greatly influenced their views after they had been -admitted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Trade.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The staple.</div> -</div> - -<p>Trade, on which their riches depended, was as yet in its infancy; -and the views which regulated its management as yet too -crude to be spoken of by such a dignified title as political -economy. As far as they went, however, they were very clear, and -were, in fact, though afterwards improved, the same in spirit as those -which existed in England before the time of Adam Smith. Observing -only the obvious fact, that the possession of money enabled a -man to purchase whatever he wanted, early traders conceived the -idea that money was wealth, and that nothing else was. And as the -wealth of the nation was of the last importance, both to the governor -and to the governed, and as trade was the chief method by which -money could be supplied, and by which money might be drawn from -the country, the regulation of trade became one of the most important -duties of the King and the Parliament. Now money being the sole -wealth, in that regulation of trade it became necessary to aim first at -the introduction of money; secondly, at its retention. It was to -these objects that the frequent ordinances and statutes with regard to -trade were directed. Although very various and, as such regulations -were almost certain to be, frequently inefficacious, they were energetic -and simple. England was not as yet a manufacturing country. -Its trade was an export trade of raw materials, principally derived -from sheep farming on the vast spaces of uncultivated land which -then existed, and from its mineral wealth. Its principal commodities -were wool, sheep-skins, or wool-fells, and leather, together with tin -and lead.<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> Only the coarsest kind of cloth was manufactured; sometimes -intentionally rough and coarse, to be changed into fine cloth -afterwards in Flanders, but exported as cloth to avoid the tax on -wool. Primitive trade, when the seas were beset with pirates, had -been carried on chiefly inland, and great fairs, such as that of Troyes -in France, had been established under the guardianship of feudal -lords, who guaranteed the safety of the merchants for a toll. Domestic -trade was carried on in the same way, and one of the forms of -royal exaction was to open a fair, and insist upon all other shops and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> -other places of sale being closed during its continuance.<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> As the seas -became safer, and the mercantile spirit of the Flemings rose, the great -free cities of Flanders became as it were perpetual fairs, and were -known as staples, from the German “stapeln,” <em>to keep up</em>. -In order that trade should be well under command, it -was necessary that it should be carried on in few channels. The English -government had therefore chosen some of these Flemish towns, and ordered -that all the chief productions of England, which have been already -mentioned, should be sold in those towns, and nowhere else. These -goods were therefore called staple commodities; the merchants who -traded in them, the merchants of the staple. And this staple trade was -put under an organization—there being a mayor, a constable, and courts -of the staple. At these staple towns, the King’s customers, or custom-house -officers, by means of this organization, had every bargain under -direct supervision; and every bargain thus supervised was obliged to -be made for a certain sum of actual coin, the government thus securing -a continual flow of silver into the hands of the English merchants. -The staple towns were frequently changed. To reward any particularly -faithful ally, or to raise the importance of any particular town, -as for instance Calais, the staple was removed to that Prince’s province, -or to that town. The proportion of each bargain to be brought -over in coin was also constantly varying. Indeed, the frequent -interference of government in such matters was not among the least -of the restrictions of trade. Edward III. was said, at one time of his -life, to have had a different plan every month. Upon the whole, -however, the principle was the same. Amongst the most remarkable -plans of Edward III. was one for keeping the evident riches that -accrued to the staple towns within the limits of England. In the -twenty-seventh year of his reign he named nine towns in England -which were to be the exclusive selling places of the English staple -commodities. For an Englishman to carry such commodities beyond -the seas was punishable by death. As Edward could not protect the -foreign merchants visiting his staples, and as the additional trouble of -purchasing goods at them naturally lowered prices, this plan did not -answer. It was, in fact, suicidal for an island people, since it destroyed -all object in the keeping up a mercantile navy. It was therefore -speedily abandoned; and after the reign of Henry VI., Calais became -the sole English staple town. A similar attempt was made in the -fourteenth year of Richard II., when it was enacted that no Englishman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> -should buy wool except of the owners of the sheep, and for his -own use. The export trade was thus again for a time given over to -the foreign merchant, for the sake of securing to the wool-grower the -profits of the retail as well as the wholesale trade; the effect was -naturally a decrease of purchasers, which reduced the growers to great -distress. The government had, by insisting on money payments in -every bargain, secured an influx of silver; but as the nation was too -far advanced in civilization to do without foreign products, there -were a certain number of foreign importers, who threatened in their -turn to withdraw it again. One or two attempts were indeed made -to confine English trade to the limits of the country. Thus, it -was the view of Simon de Montfort, who disliked all extravagance in -dress, that the production of the country was enough to supply its -own inhabitants; and in 1261, and in 1271, exportation of English -wool was forbidden, and people acquired the habit of dressing in -undyed native cloth. Such primitive patriotism could not last in an -advancing nation. Trade soon resumed its old course. The greater -part of the foreign merchants were Germans, and to keep them under -government supervision, they were formed into a guild, given certain -privileges, allowed to possess a guild-hall, and are generally known -as the Merchants of the Steelyard.<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Other alien merchants there also -were, who were protected by law; notably by the great statute of -Edward I., “De mercatoribus.” But although the goods they brought -were necessary, their bargains, no less than those of the staple merchants, -were under supervision. They were bound to employ a -certain proportion of the money obtained from their sales in English -goods.<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> Moreover, all foreign merchants were held to be mutually -responsible for each other’s debts. Thus the retention of the silver -in England was also secured, while, to avoid any varieties in the value -of money, English coin alone was current, and foreign coin had at -once to be exchanged at the royal exchangers.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Coinage.</div> - -<p>Since money was so important an object, the coinage was naturally -regarded with great care. It was an exclusive royal -monopoly, and in the reign of Edward III. the punishment -of death was enacted against false coiners. There was a constant -dread lest in the exchange England should be the loser. The -belief was prevalent that the value of the money depended upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> -denomination. It had not yet entered men’s minds to think that it -was but another commodity, worth exactly its intrinsic value, which -no change of name could alter. Up till the reign of Edward III., -although clipped and lightened in use, and although Edward I. had -begun the bad practice of depreciating the coin by diminishing its -legal weight, the coinage had been on the whole but little tampered -with. But between the years 1344 and 1351, the number of silver -pennies made from the pound of silver had increased from 243 to 270. -In that year, groats of the nominal value of 4d., but of the weight of -only three and a half of the diminished penny, were issued. It is -impossible to make any true estimate of the comparative value of -money then and at the present time. The facts with regard to the -actual amount of silver employed are these: The pound, which only -nominally existed, was a full pound of silver, which would at present -be coined into £2, 16s. 3d. The shilling, which seems also to have -been a nominal coin, was the twentieth part of this, or 2s. 9¾d. The -silver penny, which was, till the time of Edward III., almost the -only coin, was therefore worth 2¾d. Edward introduced several new -coins; some of gold, which, as there was no fixed proportion between -them and silver, were not popular, and were recalled; and nobles of -the value of 6s. 8d., or half a mark; together with the groats above -mentioned. But of the purchasing value of the money thus made no -fixed estimate can be given, as that of course depends upon the -relative value of the articles purchased; and under the very different -circumstances of those times the relative value of those articles was so -different, that to compare the value of money with any one of them -would give a totally false impression. It is usual to say roughly that -to reach the present value of any sum mentioned it should be multiplied -by fifteen.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Guilds.</div> - -<p>This form of commerce, restricted as has been before explained, was -certain to break down as the wants of the nation increased. -There was a company of merchant adventurers -founded, perhaps, though this seems very uncertain, as early as -Henry III.’s reign, which had the right to trade in other commodities -besides the staple, and to choose its own ports. It was the growth of -this company which, in the next century, had most to do with breaking -down the staple monopoly. It is needless to point out the bad -effects which this constant interference must have produced. It is -certain that the foreign merchant paid himself well for the extreme -difficulties placed in the way of his business; while, at the same time, -the difficulties of procuring foreign articles of luxury must have gone<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> -far to render the habits of ordinary life rough and simple. The -same principle of restriction, which was established in the commerce -of the country, existed in the retail trade. The towns of England -were of natural and accidental growth, accumulations of men -who had gathered for purposes of self-defence or convenience, living -in accordance with the ordinary habits of the country, in the same -position, in fact, with regard to the king and their lords as any -other society of men—citizens originally by right of the possession of -land, and as the system of lordship established itself, bound to -customary duties to their lord, just as the inhabitants of the country -were. In the same way the citizens of the town, with the exception of -these customary duties, were free and self-governing. They gradually, -and chiefly by means of purchase, obtained freedom from the customary -duties, and thus became independent, self-governing communities. -Charters securing them freedom, in the case of the royal cities at all -events, were many of them due to the necessities of the Angevin kings, -and to their want of money for the payment of their mercenary troops. -The close neighbourhood of the inhabitants of towns early introduced -an artificial system of union, analogous to the frankpledge. Men -formed themselves into what were known as frith-guilds,<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> the -members of which were mutually responsible for one another, met at -periodical feasts, supported one another’s poor, and in other respects -performed the duties of members of an artificial family. As trade increased -these guilds in the generality of cases coalesced into one, which -took upon itself the direction of trade, and was known as the -merchant guild. With the natural tendency of a governing body, -this old merchant guild became exceedingly exclusive. New-comers -to the town were not admitted to it, and craftsmen were generally -excluded from its limits. In turn those craftsmen established guilds -of their own, known as craft-guilds, by the warden and leaders of which -the bye-laws of the particular craft were formed. Between these and -their aristocratic neighbours, the merchant guild, quarrels arose, and in -the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the contest between the two was -fought out, the craft-guilds eventually securing their acknowledgment -and a share in the government of the town. Speaking generally, therefore, -we may conceive of the towns of England as being divided into a -series of guilds, the leaders of which usually formed a governing -body, and which were capable of making bye-laws for their own -special members. The commercial aim of these associations was, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> -insure good work, to insure work for all its members, and to resist -that spirit of competition which was gradually rising, and which ended -in the creation of two classes, the capitalist and the workman. To -secure these objects, they limited the number of master workmen, -admitted candidates to their association only after lengthened -apprenticeships, limited the number of apprentices each master might -employ, and kept a close supervision over the articles made, which -were usually authenticated by the corporation mark.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p> - -<p>These restrictions upon industry at the close of our period were -beginning to break down; round the master workmen, there was -arising a class of journeymen or day labourers, whose ranks were constantly -swelled by fugitive serfs from the country; while, on the other -side, individual enterprise was making itself felt, and capital was being -collected, the owners of which refused to submit to the old corporation -laws. The constant supervision both of trade and of the work of -artisans supported the notion that governing bodies had the right to -set prices on the articles under their control, a principle which was -used not only by the guilds, but by the Government, as when, in the -famine years of 1315 and 1316, it prescribed the exact price of all -articles of food. As this had the natural effect of keeping things -entirely out of the market, so that butcher’s meat disappeared -altogether, it was shortly repealed; the prices to be demanded for -victuals were constantly subject to the supervision of justices. The -assize of bread, which is commonly assigned to the fifty-first year of -Henry III., 1266, regulated the price in accordance with the market -prices of corn, but the assizes of other matters, such as wine, wood, -fish, fowls, etc., seem to have been perfectly arbitrary.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Ships.</div> - -<p>Though thus restricted, the trade of the English was very considerable. -Their ships reached into the Baltic, where a constant communication -was kept up with the Teutonic order, to whom Prussia -belonged. The intercourse with that order was close. We hear of -Henry, the first Duke of Lancaster, the Earl of Derby, afterwards -Henry IV., and Thomas of Gloucester, repairing to their assistance. -But the English merchants could never secure an equality of rights -in the Baltic, the trade of which was regarded as a monopoly by the -Hanseatic towns. English ships also visited Spain, so that Chaucer -could describe his experienced shipman as knowing all the harbours -from Gothland to Finnisterre;<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> while Venetian and Genoese merchants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> -in whose hands the whole trade of the East was, brought -their goods largely to England; indeed, in 1379, a Genoese merchant -is said to have suggested to Richard II. to make Southampton the -emporium of all the oriental trade of the North. So great was the -importance of the English shipping, that Edward III. distinctly -claimed for himself and his predecessors the dominion of the sea.<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> -The ships were, however, though numerous, of small burden; in the -great fleet employed by Edward at Calais, there were 710 vessels, -with crews amounting to 14,151 persons, which would -give an average crew of about twenty men; and as it is -said that there were about sixty-five sailors to every hundred tons, it -would make the average size of the vessels very small. Indeed, a -ship manned by thirty seamen, employed to convey Edward I. to the -Continent, was regarded as a wonder for its size. Of navy, properly -speaking, there was little or none. There were only twenty-five royal -ships at Calais, the rest were all merchantmen pressed for the service. -About this time it became habitual to put cannon on board ships. When -used for military purposes, they were manned by troops and archers.</p> - -<p>It has been mentioned that the trade of England was almost -entirely in raw materials. The cloth manufactured had hitherto been -of the roughest description, but Edward III., true to his view of -keeping English trade for the English, and moved perhaps by the -wealth of his allies the Flemish, attempted to introduce the manufacture -of finer cloths. In 1331, he invited weavers and fullers from -Flanders, and the patent exists which he gave to one John Kempe, to -practise and teach his mystery.<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> This seems to have been the -beginning of the finer cloth manufactures of England.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Furniture.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Dress.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Houses.</div> -</div> - -<p>The fact of so much trouble being taken to organize trade shows -the extent of it, and in spite of all ignorance and mismanagement, it -was certain to produce wealth. The standard of comfort among all -classes was improving, though there was nothing like what we should -now speak of as luxury. The furniture used, even in the -houses of the rich, was still rude. Things which are now -found everywhere, and taken as matters of course, were then valuable -rarities—beds, bedsteads, and rich clothing were frequently left by -will. The lists of moveables, on which taxes were paid, are exceedingly -meagre. A stool or two, a chest, and a few metal pots, -constituted the ordinary supply of furniture. In the houses of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> -very rich, art had indeed begun to show itself. The payments of -Henry III. to foreign artists for paintings in his house are mentioned. -Intercourse with the French, and especially with the Spaniards, -tended to increase these more luxurious habits. Carpets had always -been used by Eastern people, and the Moors had introduced the -custom in Spain. Thus, on the marriage of Edward I., before the -arrival of Eleanor of Castile, her brother, the Archbishop of Toledo, -made his appearance. The hangings of his chamber excited the -wonder of the people, and Edward, always inclined to ostentation, -had the rooms of the bride elect similarly decorated. This is said to -have been the introduction of carpets to England; but still the -usual covering of the floor was rushes. There is frequent mention of -payments for rushes for the King’s chambers. In the matter of clothes -the same change is observable. The extravagant court of Edward II. -is said to have introduced parti-coloured garments. In Edward III’s -reign, wealth had so increased in all ranks that it was -found necessary to pass sumptuary laws, sharply dividing -classes by the dress they were allowed to wear, and to confine silk -and the finer woollen cloths to the higher ranks, for the sake -perhaps of the English wool manufactures. In Richard II.’s reign, -extravagance went still further. With his Queen, Anne of Bohemia, -came in the awkward habit, soon adopted by all classes, of wearing -long shoes, called cracowys or pykys, which required to be tied with -silver chains to the knee before the wearer could move.<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> And Stowe -says that Richard himself wore a garment made of gold, silver, and -precious stones, worth 3000 marks. At the same time -the rich built more comfortable houses. Castles ceased -to be mere places of defence. They were at once strongholds and -handsome dwelling-places. Warwick and Windsor castles may be -looked on as fair specimens of the more magnificent buildings of the -time. Meanwhile, though among the few, and on special occasions, -splendour was found, houses, even in the streets of considerable -towns, such as Colchester, the tenth city of the empire, were still -built of mud. In Edward III.’s reign, it was still necessary to issue -frequent orders for the cleansing of the streets of London, that his -courtiers might not get into difficulties as they moved from Westminster -to the City. Filth accumulated in the narrow by-lanes; and, -as in the East, crows were held sacred as the only scavengers. Pavement -there was none, and lanterns were hoisted from the top of Bow -Church, to guide the wayfarer through the paths of the heaths that -surrounded the metropolis.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Food.</div> - -<p>Barbaric profusion in the matter of food made up for the want of -substantial comforts. At the coronation of Edward I., -380 head of cattle, 430 sheep, 450 pigs, 18 wild boars, -278 flitches of bacon, and 20,000 capons, was the amount of food -provided. The conduits ran wine, and hundreds of knights, who -attended the great nobles, let their horses run free, to be the prize of -the first captor. In 1399, at a Christmas feast of Richard II., there -were daily killed twenty-eight oxen and 300 sheep, beside numberless -fowl. Richard of Cornwall, at his marriage, is said to have invited -30,000 guests; while we are told that the usual household of Richard -II. numbered 10,000. But though at these great festivals there was -vast abundance of meat, at other times, especially at the Church fasts, -fish, often of the coarsest sort, was eaten. The wife of Simon de -Montfort ate the tongue of a whale dressed with peas, and a porpoise -dressed with furmenty, saffron and sugar. Enormous quantities of -herrings were consumed, spoken of as Aberdeens; in six days of -March, Eleanor de Montfort’s household consumed no less than 3000. -Her meals were diversified by dog-fish, stock-fish, conger eels, and -cod. Wine was drunk in great quantities, frequently mixed with -honey. Hops, though known in Flanders, had not been introduced; -the beer which was largely consumed was made of any grain, and -seasoned with pepper.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The House of -Commons.</div> - -<p>It was the increasing wealth of the country, especially of the -mercantile classes, which had caused their introduction -to Parliament. Thither they came with all the exclusive -notions which their trade traditions had fostered. They were as -careless of the class below them as the Barons. Indeed, it would be -true to say that the feeling of the House of Commons was completely -aristocratic. One part of it was of necessity entirely so: the knights -of the shire, originally the representatives of the lower baronage, -were elected in the county court, which was the general meeting-place -of all freeholders, whether they held immediately from the -crown or not. Consequently, the baronial freeholders became -merged in the lesser freeholders, and the class of gentry was created. -Many things had tended to the increase of that class. The breaking -up of great properties, the division of property among younger -children, and alienation, had increased the number of freeholders. -The statute “Quia Emptores,” intended as a check upon subinfeudation, -had really increased alienation by authorizing it. The smaller -estates, thus separated from the large baronies, had to be worked to -profit, and could not be regarded merely as means of military or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> -political influence. There thus had arisen an industrial as well as a -military class of landholders. The representatives of towns, also -elected upon a writ directed to the Sheriff, were, if not at first, -certainly soon after elected in the county courts. This similarity of -election united the two classes in feeling; and the smaller baronies, -small landowners, and burghers, formed the body of representative -Commons, aristocratic in feeling in accordance with the origin of the -more aristocratic part of the class. It is thus that we find the -Commons regarding the Barons as their natural leaders, not joining -the crown against them as in France. Edward III., in his difficulties -with Stratford, had tried to produce this combination, but had failed; -and the Commons joining with the Barons, had insisted on the -restoration to favour of that prelate. And thus, too, we find the -Commons without sympathy with the demands of the rebels in Wat -Tyler’s insurrection. They had, indeed, certain grievances of their -own, on which they were always petitioning, such as the encroachments -of the King’s purveyors, and the too great authority, sometimes -misused, of the sheriffs. But apart from these particular -wrongs, they may be regarded as siding as a whole with the Barons.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Opposition to -the church.</div> - -<p>In their hatred to the Church they made common cause with all -classes. The peculiar position which the submission of -John had given the Popes in England was the primary -cause of this dislike. Annates, or first-fruits, had been early demanded, -but the great grievance, as we have seen, was Provisors. -Against this assumption of authority, which forestalled the rights of -the patrons, there was the strongest feeling. The exactions of the -Pope had been strongly spoken of in the Statute of Carlisle in the -end of Edward’s I.’s reign. Edward II., like other weak princes, -had yielded to this assumption. But in Edward III.’s reign, a series -of enactments were passed, each one stronger than the last, against -the interference of the Papacy. In 1343 the Statute of Carlisle had -been read, and it was enacted that no more Papal instruments should -be allowed in England. In 1344, the penalty of exile was pronounced -against all provisors. By a Statute of the 25th year of -Edward III.’s reign, it was ordained that “kings and all other lords -were to present unto benefices, of their own or their ancestor’s foundation, -and not the Pope of Rome.” If the Pope interfered the matter -was to come into the King’s hands, and penalties were enacted. In -the 38th year of his reign these enactments were all confirmed and -strengthened by the Statute of Provisors, by which the introduction -of Papal Bulls and Briefs was forbidden. The strife, as we have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> -seen, was continued in Richard II.’s reign, and finally completed in -the 16th year of that King, by a statute declaring the freedom of the -crown of England, which was in earthly subjection to no realm, -and pronouncing the penalties of the Præmunire against all who -should purchase or procure any Bulls from the Court of Rome; any -who were guilty of this should be put out of the King’s peace, and -forfeit all their property. In Edward III.’s reign, also, the annual -tribute, or census, as it was called, of a thousand marks was left -unpaid. At the end of Edward I.’s reign 17,000 marks had become -due. Edward II. paid this, and continued throughout his reign to -discharge the debt. Edward III. was again strong enough to refuse -the payment, and in 1366, Urban V. demanded the arrears of thirty-three -years. The King laid the matter before his Parliament, and -an instrument was drawn up in the name of the King, Lords, and -Commons, declaring that John had acted without the advice of his -realm, and that any demand for the money would be resisted to the -utmost. It was not again claimed. But it was not against the -Roman Church only that the popular feeling had been aroused. The -Church itself had become unpopular. The wealth and idleness of -the older monastic orders, the spiritual encroachments and licentious -lives of the new mendicant orders, had excited popular anger. The -charges against them are humorously summed up in the Song of the -Order of Fair-ease, a description of an imaginary order, to which -each existing class of monks subscribes a characteristic or two. The -monks of Beverley give the habit of deep drinking, in which they -are joined by the Black Monks; the Hospitallers dress well and -amble fairly on grey palfreys; the Secular Canons are the willing -servants of the ladies; the Grey Monks are given to licentiousness; -while the Friars Minor, whose order is founded on poverty, will -never lodge with a poor man so long as there are richer men to be -found. In the same way the constant interference of the consistory -courts was the cause of popular complaint. “Yet there sit somnours, -six or seven, misjudging all men alike, and reach forth their roll: -herdsmen hate them, and every man’s servant, for every parish they -put in pain.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Wicliffe.</div> - -<p>To crown all, the doctrine itself of the Church had begun to be -questioned. In 1360, the name of Wicliffe first becomes -prominent. His first attack was upon the mendicant -orders, who had contrived to get into their hands much of the -education of the country. From this time onwards he continually -waged war against the abuses of the Church. The clergy, he urged,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> -should be poor, in imitation of Christ. This doctrine he carried out -by the establishment of an order of poor priests. With regard to -the Sacrament, he appealed to common sense; and while not yet -ready to attack the doctrine of Transubstantiation, upheld that the -elements taken were really bread and wine. But his great work was -neither his assault on the wealth of the clergy, nor his attack on their -doctrine, but the translation of the Bible into English, which was, -in fact, an appeal to private judgment in opposition to ecclesiastical -authority. His influence was very widespread. His poor priests -worked largely among the lower orders, and his view of the necessity -of poverty for the clergy was so in harmony with the feelings of the -day, that it met with ready acceptance. As has been mentioned, the -Church was too strong for him. He was obliged, when the support -of John of Gaunt failed him, to make some sort of recantation, and -retire to his living of Lutterworth. But his disciples are said to have -numbered a third of the population of England, and when, as was -inevitable, social and political views were added to their religious -doctrines, they became an object of dread, not only to the Church, -but also to the Government.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The lower -classes.</div> - -<p>It is perhaps in the lower commons that social change is most -obvious. The great insurrection of Wat Tyler is a sign -of something more than mere temporary discontent. -Agricultural villeinage was disappearing, and giving birth to a new -class almost peculiar to England, the free but landless labourer. The -existence of this class first comes prominently into notice in the -Statute of Labourers. In the terrible pestilence of the Black Death -which had ravaged England, a third, perhaps a half, of the population -had been carried off. Labour became scarce. The labourers -took the opportunity of making what we should now call a strike for -higher wages. Such a demand, however consonant with economical -principles, was quite repugnant to the feelings of that age, when -prices were a constant matter of legal enactment. The Statute of -Labourers, stating in its preamble that servants, taking advantage of -the necessities of their masters, would not serve except for excessive -wages, enacted that every able-bodied man should be bound to serve -any one who required him at the old wages under pain of imprisonment; -and that every master giving more than the old wages should -forfeit thrice the sum he had offered. Such an ordinance could not -be kept; but strenuous efforts were made to insist upon it, and again -and again in some form or other it was re-enacted. But whether -successful or not, it shows the existence of labour for wages, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> -of a rising knowledge on the part of the labourers of the value of -their work. Several causes combined to create this labouring class. -The early form of agricultural society may be roughly described as a -village of serfs lying round the manor-house of their lord. Each serf -had his share in the common fields of the village, and was bound to -join in the cultivation of his lord’s domain or manor farm. For -the simple farming at that time prevalent this forced labour was -sufficient; and the lord valued his serfs more for military purposes -than as agricultural labourers. As subinfeudation and alienation -went on, the holders of small properties were obliged to work their -land to better profit. The alienations also were chiefly made from the -lord’s domain, but it was not usual to part with serfs. Consequently, -their number increased, while the domain land diminished; there -were more hands than the lord could employ, and the tenant working -for profit could therefore find labour among the surplus serfs who would -work for wages. A change in the character of war took place at the -same time. The insular condition of England made the feudal -arrangement with its limited term of service inconvenient; in the -highest ranks, therefore, military service was changed to scutage or -money payment, and a large number of dependants became less desirable -than money; proprietors were willing to work their farms with fewer -servants and to receive money rent instead of service. There were -thus at work the two principles which broke down villein labour; -labour paid by wages, and land held for money rent. The change in -war had another effect. Armies were raised by contract with some -great lord. The payment was beyond the ordinary agricultural -wages. The earl himself received a mark a day, the common foot-soldier, -3d. or 4d., and the archer, 6d.<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Anxious to fulfil his contract, -the leader would not be careful to inquire whether he was enlisting -serfs or not. On his return from a war, the well-paid soldier would be -unwilling to fall back into a state of serfdom. He swelled the ranks -of wage-paid labour. Again, the residence of a year and a day uninterrupted -within the limits of a borough gave freedom. Serfs, seeing -the advantage of money payments, fled thither and became free. -Again, the Church, in whose eyes all men were equal, would not refuse -to admit them within its ranks; a serf could thus become a priest or -monk, and withdraw himself from his lord’s power. On the same -principle, the Church constantly urged the manumission of serfs. To -all these causes was now added the disarrangement of labour consequent -on the Black Death. With a general demand for labour all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> -superfluous hands would find easy employment, perhaps at a considerable -distance from their old homes. With a sufficient supply himself, -the lord would not waste time or money to redeem them. We thus -see how there may have been a vast number of free labourers in -England. The Statute of Labourers, destroying their freedom of -bargain, attempted, though with but partial success, to force these free -labourers back into a semi-servile condition. But they had now -joined the ranks of freemen, such as the small farmers of Kent, and -the unincorporated artisans of towns. The spirit of equality fostered -by the teaching of the mendicant friars, who had reached England in -Henry III.’s reign, and who took up their abode among the poor city -populations, was still further increased by the teaching of Wicliffe -and his poor priests.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verseq">“When Adam delved and Eve span,</p> -<p class="verse0">Who was then the gentleman?”</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">a doggerel couplet frequent in the mouths of the insurgents of -1382, shows how the lessons of the Bible made public by Wicliffe’s -translation could be turned in the same direction. The feeling that it -was the plebeian archer, and not the lordly man-at-arms, who had -won the great victories in France, and the success with which, during -the last half century, the smaller trade corporations had in the -cities forced themselves into an equality with the great ones, all led -to the same democratic feeling. The lower freemen made common -cause with the villeins. They had all felt the heavy pressure of the -tax-gatherer. The popular songs of the day are full of wretchedness. -One, said to belong to the reign of Edward I. or II., speaks thus—</p> - -<p>“To seek silver for the King, I sold my seed, wherefore my land -lies fallow and learns to sleep. Since they fetched my fair cattle in -my fold, when I think of my old wealth I nearly weep; this breeds -many bold beggars. There wakes in the world consternation and -woe, as good is it to perish at once, as so to labour.”<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> The -democratic outbreak of Wat Tyler was the consequence.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The nobility.</div> - -<p>While the two sections of the commons were thus rising in social -position, a change had also taken place in the character of the nobility.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> -It may be roughly characterized as the change from feudalism to -chivalry.<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> Many of the same causes which had conduced -to the freedom of the labourer had tended to loosen the -territorial system on which the ancient strength of the nobility rested. -Especially had the voluntary character of military service dealt heavy -blows at the practical side of feudalism. Soldiering was no longer -the necessary duty of every man; but the military spirit remained, -and to the bulk of the aristocracy fighting became a pastime. The -subordination of proprietors gave place to a sort of system of freemasonry, -to which all knights were admitted. Knighthood made its -holder any man’s equal for actual military purposes. It was no -longer the great noble, but the good soldier, who was the commander. -Manny, Chandos, Knowles, all of them simple knights, were the -generals to whom Edward III. trusted. As an amusement war was -decked with ostentatious ornament. This is the period of showy tournaments, -of armorial bearings, and of grotesque vows, like that of the -young knights who attended Edward with black patches over their -eyes. It is this chivalrous aspect of war which explains the short-lived -character of Edward’s expeditions. But it had a more important -effect. Importance in the country became a more personal -matter; partly from love of show, partly to produce respect, great -men began to surround themselves, not with feudal followers, but -with paid retainers. To these they granted liveries. It was a point -of honour among these retainers to stand by each other and by their -chief. Quite in the beginning of Richard II.’s reign, the Commons -petitioned against these liveries and the bands of maintainers,<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> who -upheld each other in illegal actions. Thus great households, and by -degrees factions, were formed, and things were ready for the great -outbreak of faction fighting, which ended in the destruction of the -old nobility in the Wars of the Roses.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Literature.</div> - -<p>The feeling of national life, which is one of the characteristics of -the time, had shown itself in literature. Public transactions -were still carried on in French or Latin; but -it will be remembered that as early as the Provisions of Oxford it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> -had been found necessary to publish any important proclamation in -English as well. Up till that time the languages of the nobility and -of the common people had been distinct. From that time onwards -they begin to blend. This, as it happens, can be very well observed. -Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote a Latin Chronicle of England in 1130. -Before the end of the century it was versified by two writers; one -wrote for the nobles and the aristocracy, the other for the common -people. Master Wace, a native of Jersey, translated Geoffrey for -Henry II. into Norman-French. Layamon, who wrote about 1180, -translated it into a language which may be fairly called Anglo-Saxon, -although of a somewhat degraded type. We have here a -perfect division of the languages. But about the middle of the next -century the same work was translated by Robert of Gloucester. In -his language there is a much nearer approach to English, and a considerable -number of French words are easily to be traced. Some -fifty years afterwards, Robert Mannyng, or De Brunne, again rewrote -the Chronicle; and again the further introduction of French words is -striking. We have thus means of testing, as it were, at three different -points, the process of amalgamation that was going forward. The -Court language still continued to be French, but French not much -like the language of France, and it was ceasing to be thoroughly -understood by the bulk of the people. By the time that Chaucer -wrote, he could laugh at English-French. His Prioress spoke Cockney-French,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="enm" xml:lang="enm"> -<p class="verseq">“After the scole of Stratford atte Bowe,</p> -<p class="verse0">For Frenche of Paris was to hire unknowe.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">And in recommending English writing, he says,—“<span lang="enm" xml:lang="enm">Certes there ben -some that speke thyr poysy mater in Frensche, of whyche speche the -Frensche men have as good a fantasye as we have in hearing of -Frensche mennes Englyshe.</span>” This indeed was to be expected. From -the Conquest the language of schools had been French; but in 1356, -John of Cornwall had begun a change in this habit, and taught Latin -translation by means of English, and not French. The consequence, as -described by Trevisa, was, their “<span lang="enm" xml:lang="enm">avauntage is, that thei lerneth her -gramer in lasse tyme than children were wont to do; desavauntage -is, that now children of gramer scole kunneth no more Frensch than -her lifte heele.</span>” Other signs also point to this change. Latin had -ceased to be the language of public documents in the reign of Edward I. -In 1362, in answer it appears to a petition from the Commons, the -opening address delivered in Parliament was in English, and the -Commons’ debates in English also. At the same time it was ordered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> -that English should be the language of courts of law, because the -French tongue was too much unknown. But it was not till the reign -of Richard III. that the statutes and rolls of Parliament were written -in English. It is probable that Parliamentary business continued to -be carried on in both languages for some time longer. In 1381 -English seems to have been generally used. There were thus during -this period extant three languages for literary purposes—Latin, the -language of learned men and historians; French, an acquired Court -language, in which most of the legends of chivalry and lengthened -rhyming chronicles were produced; and the gradually rising English -language, which, as the popular tongue, was chiefly employed in songs -and political satire. The earliest form of English poetry was alliterative,—metrical, -but without rhyme, and depending for its effect upon a -certain number of words in each couplet beginning with the same -letter. But rhyme, and not only rhyme, but very easy and varied -metres, were introduced as early as the reign of Henry III. Not -unfrequently both principles were blended, and rhyme and alliteration -occur together. Latin was also employed, we must suppose by -the clergy, in satirical songs. All classical metres were then discarded, -and Latin was used as a rhyming language. There are some instances -also of verses, partly in one language, partly in the other. It may be -worth while to give an instance of two of these various metres. Thus -a verse of a song shortly after the battle of Lewes runs thus:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="enm" xml:lang="enm"> -<p class="verseq">“Sire Simond de Mountfort hath swore bi ys chyn,</p> -<p class="verse0">Hevede he nou here the Erl of Waryn,</p> -<p class="verse0">Shulde he never more come to is yn,</p> -<p class="verse0">Ne with sheld, ne with spere, ne with other gyn</p> -<p class="verse8">To help of Wyndesore.</p> -<p class="verse4">Richard, thah thou be ever trichard,</p> -<p class="verse6">Trichen shalt thou never more.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">This is rhyme, the rhythm is free, and there is a refrain. In the -following verse, from a satire on the consistory courts, alliteration -and rhyme go together:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="enm" xml:lang="enm"> -<p class="verseq">“Ther sitteth somenours syexe other sevene</p> -<p class="verse0">Mysmotinde men alle by here evene,</p> -<p class="verse2">Ant recheth forth heore rolle;</p> -<p class="verse0">Hyrd-men hem hatieth, ant uch mones hyne,</p> -<p class="verse0">For everuch a parosshe heo polketh in pyne,</p> -<p class="verse2">Ant clastreth with heore colle.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The next specimen, from a song on the venality of judges, shows -how Latin was adapted to modern versification:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> -<p class="verseq">“Sunt justitiarii,</p> -<p class="verse0">Quos favor et denarii</p> -<p class="verse6">alliciunt a jure;</p> -<p class="verse0">Hii sunt nam bene recolo</p> -<p class="verse0">Quod censum dant diabolo</p> -<p class="verse6">et serviunt hii pure.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">While in the next verse is shown the mixture of two languages; it is -drawn from a song against the King’s taxes:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> -<p class="verseq">“Une chose est countre foy, unde gens gravatur</p> -<p class="verse0">Que la meyté ne vient al roy, in regno quod levatur</p> -<p class="verse0">Pur ce qu’il n’ad tot l’enter, prout sibi datur,</p> -<p class="verse0">Le pueple doit le plus doner, et sic sincopatur.</p> -<p class="verse2">Nam quæ taxantur, regi non omnia dantur.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p>These satirical poems are directed against nearly every class of -society, the monks, the judges, the taxers, the nobility, the ladies, the -logicians of the university, and even the doctors meet with their -share of abuse. The democratic spirit which is visible in them found -a more complete and worthy expression in the poem known by the -name of the Vision and Creed of Piers Ploughman. It is supposed -to be the work of a poet of the name of Langland. The form is -allegorical, a form which the great celebrity of the French “Romance -of the Rose” made permanent both in France and England for many -years. A pilgrim of quite the lowest rank sees in a vision virtues -and vices pass before him, and also representatives of all the various -classes of society. Each in turn is criticised; none can lead him in -the path of virtue, till Peter the Ploughman appears, who, in a -religious conversation, shows him the right way. His character is -one of typical perfection, and becomes confused towards the end of -the poem with that of Christ. The poem is written in alliterative -verse, and in English by no means so much like our present English -as some of the songs that preceded it. But at length the time was -come for the complete nationalization of the language. French was -in decay, the popular songs were in rude English, and when the union -of all classes in Parliament had completed the real nationality, any -further division of the languages was impossible. The junction was -effected by Chaucer. He set himself intentionally to work to make -a compound and national tongue. He took for its basis the English; -and on it he grafted, sometimes in their own form, sometimes in an -altered form, vast numbers of French words. It is a curious instance -of an intentional formation of a language. Many words he admitted -apparently upon trial, and they have been rejected. Others have -been somewhat changed in form, but in his works we have a language<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> -which a very little trouble will enable any Englishman to read, and -the grammar and structure of which, with few exceptions, is like our -own English. The great work for which he employed this language, -the “Canterbury Tales,” was well fitted to establish it. While the -prologue describes every class of English society, each drawn with an -incomparable delicacy and humour, the tales which form the bulk of -the work are of every description. Love romances for the knights; -coarse or farcical incidents for the commonalty; sober religious prose -for the serious. Compared with this poem, there is nothing for more -than a century worthy of mention. Gower, who wrote at the same -time with Chaucer, and in the three languages, is wholly deficient in -humour, and heavy and prosaic to the last degree. His followers in -the next century, Lydgate and Occleve, were poets by profession and -not by inspiration, always ready to turn out a poem upon demand. -Chaucer was not only the founder of the English language, but, -before the appearance of Spenser, the only great poet whom England -produced.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="HENRY_IV" id="HENRY_IV">HENRY IV.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1399–1413.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_275.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_275.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1366 = 1. Mary of Bohun. - | = 2. Joan of Navarre. - | - +------+------+----------+----+---+------------------+ - | | | | | | - Henry V. | John, Duke | Blanche = Duke | - | of Bedford. | of Bavaria. | - | | | - Thomas, Duke Humphrey, Philippa = King of - of Clarence. Duke of Denmark. - Gloucester. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain (Castile)._ - | | | - Robert III., 1390. | Charles VI., | Wenceslaus, 1378. | Henry III., 1390. - James I., 1405. | 1380. | Robert, 1400 | John II., 1406. - | | Sigismund, 1410. | - - POPES.--Boniface IX., 1389. Innocent VII., 1404. Gregory XII., 1406. - Alexander V., 1409. John XXII., 1410. - - _Archbishop._ | _Chancellors._ - | - Thomas Arundel, | John Searle, 1399. Thomas Arundel, 1407. - 1397. | Edmund Stafford, 1401. Sir Thomas Beaufort, 1409. - | Cardinal Beaufort, 1403. Thomas Arundel, 1412. - | Thomas Longley, 1405. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Henry’s -position in -English history. -1399.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The reign of Richard II., with its strange and rapid revolutions, -had been the beginning of that great faction fight which was -concluded a century afterwards by the accession of -Henry VII. After pursuing during that reign a policy -of inconsistent, and even treacherous, self-seeking, the -Duke of Lancaster now came forward as the champion of order. The -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup d’état</i> by which he put himself on the throne is another of those -instances which history has so abundantly furnished, of the willing -acceptance by a nation, after a period of long discomfort, of any one -who would bring it rest. There are thus two points of view from -which to regard his reign. It is the reign of a usurper bent upon -establishing a dynasty, the reign of a conservative who bases his -position on the maintenance of the existing state of society, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> -therefore for a time checks the natural progress of the nation. The -necessity which a usurper feels for popularity will explain the -improved constitutional position of the Commons during the earlier -years of his reign; his position as a reactionary that attachment to -the Church which produced the famous statute, “De Hæretico comburendo.”</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Reversal of the -acts of the late -King.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Tumultuous -scene in the -first Parliament.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The King’s -insecure position -for nine -years. -1400.</div> -</div> - -<p>The arbitrary character of the government at the close of the late -King’s reign, and the acts of vengeance which had marked it, were -the evils which were most prominent at the moment. -Henry’s first step was of necessity the reversal of these -acts, and the restoration of the state of things which had -existed in 1388. The Parliament was therefore induced to declare all -the acts of the last Parliament null, while those nobles whose -adhesion to the late King had procured them fresh rank fell back to -their old titles. Thus, the Dukes of Albemarle, of Surrey, and of -Exeter, appear again as the Earls of Rutland, Kent, and Huntingdon, -the Marquis of Dorset as Earl of Somerset. The scene -in the House of Lords in the first Parliament marks the -pitch to which passion had risen, and the preparation -already made for future civil war. Rutland, the son of the Duke of -York, was challenged by Lord Fitz-Walter, and when Lord Morley, -the friend of the new King, challenged Lord Salisbury, no less than -forty lords threw down their hoods as gages of battle on one side or -the other. This point is further illustrated by the petition of the -Commons, that all liveries except those of the King should be forbidden. -The nobles had been gathering paid retainers around -them, and getting themselves ready for the threatening quarrel. -Meanwhile, the King had been crowned, supported by his -two great partisans—whose names show the great influence of the -North in the late change of government—Percy, Earl of Northumberland, -now made Constable of England, and Neville, Earl of Westmoreland, -with the rank of Marshall. It by no means suited Henry -to excite remark as to his right. He therefore stepped as quietly as -he could into the position of his predecessor, and his son Henry was -declared Prince of Wales and heir-apparent, entirely without mention -of the young Earl of March, the real heir, who was then a child in -the custody of the King at Windsor. A grant of a tax on wool and -leather for three years closed the session, and enabled -Henry to take measures to secure his position; for it -was not to be supposed that the party which had lost its -influence would calmly acknowledge the new King. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> -was scarcely crowned when plots began to be formed against him, -nor was it till he had been nine years upon the throne that the -dangers which assaulted him both from his own kingdom and from -foreign countries were finally overcome. It was during this period of -weakness and uncertainty that he had to rest principally upon the -Commons, who supported him as the champion of order against -baronial disorder, but did not fail to take advantage of his weakness.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Insurrection of -the late Lords -Appellant.</div> - -<p>The first of these difficulties arose from those lords who had been -the appellants against Gloucester, and whose loss of rank has been -already mentioned. A week before Christmas, 1399, -several others of the depressed party met at Westminster, -and there the Earls of Huntingdon, Rutland, Kent, and -Salisbury entered into a conspiracy for the restoration of Richard. -Their plan was to seize the King at Windsor, but Rutland, a never-failing -traitor, disclosed the project to his cousin; the King hastily -betook himself to London, and the insurgent lords, finding that their -plans were discovered, fell back towards the West. The King was -rapidly pursuing them; but at Cirencester, the inhabitants, under -their Mayor, surrounded their lodgings, took them prisoners, and afterwards -beheaded Kent and Salisbury. Several escaped for the time, -but the same fate at length overtook Despenser at Bristol, and -Huntingdon at Pleshy in Essex. Subsequently, Sir Thomas Blunt -and eighteen others were executed at Oxford. Among them was a -priest, Maudelin by name, who had been chosen for his strong -personal resemblance to represent the late King in the insurrection. -That the leaders of this conspiracy should have all fallen victims to -popular vengeance sufficiently shows the feelings of the bulk of the -nation with regard to King Henry and his rival.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Imprisonment -and secret death -of Richard.</div> - -<p>Meanwhile, Richard had been imprisoned in Pontefract Castle. In -February a report was spread that he was dead. On this the Privy -Council begged that, if still alive, he might be carefully -secured. The answer was given that he was already -dead, and a corpse was exhibited in London, the face of -which, from the eyes to the chin, was left uncovered, the rest of the -body being carefully clothed. This peculiar arrangement excited -suspicions, which were probably groundless, but were further supported -by the complete mystery which hung over the manner -of the King’s death. Hunger and violence were both alleged; -while some asserted that the corpse exhibited was not that of Richard, -but of the priest Maudelin.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Hostile attitude -of France and -Scotland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Useless and -impolitic march -into Scotland.</div> -</div> - -<p>His domestic enemies for the present silenced, Henry could look -abroad. He made advances towards friendship with -France, but it soon became plain that that kingdom was inclined -to support the cause of the late King, whose young -widow, Isabella, was the daughter of Charles VI. The title of King of -England was refused to Henry, Isabella and her dowry demanded, -and hostility thus kept continually alive. In Scotland, also, the -same feeling showed itself. The King, Robert III., was confined by -weakness of body and mind almost exclusively to the Isle of Bute; -his brother, the Duke of Albany, was the real ruler of the country. -Henry, who had a party in the country, and at whose court Dunbar, -the Earl of March, the chief enemy of the Douglas family, was -resident, thought it desirable to show his power. He therefore -marched as far as Leith, demanding homage from the -Scotch King similar to that claimed by his predecessors, -but the Duke of Rothesay, heir-apparent, held firm in the -Castle of Edinburgh, and want of provisions speedily obliged the -English to beat a somewhat hasty retreat. As in the case of France, -this transaction with Scotland established a constant hostility.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Insurrection in -Wales. Owen -Glendower. -1400.</div> - -<p>In the other dependency of England affairs were still worse. -Owen Glendower, a Welsh gentleman of good family -educated in England, incensed at the rejection of a suit -about a certain property of Lord Grey of Ruthyn, had -roused the national animosity, and claimed for himself the title of -Prince of Wales. For the present Henry could do nothing effective -against him. The war assumed a national character; the Welsh -were expelled from the towns in the Marches. Edward I.’s statutes -against the Welsh were re-enacted, even including that which -ordered the destruction of the bards. The conduct of the war was -placed nominally in the hands of Henry, Prince of Wales, a lad of -thirteen. But the whole of the following year Glendower’s successes -continued. Grey of Ruthyn and Edward Mortimer, uncle of the -imprisoned Prince, the Earl of March, were taken prisoners, and an expedition -undertaken by Henry in person towards the close of the year -was forced to retire from the mountainous strongholds of the Welsh. -The storms and snowdrifts seemed to fight against them in that wild -district, and gave rise to the belief that Glendower was a magician.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Quarrel with -the Percies. -1402.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The pretended -Richard.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Causes of the -quarrel with -Northumberland.</div> -</div> - -<p>Could these various enemies but find some powerful adherents in -England, it was plain that Henry’s position would be -precarious. A quarrel with those who had hitherto -been his chief supporters, the Percies of Northumberland,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> -supplied this element of danger; while a strange report, that -the late King was still alive in Scotland, gave a central point round -which all Henry’s enemies might gather. About Whitsuntide, in -1402, the rumour reached England that Richard had -escaped from Pontefract, and had made his appearance -at the house of the Lord of the Isles, by whom he was handed over to -the Court, and there kept so strictly that no man could get sight of -him. The existence of such a pretender was certain. It was in vain -that Henry attempted to suppress the rumour by executions; in vain -that he even proceeded to execute certain Franciscan monks who had -been engaged in spreading it. The secrecy which covered Richard’s -death, and which for some reason Henry could not break, prevented -any clear proof of the imposture. The false Richard is believed to -have been a man of weak intellect, called Thomas Ward of Trumpington. -The reason of the King’s quarrel with the -Percies is by no means clear, but various causes of discontent -can be shown. The Duke of Albany, after -much fighting on the borders, had made an expedition on a large -scale against Carlisle. On its return home, the army, heavily laden -with booty, was met by the Percies, and defeated at Homildon Hill. -The defeat was complete; many Scotch nobles fell into the hands of -the English, among them Murdoch, Earl of Fife, the son and heir of -the Earl of Albany, and Douglas, Earl of Angus. For such prisoners -the Percies expected a large ransom. Their anger and disappointment -was great when the King took Murdoch from them and claimed -the ransom of the rest. A somewhat similar affair took place in -Wales. Of Glendower’s great prisoners, Grey of Ruthyn was -allowed to ransom himself, a privilege refused to Mortimer; when -the younger Percy, Hotspur, who had married Mortimer’s sister, -urged his claim, he met with a rebuff. The King also owed the -Percies large sums of money; £20,000 was due to them, which the -entanglement of the finances made it impossible to pay. The general -feeling that they had been badly rewarded for the invaluable assistance -they had afforded Henry, acting upon the unusually hot temper -of the younger Percy, drove them into a change of policy.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">The Percies -combine with -Glendower.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Shrewsbury. -July 23, 1403.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Submission of -Northumberland. -1404.</div> -</div> - -<p>Before the end of the year 1402, they entered into negotiations -with Glendower; and Mortimer, instead of attempting -to gain his liberty, married the daughter of the insurgent -chief, and recognized him as Prince of Wales. The -Percies at the same time gained the assistance of their prisoner -Douglas, and the conspiracy was completed by the support given to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> -Glendower by France. On all sides the King’s difficulties seemed to -increase. The Earl of Worcester joined the Percies; Richard’s old -followers crowded to their standard, and an army, insidiously collected -as though for an attack on Scotland, rapidly marched on Shrewsbury -to make a junction with the Welsh. Thither Henry, with his son -the Prince of Wales, hastened, and the decisive battle of -Shrewsbury was fought, in which, after a keen struggle, -Hotspur was killed, and most of the other leaders, -including Worcester and Douglas, captured. Worcester and the -other English leaders were beheaded; Douglas was retained in prison. -The King had still to destroy the insurrection of the elder Percies in -the North, where all the inhabitants of the country had taken the -crescent—the livery of Northumberland. The royal -army was, however, obviously too strong for opposition, -and the Earl made his submission, and met the King at -York. The House of Peers claimed as a right the trial of their -fellow, and he was found guilty, not of high treason, but only of -misdemeanour, and let off with a fine.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Widespread -conspiracy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Flight of the -young Earl of -March. -1405.</div> -</div> - -<p>The great conspiracy was thus but half broken. Wales, Scotland, -France, and the English malcontents were still in communication. -From France, indeed, serious difficulties seemed to -threaten. In presence of the weakness of Charles VI., -the King of that country, the real power was disputed by his -brother Louis of Orleans and his uncle the Duke of Burgundy. -Louis had at this time the upper hand. He took in great dudgeon the -events which had taken place in England; and rumours were abroad, -strengthened by the distribution among the malcontents of Richard’s -crest by the old Countess of Oxford, the mother of De Vere, the late -King’s favourite. These rumours pointed to a great conspiracy, -coupled with an invasion of Essex by France, in favour of the spurious -Richard in Scotland. For a time the threat of invasion -compelled the King to remain quiet; but after the French fleet, -which had attacked the Isle of Wight and Plymouth, had been -defeated at Portland, he was able to turn his attention to the North, -and again to compel Northumberland to come to an explanation. But -that explanation he found himself obliged to accept. Almost at the -same time a fresh alarm met him. Lady Constance -Spenser had contrived to withdraw the young Earl of -March from Windsor, and to fly with him. She was -shortly captured, and the young Prince brought back, but it was plain -that the danger was great.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Renewed -activity of -Northumberland, -Scrope and -Mowbray.</div> - -<p>In April the King went against Wales. His absence in that direction -was at once taken advantage of by his northern enemies. The -difficulty with which he could secure supplies was one -of Henry’s main obstacles to success, and in the last -Parliament the opposition had been headed by Sir -Thomas Bardolph. That gentleman now appeared in -close conjunction with Northumberland, assisting him to garrison his -fortresses. At the same time Mowbray, the son of that Duke of Norfolk -with whom Henry had quarrelled at the time of his banishment, -and Scrope, the Archbishop of York, the brother of that Lord Scrope -who had been Richard’s chancellor at the beginning of his reign, and -whom that King had been forced to remove, joined the insurrection. -The Earl of Westmoreland, who remained constantly faithful to -Henry, was sent against them while Henry was engaged in Wales. -Again, the royal army was too strong for the insurgents. Scrope and -Mowbray were induced to disband their forces, and were then -immediately apprehended. Gascoigne, the chief justice, was called -upon to try them and convict them summarily. He was one of those -constitutional lawyers who were gradually rising in England, and he -refused to do so, pointing out that he should infringe the liberties -both of the Church and the House of Lords. Henry found in Sir -William Fulthorpe a more complacent judge. They were both -beheaded, not without arousing, as Gascoigne had foreseen, the anger -of the Lords. Upon the capture of his confederates, Northumberland -fled with Bardolph to Scotland, but being refused an interview with -the impostor, and mistrusting the honesty of Albany, he subsequently -withdrew to Wales. It was there alone that the war continued, nor -was it finally suppressed during the reign.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Events which -secured Henry’s -triumph. -1406.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Capture of -James of -Scotland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Murder of -Orleans. -1407.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Final defeat and -death of -Northumberland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s -improved -position.</div> -</div> - -<p>But, in the next two years, events occurred which at length placed -Henry in a position of security. The friends of the -Scotch King, fearing the ambition of Albany, which had -already induced him to take the life of the Duke of -Rothesay, the heir-apparent, determined to withdraw James, the -King’s second son and heir-apparent, from danger. He therefore took -ship for France, but on the way was captured by English -cruisers, and brought a prisoner to Henry, who grimly -remarked that they might as well have sent him direct -to him, as he could have taught him French quite well. He justified -this boast; for though he kept the young Prince prisoner, he gave him -an education which, upon his subsequent release, well fitted him for -the throne he occupied. Henry had now in his hands pledges of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> -safety from all his enemies. The Earl of March was still with him; -Murdoch of Fife, Albany’s son, served as a hostage for his father; -while James served as security from all attacks from the royalist -party in Scotland. The following year (1407) was still more -fortunate. The overweening vanity of Orleans, his licentiousness, -which, it is said, did not even spare the young Duchess of Burgundy, -excited the anger of the Duke of Burgundy, the King’s -cousin, to such a degree, that he caused the Duke of -Orleans to be murdered in the streets of Paris. Henry’s -chief enemy in France was thus removed. With Burgundy, who had -lately inherited Flanders, and thus become the Prince of a trading -nation and the champion of the city populations, he had much in -common; and though he did not espouse his cause in any active -manner, he felt secure from any immediate danger. Without his -French allies, Owen Glendower was gradually driven back to the -mountains of North Wales, and in despair, Northumberland -and Bardolph again appeared in the North, took -arms, and were defeated and killed at Bramham. Thus -safe on the side of France, with Scotland pledged to peace by the -captivity of its princes, the Percies finally defeated, -and Owen Glendower confined to the limits of the purely -Celtic part of Wales, Henry was at length triumphant.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">His enforced -respect for the -Commons.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Climax of -their power. -1407.</div> -</div> - -<p>During the whole of these years of difficulty, the King had found -it necessary to keep the Commons in good temper. Although he -suffered from constant want of money, and in vain tried to induce his -frequent Parliaments to act liberally towards him, he -seems on no occasion to have employed illegal means for -improving his position. It had become an accepted -axiom, that consent of all the estates of the realm was necessary for -the levying of taxes; and the Commons had made their position so -good, that, in the very year of his final triumph, they ventured upon -a quarrel with the Lords, claiming for themselves the exclusive right -of originating grants, and insisting on the absence of the King while -they were discussed. More than that, they had attempted, though -unsuccessfully, to oblige the King to answer their petition of -grievances before they made their grant, and succeeded in establishing -the custom of appropriating their grants to special objects, and of -paying them into the hands of treasurers of their own appointment. -But their increase of power was chiefly visible in their interference -with the royal expenditure and administration. In the fifth year of -his reign, the King had been obliged to displace four of his ministers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> -at the request of the Commons, to declare his intention of governing -economically according to law, and to name his Privy Council in -Parliament. And in the eighth year of his reign, when -already he seemed upon the point of triumphing over -his enemies, he was compelled to grant his assent to a -petition of the Commons, which put as strict limitations upon his -power as any to which Richard, even at the time of his greatest -depression, had submitted. He had to name sixteen counsellors, by -whose advice solely he was to be guided. His ordinary revenue was -to be wholly appropriated to his household and the payment of his -debts. No officer of the household was to hold his place for life or -for a fixed term. The council was to determine nothing which the -common law was capable of determining; and the elections of -knights were regulated. At the head of this council was put the -Prince of Wales.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Explained by -the King’s -failing health.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Renewed vigour -at end of reign.</div> -</div> - -<p>It is difficult to understand how the King should submit to this -arrangement, which virtually established a strictly limited monarchy, -just at the moment of his success. It is perhaps explained -by his failing health. A disease had attacked -his face, which changed into a form of leprosy, and -during the remainder of his life he was subject to attacks of epilepsy. -It was not unnatural that he should wish to withdraw somewhat -from public affairs. Under these circumstances, it is not quite clear -how far he is to be credited with the remaining events of his reign. -But the prudence and state-craft exhibited in them, which could -hardly have been expected from so young a man as Prince Henry, and -the more vigorous opposition which he subsequently made to the -demands of the Commons, would seem to show that he was still -practically ruler. This restoration of vigour is marked by his -refusal, towards the close of his reign, to grant any -extension of the right of liberty of speech, and by the -humble tone adopted by the Parliament in the thirteenth year of his -reign, when he was entreated to declare that he was not offended, and -that he regarded them as his loyal subjects.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Henry’s foreign -policy. -Marriages.</div> - -<p>Having secured his position at home, though not, as has been -seen, without some sacrifices, the King’s attention was chiefly -directed towards securing the permanence of his dynasty by foreign -matrimonial alliances, and to obtaining a strong position abroad by -interfering in French politics. His two sisters were -already respectively Queens of Castile and Portugal. He -had himself married, in 1403, a Princess of Navarre. As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> -a husband for his eldest daughter he procured Louis, Count Palatine, -the son and heir of Rupert, King of the Romans; while his younger -daughter married Eric, who had consolidated a great Scandinavian -monarchy in the North.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Policy in -France. -1410.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Success of his -policy.</div> -</div> - -<p>In France he made his weight felt by alternately siding with one -or other of the great parties which divided that kingdom. His -natural connection would have been the Burgundians; -and he first attached himself so far to that party as to -send a considerable army to their assistance. A battle -fought near St. Cloud (1411), in which the Armagnacs (as the friends -of Orleans were now called) were worsted, for the time rendered the -Duke of Burgundy the master of France. Henry chose this opportunity -to change sides, and entered into an arrangement with the defeated -princes, by which he was secured the full possession of Guienne. He -intended at the same time to have led an army into France, and to -have imitated the career of Edward III. The national danger produced -a temporary friendship between the French parties, and Burgundy, -at a meeting held at Auxerre, succeeded in persuading the -Armagnacs to annul their arrangement with the English. Henry’s -health prevented him from leading the expedition, as he intended; -but an army, under the Duke of Clarence, his second son, laid waste -Maine and Touraine, and was only stopped by the payment of a -large sum of money. After this Clarence withdrew to complete the -conquest of Guienne. Thus, though unable to fulfil -his ambitious project of invasion, Henry had contrived to -make his position abroad very different from what it was at the -beginning of his reign, when the French could refuse him the royal -title, and paralyze his home policy by a threat of invasion.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">His alliance -with the Church.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Persecuting -statute. -1401.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Views of the -nation with -regard to the -Church.</div> -</div> - -<p>From one point of view, as a usurper founding a new dynasty, he -had now been quite successful. As a preserver of society, he probably -regarded himself as not less so. Though the son of John of -Gaunt, the favourer of Wicliffe, and not averse in his youth to the -doctrines of that teacher, he had seen that Lollardism pointed, not -only to ecclesiastical, but to political changes. From the beginning -of the reign he had determined that the preservation of -the Church in all its privileges and possessions was the -surest means of checking the rising democracy. He had therefore -been always its staunch supporter. In pursuance of this policy, in -the second year of his reign, he had given his assent to a persecuting -statute, formed, it seems probable, on the petition of the clergy, -without the participation of the Commons. This statute, which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> -known under the title of “De Hæretico comburendo,” forbade teaching -and preaching without the license of a bishop, to whom -also was given the right of condemning heretical -books and writings, while the State undertook to carry -out the bishop’s sentence. Should any person thus condemned continue -in his heresy, he was to be regarded as relapsed, and handed -over to the civil arm, to be publicly burned. The first victim of this -statute was William Sautré, at one time parish priest of Lynn, and -involved in the treason of Kent and Huntingdon. On his persisting -in the errors with which he was charged, the new law was carried -into effect. The persecution once begun did not cease without more -victims, and produced the effect, so common in cases of persecution, -of driving the Lollards into further extremes of fanaticism. The -germ of socialism which no doubt existed in the Lollard doctrine, -and which showed itself in the constant demand for the abolition of -the wealth of the clergy, alarmed the barons, and made them strong -supporters of orthodoxy. The Commons, on the other -hand, although they appear to have differed in feeling at -different parts of the reign, were on the whole willing -enough, while supporting orthodoxy of faith, to countenance the -secularization of Church property. Indeed, they went so far in this -direction, that in the year 1410, in answer to the reiterated request of -the King for a settled yearly subsidy for his life, they pointed out to -him the advisability of appropriating some of the ecclesiastical revenues, -which would be enough, they said, to supply him with 15 -earls, 1500 knights, and 6200 men-at-arms for military service. They -begged also that those condemned for heresy might be withdrawn -from the bishop’s jurisdiction, and tried by secular courts.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s jealousy -of the Prince -of Wales.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s death.</div> -</div> - -<p>The popularity of the Prince of Wales, his position as head of his -father’s Council, not unnaturally gave the King some -uneasiness in his last years. It seems not improbable -that, having been once put at the head of the Council, -he virtually performed many of the duties of the Government. -Documents are extant in which he seems to be regarded as the -King’s representative. Moreover, the course of events seems to show -certain changes of policy which can be explained in this way. It is -evident from his after policy, that he was much attached to the Burgundian -party in France. We may therefore credit him with the -assistance sent to them, which proved so useful to them at the -Battle of St. Cloud, especially as the force was commanded by his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> -friend, Sir John Oldcastle. The sudden change of foreign policy -coincides in time with the King’s altered tone in replying to the -petitions of the Commons. These changes may very probably mark -a determination on the part of the King to re-establish his authority, -too much weakened by the position and popularity of the Prince. -The stories of the Prince’s wild life in London are mentioned by -writers who are almost contemporary, yet do not seem to agree well -with what is certainly known of his industry in public business. -They, as well as the strange travesty of Oldcastle, a good soldier and -stern religious enthusiast, into Shakspeare’s jovial knight, Sir John -Falstaff, are perhaps based on the malicious view taken by the orthodox -of Oldcastle’s religious tendencies. It is well known that one of -the charges alleged against all enthusiastic religionists is immorality. -Prince Henry’s subsequent prosecution and punishment of Oldcastle -would be represented as the discharge of his old favourites. The -aspiring and dangerous character of the Prince, in the eyes of his -father, is represented by the story which describes him as having -taken the crown from his father’s bedside during one of his fits, and -placed it on his own head; and having answered to the remorseful -observations of the King as to the unjust manner in which he had -gained it, that he “was prepared to guard it against the world in -arms.” It is at all events certain that coolness existed between father -and son at the close of the reign. The French expedition was -intrusted, not to the Prince of Wales, but to the Duke of Clarence, -and for the last year and a half Prince Henry was removed from his -position as President of the Council. The disease which -had so long tormented Henry came to a fatal termination -on the 20th of March 1413.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="HENRY_V" id="HENRY_V">HENRY V.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1413–1422.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_287.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_287.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1388 = Catherine of France. - | - Henry VI. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - James I., 1405. | Charles VI., 1380. | Sigismund, 1410. | John II., 1406. - - POPES.--John XXII., 1410. Martin V., 1417. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chancellors._ - | - Thomas Arundel, 1397. | Cardinal Beaufort, 1413. - Henry Chicheley, 1414. | Thomas Longley, 1417. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Fortunate -opening of -his reign. -1413.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The position of Henry V. on coming to the throne contrasts -sharply with that of his predecessor. Henry IV., with disputed -title, and in the midst of excited passions of faction, in -which he had himself taken a prominent share, had to -work out for himself the establishment of his dynasty -and the restoration of political order. His son entered into the -fruits of his labour. He had but to continue his father’s policy. The -dynasty seemed secure, the apparatus of government was in good -working order, and the new King, already practised in the work of -government, brought with him that popularity which brilliant -qualities, a handsome person, and the vigour of youth, are sure to -secure. The painstaking prudence of the late King, overshadowed as -it was by his ill-health and gloomy character, was forgotten, and the -hopes of the nation were fixed upon the fortunate youth whose faults -as yet had been but those which are easily pardoned as the natural -wildness incident to his age.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">General amnesty -and release of -prisoners.</div> - -<p>The young King seemed to please himself with the idea that his -peaceful accession was to complete the healing of faction in the -country, and to begin a period of glory and happiness. He made but -few changes in the ministry of his father, but both Thomas Arundel,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> -the Archbishop, and Sir William Gascoigne were removed from their -offices. It is possible that they may have been the -advisers of the late King during that period when he -was at enmity with his son. Already, before his coronation, -of their own free will the nobles did him homage; and his -Parliament granted him without difficulty the tax on wool for four -years. To complete the general harmony, he published an amnesty, -dismissed many political prisoners, and the greater part of his Scottish -captives, and entered into negotiations for the liberty of the Scotch -King. He even went so far as to reinstate both the Earl of March, -the real claimant to the throne, and Henry Percy, son of Hotspur, his -father’s persistent enemy, in their property and position. The body -of Richard II. was removed from Langley, and honourably interred -in Westminster. The past was, as it were, to be forgotten, and Henry -would rule as the popular and accepted King of all parties.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Signs of -slumbering -discontent.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Lollards. -1414.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the midst of this show of security and peace there were, however, -visible signs that his father’s work was not yet completed. The -royal favour shown to the Church and to the orthodox -party during the last reign, and the persecution which -had fallen upon heresy, had not by any means destroyed -the Lollards. The same policy had still to be pursued. The religious, -it might be called the bigoted, tendency of the house of Lancaster -was very strong in the young King. He had been one of the chief -petitioners against heresy in 1406, and had shared in and superintended -some of the religious executions; especially is mentioned that -of John Badby, in 1410. The Prince had interrupted this man’s -execution, and attempted the conversion of the half-burnt sufferer; -finding him firm, however, he allowed the execution to be completed. -This tendency induced him to enter into close alliance with the -Church, and throughout his reign to adopt the language of religious -enthusiasm, pretending to regard himself as the appointed instrument -of God’s vengeance on the sins of the French. He thus became the -willing agent of the clergy in completing their persecution of the -sectarians, and listened readily to the exaggerated reports -for which the conduct of the Lollards afforded some -ground. The head of this party was now Sir John Oldcastle, who -sat as a Peer in right of his wife under the title of Lord Cobham. -His castle of Cowling, in Kent, afforded shelter to their persecuted -teachers, while his high character and old friendship with the King -made his influence important. The Archbishop determined to attack -this man, at first pretending that he desired his conversion only. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> -placed in Henry’s hands an heretical book which had been found in -an illuminator’s shop, and which belonged to Oldcastle. Henry tried -first of all to argue with Oldcastle (who, however, denied having read -the book), but could not convert him. The duties of friendship being -now fulfilled, the Church was allowed to take the matter in hand. -The heretic appeared several times before his judges, but firmly -refused to depart from his points, that the Pope was Antichrist, and -that in the Lord’s Supper, though the body of Christ might be present, -yet the bread was bread. This firmness produced the only possible -result, and he was condemned to be burnt; but in the interval -allowed him before the completion of his sentence, he managed -to escape.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> - -<p>The attack upon their chief roused the Lollards, and they are said -to have entered into a general conspiracy for surprising and mastering -the King and his brothers at Eltham, during the festivities of Christmas. -Henry had early news of a meeting which was to be held on -the 7th of January 1414, in St. Giles’ Fields. It is quite unproved -how far the intentions of the conspirators really reached. Henry, -with the Church behind him, was ready to believe anything. He -feared, perhaps, an insurrection similar to Wat Tyler’s. Causing, -therefore, the gates of the city to be closed, he spread armed men -round the place of meeting, and as the Lollards approached, singly or -in small bodies, they were seized. The news that the King’s forces -were abroad soon spread, and prevented any great number from -falling into his hands. A jury was hastily summoned to declare that -Oldcastle had treasonable plans, and a price was set on his head. -The same jury then proceeded to try the thirty-nine prisoners, all of -whom were either hanged or burnt. This event was followed by a -still stricter proscription of heretical preachers and books. Chicheley, -who succeeded Arundel as Archbishop this year, followed in his -predecessor’s steps, and a statute was passed by which all judges and -municipal authorities were bidden to apprehend and try Lollards, -while conviction of heresy entailed confiscation of goods.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Henry’s reasons -for the impolitic -French war.</div> - -<p>Henry prided himself on having won his first victory in the cause -of the Church; but his naturally ambitious character -led him to desire triumphs of another kind. It seems -indeed as if a strange combination of motives impelled -him to take the false step which gave the character to his reign, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> -plunged the country into a lengthy and ultimately disastrous war -with France. His father is said to have urged him, with mistaken -worldly wisdom, to withdraw the minds of his subjects from dangerous -topics by filling them with thoughts of military glory. The Church, -frightened by the suggestions of confiscation in the last reign, urged -him to pursue the same course. The natural but mistaken admiration -for military glory induced him to listen readily to their advice, -while the wickedness and misery exhibited by the French nation at once -afforded him an admirable opportunity, and may have suggested to -his fanatical mind, that it was his duty to punish such vice, and to -reduce such turbulence into order. Experience proved, as it often -has proved, the mistake, nay, the wickedness, of averting domestic -dangers by the wanton pursuit of warlike success. Meanwhile, at first, -and during the whole of this King’s short life, the step seemed perfectly -successful. The reign, as a period of English history, is almost devoid -of interest. The attention of the nation was centred in a French war.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Expulsion of the -Burgundians -from Paris.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Attempt at -national -government.</div> -</div> - -<p>Since the Duke of Clarence had secured Guienne the state of -France had become only more deplorable. The Treaty of Auxerre -produced no real union between the factions. There was a certain -show of national action under the pressure of a threatened invasion -from England; the King and the Great Council of France sat in -Paris; the States General were summoned, and under the influence of -the University certain reforms introduced. But the death of Henry -IV. prevented for the time all danger of invasion; and the cause of -union being removed, the factions again separated. The Duke de -Guienne, the French King’s eldest son, and representative of the -crown during his father’s fits of madness, was devoted to the wildest -licentiousness, and disliked his gloomy father-in-law, John of -Burgundy. He began to intrigue for the restoration of the Orleanist -Princes. The ruffianly populace of Paris, headed by the guild of -butchers, and led by Caboche, a skinner, were devotedly -attached to the Burgundians. A fierce and murderous -uproar arose; but its violence was such, that the better -class of citizens were aroused, expelled the Cabochiens, who fled to -the Duke of Burgundy, and readmitted the Armagnacs, as the Orleanists -were now called. The counter-revolution was complete, the Armagnacs -got possession of the government, attacked the Burgundian Duke, and -drove him before them, till they were checked at Arras. A temporary -truce was then patched up; but the Duke of Guienne -soon after contrived for a moment to banish both parties -from the capital, and to establish a sort of national -government.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Henry’s double -diplomacy and -outrageous -claims.</div> - -<p>It was at this time that Henry V. began to meddle in French -affairs. Already, during the retreat to Arras, Burgundy had opened -negotiations with him, and these, in his anger against the Duke of -Guienne, he now pressed still more warmly. Meanwhile, Henry -negotiated also with the central authority in Paris. By this double -negotiation, which included a plan for the marriage of Henry, on the -one hand, with Catherine of France, and on the other, -with Catherine of Burgundy, Henry made Burgundy -neutral, while he pressed claims on the unfortunate -French monarch of so outrageous a description, that he must have intended -by securing their rejection to give himself a plausible ground -for war. His first demand was nothing less than the cession of the -whole French monarchy. When this was refused, his ambassadors -restricted their demand to all the countries ceded to Edward III. by -the Peace of Brétigny, as well as Normandy, the coast of Picardy, -Anjou, Maine and Touraine, the suzerainty of Brittany and Flanders, -1,600,000 crowns, as the residue of King John’s ransom, with the -hand of the Princess Catherine, and a dowry of 2,000,000 crowns. -The Duke of Berri, the King’s uncle, was at that time the chief -member of the government. He naturally refused Henry’s enormous -demands, but offered all the districts of Aquitaine to the south of the -Charente, and 600,000 crowns as dowry for the Princess.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">His preparations.</div> - -<p>All this while, Henry continued his preparations, raised troops, -borrowed ships from Holland and Zeeland, and summoned -in April a great council of Peers.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> He there -declared his intention of seeking his rights in France, appointed his -brother John, Duke of Bedford, Lieutenant of the kingdom, and fixed -the conditions of the contracts which he made with nobles for supplying -him with soldiers.<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> He arranged also the manner in which the -spoil was to be divided, and other details for the supply of the army. -The devotion of the Church was to supply him with the means of -meeting these vast expenses. Archbishop Chicheley and the Churchmen, -fearing, no doubt, the democratic tendencies of the Commons, -were willing to make some sacrifice. They agreed that no foreigners -should hold benefices, and thus allowed the King to use the incomes -of all the priories of the foreign orders of the kingdom to the number -of 122. The proceeds of this transaction, increased by loans from -foreigners, the pawning of his jewels, and the pledging of the tax on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> -wool, supplied him with finances. An embassy from France, with -still larger offers, including Limousin, and a dowry of 800,000 crowns, -produced no improvement in the relations between the two countries.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">He lands in -France. -1415.</div> - -<p>Before Charles VI. could reply to the despatch of his ambassador, -announcing the rejection of these terms, on the 3rd of -August, the English army, of about 6000 men-at-arms -and 24,000 archers, was already embarked. On the 14th -of August it landed at the mouth of the Seine, where Havre de Grace -now is. No steps were taken to prevent the disembarkation. The -kingdom was in a state of fearful misery and disorder. The conduct -of the war was given to the Armagnacs, Charles d’Albret was -appointed constable; the Duke of Burgundy therefore held aloof, -and the English had, in fact, only one half of the country against -them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Conspiracy of -Cambridge.</div> - -<p>An event had occurred before the English embarkation which, by -proving to the King that his position was not so secure as he thought, -may have made him still more determined in his present course. He -was engaged at Southampton preparing his expedition, -when a conspiracy was discovered, in which the King’s -cousin Richard, brother of the Duke of York, and lately created -Earl of Cambridge, and one of his most trusted counsellors, Henry -Scrope of Masham, were implicated. They were accused of an -intention to take Edmund, Earl of March, with them into Wales, to -crown him there, and declare him rightful King, if Richard were -really dead. They had also summoned from Scotland Thomas of -Trumpington, the false Richard. The Earl of Cambridge had -married Ann of Mortimer, the sister of the Earl of March. We -have here the beginning of that close union between the supporters of -the legitimate line and the House of York, which again appears in -the Wars of the Roses. Cambridge and Scrope were both executed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Capture of -Harfleur.</div> - -<p>The first place to be attacked was Harfleur; it was bravely -defended by the garrison under the Sire d’Estouteville. -The inhabitants were told by the Court to take courage -and trust to the King, but no help was sent them, though 14,000 or -15,000 men were within reach. On the 22nd of September they -were compelled to capitulate. The conquered town was treated as -Calais had been; the wealthier inhabitants were put to ransom, the -goods seized, the people given their choice of leaving the city or -becoming English. But this success had been hardly earned, the -losses both by sickness and in fighting had been great. A large -number of invalids had to be sent back to England. With little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> -more than half his army Henry could venture no further into France. -He determined to march along the coast to Calais. The strictest -discipline was maintained in the little band, and the King strove to -foster in it a religious and enthusiastic spirit; pillage was punished -with death; rations only were demanded from the inhabitants.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Henry compelled -to retire upon -Calais.</div> - -<p>Henry had intended to cross the Somme at Blanchetaque, where -Edward III. had passed it. False information was -brought him that the ford was guarded. In reality, the -feudal army was as yet only collecting near Abbeville, -around the standard of the Constable d’Albret, a man but little fitted -for his post. Had Henry passed at once he might have reached Calais -without a great battle; as it was, he was compelled to follow the river -upwards, and time was afforded to the French to collect their forces, -and seek their own destruction in a pitched battle. Henry sought -a ford across the river for a long time in vain. He passed Amiens, -and had got within a league of Ham, in a very dangerous position -among the strong fortresses of Ham, St. Quentin and Péronne, when -at length a ford was discovered near Béthancourt. The Constable, -who was at Péronne, might have destroyed him in the passage. He -let him pass unmolested. Following feudal fashion, he sent to -ask Henry to name a day and place for the battle; but whatever -external chivalry may have been visible in Henry, his military -character was that of a hard, practical, modern soldier. He answered -that there was no need to name day or place, as he was always to be -found in the open fields. For four days the armies followed almost -parallel lines of march, the French making no use of their superiority -in numbers to disturb the quiet advance of the English, although they -spread nightly among the villages for shelter. At length the Constable, -with singular want of prudence, took up his position a little to the -north of Hesdin and Cressy, on a small confined plain, where his -large army, of at least 50,000 fighting men, was jammed in between -two woods. This force consisted almost entirely of nobles and their -feudal followers, who in their foolish pride of class had rejected the -assistance of the infantry of the towns. The ground was arable -land, and the soil deep and heavy, so that the heavy armed French -in their splendid harness sank deep at every step, while the English, -clad mostly in leather jerkins, and many of them barefoot, moved -with comparative ease. The night, we are told, was passed in riot -by the French; in sober preparation or religious exercise by the -English.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_294.jpg" width="450" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> - -AGINCOURT.<br /> -<em>October 25. 1415.</em><br /> - -<p class="pad20pc">1. English Archers.</p> -<p class="pad20pc">2. English men at arms.</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="sidenote">Battle of -Agincourt. -Oct. 25, 1415.</div> - -<p>The French drew themselves up in three massive lines or battles;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a><br /><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> -the two first dismounted and fought on foot, for which their heavy -armour but little fitted them; the third line retained -their horses, as did two small wings intended to crush -the archers. The state of the soil obliged them to -adopt a defensive method of fighting quite contrary to their habits. -The English advanced upon them—the archers in front, the -heavy-armed infantry behind, the mixed archers and infantry on -the flanks. They are described as having a miserable, ragged appearance -after their weary march, as contrasted with the splendour of the -French. Henry rode among them, cheering them with the memories -of bygone victories. He had previously ordered every archer to -supply himself with a stake sharpened at each end, which he was to -plant before him, and thus make a moveable palisade. At eleven -o’clock, after a brief and useless parley between the armies, Sir -Thomas Erpingham, the English Marshal of the Host, tossed up his -baton with the cry “Now strike,” and the battle began. The English -advanced a few steps, expecting a charge from the enemy, but the -hostile ranks remained immoveable; they were, in fact, planted knee-deep -in the mud, and afforded a fine aim for the English archers, who -did not spare them. At length, putting their heads down to avoid as -much as possible the fatal arrows, the first line came heavily on, and -the mounted wings began to close round the English; but the stakes -of the archers served them in good stead. Of the horses, a large proportion -tripped and fell in the rough ploughed land; not one in ten -of their riders, we are told, came hand to hand with the archers. -Unsupported and almost immoveable, the infantry broke. The -archers seeing their plight, issued from between their stakes, threw -down bow and arrow, seized their axes and maces, and fell headlong -upon them. “It seemed,” says the chronicler, “as though they were -hammering upon anvils.” The men-at-arms fell beneath the furious -charge, and were smothered by their own companions as they fell over -them. The same fate awaited the second line. The English men-at-arms -had come up to support the archers, and the battle was fiercer, -and for a time more equal. Certain of the French knights, under the -Duke of Alençon, swore to take the life of Henry, and did their best -to keep their oath. One of them cleft in two the golden crown on the -helmet worn by Henry, and Alençon killed his cousin, the Duke of -York, at his side. It was in vain; the English steadily advanced; -the defeat of the first line, the rush of the fugitives, disordered and -confused the cavalry, and they turned and fled. The English were -already masters of the field, when news was brought that a fresh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> -enemy was in their rear, and flames were seen arising from the village -of Maisoncelle behind them. Henry, afraid of this new attack, and of -a rally of the fugitives, gave the terrible order that all the prisoners -should be killed. When his troops hesitated, he told off 200 archers -to do the work; and already very many had been killed in cold -blood, when the discovery that the alarm was a false one induced -Henry to revoke his order. Of the 10,000 Frenchmen who -died 8000 were of noble blood; among them were the Dukes -of Alençon, Brabant, and Bar, the Constable d’Albret, and all the -chief officers of the army. The Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, the -Counts of Vendôme and Richemont, and Marshal Boucicaut, with -15,000 knights, remained prisoners. Besides the Duke of York -and the Earl of Oxford, the English had lost 1600 men. The King, -with his triumphant army, at once proceeded to Calais, and thence to -England. He attributed his wonderful success to Heaven, whose -instrument he was in punishing the crimes in France. “Never,” -said he to the Duke of Orleans, “was greater disorganization or licentiousness, -or greater sins, or worse vices than reign in France now. -It is pitiful even to hear the story of them, and a horror for the -listeners. No wonder if God is enraged at it.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The French -Government -falls into the -hands of the -Armagnacs.</div> - -<p>The destruction of princes and feudal nobles at Agincourt seems to -have annihilated the Armagnac party. The hatred of -the Dauphin for the Duke of Burgundy prevented the -unity which such an event might have produced. He -summoned Bernard of Armagnac from the south of -France, where he then was, and gave himself completely into his -hands, making him Constable, Governor-General of the finances, and -Captain of all the fortresses of France.</p> - -<p>The party of the Constable, which had once been that of most of -the princes of the royal blood, consisted now of adventurers, pledged -to continue a civil war, to which they owed their importance. The -real governors of France and Paris were the Gascon noble D’Armagnac -and the Breton Tannegui Duchâtel. Their tyranny was of the bitterest -description; their hired men-at-arms did all the harm an undisciplined -soldiery can do; the people were taxed, in the midst of bitter -famine, to the last farthing; their bloody tyranny induced them to -forbid bathing in the Seine, lest the bathers should find there the -corpses of their victims. The sole virtue of the party was that they -continued the war with England, while Burgundy renewed his treaty -with that nation. The Constable’s efforts were not successful. An -attempt to regain Harfleur was defeated by the Duke of Bedford.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> -But Henry for the present was content to stand on the defensive. -The Parliament, in its enthusiasm at his great success, had granted -him large subsidies, and the tax on wool for life; and he was spending -his time in recruiting the strength of his army, and in giving a -magnificent reception to Sigismund, King of the Romans.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Visit of -Sigismund. His -position in -Europe. -1416.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His close union -with Henry.</div> -</div> - -<p>That Prince had succeeded in re-establishing the obsolete supremacy -of the head of the Roman Empire. This he had -done by the activity and success with which he collected -a general council of the Church at Constance. His -object at the council was to heal the great schism, which -since 1378 had divided the Church. On the death of Gregory XI., -who had brought back the Papacy to Rome, after its seventy years’ -servitude to the French at Avignon, a double election took place, and -the world was divided between Urbanists, who owned Urban VI., -the Roman Pontiff, and the Clementines, who acknowledged Clement -VII. of Avignon. Each Pope had his successors, and an attempted -compromise at Pisa in 1409 had produced a third Pope. The three -claimants to the honour were now Gregory XII. at Rome, Benedict -XIII. at Avignon, John XXIII. at Pisa. The new council declared -itself superior to all Popes, and proceeded to secure the dismissal or -resignation of these three prelates. It also undertook to suppress the -Wicliffite heresy, which had spread to Bohemia. Its efforts in this -direction led to the condemnation and burning of John Huss and -Jerome of Prague. The negotiations with Pope Benedict, who was -acknowledged in Spain, were intrusted to Sigismund, who thus not -unreasonably thought himself the arbiter of Europe, and determined -to add to his ecclesiastical successes the healing of the war between -France and England. For this purpose he passed through Paris, but -met with indifferent success, and then betook himself to England. -With Henry, as suppresser of heresy and champion of -the Church, he had much in common, and he soon laid -aside his position of arbiter to become an English partisan.<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> One -incident of his visit is interesting, as marking both his position and -the determined independence of the English. While in Paris he was -present at a trial, and one party to the dispute seemed on the point -of losing his case because he was not of knightly rank. Sigismund -immediately knighted him. This interference was not pleasant to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> -the French, and gave rise to the idea that the Emperor was claiming -universal supremacy. On his approach to England, therefore, one of -the King’s brothers and some other lords rode out into the water by -the side of the ship, and there made him solemnly assert that he -came as a friend, and claimed no jurisdiction in England.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Failure of -Sigismund’s -mediation.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Armagnac -attacks Queen -Isabella. -1417.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">She allies -herself with -Burgundy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry’s second -invasion.</div> -</div> - -<p>Sigismund’s efforts at procuring peace had been thwarted in Paris -by the determination of D’Armagnac, whose position had -become apparently more assured than ever. One after -the other, Charles VI.’s two elder sons died, and his -third son, Charles, who had been brought up by the Armagnac party, -was now Dauphin. Besides the Constable, there was no one but his -mother who had influence over him. That influence Bernard was -determined to destroy. The avaricious character and -licentiousness of the Queen afforded easy opportunity. -He drove her into privacy at Tours, and seized her -money. Henceforward she hated the Dauphin heartily, and was -ready to do anything to injure him. Thus, when Burgundy -approached Paris with an army, he was suddenly summoned to -rescue the Queen from her captivity, and France became still more -distinctly divided into the party of the Dauphin and the party of -the Queen. Still further to complete the separation, -and to give a shadow of legitimacy to their action, the -Queen and Burgundy established a counter-Parliament -at Amiens, and a rival Great Council of France. The civil war went -on increasing in atrocity, and D’Armagnac was too hard pressed to -interfere with Henry, who, on August 14th, landed at -Honfleur for his second invasion, and proceeded to -master Normandy. With Flanders, Artois and Picardy on the one -hand rendered neutral by the friendship of Burgundy, and Brittany -on the other under a truce with him, he could act at his ease. Caen, -Bayeux, L’Aigle, were captured one after the other, and the next year, -with four divisions spreading from Artois to Brittany, he pushed -southward, conquering all the strong towns as he went. He was not -a merciful conqueror. He exacted to the full the rights of war. -Most of the towns were treated as Harfleur had been, but in nearly -every case a certain number of the citizens were beheaded under the -title of rebels.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Parisians, -anxious for -peace, admit the -Burgundians.</div> - -<p>It was impossible for the French parties, savage as they were, -to look on calmly at the English successes; a great -attempt at reconciliation was made, but again the obstinacy -of the Constable brought it to nothing. The idea of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> -the cessation of the civil war had filled the Parisians with hope. -The failure of that hope was more than they could bear. The keys -of the gates were secured, and L’Ile-Adam, who commanded one of -the garrisons which the Burgundians had pushed close to Paris, was -admitted within the walls. The people rose in thousands upon their -hated tyrants. Tannegui Duchâtel succeeded in saving the young -Dauphin, and retired with him to Melun. Meanwhile, the prisons -were crowded with captive Armagnacs, and a few days afterwards -the passions of the extreme Burgundian partisans broke loose. The -Cabochiens, who had lived as exiles in Burgundy, and returned with -the Duke, again made their appearance. A fearful massacre took -place at all the prisons; among the number slain was the Constable -himself. From this time onward, the Armagnacs were spoken of as -the Dauphinois; their leading spirit was Duchâtel, who followed -closely in the footsteps of the late D’Armagnac. He would hear -of no peace with Burgundy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Fall of Rouen. -Jan. 15, 1419.</div> - -<p>Yet that peace was terribly wanted, for Henry had now laid siege -to Rouen, the capital of Normandy. The defence was -in the highest degree gallant. Promises were given by -Burgundy that help should be sent, but none came. At length a -part of the garrison determined to cut their way through. When a -portion of them had already crossed the bridge, it broke with the -remainder, and the attempt had to be given up. Men charged Guy -Bouteiller, the governor, and not unreasonably, with treacherously -sawing the supports. At length all hope, unless succour arrived, was -gone. Every eatable thing had been devoured. Hundreds of useless -mouths had been driven without the walls, and not being allowed to -pass the English lines, lay starving in the ditches. The extent of -charity the garrison could afford to show, was to draw the new-born -babes up the walls in baskets, to have them baptized, and then -return them to their mothers to starve. Driven to extremities, the -garrison sent deputies demanding assistance from the King, and -threatening if it did not come to become his fiercest enemies. They -were bidden to wait till the fourth day after Christmas. In spite of -their miserable plight, they resolved to wait the fortnight that was -left. On that day there arrived, not assistance, but a message from -the Duke of Burgundy to make what terms they could with the -King of England. They asked what those terms would be. He -bade them surrender at discretion. But they knew his character too -well to trust to his mercy, and resolved to fire the town and make -their way out as they could. This threat brought Henry to reason,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> -and for a ransom of 300,000 crowns he gave them the same sort of terms -as he usually did. Seven men were excepted from pardon; of these -all but one were ransomed. That one, Alain Blanchart, the King, -ever unable to appreciate bravery in an enemy, caused to be beheaded.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Negotiation -for peace.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Attempted -reconciliation of -the French -parties.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Murder of -Burgundy.</div> -</div> - -<p>At length it seemed as though the French factions had come to an -understanding; the cry of the whole nation was too -strong to resist. A truce was made between the parties -for three months, and the Duke of Burgundy, with the Queen and -the King, who had been in their custody since the recapture of Paris, -met Henry at Meulan, and attempted to come to terms. But Henry -still demanded more than it was possible to grant. Burgundy therefore -withdrew in anger, and at Pouilli-le-Fort held a personal meeting -with the Dauphin, and apparently came to terms with -him. The show of friendship was only hollow. Shortly -after, at the instigation of Duchâtel, a second meeting -was demanded at Montereau sur Yonne. It was nothing but an -ambush. The meeting was to be held on the bridge, and barricades -were to keep back all but ten partisans of either side; but no sooner -was the Duke with two followers within the barrier than Tannegui -Duchâtel shut the door on that side, while from the -other end the Dauphinois crowded in. The Duke was -there murdered, and of his following one man alone escaped.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Young Burgundy -joins England. -Treaty of Troyes, -1420.</div> - -<p>The effect of this murder was instantaneous. The son of Jean sans -peur, Philip, Count of Charolais, at once put himself at the head of his -party, and forgetting everything but revenge, opened -negotiations with the English. On October 17th, the -plenipotentiaries met at Arras, and the preliminaries of -the treaty were drawn up; by which Henry was to marry Catherine -of France, and to be recognised as heir after the death of the reigning -king. Meanwhile he was to have the administration of the country. -All the exchange asked was, that he would make no peace with the -Dauphin, and join in carrying on war with that Prince. These preliminaries -were to be ratified by the King, the Queen, and States -General. The King’s imbecility prevented any opposition from him, -and the Queen was only too glad of an opportunity of disinheriting -her son; she calculated that at least her daughter Catherine, whom -she loved dearly, would enjoy the crown. An unexpected consequence -followed this treaty, which was completed at Troyes. This -was the resurrection of the party of the Dauphin, which henceforward -became the national party. Henry was at once called upon -to give vigorous assistance, and found occupation for all his army at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> -the siege of Melun, which was defended with extreme courage. But -in December he found an opportunity of making a triumphal entry -into Paris, where his stern and haughty manner, and “his words -which cut like razors,” won him but little favour; and thence he -passed to England to meet a magnificent reception with his wife.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">English defeat -at Beaugé.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Henry hurries -to Paris.</div> -</div> - -<p>He there heard bad news. One of the signs of the renewed activity -of his enemies had been a treaty with Castile, and the employment -of the Castilian fleet. Already, in the preceding year, the Spanish -fleet had defeated the English, and then proceeding to Scotland, had -returned with a reinforcement of some 4000 men under the Earl of -Buchan and Lord Stewart of Darnley. Strengthened with these -troops, the Dauphin’s party had attacked the English in the west. -Clarence, the King’s brother, who had been left in charge of the -kingdom, advanced to meet them. The armies encountered at -Beaugé in Anjou, and there, forgetting the national tactics, and -neglecting the use of the archers, they suffered a complete -defeat, in which the King’s brother was killed. It -was the first reverse the English arms had met with, and Henry well -understood the moral effect it might have. He hastened at once to -France, and leaving alone for the present the disaffection which was -showing itself in Picardy, went direct to Paris to re-establish -his prestige. Thence he marched to the attack -of Meaux, whence an Armagnac garrison was pillaging the country -to the very gates of Paris. It was under the command of the Bastard -of Vaurus, a savage soldier, who delighted to hang his prisoners by -dozens on the branches of a large elm outside his town. The bravery -of his defence equalled his barbarity. It was not without the greatest -efforts that the town and castle, called the Marché, were reduced.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">While -re-establishing -his affairs -he dies. -1422.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of -Charles VI.</div> -</div> - -<p>Meanwhile the war had broken out again in Burgundy, and Henry -was summoned to the support of his allies at the siege of Cosne. He -would not send help, he said, but would come at the head of his -whole army. The boast was a vain one. His army, indeed, set out -under the command of the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Warwick, -but the King’s health, which had been failing for the last two years, -quite broke down, and the generals were hastily recalled -to be present at the deathbed of their sovereign, who -died on the 31st of August 1422. Conscious of his -approaching end, he had made dispositions to meet it; he had laid -special stress on the continuation of the treaty with Burgundy; had -begged Bedford never to make peace under less advantageous terms -than the entire cession of Normandy; had intrusted the regency of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> -France to the same brother should the Duke of Burgundy decline it; -put England into the hands of Gloucester; and intrusted the education -of his infant son to Warwick. He then died amid all those -signs of religious enthusiasm which had marked his life, declaring -that he had intended to lead a crusade to Jerusalem, and covering all -remorse, which his cruel war might well have excited, by the thought -that he had acted with the approbation of those most holy men the -English bishops. Stern, haughty, an unpitying soldier, he had yet -by his exhibition of firm justice and love of order gained the admiration -and respect, if not the love, of his new subjects; and Englishmen -forgot his reactionary policy, and misjudged the want of wisdom -in his foreign undertakings, amid the enthusiasm his successful career -excited. Very shortly after his conqueror, the old King -Charles VI. also died, and his son Charles became the -representative of the French monarchy. He caused himself to be -at once crowned at Poitiers; but the English failed to recognise his -title, and spoke of him as the Dauphin.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="HENRY_VI" id="HENRY_VI">HENRY VI.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1422–1461.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_303.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_303.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1421 = Margaret of Anjou, 1445. - | - Edward. Died. - - <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note— this heading was missing from the original text">CONTEMPORARY PRINCES</ins> - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - James I., 1406. | Charles VI., | Sigismund, 1410. | John II., 1406. - James II., 1436. | 1380. | Albert II., 1438. | Henry IV., 1454. - | Charles VII., | Frederick III., | - | 1423. | 1440. | - - POPES.--Martin V., 1417. Eugenius IV., 1431. Nicolas V., 1447. - Calixtus III., 1455. Pius II., 1458. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chancellors._ - | - Henry Chicheley, 1414. | Thomas Longley, 1417. - John Stafford, 1443. | Cardinal Beaufort, 1424. - John Kemp, 1452. | Cardinal Kemp, 1426. - Thomas Bouchier, 1454. | John Stafford, 1432. - | Cardinal Kemp, 1450. - | Earl of Salisbury, 1454. - | Cardinal Bouchier, 1455. - | William Waynflete, 1456. - | George Neville, 1460. - | Sir John Fortescue, 1461. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Arrangements -of the kingdom. -1422.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">By the fiction of the English constitution, England was now -governed by a child of nine months old. The late King had -thoughtfully arranged for the government by the nomination -of Gloucester to the regency in England, Bedford -to the regency in France; but experience of former -regencies, and the constant adherence to constitutional forms which -marked the English nobility, led the Privy Council to make different -arrangements. It was determined, in fact, that the Council should be -virtually the governing body. This was in accordance with several -precedents; even as late as the reign of Henry IV., a council named -in Parliament had, during the last years of that monarch’s life, -governed England. When the hero, whose popularity and ability -had for a time carried all men with him, was dead, it was natural that -the kingdom should fall back into the same system of government. -In the first Parliament therefore, by the advice of the Council, -Bedford was made Regent of both France and England, while to -Gloucester was given the title of Defender or Protector of the kingdom,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> -which amounted to little more than the position of President of the -Council, by whose advice he was bound to act, and of which the -members were nominated in Parliament. After this, the grant of the -wool tax and of tonnage and poundage, for two years, closed the session.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Position of -parties in -France.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Bedford’s -marriage. -1423.</div> -</div> - -<p>All interests were still centred in France. To all appearance, both -in geographical position and in the talents of their -leader, the advantage lay with the English. Bedford -shared all the better qualities of his elder brother; as -able, both as a general and a statesman, he was of a gentler and a -finer character; on the other hand, the Dauphin Charles was a man -without vigour, sunk in sensual pleasure, and still under the influence -of unprincipled adventurers. His possessions, too, were much -restricted. He found himself confined to the centre and south-east of -France. It was only from south of the Loire to Languedoc that his -power was unquestioned. Either England or its great ally Burgundy -possessed or dominated all other parts of France; while Savoy and -Brittany, at the extreme and opposite corners, were professedly -neutral. The strength of this position, such as it was, lay in its -central situation. The immense extent of country the English held -required resources beyond the power of that country single-handed to -produce; by alliance with Burgundy alone was it possible. But -misgovernment and party feeling prevented any great exhibition of -strength on the part of France. She had to rely chiefly on mercenaries, -and the war was merely kept alive. In 1423, Bedford -succeeded in forming anew a close alliance with Burgundy, in which -Brittany also joined. It was cemented by a double marriage; on -the one hand, Bedford married Anne, Philip’s sister, -while Arthur of Richemont, the brother of the Duke -of Brittany, married her elder sister Margaret.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Release of the -Scotch King.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">It is useless.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Verneuil. -1424.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Consequent -strength of the -English -in France.</div> -</div> - -<p>The treaty was scarcely finished when Bedford had to move southward -to relieve Crévant on the Yonne, closely besieged by the Scotch -and French. The expedition was very successful. A simultaneous -attack from the city and the relieving army destroyed the besiegers; -1200 knights, chiefly Scotch, were said to have been left on the field. -But fresh recruits were continually coming to the French, some from -Italy, some from Scotland; notably 5,000 men under Archibald -Douglas, who was raised to the Duchy of Touraine; while Stewart of -Darnley, their former leader, received the lordships of Aubigné and -of Dreux. Bedford attempted to cut off this source of -help by arranging for the release of the Scottish King, -who had now been twenty-four years a captive in England. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> -September 1423, his freedom was arranged, on the payment of £40,000 -for his past expenses, and upon a promise on his part that he would -keep peace with England, and marry an English lady. He was told -to choose his own wife, as English ladies were not in the habit of proposing -for husbands, and married Joan Beaufort, daughter of the Earl -of Somerset, granddaughter of John of Gaunt. He did his best, -though not always successfully, to keep his promise of -peace. But this step on the part of Bedford did not stop -the Scotch in France. They pushed on even to the borders of -Normandy, and captured Ivry. Bedford addressed himself to the -recovery of that fortress. 18,000 troops, Scotch, French, and Italians, -led by the Duke of Alençon and Earl of Buchan, now Constable of -France, marched to relieve it. This they were unable to do, but -revenged themselves by the capture of the neighbouring -town of Verneuil. Thither the Regent pursued them, -and there he brought them to action. It was the old -story over again. The French had not yet learnt wisdom by -experience; and again the mass of heavy-armed foot, with cavalry on -the flanks, was shattered by the English archers from behind their -impenetrable wall of pointed stakes. The Scotch auxiliaries were -nearly destroyed; and among the 5000 dead were -the Earls of Douglas, Buchan and Aumale. The victory -was likened in Parliament to the Battle of Agincourt. -Its effects were almost as complete. For the time the French had to -withdraw completely behind the Loire.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">It is disturbed -by Gloucester’s -marriage.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">First blow to -Burgundian -alliance. -1424.</div> -</div> - -<p>It was the unbridled folly of Gloucester which disturbed the -favourable position which Bedford had secured. The Countess -Jacqueline of Hainault and Holland had married John of Brabant, -and had fled from her husband. She had taken refuge in England, -and just before the death of Henry V., Gloucester, during the life of -her former husband, had taken her for his wife. The -Duke of Burgundy was the cousin and close ally of -John of Brabant, and had hoped to bring all the Netherlands -under his power by his kinsman’s marriage -with Jacqueline. Gloucester would hear of no compromise, -but, in 1424, appeared with 5000 English troops in Calais, -and took possession of Hainault. Philip of Burgundy at once -wavered in his friendship for England, drew closer his connection -with Brabant, and even procured a truce with the Dauphin. Preparations -for a duel, to which he had challenged Burgundy, called -Gloucester home. The immediate effect of his departure was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> -occupation of Hainault by John of Brabant. Jacqueline herself was -taken prisoner, but managing to escape in man’s clothes, she reached -her other dominions in Holland, and thence proceeded to begin a war -with Burgundy. Her English lover could send her but little help, and -at last, after her husband’s death in 1428, she surrendered to Philip, -and declared him her heir. Gloucester’s infidelity broke off relations -between them, and eventually, in 1436, the whole of the Netherlands -came into the power of Burgundy. It has been said that, without -the friendship of Burgundy, the English resources were insufficient to -retain France. This was the first shock that friendship received.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Rivalry of -Beaufort and -Gloucester.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Gloucester’s -marriage with -Eleanor -Cobham.</div> -</div> - -<p>This outbreak of Gloucester’s was but one instance of his intemperate -and ambitious character. At home, he had already involved -the government in difficulties, by his constant rivalry with -Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, second son of John of Gaunt -by Catherine Swinford. This Prince had already been engaged in all -the prominent affairs of the last reign. But though -a man of vast wealth and large ambition, his -aspirations in England were rather for his family -than for himself; and in the financial difficulties which began -to beset England his money was freely advanced without interest -to Government. In 1424, he had been made Chancellor, for -the express purpose of counterbalancing the power of his nephew -Gloucester, and in pursuance of this object, he had, during -Gloucester’s absence in Hainault, garrisoned the Tower, from -which Gloucester on his return found himself excluded. This -produced an open quarrel and an appeal to arms, only repressed -by the intervention of the Prince of Portugal, at that time in England. -There was one man only who could decide this quarrel, and that was -the Duke of Bedford, who on coming to England would at once -become the constitutional Regent. He found it therefore necessary to -leave France, where he was much wanted, and to return to England. -He contrived to bring about a reconciliation, at a Parliament held at -Leicester. The Bishop of Winchester, from patriotic motives, resigned -his chancellorship, and got leave to absent himself from England -to go on a pilgrimage. At the same time, the Parliament defined -as before the power of Gloucester, establishing the practical supremacy -of the Council. This definition Bedford accepted. Eventually, -though much against his will, Gloucester was induced to do so also; -but his real view was expressed in the words attributed to him, -“<span lang="enm" xml:lang="enm">Lat my brother governe as hym lust, whiles he is in this lande, for -after his going overe to Fraunce, I wol governe as me semethe goode.</span>”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> -It was plain that the views of Bedford and Gloucester as to the -government of England were very different. Nor had Bedford long -left England to return to France when his brother gave rise to a -fresh scandal. He had already forgotten Jacqueline, and even -while getting supplies from the Commons, with whom he -was very popular, for the purpose of upholding her -cause, had married his former mistress Eleanor Cobham.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Bedford again -secures -Burgundy,</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">and attacks -Orleans.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of the -Herrings.</div> -</div> - -<p>On his return to France, the Duke of Bedford found that his -brother’s conduct had increased his difficulties. Richemont, the -brother of the Duke of Brittany, had been won to the French side, -and received the rank of Constable, vacant by the death of Buchan, -and was now using all his influence to induce his brother-in-law -Burgundy to follow his example. Bedford’s presence -for the moment improved the position of the English. -He contrived to renew an alliance with both Burgundy -and Brittany, and was thus secured upon either side of -Normandy. Encouraged by this success, the English generals were -eager to press forward beyond the Loire, which had hitherto been the -limit of their conquests. It seems probable that Bedford, with a -clearer view of the difficulties of his position, would have been well -content to have carried out the wishes of his brother Henry by -securing Normandy. He, however, yielded to the pressure brought -to bear upon him, and in October, the siege of Orleans, situated on -the northernmost angle of the river Loire, and from its -position holding command of that river, was undertaken. -The town itself stands upon the northern bank, but is connected -with a southern suburb, the Portereau, by a bridge, terminating in a -strong castle called Les Tournelles. The siege was intrusted to -Salisbury,<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> who began the attack upon the southern side. He -established his troops in a fortified camp in the ruins of a monastery -of Augustinians, and before long succeeded in capturing Les Tournelles, -and breaking the bridge. He was unfortunately killed, while -examining the country from that fortress, with a view to further investment -of the town. The command devolved upon the Earl of -Suffolk, who succeeded before the close of the year in erecting a -string of thirteen strongholds, called bastides, round the Northern -city. But the weather and want of resources compelled him to put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> -these too far apart, and the intercourse of the defenders with an army -of relief under the Count of Clermont at Blois was not broken off. -Early in the following year, this army hoped to raise the siege by -falling on a large body of provisions coming to the besiegers from -Paris under Sir John Fastolf. The attack was made at -Rouvray, but Fastolf had made careful preparations. -The waggons were arranged in a square, and, with the stakes of the -archers, formed a fortification on which the disorderly attack of the -French made but little impression. Broken in the assault, they fell -an easy prey to the English, as they advanced beyond their lines. -The skirmish is known by the name of the Battle of the Herrings. -This victory, which deprived the besieged of hope of external succour, -seemed to render the capture of the city certain.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Danger of -Orleans.</div> - -<p>Already at the French King’s court at Chinon there was talk of a -hasty withdrawal to Dauphiné, Spain, or even Scotland; -when suddenly there arose one of those strange effects -of enthusiasm which sometimes set all calculation at defiance.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Joan of Arc.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Causes of her -success.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The siege is -raised. -May 8.</div> -</div> - -<p>In Domrémi, a village belonging to the duchy of Bar, the inhabitants -of which, though in the midst of Lorraine, a province under -Burgundian influence, were of patriotic views, lived a village maiden -called Joan of Arc. The period was one of great mental excitement; -as in other times of wide prevailing misery, prophecies and mystical -preachings were current. Joan of Arc’s mind was particularly -susceptible to such influences, and from the time she -was thirteen years old, she had fancied that she heard -voices, and had even seen forms, sometimes of the Archangel Michael, -sometimes of St. Catherine and St. Margaret, who called her to -the assistance of the Dauphin. She persuaded herself that she was destined -to fulfil an old prophecy which said that the kingdom, destroyed -by a woman—meaning, as she thought, Queen Isabella,—should be -saved by a maiden of Lorraine. The burning of Domrémi in the -summer of 1428 by a troop of Burgundians at length gave a practical -form to her imaginations, and early in the following year she succeeded -in persuading Robert of Baudricourt to send her, armed and -accompanied by a herald, to Chinon. She there, as it is said by the -wonderful knowledge she displayed, convinced the court of the truth -of her mission. At all events, it was thought wise to take advantage -of the infectious enthusiasm she displayed, and in April she was -intrusted with an army of 6000 or 7000 men, which was to march up -the river from Blois to the relief of Orleans. When she appeared -upon the scene of war, she supplied exactly that element of success<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a><br /><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> -which the French required. Already long and bitter experience had -taught them the art of war. They were commanded no longer by -favourites of the Court, but by professional soldiers, such as Dunois, -the Bastard of Orleans, La Hire and Saintrailles; and the cause of -their weakness was the deep-rooted immorality both of public and -private life, which the disastrous party struggles of the last reign had -produced. A national instead of a party cry, strict -morality enforced by a Heaven-sent virgin, and the enthusiasm -of religion, were well calculated to remove this cause of weakness. -It is to this combination of experience with enthusiasm that -the success of the French henceforward must be traced. Aided by -the skill of Dunois, Joan succeeded in entering Orleans by water, -while her army the day after marched in unopposed upon the northern -side. After various attacks upon the Bastides, she at length, on -the 6th and 7th of May, attacked the lines upon the south of the -river. The camp in the Augustinian monastery was captured, and -after a fierce assault the Tower of the Tournelles fell into the hands -of the French, Gladsdale, the commander on the left bank, being -killed. The effect of her uniform success, and the superstitious dread -she inspired, is shown by the fact that three such -generals as Suffolk, Talbot and Fastolf, who commanded -on the northern side of the river, took no steps to -assist their distressed comrades, and on the following day raised the -siege.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_309.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> -ORLEANS<br /> -1429 -</div> -</div> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">March to -Rheims to -crown the -Dauphin,</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">and unsuccessful -attack on -Paris.</div> -</div> - -<p>The release of Orleans was quickly followed up. The English -were hotly pressed. In June, Jargeau on the Loire was taken, and -Suffolk with it; while on the 18th of the same month, Talbot and -Fastolf suffered a thorough defeat at Pataye, while attempting to -save other fortresses lower down the river. Joan of Arc had set -herself two great duties to perform—the relief of Orleans, and -the coronation of the Dauphin at Rheims. To this second duty she -now addressed herself. Her difficulties arose chiefly from the folly -of the Dauphin, who was under the influence of his favourite, La -Tremouille, a strong Armagnac, whose object it was to prevent his -master from entering upon an independent course of action. These -difficulties were at length overcome. At the head of a -small army, Charles and the Maid of Orleans marched -successfully into the heart of their enemy’s country, securing -either by force or by negotiation the strong cities on the way. At -Rheims the coronation was completed, and thence the French generals -directed their march on Paris at the persuasion of Joan. But there,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> -while Joan had been overcoming the reluctance of the French Prince, -Bedford had assembled an army of sufficient strength to resist them. -He had summoned to his aid the Bishop of Winchester, who had -returned from his pilgrimage to Rome with instructions to collect -troops to assist the Emperor Sigismund against the heretic Hussites -of Bohemia. With this little army he now joined his nephew; and -Bedford, alarmed by the rapid defection of great towns such as Blois, -Beauvais and Compiègne, determined, if possible, to destroy the superstitious -confidence of the French by a successful battle. In this <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'he was disappoined'">he -was disappointed</ins>, for, after an indecisive skirmish near -Senlis, he was compelled to fall back to cover Paris. For -the present, however, this formed the limit of the French -successes. A fruitless attack on the city, in which the Maid was -wounded, caused timid counsels to prevail, and the army withdrew -behind the Loire.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Capture of -Joan of Arc. -1430.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Coronation of -King Henry.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Joan’s death. -1431.</div> -</div> - -<p>The winter was employed by Bedford in continued efforts to retain -the friendship of the Duke of Burgundy; and the united armies of -Burgundy and England were attempting to regain Compiègne, when -in March Joan of Arc again took the field. She succeeded in passing -through the two armies, and in entering the city, but -was surprised during a sally and taken prisoner. Her -capture gave the English hopes that they might still -retain their conquests, as the sluggish and vacillating character of -the French King was well known. Bedford set to work to do all he -could to regain the prestige he had lost the preceding year. Shortly -after the coronation of Rheims, he had caused King -Henry to be crowned at Westminster, and with his -brother Gloucester had retired from his official situation. He now -determined to have the coronation repeated in France. Henry was -brought over for that purpose, but it was found impossible to crown -him at Rheims, now completely in the hands of the French. Bedford -had to content himself with a coronation at Paris. Meanwhile -the unfortunate prisoner had been given up to be tried as a -sorceress. She was found guilty, and handed over to the secular arm: -for a moment she was induced to confess herself guilty, abjuring the -truth of her Divine calling; her resumption of arms -in the prison was regarded as a relapse into heresy: she -was therefore burnt at Rouen. The strangely superstitious character -of the age, and the devout belief which existed in sorcery, cannot -excuse what was, in fact, an act of base revenge.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Increasing -difficulties of -the English. -1432.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Conduct of -Gloucester.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Bedford -re-marries. -Second blow to -the Burgundian -alliance.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Formation of -peace and war -parties.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Great peace -congress at -Arras. -1435.</div> -</div> - -<p>From this time onwards the fortunes of England declined. Difficulties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> -accumulated on all sides. The long war had caused such -a drain on the finances, that the payment of the troops had already -been lowered, and a dangerous mutiny had broken out -at Calais. At the same time, Gloucester’s meddlesome -and overbearing character perpetually kept the Government -at home in disturbance. In 1428, an attack was made on the -Bishop of Winchester. He had returned from Rome a Cardinal, and -with the rank of Papal Legate for the purpose of collecting troops -against the Hussites. His authority thus clashed with that of the -Archbishop of Canterbury, who was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex officio</i> Legate when no one else -was specially appointed to that office. Displeased at being superseded, -Chicheley joined with Gloucester, and suggested that Winchester, by -becoming Legate without royal permission, had incurred the penalties -of præmunire. Winchester was therefore excluded from the Council, -and from the Chapter of the Garter, of which he was the Prelate, held -in 1429. His place in the Council was restored to him in gratitude -for his conduct in the following year, when he lent troops to Bedford -after the relief of Orleans. Nevertheless, during his absence in 1431, -he was asked to resign his bishopric, as being the officer of a foreign -power, and Gloucester brought formal charges against him, and caused -the writ of præmunire to be actually prepared. The execution of the -writ was postponed till the King’s return, when Beaufort was allowed -to clear himself, and a declaration vouching for his loyalty given him -under the Great Seal. While thus attacking the Cardinal, Gloucester -had been attempting to increase his popularity, already -very great, by assuming the position of champion of the -Church, and persecutor of heresy. In 1430, a man calling himself Jack -Sharpe had been put to death at Oxford, and a clergyman of Essex -had also been burnt. But there was evidently still existing a strong -undercurrent of Lollardism; for the people came in crowds to the -place of execution, and made offerings as though the victim of persecution -had been a saint. But even worse for Bedford than these troubles -at home was the loss of his wife, who died in November 1432, childless, -thus breaking the strongest link which had hitherto bound England -and Burgundy together. This misfortune was made worse by -one of the few acts of indiscretion which can be alleged against -Bedford. He married Jacquetta, daughter of the Count of Saint-Pol, -of the House of Luxembourg, a marriage in itself -politic enough, but which, contracted as it was without -the permission of Burgundy, the lady’s feudal superior, -caused a quarrel between the two Dukes. This was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> -second heavy blow which the alliance between England and Burgundy -had received. Yet this alliance was absolutely necessary for -the successful carrying on of the war. It began to be a question -whether peace of some sort was not becoming necessary. Bedford -even in the year 1431 received leave from the English Parliament to -treat. Abroad the feeling in favour of peace was still stronger. Pope -Eugenius IV. had set seriously to work to put an end to the warfare. -The Emperor Sigismund, with Frederick of Austria and Louis of -Orange, alarmed at the rising power of the Burgundian House, had -made offers of assistance to the French King. The Bretons, headed -by the Count of Richemont, were anxious to renew their natural alliance -with France. Burgundy himself, in 1432, had gone so far as to -make an armistice with the French; the presence at the French Court -of La Tremouille, one of the murderers of the Duke’s father and the -constant supporter of the war, seemed the only obstacle to reconciliation: -if that reconciliation were made Bedford must of necessity -make peace. Other difficulties were leading him in the same direction. -The finances were in the greatest disorder; the garrison of -Calais mutinied for pay. Bedford therefore, in 1433, returned to England -to see what could be done. He made Lord Ralph -Cromwell his treasurer, and intrusted him with the duty -of examining and making a statement as to the condition -of the finances. It became apparent that the yearly outgoing exceeded -the income by £25,000. Bedford at once insisted on economy, and -patriotically gave up a considerable portion of his own salaries. But -the discovery of his failing resources, the necessity for his presence in -England, where Lords and Commons united in intreating him to remain, -the increase of the power of France, and the constant danger of reconciliation -between Charles and Burgundy, induced him to be quite -ready to make arrangements for a peace on honourable terms which -should include the possession of Normandy. Such views did not -suit Gloucester. He put himself prominently forward as the head of -the war party, producing a great but impracticable plan for pressing -the war with vigour. Bedford’s residence in England was short. -During his absence all went wrong; St. Denis was lost, and the Earl -of Arundel taken prisoner. He was forced to return to France, and -to leave the parties in England (now clearly defined as peace and war -parties) to carry on their quarrels. But the general feeling for the -necessity of peace, and for the release from their long imprisonment -of the captives taken at Agincourt, gained ground abroad. So -much was this the case, that Burgundy found means to assemble<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> -on the 14th of July what may be fairly called a European congress, -at Arras, to settle if possible the peace of Europe. -Thither came ambassadors from the Council of Bâle, (at -that time sitting,) the Legate of the Pope, and ministers -from the Emperor, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, Naples, -Sicily, Poland, Denmark, the Parisian University, and the great commercial -towns of the Hansa and of Flanders. Archbishop John of York -at first represented England. The Duke of Bourbon, who had already -entered into agreement with Burgundy, represented France. Even on -their first appearance, the English ambassadors were displeased with -the precedence given to the French. The rival demands were these:—France -wished either for a peace with Burgundy, and the continuation -of the war with England, or if there was a cessation of that war, -that the peace should be unconditional, with the restoration of all -prisoners and all conquests, the three Norman bishoprics alone being -left to the English, and those only as fiefs of the French crown; the -English demanded the retention of their present possessions and an -armistice. The pretensions of the two nations were evidently incompatible; -even Cardinal Beaufort, who had joined the congress, was -afraid of the war party at home, and on the 6th of September the -English embassy withdrew.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Bedford’s death. -Consequent -defection of -Burgundy.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Obstinacy of the -war party.</div> -</div> - -<p>At this inopportune moment an event happened which settled the -wavering mind of Burgundy, and induced him to make -a full reconciliation with the French. This event was -the death of the Duke of Bedford. There was no one to -fill the place of that great man. It had been his personal influence -more than anything else which had kept Burgundy true to England. -On his death the Duke at once declared himself ready to receive -the terms which France offered. These were humiliating enough. -Charles apologized for the death of Duke John, declared that he held -the act in abhorrence, that he had been brought to consent to it by -the advice of wicked ministers, and would henceforward exclude all -Armagnacs from his council. At the same time he granted to Burgundy, -Macon and Auxerre, together with the basin of the Somme, -or Ponthieu. At first, news of this treaty served only to arouse the -warlike feeling of the English. The appearance of the -Burgundian envoy in London was the signal for violent -riots. It was determined to prosecute the war with vigour. A great -loan was raised throughout the country, and the prosecution intrusted -to the young Duke of York. It was not to be expected that -this young prince, however great his ability, could do what Bedford<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> -had been unable to accomplish. United with Burgundy, England -had scarcely held its position in France. Against France and Burgundy -united, it was helpless.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Continued ill -success. -1437.</div> - -<p>Already before York’s arrival a great piece of Normandy, and even -Harfleur, had been lost. In April the French King, with Burgundy, -advanced on Paris, and was admitted by the townspeople. The war -party grew only more obstinate. Gloucester revived his absurd -claims upon Flanders in right of Jacqueline, and assumed the title of -Count of Flanders. York and Talbot succeeded in driving back the -Burgundians from Calais; but this was almost the only English -success. In July 1437, York was recalled, and Beauchamp, -Earl of Warwick,<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> appointed in his place. But -it was too late for any one to check the advance of the -French. That country was indeed exhausted and miserable to the -last degree; but England was in little better plight. For several -years the plague had been raging, and an unusually bad harvest -added to the horrors of disease. Bread there was none, the people -were reduced to live on pulse.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Danger from -Scotland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">James’s death.</div> -</div> - -<p>Moreover, the English forces were divided by the threatening -aspect of affairs in Scotland. The young King had done his best -to keep his promise of peace, but found it impossible to -break off the long-standing connection with France. -In 1428, his daughter Margaret had been betrothed to Charles VII.’s -son, Louis of Anjou. This had excited the fears of the English, and -in the following year, the Bishop of Winchester, under the plea of -collecting help for his proposed crusade against the Hussites, had -visited Edinburgh. A marriage treaty had even been proposed -between the two countries, but it came to nothing, and a vigorous -diplomatic struggle was still being carried on between the rival -parties of France and England, when, in 1434, the folly of Sir Robert -Ogle, who led a raid into the Scotch Lowlands, turned the scale in -favour of the French. The marriage between Margaret and Louis of -Anjou was at once carried out, and, in 1436, an army, with King -James at its head, attacked Roxburgh. Fortunately for England, the -Scotch King, bred at the Court of Henry V., and eager -to introduce into his own kingdom the orderly constitution -he had known in England, had excited the anger of his -nobles. News of a conspiracy reached him, and he withdrew from -his invasion only to fall a victim to that conspiracy in the following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> -year. Weakened by these domestic confusions, Scotland was content -to enter into a truce for ten years.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Peace party -procure the -liberation of -Orleans. -1440.</div> - -<p>Neither the suffering of the people, nor the danger from Scotland, -nor the constant want of success abroad, had any influence on the -passionate obstinacy of Gloucester. Meetings with regard -to peace were in vain held at Paris, the English refused -to recede from their demands. At length, however, -Cardinal Beaufort and the peace party so far prevailed, -that, after the fall of Meaux, they procured the liberation of the -Duke of Orleans, hoping to find in him an efficient mediator. As a -protest against the measure, while the Duke was taking the oaths -required of him before his liberation, Gloucester, refusing to be -present, betook himself to his barge and remained upon the river. -The measure did not produce the desired effect. The Duke of Warwick -had died in May 1439. Somerset, who had succeeded him, retook -Harfleur, but, in the two following years, not only did the French -successes increase in Normandy, even Guienne was in its turn -assaulted. All efforts to save it were in vain, and it became quite -evident that the policy of peace was the only one which could -extricate England with honour from its disastrous situation.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Peace becomes -necessary. Rise -of Suffolk.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Marriage of -Henry with -Margaret of -Anjou.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Pre-eminence of -Suffolk.</div> -</div> - -<p>The death of Bedford had left Cardinal Beaufort at the head of the -party who desired a reasonable peace. But Beaufort was -old, and the influence of Gloucester, as first Prince of -the blood and the leader of the popular party, kept him -much aloof from public business. In his place there arose a new -minister, De la Pole, Earl of Suffolk. This man, a descendant of a -wealthy merchant in the reign of Edward III., and grandson of the -favourite of Richard II., was fully engaged upon the side of -the Lancastrian dynasty. He had been taken prisoner after the -siege of Orleans, and had in France formed connections which pointed -him out as a fitting person to manage negotiations with that country. -It was determined, if possible, to make the marriage of the young -King with a French Princess the basis of a peace. -The Princess fixed on was Margaret, the daughter -of Réné, Duke of Bar, representative of the Angevin -house, the titular King of Sicily and of Jerusalem.<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> Suffolk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> -undertook to manage the delicate negotiation, although conscious, -it would seem, of the obloquy he would probably meet with. -He succeeded in obtaining an armistice to extend from June -1444 till April 1446, and the marriage treaty was completed; but -so far from receiving a dower with his wife, as might have been -expected, (but which her father, who had surrendered his duchy to the -Duke of Burgundy, was quite unable to give,) it was arranged that -Henry should surrender to the French, as the price of their consent, -all that was left to the English of Anjou and Maine, where the war was -still being carried on. In carrying out this arrangement, Suffolk had -the consent of the Privy Council, but it is probable that they did not -contemplate so complete a cession of English rights. -His successful return secured him the title of Marquis, -and the friendship of the young Queen (whose masculine mind soon -got entire command of her husband’s will), and enabled him to hold -a position of complete superiority in the English councils.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Gloucester’s -death.</div> - -<p>Alliance with the French, on the somewhat disgraceful terms on -which it had been contracted, not unnaturally raised the anger of -Gloucester and his party. The rivalry grew hot between him and -Suffolk. There were probably private causes of trouble between them, -but at all events, in 1447, the Parliament was held at Bury St. Edmunds, -and Gloucester was summoned thither. He went with a considerable -following, but does not seem to have suspected danger, although he -found the town fortified, and the guards everywhere doubled. He -was suddenly apprehended on the charge of high treason, and before -any trial was granted him, the public were told that he -was dead. A death so opportune for his enemies naturally -excited suspicion, and the most sinister rumours of foul play -were spread among the people. It is impossible not to join in these -suspicions; at the same time it is fair to notice that at a late examination -his physician had declared his constitution radically unsound, -and that some contemporary writers mention his death as having -arisen from natural causes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">York takes his -place.</div> - -<p>His death left room for Richard Duke of York’s appearance upon -the stage of politics. The son of Anne, sister of the -Earl of March, and of that Duke of Cambridge who was -put to death for his share in the conspiracy immediately preceding -Henry V.’s first expedition to France, he stepped naturally into the -place of leader of the Plantagenet Princes. Ever since that family -ascended the throne, those branches of it which had not been actually -reigning had been for the most part in opposition. Till their accession,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> -the Lancastrians had been the leaders of this party; their place was -now taken first by Gloucester, then by York. It will be seen in the -sequel that those same families which had formed the discontented party -in the reign of Richard II., and in opposition to the Lancastrians, now -sided chiefly with York. He had been already employed in public -affairs, had been twice governor of Normandy, and in that capacity -had quarrelled with the Duke of Somerset, who had been joined with -him in command. To rid himself of so important an enemy, Suffolk, -the leading statesman of the ruling party, had got him appointed in -1446 to the government of Ireland. This was a post of considerable -difficulty; for under the management of the Earls of Ormond, one of -the old Anglo-Irish settlers, that country had fallen into great disorder.<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Absolute -ministry of -Suffolk.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His unpopularity.</div> -</div> - -<p>After Gloucester’s death Suffolk had become unquestioned chief -Minister, for Cardinal Beaufort had not long survived -his nephew. He took upon himself all the unpopularity -which the Lancastrian dynasty had latterly earned. -It is plain that among the people there was deep-seated discontent. -The persecution of the Lollards had never relented. Frequent executions -are recorded for heresy. The support the Lancastrians had -constantly given to the Church had even produced several outbreaks. -In 1438, and again in 1443, there had been uproars in several parts -of England, directed against the Catholic ecclesiastical foundations. -Nor was this unnatural. Amidst the misery and desolation caused -by repeated plagues and famines, and the expenditure -both of men and money incident upon a foreign war, -the Church alone, represented by the wealthy Cardinal Beaufort, had -retained its prosperity; while, to crown all, national honour had been -deeply wounded by want of success in France. To this inherited -unpopularity, Suffolk added that which arose from the late dishonourable -marriage treaty with France. Instead of attempting to -lessen the feeling against him, he followed the common course of -upstart ministers. The Princes and great nobles found themselves -excluded from the Council. His ministers were chiefly bishops, -especially Ascough, Bishop of Salisbury, and De Moleyns, Bishop of -Chichester, and men of little eminence, as Lord Say. His government -in fact resembled that of Bernard of Armagnac in France, and took -that particularly objectionable form, the superiority of the lesser nobles.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Renewal of -the war.</div> - -<p>His foreign policy, too, was eminently unsuccessful. At the close -of the truce, in 1446, he had not secured any permanent -peace; and early in 1448, an ill-judged outbreak of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> -English auxiliaries, who captured the town of Fougères, again plunged -England into war. John, Duke of Somerset, perhaps in despair at -his ill success, had killed himself. His brother Edmund succeeded -to his title and position in France. His opposition to the French, -who attacked him in great force, was entirely unavailing, and before -the year was over Rouen and a large part of Normandy had been -regained by the French. In May an armament under Sir Thomas -Kyriel had been defeated near Formigny; in July Caen surrendered; -and in August the last remnants of the English army returned to -England from Cherbourg. In the following year a last effort was -made to retain some position in Guienne with equally bad success.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Fall of Rouen. -1449.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Popular outbreak -against -Suffolk.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Murder of -Suffolk.</div> -</div> - -<p>The loss of Rouen, in 1449, brought the anger of the people to its -highest point. In an uproar they put to death De -Moleyns, Bishop of Chichester, at Portsmouth; and at -length the House of Commons, led by Tresham their speaker, insisted -upon the apprehension of Suffolk, who had now become a -Duke, upon a charge of treason. On the 7th of February -eight charges were brought against him of a somewhat -indefinite character, especially charging him with a wish -to marry his son John to Margaret Beaufort, thus aiming at the -kingdom, and with gross mismanagement and treachery in France. -These were followed by sixteen more specific charges, in which it was -asserted that he had appropriated and misused the royal revenues, -interfered with the course of justice, and treated treacherously with -the French. On the 13th he appeared before the King in the House -of Peers. He denied most of the charges, and excused himself on -others on the ground that he had acted with the approbation of the -Privy Council. He however, declining the privilege of his peerage -and trial by the House of Lords, threw himself entirely upon the -King’s mercy; and Henry, hoping to get over the difficulty without -giving up his friend, without a trial banished him for five years. -This was a manifest breach of the Constitution, and served only to -increase the general discontent. The Duke escaped privately to his -own estates, and took sea at Ipswich, but was met by an English -squadron, taken on board the largest ship, the “Nicholas of the Tower,” -and after a sham trial by the seamen, obliged to enter a little boat. -He was there beheaded, with a sort of parody of the -usual forms of execution. It is pretty evident that -behind the popular anger there was the influence of the Duke of -York and other noblemen at work.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Jack Cade.</div> - -<p>At the next Parliament, which was held at Leicester, many of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> -nobles appeared in arms. At the same time the news of the defeat of -Kyriel at Formigny arrived; and at once the men of Kent, who were -probably in close alliance with the seamen who had executed Suffolk, -rose. Their leader was Jack Cade. He led the insurgents -under strict discipline towards London, assuming -the name of Mortimer, and we cannot but believe with the knowledge -of the Duke of York. Two papers were sent in to the Government; -one called the Complaints, the other the Demands, of the Commons of -Kent. In these were summed up the causes of the unpopularity of -Suffolk; and the restoration of Richard of York to favour was -demanded. Unable to hold their advanced position, the insurgents -fell back to Sevenoaks, but there they were successful against a hasty -attack by Sir Humphrey Stafford.<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> The King retired from London, -and so far yielded as to order the apprehension of Lord Say, one of -the obnoxious councillors. Cade then advanced, took possession of -Southwark, and appeared in London, under the title of the Captain of -Kent, and in the arms of Stafford. The burghers of London, full of -sympathy for the demands of the Kentish men, and pleased with the -strict discipline preserved, sided at first with the insurgents. At a -formal trial presided over by the Lord Mayor, Say, who had fallen -into the hands of the people, was condemned and immediately -executed. Meanwhile, almost at the same time, Ascough, the obnoxious -Bishop of Salisbury, was put to death by his own followers at -Eddington. Thus all the obnoxious ministers had been got rid of. -London was now in the hands of the populace. The temptation was -too strong for them, and some plundering took place. On this the -Londoners took fright, and, when the insurgents retired for the night -to Southwark, broke down and defended the bridge. Cade, unable -to regain London, fell back, and after his followers, deceived by a -promise of general pardon, had chiefly dispersed, was pursued and put -to death near Lewes by Iden the sheriff.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Continued -discontent.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">York’s appearance -in arms. -1452.</div> -</div> - -<p>The disaffection was by no means quieted. Complaints were bitter, -that by repeated prorogations of Parliament supplies were -obtained without any redress of grievances, and that the -bishops and clergy sided with the oppressors. While public feeling was -in this irritable condition, York, suddenly leaving his -government of Ireland without leave, appeared on the -Welsh border with 4000 of his vassals. In this threatening<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> -manner, and accompanied by the Duke of Norfolk, the Earls of -Devonshire and Salisbury, the whole clan of the Nevilles, and the Lords -Cromwell<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> and Cobham, he appeared at Westminster. Meanwhile, -Somerset, the acknowledged head of the rival party, returned from -France, and received the office of Constable. The parties were assuming -form, and a crisis was evidently at hand. York made a formal -demand for the dismissal of Somerset and the punishment of the -Duchess of Suffolk. As yet, however, the Government was strong -enough to refuse these demands, and during the whole of the year -1451, without any public acts, the quarrel was becoming more embittered. -In Devonshire Lord Bonville was at open war with the -Earl of Devonshire. In the North, Percy, Lord Egremont, was fighting -with the Earl of Salisbury. And in the winter, the Welsh vassals -of York were gathered round the castle of Ludlow. Hitherto York -and his partisans had persistently declared themselves the faithful -servants of the Crown, interested only in the removal of the King’s -bad ministers. None the less, in the beginning of the year 1452, -Somerset and the King marched into the West, where York had been -collecting his vassals, while York, moving in the opposite direction, -passed the royal troops, and appeared in Kent, where he felt sure of -support.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">He is duped into -submission.</div> - -<p>This summoned the King back towards London; he took up his -position at Blackheath, and there received the demands -of York, to which he consented, promising to imprison -Somerset, and to form a new council. Trusting to this promise, York -disbanded his army, and went to have an interview with the King. -He there discovered, to his dismay, that he had been deceived. His -rival was in the tent, and evidently still in favour. Hot words were -exchanged, but ultimately York was compelled to renew his oath of -loyalty, and the Somerset party for the instant triumphed. The next -Parliament was strongly in their favour; the speaker, Thomas -Thorpe, a strong partisan of the Lancastrians. The King’s half-brothers, -the sons of Owen Tudor, (Edmund, Earl of Richmond, and -Jasper, Earl of Pembroke,) were brought prominently forward as -members of the royal house, and Cardinal Kemp, now Archbishop of -Canterbury and Chancellor, declared that the Government would -enforce peace by arms if necessary.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Imbecility of -the King. -Prince of Wales -born. -1454.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">York’s first -Protectorate.</div> -</div> - -<p>This triumph was of short duration. News arrived of the failure of -the new expedition for the rescue of Guienne, and of the death of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> -Talbot, Lord Shrewsbury, its leader, at Castillon. And worse than -that, the King, who had all his life suffered both from -bodily and intellectual weakness, fell into a condition of -hopeless imbecility. Under these circumstances, the -birth of a Prince called Edward, which might have -added to the strength of the Lancastrian party, was but a source of -weakness. York, as heir presumptive to the throne of a sickly -monarch, might have been contented to wait; the birth of a new -heir apparent urged him to do what he had to do quickly. The -opportunity, too, now offered itself; during the imbecility of the -King, some regent was wanted; there was no excuse for -passing over York. An instant change of government -was the consequence. Somerset was apprehended. Even the Parliament -chosen under the Lancastrian influence could not refuse, after -it had obtained proof of Henry’s folly, to appoint Richard. The -amount of authority given him seems to have been exactly that which -Gloucester had enjoyed. He was President of the Council, and chief -executive officer. His office was terminable at the royal will. -Though thus limited, his power was sufficient to enable him to -change the constitution of the Council, to carry through a breach of -Parliamentary privilege by imprisoning for a debt Thorpe the speaker, -and on the death of Cardinal Kemp, to appoint his brother-in-law -Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, to the chancellorship.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Recovery of -the King. -1454.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">York again -appears In arms.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">First battle of -St. Albans. -May 22, 1455.</div> -</div> - -<p>But the supremacy of York disappeared as suddenly as it had -arisen. At the end of 1454, on Christmas Day, the King recovered -his senses. Everything was immediately reversed. Somerset was -taken from the Tower and declared innocent. York’s -officers were displaced. True to the policy of his house, -Henry restored the chancellorship to the Church by the -appointment of Thomas Bouchier, Archbishop of Canterbury. But -York had now determined upon an appeal to arms. Urged by fear -of Somerset, and by dislike to the secondary position which the -Prince’s birth had given him, and in company with the Nevilles, Lord -Salisbury, and his son the Earl of Warwick, he advanced -towards London, to forestall the action of the -Parliament summoned to meet at Leicester, which he expected to be -hostile to him. At the same time the royal troops were marching -northward. The two forces consequently met. From Royston, York -wrote a letter still declaring his loyalty, and stating his conditions. -It was unanswered, and on the 21st of May the armies met at St. -Albans. The King had with him the Dukes of Somerset and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> -Buckingham, the Earls of Northumberland, Pembroke, Devonshire, -Stafford, Dorset, Wiltshire, Clifford, and Sudely. The -battle was fought in the town, and the victory, chiefly -owing to Warwick, fell to the Duke of York. Somerset, -Northumberland, and Clifford fell. Most of the other leaders were -wounded, and the King himself was suffering from an arrow wound -when York and the Nevilles came to him, knelt before him, begged -his favour, and carried him with them in apparent harmony to London.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Character of the -two parties.</div> - -<p>On examining the chief names which occur as those of the leaders -on either side in this the first battle of the Wars of the Roses, it -will be seen that it was the Nevilles and Norfolk -chiefly on whom York relied; his own relations, the -Percies, and other gentlemen of the North, which constituted the -strength of Henry’s party. There seem to have been three principles -of division at work—family, geographical position, political views; -and with regard to family, it would seem that the quarrel was one of -very long standing, dating back as far as the reign of Richard II. It -has been already pointed out that there was constantly some branch -or other of the Plantagenet party in opposition to the reigning branch, -which took for its cry reform of government and the good cause of -England. In Richard II.’s reign Gloucester had represented this -party. If we take the names of the Lords Appellant in the year -1387, we find them to be Gloucester and Derby, Plantagenets; -Warwick, a Beauchamp; Nottingham, a Mowbray; and Arundel. -Now, of these, the second, Derby, became afterwards King as Henry -IV., and the opposition which he had at one time helped to direct -was turned against himself and his family. The families of Mowbray -and of Arundel had coalesced in the Duke of Norfolk. The heiress -of the Beauchamps had married the Earl of Salisbury’s son Richard -Neville, who with his wife had inherited the title of Warwick. -The addition therefore to the party was that of the important family -of the Nevilles, which had been consistently faithful to Henry IV. -But this family had now become allied by marriage with the Duke -of York himself (who had married Cecily Neville), with the Duke of -Norfolk, and as we have seen with the family of Beauchamp. In -addition to this, the fact that the rival house of the Percies had since -the restoration of the son of Hotspur been firm supporters of the -Lancastrian dynasty, would have been enough to put the Nevilles on -the opposite side. The two families had ever been rivals for the -chief influence in the North of England; and even now Lord Egremont, -a Percy, was at open war with the Earl of Salisbury in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> -neighbourhood of York. Of the leaders appearing on the side of -Henry, Northumberland was a Percy, and therefore enemy of the -Nevilles; Somerset was a Beaufort, and of the Lancastrian house; -Pembroke and Richmond were the King’s half-brothers; Clifford -was one of the great lords of the North, and an opponent of the -Nevilles; Wiltshire was James Butler of Ormond, of that family -whose misgovernment York had been sent to cure. Of Buckingham -and the Staffords, whose mother was a Plantagenet, it may be supposed -that in the family quarrel they preferred the reigning house.</p> - -<p>This seems to lead to the conclusion that in the main the war was -a fight of faction, a tissue of hereditary family rivalries resting upon -merely personal grounds. But beyond these there were geographical -and political reasons which had their influence on the bulk of the -nation. The demand for reform of government, the support given to -the national prejudice in favour of continued war, and the opposition -to the strong Church views of the Government, had rendered the party -of York distinctly the popular one. The North of England was -always more subject than the South to baronial influence. It was in -the South therefore, in Kent, and in the trading cities, that the -strength of the Yorkist party chiefly lay. To this of course must be -added the very large estates held by York himself, as the heir of the -Mortimers in the West; and the vast property of the various branches -of the Nevilles. On the other hand, the Lancastrian party was that -of the lower nobility, and of the Church, and found its strength in -the baronial North. Politically, to speak broadly, it was the party of -the Conservative gentry and the High Church, pitted against the -party of reform of Church and State headed by a few great nobles; -geographically, it was the North withstanding the attacks of the South.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">York’s second -brief Protectorate. -1456.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">With the -Nevilles he -retires from -Court.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Hollow -reconciliation -of parties. -1458.</div> -</div> - -<p>One effect of the battle of St. Albans was, that the King again sank -into lethargy. Again, for a brief space, was the power of York -irresistible; he was appointed by the Lords to his old -position of Protector. He was still careful not to speak -of his claim to the crown, and accepted the Protectorate -only as the gift of both Houses of Parliament. Again, however, the -King suddenly recovered. In February, York was removed from -his protectorate, and the Queen and Somerset were again ruling. -The following year, a great meeting of the Council was held at -Coventry, where York and his friends were again compelled to renew -their fealty. But the loss of life at St. Albans had rendered the party -feud much more violent, and York was induced to believe that the -Queen had aims against his life. He and his friends at once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> -separated; York to his western castle of Wigmore, Salisbury to -Middleham in Yorkshire, Warwick to Calais, of which -town he was the governor. Whatever influence the -King had seems to have been directed to produce reconciliation. -For this purpose he induced, in January, the rival chiefs to -meet in London. The peace of the town was intrusted to the citizens, -and a solemn reconciliation brought about, based upon -money payments to be made by the Yorkists to the -sufferers at St. Albans. Meanwhile, Warwick, a lawless -and independent person, was living as a sort of authorized pirate at -Calais. He attacked a fleet of ships, as he believed Spanish; they -afterwards proved to be Hanseatic vessels. He was consequently -summoned to Court to explain his conduct. There a quarrel arose -between his servants and those of the King, and at once the ephemeral -reconciliation was destroyed.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Renewed -hostilities. -Battle of -Blore Heath. -Sept. 23, 1459.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Flight of the -Yorkists from -Ludlow.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Lancastrian -Parliament at -Coventry.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Fresh attack of -the Yorkists. -Battle of -Northampton. -July 10, 1460.</div> -</div> - -<p>Both parties prepared again for war. The Court having been -told that Salisbury was going to Kenilworth to concert measures -with Duke Richard, Lord Audley was sent with an armed force -to intercept him. The consequence was the battle of -Blore Heath on the confines of Shropshire, in which -Salisbury was completely victorious. A general meeting -of the three great Yorkist nobles took place at Ludlow, where -Warwick brought his veterans from Calais, under Sir Andrew -Trollope. Again the old proclamation against evil governors was -issued; but for some unexplained reason Trollope suddenly deserted, -and, deprived of their most trustworthy troops, the leaders thought -it wise to fly. York took refuge in Ireland, with his son -Edmund of Rutland, while his eldest son, Edward of -March, with Warwick, found security in Calais. Their -flight caused something like a revolution, so complete was the triumph -of the Lancastrians. The Parliament was assembled at Coventry, -probably with much illegal violence, and bills of attainder -were passed against the Yorkist leaders. But -Warwick was determined upon further action. Having -command of the sea, he contrived an interview with Richard in -Ireland, and accompanied by his father and the young Earl of March, -he landed in Kent, where he was rapidly joined by the people, and -appeared at the head of 30,000 men in London. Having -captured the capital, with the exception of the Tower, -which Lord Scales held, they advanced northwards. The -two armies met in the neighbourhood of Northampton.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> -The Lancastrians were strongly intrenched, but the intrenchment once -broken through, a terrible slaughter ensued. Buckingham, Shrewsbury, -Beaumont, and Egremont were slain. The wretched King was found -deserted in his tent. Again the scene after St. Albans was repeated, -and York, returning from Ireland, was once more master of affairs.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Yorkist -Parliament in -London.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">York at last -advances claims -to the throne.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Lords agree -on a compromise.</div> -</div> - -<p>On the 7th of October a Parliament was held in London. All the -acts of the Parliament of Coventry were annulled, on the ground -that its members had been illegally elected, and in some -instances that they had not been elected at all. And -then first did York, who appears to have thought that -all less decided measures had been tried in vain, bring forward a -distinct claim to the throne. This claim he sent in writing to the -House of Lords, with whom alone it was said the decision -could lie, pointing out, what was undeniable, that -his hereditary claim was better than that of Henry VI. -The majority of the Lords were at heart Lancastrian. They had, -moreover, again and again sworn fealty to the reigning house; and -to their common sense as proprietors it seemed ridiculous that an -undisturbed possession of more than fifty years, defended by numerous -Acts of Parliament, should be set aside by mere hereditary claim. -With the Yorkists triumphant, they were naturally disinclined to -give any answer, but it was in vain they applied to the judges or to -the crown lawyers. The judges declared the question beyond their -cognizance, and the crown lawyers argued that it was therefore much -more beyond theirs. Thrown back upon themselves, the Lords -devised a compromise by which they could save their consciences -with regard to the oath of fealty, and yet give effect to the hereditary -claim, which was urged by such awkwardly strong supporters. They -agreed that the King should hold the crown for life, that -it should then pass to Richard and his heirs, that Richard -should meanwhile be created Prince of Wales and heir presumptive, -and be the practical ruler of the Kingdom. That in spite of his -victorious position he should have been able only to secure this compromise, -seems to prove the close equality of the parties, and perhaps, -taken in connection with his previous action, the moderation of -Richard.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">York is defeated -and killed at -Wakefield. -Dec. 30, 1460.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The young Duke -of York wins -the Battle of -Mortimer’s -Cross. -Feb. 2, 1461.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">The Queen, -advancing to -London, wins -the second -battle of St. -Albans. -Feb. 17.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Sudden rising -of the home -counties.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Triumphant -entry of -Edward.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Queen had no intention of submitting to this verdict. Trusting -to the power of the North, which was constantly true to her, and -collecting round her all the great chiefs of her party, she moved to -York. Richard at once determined to hasten against her. Salisbury -accompanied him; Edward, his eldest son, was ordered to collect troops;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> -Warwick was charged with the care of the King. With extreme -rashness, York met vastly superior forces in the neighbourhood of -Wakefield. Unexpectedly attacked, his little army was -completely destroyed. He was himself taken prisoner, -dragged with every sign of indignity before the Queen, -mockingly crowned with a wreath of grass, and then beheaded. His -second son, Rutland, but seventeen years of age, was killed in cold -blood as he fled, and Salisbury, who was also captured, was beheaded -at the demand of the people. March was collecting -troops in the West when he heard of his father’s death, -and hastening northwards, he suddenly turned upon a -small pursuing force under Pembroke and Wiltshire, -and completely defeated them at Mortimer’s Cross. The -Queen’s army meanwhile pushed southward. The wild northerners -seemed to fancy they were marching through a foreign country. -The fiercest destruction and plundering marked the course of their -march. To meet them, Norfolk and Warwick had come -from London to St. Albans, and there a second battle -was fought, this time with the complete defeat of the -Yorkists. The King again fell into the hands of the -Queen. This battle, as all the others during these wars, -was marked by extraordinary destruction among the chiefs, and -followed by vindictive executions. Had the Queen pushed direct to -London the Yorkist party might have been destroyed. -But she could not hold her wild troops in hand. Their -devastations excited the anger of the people. All round -London the populace rose, determined to avoid the government which -promised to be so cruel. The young Earl of March, -whom Warwick had joined with the remnant of his -troops, took advantage of this feeling, and advanced -triumphantly to the capital. At a meeting in Clerkenwell, the -Chancellor, the Bishop of Exeter, explained the claims of the House -of York. The question “Shall Edward be your King?” was -received with general cries of approbation. The news was brought -to the young prince in Baynard’s Castle, and the next day he ascended -the throne in Westminster Hall, explained with his own lips his -hereditary claims, and then proceeded to the Abbey where his -coronation was performed.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="EDWARD_IV" id="EDWARD_IV">EDWARD IV.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1461–1483.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_328.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_328.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born 1441 = Elizabeth Woodville. - | - +------------+--------+---------+--------------------------+ - | | | | | - Edward V. Richard, George. Elizabeth = Henry VII. Six other - Duke of daughters. - York. - - <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note— this heading was missing from the original text">CONTEMPORARY PRINCES</ins> - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - James III., 1460. | Louis XI., 1461. | Frederick III., | Henry IV., 1454. - | | 1440. | Ferdinand V., - | | | 1474. - - POPES.--Pius II., 1458. Paul II., 1464. Sixtus IV., 1471. - - _Archbishops._ | _Chancellors._ - | - Thomas Bouchier, 1454. | George Neville, 1461. - | Robert Stillington, 1467. - | Laurence Booth, 1473. - | Rotherham, 1475. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Edward secures -the crown. -1461.<br /><br /> -Battle of -Towton. -Mar. 29.<br /><br /> -Yorkist -Parliament.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Though in after years much addicted to sensual pleasure, -Edward IV. never lost his practical energy; he was not a man -to leave unimproved his present triumphant position. -He at once despatched the Duke of Norfolk to the East -of England to collect an army, and with the Earl of Warwick -himself hastened northward, with an army composed chiefly of -Welshmen from his own possessions, and of men of Kent, the great -supporters of his house. In Yorkshire he met his enemy. The passage -of the river Aire was disputed at Ferry Bridge; the Yorkists, -under Lord Falconbridge (a Neville), falling upon the rear of Clifford -and his Lancastrians, stopped his passage, and killed that leader. On -the 28th of March the armies were in presence, some eight miles from -York. The battle was to be a decisive one. No quarter -was to be expected on either side. The numbers engaged—of -the Lancastrians, 60,000, of the Yorkists 48,000—were -much larger than in most of the battles of these wars. For once -the nation felt some interest in the quarrel. The change of the wind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> -blew the snow continually in the eyes of the Lancastrians, and when -the battle had raged through a great part of the night and till noon -of the following day, the Yorkists had secured a complete victory. -Again, the greatest names of the nobility are mentioned among the -slain. Northumberland fell in the battle, Devonshire and Wiltshire -were beheaded after it, and many reports speak of from 28,000 to -33,000 men left dead upon the field.<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Henry and his Queen, with -Somerset and Exeter, fled into Scotland, and purchased such assistance -as that country could give in the midst of its own intestine commotions -by a promise of Berwick and Carlisle. Edward now felt -safe on his throne, and returned to London, where the joy was great. -There, in November, he met his first Parliament, by -whom the three last monarchs were declared usurpers, -and the acts of their reigns annihilated, with the exception of such -judicial decisions as would if repealed have thrown the country into -confusion. All the great leaders of the Lancastrian party were -attainted, and their property confiscated. The session closed with a -personal address of thanks from the King to the Commons, an -unusual occurrence, and marking the political position of the House of -York.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">With French -help Margaret -keeps up the -war. -1462.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Hedgeley Moor. -Hexham. -April 1464.</div> -</div> - -<p>Meanwhile, Margaret had been seeking assistance from her own -country, France; but Louis, busy in his own affairs and -content with the enforced neutrality of England, only -gave her a small sum of money, and allowed Peter de -Brezé, Seneschal of Normandy, to enlist troops for her. -With these forces she succeeded in capturing the three northern -fortresses of Bamborough, Dunstanburgh and Alnwick. But before -the end of the year, the two first of these were recovered, and Edward -was so strong, that even Somerset and Percy deserted to his side. Again, -the next year, the Queen with De Brezé attempted in vain to relieve -Alnwick. Her fleet was wrecked, and with difficulty she made her -way back to Scotland. But, though beaten, her cause was still alive. -In various parts of the country, disturbances showed themselves. -The clergy missed the favour they had received from the Lancastrians; -and, in the beginning of the following year, the Percies and Somerset -had gone back to their own party, and renewed attempts were made -upon the North of England. But Warwick’s brother -Montague, at Hedgeley Moor, and again at Hexham, -destroyed their forces, and both Percy and Somerset met -their death. This was the second Duke of Somerset who had died in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> -these wars. He was succeeded by his brother Edmund. A greater -prize was the King, who, after hiding for some time, was captured, in -1465, in Yorkshire, and brought with all signs of indignity to London. -He was there, however, properly taken care of in the Tower.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward’s popular -government.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Apparent -security of his -throne.</div> -</div> - -<p>Supported by his Commons, who granted him the wool tax and -tonnage and poundage for life, King Edward seemed firmly seated -on the throne. He was essentially a popular king. He sat and -judged on his own King’s Bench, talked familiarly with the people, -and allowed the Commons to pass popular measures of finance, -without regard to their want of wisdom. A revocation of grants -from the Crown was made, but with exceptions which -rendered it nugatory; the importation of foreign corn -or foreign merchandise was forbidden. The arrangement of the -staple, by which wool and cloth could be sold only at Calais, and for -bullion or ready money, was re-established; and still further to -uphold the current theory of the day, and to keep gold and silver in -the country, strict sumptuary laws were passed. Abroad, -too, all seemed peaceful. The Pope had acknowledged -the new King. France was too busy to interfere. With -the rest of Europe treaties of amity were set on foot; and even with -Scotland a long truce was made.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Destroyed by -his marriage, -1466,</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">and rise of the -Woodvilles.</div> -</div> - -<p>But the King had a weakness of character which destroyed his fine -position. He was a slave to his passions; and now, regardless of all -prudence, though various royal matches were suggested, especially one -with Bona of Savoy, the sister of the French Queen, he was carried -away by his admiration for Elizabeth Woodville, the -daughter of Jacquetta, the Duchess Dowager of Bedford, -and Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers, and the widow of Sir -John Grey, a strong Lancastrian partisan. On the 29th of September, -in spite of the opposition which he could not but have expected, -the King was publicly married in the chapel at Reading. Had not -the King recognised the weakness of the nobility, caused by the -slaughters of the late wars, he would scarcely have ventured on a -marriage so much beneath him. As it was, the few great nobles who -remained were deeply hurt, and Edward found himself obliged to -make the best of his plebeian marriage. An unusually ostentatious -and solemn coronation was held, and an air of aristocracy given to -the ceremony by the presence of his wife’s relative, John of Luxembourg. -His other measures for the same purpose were not so well -judged. The marriage might have been pardoned had it not brought -with it the elevation of the whole of the Queen’s family, whom the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> -King thought it necessary to raise in social rank. Her father was -made an Earl, and given in succession the offices of -Constable and Treasurer, and this at the expense of -the nobles who were then holding those places. Her brother -Anthony, a man of great accomplishments, was given the daughter, -inheritance, and titles of Lord Scales. Another brother, John, at the -age of twenty, was married, it is to be presumed, chiefly for interested -reasons, to the old Duchess of Norfolk, who was nearly eighty. Her -five sisters found husbands among the noblest of the Yorkist party.<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Power of the -Nevilles.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Their French -policy. Burgundian -policy -of Edward. -1467.</div> -</div> - -<p>The displeasure of the Nevilles did not, however, at first show itself, -and Warwick stood godfather to the young Princess Elizabeth. Their -position indeed was still one of enormous influence; George, the -youngest brother, was Chancellor and Archbishop of York; -to his third brother, John of Montague, had been given the -property and title of the Percies, and he was now Earl of Northumberland; -and Warwick, Warden of the Western Marches of Scotland, and -in the receipt of public income said to amount to 80,000 crowns, was -the most popular man in the country. He lived with an ostentatious -splendour, which threw all his rivals into the background.<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> Nevertheless -the marriage, and the formation of the new nobility consequent -on it, began to divide England into new parties; on the one -side, such as were left of the old nobility; on the other, the new. It -was plain that the Nevilles, pledged though they were to the Yorkist -side, would sooner or later side with their order against the King -and his new friends. A still more important cause of quarrel existed -in the difference between their foreign policy and that -of the King. The House of Burgundy and Louis XI. of -France were constant rivals; and while Warwick and -the Nevilles inclined towards a French alliance, thus -deserting the old policy of the Yorkists, Edward, seeing the advantages -he would reap in a mercantile point of view, lent a willing ear to -the advances of Charles, known afterwards as Charles the Bold of -Burgundy, who was now demanding his sister Margaret as his wife. -As a contingent advantage he knew that he would find in the Burgundian -Prince a ready acknowledgment of his title to the crown of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> -France, which he still had some thought of making good. On the return -of Warwick from a friendly embassy to France, he found an alliance -with Burgundy already concluded. The Count de la Roche, the natural -brother of Charles, had appeared in England on the pretext of fighting a -chivalrous duel with Anthony, Lord Scales; and had apparently arranged -the marriage between Charles and Margaret which was consummated -early in the following year. It would seem that this had been -done contrary to the will of the Nevilles; for just before the arrival of -De la Roche, at the opening of Parliament, Warwick was absent, and -the King had suddenly deprived the Archbishop of York of his chancellorship, -which he had given to the Bishop of Bath and Wells.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Defection of -the Nevilles.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Popular risings -inspired by -them. -1469.</div> -</div> - -<p>With these causes of quarrel, Warwick and the Nevilles fell back -into their old position of opposition to the Crown; and -more completely to reproduce the often-repeated state -of English politics, succeeded in securing a Plantagenet Prince as -their nominal leader. The Duke of Clarence, Edward’s brother, was -induced, in spite of the King’s prohibition, to go to Calais, and there -marry Isabella, Warwick’s daughter. This ominous union soon produced -fruits. The lower orders—those orders that are below the -burgher class—cared but little for the name of the ruler; it was -much the same to them whether Lancastrian or Yorkist was on the -throne, their interests were confined to evils which pressed upon -themselves. They were therefore ready instruments in the hands of the -opposition. And upon a quarrel upon some Church dues, the men -of the northern counties rose under a popular leader, -Robert Hilyard, commonly called Robin of Redesdale. -The insurgents soon found nobler leaders. Lords -Latimer and Fitz-Hugh, relations of Warwick, and Sir John Coniers -appeared at their head, and with 60,000 men marched southward, -declaring that Warwick alone could save the country, complaining -that the money wrung from the people was squandered upon the -Queen’s relatives, and demanding the dismissal of the new counsellors, -such as Herbert, Stafford, and Audley. At the same time, -Warwick and his brothers promised the men of Kent that they would -appear at their head to make demands similar to those of the northern -insurgents. Herbert, who had just beaten Jasper Tudor with the -last remnant of the Lancastrians in Wales, and received his title of -Earl of Pembroke, and Humphrey Stafford, who had been made Earl -of Devonshire, advanced against the rebels; but quarrelling between -themselves, they were defeated, and Pembroke beheaded, while -shortly after, Rivers and Sir John Woodville, the Queen’s father and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> -brother, were captured and met the same fate. It was sufficiently -plain that Warwick had instigated this rebellion. The destruction -of his chief enemies made his power for the time paramount. He -even kept Edward for a short period prisoner in his castle of Middleham. -But his disapprobation of the Government had not yet gone so -far as to make him wish for a return of the Lancastrians. And when -that party again raised its standard in the North, he felt himself -unable to cope with it without the King’s assistance, and therefore -released him. A complete pardon was granted to the Nevilles, and -apparent harmony again reigned.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Clarence’s -weakness drives -the Nevilles to -the Lancastrians.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Wells’ rebellion. -1470.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Flight of -Warwick.</div> -</div> - -<p>But it must have been obvious to all parties that it was but -a temporary truce.<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Had Clarence been a man of more -ability, Warwick would probably have put him on the -throne. Failing him, it began to be plain to the Earl -that it was only by connection with the Lancastrian -party that he could hope finally to triumph over his enemies the -new nobility. A new insurrection broke out in Lincoln, against -the oppressions of the royal tax-gatherers. The insurgents, finding -themselves no better off under the new dynasty than they -had been before, declared for King Henry. At their head was -young Sir Robert Wells. The King, not yet aware of Warwick’s -designs, under promise of pardon drew Lord Wells (Sir Robert’s -father) and Sir Thomas Dymock from the sanctuary, and kept them -as hostages, and intrusted Warwick and Clarence with -the duty of collecting troops to repress the insurgents. -They collected troops, indeed, but did not suppress the insurgents; -and the King discovered that they were acting in union with Sir -Robert Wells. He at once put Dymock and Wells to death, routed -the insurgents near Empingham in Rutland, at a battle known by -the name of “Lose Coat Field,” and turned his arms against -Clarence and Warwick, who had been seeking assistance in vain from -his brother-in-law Stanley in Lancashire. They did not await his -coming, but rapidly fled through Devonshire to France. Sir Robert -Wells, anxious to revenge his father, had driven matters on too hastily -for the success of the conspiracy. Warwick had always -been anxious for a French alliance, and was therefore -well received by Louis, who felt that there was now but little chance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> -of peace with England except by restoration of the Lancastrians. -He therefore contrived to bring the Earl and Margaret together; and -the old enemies, finding that they had in common their hatred to -the new nobility and their views of foreign politics, agreed to forget -their old differences, and made a treaty by which Ann Neville was -to marry the Prince of Wales, upon whom the throne was settled. -Failing him it was to pass to Clarence. This treaty, which put -Clarence’s claims in the background, did not please him; and, -utterly without principle, he at once opened negotiations with his -brother, although he did not as yet openly join him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Warwick -returns and re-crowns -Henry.</div> - -<p>In spite of all the warnings which he received from Burgundy, -Edward remained in a condition of false security, even allowing -Montague to retain his offices in England. He was absent from -London in the North, when the Queen, Warwick and Clarence -landed in Devonshire, issued a proclamation calling on the nation to -arm, and soon found themselves surrounded by a sufficient army. -So far did Edward carry his want of suspicion, that Montague, who -at once declared for the Red Rose, as nearly as possible captured him -at dinner in the neighbourhood of Doncaster; he had -just time to escape, and fled (not without danger from a -Hanseatic fleet) to Flanders. Warwick and his friends -proceeded to London, drew the old King from the Tower, and -re-crowned him with all ceremony. A Parliament assembled on the -26th of November. All the Acts of Edward’s reign were annulled, -and a general change took place in property and offices. It marks -the effect of the fusion of parties, that this revolution, unlike most -of the events of this war, was almost bloodless. Tiptoft, Earl of -Worcester, who had rendered himself hateful by his severity as -Constable, was almost the only victim.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward gets -help from -Burgundy. -1471.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Clarence joins -him.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Barnet. -April 14.</div> -</div> - -<p>Though on many grounds (personal hatred to Warwick, sympathy -with Edward’s enmity to France, and mercantile and -family reasons) the Duke of Burgundy would have been -naturally attached to the House of York, this friendship -was of new growth, and could not make him forget his long -connection with the House of Lancaster. It was therefore with -much difficulty that Edward got from him a small pecuniary assistance. -With such as it was, however, he collected about 2000 men, -and took, what at first sight appears, the foolhardy step of landing -at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. But he knew that he had friends in his -enemy’s camp. At first, declaring, in imitation of Henry IV., that -he only came to claim his rights as Duke of York, he passed unmolested<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> -through Yorkshire, where Montague was. Even Warwick, -who lay in the midland counties, watched his progress unmoved. -He had received letters from Clarence, begging him not to stir till he -joined him with reinforcements. But when Clarence -took the field, it was not Warwick, but Edward to -whom he went. Strong enough now again to assume the name of -King of England, Edward marched to London, where the Archbishop -of York had tried in vain to raise enthusiasm for the Lancastrian -King. Too late, Warwick found that he had been deceived, -and he also marched towards London. Edward met -him with inferior forces in the neighbourhood of Barnet, -and there a battle was fought, in which Warwick was -entirely defeated, and himself and his brother Montague killed. -Probably the great bulk of the people cared but little who was -their ruler. York’s army was very small—less than 10,000 men. A -series of accidents gave him the victory. The indifference of the -nation, weary of the squabble, explains the rapid success of these -revolutions.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Margaret lands.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Tewkesbury. -May 4.</div> -</div> - -<p>Meanwhile, the day before the battle, Queen Margaret had landed -at Weymouth. For the moment, the true Lancastrians were almost -glad when they heard that they were rid of their new -Yorkist ally. The Queen’s generals intended to march -through Wales, there make a junction with Jasper Tudor, who was -collecting forces, and thence move to their strongholds in the North. -Edward divined their plan, and pushed rapidly across England, to -secure if possible Gloucester and the valley of the Severn. The -armies encountered at Tewkesbury, where the Queen had -taken a strong position among the abbey buildings and -the neighbouring enclosures. Again the superior skill -of Edward secured the victory to his much inferior forces. The few -remaining Lancastrian nobles, the Prince of Wales, Devonshire, Lord -John Beaufort, and others, fell upon the field. The Duke of -Somerset, the fourth and last of the Beauforts, was executed after it. -Margaret and some others were taken prisoners.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Edward’s -triumphant -return. -Murder of -Henry VI.</div> - -<p>There was one other danger, and then the Lancastrian party seemed -destroyed for ever. The Bastard of Falconbridge suddenly appeared -with a considerable fleet before London. The gallant defence of the -citizens, and the arrival of assistance from the King, -thwarted this last effort, and Edward returned in triumph, -having proved the stability of the house of York. His -arrival was immediately followed by the secret murder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> -of King Henry, one of those dark deeds which has been attributed -without much ground to Edward’s brother, Richard of -Gloucester. A bloody court of justice held in Canterbury, for the -punishment of the Kentish men, closed this revolution of eleven -weeks. On the subsequent death of Holland, Earl of Exeter, whose -body was found upon the sea in the Straits of Dover, there were but -two important members of the Lancastrian party left. These were -Oxford, and Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, who made good their -escape to Brittany, whence Jasper’s nephew subsequently returned -to England in that expedition which terminated in Bosworth field. -The clergy and the lesser nobles, seeing further contest useless, made -their peace with the reigning house, and received pardons, and after -Parliament had re-established the Yorkist dynasty, the wars of the -Roses seemed to be at an end, and England at peace.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Clarence’s -quarrel with -Richard. -1476.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">With Edward. -1477.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His trial.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His death. -1478.</div> -</div> - -<p>But the house of York was now to feel that ineradicable evil which -beset the Plantagenets. The princes of the family could not agree. -Clarence had already occupied the position of chief of -the opposition. He had already joined in the struggle -between the old and new nobility as the partisan of the -former party. Richard, a man of far greater ability, and of a reflective -turn of mind, was in his heart inclined in the same direction. -For the present, however, he saw his advantage in remaining the true -and very efficient assistant of his brother Edward, by whom he had -been intrusted with the government of the North. Clarence, incapable -of being a great party leader, showed his disposition in lesser -matters, and quarrelled with both his brothers. He had himself -married Warwick’s eldest daughter, Isabella, and was anxious to -appropriate all the great Warwick possessions. When Richard, -therefore, determined upon marrying Anne, the younger sister, he -hid the young lady, who is said to have been discovered by her lover -in the dress of a servant-maid, and when he was unable to prevent -the marriage, refused to divide the inheritance. A fierce quarrel was -the consequence, and it required the intervention of Parliament to -secure an equitable division of the property. Thus embroiled with -one brother, the Duke of Clarence speedily fell out with the other. -On the death of his wife in 1476, he turned his thoughts to a second -marriage with Mary of Burgundy, who became, on the -death of Charles the Bold at Nancy in 1477, the heiress -of his vast dominions. Edward prevented the marriage. In the first -place, he would have much disliked to see his brother, on whom he had -not the smallest reliance, powerful in Burgundy, and again, the Queen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> -and the Queen’s party of the new nobility, were anxious that Mary -should be married to the Earl of Rivers. The breach between the -brothers was complete, and Edward, who never knew -pity, only watched for an opportunity to rid himself of -Clarence. The occasion chosen was trivial enough, but very -characteristic of that age. A gentleman of Clarence’s household, -called Burdett, had uttered some angry words against the King. -He was shortly after tried for necromancy, and as in the course of -the inquiry it appeared that, among other acts of magic, he had cast -the King’s horoscope, he was condemned to death. With this -verdict Clarence violently interfered. Edward was now able to -charge him with interfering with the course of justice. He was -impeached and tried before the House of Lords. The King in person -was his accuser, and after a hot personal quarrel, in which the King -charged him with all sorts of ungrateful acts of treason, -he was condemned to death in 1478. A petition of the -Commons, always at the command of Edward, removed the King’s -last scruple, and Clarence disappeared privately at the Tower, -drowned it is said in a butt of Malmsey wine.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Edward joins -Burgundy -against France. -1475.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Failure of his -expedition.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Treaty of -Pecquigni. -Sept. 13.</div> -</div> - -<p>These quarrels had occupied several years, but meanwhile matters -of more national interest had also engaged Edward’s attention. -Charles the Bold was full of vast plans for increasing his possessions, -and with the Duke of Brittany alone of the peers of France, resisted -the centralizing policy of Louis XI. He found no great -difficulty in enlisting Edward in a coalition against that -King. As early as 1472, the war had been spoken of -as probable. It did not actually take place till 1475, after a treaty -had been made by which Lorraine, Bar, and other districts lying -between Burgundy and Flanders were to be given to the Duke, -while Edward was content to stipulate for the acknowledgment of -his title as King of France, and a formal coronation at Rheims. The -war, begun on such feeble conditions, had a disgraceful conclusion. -Money, of which Edward was very fond, was scraped together, chiefly -by the personal application of the King for loans known as benevolences, -and a considerable army landed in France. But Edward did -not meet with the reception he had expected. Charles, whose mind was -incapable of carrying out the vast schemes that it planned, was engaged -in war in other parts of his dominions, and brought no -help to his ally. The gates of Péronne were shut against -him. St. Quentin, which Charles had told him would be given up -to him by the Constable of St. Pol, opened fire upon his troops.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> -Provisions were scantily supplied, and Louis, who well knew the -character of his invader, saw his opportunity. At a private interview -with the herald who brought the declaration of war, he bribed -him, and won from him the hint that he might apply successfully -either to Stanley or to Howard, counsellors high in Edward’s favour. -He took the hint, found those Lords ready recipients of his bribes, -threw Amiens open, and supplied the English army lavishly with -food; and shortly persuaded Edward to arrange terms -at a personal interview at Pecquigni. He was thoroughly -afraid of the English soldiers, but rated them very low -as diplomatists, and, as his manner was when he had great objects in -view, was lavish with his money. A yearly pension, the expenses of -the war, 50,000 crowns as a ransom for Margaret, and handsome -bribes judiciously given to the chief members of the King’s Council, -secured the withdrawal of the English army. At the same time it -was arranged that the Dauphin should marry the Princess Elizabeth. -It mattered little to him, having now the English King in his pay, -that the English to cover their disgrace spoke of the money payments -as tribute, and that Edward continued to bear the title of the King -of France. Nothing can give a better view of the despicable character -of that new nobility on which Edward rested, than the readiness -with which they accepted the French King’s bribes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Ambitious -projects of -marriage for -his daughters.</div> - -<p>The chief objects of Edward’s life were, to collect money to be -spent in magnificent debauchery, and to secure the -position of his house by great marriages for his -daughters. He had thus arranged for the marriage -of Elizabeth, his eldest, with the Dauphin of France; Mary was to -have been married to the King of Denmark; Cicely to the eldest -son of James III. of Scotland; Katherine to the son of the King of -Castile; and Anne was destined for the son of Maximilian of -Austria, who by his marriage with Mary of Burgundy had become -the possessor of that duchy. None of these marriages took effect. The -events connected with some of them fill up the remainder of the -reign.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Affairs in -Scotland.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Edward supports -Albany. -1482.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">England obtains -Berwick.</div> -</div> - -<p>James III. of Scotland was a man much like Edward, a product -of the renaissance at that time making its way in England. -Addicted to art in all its forms, he had surrounded himself -with artists, and ennobled members of the lower orders, and had -estranged all the old nobility. At the head of the discontented party -was the King’s brother, the Duke of Albany. Although James had -already received some of the dowry of the English Princess, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> -consequence probably of some French intrigues, he seemed inclined -to withdraw from the engagement. Therefore, when Albany, a -fugitive from Scotland, sought his protection, Edward -determined to support him and his party, and, finally, -made a treaty with him at Fotheringay, in which he -spoke of him as King Alexander. He obtained from him a promise -of homage, and of the cession of Berwick and some other districts. -Albany also engaged to marry the Princess Cicely, who was to -be transferred to him, although previously engaged to the son of the -Scotch King. An invasion of Scotland under Richard of Gloucester, -and a conspiracy which broke out at the Bridge of Lauder, where -James’s favourite, Cochrane, was hanged, seemed for a moment to -raise Albany to the summit of his ambition. But the Scotch had no -intention of changing the succession to the throne, or suffering their -kingdom to be in any way dependent on England. They restored -Albany his property, but also returned the dowry of Cicely, and -intimated that the match was entirely broken off. The -advantage that the English gained from the whole affair -was the much disputed town of Berwick.</p> - -<p>The arrangements for the marriage between Elizabeth and the -Dauphin were equally unsuccessful. Although that Princess had -assumed the name of the Dauphiness, Louis was in no hurry to -complete the marriage, and had indeed directed his views elsewhere. -In 1477, Mary of Burgundy had married Maximilian the Archduke -of Austria; and now Edward engaged to join him against France -upon condition of receiving from him the same pension as Louis had -paid him since Pecquigni. But, as usual, Louis’ diplomacy got the -better of Edward’s. Mary of Burgundy died in 1482, and the French -King contrived to make a treaty with Maximilian, by which the -Dauphin, deserting Elizabeth, engaged himself to Margaret, the -heiress of Burgundy. Edward was vowing vengeance at this trick, -and speaking of a new invasion of France, when he died on the 9th -of April, worn out probably by his self-indulgence.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Edward’s death. -His character. -1483.</div> - -<p>His personal beauty, his success in war, the familiarity of his -manners, his splendid household, and the share which he -allowed himself to take in the commercial enterprise of -the day, endeared Edward to the burgher class, and -rendered him on the whole a popular monarch. But beneath this -splendid exterior there existed a pitiless cruelty, a selfishness which -sought its gratification in unbounded license, and which was ready to -crush relentlessly any, however nearly related to himself, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> -crossed his path. The mixture of sensuality, love of the new state -of society, mingled with political selfishness and cruelty, remind us -rather of the character of an Italian tyrant than of an English king. -The character of the monarchy which he established was also -different from that which had hitherto been seen in England. It has -been usual to name the reign of Henry VII. as that in which this -change began. It is true that that Prince and his successors -completed it; but already there are visible all the elements of that -peculiar despotic government resting upon popular favour, which is -the characteristic of the Tudor rule. In all respects Edward is the -popular King. The old nobility had for the most part been -destroyed. As around the Buonapartes of modern time, a new -nobility of relatives or personal friends of the King had begun to be -called into existence. The balance of the Constitution had been -changed by the removal of the Baronage, the great check on the -royal power, which now stood, as it were, face to face with the -Commons, who were as yet unfitted to make head against it. The -practice of tampering with the elections had ruined the independence -of Parliament. The Church, no longer in sympathy with the nation, -sought to secure their wealth by devotion to the Crown. The King -thus found no class sufficiently strong to check his prerogative. For -a time, therefore, the constitutional advance of the preceding century -was lost, and the government of England was practically despotism. -At the same time, as the disturbances caused by the Wars of the Roses -were not yet wholly over, and a short period of rapid revolutions -intervenes before the final establishment of the constitutional change -now begun, it is more convenient to adopt the old division, and to -place the epoch of the new monarchy at the Battle of Bosworth.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span></p> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="EDWARD_V" id="EDWARD_V">EDWARD V.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1483.</span></h2> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="RICHARD_III" id="RICHARD_III">RICHARD III.</a><br /> - -<span class="fs80">1483–1485.</span></h2> - -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_341.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_341.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Born, 1450 = Anne of Warwick. - | - Edward. Died 1484. - - CONTEMPORARY PRINCES. - - _Scotland._ | _France._ | _Germany._ | _Spain._ - | | | - James III., | Charles VIII., | Frederick III., | Ferdinand, } 1479. - 1460. | 1483. | 1440. | Isabella, } - - POPES.--Sixtus IV., 1471. Innocent VIII., 1484. - - _Archbishop._ | _Chancellor._ - | - Thomas Bouchier, 1454. | John Russell, 1483. - -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Edward’s reign -a revolution.<br /><br /> -State of parties.</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Edward V. was between twelve and thirteen when he came to -the throne. His reign, which lasted from the 9th of April -to the 26th of June, was entirely occupied by a short and -not very intelligible revolution, which terminated in -the accession of his uncle, Richard of Gloucester. On the death of -Edward IV., the state of parties was rather complicated. In the -period of success which followed his restoration in 1471, he had -collected round him counsellors from all parties, although chiefly -inclined to the new nobility. His friends were thus -divided into three sections—the Queen and her family, -the most prominent members of which were Anthony, Lord Rivers; -Grey, Earl of Dorset; his brother Sir Richard Grey, and Lord Lisle, -who seem to have worked in unison with the Chancellor, Cardinal -Rotheram, Archbishop of York, and Morton, Bishop of Ely: there -were, secondly, the new nobility, of whom Hastings and Stanley -were the representatives: and, thirdly, a certain number of the -older nobles led by Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, and Sir John<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> -Howard. The two latter sections were full of jealousy of the -Queen’s party, in which feeling Richard joined. But his real -connection was with Buckingham and the old nobles. His first step -was, by a union of the other two parties, to overthrow the influence -of the Queen. This he immediately proceeded to do.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Richard first -overthrows -Queen’s party.</div> - -<p>As the young King was being brought to London for his -coronation, under the care of Rivers and Grey, to whom -his education had been intrusted, and under whose -charge he had lived at Ludlow, Richard and Buckingham, -with 900 men, appeared upon their line of march at Northampton. -Rivers and Grey, conscious of the advantage which the -appearance of the King in London would give them, were unwilling -to come to an open quarrel, and sent Edward forward to Stony -Stratford, while they went to pay their respects to Gloucester, who -had taken the oath of allegiance, and hitherto put on all the -appearance of loyalty. The two Lords were taken prisoners at -Northampton, and Richard and Buckingham suddenly advancing to -Stratford, by the rapidity of their movements dispersed 2000 men -who accompanied Edward, and took possession of him. The news -spread dismay in London. The Queen, her son Richard and her -daughters, with Lord Lisle and the other Grey, took sanctuary at -Westminster; while Hastings calmed men’s minds by assuring them -of Richard’s loyalty, that he had only withdrawn the King -from the pernicious influence of his relations, and that he would -speedily appear with him to crown him. Upon Richard’s appearance, -therefore, everything at first went on in the regular order.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Is made -Protector.</div> - -<p>According to precedent, Richard was appointed Protector -or President of the Council. With the exception -of the removal of Rotheram, and the appointment of Russell, Bishop -of Lincoln, in his place, no important changes were made, and the -Parliament was summoned, and the coronation appointed for midsummer.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Quarrels with -the new nobles.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Hastings’ death -and fall of -his party.</div> -</div> - -<p>Having thus vanquished one party, Richard determined to get rid -of his other rivals also, and to rest exclusively upon -Buckingham and the old nobles. The coronation was -settled for the 22nd of June, when suddenly Richard despatched a -messenger, Sir Richard Ratcliffe, to the North, where he was much -beloved, bidding the people hasten to his aid, as the Queen was aiming -at the life of himself and Buckingham. There is no proof of any -such conspiracy. But the quarrel between the two sections of the -Council is marked by the fact that they met apart, Hastings and his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> -followers at St. Paul’s, Richard, Buckingham, and their friends, at -Crosby Place. They were however all joined on the 13th of June -in the Tower, when Richard suddenly appeared with angry and -suspicious countenance, charged the Queen and Jane Shore, the -King’s mistress, who now lived with Hastings, with aiming at his life -by sorcery, in proof of which he exhibited one of his arms, which was -smaller than the other, and included Hastings in the charge. At a -given signal armed men entered the chamber, and Hastings, -Stanley, and the Bishops of York and Ely, were -apprehended. Hastings was beheaded without trial on -the spot.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Richard, with -Buckingham’s -help, secures -the crown.</div> - -<p>This <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup d’état</i> was immediately followed up. The people were -summoned to the Tower, where Buckingham and Richard appeared in -rusty armour, as though in their extreme necessity they had taken it -from the armoury. Jane Shore was compelled to do penance through -the streets of London. The Queen was persuaded by the Archbishop -of Canterbury to surrender the young Prince Richard. And news -arrived that, both in the North and in Wales, the people had risen for -Richard. At the same time Grey and Rivers, hitherto kept prisoners -in Northampton, were beheaded. It only remained for Richard to -find some pretext for assuming the crown. He felt the necessity of -forestalling the coronation, which would probably have withdrawn -from him the protectorate, and have brought a commission of regency -into power. On the very day that the coronation was to have been -held, Dr. Shaw, brother of the Mayor of London, was put up to -preach at Paul’s Cross. He took for his text, “The imperfect -branches shall be broken off, their fruit unprofitable,”<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> and proceeded -to expatiate upon the lax life of the late King; and -moreover, to renew the charge which Clarence had once -made, that that King was himself illegitimate. As for -the present Princes, he asserted that they too were bastards. According -to him, before Edward’s marriage with Elizabeth Woodville, he -had been engaged to Lady Eleanor Talbot; by the laws of the -Church, therefore, his subsequent marriage was void, and the King -and his brothers illegitimate. He drew attention to the want of -resemblance between Richard of York and Edward IV., and the close -likeness which existed, on the other hand, between Richard and the -Protector. At this moment the Protector made his appearance, expecting -that the crowd would cry, “Long live, King Richard!” But the -charges were too new and surprising; he was received in perfect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> -silence. The failure of this attempt induced him to repeat it; and -two days after, Buckingham came to Guildhall, and there addressed -the people in a similar strain. He was determined to take no refusal, -and upon a few cries of approbation, commanded the people to follow -him to Baynard’s Castle, where Richard then was. The Parliament -was just assembling, a number of Lords and representatives from the -Commons joined the crowd, and enabled him with some show of -truth to draw up a petition called “The choice and prayer of the -Lords spiritual and temporal and the Commons of England,” in -which, after recapitulating his story, he requested Richard to accept -the crown. After some show of resistance, Richard accepted the -petition, and took solemn possession of the throne at Westminster -Abbey on the 26th. That this choice was by no means unanimous -is plain from the order issued, commanding the inhabitants of London -to keep within their houses after ten o’clock, and forbidding the -wearing of arms.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Richard’s policy -of conciliation.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His strong -position.</div> -</div> - -<p>Having once secured the throne, the object of Richard seems to -have been to heal, as far as possible, the wounds -that the war had made. John Lord Howard was the -one of his followers whose reward was the most striking. His -mother having been a Mowbray, he was made Duke of Norfolk and -hereditary Marshal of England. The prisoners the King had taken, -in company with Hastings, were released, and with strange and rash -magnanimity, Stanley was given the office of Constable of England, -while Morton of Ely, an old Lancastrian, whose influence he seems to -have underrated, was sent to reside in a castle in the West of England. -He even caused the body of Henry VI. to be removed from Chertsey -Abbey to Windsor, as though the breach between the families was -healed. The King was crowned in London, and then proceeded to make -a progress through England. He had every reason to -think his position was a good one. The people everywhere -received him with a fair show of good-will. In York, where he -was a second time crowned, his reception was enthusiastic. His foreign -relations were also promising. It is true that the recognition of -France was somewhat brief and grudging; but with the young Philip -of Burgundy there was an amicable correspondence; while Queen -Isabella of Castile congratulated him heartily on having removed the -stain of his brother’s degrading marriage, and desired a close alliance -with him against France, the chief reason perhaps of her show of -affection.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Weak points -in it.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Disaffection in -the South.</div> -</div> - -<p>But, though all at first seemed so promising, Richard soon learnt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> -that it was not for him to pass unopposed into the position of a -peaceful governor of a united England. The injury he -had done the memory of his late brother, the cold-heartedness -with which he had pushed aside the nephew of whom he -was the guardian, and who with his brother was kept in secret confinement -in the Tower, revived the old affection with which the South -of England had regarded Edward IV. Moreover, the Queen’s party -was not destroyed, while Richard’s own generosity had left at liberty -supporters of the old state of affairs. Consequently the whole South -of England, from Kent to Devonshire, showed signs of -an intended insurrection.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Death of the -Princes.</div> - -<p>It was just at this moment, and perhaps in the hope of removing -those around whom disaffection might centre, that the King caused -the report to be spread that the young Princes had disappeared -from the Tower. It is needless to enter into a -discussion as to their fate. The picturesque story which represents -them as smothered beneath their bedclothes is the creation of the -next age. Indeed, the popular view of the events of this reign and -of the character of Richard is derived almost wholly from Sir -Thomas More’s life of him. All that contemporary writers mention -is that the Princes disappeared, and were probably killed. Comines, -the French historian, an excellent observer, says simply that Richard -had the Princes killed in the Tower. And the fact that all those -who had the charge of them, even down to Forest, the warden, were -rewarded, makes it almost impossible that this should not have been -the case.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Projected -marriage of -Elizabeth and -Richmond.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Defection of -Buckingham.</div> -</div> - -<p>The effect was not what Richard expected. The friends of his late -brother and of the Queen became still more anxious to preserve the -old stock, and, probably at the suggestion of Morton, a Lancastrian -who had found favour in Richard’s sight, the project of a marriage -between Edward’s daughter Elizabeth and the young -Richmond began to be discussed. The conspiracy soon -proved to be very widespread, and it must have been a -terrible surprise to Richard to hear that his chief friend and accomplice, -Buckingham, had declared for the house of Lancaster. That -nobleman’s motives are not clear, but he probably found that the -party of the old nobility, of which he was the leader, was no better -off under Richard than it had been under Edward. Like other -men of a tyrannical turn of mind, Richard had found his -chief support in obsequious followers, and Ratcliffe, -Catesby, and Lovel were his real advisers and friends. The Duke,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> -therefore, an unprincipled and very ambitious man, thought he saw -his advantage in becoming a principal agent in the restoration of -the exiled house. It is probable, also, that the influence and skill of -Morton, with whom he had been in communication, may have had -something to do with it.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Richmond’s first -invasion.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of -Buckingham and -failure of the -conspiracy.</div> -</div> - -<p>News was also brought to Richard that the young Richmond, who -after Tewkesbury had fled with his uncle to Brittany, and had there -become the centre of the Lancastrian party, was meditating -a descent on England. Richard displayed his -usual energy. He called on the men of York, on whom he could -rely, to meet him at Leicester; hastily wrote to the Archbishop of -York to send him the Great Seal, an unconstitutional act which -Russell did not resist; put a price on the head of Buckingham; and -appointed, as though sure of victory, a vice-constable to superintend -any summary executions that might be necessary. Meanwhile, Kent, -Surrey, Berkshire, Wiltshire, and Devon had risen, and Grey, Lord -Dorset, had declared for Henry Tudor in Exeter. It was the intention -of Buckingham, who was in Wales, to form a junction with the -Southern leaders. For this purpose it was necessary to cross the -Severn. But Sir Humphrey Stafford had broken the bridges, the -floods were out, and the river impassable. His Welsh -followers deserted, and Buckingham was obliged to -fly. He sought a refuge with a dependant of his own in -Shropshire, of the name of Banister, by whom he was betrayed. -After vain entreaties for a personal interview with Richard, and for a -legal trial, he was summarily executed. Richmond’s part of the -conspiracy had been an equal failure. His fleet had been scattered -by a storm. He himself reached Plymouth, but the news of the -failure of Buckingham, and the appearance of the King in the South, -before whose approach all the gatherings of the rebels dissolved, -induced him to return to Brittany.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Parliament -and great -confiscation. -1484.</div> - -<p>Again undisputed master of England, Richard summoned a Parliament -to meet him in January. As was usual when -one party was predominant, it proved to be devoted to -the Government. Richard’s special favourite, Catesby, -was chosen for speaker, and all Richard’s claims to the throne were -declared to be just. Nor was this all: the oath of allegiance was -demanded from all the adult population of England; and a huge -bill of attainder and confiscation, mentioning more than 500 names, -was passed. As the King was allowed to regrant the confiscated -property, he was enabled to fill the southern counties with northern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> -proprietors devoted to his cause; while with questionable wisdom, as -it afterwards appeared, he sought to purchase the fidelity of the -Stanleys, by giving to Lord Stanley, her present husband, the property -of the Countess Margaret of Richmond, who was included in the bill -of attainder.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Continued -schemes of -Richmond.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Richard’s efforts -to oppose him.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Attempts to -win the Queen.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Death of the -Prince of Wales. -Lincoln declared -heir.</div> -</div> - -<p>But though defeated in his first efforts, her son, Henry Tudor, continued -his preparations abroad. It was in vain that Richard, by -promising Francis of Brittany his assistance against -France, and by bribing the all-powerful minister Pierre -Landais, succeeded in procuring Henry’s dismissal from -Brittany. He fled to the Court of Charles VIII. of France, where he -was well received, and where the Lancastrian exiles gathered round -him. Richard felt that all his efforts were necessary to oppose this -Prince. He collected troops, demanded ships from the -Cinque Ports, attempted a reconciliation with the Queen -Dowager, by allowing her with her daughters to leave the sanctuary -at Westminster, and contemplated a marriage between -his own son Edward and her eldest daughter Elizabeth, -a marriage which would have been the death blow to the Lancastrian -party. He succeeded moreover in procuring a three years’ truce with -Scotland, and the promise of a marriage between the Duke of -Rothesay, the heir to the Scotch crown, and his niece.<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> The most -important part of his plan was frustrated by the untimely -death of his son, which plunged him in the -deepest grief. But he strove to supply his place by -nominating his nephew John de la Pole, the Earl of Lincoln, his heir.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">General -uneasiness in -England. -1485.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">His recourse to -benevolences.</div> -</div> - -<p>Meanwhile the feeling of uneasiness increased. Lancastrian -emissaries moved to and fro through the country. Clifford and some -others of them were apprehended and put to death. But the evil -was too great to admit of a speedy remedy. Libels were freely -scattered through the country; among others the well-known -couplet, “The rat, the cat, and Lovel the dog, -rule all England under the Hog,” a plain allusion to -his chief friends, Ratcliffe, Catesby and Lovel. William Collingbourne, -its author, was captured and put to death. But libels increased -in number, especially when there seemed to be grounds for -asserting that, though his wife was still living, he was himself thinking -of a subsequent marriage with the Princess Elizabeth of York. -The opportune illness and death of his wife, and, it may be, the -love<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> felt for him by the Princess, added such an air of truth to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> -the story, that, at the instigation of his best friends, he was induced -to make a public contradiction of it before the Common Council in -London. His finances, too, were in disorder. Free-handed -and ostentatious, he had speedily spent the -wealth which his brother’s avarice had accumulated; and though he -had himself caused a bill to be passed to put an end to benevolences, -he was reduced to have recourse to that illegal method of taxation -which the people in bitter jest termed the raising of malevolences.</p> - -<div class="sn-box"> -<div class="sidenotex">Richmond lands -at Milford.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Conduct of the -Stanleys.</div> - -<div class="sidenotex">Battle of -Bosworth. -Aug. 22.</div> -</div> - -<p>He was however prepared, when Richmond, supported by the -French, made his second attempt upon England. But -unfortunately for Richard, treason was at work among -his own followers, and the Stanleys, without principle, without -gratitude, and with a constant eye to their own aggrandizement, were -in secret alliance with their young kinsman the Lancastrian Prince. -At length the invasion came. The place of landing, which had been -kept a profound secret, was Milford Haven: for the Tudor thought -it prudent to enlist the national prejudices of the Welsh in his favour. -The Leopard of England and the Dragon of Wales floated side by -the side on his standards. He advanced in safety to Shropshire; -and the Welsh leaders joined him, as well as the -Talbots of Shrewsbury. Richard had assembled his forces in the -centre of England. Northumberland brought him troops from the -North, Howard from the South, Brackenbury from London, Norfolk -from the East. But it was very doubtful what part the Stanleys -would take; and it was through the county where they were powerful, -both as proprietors and as the King’s governors, that Richmond -had to pass. Lord Stanley demanded leave to go to his county; -but the King, whose suspicions had been raised, insisted on his -leaving his son Lord Strange as a hostage. Pleading illness, Lord -Stanley had refused to join Richard, and with 5000 men retired -before the invader, whom his brother Sir William had -now openly joined. In August the armies approached -one another in the neighbourhood of Atherstone. -Richard then threw aside all doubts. He ordered Lord Strange -to be beheaded, and felt that the struggle must be a final one. Lord -Strange’s keepers, however, thought it well to await the issue of the -battle before carrying out the command: and in the middle of the -struggle, Lord Stanley, who, afraid for his son’s life, had kept aloof -with his troops, suddenly joined Richmond. This turned the -fortunes of the day; and in spite of the greatest personal bravery, -Richard’s army was completely beaten, and himself killed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Richard’s -character and -laws.</div> - -<p>His character has been the subject of much discussion, nor is this -strange. Had he lived in times of greater security, he -would have been an able and admirable governor. -Several of the enactments of his reign attest his wisdom -and his love of justice. He recognized the evil of benevolences, and -forbad them, although necessity drove him to have recourse to them. -His efforts were much directed to the re-establishment of justice, to -support which he had caused a bill to be passed, to secure the respectability -of jurymen, by forbidding any but freeholders to the amount of -40s. from serving in that capacity. He restrained the lawlessness of the -barons by the suppression of liveries; and while promising to uphold -the liberties of the Church, had shown that he would not allow any -interference with the civil power. He had also fostered the trade of -England by opening fresh markets for English wool both in Spain and -in Iceland. His personal character, too, was attractive. With beautiful -though peculiar features, he was liberal and at times forgiving to -the verge of folly. He had pardoned and extended constant favour to -the wives and families of his political victims. In spite of his strange -charge of adultery against her, he had been always a dutiful and -affectionate son to his mother. The gentle side of his disposition is -perhaps shown by his passionate love of music. But the troublous -times in which he lived called out all his worst characteristics; and -for political ends he had shown himself scheming, cold, and cruel; -while the tyrannical temperament, which could brook no opposition, -hurried him into deeds of violence which were the proximate cause -of his downfall.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="sidenote">Political -condition of -the nation.</div> - -<p>It is necessary, as the border-land is thus reached between modern -civilization and that of the middle ages, to say a few -words on the political condition of the nation, which -allowed of the establishment of the personal monarchy -of the Tudors, and of the social state of the people from -which modern forms of civilization were to spring.</p> - -<p>During the earlier part of the Lancastrian rule, Parliament, and -especially the House of Commons, had apparently continued to rise -in power. The Constitutional growth of the fourteenth century had -been continued. The Commons had secured the unquestioned right -of originating money bills, not to be altered by the House of Lords, -nor discussed in the presence of the King. They had secured the -right not only of recommending in petitions, but also of joining -as an equal estate of the realm in the passing of laws. They had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> -succeeded during the reign of Henry VI. in preventing any changes -in the form of their petitions (which had not unfrequently been -introduced when, after the session, the petition was enrolled), by -bringing in complete Statutes, called Bills, to be rejected or accepted -as a whole, instead of their old petitions. They had, in several -instances, practised unquestioned the right of impeachment, and -claimed, with some degree of success, the freedom of their members -from arrest, even during the recess of Parliament. But in spite -of this apparent advance, the real power of the Parliament before -the close of the Wars of the Roses had almost disappeared. A -statute in the eighth year of Henry VI. limited the franchise, with -regard to the election of knights of the shire, to freeholders of lands -or tenements to the value of forty shillings. This at once gave an -aristocratic tone to the House. In addition to this it had become -the fashion both of the nobility and of the Crown to tamper with -the elections. With the new restricted franchise, the power of local -magnates in the county elections was predominant, while, as regards -the boroughs, the sheriffs exercised a power of summoning burgesses -from such towns only as they pleased, and it was not difficult for the -Crown or ruling party to bring the sheriffs under their influence. -While the House of Commons thus lost its independence, the old -Upper House had been virtually destroyed, and the new nobility was -by its very nature dependent on the Crown. Another most important -element of freedom had likewise disappeared. The great -Churchmen, to whom the liberties of England owe so much, had -been victorious over their enemies the Lollards. In the struggle -they had lost their sympathy with the people. Their desire for the -spiritual welfare of the country had shrivelled to a selfish eagerness -for the preservation of orthodoxy. They had been drawn into -closer communication with Rome, and had begun to share its -interests. Cardinal Beaufort, in spite of all opposition, had -succeeded in retaining his Roman rank, and it had become habitual -that the Archbishop of Canterbury at least should bear the title -of Cardinal. Wealthy, worldly and self-seeking, the leaders of -the clergy were inclined to devote themselves to political life; and, -conscious of the alienation of the lower orders, and fearing for their -property, which had already excited the envy of the laity, and which, -while confiscation was reducing the nobles to beggary, had remained -almost untouched, they sought employment and safety in becoming -the devoted servants of the King.</p> - -<p>At the same time that the practical efficiency of the Parliament<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> -had been decreasing, the power of the King’s Council had been on -the increase. The limits of its rights, springing as it did from the -Concilium Ordinarium of the Plantagenet kings, had always been -questionable, and its encroachments, in meddling with the petitions -of the Lower House, and in issuing ordinances without the consent of -Parliament, which had yet the authority of temporary laws, had -been constantly objected to by the Commons. The long minority of -Henry VI., during which the chief direction of the Government had -been almost unavoidably in the hands of the Council, had tended -greatly to increase its power.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Effects of the -Wars of the -Roses.</div> - -<p>Nevertheless, though constitutional growth had been checked, and -the Commons had politically lost ground, the Wars of -the Roses did not produce that complete exhaustion -and depopulation of the country which might have -been expected. The population appears to have been little, if at all, -decreased, the number of inhabitants was still between three and -four millions. In fact, it must be remembered that the broken -hostilities of these wars did not on the whole amount to much more -than three years of actual warfare; that the armies were in the field -only for short consecutive periods, were usually few in number, and -composed of untrained men, who returned, immediately their short -service was over, to the cultivation of the fields. Thus the destruction -and turbulence seemed to pass over the head of the great bulk -of the population. Nor is this all. During the whole continuance -of the war, the ordinary apparatus of justice was uninterrupted; courts -were held, and judges went their circuit as usual. Indeed, it would -seem to have been a period of unusual litigation, attended no doubt -often with violence. For as property rapidly changed hands the -titles to it became insecure, and the process therefore by which a -title was questioned was frequently the violent dispossession of the -present holder. But still it was to the courts of law that the -ultimate appeal was made. Again, although the loss of France and -the exclusive attention to home politics greatly diminished the -national strength upon the sea, trade does not appear to have been -seriously damaged. At all events, it was so kept alive, that upon the -establishment of peace it revived with fresh vigour; and we are -told that Edward IV. himself engaged in the pursuit. This trait is -characteristic not only of the man but of the time. The pursuit of -trade had risen greatly in estimation; great traders had become -nobles, and Suffolk, the prime minister, was an example of the -height to which such families might rise. From the decay of noble<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> -families, and other more permanent causes, land had been necessarily -brought into the market. Wealthy traders had purchased it, set up -for landowners, and aimed at the dignity of knighthood. At the -same time, the secondary gentry of the country, taking advantage of -the decline of the nobility, found means in the midst of the disturbances -to increase their property and influence. In spite therefore -of the apparent insignificance of Parliament, the middle classes -were in a vigorous and improving condition.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Changes in the -lower classes.</div> - -<p>Lower down in the social scale the case was somewhat different. -Serfdom had indeed almost disappeared, and existed -only here and there in isolated cases. Free labour for -wages had become general, and land was largely held by payment of -money rents. Thus far there was improvement. But the change -from slavery to personal freedom is always purchased at a somewhat -heavy price—that price is the existence of poverty; it is no longer -incumbent on employers to look after the wellbeing of free labourers; -in time of want they are thrown upon their own resources. The -new possessors of the soil too were inclined to work it to better -profit than their predecessors had done; grazing became more -common and employment proportionately scarcer. The unemployed -labourer had two courses open to him: he might betake himself to -the towns, or join the ranks of the rapidly increasing class of beggars. -He there found himself in company of numbers of idle and needy -men who took advantage of the disturbed state of the country. -Discharged soldiers and sailors, and vagabonds who called themselves -travelling scholars, were so plentiful, that as there was as yet no -poor law in existence, stringent enactments were made against them. -The number of those punished for crimes of lawlessness and violence -was enormous. Fortescue describes with pride how the poor Englishman, -seeing others possess what he wanted, would never scruple to -take it by violence rather than be without it. Those of the unemployed -labourers who preferred to seek the towns went to increase -the crowd of journeymen, whose position could not have been very -enviable. For the guild system was breaking down and giving -place to the more modern arrangements of unlimited competition. -The craft guilds, which in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries -had triumphed over the merchant guilds and aristocratic citizens of -the towns, had speedily begun to deteriorate. The object for which -they were founded was to secure for all members of the craft a fair -chance of livelihood, without the danger of destructive competition. -This object implied that the guild was co-extensive with the trade,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> -and that its members were themselves craftsmen, carrying on their -work with their own hands, with the assistance of apprentices. But -a crowd of enfranchised villeins and unemployed labourers had -gathered in the towns, and formed a class of journeymen or day-labourers, -and the guild, originally a corporation of working men, -changed gradually into an exclusive body of capitalists. Moreover, -even within their own limits, their principles had failed as early as -the reign of Edward III. We hear, for instance, of certain pepperers, -who, separating themselves from their guild, became grocers [grossers] -or general dealers. In other words, as individuals accumulated capital, -they refused to have their enterprise limited by the guild laws; -and thus setting up as independent capitalists, began to introduce -the same relations between employer and employed which exist at -present. Under these circumstances the unincorporated journeymen -found the restrictions of the guild an obstacle in the way of advance, -and were exposed to all the evils of an eager competition.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Influence of the -Renaissance.</div> - -<p>While thus the political position of the different orders was giving -room for a temporary establishment of almost absolute -monarchy, but at the same time allowing the formation -of that middle class which was to overthrow it, and while the -exclusive system of the middle ages was giving way to the modern -relations of labour, the new culture, the existence of which more -than anything else separates the middle ages from modern times, -was beginning to make its way. As the leader in this direction -Humphrey of Gloucester may be mentioned. In spite of his -turbulent and disorderly character, he was a sincere lover of literature. -He was in communication with several of the greater Italian scholars. -More than one classical translation was dedicated to him. He -carried his love of inquiry so far that he is believed to have dabbled -in magical arts; and it is generally reported that his books, which he -left to Oxford, were the nucleus of the present great library there. -He did not stand alone in his literary tastes. Tiptoft the Earl of -Worcester was likewise impregnated with Italian learning, and, -among the newer nobles, Lord Rivers gave distinguished patronage -to the art of printing, which Caxton introduced into England in the -year 1469. Altogether, it would seem that among the upper classes -the rudiments of learning were beginning to be widely spread, and -that the laity were gradually becoming sufficiently cultivated to rival -the Churchmen, and to take their proper part in the government of -the country. It may be observed as an indication of this that Henry -VI.’s reign was marked by the foundation of Eton, and that several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> -considerable colleges were founded both in Oxford and Cambridge -during the century. It is probable that these were chiefly intended -as defences for orthodoxy, the teaching being as yet confined to the -worst form of scholasticism.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Change in the -military system.</div> - -<p>It is strange, immediately after the great civil war, and before the -outbreak of nautical energy under the reign of Queen -Elizabeth, to meet with constant complaints of the -degeneracy of the English as soldiers. But it seems as if changes in -the military system, and the love of money and luxury which -accompanied the Renaissance, were really producing their effects. -Archery was giving way to the use of gunpowder; and we meet -with statutes fixing the price of bows, and enacting general practice -of archery, which clearly show that the use of the national weapon -had to be artificially fostered. There was considerable difficulty in -collecting a sufficiency of troops before the Battle of Bosworth, and -Caxton writes to Richard III. a deplorable account of the decay of -knighthood, to be cured, as he thinks, by the reintroduction of -tournaments and the perusal of chivalrous romances. A change in -warfare was, in fact, going on in Europe, which called into existence -abroad standing armies, and the effect of which was felt in England, -though circumstances postponed the establishment of a regular army -some time longer. It was thus amid the general weakness in all -classes except the Crown, and during the development of great -social changes, that the Tudor sovereigns found it possible to establish -that peculiar personal monarchy which occupies the transition period -between mediæval and modern times, and under the shadow of -which the various classes regained strength for the subsequent -re-establishment of the Constitution.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div><a name="SAXON" id="SAXON"></a></div> -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_355.jpg" width="225" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> - -<span class="smcap">Saxon England.</span><br /> - -ENGLAND UP TO<br /> -1066.<br /> - -<p class="pad20pc"><em>Oxford & Cambridge.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2> - - -<div class="fs80"> -Acre, siege of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">taken by Richard I., <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Adela, daughter of Robert of Flanders, marries Cnut, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> -<br /> -Ælfgar, son of Leofric, given Harold’s earldom of the East Angles, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">succeeds his father as Earl of Mercia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ælfgyfu, wife of King Edwy, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -<br /> -Ælfric, Ealdorman of the Mercians, deserts Wiltshire and Salisbury, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -<br /> -Æthelbald, son of Æthelwulf, marries Judith, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">conspires against his father, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Æthelberht, Bretwalda, King of Kent, first Christian king, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> -<br /> -Æthelberht, King of Wessex and Kent, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> -<br /> -Æthelflæd, daughter of Alfred, Lady of the Mercians, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">her castles, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Æthelfrith, King of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> -<br /> -Ætheling, legitimate son of the royal family, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> -<br /> -Æthelmær, brother of Stigand, Bishop of the East Angles, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -<br /> -Æthelred, King of Wessex and Kent, repels the Danes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -<br /> -Æthelred the Unready, his enmity to Dunstan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his weak rule, quarrels with Cumberland and Normandy, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Emma, massacres the Danes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">flies to Normandy, is recalled and restored, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Æthelstan, son of Eadward, incorporates Bernicia, his supremacy acknowledged by Scotland, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -<br /> -Æthelwine, Bishop of Durham, receives Robert de Comines, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deprived and outlawed, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">at Hereward’s camp, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made prisoner, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Æthelwulf, King of Wessex, fights against the Danes, forms a connection with Rome, divides his kingdom, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> -<br /> -Agriculture, the early system, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">ignorance of, causes famine, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">neglected, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">effect of the Black Death on, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sheep farms, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">improvement in, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aldan, missionary from Iona, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Alan Fergant of Brittany joins Philip of France against William I., marries William’s daughter Constance, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his son joins Matilda, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Alexander II. of Scotland, swears fealty to John, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> -<br /> -Alexander III. of Scotland, swears fealty to Edward 1., <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Alexander II., Pope, sends a ring and banner to William I., <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> -<br /> -<a name="ALX" id="ALX"></a> -Alexander III., Pope, acknowledged by France and England, lives at Sens, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">anxious to secure Henry II.’s friendship, gives Becket slight support, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">receives him on his flight from England, returns to Italy, Frederick of Germany still refuses to acknowledge him, intercourse forbidden by Henry II. between him and England, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">appoints legates to examine Becket’s case, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">removes the excommunications, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">he suspends Becket, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sends a commission, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">after Becket’s death sends legates for a formal inquiry, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry II. promises adhesion to, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Alfred the Great, anointed at Rome, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">conquers the Danes at Ashdown, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes peace, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">improves the fleet, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">flies from the Danes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defeats them at Edington, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes the Treaty of Wedmore, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">establishes supremacy over Northumbria, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Alfred, son of Æthelred, retires to Normandy, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">returns to Essex and is murdered, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Alice, sister of Philip II., quarrel concerning, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">repudiated by Richard I., <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="ALO" id="ALO"></a> -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Alodial'">Allodial</ins> proprietor, or freeman, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> -<br /> -Alphege, Archbishop of Canterbury, killed by the Danes, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">reburied with honour by Cnut at Canterbury, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Amiens, award of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> -<br /> -Angles, come from Sleswig, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">settle in England, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Anjou [see <a href="#FUL">Fulk</a> and <a href="#GEO">Geoffrey</a>], Henry II. conquers, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -<br /> -Anselm, Fitz-Arthur, delays the funeral of William I., <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> -<br /> -Anselm, Abbot of Bec, made Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">reforms the Church, opposes William II., William accuses him of remissness in an expedition against Wales, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">he retires to Rome, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">recalled by Henry I., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">threatens to excommunicate Robert’s friends, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">swears fealty to Matilda, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">asserts the independence of the Church, goes to Rome, submits to a compromise at Bec, holds a synod at Westminster, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>Appellants, impeach the friends of Richard II., <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> -<br /> -Appellants against Gloucester promoted, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deprived, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conspire against Henry IV., <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Armagnacs, quarrel with Burgundians, <a href="#Page_284">284-290</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">have charge of the war, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Army, house-carls, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">militia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">javelins and axes the national weapons at Battle of Hastings, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">arrows at Battle of the Standard, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">change in character of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">raised by contract, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Arras, congress of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> -<br /> -Artevelt, alliance with Edward III., <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">offers to make Prince of Wales Count of Flanders, murdered, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Arthur, son of Geoffrey of Brittany, guardianship claimed by Philip II., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">supported by Longchamp, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard I.’s recognition of, not renewed, supported by Philip, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage to him, deserted by him, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">besieges Queen Eleanor, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his death, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Arundel, Bishop of Ely, Chancellor, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deposed, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Archbishop of Canterbury, banished, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supports Henry IV., <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deprived of his chancellorship, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Arundel, Lord, one of the Lords Appellants, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">arrested, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ascough, minister under Suffolk, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Assize of Clarendon and of Northampton, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> -<br /> -Augustine, the Missionary, comes to England, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> -<br /> -Auxerre, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">its effect, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Badby; burnt, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> -<br /> -Bagsecg, a Danish leader, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -<br /> -Baldwin of Flanders takes Philip II. prisoner, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> -<br /> -Baldwin of Redvers rebels against Stephen, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> -<br /> -Balliol, John, claims the Scotch throne, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">decided by Edward I., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his position, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his rebellion, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Balliol, Edward, first invasion of Scotland, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">second invasion, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Bamborough, founded by Ida, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Mowbray besieged in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Banking-houses of Italy, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Bardi, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Bari, Council of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -<br /> -Barons of the Exchequer, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">assessed the taxes, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Battles—<br /> -<span class="pad1">Agincourt, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Arsouf, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Assandun, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Auray, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aylesford, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Bannockburn, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Basing, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Beaugé, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Blore Heath, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Boroughbridge, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Bouvines, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Bramham, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Brenneville, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Brentford, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Brunanburh, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Châlons, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cressy, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cricklade, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Deorham, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Dol, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Dunbar, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Edington, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ellandune, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Englefield, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Evesham, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ferrybridge, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Formigny, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Halidon Hill, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hastings, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Heathfield, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hedgeley Moor, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hengestesdun, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Herrings, the, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hettin, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hexham, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ipswich, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Lewes, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Lincoln, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Maldon, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Maserfield, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Merton, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Mortimer’s Cross, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Mount Badon, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Navarette, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Neville’s Cross, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Northampton, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ockley, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Orford, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Otterbourne, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pataye, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pen Selwood, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Poitiers, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Puysac, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Radcot, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Reading, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Rochelle, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sherstone, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Shrewsbury, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Stamford Bridge, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sluys, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">St. Albans, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">St. Cloud, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Swanage, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tenchebray, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tewkesbury, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">The Standard, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Thetford, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Towton, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Verneuil, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Wakefield, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Wilton, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Basset, the Justiciary, hangs forty-four thieves at one Court, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> -<br /> -<a name="BEC" id="BEC"></a> -Beauchamp, Guy, second Earl of Warwick, opposes Gaveston, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">beheads him, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Beauchamp, Thomas, fourth Earl, one of the Lords Appellant, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">arrested, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span><span class="pad1">exiled, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Beauchamp, Richard, fifth Earl, succeeds York in France, <a href="#Page_315">315</a><br /> -<br /> -Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, quarrels with Gloucester, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">lends troops to Bedford, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">legate, attacked by Gloucester, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">at Arras, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">visits Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">head of peace party, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="BEM" id="BEM"></a> -Beaumont, Robert, Count of Mellent, good adviser of William I. and II., <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">supports Henry I., his large property, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Beaumont, Waleram, Count of Mellent (son of Robert), opposes the Church, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">offers the crown to Theobald, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="BEA" id="BEA"></a> -Beaumont, Robert, Earl of Leicester (second son of Robert), offers the crown to Theobald, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Henry of Anjou, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">left in charge of England, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ordered to pronounce sentence against Becket, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins the Great Rebellion, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Beaumont, Henry de (no relation to Counts of Mellent), favourite of Edward II., <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> -<br /> -Bec, compromise at, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> -<br /> -Beck, Anthony, Bishop of Durham, agent of Edward I., <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">sent to Scotland, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Becket, first employed by Archbishop Theobald, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made Chancellor, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his magnificence, arranges Prince Henry’s marriage, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins in Henry II.’s war with France, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made Archbishop, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">changes his life, resigns his temporal offices, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">upholds the encroachments of the Church, case of Philip Brois, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">accepts the Constitutions of Clarendon, then retracts, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his reason for objecting, summoned to a council at Northampton, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">charges against him, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his courage, leaves the court before judgment is given, and escapes to Gravelines, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">puts himself under the protection of Louis VII., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">favourably received by the Pope, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">he excommunicates his enemies, retires to Sens, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">meets the legates, but refuses to retract, suspended by the Pope, repeats his excommunications, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry yields, but refuses the kiss of peace, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">at Fretheval he receives the kiss and a safe-conduct to England, returns, and continues his excommunications, his death, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry does penance at his shrine, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his bones removed to Canterbury Cathedral, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Bedford. [See <a href="#JOH">John</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -<a name="BEL" id="BEL"></a> -Belesme, Robert de, son of Roger of Montgomery, opposes William II., <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with Grantmesnil, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">succeeds his brother Hugh as Earl of Shrewsbury, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">constant opponent of Henry I., his great possessions, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry takes four castles from him, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">he retires to Normandy, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">taken prisoner by Henry at Bonneville, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his cruelties, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Benedictine rule, introduced into England by Dunstan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">abbey established at Chester by Anselm, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="BER" id="BER"></a> -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Bereta'">Bercta</ins>, Christian wife of Æthelberht, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> -<br /> -Berengaria, daughter of Raymond of Barcelona, betrothed to Richard I., <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">marries him, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Bernicia, a division of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">conquered by Æthelstan, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made an earldom by Dunstan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Bigod, Roger, supports Henry I. against Robert, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -<br /> -Bigod, Hugh (son of Roger), takes the Earldom of East Anglia (Norfolk), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">declares for Henry II., <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">surrenders castles, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins the Great Rebellion, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Bigod, Roger, fourth Earl of Norfolk, one of the council, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> -<br /> -Bigod, Hugh (his brother), escapes, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> -<br /> -Birinus, converts Wessex, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -Black Death, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">its effect on labour, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Black Prince, at Cressy, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his expedition, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">at Poitiers, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">in Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">illness, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his political party, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Blanche of Castile, engaged to Louis, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">rules France, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defeats Henry, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Blanchelande, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -<br /> -Blanchetaque, ford of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> -<br /> -Bocland, explained, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> -<br /> -<a name="BOH" id="BOH"></a> -Bohun, third Earl of Hereford, refuses to command the army for Guienne, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> -<br /> -Bohun, fourth Earl, marries daughter of Edward I., chief of the baronial party, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">killed, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">wastes his see, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">lives abroad, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">collects an army, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Borough, origin of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -<br /> -Bouchier, Robt., <a href="#Page_1">1</a>st lay chancellor, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> -<br /> -Bouchier, Thomas, archbishop and chancellor, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br /> -<br /> -Breakspear, the only English Pope, Adrian IV., <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">grants Ireland to Henry I., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Brember, Sir Nicholas, impeached, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Brétigny, Peace of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> -<br /> -Bretwalda, title of the dominant chief, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> -<br /> -Brian Fitz-Count, grandson of William I., holds Wallingford for Matilda, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">attests her oath, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defends Wallingford against Stephen, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Brihtnoth, fights the Battle of Maldon, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> -<br /> -Brihtric, brother of Eadric Streona, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -<br /> -Britons expel the Romans, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">invite the Saxons, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">their possessions in the West, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">independent north of the Dee, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Brittany, suzerainty of, given up by Louis VI. to Henry I., <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry II. gets a hold upon it by securing Nantes, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Earl Conan grants it to Henry II, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage to France, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">alliance with England, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">disputed succession in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war in, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">alliance with Henry V., <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">with France, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">with England, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">with France, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">receives the Tudors; 336;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span><span class="pad1">banishes them, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Bruce, claim to the Scotch throne, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">an English judge, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Bruce, Robert, grandson of the claimant, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">murders Comyn, crowned, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reconquers Scotland, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">wins Battle of Bannockburn, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his offer of peace rejected, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">excommunicated, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">truce with, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">promises help to the rebel barons, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">title acknowledged by Edward II., <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war with Edward III., marriage treaty, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his use of infantry, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Bruce, Edward, accepts the throne of Ireland, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">killed, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Buckingham. [See <a href="#STA">Stafford</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Burgundy, Duke of (uncle of Charles VI.), disputes power with Orleans, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> -<br /> -Burgundy, John, murders Orleans, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">negotiates with Henry V., <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">holds aloof from the war, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins the Queen’s party, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deserts Rouen, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="BUR" id="BUR"></a> -Burgundy, Philip, son of John, negotiates with Henry V., <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">alliance with Bedford, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">alliance weakened by Gloucester, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">obtains the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">renewed alliance, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrel with Bedford, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">alliance with France, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Burgundy, Charles the Bold, marries Margaret, sister of Edward IV., <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">alliance with Edward against France, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">death of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Burgundy, Mary of, proposals of marriage for, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Maximilian, dies, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Burhred, King of Mercia, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -<br /> -Burnell, Chancellor, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his advice, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Cade, Jack, his rebellion, <a href="#Page_320">320</a><br /> -<br /> -Calais, siege of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> -<br /> -Calne, Dunstan’s synod at, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -<br /> -Calverley, general of the Free Companies, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> -<br /> -Castles, built by Eadward, the nucleus of towns, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">built by William I. as garrisons, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45-47</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">set up in Wales, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Wales kept in subjection by, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">multiplied in Stephen’s reign, a sign of anarchy, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tortures perpetrated in them, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">number of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">put down by Henry II., <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Catesby, favourite of Richard III., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">speaker of his Parliament, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">couplet on him, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Catherine of France, marries Henry V., <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> -<br /> -Caxton, introduces printing, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> -<br /> -Ceawlin, a Bretwalda, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> -<br /> -Cenwulf, Christian king of Mercia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -Ceolwulf, a Danish agent, king of Mercia, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -<br /> -Ceorl, or freeman, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -<br /> -Cerdic, a Saxon leader, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> -<br /> -Chancellor of the Exchequer, his duties, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">head of the secretaries, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Chandos, English general in France, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> -<br /> -Charlemagne corresponds with Offa, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">checks the Danes, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Charles d’Albret, Constable of France, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his character, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Charles IV. demands homage of Edward II., <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> -<br /> -Charles VI., accession, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">foments rebellion in Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his daughter marries Richard II., <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his madness, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Charles VII., becomes Dauphin, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">rescued by Duchâtel, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">succeeds to the throne, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">character of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>:</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">crowned at Rheims, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">enters Paris, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Charter, the Great. [See <a href="#MAG">Magna</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Charter of Henry I., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Stephen, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Chartres, treaty of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> -<br /> -Chateau-Gaillard, taken by Philip, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> -<br /> -Chaucer, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> -<br /> -Chester, conquered by Ecgberht, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">a Danish burgh, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">taken by William, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made a Palatine county, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">constant fighting with Wales, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Chicheley, Archbishop of Canterbury, persecutes the Lollards, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">grants money for the French War, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Chinon, peace of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">renewed, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Church, organized by Theodore of Tarsus, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">increased importance of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Dunstan’s reforms, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">its important position at the time of the Conquest, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marriage of the clergy permitted, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ecclesiastical and secular jurisdiction separated, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">its national character, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">William I. tries to Romanize it, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marriage of the clergy forbidden by Lanfranc, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">William I. head of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">general improvement of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">oppressed by William II., his bad appointments, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">archbishopric vacant four years after Lanfranc’s death, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">want of discipline in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Anselm defends ecclesiastical rights, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his reforms, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Irish and Scotch bishops acknowledge the supremacy of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">laymen forbidden to confer investitures, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dispute between Anselm and Henry I. as to the supremacy of the Church or State, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ends in a compromise at Bec, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">decrees against abuses in the Church at a synod at Westminster, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">its civilizing power, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">continued bad appointments in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">its influence secures Stephen the throne, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">its great power, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">offended by Stephen, espouses Matilda’s cause, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">mediates a compromise between Stephen and Prince Henry, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">gives scutage in Henry II.’s wars with Wales, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">and with France, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">abuses arising from the clergy not being amenable to the secular courts, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">claims upheld by Becket, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard I.’s ransom chiefly paid by, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dispute as to the election of archbishops, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">interdict in John’s reign, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">money extorted from, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rights secured by Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supports De Burgh, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Langton resists Papal tyranny, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">society formed against foreign priests, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span><span class="pad1">opposes Des Roches, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins the lay opposition, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">revival in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">foreign priests, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papal extortions, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Statute of Mortmain, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">half their property demanded by Edward I., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">refuses further grants, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">outlawed, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">represented in Parliament, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrel with Edward II., <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Edward III. attempts to exclude the Bishops from Parliament, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">begins to be disliked by the people, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">attacked by Wicliffe, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Statute of Provisors, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">hated by the people, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supported by Henry IV., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">persecutes the Lollards, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">urges Henry V. to the French war, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">grants him the incomes of priories held by foreigners, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">remains prosperous during the war, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">retains its property during the Wars of the Roses, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">loses spirituality and sympathy with the people, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Cistercian order, Henry II. threatens to expel it for receiving Becket, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> -<br /> -Clare, Richard de, Earl of Gloucester, head of the Barons, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with De Montfort, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">commands the baronial party, dies, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Clare, Gilbert de, Earl of Gloucester, joins De Montfort, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">on the committee, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deserts De Montfort, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rejoins the baronial party, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">governor in Edward I.’s absence, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Clarence. [See <a href="#LIO">Lionel</a> and <a href="#THO">Thomas</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Clarence, George, son of Richard of York, marriage, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">supports Wells’ rebellion, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">accompanies Warwick, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Edward, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with Richard, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his death, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Clifford, killed at St. Albans, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">northern lord, opponent of the Nevilles, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Clifford (his son), killed at Ferrybridge, <a href="#Page_328">328</a><br /> -<br /> -Clifford, executed by Richard III., <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> -<br /> -Cnut, son of Swegen, acknowledged King of England by the Danes, compelled to retreat, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Edmund cedes to him Northumbria and Mercia, acknowledged King of England on Edmund’s death, banishes the royal family, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">desires to form a Scandinavian empire, his code of laws, goes to Rome, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Cnut, King of Denmark, threatens to invade England, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Cobham, Lord, joins York, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br /> -<br /> -Coinage, false, forbidden, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">issued, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">severe punishment against, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">habit of breaking it, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">private coinage, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">renewed by Edward I., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">described in Edward III.’s time, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Columba founds Iona, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -Comitatus, body of warriors attending a chief, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -<br /> -Commendation, explained, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">reasons for, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Comyn, member of the regency, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his claim to the throne, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Comyn, John, regent, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">makes a treaty with Edward I., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Conan, a citizen of Rouen, rebels against Robert, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> -<br /> -Conan, Prince of Brittany, marries a daughter of Henry I., <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">grants Brittany to Henry II., <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Conrad of Montferrat, King of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> -<br /> -Constance, daughter of William I., marries Alan Fergant of Brittany, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -<br /> -Constance, marries Geoffrey, son of Henry II., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">upholds Arthur’s claims, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Constantine, King of Scotland, receives Guthrith, defeated by Æthelstan, acknowledges his supremacy, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -<br /> -Constitutions of Clarendon, produced by Henry II., <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">description of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Becket accepts and recants, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry II. promises to abrogate, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Conversion of the English, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> -<br /> -Convocation, origin of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br /> -<br /> -Copsige, Earl of Bernicia, killed in a revolt, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -<br /> -Cornwall, British possession, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">submits to Wessex, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">alliance with the Danes, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Cosne, siege of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br /> -<br /> -Cotentin given to Robert of Normandy, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -<br /> -Councils—<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Bari, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Rome, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Clarendon, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Northampton, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Lyons, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Courcy, fights in Ireland, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">suppressed by De Lacey, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="COU" id="COU"></a> -Courtenay, Thomas, sixth Earl of Devonshire, with York, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">at war with Lord Bonville, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Henry VI., <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">beheaded, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Courtenay, John, eighth Earl (brother of Thomas), killed at Tewkesbury, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> -<br /> -Courts (of law and justice) before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_32">32-34</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">modified by William I., <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">by Henry I., <a href="#Page_74">74-76</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dispute between secular and ecclesiastical, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reorganized by Henry II., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">superiority of central courts increased, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Cressingham, Treasurer of Scotland, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated by Wallace, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Cromwell, Ralph, treasurer, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins York, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Crusades, Robert pledges Normandy to be free to join in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his success at Dorylæum and Ascalon, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ivo of Grantmesnil at the siege of Antioch, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">preached by St. Bernard, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry II. promises to go on one, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">causes for the third, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">urged by the Pope, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">preached by Heraclius, Bishop of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">bad effect of, in England, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Richard I., <a href="#Page_117">117-121</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">perversions of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made excuse for taxes, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Cumberland, overrun by Danes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">refuses to pay the Danegelt, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">a Scotch district, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">William II. peoples it from the destroyed villages near Winchester, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span><span class="pad1">David I. does homage for, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Curia Regis, established by William I., <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">organized by Henry I., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">has no legislative authority, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reconstituted by Henry II., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restricted to five persons, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Customs, origin of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /> -<br /> -Cymric, a Saxon leader, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> -<br /> -Cytric of Northumbria does fealty to Æthelstan, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Danes, first appearance of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">winter in Thanet, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquer Northumbria and East Anglia, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">further conquests, treaty of Wedmore, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">in Ireland, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">in the Lothians, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fresh invasions in Æthelred’s reign, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">massacred by Æthelred, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fresh invasion under Thurkill, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Danegelt, begun by Æthelred at Sigeric’s advice, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">imposed by William I. on Cnut’s threatened invasion, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry II. makes scutage take its place, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">farmed, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">renewed by Richard I., <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Danelagu, country granted to the Danes, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Swegen, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Danish burghs, names of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Edmund Ironside gets possession of them, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> -<br /> -David of Wales, his rebellion and death, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> -<br /> -David I., King of Scotland, supports Matilda’s claims, conspiracy to make him King of England, invades England, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> -<br /> -David II. of Scotland, marries Jane, sister of Edward III., <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deposed by Balliol, takes refuge in France, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">invades England, taken prisoner, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his conduct as prisoner, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">released, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Decretals, False, note, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> -<br /> -Deira, southern division of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> -<br /> -De Lacey. [See <a href="#LAC">Lacey</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Derby, son of Henry of Lancaster, sent to Gascony, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> -<br /> -Dermot, King of Leinster, carries off O’Ruark’s wife, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage to Henry II, Strongbow marries his daughter, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Despenser, Thomas, made Earl of Gloucester, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deprived, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Despensers, favourites of Edward II., <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">power increases, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrel with the Welsh marchers, banished, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">recalled, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">triumphant, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">prevent Edward II. from going to France, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Devonshire. [See <a href="#COU">Courtenay</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Domain, royal, origin of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">increased by William I., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">granted by Stephen to his new earls, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">source of royal revenue, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Domesday-Book, a register of land, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">entries of “waste” in it, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hereward’s property mentioned in, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made by William I., <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ralph Flambard proposes to complete it, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">surveyors for it examined on oath, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">a similar survey ordered by Richard I., <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Dominicans, in England, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -<br /> -Dress, in Edward III.’s time, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> -<br /> -Dublin, a Danish town, conquered by Strongbow, surrendered to Henry II., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">colonized by English, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Dunois, French general, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br /> -<br /> -Dunstan, legends concerning him, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his life, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his imperial rule, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his reform of the Church, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his enemies force him to retire, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Dyfed, a province in Wales, granted to Arnulf of Montgomery, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<br /> -Dymock, joins Wells’ rebellion, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Eadgar the Peaceful, Dunstan raises him to an imperial position, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -<br /> -Eadgar, grandson of Edmund Ironside, Harold elected king instead of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">elected king by the Southern Witan, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">offers the crown to William, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">attempts a rebellion, flies to Scotland, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">returns, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">received by Malcolm Canmore, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">serves with Robert of Normandy, taken prisoner at Tenchebray, but set free, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Eadred, conquers Northumbria, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his reign, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Eadric Streona, his bad influence, marries Æthelred’s daughter Edith, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his treachery, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cnut employs him to kill Edwy, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made Earl of Mercia, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">put to death, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Eadric the Forester, or the Wild, ravages Hereford, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">supports Eadgar against William I., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">besieges Shrewsbury, and is defeated, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">goes with William to Scotland, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Eadward the Elder, his reign, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -<br /> -Eadward the Martyr, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -<br /> -Eadwine, King of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> -<br /> -Ealdred, Archbishop of York, offers William I. the crown, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">death of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ealdorman, origin of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">rise of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">duties of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Earl, origin of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -<br /> -Earldoms, Dunstan divides Northumbria into three, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Cnut divides England into four, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Godwine’s family obtain large, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">William I. limits their size to one county each, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">only three in 1131, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Stephen creates many, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br /> -<br /> -East Anglia, foundation of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">subject to Kent, conversion of, conquered by Eadwine, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquered by Danes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">helps Hasting against Alfred, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">acknowledges the supremacy of Wessex, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supports Dunstan’s party, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">repels the Danish invasion in Æthelred’s reign, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">resists the Danes under Ulfcytel, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cnut makes it an earldom, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">helps Harold against William I., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ralph of Gwader, Earl of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Bigod becomes Earl of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ecgberht, King of Wessex, secures its supremacy, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> -<br /> -Edith, daughter of Godwine, marries Edward the Confessor, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edmund, King of East Anglia, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -<br /> -Edmund, King, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span><span class="pad1">makes Osulf Earl of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">grants part of Strathclyde to Scotland, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edmund Ironside marries the wife of Sigeferth, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">chosen king by London, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fights five battles against the Danes, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">gives up Northumbria and Mercia to Cnut, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edmund Rich, Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">causes Des Roches’ fall, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his death, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his reforms, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edmund, son of Henry III., accepts the kingdom of Sicily, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">governor in Henry III.’s absence, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">negotiates with Philip IV., <a href="#Page_184">184</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edmund, fifth son of Edward III., Duke of Cambridge and York, fighting in France, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his marriage, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">friendly to Richard II., <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">assists Lancaster, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edmund, Earl of March, ignored by Henry IV., <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">attempted escape, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reinstated by Henry V., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conspiracy to crown him, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edmund, Duke of Rutland, son of Richard of York, escapes to Ireland, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">beheaded, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edward I., governor of Gascony, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">engaged to Eleanor, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">a reformer, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins his father against the Barons, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">prisoner after Lewes, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">desire for his release, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">escapes, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">wins battle of Evesham, receives De Montfort’s property, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">goes on a crusade, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his coronation, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquers Wales, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">mediator between France and Aragon, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">checks disturbances, banishes the Jews, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">proposes a marriage treaty with Scotland, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">death of his wife, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">awards the crown of Scotland, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war with France, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">with Scotland, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">outlaws the clergy, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">arbitrary taxation, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">goes to Flanders, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes treaty of Chartres, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Margaret, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defeats Wallace, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">second conquest of Scotland, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">death, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edward II., betrothed to Maid of Norway, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">governor in Edward I.’s absence, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">betrothed to Isabella, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character 197;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">favours to Gaveston, first expedition to Scotland, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">imprisons the Templars; 199;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">second invasion of Scotland, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restores Gaveston, flies from Lancaster, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">third invasion of Scotland, Bannockburn, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">accepts Lancaster as Minister, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">favours the Despensers, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fourth invasion of Scotland, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with the Church, with France, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">taken prisoner, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edward III., engaged to Philippa, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made king, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">overthrows Mortimer, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">receives Balliol’s fealty, his claim to the French throne, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">prepares for war, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">assumes the title of King of France, wins the battle of Sluys, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">displaces his ministry, quarrels with Stratford, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supports John of Montfort, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">lands at La Hogue, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">battle of Cressy, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edward IV., takes refuge in Calais, lands with Warwick, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">collects troops, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">enters London, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">wins the battle of Towton, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his first Parliament, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his marriage, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his Burgundian policy, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">imprisoned by Warwick, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">escapes to Flanders, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">wins the battle of Barnet, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with Clarence, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">expedition to France, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">projects of marriage, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">death and character, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edward V., brought to London, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deposed, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edward, son of Henry VI., born, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Anne of Warwick, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">killed, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edward, son of Edward IV., captured, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edward, son of Richard III., dies, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> -<br /> -Edward, son of Æthelred, kept in Normandy, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -<br /> -Edward, son of Edmund Ironside, sent abroad, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edward the Confessor, elected king, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his love of Frenchmen, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character and death, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">names Harold his successor, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edwin, son of Ælfgar, succeeds to his earldom of Mercia, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated by Tostig, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deserts Harold, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">hopes to be elected king, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">refuses to assist Eadgar, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reinstated in his earldom, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins a rebellion, but submits to William I., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Hereward’s rebellion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">is killed, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Edwy, King, legends concerning him, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">banishes Dunstan, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">divides the kingdom with Eadgar, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Eleanor, divorced wife of Louis VII., marries Henry of Anjou, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">her claim to Toulouse causes war between England and France, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">she urges her sons to rebellion, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">is disliked by Henry, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restrains John in Richard’s absence, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">boldly opposes him, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">assists John against Arthur, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">besieged in Mirabeau, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Eleanor, daughter of Henry II., marries Alphonso of Castile, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">connects England with Spain, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Eleanor of Provence, marries Henry III., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">assaulted by the Londoners, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">assembles an army, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Eleanor of Castile, marries Edward I., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">her death, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., proposed marriages for, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> -<br /> -Ella, leader of the Saxons, called Bretwalda, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> -<br /> -Ella, King of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -<br /> -Emma, daughter of Richard the Fearless, marries Æthelred, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">followed by many Normans, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">retires to Normandy, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Cnut, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Emma, sister of Fitz-Osbern, marries Ralph, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span><span class="pad1">defends Norwich, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> -<br /> -English language, Provisions of Oxford published in, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">becomes the language of the people, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">statute of Parliament in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made national by Chaucer, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Englishry, law of, explained, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -<br /> -Equitable power, meaning of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -<br /> -Esplechin, treaty of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> -<br /> -Essex, Earl of, judicial duel between him and De Montfort, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -<br /> -Ethel, land held by hereditary succession, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> -<br /> -Ethelbald, King of Mercia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -Ethelric, Bishop of Selsey, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -<br /> -Eustace of Boulogne, husband of Edward the Confessor’s sister, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">attacks William’s town of Dover, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Eustace, son of Stephen, Henry of Winchester demands from Matilda his foreign possessions for him, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Stephen brings him forward in opposition to Prince Henry, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papal bull obtained to prevent his coronation, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Exchequer Court organized by Roger of Salisbury, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">origin of the name, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Exeter, conquered by the Danes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">faithful to Harold, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">desires independence, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">captured by William, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Exeter, Earl of. [See <a href="#HOL">Holland</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Eye, castle of, given to Becket, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">he borrows money on, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Falconbridge. [See <a href="#NEV">Neville</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Fastolf, Sir John, at battle of the Herrings, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">at Pataye, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Faukes de Breauté, destruction of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> -<br /> -Ferrand of Flanders, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">attacks Philip II., <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ferrars of Derby joins the Great Rebellion against Henry II., <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> -<br /> -Feudal system existed in England before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">its institutions in Germany before the Saxon invasion, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">origin of the connection between vassal and lord, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">German institutions introduced into England, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">connection between land and judicial power, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">every man made the man of the King, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">its natural growth checked by William I., <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fresh institutions introduced, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">unbridled in Stephen’s reign, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">introduction of new nobles, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">chivalry takes its place, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Finance. [See <a href="#TAX">Taxes</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Fitz-Gerald, son of Nesta invades Ireland with Strongbow, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> -<br /> -Fitz-Gilbert, fights against Wales, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Fitz-Gilbert at Marlborough, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> -<br /> -Fitz-Osbern, made Earl of Hereford, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">the North left in his charge, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">given the castle of York, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">subdues the Rebellion in the West, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Fitz-Osbern, Roger, his conspiracy, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -<br /> -Fitz-Peter, Geoffrey, Justiciary, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Earl of Essex, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">character and death, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Flanders, Philip, Count of, threatens to invade England, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins the Rebellion against Henry II., <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Fleet, improved by Alfred, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made powerful by Eadgar, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">collected by Æthelred against the Danes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">condition of, in Edward III.’s reign, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Flemings, Henry I., colonizes Wales with, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> -<br /> -Folcland, public land, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">becomes royal domain, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made crown property by William I., <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Food, profusion of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> -<br /> -Franchise explained, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -<br /> -Franciscans, their success in England, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -<br /> -Frankpledge, described, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">cannot be proved before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">used by Henry I. as the basis of his police system, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the Hundred Court saw to its being carried out, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Frederick Barbarossa, asserts the supremacy of the secular power; sets up a rival Pope Victor IV., <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">on Victor’s death sets up Pascal III., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">asks for two daughters of Henry II. for his son, and for Henry of Saxony, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">punishes Henry for deserting him, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies on his way to the third crusade, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Free Companies of France, <a href="#Page_232">232-234</a><br /> -<br /> -Free-holders degenerate into villeins, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -<br /> -Froissart, his account of Gloucester, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">describes Richard II.’s rule, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="FUL" id="FUL"></a> -Fulk IV. of Anjou, assists Maine against William I., <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">against William II., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">assists Henry I. against Robert, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supports William Clito against Henry I., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">is won back by Henry, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">turns against him on Robert’s death, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Fulthorpe, betrays Richard II.’s plans to Gloucester, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">convicts Scrope and Mowbray, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Gascoigne, Judge, refuses to convict Scrope and Mowbray, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">removed, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Gascony, De Montfort’s government of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> -<br /> -Gaston de Bearn, his rebellion, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">treaty with Edward I., <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Gaveston, Piers, favourite of Edward II., banished, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">returns, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">anger of the Barons against, banished, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">returns, beheaded, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Geoffrey, Bishop of Coutances, relieves Montacute, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">opposes William II., <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="GEO" id="GEO"></a> -Geoffrey, son of Fulk of Anjou, marries Matilda, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">invades Normandy, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Stephen purchases a truce from, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Theobald proposes that the crown of England should be offered him, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Geoffrey of Lusignan, quarrels with Richard, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> -<br /> -Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Chronicle, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> -<br /> -Geoffrey, son of Henry II., marries Constance of Brittany, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins the Great Rebellion against his father, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">is pardoned, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Henry against Richard and his father, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins John against Richard, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span><span class="pad1">hurt by his father’s partiality to John, claims Anjou, his father refuses, he flies to France, and dies, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Geoffrey, natural son of Henry II., repels a Scotch invasion, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made Bishop of Lincoln, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made chancellor, attends Henry at his death, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made Archbishop of York in exchange for the chancellorship, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">promises not to enter England in Richard’s absence, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">comes, and is arrested by Longchamp, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">John takes his part, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Geraldus Cambrensis, the historian, his parentage, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> -<br /> -Gerberoi, reconciliation at, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> -<br /> -Gerbod, the Fleming, stepson of William I., made Earl of Chester, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -<br /> -Gesith, comrade of the king, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -<br /> -Gisors, treaty of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dispute concerning, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">meeting at, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Godwine, made Earl of Essex, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">gets the South of England for Harthacnut, practically rules himself, accused of murdering Alfred, his eloquence secures the throne for Edward, his daughter Edith marries the king, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his national policy opposed to Edward’s French policy, obtains more earldoms for his family, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his rivalry with Leofric, banished, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">returns in triumph, his death, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his support of the secular clergy, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his domains confiscated to William I., <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Gospatric, Earl of Northumberland, invades Cumberland, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -<br /> -Gregory the Great sends missionaries to England, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> -<br /> -Grey of Ruthyn, taken prisoner, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">ransomed, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Grey, Thomas, engaged to the heiress of the Duke of Exeter, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Earl of Dorset, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">has charge of Edward V., apprehended, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">beheaded, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Grey, Richard, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">takes sanctuary at Westminster, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Grostête, Bishop of Lincoln, his reforms, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -<br /> -Gryffith, his insurrection, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> -<br /> -Gualo, Papal Legate, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">recalled, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Guilds, described, <a href="#Page_259">259-261</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> -<br /> -Guingamp, not granted to Henry II. with Brittany, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> -<br /> -Gurth, fourth son of Godwine, made Earl of East Anglia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">killed at battle of Hastings, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Guthrum, Danish invader, King of East Anglia, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">conquers Wareham and Exeter, baptized under the name of Æthelstan, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Gutred, King of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> -<br /> -Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem, meets Richard I. at Cyprus, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">besieges Acre, allies himself to Richard, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard, knowing his incompetence, makes Henry of Champagne king instead of him, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Gwynneth, his insurrection, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -<br /> -Gytha, mother of Harold, flies to the Channel Isles, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Halfdene, Danish leader, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">overruns Strathclyde, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Harfleur, capture of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> -<br /> -Harklay, defeats Lancaster at Boroughbridge, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Harold, son of Cnut, a barbarian, made King by Godwine, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -<br /> -Harold, son of Godwine, outlawed and goes to Ireland; his Earldom given to Ælfgar, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">returns in triumph, succeeds to his father’s earldom, fights successfully against Ælfgar and the Welsh, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">elected King, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">story of his oath to William, prepares to resist William’s invasion, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquers Tostig, forms his camp at Senlac, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">killed in the battle, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">strong party for his family in the West, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his sons dispersed, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">land in Devonshire, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated and escape to Ireland, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, his exploits, joins Tostig, slain, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> -<br /> -Harthacnut, King of South of England, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -<br /> -Hasting, a Danish pirate, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> -<br /> -Hastings, his claim to the Scotch throne, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> -<br /> -Hastings, of the new nobility, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Richard, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">beheaded, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Haverfordwest, colonized by Flemings, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> -<br /> -Heathenism, sustained by Penda, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">succumbs to Oswi, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Hélie de la Fléche, resists William II. in Maine, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">assists Henry I. against Robert, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">William Clito intrusted to him, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">flies with him, tries in vain to rouse the nobles in his favour, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry I., quarrels with Robert, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">heir-apparent, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Robert against Conan of Rouen, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">besieged in Mont St. Michel, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">hunting in the New Forest, crowned, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conciliates England, his marriage, character of his policy, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">overcomes Robert and his partisans, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">unites England and Normandy, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his son’s death, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war against William Clito, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his death, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his dispute with Anselm, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his administration, <a href="#Page_74">74-76</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry II., born at Le Mans, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">comes to England, succeeds to Anjou, his marriage, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his reforms, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fights in Anjou, Scotland, and Wales, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his friendship for Becket, marriage treaty with Louis VII., goes to war for Toulouse, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">introduces scutage, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">objects to clerical courts, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">produces the Constitutions of Clarendon, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his dispute with Becket, <a href="#Page_96">96-98</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">invades Wales, obtains Brittany, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reconciliation with Becket, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his behaviour at Becket’s death, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his conquest of Ireland, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">suppresses the great insurrection, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes peace with France, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his legislation, <a href="#Page_106">106-108</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his position in Europe, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">difficulties with his sons, <a href="#Page_110">110-112</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his death, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span><span class="pad1">his administration, and importance in Europe, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry III., declared of age, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with De Burgh, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fails in Poitou, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">becomes his own Minister, his marriage, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">second expedition to Poitou, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his favour for foreigners, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrel with De Montfort, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">accepts the kingdom of Sicily, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">promises reform, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">swears to the Provisions of Oxford, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">gets absolved from his vows, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">at the battle of Lewes, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry IV., made Earl of Derby, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">friendly to Richard II., <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with Norfolk, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">returns from banishment, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">captures Richard, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his coronation, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his difficulties, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">expedition to Scotland, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his quarrel with the Percies, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">captures Prince James of Scotland, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his submission to the Commons, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his failing health, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his foreign policy, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his Church policy, his jealousy of the Prince of Wales, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry V., in command of the war in Wales, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">at the battle of Shrewsbury, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">head of the Council, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character as Prince, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his popularity, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his Church policy, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his reasons for the French war, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his preparations, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">he captures Harfleur, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">battle of Agincourt, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his friendship for Sigismund, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his second invasion of France, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">besieges Rouen, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes the Treaty of Troyes, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">enters Paris, dies, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry VI., his education intrusted to Warwick, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">coronation, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marriage, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his interview with York, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">first fit of imbecility, recovers, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">wounded at St Albans, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">second fit of imbecility, his recovery, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">he attempts reconciliation, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deserted after the battle of Northampton, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rescued by the Queen at the second battle of St. Albans, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">escapes to Scotland, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">captured and imprisoned, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">re-crowned, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry of Poitou, Abbot of Peterborough, his bad character, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> -<br /> -Henry the Lion of Saxony, Frederick I. asks for Henry II.’s daughter for him, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">he marries Matilda, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rival of Frederick, deserts him, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">asks the help of Henry II., <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry, son of Henry II., marries Margaret of France, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">crowned, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">demands actual possession of part of his kingdom, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">objects to his brother John’s marriage-treaty, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">befriended by Louis VII., joins the Great Rebellion against his father, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">is conquered, his dependants have to abjure their fealty to him, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">is reconciled with his father, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">demands homage from his brothers, is refused, dies, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry VI., Emperor of Germany, marries Constance of Sicily, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">keeps Richard I. in prison, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">receives his homage for England, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry of Lancaster, second son of Edmund, joins Isabella against Edward II., <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his opposition to Mortimer, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">member of Edward III.’s council, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry, Bishop of Winchester, brother of Stephen, secures him the throne, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">upholds the dignity of the Church, escorts Matilda, demands the See of Salisbury for his nephew, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">when Stephen refuses, declares his adhesion to Matilda, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">alienated by her refusal of his request for Eustace, demands Stephen’s release, besieged by Matilda at Winchester, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deprived of his legatine authority, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">mediates a compromise between Henry and Stephen, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">retires to Clugny, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Henry d’Almeyne, son of Richard, King of the Romans, prisoner after battle of Lewes, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">desires conciliatory policy, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Heraclius, Bishop of Jerusalem, preaches a crusade, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> -<br /> -Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, defeats Jasper Tudor, killed, <a href="#Page_332">332</a><br /> -<br /> -Hereford. [See <a href="#BOH">Bohun</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Hereward, attacks the monastery of Peterborough, collects the old English exiles, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">is defeated and escapes, legends concerning his death, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Hidage explained, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> -<br /> -Hide of land explained, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> -<br /> -Hildebrand. [See <a href="#POP">Pope Gregory VII</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Holland, Sir John, brother of Richard II., kills a friar, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">kills the Earl of Stafford, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="HOL" id="HOL"></a> -Holland, Duke of Exeter, flies to Scotland with Henry VI., <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Horsa, Jutish Ealdorman, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">killed, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> -<br /> -House-carls, explained, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">used tyrannically, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">faithful to Harold, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Howard, Sir John, counsellor of Edward IV., <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">supports Richard III., <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made Duke of Norfolk, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">at the battle of Bosworth, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Hubba invades England, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> -<br /> -Hubert de Burgh, has charge of Arthur, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">defeats French fleet, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Regent, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">destroys his enemies, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his rule, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">prevents Henry III.’s expedition to France, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his fall, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">character, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">property restored, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Hugh, Bishop of Rouen, deserts Stephen, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> -<br /> -Hugh of Avranches, Earl of Chester, assists Odo, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">loses and wins back Anglesey, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">invites Anselm to establish Benedictine Abbey at Chester, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Hugh de Grantmesnil, holds large property in England, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">opposes William II., <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span><span class="pad1">quarrels with Belesme, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Hugh of Neufchâtel receives Robert of Normandy, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -<br /> -Hugh de Pudsey, Bishop of Durham, joins the Great Rebellion against Henry II., is conquered, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">buys the earldom of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supplanted by Longchamp, becomes his enemy, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">produces his grievances against him, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Humphrey, fourth son of Henry IV., Duke of Gloucester, proposed Regent in England, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">President of the Council, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Jacqueline, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with Beaufort, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">persecutes the Lollards, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">head of the war party, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his claim on Flanders, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his obstinacy, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his death, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his literary tastes, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Hundred, analogous to the German Pagus, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">England divided into, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Hundred Court, in Saxon times, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">connected with the Curia Regis by Henry I., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">its duties, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Huntingdon, Earl of, deprived, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">conspires against Henry IV., <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Impeachment, first instance of parliamentary, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">by the Lords Appellant, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ingvar invades England, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> -<br /> -Interdict in John’s reign, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> -<br /> -Investitures, dispute as to, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> -<br /> -Ireland, Danes in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Harold’s sons fly there, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">granted to Henry II. by Adrian IV., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">condition of, Strongbow’s invasion, Henry II.’s conquest of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">land granted to his followers, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">John restores order in, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Edward Bruce King of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">English government re-established, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard II.’s expedition to, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his second visit to, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Irish Church, accepts Roman discipline, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> -<br /> -Isaac of Cyprus, conquered by Richard I., <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> -<br /> -Isabella de la Marche, marries John, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Count de la Marche, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Isabella of France, marries Edward II., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">insulted at Leeds, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">goes to France, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conspires against Edward II., <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deposes him, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">her rule, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">her deposition, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Isabella of France marries Richard II., <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">her restoration demanded, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Isabella, wife of Charles VI., joins the Burgundians, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> -<br /> -Itinerant justices, sent out by Henry I., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">by Henry II., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ivo of Taillebois, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> -<br /> -Ivo of Grantmesnil, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -<br /> -Ivry, siege of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Jacqueline of Hainault, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br /> -<br /> -Jacquetta of St. Pol, marries Bedford, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br /> -<br /> -Jane, sister of Henry III., marries Alexander II., <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> -<br /> -Jane, sister of Edward III., marries David II., <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> -<br /> -Jane of Montfort defends Brittany, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> -<br /> -Jane Shore does penance, <a href="#Page_343">343</a><br /> -<br /> -James I. of Scotland, captured and educated by Henry IV., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">released, marries Joan Beaufort, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes alliance with France, invades England, murdered, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br /> -<br /> -James III. of Scotland, his character, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> -<br /> -Jerusalem, kingdom of, refused by Robert, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">character of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">overwhelmed by Saladin, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Jews, admitted to England by William I., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">their condition, persecuted by Richard, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">by John, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">banished by Edward I., <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Joan of Arc, <a href="#Page_308">308-311</a><br /> -<br /> -Joanna, daughter of Henry II., marries William of Sicily, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">imprisoned by Tancred, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restored to Richard I., accompanies him to Palestine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Raymond of St. Gilles, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="JOH" id="JOH"></a> -John, Duke of Bedford, third son of Henry IV., Lieutenant of England, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Regent in France, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">character, marriage, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">visits England, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">returns, renews alliance with Burgundy and Brittany, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">captures Joan of Arc, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his second marriage, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">visits England, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></span><br /> -<br /> -John, Bishop of Oxford, sent to the Pope, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his excommunication by Becket, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">it is removed by the Pope, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sent as Becket’s escort, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made Bishop of Norwich, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> -<br /> -John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich, elected Archbishop of Canterbury, great administrator, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">governor in Ireland, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br /> -<br /> -John (King), marries Alice of Savoy, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">favourite of Henry II., <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war with Richard, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry II.’s grief at his rebellion, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his great possessions, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tries to secure the succession, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restrained by his mother, purchases Philip’s favour, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his party destroyed, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">nominated successor, crowned at Rouen and Westminster, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his strong position, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">excites the anger of his subjects, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">kills Arthur, loses Normandy, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with the Church and the Pope, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">is excommunicated, settles Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his extortions, joins the League, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dethroned by the Pope, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">is reconciled with the Church, goes to Poitou, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated at Bouvines, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">signs Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">attempts to break it, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br /> -<br /> -John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., commanding in France, marriage, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">assumes the government, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">renewed power, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">protects Wicliffe, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">hated by the people, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">head of the Council, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deserts Wicliffe, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">character of his government, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">goes to Spain, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">returns, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span><span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br /> -<br /> -John, King of France, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">taken prisoner at Poitiers, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">liberated, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, ancestress of Matilda, wife of William I., her three marriages, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> -<br /> -Jurisdiction, early organization of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">connected with the possession of land, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the Witan, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">old machinery retained by William, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ecclesiastical separated from secular, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">private, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">punishment of corrupt judges, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Jury, origin of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> -<br /> -Justiciary, his duties, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">president of the Curia Regis, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Kemp, Archbishop of Canterbury and Chancellor, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Kenilworth, last stronghold of the Barons, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Dictum of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Kent, Earl of, half-brother of Edward II., his conspiracy and death, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> -<br /> -Kent, Earl of, his conspiracy against Henry IV., beheaded, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> -<br /> -<a name="KIN" id="KIN"></a> -King, the origin of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his personal relation becomes territorial, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his office elective, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">becomes supreme landowner, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">practically irresponsible, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">position of William I., <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Henry I., as feudal lord, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his equitable power, his power of making laws and levying taxes, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">misery caused by a weak king, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rivalry with the Church, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his judicial power, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">opposition to his overstrained power, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">view of his position in a political poem of Henry III.’s time, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">desire of Edward I. for despotism, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">opposition of his clergy and barons, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his legislative power, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Edward II.’s prerogative restricted by the Ordinances, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard II.’s despotism, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry IV.’s power checked by the Commons, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">character of Edward IV.’s monarchy, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Knowles, general of the Free Companies, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">opposes Wat Tyler, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a name="LAC" id="LAC"></a> -Lacey, Hugh de, does homage for land beyond Hereford, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<br /> -Lacey, Hugh (his nephew), sent as envoy to O’Connor, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made Earl of Meath, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Lacey, Hugh de (son of Earl of Meath), obtains the kingdom of Ulster, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> -<br /> -La Hire, French general, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br /> -<br /> -Lancaster, Thomas, Earl of, opposition to Gaveston, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his great possessions, Edward II. flies from, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made minister, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Hereford in rebellion, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">surrenders, is beheaded, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Land, how apportioned by the Saxons in England, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">tenure becomes military, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">granted to Normans by William I., <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Landrica, his jurisdiction, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his position, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, connects the Church with Rome, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">establishes ecclesiastical courts, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">England left in charge of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supports William II., <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restrains him, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">prevents the quarrel on investitures from reaching England, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, consecrated, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">opposes John, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">causes Pandulf’s fall, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">excommunicates Hubert’s enemies, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his national policy, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Latimer, leader of a rebellion against Edward IV., <a href="#Page_332">332</a><br /> -<br /> -La Tremouille, favourite of Charles VII., <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">opposed to peace, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Layamon, his translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Chronicle, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> -<br /> -Leicester. [See <a href="#BEA">Beaumont</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Leofric, Earl of Mercia, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">competes with Godwine, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Leofwine, fifth son of Godwine, outlawed, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Earl of Essex and Kent, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">killed at Hastings, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Lindisfarne, episcopal See in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -<a name="LIO" id="LIO"></a> -Lionel, third son of Edward III., Duke of Clarence, left in command of England during the French war, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">governor of Ireland, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Lisle, Lord, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">takes sanctuary, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Literature, <a href="#Page_270">270-274</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> -<br /> -Llewellyn, John’s son-in-law, submits to him, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> -<br /> -Llewellyn, attacks Mortimer’s lands, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">refuses to obey the summons of Edward I., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquered and killed, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Læt, position of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">origin of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">settle on the demesne land, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Lollards, their petition, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">their doctrines, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">persecuted by Henry IV., <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">by Henry V., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">by Gloucester, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">by Suffolk, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Longchamp, Chancellor, buys bishopric of Ely, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">justiciary and legate, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard I. orders his arrest, his dispute with Geoffrey and John, is dismissed, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">retires to France, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Lothians, granted to Scotland, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -<br /> -Louis VI., upholds William Clito, defeated at Puysac, makes peace, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> -<br /> -Louis VII., divorces Eleanor, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his friendship secured by Henry II., <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">cemented by a marriage-treaty, war with Henry II., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">receives Alexander III., <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">protects Becket, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war with Henry II., <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supports Prince Henry, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes peace, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">jealous of Henry II.’s power, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Louis VIII., engaged to Blanche of Castile, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">summoned to England, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">retires, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Louis XI., makes Treaty of Pecquigni, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> -<br /> -Louis of Bavaria, Emperor, dispute with the Pope, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins France against Edward III., <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>Lovel, favourite of Richard III., <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Magesætas, men of Hereford, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -<br /> -<a name="MAG" id="MAG"></a> -Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">re-enacted, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">confirmed, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Maid of Norway, betrothed, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Maine, Robert, Governor of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">William II. fights against, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">suzerainty of, given up by Louis VI. to Henry I., <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Maintainers, complaints against, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">explained, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Malcolm I., King of Scotland, holds part of Strathclyde by military service, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -<br /> -Malcolm II., King of Scotland, does homage to Cnut, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -<br /> -Malcolm III., Canmore, King of Scotland, helps Eadgar, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">commends himself to William I., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his savage invasions, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Eadgar’s sister, does homage to William I., <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his wars with William II., does homage to him, killed at Alnwick, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Malcolm IV., King of Scotland, resigns three counties to Henry II., <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage for Huntingdon, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">follows Henry to his war with France, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Malet, Count of, supports Robert, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">banished, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Manny, Sir Walter, raises siege of Hennebone, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">invades Picardy, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Manor, origin of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -<br /> -Mansell, holds seven hundred livings, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">on Henry III.’s council, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">driven to France, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Eleanor’s army, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Marcel, revolutionary leader in Paris, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> -<br /> -Margaret, sister of Eadgar, marries Malcolm, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -<br /> -Margaret, daughter of William the Lion, sent as hostage to John, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> -<br /> -Margaret, of France, marries Edward I., <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> -<br /> -Margaret, marries Henry VI., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">character, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">wins battles of Wakefield and St. Albans, rescues the King, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">flies with him to Scotland, attempts to overthrow Edward IV., <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated at Tewkesbury, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ransomed, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Margaret, sister of Edward IV., marries Charles of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br /> -<br /> -Mark system, described, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">how carried out, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Marlborough, castle of, held for Matilda, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> -<br /> -Marriage of the clergy, permitted by Dunstan, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,<br /> -<span class="pad1">forbidden by Lanfranc, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Marshall, William, first Earl of Pembroke, ordered to supplant Longchamp, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">summoned to Rouen, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">advises John to disband his troops, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">declares Henry III. King, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character, government, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">death, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Marshall, William, second Earl, head of the Barons at Brackley, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his property attacked, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with De Burgh, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Marshall, Richard, third Earl, his patriotism, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">outlawed, murdered, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Marshall, Gilbert, fourth Earl, restored to favour, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> -<br /> -Martin, Papal agent, his exactions, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> -<br /> -Mary of Burgundy, rivals for her hand, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Maximilian of Austria, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Matilda, wife of William I., helps Robert, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">her claim on Flanders, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Matilda, niece of Eadgar Ætheling, marries Henry I., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Matilda, daughter of Henry I., marries Henry V., <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">the Barons swear fealty to her, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Geoffrey of Anjou, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">her claim passed over, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">David of Scotland supports her, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Robert of Gloucester declares for her, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">lands, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supported by Henry of Winchester, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">offends London and the Church, retires to France, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Maud of Boulogne, wife of Stephen, fights for him, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> -<br /> -Mellent. [See <a href="#BEM">Beaumont</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Mercenaries, of William I., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Stephen, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Henry II., <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of John, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Mercia, foundation of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">kingdom of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">submits to Wessex, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquered by the Danes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">submits to Eadward, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Dunstan’s reforms in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rebels against Æthelred, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">overrun by Danes, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">surrendered to Cnut, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made an Earldom for Eadric, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Militia, Harold’s, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">William II.’s, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reorganized by Henry II., <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Milo, Constable of Gloucester, Earl of Hereford, Robert of Gloucester’s agent, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">fights for Matilda, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">attests her oath, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his son Roger surrenders his castles to Henry II., <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Moleyns, Bishop of Chichester, Minister under Suffolk, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">killed, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Monarchy. [See <a href="#KIN">King</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Montgomery, Roger, fights at Hastings, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made Earl of Shrewsbury, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">opposes William II., <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Montgomery, Hugh, second Earl, killed while assisting Hugh of Chester, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<br /> -Montgomery, Roger, third son of the first Earl, does homage for Powys, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<br /> -Montgomery, Arnulf, fifth son of the first Earl, does homage for Dyfed, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<br /> -Montgomery, Robert, eldest son of the first Earl. [See <a href="#BEL">Belesme</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Montmirail, Peace of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> -<br /> -Morkere, a Thegn of the Danish Burghs, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -<br /> -Morkere, son of Ælfgar, elected Earl of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated by Tostig, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">calls a Witan, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">hopes to be elected King, deserts Eadgar, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reinstated in his Earldom, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rebels and is pardoned, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Hereward’s rebellion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made prisoner, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Mortain, Count of. [See <a href="#ROB">Robert</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Mortimer, Hugh, descended from Belesme, surrenders to Henry II., <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -<br /> -Mortimer, Roger, attacked by Llewellyn, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">tries to liberate Edward, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span><span class="pad1">succeeds, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Mortimer, Roger, subdues Ireland, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">surrenders to Edward II., <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">escapes from the Tower, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">in France with the Queen, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his government, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made Earl of March, executed, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Mortimer, Roger, fourth Earl of March, made heir-apparent, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">killed, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Mortimer, Edward, outlawed, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">taken prisoner, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">refused leave to ransom himself, marries Glendower’s daughter, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Morton, Bishop of Ely, apprehended, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">released, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">proposes marriage between Henry Tudor and Elizabeth of York, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Mowbray, Robert, Earl of Northumberland, kills Malcolm at Alnwick, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his conspiracy against William II., <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Mowbray, Roger (son of Robert’s nephew Nigel), opposes the invasion of David I., <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> -<br /> -Mowbray, John, Edward I. relies upon, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> -<br /> -Mowbray, Thomas, Earl of Nottingham, one of the Lords Appellant, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">won over to Richard II., <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made Duke of Norfolk, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">banished, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Mowbray, Thomas, joins Scrope’s rebellion, beheaded, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> -<br /> -Mowbray, John, third Duke of Norfolk, joins York, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated at St. Albans, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Neville, Ralph, Chancellor, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> -<br /> -Neville, Ralph, made Earl of Westmoreland, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">partisan of Henry IV., <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquers Scrope and Mowbray, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="NVL" id="NVL"></a> -Neville, Earl of Salisbury, joins York, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Chancellor, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">retires, wins the battle of Blore Heath, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">beheaded, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="NVW" id="NVW"></a> -Neville, Earl of Warwick, the “Kingmaker,” at St. Albans, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">retires to Calais, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">wins battle of Northampton, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">takes charge of Henry VI., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated at St Albans, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his power, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">keeps Edward IV. prisoner, pardoned, supports Wells’ rebellion, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes a treaty with Margaret, re-crowns Henry VI., <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">killed at Barnet, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Neville, John, of Montague, wins battles of Hedgeley Moor and Hexham, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made Earl of Northumberland, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">declares for Henry VI., <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">killed, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Neville, George, Archbishop of York, Chancellor, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deprived of his chancellorship, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="NEV" id="NEV"></a> -Neville, William (son of Ralph), Lord Falconbridge, at Ferrybridge, <a href="#Page_328">328</a><br /> -<br /> -New Forest, made by William I., <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard dies there, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the displaced people taken to Cumberland, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">death of William II. in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Nicholas of Ely, Chancellor, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> -<br /> -Nicholas of Tusculum, Papal Legate, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> -<br /> -Nigel, Bishop of Ely, nephew of Roger of Salisbury, surrenders Devizes to Stephen, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Matilda, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Normandy, connected with England by Emma, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Æthelred and his sons fly there, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cnut forms alliance with, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Edward the Confessor’s friendship for, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">William I. resides there, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">given to Robert, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">anarchy in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">pledged by Robert to William II., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquered by Philip II. from John, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Northumbria, founded, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">claims supremacy, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">submits to Wessex, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquered by the Danes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">helps Hasting against Alfred, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">acknowledges supremacy of Eadward, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">incorporated with Wessex, made an Earldom for Osulf, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">divided into three parts, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">surrendered to Cnut, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cnut makes it an Earldom, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -O’Connor, King of Ireland, war with Dermot of Leinster, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">submits to Henry II., <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, brother of William I., at Hastings, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made Earl of Kent, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">left in charge of England, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rules severely, aims at the Papacy; William imprisons him, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">heads Norman opposition to William II., defeated, and retires to France, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Offa, King of Mercia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his power, his dyke, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Olaf, King of Norway, invades England, retires on receiving Danegelt, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> -<br /> -Oldcastle, his character, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">persecuted, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">escapes, his death, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ordainers, appointment of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> -<br /> -Orleans, siege of, <a href="#Page_307">307-310</a><br /> -<br /> -<a name="ORL" id="ORL"></a> -Orleton, Bishop of Hereford, <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'his conpiracy'">his conspiracy</ins>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> -<br /> -Osberht, King of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -<br /> -Osulf, Earl of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">retains one third of it, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Oswald, King of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -Oswi, King of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -Otho, son of Henry the Lion, brought up in England, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">elected Emperor, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">promises help to John, his rivalry with Philip of Swabia, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supported by the Pope, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">receives money from John, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">crowned as Emperor, joins the Northern League, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated at Bouvines, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Otho, Papal Legate, his extortions, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> -<br /> -Owen Glendower, rebellion, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">negotiates with the Percies, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquered, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Palatine counties, established by William I., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Ely made one by Henry I., <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Pale, English, provinces in Ireland, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> -<br /> -Pandulf, Papal Legate, forbids Philip to attack John, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span><span class="pad1">his government, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Parliament, its origin, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Knights and Burghers summoned to, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">three Estates represented at, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">royal power restricted by, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">a Peer’s privileges in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">construction of, in Edward III.’s reign, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">mercantile classes introduced, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">power of the Commons in Henry IV.’s reign, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Paulinus, missionary to Northumbria, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -Peasantry, their sufferings in Henry I.’s reign, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">in Stephen’s reign, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">effects of the Friars’ preachings on, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">disturbances in Edward I.’s reign, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">their love for Lancaster, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">effect of Black Death upon, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">becoming more important, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">their insurrection under Wat Tyler, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">oppression of the Commons, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">day labourers increasing, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">effects of Wicliffe’s preaching on, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the Statute of Labourers, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">their sufferings after the French war, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">their hatred of Suffolk, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Jack Cade’s rebellion, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rebellions against Edward IV., <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">their indifference in the War of the Roses, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">increased freedom of, and poverty, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Pecquigni, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> -<br /> -Pedro the Cruel, King of Castile, supported by the Black Prince, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his daughters marry John of Gaunt and Edmund of York, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Penda, King of Mercia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -Percy, Henry, first Earl of Northumberland, Constable, partisan of Henry IV., <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with him, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">submits, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">escapes, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">killed at Bramham, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Percy, Thomas, brother of the first Earl, made Earl of Worcester, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> -<br /> -Percy, Hotspur, son of the first Earl, his marriage, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">killed, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Percy, second Earl, reinstated, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">killed at St. Albans, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Percy, Lord Egremont, son of the second Earl, fighting with the Nevilles, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br /> -<br /> -Percy, third Earl, killed at Towton, <a href="#Page_329">329</a><br /> -<br /> -Peter des Roches, Justiciary, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his character and policy, charges Hubert with treason, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">retires to the crusades, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">returns, causes Hubert’s fall, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his rule, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his fall, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Peter of Savoy, uncle of Queen Eleanor, his possessions, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins her army, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Peter de Aigue Blanche, Bishop of Hereford, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">envoy to Rome, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">attacked by Llewellyn, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Eleanor’s army, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Peter III., of Aragon, conquers Sicily, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Peter’s Pence, begun by Æthelwulf, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">paid by William I., <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">collected in Ireland, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Philip I., jealous of William I., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">assists Robert, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">jealous of William II., <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Philip II., makes peace with Henry II., <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">claims the guardianship of Arthur, meets Henry at Gisors, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">declares war, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">goes on a crusade with Richard I., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">called the Lamb in Sicily, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with Richard, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">befriends Conrad, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">withdraws from the Crusade, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">invades Richard’s dominions, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tries to prolong Richard’s imprisonment, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">general alliance against him, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">helps Arthur against John, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes treaty with John, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war with John, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">takes Normandy, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">league against him, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">victory at Bouvines, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Philip IV., his likeness to Edward I., <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with him, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">alliance with the Scotch, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">abolishes the Templars, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Philip VI., his quarrel with Edward III., <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">asks David II. to attack Edward, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Philip of Swabia, Emperor of Germany, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">makes peace with the Pope, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">assassinated, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Philip of Burgundy. [See <a href="#BUR">Burgundy</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Philippa, wife of Edward III., saves the lives of the men of Calais, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> -<br /> -Piers Ploughman, Vision of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> -<br /> -<a name="POL" id="POL"></a> -Pole, Michael de la, advises retreat from Scotland, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made Earl of Suffolk, dismissed, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">impeached, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Pole, William de la, in command at the siege of Orleans, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">taken prisoner, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">arranges the marriage of Henry VI., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made Marquis of Suffolk, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">chief Minister, unpopularity of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Pole, John de la, marries sister of Edward IV., <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> -<br /> -Pole, John de la, Earl of Lincoln, declared heir, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> -<br /> -Police, the early system of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">systematized at the Conquest, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">strictness of William I.’s, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Henry I., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="POP" id="POP"></a> -Pope, Adrian IV. the only English one, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad2">grants Ireland to Henry II., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Alexander III. [See <a href="#ALX">Alexander III</a>.]</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Alexander IV., extorts money for Sicilian war, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">absolves Henry III. from his vow, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Boniface VIII., his claim on Scotland, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Boniface IX., grants Provisors, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Calixtus II., mediates a treaty between Henry I. and Louis VI., <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Celestine III., excommunicates Longchamp’s enemies, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Clement III., raised by Henry IV. of Germany, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Clement IV., excommunicates the Barons, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Clement VI., attempts arbitration, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Gregory VII., supports William I., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">revives the Papacy, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">demands homage and Peter’s Pence, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">friendly relations with England, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span><span class="pad1">Gregory IX., his extortions, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Gregory XI., restores the Papacy to Rome, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Honorius III., his character, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Innocent III., decides the election at Canterbury, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">consecrates Langton, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">his interdict and excommunication, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">declares John’s crown forfeited, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">his tyranny in England, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">disallows Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">dies, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Innocent IV., his exactions, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">offers Sicily to Edmund, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">John XXII., mediates between Edward II. and the barons, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Victor III., acknowledged in England, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Victor IV., acknowledged in Germany, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Popes, position as arbitrators, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br /> -<br /> -Powys, granted to Montgomery, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<br /> -Præmunire, Statute of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">writ of, used against Beaufort, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Privy Council, origin of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> -<br /> -Provisions of Oxford, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> -<br /> -Provisors, Statute of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> -<br /> -Purveyance, misery caused by, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">restrained by Henry I., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restricted by Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">checked by the Statute of Stamford, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">exacted by the royal Princes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">complained of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Ralph of Gwader, son of Ralph the Staller, Earl of Norfolk, conspires against William I., <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">flies to Brittany, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ralph Flambard, Justiciary, his cruelties, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">arrested by Henry I., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">escapes to Normandy, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ranulf, Earl of Chester, fights against Wales, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Matilda, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ratcliffe, favourite of Richard III., <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> -<br /> -Raymond of Toulouse, quarrels with Richard, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Joanna, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">revenge for injury done him, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Reeve, his office, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his duties, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Renaissance, its effects, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> -<br /> -Réné, Duke of Bar, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> -<br /> -Representation, not understood in Saxon times, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">used in making the Domesday Book, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">used in inquiries for financial purposes, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">first used in Parliament, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">principle established, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Revenue. [See <a href="#TAX">Taxes</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Richard I., engaged to Berengaria, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins the Great Rebellion against his father, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">pardoned, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his success in Aquitaine excites Prince Henry’s envy, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his war with him, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">attacks Raymond of Toulouse, joins Philip II. against Henry II., receives his father’s submission, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">gets absolution, is crowned, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sells all offices in the Kingdom, and goes on a crusade, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his quarrels in Sicily, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquers Cyprus, marries Berengaria, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">takes Acre, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">relieves Joppa, makes a truce with Saladin, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">imprisoned in Germany, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage to Henry VI., returns to England, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his wars with Philip, his death, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his heavy taxation, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">names John as his successor, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Richard II., made heir-apparent, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his interview with Wat Tyler, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his favourites, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">assumes authority, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his expedition to Ireland, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his marriage, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his vengeance, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his despotism, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deposed, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">death, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Richard III., murder of Henry VI. imputed to him, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his quarrel with Clarence, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">captures Edward V., <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">secures the crown, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his unpopularity, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his energy, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">death of his son, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">killed at battle of Bosworth, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Richard, Prior of Dover, succeeds Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> -<br /> -Richard, brother of Henry III., Count of Poitou, quarrels with De Burgh, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his patriotic efforts, goes on a Crusade, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Sancha, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">refuses the Sicilies, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">elected King of the Romans, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Henry against the Barons, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">taken prisoner at the battle of Lewes, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Richard, Earl of Cambridge, son of Edward III.’s son Edmund, his conspiracy, executed, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> -<br /> -Richard of York, son of the Earl of Cambridge, in command of the war in France, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">leader of the Plantagenet Princes, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">concerned in Suffolk’s death, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">appears in arms, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">duped into submission, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">President of the Council, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">victory at St. Albans, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Protector, deposed, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">returns from Ireland, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">claims the throne, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">beheaded after Wakefield, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Richard, son of Edward IV., in sanctuary, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">given up to Richard, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ridel, Godfrey, Becket’s enemy, made Bishop of Ely, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> -<br /> -Rivaux, Treasurer, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">obtains confiscated property, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Rivers. [See <a href="#WOO">Woodville</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -<a name="ROB" id="ROB"></a> -Robert, brother of William I., fights at Hastings, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">made Earl of Cornwall, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">opposes William II., <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">banished, taken prisoner at Tenchebray, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Robert de Comines, Earl of Northumberland, murdered, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -<br /> -Robert, son of William I., Governor of Maine, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage for it to Philip I., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his rebellion and reconciliation with his father at Gerberoi, his expedition against Scotland, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Normandy bequeathed to him, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character excites feudal anarchy, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes Treaty of Caen with William II., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">goes on a Crusade, pledging Normandy to William, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">claims the throne of England, surrenders to Henry I., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span><span class="pad1">taken prisoner at Tenchebray, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Robert of Rhuddlan, his wars with Wales, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -<br /> -Robert of Flanders, supports William Clito, killed, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -<br /> -Robert of Bathenton, rebels against Stephen, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> -<br /> -Robert, Earl of Gloucester, natural son of Henry I., swears fealty to Matilda, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">suppresses Gryffith’s insurrection, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">one of the three remaining Earls, renounces his fealty to Stephen, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his power in the West, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">brings Matilda to England, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">takes Stephen prisoner at the battle of Lincoln, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">taken prisoner, exchanged for Stephen, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, his character, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Robert of Artois, persuades Edward III. to the war with France, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> -<br /> -Robert of Gloucester, translated Layamon, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> -<br /> -Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, punishes false coiners, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">organizes the Exchequer Court, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">power of his family, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">arrested, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Rotheram, Archbishop of York, Chancellor, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deposed, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Rouen, siege of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">loss of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Russell, Chancellor, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a><br /> -<br /> -Rutland, made Earl of Albemarle, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">title removed, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conspires against Henry IV., <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Sac and Soc, explained, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">benefit of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Saladin, his power in the East, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">greatness of his empire, takes Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his truce with Richard, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Saladin tax, imposed by Henry II., <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> -<br /> -Salisbury, Earl of, conspires against Henry IV., beheaded, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> -<br /> -Salisbury, commanding at Orleans, <a href="#Page_307">307</a><br /> -<br /> -Salisbury. [See <a href="#NVL">Neville</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Sanctuary, effects of taking, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> -<br /> -Say, minister under Suffolk, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Scotland, does fealty to Eadward the Elder, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">to Æthelstan, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rebels, and defeated at Brunanburh, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the Lothians added to it, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">submits to Cnut, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage to William I., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">invades England, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the Lowlands anglicized, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war with William II., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage for Huntingdon to Henry II., <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage to Henry II., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">repurchases its independence from Richard I., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does homage to John, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">peace and marriage treaty with Henry III., <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">its relations with England, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">extinction of the royal family, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rival claimants, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Balliol made king, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquered by Edward I., <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Wallace’s rebellion, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reconquered by Edward I., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Bruce’s rebellion, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">invaded by Edward II., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">battle of Bannockburn, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">truce with England, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Bruce acknowledged king by Edward II., <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war with Edward III., <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Edward Balliol’s invasion, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does fealty to Edward III., <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">David Bruce’s invasion, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Edward III.’s “Burnt Candlemas,” <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">peace with England, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">war with Richard II., <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">refuses homage to Henry IV., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">imprisonment of James II., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">released, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murdered, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">truce with England, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">independent spirit of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">truce with, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Scrope, William, made Earl of Wiltshire, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> -<br /> -Scrope, Henry of Masham (nephew of the Earl), his conspiracy with Cambridge, executed, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> -<br /> -Scrope, Archbishop of York, his conspiracy with Mowbray, executed, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> -<br /> -Scutage, first instance of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">second, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reason for, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">explained, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">demanded by John, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restricted by Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">demanded by Henry III., <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Sheriff, his duties, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">untrustworthy, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">court of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">peculation of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restrained by Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Shire, origin of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -<br /> -Sibylla, wife of Robert of Normandy, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -<br /> -Sicily, Richard I. and Philip in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">genealogy of the kings of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papal efforts to drive the Hohenstaufen from, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">accepted by Edmund, son of Henry III., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">renounced by the council, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">given to Charles of Anjou, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquered by Aragon, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Sigeric, Archbishop of Canterbury, succeeds Dunstan, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> -<br /> -Sigismund, visit of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> -<br /> -Simon de Montfort, his ancestors, marriage, goes on a crusade, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his government of Gascony, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrel with Valence, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">surrenders his castles, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with Gloucester, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">chief of the baronial party, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">wins the battle of Lewes, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his rule, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his parliament, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">killed at Evesham, his property confiscated, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the people’s love for him, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Siward, Earl of Northumberland, assists Edward against Godwine, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">mentioned in Macbeth, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Slaves, causes of bondage, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">at the Conquest, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">English slaves in Scotland, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">forbidden by the Church, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="SOK" id="SOK"></a> -Soken, <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'meaning of, 23'">meaning of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></ins><br /> -<br /> -Sokmen, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -<br /> -Somerset, John, Lieutenant-General in France, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">commits suicide, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Somerset, Edmund, succeeds him in France, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">returns, triumphs over York, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">killed at St. Albans, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Somerset, Henry, in power, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">flies to Scotland, joins Edward IV., rejoins Henry VI., killed at Hexham, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="STA" id="STA"></a> -Stafford, Henry, second Duke of Buckingham, marries Catherine Woodville, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">head of the old nobility, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supports Richard III., <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Henry Tudor, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span><span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Stafford, Sir Humphrey, defeated by Jack Cade, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, (distant relation of the Duke’s)<br /> -<br /> -Stafford, Humphrey (cousin of Sir Humphrey), Earl of Devonshire, defeated, <a href="#Page_332">332</a><br /> -<br /> -Stafford, Sir Humphrey, prevents Buckingham from joining Henry Tudor, <a href="#Page_346">346</a><br /> -<br /> -Stanley, one of the new nobility, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">apprehended, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made constable, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marries Margaret of Richmond, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">joins Henry Tudor, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br /> -<br /> -St. Brice, massacre of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -<br /> -Staple, Calais a staple town, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">origin of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rearranged by Edward IV., <a href="#Page_330">330</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Statutes—<br /> -<span class="pad1">Of Carlisle, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">De Donis conditionalibus, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">De Hæretico comburendo, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Of Labourers, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">De Mercatoribus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Of Mortmain, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Of Præmunire, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Of Provisors, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Quia Emptores, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Of Stamford, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">De Tallagio, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Of Wales, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Of Westminster, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Of Winchester, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Stephen, second son of Stephen of Blois and Adela, daughter of William I., swears fealty to Matilda, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">secures the throne, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his character, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">goes to Normandy, purchases peace with Anjou, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes peace with Scotland, grants castles, and creates earldoms, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">by mercenaries defeats Gloucester’s insurrection, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">offends the Church, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">taken prisoner at the battle of Lincoln, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">released in exchange for Gloucester, defeated at Wilton, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deserted by many of his nobles and by the Pope, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">accepts Henry as his heir, dies, misery caused by his weakness, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">does not receive the Pallium from the Pope, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">William I. will not be crowned by, seeks his ruin, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">is deposed, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Stratford, John of, made Chancellor, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his quarrel with Edward III., <a href="#Page_221">221</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Strathclyde, its extent, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">peopled by Danes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does fealty to Eadward, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Eadmund grants part of it to Scotland, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Suffolk. [See <a href="#POL">Pole</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Swegen, or Swend, son of King of Denmark, invades England, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his sister massacred, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his great invasion, made King of England, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Swend, King of Denmark, nephew of Cnut, willing to help the English, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">sends a fleet, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Talbot, Sir John, defeated at Pataye, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">defeats Burgundians, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Tallage, exacted by Matilda, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">explained, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">considered illegal after Edward I., <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Tannegui Duchâtel, becomes Master of France, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">rescues the Dauphin, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">murders Burgundy, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="TAX" id="TAX"></a> -Taxes, before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">whence derived, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">on land, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">no appeal against, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry I.’s, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">in the hands of the King and Council, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry II. introduces scutage, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his revenue, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard I.’s tax on land, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">John’s severe taxes, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restricted by Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">complaints against De Burgh’s, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry III. demands scutage, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tallages and aids, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Edward I. establishes customs, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his heavy taxes, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">clergy outlawed for refusing to pay, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">complaints against, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">method of levying changed, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restricted by the Ordinances, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Edward III.’s Maletolte, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his subsidies, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the poll tax, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Wat Tyler’s riots against, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard II.’s, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sufferings of the poor under, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">consent of Parliament necessary for levying, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry V.’s, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Bedford’s, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Wells’ insurrection against, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Richard III.’s malevolences, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Templars, undertake a Crusade for Henry II., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">suppressed by Edward II., <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Thegns, their rise, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">duties of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">court of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">become Barons, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Theobald of Blois, grandson of William I., defeats Louis VI. at Puysac, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">urged to claim the crown after Henry I., <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">again refuses it, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, joins Henry’s party, mediates a compromise, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">employs Becket, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Theodore of Tarsus, organizes the Church, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -<br /> -Theows, or slaves, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -<br /> -<a name="THO" id="THO"></a> -Thomas, Duke of Clarence, second son of Henry IV., invades France, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">killed at Beaugé, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester, sixth son of Edward III., Governor during the war, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">succeeds John of Gaunt, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">one of the Lords Appellant, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">constant opponent of Richard II., <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">arrested, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>:</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">strangled, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Thurkill, or Thurcytel, invades England, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">joins the English, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Thurstan, Archbishop of York, opposes David of Scotland, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> -<br /> -Tithing, explained, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -<br /> -Tostig, third son of Godwine, made Earl of Northumbria, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deposed, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">invades the North, slain, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Trade of England, <a href="#Page_256">256-258</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br /> -<br /> -Trail-bâtons, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> -<br /> -Tresilian, impeached, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Trinoda necessitas, explained, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">retained by William I., <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reorganized, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span>Troyes, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> -<br /> -Tudor, Edmund, son of Owen and Catherine of France, brought forward, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br /> -<br /> -Tudor, Jasper, brother of Edmund, brought forward, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated by Hubert of Pembroke, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">almost the only Lancastrian left, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Tudor, Henry, son of Edmund, proposed marriage, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">first invasion, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">second invasion, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Twenge, his riots, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Valence, Aymer of, Bishop of Winchester, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> -<br /> -Valence, William of, his possessions, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrels with De Montfort, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">refuses to surrender his castles, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">escapes from Lewes, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">returns, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Valence, Earl of Pembroke, defeats Bruce, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> -<br /> -Vere, Aubrey de, defends Stephen’s cause, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> -<br /> -Vere, Robert de, ninth Earl of Oxford, Duke of Ireland, favourite of Richard II., <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">impeached, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Vere, Aubrey de, succeeds his nephew Robert, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> -<br /> -Vere, John de, thirteenth Earl of Oxford, almost the only Lancastrian left, <a href="#Page_336">336</a><br /> -<br /> -Vexin, claimed by France, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">war on account of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry II. refuses to surrender it, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">John secures it, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Viaticum, extorted by William II., <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<br /> -Villeinage, position of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">proposal to abolish it, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">disappearing, <a href="#Page_267">267-269</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Wales, remains British, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Wessex establishes supremacy over, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">southern part colonized by Danes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">assist Eadric the Wild against William I., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">William I. establishes Palatine Counties to restrain it, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">constant wars against William II., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">land granted to Norman Earls, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Henry I. establishes colonies of Flemings in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">insurrections under Gryffith, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">under Gwynneth, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">under Llewellyn, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">under Llewellyn, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">annexation of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Meredith’s rebellion, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rebellion against Edward II., <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quarrel with the Marchers, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">insurrection of Owen Glendower, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sympathy with the Lancastrians, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sympathy with the Tudors, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Wallace, his insurrection, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">defeat and death, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his use of infantry, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Walter, Hubert, Archbishop of Canterbury, opposes John, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">trained by Glanvill, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">withdraws from secular work, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">summoned to Rouen, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">persuades John to disband his troops, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Waltheof, Earl of Nottingham, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">destroys the castles of York, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conspires against William, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">executed, miracles at his tomb, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Ward of Trumpington, the false Richard II., <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> -<br /> -Warrenne, William of, first Earl of Surrey, conquers Hereward, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> -<br /> -Warrenne, William of, second Earl, supports Robert of Normandy, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -<br /> -Warrenne, William of, natural son of Stephen (married the heiress of the third Earl), surrenders to Henry II., <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -<br /> -Warrenne, John, seventh Earl, opposes Edward I., <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Commander in Scotland, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Guardian of Scotland, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">defeated by Wallace, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Warwick (John of Plesseys), Henry III.’s Commissioner, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> -<br /> -Warwick (William Maudit), one of the Barons’ Council, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> -<br /> -Warwick. [See <a href="#BEC">Beauchamp</a> and <a href="#NVW">Neville</a>.]<br /> -<br /> -Watling Street, Danish boundary, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -<br /> -Wat Tyler, his insurrection, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -<br /> -Wedmore, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -<br /> -Wells’ rebellion, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br /> -<br /> -Weregild, explained, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -<br /> -Wessex, foundation of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">conversion of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supremacy of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">invaded by Danes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">repels them, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">retains the supremacy, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">overrun by Thurkill, conquered by Cnut, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restored to Edmund Ironside, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">helps Harold against William, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Wicliffe, protected by John of Gaunt, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">deserted by him, recants, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his preaching, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br /> -<br /> -William I., visits England, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his claims to the throne, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">prepares to invade England, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">lands at Pevensey, and fights the battle of Hastings, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">checks the growth of feudalism, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">establishes the Curia Regis, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">character of his government, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">marches to London, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">crowned, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">gradually transfers the land to Normans, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">limits earldoms, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">leaves England, returns to suppress insurrections, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">takes Exeter, and completes the conquest of the West, suppresses first Northern insurrection, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">suppresses the rebellion at York, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">lays waste Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his legislation, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his position with regard to the Church, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conquers Hereward, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">receives homage from Scotland, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">suppresses the conspiracy of Norman nobles, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">continues to reside in Normandy, quarrels with his sons, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">threatened invasion of England, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Domesday survey and general oath allegiance, his death and burial, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his will, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> -<br /> -William II., secures Lanfranc’s support, is crowned, pleases the English by promises, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">defeats baronial rebellion, on Lanfranc’s death leaves England to Ralph Flambard, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">intrigues in Normandy, makes treaty with Robert at Caen, receives homage from Malcolm, renews war with him, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span><span class="pad1">leaves the conquest of Wales to the Marchers, extorts viaticum from the host before going to Normandy, holds Normandy in pledge, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his formidable position, killed in the New Forest, his general success, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his conduct towards the Church, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> -<br /> -William Clito, son of Robert of Normandy, pretender to the Duchy, supported by Louis VII., deserted at treaty of Gisors, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">supported by Fulk of Anjou, and deserted, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">supported and again deserted by both Fulk and Louis, Louis tries to put him on the throne of Flanders, his death, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">his marriage, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br /> -<br /> -William, Earl of Boulogne, son of Stephen, promises homage to Henry II., <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> -<br /> -William, son of Henry I., marries a daughter of Fulk of Anjou, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">the barons swear fealty to, drowned in the White Ship, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> -<br /> -William of Albemarle, opposes invasion of David I., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his power in Yorkshire, submits to Henry II., <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br /> -<br /> -William II., of Sicily, marries Joanna, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">his death delays the Crusade, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br /> -<br /> -William the Lion, King of Scotland, joins the Great Rebellion against Henry II., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">taken prisoner at Alnwick, does homage for Scotland, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">buys back his privileges from Richard, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">does personal homage to John, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">makes full submission, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Winchelsea, Archbishop of Canterbury, refuses grants to Edward I., <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">appointed adviser to Prince Edward, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">excommunicates Gaveston, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Wishart, Bishop of St. Andrews, a member of the Regency, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">invites Edward I., <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">trusted by Edward I., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">crowns Bruce, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Witan, described, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">consents to the Danegelt, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">assembled by Eadric, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">elects Cnut King, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Godwine’s quarrel referred to it, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">called on Harold’s death, elects Eadgar, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">offers the crown to William I., <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tries and condemns Waltheof, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<a name="WOO" id="WOO"></a> -Woodville, rise of the family, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Sir John, beheaded, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Anthony, made Lord Scales, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Lord Rivers, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">patronizes printing, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">beheaded, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Elizabeth, marries Edward IV., <a href="#Page_330">330</a></span><br /> -<br /> -Wulstan, Archbishop of York, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -<br /> -Wykeham, William of, Chancellor, deposed 239;<br /> -<span class="pad1">restored, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">deposed, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restored, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span><br /> -</div> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> French Chroniclers have made this sudden death a judgment of God. Godwine is -described as wishing that the piece of bread he ate might choke him if he were guilty -of the death of Alfred, whereupon the bread stuck in his throat.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> This is the Siward who occurs in the Macbeth of Shakspere. Though the events -connected with his invasion of Scotland are very obscure, the poet seems on the -whole to have changed the real history but slightly.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> As an illustration of this, Harold’s great Foundation of the Holy Rood at Waltham -was occupied by secular canons, and had a school attached, while Stigand, one of his -firmest supporters, was the uncanonical Archbishop of Canterbury.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_48">p. 48</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> It is not certain how old Eadgar was. His father died in 1057. He must have -been therefore at least nine years old, and was probably some years older, as we hear -of his executing several acts of kingly authority.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Called also Count of Meulan.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Her name was Nesta. She married Gerald of Windsor, who, as constable of Arnulf -of Shrewsbury, commanded the castle of Pembroke. Their grandson was the historian -Geraldus Cambrensis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Stubb’s Select Charters.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Ordericus Vitalis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> William of Malmesbury.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Lappenberg, Thorpe’s translation, page 377. There were certainly several more at -the time of the accession, as their names occur attesting the charter of Stephen.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Fiscal earls.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Adulterine Castles. Will. Malm. Hist. Nov. I. § 18.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See the conduct of Fitz-Hubert and Fitz-Gilbert at Devizes and Marlborough, -<a href="#Page_82">page 82</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> William of Malmesbury, Hist. Nov. II. § 34.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The Bishop seems to have been appointed by Stephen as her escort. William of -Malmesbury says that no gentleman could refuse an escort even to his enemy.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Son of Count Alan Fergant of Brittany. Ang. Sax. Chron. ann. 1127.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Bishop of Seéz, in Southern Normandy.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Stubb’s Select Charters, page 21, from Matthew of Paris, 1153.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> While Eleanor had been his wife, Louis had systematically pressed her claim.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Ramiro of Aragon, a monk, who, for the sake of continuing the succession, was -taken from his monastery, and married. His only daughter was the wife of Raymond -of Barcelona. Their son became King of Aragon.—Robert de Monte.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> The individual payment in Normandy was sixty shillings in Angevin money. The -knights’ fees of England were popularly put at 60,000: at the same rate this would -have amounted to £180,000. The scutage in England was, however, only two marks -on a knight’s fee. The scutage was repeated two years afterwards. On the supposition -that the sum mentioned applies to both those scutages, there would have been a -payment of four marks, or £2, 13s. 4d., on a knight’s fee. This would give £160,000. -The sum actually paid seems not to have been more than a fifth of that sum.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> This view rested chiefly on the False Decretals, a body of false edicts purporting to -be the decisions of very early Popes, which was produced the ninth century.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The Decretal of Gratian was produced about the end of Stephen’s reign. Gratian, -a Tuscan Canonist, produced a collection of Papal decisions, known by his name, in -1151. The Decretals are collections of letters written by the early Popes in answers to -questions addressed to them by the Bishops. The first collection was made at Rome -by Dionysius in 550. In this collection, letters exaggerating Papal authority were subsequently -introduced, known as the False Decretals. They received the Papal sanction -from Nicholas I. about 860.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> These Constitutions will be found in full in Stubbs’ Charters, p. 132.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> He is said to have objected especially to Articles 1, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 12.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Robert de Monte.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> So called from a table chequered like a chessboard, and used for reckoning.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> The details of the King’s last days are to be found in Giraldus Cambrensis, and in -Hoveden. They are thrown together in an eloquent passage by Professor Stubbs in -his Preface to Hoveden.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> See <a href="#GEN_JER">genealogy</a> at the end of the chapter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> See <a href="#GEN_JER">genealogy</a> at the end of the chapter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> A fanatical sect established in 1090 in the mountains of North Persia. They had -two chief places, the one the fortress of Alamout in Persia, the other Masgat in the -mountains of Libanus. Their name is derived from <em>Haschich</em>, an intoxicating drink with -which they raised their enthusiasm.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> John de Grey belonged to this class.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> He had married Joanna, John’s natural daughter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> By writ of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quo warranto</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> 20,000 are said to have died in London alone.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> There were about 150 Baronies at this time, but several Barons had more than one.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> They were the Bishop of Worcester, the Earls of Leicester, Gloucester, Norfolk, -Hereford, John Fitz-Geoffrey, Peter de Montfort, Richard de Grey, Roger Mortimer, -and Albemarle. Of the King’s party, Boniface of Canterbury, Peter of Savoy, the -Earl of Warwick, John Mansell, and James d’Audley: (in this signature he signed his -name as James of Aldither, Fitz-Geoffrey as Geoffreyson.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Fifteen at least of the royal castles were in the hands of foreigners.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Kenilworth and Odiham.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Formal reference does not seem to have been made till 1263.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Rishanger de Bell. Lew.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Wykes is the most important.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Stubbs.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> It is thus that the bankers’ street in London is called Lombard Street.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Homagium suum nobis debitum nobis absque conditione aliqua obtulit et detendit.</span>”—<span class="smcap">Rymer.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a></p> -<br /> -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_183.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_183.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - David I., 1124-1153. - | - Henry, Earl of Huntingdon, d. 1152. - | - +--------------+--------+-----------+ - | | | - Malcolm IV., William the Lion, David, Earl of - 1153-1165. 1165-1214. | Huntingdon. - | | - Alexander II., +-----+--------+--------+ - 1214-1249. | | | - | Margaret. Isabella. Ada. - Alexander III., | | | - 1249-1286 +--+-------+ | | - | | | Bruce. | - | Devorgilda. Marjory. Henry - | | | Hastings. - | Balliol. Comyn. | - | John Hastings. - +--------------+--+ - | | - Alexander, Margaret = Eric of - died 1283. d. 1283. | Norway. - | - Margaret. - d. 1290. -</div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> She was the widow of the King of Navarre.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> They are said even to have thrown little children into the air and caught them on -their lances.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> There was probably no separate statute “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De tallagio non concedendo,</span>” though -quoted as a statute in Charles I.’s reign. The articles given by Walter of Hemingburgh, -which were regarded as that statute, omit the saving clause, but are now not -considered authoritative.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Sir Walter Scott.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> His sentence was: “That for the robberies and felony of which he had been guilty, -he should be hanged by the neck; that as an outlaw, and not having come to the King’s -peace, he should be cut down and beheaded as a traitor; that for sacrileges committed -by him, he should be disembowelled, and his entrails burnt as a warning to others; -that his head should be fixed to London Bridge, and his quarters to the towns of -Berwick, Newcastle, Stirling, and Perth.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> There were present at this Parliament seven Earls and forty-one Barons.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"> -<p class="verseq">“Sire, si je voderoi mon garsoun chastier</p> -<p class="verse0">De une buffe ou de deus, pur ly amender,</p> -<p class="verse0">Sur moi betera bille, e me frad attachier,</p> -<p class="verse0">E avant que isse de prisone raunsoun grant doner.”</p> -<p class="verse8"><cite>The Outlaw’s song of Traillebaston.</cite></p> -<p class="verse12"><cite>Political Songs</cite>, p. 231.</p> -</div></div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> A curious question was raised, whether a torturer could be fetched from the Continent, -there being none in England.—Hemingburgh, 2287.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> He had lately received the Earldom of Norfolk, and the rank of Earl Marshall, by -the death of Bigod without heirs.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> These are only the principal articles; there were many others, the arrangement of -the law courts, the royal prerogative of justice, etc.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a></p> -<br /> -<div class="screenonly fs70"> -<a href="images/i_217.jpg"><span class="transnote">click here to see the image</span></a> -</div> - -<div class="handonly figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_217.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="gentable"> - Philip III., 1270-1285. - | - +------------------------+---------------------------+ - | | - Philip IV., 1285-1314. Charles - | of Valois. - +-----+---+------------+-----------+ | - | | | | | - Louis X. Philip V. Charles IV. Isabella = Edward II. Philip VI. - 1314-1316. 1316-1322. 1322-1328. | 1328-1350. - | Edward III. | - Joan = King of Navarre. John. - 1350-1364. -</div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Made Duke of Lancaster in 1350.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> He alleged as his reason that he was now on his own lawful ground, in right of his -mother.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_257">page 257</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> The revolted peasantry.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Each piece of gold (a mark) was worth 13s. 4d., or two nobles.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> In 1385, during his Scotch expedition, his uncles, Cambridge and Buckingham, had -been made Dukes of York and Gloucester; Lancaster’s son Henry, Earl of Derby; the -Duke of York’s son George, Earl of Rutland; Robert de Vere, Marquis of Dublin; and -De la Pole, Earl of Suffolk.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Brother of Arundel, Bishop of Ely, subsequently Archbishop of York and of Canterbury.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> William of Wykeham again took the Seal.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> 38 Edward III.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> 16 Richard II.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Berner</span>’s Froissart, IV., chap. 78.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> There is an account preserved in the exchequer of the exports and imports in the -year 1354. The total value of the exports was £212,338. They consisted of 31,651 -sacks of wool, at £6 a sack; 65 wool-fells, hides, to the value of £89; 4774 pieces of -cloth; 8061 pieces of worsted stuff. The imports mentioned consist of a little fine cloth -and wax; 1830 tuns of wine; and linens, mercery, and grocery to the value of £23,000. -To show the severity of the wool tax, it is to be observed that on the above-named exports -the duty was £81,846, or more than 40 per cent. Robert of Avesbury gives a -somewhat different account. He put the exports at 100,000 sacks of wool. He is -thought to have died about 1356.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> In 1250 a fair was held in Tothill Fields, and all the shops in London were shut.—Matthew -of Paris.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> There were also great Italian merchants and bankers. Thus we hear that Edward -III. ruined the Bardi, that the taxes at the end of Edward I. were pledged to and collected -by the Frescobaldi. The extent of the German transactions may be seen by a -complaint in 1348, that the Tidmans of Limburg had bought up all the Cornish tin.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> By the 14th Richard II. half the money they received was to be expended in the -commodities of the land.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> For the history of guilds, see Dr Brentano’s Preface to the “Ordinance of British -Guilds,” in the English Text Society.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The goldsmith’s mark on all silver plate is a relic of this custom.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Chaucer’s Prologue:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verseq">“He knew well alle havans as they were,</p> -<p class="verse0">Fro’ Gothlande to the Cape of Finnisterre.”</p> -</div></div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quod progenitores nostri, Reges Angliæ, domini maris et transmarini passagii, -totis præteritis temporibus extiterunt.</span>”—Rymer, ii. 953.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Rymer, ii. 823.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Half a yard long.—Mon. Evesham.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> The Welsh infantry, who were largely employed after Edward I., had 2d. a day.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verseq">“To seche silver to the kyng y mi seed solde,</p> -<p class="verse0">Forthi mi lond leye lith ant leorneth to slepe.</p> -<p class="verse0">Seththe he mi feire feh fatte y my folde;</p> -<p class="verse0">When y thenk o mi weole wel neh y wepe;</p> -<p class="verse0">Thus bredeth monie beggares bolde.</p> -<p class="verse0"></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="verse0">Ther wakeneth in the world wondred ant woe,</p> -<p class="verse0">Ase god is swynden anon as so for to swynke.”</p> -<p class="verse12"><cite>Political Songs</cite>, p. 152.</p> -</div></div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> The historian of this chivalrous knighthood was Froissart.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Maintainers seem to have been of two sorts. On the borders of the counties -palatine, confederacies were formed, who made sudden irruptions into the neighbouring -counties, and carried off young women, particularly heiresses. They then retired -within the freedoms of the counties palatine, and held their captives to ransom. The -bodies of retainers who gathered round individual nobles, and stood by one another in -such illegal actions as forcible desiesin, or ejection of rightful owners from their property, -also received the name.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> The priest had, however, been dead a month before.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Walsingham, 379.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Four years afterwards he was captured and put to death, not as a traitor, but as a -heretic. This throws considerable doubt on the truth of his connection with the -present insurrection, a charge which was very slightly supported by evidence.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> There were fifteen Prelates and twenty-eight Temporal Peers at this council.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> A duke, 13s. 4d. a day; an earl, 6s. 8d; a baron, 4s.; a knight, 2s.; a man-at-arms, -1s.; an archer, 6d.; a hundred marks to each who supplied thirty armed men.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> The close connection between Sigismund and England is illustrated by the fact -that in the following reign, on one occasion, a magnificent table decoration was introduced, -representing Henry VI. and Sigismund receiving at the hands of a kneeling -priest ballads in derision of the Lollards.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> This Lord Salisbury was son of Sir John de Montacute, a zealous Lollard, the -faithful adherent of Richard II., who was beheaded, 1400, at Cirencester. Henry IV. -restored the Earldom to his son. Lord Salisbury’s daughter married Richard Neville, -the Yorkist partisan, and father of the Kingmaker Warwick.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> This Beauchamp was the 5th Earl of Warwick, and it was his daughter who carried -the title to Richard Neville the Kingmaker.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> This Prince was the second son of Louis II., Duke of Anjou, Count of Provence, -and (as heir to his father, Louis I., who had been adopted by Joanna I. of Naples) titular -King of Naples. All these titles Réné inherited, besides the duchy of Bar, from his uncle, -and the duchy of Lorraine from his wife. He was, moreover, himself named heir by -Joanna II. of Naples, but failed to obtain the crown. At the time of Margaret’s marriage, -of all his territories Provence was the only one he retained.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> For a description of this disorder see a letter from “The chief persons in the county -of Kildare to Richard Duke of York,” Ellis Letters, second series, vol. i. 117.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> The Staffords, the head of whom was the Duke of Buckingham, were descended -from Anne Plantagenet, daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester, son of -Edward III.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Cromwell had been a great friend of Bedford and his financial reformer, but dislike -to the conduct of the Suffolk party had driven him to join York.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> William of Worcester, however, puts it at 9,000.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Stafford, the young Duke of Buckingham; the heir of Bourchier, Earl of Essex; -Fitz-Alan, Earl of Arundel; Lord Strange of Knokyn; and Lord Herbert. Thomas -Grey, her son by her first marriage, was engaged to the daughter and heiress of the -Duke of Exeter, the King’s niece.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> “Every tavern was full of his meat, for who that had any acquaintance in that -house, he should have had as much sodden and roast as he might carry upon a long -dagger.”—Stowe.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Even ordinary observers saw this. “I cannot tell what will fall of the world, for -the King verily is disposed to go into Lincolnshire, and my Lord of Warwick, as it is -supposed, shall go with the King; some men say that his going shall do good, and -some say that it doth harm.”—<cite>Paston Letters.</cite></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Wisdom iv. 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> She was the daughter of his sister Elizabeth and the Duke of Suffolk.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> The love of the Princess rests upon a doubtful letter abridged by Buck in Kennett I. 568.</p></div></div> - - -<p class="p6" /> -<hr class="r30a" /> -<p class="pfs60">MUIR AND PATERSON, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.</p> -<p class="p6" /> - - - - -<hr class="pg-brk fulla" /> - -<p class="pfs150"><em>HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHIES</em></p> - -<p class="p1 pfs80"><em>Edited by</em></p> - -<p class="pfs100">THE REV. M. CREIGHTON, M.A.,</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs60">LATE FELLOW AND TUTOR OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD.</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs80"><em>With Maps and Plans. Small 8vo.</em></p> - - -<div class="p1 fs80"> -<p>The most important and the most difficult point in Historical -Teaching is to awaken a real interest in the minds of Beginners. -For this purpose concise handbooks are seldom useful. General -sketches, however accurate in their outlines of political or constitutional -development, and however well adapted to dispel false ideas, -still do not make history a living thing to the <em>young</em>. They are -most valuable as maps on which to trace the route beforehand and -show its direction, but they will seldom allure any one to take a -walk.</p> - -<p>The object of this series of Historical Biographies is to try and -select from English History a few men whose lives were lived in -stirring times. The intention is to treat their lives and times in -some little detail, and to group round them the most distinctive -features of the periods before and after those in which they lived.</p> - -<p>It is hoped that in this way interest may be awakened without -any sacrifice of accuracy, and that personal sympathies may be -kindled without forgetfulness of the principles involved.</p> - -<p>It may be added that round the lives of individuals it will be -possible to bring together facts of social life in a clearer way, and -to reproduce a more vivid picture of particular times than is possible -in a historical handbook.</p> - -<p>By reading short Biographies a few clear ideas may be formed in -the pupil’s mind, which may stimulate to further reading. A vivid -impression of one period, however short, will carry the pupil onward -and give more general histories an interest in their turn. Something, -at least, will be gained if the pupil realizes that men in past -times lived and moved in the same sort of way as they do at present.</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 pfs80"><em>Now ready.</em></p> - -<div class="pad20pc"> -<b>1. SIMON DE MONTFORT.</b> 2<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em><br /> -<b>2. THE BLACK PRINCE.</b> 2<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em><br /> -<b>3. SIR WALTER RALEGH.</b><br /> -</div> - -<p class="p1 pfs80"><em>In preparation.</em></p> - -<div class="pad20pc"> -<b>4. OLIVER CROMWELL.</b><br /> -<b>5. THE DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH.</b><br /> -<b>6. THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON.</b><br /> -</div> - -<p class="p1 bold lsp2 center">RIVINGTONS</p> -<p class="pfs90 antiqua">Waterloo Place London; Oxford and Cambridge.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="pfs120 antiqua">English School-Classics</p> - -<p class="pfs80"><em>With Introductions, and Notes at the end of each Book.</em></p> - -<p class="pfs90"><span class="smcap">Edited by</span> FRANCIS STORR, B.A.,</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs60">CHIEF MASTER OF MODERN SUBJECTS AT MERCHANT TAYLORS’ SCHOOL, LATE -SCHOLAR OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND BELL -UNIVERSITY SCHOLAR.</p> - -<p class="pfs90"><em>Small 8vo.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>THOMSON’S SEASONS: Winter.</b><br /> -With an Introduction to the Series, by the Rev. <span class="smcap">J. Franck Bright</span>, M.A., -Fellow of University College, and Historical Lecturer at Balliol, New, and -University Colleges, Oxford; late Master of the Modern School at Marlborough -College. 1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>COWPER’S TASK.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">Francis Storr</span>, B.A., Chief Master of Modern Subjects at Merchant -Taylors’ School. 2<em>s.</em><br /> - - Part I. (Book I.—The Sofa; Book II.—The Timepiece) 9<em>d.</em> Part II. -(Book III.—The Garden; Book IV.—The Winter Evening) 9<em>d.</em> Part III. -(Book V.—The Winter Morning Walk; Book VI.—The Winter Walk at -Noon) 9<em>d.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>SCOTT’S LAY OF THE LAST MINSTREL.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">J. Surtees Phillpotts</span>, M.A., Head-Master of Bedford Grammar -School. 2<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em>; or in Four Parts, 9<em>d.</em> each.</p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>SCOTT’S LADY OF THE LAKE.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">R. W. Taylor</span>, M.A., Assistant-Master at Rugby School. 2<em>s.</em>; or in -Four Parts, 9<em>d.</em> each.</p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>NOTES TO SCOTT’S WAVERLEY.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">H. W. Eve</span>, M.A., Head-Master of University College School, London. -1<em>s.</em>; or with the Text, 2<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>TWENTY OF BACON’S ESSAYS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">Francis Storr</span>, B.A. 1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>SIMPLE POEMS.</b><br /> -Edited by <span class="smcap">W. E. Mullins</span>, M.A., Assistant-Master at Marlborough College. -8<em>d.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>SELECTIONS FROM WORDSWORTH’S POEMS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">H. H. Turner</span>, B.A., Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. 1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>WORDSWORTH’S EXCURSION: The Wanderer.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">H. H. Turner</span>, B.A., Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. 1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>MILTON’S PARADISE LOST.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">Francis Storr</span>, B.A.<br /> - Book I. 9<em>d.</em> Book II. 9<em>d.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>SELECTIONS FROM THE SPECTATOR.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">Osmund Airy</span>, M.A., Assistant-Master at Wellington College. 1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>BROWNE’S RELIGIO MEDICI.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">W. P. Smith</span>, M.A., Assistant-Master at Winchester College. 1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>GOLDSMITH’S TRAVELLER AND DESERTED VILLAGE.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">C. Sankey</span>, M.A., Assistant-Master at Marlborough College. 1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>EXTRACTS FROM GOLDSMITH’S VICAR OF WAKEFIELD.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">C. Sankey</span>, M.A., Assistant-Master at Marlborough College. -1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>POEMS SELECTED FROM THE WORKS OF ROBERT BURNS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">A. M. Bell</span>, M.A., Balliol College, Oxford. 2<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>MACAULAY’S ESSAYS.</b><br /> -MOORE’S LIFE OF BYRON. By <span class="smcap">Francis Storr</span>, B.A. 9<em>d.</em><br /> -BOSWELL’S LIFE OF JOHNSON. By <span class="smcap">Francis Storr</span>, B.A. 9<em>d.</em><br /> -HALLAM’S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. By <span class="smcap">H. F. Boyd</span>, late -Scholar of Brasenose College, Oxford. 1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><b>SOUTHEY’S LIFE OF NELSON.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">W. E. Mullins</span>, M.A., Assistant-Master at Marlborough College.</p> - -<p class="fs80">⁂ The General Introduction to the Series will be found in <span class="smcap">Thomson’s</span> <cite>Winter</cite>.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> -<p class="pfs90 antiqua">· Rivingtons · London · Oxford · Cambridge ·</p> - - -<div class="transnote pg-brk"> -<a name="TN" id="TN"></a> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>The maps listed in the <a href="#LOM">List of Maps</a> were missing from the set of images of this book -used for the creation of this etext. The map of ‘Saxon England’ was partly available -and has been included <a href="#SAXON">here</a> in the etext.</p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources.</p> - -<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, -and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained: for example, -poll-tax, poll tax; Ferry Bridge, Ferrybridge; Kingmaker, King-maker; -forbad; counsellor; guerilla; conventual; inutility; schismatical; -discrown; carucate; enfiefed; bason; disafforesting; intrenched.</p> - -<p> -<a href="#Page_xvi">Pg xvi</a>: ‘Battle of Brenville’ replaced by ‘Battle of Brenneville’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_xxii">Pg xxii</a>: ‘Return of De Monfort’ replaced by ‘Return of De Montfort’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_xxxiv">Pg xxxiv</a>: ‘Attemps to win’ replaced by ‘Attempts to win’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_xxxviii">Pg xxxviii</a>: ‘the arbitrary of’ replaced by ‘the arbitrary’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_xxxviii">Pg xxxviii</a>: ‘miscomprehension the’ replaced by ‘miscomprehension of the’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_xli">Pg xli</a>: the section heading ‘GENEALOGIES OF THE LEADING FAMILIES’ - was missing in the original text, and has been copied from - the page header.<br /> -<a href="#Page_19">Pg 19</a>: ‘acts of villany’ replaced by ‘acts of villainy’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_68">Pg 68</a>: ‘upon Henry which’ replaced by ‘upon Henry from which’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_160">Pg 160</a>: ‘fifteen counsellers’ replaced by ‘fifteen counsellors’ (two occurrences).<br /> -<a href="#Page_216">Pg 216</a>: ‘been so closly’ replaced by ‘been so closely’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_233">Pg 233</a>: ‘But, succesful’ replaced by ‘But, successful’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_303">Pg 303</a>: Missing header ‘CONTEMPORARY PRINCES’ inserted.<br /> -<a href="#Page_311">Pg 311</a>: ‘he was disappoined,’ replaced by ‘he was disappointed,’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_328">Pg 328</a>: Missing header ‘CONTEMPORARY PRINCES’ inserted.<br /> -Index.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#ALO">Alodial</a>: replaced by ‘Allodial’.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#BER">Bereta</a>: replaced by ‘Bercta’.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#ORL">Orleton</a>: ‘his conpiracy,’ replaced by ‘his conspiracy,’.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#SOK">Soken</a>: ‘meaning of, 23’ replaced by ‘meaning of, 33’.</span><br /> -</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's A History of England, by J. Franck Bright - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ENGLAND *** - -***** This file should be named 61358-h.htm or 61358-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/3/5/61358/ - -Produced by Jane Robins, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - -</pre> - -</body> -</html> |