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<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 61330 ***</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p>
<p class="ac noindent"><span class="larger">
Elements of</span><br /><br />
<span class="x-larger">Trench Warfare</span><br /><br />
Waldron</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
<h1>
Elements of<br />
<span class="larger">Trench Warfare</span></h1>
<p class="ac noindent"><i>By</i><br />
<br />
<span class="x-larger">Captain William H. Waldron</span><br />
29th U. S. Infantry<br />
<br />
<span class="smaller">DISTINGUISHED GRADUATE INFANTRY AND<br />
CAVALRY SCHOOL, 1905<br />
GRADUATE ARMY STAFF COLLEGE, 1906<br />
GRADUATE ARMY WAR COLLEGE, 1911<br />
ASSISTANT DIRECTOR ARMY WAR<br />
COLLEGE COURSE, 1911-12</span></p>
<p class="ac noindent p2">
<i>Author of</i><br />
"Scouting and Patrolling"<br />
"Tactical Walks"</p>
<p class="ac noindent p2">Price 60 cents</p>
<p class="ac noindent p2">
Washington<br />
1917
</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p>
<p class="ac noindent">
Copyright, 1917, by<br />
<span class="smcap">William H. Waldron</span></p>
<p class="ac noindent xx-smaller">
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D. C.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="Agencies" id="Agencies"></a>Agencies</h2>
</div>
<p>This book may be purchased from any one of the
following agencies:</p>
<p class="ac noindent">
The Book Department<br />
<span class="smcap">Army and Navy Register</span><br />
Washington, D. C.<br />
<br />
The Book Department<br />
<span class="smcap">U. S. Infantry Association</span><br />
Union Trust Building<br />
Washington, D. C.<br />
<br />
The Book Department<br />
<span class="smcap">Army Service Schools</span><br />
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas<br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Edwin N. Appleton</span><br />
No. 1, Broadway, New York City<br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">The Army and Navy Co-operative Co.</span><br />
721 17th Street N. W.<br />
Washington, D. C.<br />
or<br />
16 E. 42d Street, New York City<br />
<br />
<b>The price is 60 cents, postage paid</b><br />
<br />
<i>See "Tactical Walks" advertisement in the back<br />
of this book.</i>
</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p>
<h2>NOTICE</h2>
<p>There is a wealth of material in this little book
that will interest the soldier. From the illustrations
alone he will be able to obtain a good
general idea of the subject.</p>
<p>It is essentially a soldier's book, written in
language that he can understand. The price
has been kept within the limits of his pocketbook.</p>
<p>With a view to securing a wide distribution of
the book I desire to secure a representative in
every organization in the Army. I have an
attractive proposition to make to competent
parties.</p>
<p>A letter will bring particulars. My address
will be found in the Army List and Directory.
If this is not available, a letter addressed as
follows will be forwarded to me:</p>
<p class="ac noindent">
Captain W. H. Waldron,<br />
29th Infantry,<br />
Care of "Infantry Journal,"<br />
Washington, D. C.<br />
<span style="padding-left:8em;">(Signed) <span class="smcap">W. H. Waldron</span>.
</span></p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
</div>
<table id="CONTENTS" summary="CONTENTS">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="c1"></td>
<td class="c2"><span class="x-smaller">Page</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a>—The Organization of a Section of
the Position</td>
<td class="c2">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a>—Obstacles. Construction, repair.
Wire entanglements, barricades, land mines, inundation</td>
<td class="c2">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a>—Lookout and Listening Posts:
Types. Construction, service</td>
<td class="c2">18</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a>—Field Trenches: Traversed trenches.
Types of trenches. Drainage.
Communication trenches. Dugouts. Penetration of projectiles. Communication.
Trench mortar positions. Machine guns. Supporting points</td>
<td class="c2">24</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a>—Use and Improvement of Natural Cover</td>
<td class="c2">50</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a>—Revetments: Sandbags. Fascines. Hurdles. Gabions</td>
<td class="c2">64</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a>—Working Parties: Details of
organization. Laying out tasks. Operations</td>
<td class="c2">80</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a>—Grenade Warfare:
Organization and tactics of grenadiers. Offensive
operations. Clearing fire trenches. Clearing communication trenches. Night operations.
Grenade patrols. Notes on grenade warfare </td>
<td class="c2">86</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a>—Gas Warfare: Methods of dissemination of gas.
Gas helmets, care and use of. Sprayers
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td>
<td class="c2">105</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a>—Service in the Trenches: Preparations
for entering. Inspection of
trenches. Tactical dispositions. Going into the trenches. Information routine.
Observation field glasses. Snipers. What to fire at. Use of rifle grenades.
Scouting and patrolling. Care of arms. Care of trenches. Latrines. Maps. Frost bite.
The trench soldier's creed</td>
<td class="c2">114</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a>—The Attack in Trench Warfare</td>
<td class="c2">146</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
</div>
<p>This little book has been prepared with a view
to placing before the soldier a store of information
on the subject of Trench Warfare as it has
been developed on the battle fronts of Europe,
and giving him some idea of the nature of the
service that he will be called upon to perform
when the time arrives for him to do his "bit."</p>
<p>The illustrations have been carefully prepared
and arranged to the end that the soldier may
gain a fair knowledge of the subject from them
alone. The text is intended to treat the subject
in a purely elementary manner that the soldier
may be able to understand.</p>
<p>The size of the book is such that it may be
conveniently carried in the pocket and referred
to as occasion requires. The price has been
kept down to the point where it is available to
the soldier.</p>
<p>If the book assists in his preparation for the
front and, by reason of the knowledge that he
has gained from it, helps to make him more
efficient when he gets there, it will have served
its purpose.</p>
<p class="ar">
<span class="smcap">The Author.</span>
</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">Organization</p>
<p>The normal organization of an intrenched
position includes the following elements from
front to rear:</p>
<p>1. In front of the position and at a variable
distance from the first line fire trench there is a
line of wire entanglements. (See Obstacles, p. 4.)</p>
<p>2. Close up to the wire entanglements there
is an intrenched post known as the "listening
post," which is connected with the first line fire
trench by a zigzag communicating trench.
(See Listening Posts, p. 18.)</p>
<p>3. Then comes the first line fire trench with
attached machine-gun emplacements at convenient
points. (See Fire Trench and Machine-Gun
Emplacements, pp. 24 and 44.)</p>
<p>4. The fire trench is so narrow that lateral
communication along it is effected only with
difficulty. In order to provide a passageway a
communication or supervision trench is provided
a few yards in rear of the fire trench. Passageways
lead from this communication trench to the
fire trench and to the dugouts located along it.</p>
<p>5. At a variable distance in rear of the fire
trench (100 to 200 yards) the emplacements for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
bomb-throwing apparatus and trench mortars
are located. These are connected up laterally
by a communication trench which joins with
the main communication trench running from
front to rear through the position. (See Emplacements
for Trench Mortars, p. 41.)</p>
<p>6. From 100 to 400 yards to the rear of the
first line fire trench, and generally parallel to
it, is the supporting trench or cover for the supports.
This trench is invariably provided with
strong overhead cover and a system of dugouts
for the protection of the troops. (See Cover for
Supports, p. 48.)</p>
<p>7. This whole arrangement of trenches is
connected throughout from front to rear, and
laterally, by a system of zigzag communication
trenches.</p>
<p>Take this brief description together with
Plate 1, the drawing that accompanies this
volume, and study the two until you get the
entire system fixed firmly in your mind; that is,
until you get a mental picture of all the elements
included in the system.</p>
<p>After you have done this, study on through
the book in order that you may know the purpose
of each of these elements and how one
links up with the other.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_002.jpg" id="i_002.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_002.jpg" alt="" width="347" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><i>PLAN OF THE ORGANIZATION OF AN INTRENCHED POSITION</i><br />
<span class="smcap">Plate</span> 1</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_003.jpg" id="i_003.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_003.jpg" alt="" width="376" height="577" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 2</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
<p>This is the typical system now in use in the
European war theaters. Circumstances at certain
places may render some variations necessary,
and it must not be inferred that the trace
of the works is the same throughout. As a rule
the types of trenches (altered when necessary
to meet local conditions) illustrated herein are
the ones in actual use on the war fronts.</p>
<p>All of these trenches and their accessories
constitute what is known as the first line. At a
distance of from 2,000 to 5,000 yards in rear of
this first line a second line, organized in a similar
manner, is to be found.</p>
<p>At intervals of from 800 to 1,500 yards along
the first line-centers of resistance, or what we
know as "supporting points," are located.
These consist of fortified villages, or a network
(labyrinth) of trenches, provided with every
defensive device known to modern warfare.
The object of these supporting points is to bring
a flanking fire to bear on the intervals between
them, with the idea that an attacking force
cannot advance beyond them without capturing
them.</p>
<p>Plate 2 shows the general scheme of the occupation
of a sector of the line by a field army of
two divisions.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">Obstacles</p>
<p>The element of the defensive line nearest the
enemy is a line or series of lines of obstacles
which are designed for the purpose of:</p>
<p>1. Protecting the lines from surprise.</p>
<p>2. Reducing the momentum of the attack, by
breaking up the unity of action and cohesion.</p>
<p>3. Holding the enemy under the effective fires
of the defenders.</p>
<p>The conditions that obstacles should fulfil
are as follows. They must—</p>
<p>1. Be close to the defender's position. As a
rule on the western front they are not more
than from 50 to 100 yards distant. If they are
too close it may be possible to throw hand
grenades from the far edge of them into the
defender's trenches.</p>
<p>2. As far as practicable, be sheltered and
screened from the enemy. Shell fire is the most
effective method of destroying obstacles. If
they are not concealed they may furnish aiming
points for the enemy's fire against the first line
fire trench by his being able to estimate its location
with reference to the obstacle.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
<p>3. Afford no cover or screen to the enemy.</p>
<p>4. Be so placed that the enemy will come upon
them as a surprise.</p>
<p>5. Be so constructed as to be difficult of removal
under fire and impracticable to negotiate
while still reasonably intact.</p>
<p>6. Be arranged so as not to interfere with a
counter attack. The obstacles may have occasional
gaps left in them which may be mined.</p>
<p>The different classes of obstacles are: Abatis,
low wire entanglements, high wire entanglements,
barricades, mines, fougasses, crows feet,
military pits with wire entanglements, inundations,
etc.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_005.jpg" id="i_005.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="190" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 3.—Abatis.</p>
</div>
<p>Abatis (pronounced <i>abatee</i>) consists of branches
of trees lying parallel to each other, butts
pointing to the rear, and the branches interlaced
with barbed wire. All leaves and small twigs
should be removed and the stiff ends of branches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
pointed. The butts are staked or tied down of,
anchored by covering them with earth. When
more than one row is used the branches overlap
the butts of those in front so as to make the
abatis about 5 feet high. An abatis formed by
felling trees towards the enemy, leaving the
butt hanging to the stump, is called <i>slashing</i>.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_006.jpg" id="i_006.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_006.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="279" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 4.—Slashing.</p>
</div>
<div class="sidenote">Wire Entanglements</div>
<p>Barbed wire is the material
most employed in the construction
of obstacles. It
may be used in the following
manner:</p>
<p>1. As a simple trip, for giving the alarm. It
is stretched just above the ground and attached
to some object that will cause a noise to be made
if molested.</p>
<p>2. A simple wire fence, to cause delay and
confusion to the enemy in his advance.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
<p>3. As an adjunct to tree and brushwood entanglement.</p>
<p>4. As a wire entanglement.</p>
<p>5. As a covering for portable cylinders.</p>
<p>The advantages of the barbed wire entanglement
are:</p>
<p>1. It is easily and quickly made,</p>
<p>2. It is difficult to destroy.</p>
<p>3. It is difficult to get through.</p>
<p>4. It offers no obstruction to the view and fire
of the defense.</p>
<p>The low wire entanglement is constructed as
follows:</p>
<p>1. Drive stakes in the ground until they project
about 18 inches. The stakes should be
about 6 feet apart, those in each row being opposite
the intervals in adjacent rows,</p>
<p>2. The wire is then passed loosely from the
head of one stake to another, wound around each
and stapled.</p>
<p>3. Where two or more wires cross they should
be tied together.</p>
<p>A more useful and efficient modification of
the low wire entanglement is made by stapling
the wire down the sides of the stakes, allowing
five or more feet of slack wire between stakes.
Drive the stakes in the ground until the top is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
flush. This results in a loose network of tangled
wires difficult to get through, easily concealed,
and difficult to remove.</p>
<p>The high wire entanglement is made by driving
stakes so that they protrude from 4 to 6 feet
above the ground. They are placed at irregular
intervals 5 to 8 feet apart. The head of each
stake is connected with the foot of adjoining
stakes with the wire loosely drawn, wound
around the stakes and stapled fast. Each
center post should be stayed by four wires.
There should be a trip wire about 9 inches from
the ground all the way across the front and
another about a foot from the top of the center
posts. Barbed wire may then be hung in festoons
throughout the entanglement, with no
fixed pattern. To increase the entanglement
wire may be stapled to the foot of the posts,
as indicated in the paragraph above, before
they are driven. Large nails should be driven
in the tops of the posts with half their length
protruding. A number of the wires in the entanglement
should be fastened together where
they cross. The wire should be passed through
paint, if practicable, to take away the bright
color. The posts should be painted the color
of the surrounding country. Under the conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
encountered on the western front this
work has to be done hastily. It is best, therefore,
to limit the first stage of construction to
just so many strands as will form a nucleus for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
the whole entanglement, in order that the area
may be covered by an obstacle before interruption
occurs.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_009-a.jpg" id="i_009-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_009-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="313" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 4a.—Plan of wire entanglement.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_009-b.jpg" id="i_009-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_009-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="322" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 5.—High wire entanglement.</p>
</div>
<p><i>Tight wires help the enemy's advance by forming
supports for hurdles. It must be constantly
borne in mind that the wires must not be stretched
taut.</i></p>
<p>A portable wire entanglement is constructed
by stretching wire loosely around a wooden
framework, either circular or square or made on
a knife rest, and rolling it into position to close
up gaps that may have been made in the entanglement.
The illustration shows the wooden
framework.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_010.jpg" id="i_010.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_010.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="370" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 5a.—Alarm trap.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_011.jpg" id="i_011.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_011.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="272" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 6.—Portable entanglement. Constructed in the
trenches and rolled into position.</p>
</div>
<p>The ordinary repairs to entanglements are
made under cover of darkness by working parties
detailed for the purpose. Iron posts that can
be quickly placed in position are advantageous,
their disadvantage being that they may retard
bullets that would go through the ordinary
wooden posts, thus furnishing just that much
cover and protection to attacking parties.</p>
<p>In the construction and repair of entanglements
care must be taken to see that they are
firmly fastened into the ground with numerous
stay posts or "deadmen." This is to prevent
the enemy from pulling them to pieces with
grappling hooks connected to ropes that lead to
his trenches and are attached to powerful windlasses
or capstans.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
<div class="sidenote">Barricades</div>
<p>Barricades are employed for
the defense of streets, roads,
bridges, etc. They may be
made out of any available material such as
furniture, vehicles (overturned or with wheels
removed), carts filled with stones, bales of
goods, etc.</p>
<p>Where trees grow along the roadside they may
be felled across the road. If necessary, barbed
wire may be run through the branches to make
the passage more difficult.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_012.jpg" id="i_012.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_012.jpg" alt="" width="458" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 7.—Plan of barricade for blocking a road.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
<p>Barricades should not as a rule close the road
entirely to traffic. Passages are required to
allow the defenders to pass through when it is
necessary to do so. Hence they should be made
in two parts, one overlapping the other, as shown
in the illustration.</p>
<p>A <i>fougass</i> is a mine so arranged that upon
explosion a large mass of stones is projected
against the enemy. An excavation is made in
the shape of a frustum of a cone, inclining the
axis in the direction of the enemy so as to make
an angle with the horizon of about 45 degrees.
The sides splay outward slightly. A box of
powder is placed in a recess at the bottom.
This is covered with a platform of wood several
inches thick, on which the stones are piled.</p>
<p>The fuse is placed in a groove cut at the back
of the excavation, or the mine may be exploded
by means of electricity.</p>
<p>The line of least resistance for the charge must
be arranged so that the powder will act in the
direction of the axis and not vertically. This
is accomplished by throwing the excavated
earth on the crest towards the defender's side
and ramming it well.</p>
<p>To ascertain the powder charge for any fougass,
divide the number of pounds of stone in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
charge by 150. This gives the number of pounds
of powder in the powder charge. Thus a fougass
charged with about 70 pounds of powder will
throw about 5 tons of stone over a surface
about 160 yards long and 120 yards wide.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_014-a.jpg" id="i_014-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_014-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="276" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 8.—Fougass.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_014-b.jpg" id="i_014-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_014-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="357" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 9.—Vertical fougass.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
<p>When broken up a cubic foot of stone weighs
about 100 pounds.</p>
<p>A vertical type of fougass is also shown. A
charge of 25 pounds of powder should scatter a
cubic yard of stones over an area about 200 by
100 yards.</p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Small Land Mines</p>
<p>Land mines are placed in the line of the advance
of the enemy and exploded either by electricity
or fuse from the defense. They are made
by digging holes from 2 to 3 yards deep, either
by excavation or by boring. In the former case
the charge is placed in a recess which extends
into the solid earth at the side of the hole, which
is then refilled and tamped. In the latter case
the charge is placed in the bottom of the hole,
which is then refilled and solidly tamped. In
common earth the powder charge for a 2-yard
hole is 25 pounds. That for a 3-yard hole is 80
pounds. The diameter of the crater formed will
be about twice the depth of the charge.</p>
<p>The mines may be arranged in one or more
rows. The intervals between mines should be
such that the craters will nearly but not quite
join. The position of the mines should be concealed
as much as possible and further sophisticated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
by disturbing the ground slightly at points
where there are no mines and so situated as to
suggest a systematic arrangement.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_016.jpg" id="i_016.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" width="495" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 9a.—Land mine.<br />
<i>F</i>, Line from powder charge to battery.<br />
<i>P</i>, Powder charge.</p>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Inundation</p>
<p>Backing up the water of a stream so that it
overflows a considerable area forms a good
obstacle, even though of fordable depth. If
shallow, the difficulty of fording may be increased
by irregular holes or ditches dug before the water
comes up, or by constructing wire entanglements
in the water. It may be employed with advantage
when the drainage of a considerable area<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
passes through a restricted opening, as a natural
gorge, culvert or bridge.</p>
<p>Open cribs filled with stones, or tighter ones
filled with gravel, may form the basis of the
obstruction to the flow of the water. The
usual method of tightening spaces or cracks between
cribs is by throwing in earth or alternate
layers of straw, hay, grass, earth, or sacks of
clay. A continuous construction, as shown in
the illustration, may be employed. The ends of
the dam must be carried well into the solid earth
to prevent the water from cutting around them.
This type of dam is easily destroyed by artillery
fire, and cannot be depended upon.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_017.jpg" id="i_017.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_017.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="258" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 10.—Dam construction.</p>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">Lookout and Listening Posts</p>
<p>Except when the garrison are actually required
to man the parapet, they will be kept
under cover, with the exception of a few lookouts,
whose duty it is to give timely warning of
the movements of the enemy.</p>
<p>When the opposing forces are in close proximity
to each other mining operations are generally
resorted to by both sides to compass the destruction
of the opposing works and open the way for
an attack.</p>
<p>Lookout and listening posts serve the double
purpose of having a few men at the most advantageous
places for observation at the front and
flanks and providing points at some distance to
the front of the first line fire trenches from which
listeners may be able to discover the location
and direction of enemy mining operations before
they really menace the fire trench.</p>
<p>In the normal case there will be some natural
cover available. Such, however, is not always
the case, and specially constructed observation
stations have to be provided.</p>
<p>The posts should be placed in advance of the
first line trench, the distance depending upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
circumstances which have to be determined in
each particular instance. They must be fully
protected from reverse fire so that there will be
no chance of the observer masking the fire of his
comrades manning the fire trench.</p>
<p>Unless the ground is very favorable it will be
found difficult to provide for observation above
ground. Where there are natural features such
as embankments, mounds, hedgerows, ruins of
buildings, etc., it may be possible to make
provision for observation even by day.</p>
<p>Where a loophole is used, the type having the
narrower end outward should be provided.</p>
<p>In the open type of post the observation
directly to the front may be greatly facilitated
by the use of the periscope. (Plate 11.)</p>
<p>A good, strong parapet thrown up and chopped
off at the corners will enable the observer to
cover areas from an oblique direction from
the post and protect him from fire from the
front.</p>
<p>In the covered type the observer is provided
loopholes having the splay towards him. These
may also be constructed to the oblique rather
than to the front. When this is done, provision
must be made to cover the entire front of the
position from the several posts. (Plate 12.)</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_020-a.jpg" id="i_020-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_020-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="465" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 11.—Open type of listening post.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_020-b.jpg" id="i_020-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_020-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="425" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 12.—Covered type of listening post.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_021.jpg" id="i_021.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="401" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 13.—A listening and observation post.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
<p>The post may be connected with the first
line fire trench by a narrow zigzag trench or by
an underground passage. If the former, it must
be thoroughly concealed and have no excavated
earth visible. If it can be located along a hedge
or some other natural feature its location may
remain unknown to the enemy for a considerable
length of time. Where a communication gallery
is constructed the roof and walls must be suitably
shored up by casing and supports.</p>
<p>The sentinel in the listening post carries no
accouterments. It has been found that the
creaking noise made by equipment when the
sentinel moves has been taken for mining operations
of the enemy by his comrades.</p>
<p>Listening galleries should never be left without
a sentinel. There should be a depot of arms and
hand grenades near the entrance to the gallery
in case men are attacked while on duty from
either above or below ground.</p>
<p>Listening will be conducted at specified times,
or on some prearranged signal, and for a definite
period. During this time all within the listening
area, including the trenches, must remain absolutely
motionless.</p>
<p>Infantry manning a trench can assist listening
by digging a small pit, 6 feet deep below the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
trench, and running a bore-hole out 20 feet or
more.</p>
<p>The enemy is always listening for indications
of the direction and position of gallery heads.
Work must therefore be carried on with a minimum
of noise. Shouting down the shafts of
galleries is absolutely forbidden.</p>
<p>When the mining operations of the enemy are
detected a report should be made at once to the
officer in charge of that section of the trench.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">Field Trenches</p>
<p>The next element of the defensive position is
the <i>first line fire trenches</i>. These are located so as
to have a good field of fire to the front for several
hundred yards and so constructed as to give
the greatest cover and protection from the fire
of the enemy.</p>
<p>An unbroken, continuous trench would be
exposed to enfilade fire. A shell, shrapnel or
grenade bursting therein would have widespread
effect. To overcome these elements the trench
is constructed in short lengths, with traverses
between them, and technically known as the
<i>traverse type</i>.</p>
<p>Better defilade is thus secured and the material
effect of any burst is confined to narrow limits.</p>
<p>The trench interval between the traverses is
known as the "bay," which should not ordinarily
be longer than 18 feet. Longer bays invite
heavy casualties in case the trench is enfiladed or
a high explosive shell finds its mark.</p>
<p>The illustration, Plate 14, shows a trace of the
traversed type of fire trench.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_025.jpg" id="i_025.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="297" />
<p class="caption"><i>PLAN OF TRAVERSED TYPE OF FIRE TRENCH</i><br />
<span class="ac noindent"><i>PLATE 14.</i></span></p>
</div>
<div class="columns2 smaller">
1. Length of bay, 18 feet.<br />
2. Width of traverse, 5 feet.<br />
3. Length of traverse, 5 feet.<br />
4. Overlap of traverse, 3 feet.<br />
5. Height of traverse depends
upon defilade required and practicability of concealment.</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Type of Trench</p>
<p>Formerly, protection from the enemy's fire
was obtained by thickness of parapet. In the
trench warfare of today it is obtained by completely
concealing the riflemen in a deep, narrow
trench with a very low parapet.</p>
<p>The height over which the average man can
fire is about 5 feet or about five-sixths of his own
height. This factor determines the height of
the parapet above the firing banquet of the trench
or the height of bottom of loophole above the
same point, when the latter is employed.</p>
<p>The type of trench in general use today is the
simple standing trench shown in Plate 15.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_026.jpg" id="i_026.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_026.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="343" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate 15.</span>—Simple standing trench. 1. Width at top, 3
feet 4 inches. 2. Width at bottom, over all, 2 feet 8
inches. 3. Width of firing banquet, 1 foot 4 inches.
4. Height of parapet above firing banquet, 5 feet.
5. Height of parapet above bottom of trench, 6 feet 4 inches.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_027.jpg" id="i_027.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="292" />
<p class="caption"><i>PLATE 15a.<br />
Type of INSTRUCTION FIRE TRENCH AT VALCARTIER CANADA<br />
Used in the instruction of Canadian Troops.</i></p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Drainage</p>
<p>If a trench is to be occupied for any length of
time, especially if much ground or falling water
is to be encountered, drainage becomes of prime
importance. Many years ago a celebrated
military authority asserted that "nothing so
saps the courage of a soldier as to wet the seat
of his breeches." This may be accepted as a
true maxim, especially in cold weather. The
trench should therefore be made as dry as
possible. The floor of the trench should be
given a sufficient slope to the rear where an
intercepting drain should carry the water to prepared
sumps or to a point from which it can be
disposed of by drainage. Provision should also
be made to exclude surface drainage from the
trenches.</p>
<p>A scheme for trench drainage is shown in the
illustrations (Plates 16, 17 and 18).</p>
<p>Overhead cover may be provided as shown in
Plates 19 and 20.</p>
<p>Loopholes are made wherever head cover is
provided. Where the enemy's trenches are
close, there is considerable danger in using them.
Collective firing takes place over the parapet.
When loopholes are used they should face half-right<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
or half-left and not directly to the front.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_029-a.jpg" id="i_029-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_029-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="451" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 16.—Method of draining trench.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_029-b.jpg" id="i_029-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_029-b.jpg" alt="" width="592" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 17.—Details of trench drainage.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_029-c.jpg" id="i_029-c.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_029-c.jpg" alt="" width="685" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 18.—Detail of trench drainage.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_030-a.jpg" id="i_030-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_030-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 19.—Overhead cover.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_030-b.jpg" id="i_030-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_030-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="342" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 19a.—Overhead cover.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_031-a.jpg" id="i_031-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_031-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="297" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 20.—Overhead cover.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_031-b.jpg" id="i_031-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_031-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="358" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 20a.—Overhead cover.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
<p>The disadvantages of loopholes are:</p>
<p>1. The difficulty of concealing firing points.
Loopholes give the enemy's snipers an easy mark.</p>
<p>2. They lessen the number of rifles that can
be used at a given point.</p>
<p>3. The necessary head cover makes it difficult
to get out of the trench quickly.</p>
<p>4. Damaged head cover often spoils a good
firing point.</p>
<p>The three types of loopholes are:</p>
<p>1. Narrowest point of the opening nearest the
marksman. This type is most difficult to conceal,
much of the parapet thickness is cut away
and, if of hard material, tends to deflect the
bullets into the firer's face. This defect may be
remedied somewhat by stepping the surface of
the loophole.</p>
<p>2. Narrowest point to the front. Easiest to
conceal but gives a limited field of view.</p>
<p>3. Narrowest point midway between the front
and rear. A compromise between the first two
types.</p>
<p>The following general remarks on the construction
of loopholes are taken from a work based
upon the experience gained during the war in
Europe:</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
<p>1. The angle of splay is usually 60 degrees.
The thicker the parapet the smaller must be the
angle of splay.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_033.jpg" id="i_033.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="" width="310" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 21.—Types of loopholes.</p>
</div>
<p>2. The marksman holds his rifle in a line connecting
the right shoulder, the eye and the object,
hence most of the body lies to the left of the
rifle. The loophole should be made to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span><br />
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> right,
with a niche in the wall of the parapet
from the hip to the armpit, to bring the left
shoulder well forward. It will be found that
this permits the right elbow to be placed on the edge of the parapet.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_034.jpg" id="i_034.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_034.jpg" alt="" width="397" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 22.—Methods of constructing loopholes
with sandbags.</p>
</div>
<p>3. Box loopholes with screens or blindage may
be used, but should be placed by a skilled marksman.
The great disadvantage is that the enemy
notes these parapet alterations. Steel loophole
plates are now provided for this type of loophole,
As the Germans sometimes use a steel bullet
with great penetrating power, it is advisable to
place two plates together to insure protection.</p>
<p>4. With every precaution that may be taken
it is difficult to conceal a loophole. A good plan
is to deceive the enemy by using painted sandbags
and preparing plenty of dummy loopholes.</p>
<p>5. The minimum width of loopholes should
be 2-1/2 inches. If narrower than this, it is impossible
to use both eyes to judge distances
correctly.</p>
<p>6. The parapet should be so sloped that there
is a maximum grazing fire when the rifle is fired
as it lies on the parapet.</p>
<p>To insure that the bullet will not graze the
parapet, although the sights are clear, look
through the barrel with the bolt removed.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
<div class="sidenote">Communication Trench</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_036.jpg" id="i_036.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="372" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 23.—Type of communication trench.</p>
</div>
<p>In the first line fire trenches
there are so many crooks and
turns and the trench itself is
so narrow that passage along
the same is very difficult. To provide for this
lateral communication a trench known as the
communication or supervision trench is dug. It
runs generally parallel to and a short distance in
rear of the fire trench and is connected therewith
by zigzag approaches. The factor that determines
the distance between the fire trench and the
communication trench is that it should be at such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
a distance that a shell bursting in one of the bays
would not destroy the communication trench.</p>
<p>The location of the communication trench with
respect to the fire trench and the arrangements of
the approaches is shown in detail in Plate 1.</p>
<p>The profile of the ordinary communication
trench is shown in Plate 23.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Dugouts</div>
<p>During the artillery bombardment
few men are left in
the fire trenches. The remainder
of the garrison is held under cover a
short distance to the rear. This cover is provided
by a system of dugouts connected with
the fire trench through underground passageways
that lead to the communication trench.
This arrangement is shown in Plate 1.</p>
<p>A profile of the latest type of dugout is shown
in Plate 24.</p>
<p>The solid earth cover is from 12 to 18 feet
thick, which gives protection from all but the
very largest caliber shells.</p>
<p>Effective resistance is supplied by roofing
materials as follows:</p>
<p>1. From shrapnel bullets: 2-inch planks covered
with 12 inches of earth.</p>
<p>2. From 3-inch shells: 4-inch planks supporting
4 feet of earth with a top layer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
of heavy stones to cause an early shell burst.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_038.jpg" id="i_038.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="256" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 24.—Type of dugout.</p>
</div>
<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></p>
<p>3. From howitzers of less than 6 inches caliber:
12-inch beams or logs covered with 8 feet of
earth.</p>
<p>4. From the largest caliber guns: 15 to 25
feet of earth.</p>
<p>The following table shows the penetration of
the German S bullet at a range of 200 yards:</p>
<table style="width:300px" id="PENETRATION" summary="German S Bullet Penetration">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="c1"></td>
<td class="c2"><span class="smaller"><i>Inches</i></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Steel plate</td>
<td class="c2">⅜</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Broken stone</td>
<td class="c2">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Brickwork, cement and mortar</td>
<td class="c2">9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Brickwork, lime and mortar</td>
<td class="c2">14</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Sandbags</td>
<td class="c2">24</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Sand, loose</td>
<td class="c2">30</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Hardwood, oak, etc.</td>
<td class="c2">38</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Earth</td>
<td class="c2">50</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Soft wood, poplar, etc.</td>
<td class="c2">58</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Clay</td>
<td class="c2">60</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1">Dry turf</td>
<td class="c2">80</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>In addition to the regular "dugouts" for the
supports, the latest type trenches have squad
dugouts just in rear of the bays of the fire trench.
These provide shelter during bombardment for
the members of the squad not actually required
on duty in the trench bay.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_040.jpg" id="i_040.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 24a.—Section of traversed type of fire trench
showing entrance to squad dugout.</p>
</div>
<div class="sidenote">Communications</div>
<p>The fire trench is connected
with the cover for supports
by a system of zigzag trenches
having the profile shown in
Plate 23. The arrangement is shown in Plate 1.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Trench Mortar Positions</div>
<p>Somewhere between the first
line fire trench and the cover
for the supports is a line of
emplacements for the trench
mortars. Plate 25 shows a profile of the emplacement.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_041.jpg" id="i_041.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_041.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="242" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 25.—Profile of trench mortar emplacement.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
<p>The arrangement of the position is shown in
Plate 1.</p>
<p>These trench mortars are used to hurl charges
of high explosives varying from 25 to 100 pounds
into the enemy's lines. They have a range of
from 300 to 1,800 yards.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_042.jpg" id="i_042.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="580" height="469" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 25a.—Trench mortar.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_043.jpg" id="i_043.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" width="567" height="580" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 25b.—Improvised catapult.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
<div class="sidenote">Cover for Supports</div>
<p>At a variable distance to
the rear of the first line fire
trench is located the cover
for supports, which is organized
much in the same manner as the first line
system of trenches and affords a second position
in the system to fall back to in case of
necessity. These trenches are provided with
overhead cover and numerous dugouts for the
protection of the men.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Machine Guns</div>
<p>At every available place
throughout the defensive position
machine guns are located,
typical positions of which are shown in Plate 1.</p>
<p>The typical types of cover are shown in Plates
26 and 27.</p>
<p>Machine guns are a very potent factor in
trench warfare. They are now being employed
to a far greater extent than ever before, and the
number is increasing on all the battle fronts
as fast as they can be manufactured. The
machine-gun positions are carefully concealed
from the enemy, and fire is not opened until it
is certain that it will be effective.</p>
<p>The selection of the sites for the emplacements
should be made with a view to bringing a powerful
enfilade or oblique fire on the attacking enemy
at effective range, to provide a flanking fire for
supporting troops, and to sweep gaps in the line
of obstacles.</p>
<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_045.jpg" id="i_045.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="347" />
<p class="caption"><i>From World's Work.</i><br />
<span class="smcap">Plate</span> 26.—Profile of type of cover for machine gun.</p>
</div>
<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_046.jpg" id="i_046.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="527" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27.—Type of cover for machine guns.</p>
</div>
<p>Their fire should come as a surprise to the
attacking party.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
<p>In the construction of cover for machine guns
the following points should be observed:</p>
<p>1. They must have a platform for the gun and
gunner. This may be provided for in the construction
of the emplacement or built up with
sandbags. The platform should be 3 feet wide
and 6-1/2 feet in length.</p>
<p>2. If head cover is provided, it should not
differ in appearance from that constructed elsewhere
in the trenches. The loopholes must be
blinded with gunny sacks.</p>
<p>3. The front of the emplacement should be
cut under to receive the leg of the tripod, thus
bringing the gun up closer to the parapet and
furnishing more cover for the gunner.</p>
<p>4. Splinter-proof shelters should be provided
near at hand for the members of the gun detachment.</p>
<p>5. Where the enemy's trenches are near,
the position for the emplacement should be
selected by day and the actual work done under
cover of darkness.</p>
<p>6. The guns should be located so that they
support each other by their fire. Alternate
positions should be constructed.</p>
<p>7. When located to enfilade straight lines of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
trenches, special capioniers should be constructed.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Supporting Points</div>
<p>At intervals from 800 to
1,500 yards along the first
line, supporting points are
established. They may consist
of a fortified village or a specially prepared
position having a "labyrinth" of trenches and
rendered well nigh impregnable to infantry
assault by every defensive device known to
modern warfare. They are designed to bring
a flanking fire to bear upon the intervening intervals
with the idea that troops cannot pass
beyond them until they are reduced.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Village Defense</div>
<p>The following was the actual
scheme employed for the defense
of a French village, and
exemplifies the thoroughness with which defenses
must be organized.</p>
<p>The village was about 700 yards in rear of
the front line, and had three keeps surrounded
with wire entanglements and independent of
each other, but with an elaborate system of
communication trenches. Water and four days'
rations were stored in each keep, and wells dug.
Each of the keeps held about one company.
The communication trenches were about 6 feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
deep, used as far as possible as fire trenches, and
well traversed. Firing platforms were revetted
with brushwood, and shelters made all over the
village. In addition to keeps, a series of lines
existed in the rear of the front line, intercommunicating
and provided with barbed wire. A
small wood on one point of the front was defended
by a network of low wire entanglements
and a line of high wire netting.</p>
<p>Every officer had to know all about his section
and its communications with right and left.
Telephone wires were laid low down in communication
trenches and fastened a few inches from
ground with wooden pickets.</p>
<p>Machine guns were placed so as to flank
salients. A 65-mm. field gun was placed in the
front line to sweep the village, and an observation
station placed in a tree. The observer
wore a green mask and green sheet.</p>
<p>Great use was made of brushwood and undergrowth
to revet steps of firing platform.</p>
<p>All work was carried out by regimental officers
and men without help from the engineers, who
were fully employed in mining. The garrison
of the village and the front line trenches in the
vicinity was about one battalion, but the fire
trenches were sufficient for three battalions.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V[1]</h2>
</div>
<p>[1]: This chapter reprinted from <i>Infantry Journal</i>.</p>
<p>Use and Improvement of Natural Cover</p>
<p><i>A screen or mask</i> consists of hedges, crops,
underbrush, etc., which hide the rifleman without,
however, protecting him from fire.</p>
<p><i>Cover or shelter</i> consists of walls, earthworks,
etc., which protect the rifleman from fire.</p>
<p>On the battlefield, natural features that
screen and shelter should be utilized as much as
possible, as they possess the following advantages
over artificial works:</p>
<p>(<i>a</i>) Their organization demands less work.</p>
<p>(<i>b</i>) Concealment is easier.</p>
<p>(<i>c</i>) From their nature, it is difficult for the
enemy to estimate, for a given length, the number
of men sheltered.</p>
<p>They possess, however, certain disadvantages:</p>
<p>(<i>a</i>) The protection is sometimes so excellent
that, morally as well as materially, it becomes
difficult to leave the shelter. Example: quarries
with obstructed exits. Therefore, good judgment
must be exercised in the selection.</p>
<p>(<i>b</i>) Some of them are too visible. Example:
large hedges. In this case their range can be
easily found.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
<p>As a general rule, do not occupy them uniformly
and do not change the appearance of the
organized parts.</p>
<p>Organization of the cover:</p>
<p>To organize the cover which protects troops
from fire, construct suitable positions for firing
and resting. To utilize the screens which merely
hide the troops without protecting them from
fire, dig trenches behind these screens in the
following manner:</p>
<p>(<i>a</i>) Choose the points which give the best field
of fire.</p>
<p>(<i>b</i>) Construct cover for firing.</p>
<p>(<i>c</i>) Construct a shelter.</p>
<p>The constructions are usually "individual"
in the first period of work; afterwards, they are
organized "collectively." The covers are: (1)
for riflemen lying down, (2) for riflemen sitting
down, and (3) for riflemen standing up.</p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Individual Organization of Natural Cover</p>
<p>Examples of hasty individual cover behind
trees, bushes, or branches:</p>
<p>(<i>a</i>) Fallen tree (logs or branches), the height
of which is at a maximum of 1 foot above the
ground:</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_052-a.jpg" id="i_052-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_052-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="131" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27a.—Use of the cover without improvement.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_052-b.jpg" id="i_052-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_052-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="211" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27b.—First period.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_052-c.jpg" id="i_052-c.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_052-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="310" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27c.—Second period.<br />
Progressive improvement of the cover.</p>
</div>
<p>(<i>b</i>) Fallen tree, the top of which is more than
1 foot above the ground.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_053-a.jpg" id="i_053-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_053-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="183" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27d.—First period.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_053-b.jpg" id="i_053-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_053-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="205" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27e.—Second period.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_053-c.jpg" id="i_053-c.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_053-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="272" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27f.—Third period.</p>
</div>
<p>Wood which does not afford sufficient protection
against bullets must be reinforced by earth
at the right and against the cover 1 foot behind.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
Plates 27d, 27e, and 27f show the progressive
improvement of the cover.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_054-a.jpg" id="i_054-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_054-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="121" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27g.—Sharp ridges, furrows, or top of a crest at
the end of a gentle slope.</p>
</div>
<p>Examples of hasty individual covers behind a
furrow, a crest, a heap of sand or earth:</p>
<p>Dig the ground as near as possible to crest <i>A</i> of
the furrow in the manner indicated for the cover
installed behind a fallen tree more than 1 foot
high.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_054-b.jpg" id="i_054-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_054-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="86" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27h.—Narrow furrows.</p>
</div>
<p>Use the earth excavated between furrows <i>A</i>
and <i>B</i> to build up the earth between furrows <i>B</i>
and <i>C</i> and fill up furrow <i>C</i>; continue afterwards
as for the sharp ridge.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_055.jpg" id="i_055.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="575" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27i.—Low wall of earth, or earth
and sand heaps, more than 2 feet high (two methods, <i>A</i> or <i>B</i>).</p>
</div>
<p>(<i>A</i>) Lower the height about 8 inches; throw
the earth forward. Dig a trench as indicated in
the figure.</p>
<p>(<i>B</i>) Make a loophole in the pile of earth,
showing oneself as little as possible. Improve
the firing position by making a place for the right
leg and an elbow rest.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
<p>Examples of hasty shelters (individual) arranged
behind a large stone or heap of stones:</p>
<p>A heap of stones, the top of which is 1 foot at
a maximum above the ground:</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_056-a.jpg" id="i_056-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_056-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="183" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27j.—First period.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_056-b.jpg" id="i_056-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_056-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="261" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27k.—Second period.</p>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">General Organization of Natural Cover</p>
<p>This consists in connecting up and coordinating
the individual work under the direction of the
squad commander. The work should be carried
out on the lines adopted for the individual work;
and the rules prescribed for the construction of
artificial cover (profiles, depths, various shelters)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
should be followed as far as possible. In arranging
the cover, the squads should utilize the natural
features of the terrain.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_057-a.jpg" id="i_057-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_057-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="200" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27l.—Arrangement for a mound of earth.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_057-b.jpg" id="i_057-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_057-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="197" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27m.—Arrangement for a dry ditch.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_057-c.jpg" id="i_057-c.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_057-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="193" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27n.—Arrangement for a sunken road defended on
the side towards the enemy.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_058-a.jpg" id="i_058-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_058-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="165" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27o.—Arrangement for a sunken road defended
from the rear.</p>
</div>
<p>Ditches full of water, drains, streams:</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_058-b.jpg" id="i_058-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_058-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="267" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27p.—Arrangement of a large ditch.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_058-c.jpg" id="i_058-c.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_058-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="226" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27q.—Arrangement of a ditch full of water.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
<p>Ordinary roads, road and railroad embankments,
and sunken roads:</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_059-a.jpg" id="i_059-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_059-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="178" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27r.—Arrangement of an ordinary road defended
on the side toward the enemy.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_059-b.jpg" id="i_059-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_059-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="170" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27s.—Same defended from the rear.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_059-c.jpg" id="i_059-c.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_059-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="214" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27t.—Road embankment, defended from the rear.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_060-a.jpg" id="i_060-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_060-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="310" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27u.—Arrangement of a railroad embankment.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_060-b.jpg" id="i_060-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_060-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="376" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27v.—Arrangement of a sunken road.</p>
</div>
<p>Hedges and woods:</p>
<p>Dig a trench behind the hedge and throw the
earth against it; make openings in the hedge to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
facilitate view and fire (Plate 27w). If the hedge
is low, deepen the trench, but make the parapet
lower than the hedge which masks it.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_061-a.jpg" id="i_061-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_061-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="331" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27w.—Arrangement of a hedge.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_061-b.jpg" id="i_061-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_061-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="293" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27x.—Arrangement of the edge of a wood.</p>
</div>
<p>Avoid destroying the natural appearance of the
wood; do not cut the trees and brush on a certain
depth, but cut off branches where necessary to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
obtain a field of fire. Behind this strip cut the
brush and small trees so as to make a path 3 to
4 yards wide. Construct a trench behind the
mask of trees. The parapet can be raised up to
2 or even 3 feet. Construct abatis on the parts
of the border of the wood, where it will not interfere
with the fire.</p>
<p>Walls:</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_062-a.jpg" id="i_062-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_062-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="298" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27y.—Arrangement of a wall 2 feet 8
inches high.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_062-b.jpg" id="i_062-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_062-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="401" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27z.—Arrangement of a wall 8 feet high.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_063-a.jpg" id="i_063-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_063-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="204" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 28.—Arrangement of a wall more than 8 feet high
without making loopholes.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_063-b.jpg" id="i_063-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_063-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="488" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 28a.—Arrangement of an iron fence
built on a low wall.</p>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">Revetments</p>
<p>A <i>revetment</i> is a covering or facing placed
upon an earth slope to enable it to stand at an
inclination greater than it would naturally assume.
Some revetments also increase the tenacity
of slopes and diminish the injury by fire.
The upper parts of revetments that may be
struck by projectiles which penetrate the cover
of earth must not be made of materials of large
units which will splinter when struck. The upper
part of the revetments is technically known as
<i>crowning</i>.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Sandbags</div>
<p>Sandbags are made of coarse
canvas or burlap. They are
33 inches long and 14 inches
wide. They are filled loosely with earth or sand
about 1/2 cubic foot to a bag. Having been
placed in position they are pounded down with
a shovel to a rectangular form when they will fill
a space about 20 by 13 by 5 inches.</p>
<p>The sandbag revetment is constructed by laying
alternate rows of headers and stretchers,
breaking joints. The tied ends of the headers
and seams of the stretchers are put into the
parapet. Men working in pairs lay the bags<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
and set them firmly in place with a spade or
mallet.</p>
<p>The advantages are:</p>
<p>1. The portability of the empty bags. Only
62 pounds per one hundred bags.</p>
<p>2. They may be filled with any kind of soil.</p>
<p>3. They are rapidly filled and easily placed in
position.</p>
<p>4. They are invaluable in making repairs.</p>
<p>5. They will not splinter.</p>
<p>The only disadvantage is that they are not
durable. The cloth soon goes to decay and the
filling material crumbles away.</p>
<p>Plate 29 shows the appearance of a sandbag
revetment as seen from the front and from the
end.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_065.jpg" id="i_065.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="286" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 29.—Sandbag revetment.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
<p>A squad of six men with two shovels and one
pick should fill 150 bags in an hour. One man
uses the pick, two shovel the dirt into the bag,
one holds the bag open and two men tie the bags.
Having the filled bags ready to hand ten men
will lay 75 square feet of revetment in an hour.
Four men lay the bags and flatten them out
while six carry them.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Brush</div>
<p>Brush is used in many
forms for revetting. Almost
any kind will serve the purpose.
For weaving, it must be live and is most
pliable when not in leaf. It should not be more
than 1 inch in diameter at the butt. When cut
it should be assorted in sizes for the different
class of revetments. Poles 2-1/2 inches in diameter
are cut for the supports.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Fascines</div>
<p>A <i>fascine</i> is a cylindrical
bundle of brushwood tightly
bound. The usual length is
18 feet, the diameter 9 inches, and the weight
normally about 140 pounds. Lengths of 6 and
9 feet, which are sometimes used, are most conveniently
obtained by sawing a standard fascine
into two or three pieces.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_067.jpg" id="i_067.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="186" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 29a.—Fascine.</p>
</div>
<p>Fascines are made in a cradle which consists of
five trestles, the outer ones being 16 feet apart.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a><br /><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
The trestle is made by driving two sticks about
6-1/2 feet long and 3 inches in diameter in the
ground and lashed at the intersection as shown in
Plate 29a. In making the cradle, plant the two
end trestles first. Stretch a line from one to the
other over the intersection. Place the others 4
feet apart and lash them so that each intersection
comes fairly to the line.</p>
<p><i>To build a fascine</i>, straight pieces of brush,
1 or 2 inches at the butt, are laid on, the butts
projecting at the end 1 foot beyond the trestle.
Leaves should be stripped and unruly branches
cut off, or partially cut through, so that they
will lie close. The larger, straighter brush
should be laid on the outside, butts alternating
in direction, and smaller stuff in the center.
The general object is to so dispose the brush as
to make the fascine of uniform size, strength,
and stiffness from end to end.</p>
<p>When the cradle is nearly filled, the fascine
is compressed or <i>choked</i> by the <i>fascine choker</i>
(Plate 30), which consists of two bars, 4 feet
long, joined 18 inches from the ends by a chain
4 feet long. The chain is marked at 14 inches
each way from the middle by inserting a ring
or special link. To use, two men standing on
opposite sides pass the chain under the brush,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
place the short ends of the handles on top and
pass the bars, short end first, across to each
other. They then bear down on the long ends
until the marks on the chain come together.
Chokers may be improvised from sticks and
rope or wire.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_069.jpg" id="i_069.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_069.jpg" alt="" width="538" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 30.—Method of using the
fascine choker.</p>
</div>
<p><i>Binding</i> will be done with a double turn of
wire or tarred rope. It should be done in twelve
places 18 inches apart, the end binders 3 inches
outside the end trestles. To bind a fascine will
require 66 feet of wire.</p>
<p>Improvised binders may be made from rods
of live brush; hickory or hazel is the best. Place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
the butt under the foot and twist the rod to
partially separate the fibers and make it flexible.
A rod so prepared is called a <i>withe</i>. To use a
withe, make a half-turn and twist at the smaller
end. Pass the withe around the brush and the
large end through the eye. Draw taut and
double the large end back, taking two half-hitches
over its own standing part.</p>
<p><i>A fascine revetment</i> is made by placing the
fascines as shown in Plate 31. The use of
headers and anchors is absolutely necessary in
loose soils only, but they greatly strengthen the
revetment in any case. A fascine revetment
<i>must always be crowned</i> with sod or bags.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_070.jpg" id="i_070.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="309" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 31.—Fascine revetment.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
<p>In all brush weaving the following terms have
been adopted and are convenient to use:</p>
<p><i>Randing.</i>—Weaving a single rod in and out
between pickets.</p>
<p><i>Slewing.</i>—Weaving two or more rods together
in the same way.</p>
<p><i>Pairing.</i>—Carrying two rods together, crossing
each other in and out at each picket.</p>
<p><i>Wattling.</i>—A general term applied to the
woven part of brush construction.</p>
<p>A <i>hurdle</i> is a basket work made of brushwood.
If made in pieces the usual size is 2 feet 9 inches
by 6 feet, though the width may be varied so
that it will cover the desired height of slope.</p>
<p>A hurdle is made by describing on the ground
an arc of a circle of 8-foot radius and on the
arc driving ten pickets, 8 inches apart, covering
6 feet out to out. Brush is then woven in and
out and well compacted. The concave side of
a hurdle should be placed next the earth. It
warps less than if made flat.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_072-a.jpg" id="i_072-a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_072-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 32.—Method of laying out hurdle.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_072-b.jpg" id="i_072-b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_072-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="358" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 33.—Hurdle.</p>
</div>
<p>In <i>weaving the hurdle</i>, begin randing at the
middle space at the bottom. Reaching the end,
twist the rod as described for a withe but at one
point only, bend it around the end picket and
work back. Start a second rod before the first
one is quite out, slewing the two for a short distance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
Hammer the wattling down snug on
the pickets with a block of wood and continue
until the top is reached. It improves the
hurdle to finish the edges with two selected rods
paired. A pairing may be introduced in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
middle, if desired, to give the hurdle extra endurance
if it is to be used as a pavement or
floor. If the hurdle is not to be used at once, or
if it is to be transported, it must be <i>sewed</i>. The
sewing is done with wire, twine or withes at
each end and in the middle, with stitches about
6 inches long, as shown in Plate 33. About
40 feet of wire is required to sew one hurdle.
No. 14 is about the right size, and a coil of 100
pounds will sew forty hurdles. Three men
should make a hurdle in two hours, two wattling
and the third preparing the rods.</p>
<p><i>Continuous Hurdle.</i>—If conditions permit the
revetment to be built in place, the hurdle is
made continuous for considerable lengths. The
pickets may be larger; they are driven further
apart, 12 or 18 inches, and the brush may be
heavier. The construction is more rapid. The
pickets are driven with a little more slant than
is intended and must be anchored to the parapet.
A line of poles, with wire attached at intervals of
two or three pickets, will answer. The wires
should be made fast to the pickets after the
wattling is done. They will interfere with the
weaving if fastened sooner. Two men should
make 4 yards of continuous hurdling of ordinary
height in one hour.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
<p><i>Brush Revetment.</i>—Pickets may be set as
above described and the brush laid inside them
without weaving, being held in place by bringing
the earth up with it. In this case the
anchors must be fastened before the brush laying
begins. The wires are not much in the way in
this operation.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_074.jpg" id="i_074.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" width="444" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 34.—Gabion.</p>
</div>
<p><i>Gabion Making.</i>—A <i>gabion</i> is a cylindrical
basket with open ends, made of brush woven
on pickets or stakes as described for hurdles.
The usual size is 2 feet outside diameter and 2<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
feet 9 inches height of wattling. On account of
the sharp curvature somewhat better brush is required
for gabions than will do for hurdles. The
<i>gabion form</i> is made of wood, 21 inches diameter,
with equidistant notches around the circumference,
equal in number to the number of pickets
to be used, usually eight to fourteen; less if the
brush is large and stiff, more if small and pliable.
The notches should be of such depth
that the pickets will project to 1 inch outside
the circle. The pickets should be 1-1/2 to 2 inches
in diameter, 3 feet 6 inches long, sharpened,
half at the small and half at the large end.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_075.jpg" id="i_075.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="364" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 35.</p>
</div>
<p><i>To Make a Gabion.</i>—The form is placed on
the ground. The pickets are driven vertically
in the ground, large and small ends down, alternately.
The form is then raised a foot and held
by placing a lashing around outside the pickets,
tightened with a rack stick. (See Plate 36.)</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_076.jpg" id="i_076.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_076.jpg" alt="" width="402" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 36.—Forming the gabion supports.</p>
</div>
<p>The wattling is randed or slewed from the
form up. The form is then dropped down, the
gabion inverted, and the wattling completed.
If the brush is small, uniform, and pliable, pairing
will make a better wattling than randing.
If not for immediate use, the gabion must be
sewed as described for hurdles, the same quantity
of wire being required.</p>
<p>The gabion, when wattled and sewed, is completed
by cutting off the tops of the pickets,
1 inch from the web, the bottom 3 inches.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
The latter are sharpened after cutting and driving
a pairing picket through the middle of its
length and a little to one side of the axis. Three
men should make a gabion in an hour.</p>
<p>Gabions may be made without the forms, but
the work is slower and not so good. The circle
is struck on the ground and the pickets driven
at the proper points. The weaving is done
from the ground up. The entire time of one
man is required to keep the pickets in their
proper positions.</p>
<p>If brush is scarce, gabions may be made with
6 inches of wattling at each end, the middle
being left open. In filling, the open parts may
be lined with straw, grass, brush, or grain sacks
to keep the earth from running out.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_077.jpg" id="i_077.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_077.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="235" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 37.—Methods of use of gabion.</p>
</div>
<p><i>Gabion Revetment.</i>—The use of gabions in
revetment is illustrated in Plate 37. If more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
than two tiers are used, the separating fascines
should be anchored back. Gabion revetment
should be crowned with sod or sandbag.</p>
<p>The advantages of gabion revetment are very
great. It can be put in place without extra
labor, faster and with less exposure than any
other. It is self-supporting and gives cover
from view and partial cover from fire quicker
than any other form. Several forms of gabions
made of material other than brush have been
used. Some of them are sheet iron, empty
barrels and hoops. The disadvantages of iron
are that it splinters badly, is heavy, and has not
given satisfaction. If any special materials are
supplied, the methods of using them will, in
view of the foregoing explanation, be obvious.</p>
<p><i>Timber or Pole Revetment.</i>—Poles too large for
use in any other way may be cut to length and
stood on end to form a revetment. The lower
end should be in a small trench and have a
waling piece in front of them. There must also
be a waling piece or cap at or near the top,
anchored back. Plate 38 shows this form.</p>
<p><i>Miscellaneous Revetments.</i>—Any receptacles for
earth which will
make a stable, compact pile,
such as boxes, baskets, cans, etc., may be used
for a revetment. Canvas or burlap stretched<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
behind pickets is being used to a great extent on
the battle fronts of Europe. If the soil will make
adobe, an excellent revetment may be made of
them, but it will not stand wet weather.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_079.jpg" id="i_079.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" width="494" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 38.—Timber revetment.</p>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">Working Parties</p>
<p>The infantryman will always be called upon to
construct the trench which he is to occupy.
Each company is provided with portable tools,
which the men carry, and each infantry regiment
is provided with tools for the purpose. The
digging tools consist of picks and shovels.</p>
<p>When it has been decided to locate fire trenches
along a certain line officers will lay out the cutting
lines and mark them with tape or otherwise. A
company will be assigned for the construction of
a definite section of the trench.</p>
<p>Let us work out the procedure, assuming that
the work may go on unmolested by the enemy.
Such, however, is not usually the case. The
enemy will do anything in his power to prevent
construction work. If, however, we are familiar
with the details of the work and know how to go
about it in an orderly and systematic manner
under conditions of noninterference by the
enemy, we will be able to carry out these details
of organization and procedure under more or
less trying conditions when the time comes.</p>
<p>Officers have established the trace of the trench
and marked the cutting lines. It is the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
traversed type, 18 feet bays with traverses 5
feet wide and 5 feet deep, as shown in Plate 14.</p>
<p>The company is composed of, say twelve
squads organized into three platoons of four
squads each. Six bays of the trench have been
assigned to the organization for construction.
This gives a task to each platoon of two bays,
including one complete traverse and a half
traverse on each flank.</p>
<p>Tools have been issued to the first and third
squads of each platoon, the front rank men
carrying picks and the rear rank men shovels.</p>
<p>The company is marched in column of squads
to the site of the trench, approaching it from the
rear, and halted with the head of the column
fifteen paces in rear of and opposite the right of
the section assigned; that is, in rear of the first
bay of the section. The second platoon is then
conducted by the platoon commander and halted
with its head opposite the third bay. The
third platoon is in like manner conducted to the
rear of the fifth bay. Each platoon commander
then has the two rear squads of his platoon,
conducted to a point behind the bay on his left,
<i>i. e.</i>, the second, fourth and sixth respectively.
This allows two squads for the work in each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
bay, the leading squad furnishing the first relief
and the rear squad the second.</p>
<p>The leading squad of each column is then
marched to a point two paces in rear of the rear
cutting line of the trench, where they take off
their packs and lay their rifles on them. The
corporal and his rear rank man fall out. The
corporal assigns tasks, number ones to the first
2-yard section, number twos to the second and
number threes the third.</p>
<p>The tasks are shown in Plate 39. The corporal
superintends the work. Number 4 rear rank
marks out the cutting lines with his shovel
around the traverses and starts work on them.</p>
<p>Experience has shown that the best method of
dividing up the work is to group the men in
pairs, one man with a pick and one with a shovel
and to prescribe that they relieve each other.</p>
<p>The leading squads assigned to each bay work
at top speed for 30 minutes. At the end of the
twenty-eighth minute the corporal of the rear
squad brings his men up and deploys them. At a
signal from the platoon commander the men of
the first and third squads drop their tools, get
out of the trench, and proceed to the rear, where
they rest. The men of the second and fourth
squads jump into the trench and take up the
task. At the end of another 30 minutes this
procedure is again carried out.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_083.jpg" id="i_083.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_083.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="216" />
<p class="caption"><i>PLATE 39.<br />
ORGANIZATION OF A WORKING PARTY</i></p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
<p>This scheme of assigning tasks and procedure
was given an exhaustive test in 1915 in the course
of testing out various types of intrenching tools.
It worked to perfection.</p>
<p>The bays are first completed, after which the
traverses begun by No. 4 rear rank are finished
up. Great care should be taken to make the
dimensions of the trench as accurate as possible.
The squad leader is held responsible for this.
He should provide himself with two sticks. On
one the following lengths are laid off: 1 foot,
width of berms, and height of parapet; 1 foot 4
inches, width of firing banquet, height of firing
banquet above bottom of trench, and width of
bottom of trench. The other stick has the following
lengths measured on it: 4 feet, depth of trench
from ground surface to the top of firing banquet;
5 feet 4 inches, depth of trench from ground
surface to bottom of trench. (See Plate 15 for
dimensions of standing trench.)</p>
<p>When the circumstances are such that the
work of trench construction is interfered with by
the enemy, a modification of the system outlined
here will have to be made, but the details should
be adhered to as closely as possible.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
<p>When night work is necessary the trace should
be staked out before complete darkness sets in.
If the trace can only be made after dark, visible
reference points needed with white paper, white
tape or screened flashlights may be utilized.
Stick to the details of the deployment, the laying
out of tasks and the procedure as indicated for
day work as closely as possible. Avoid making
any more noise than is absolutely necessary;
allow no smoking and require such conversation
as is necessary to be made in whispers. Protect
the workers by a system of patrols to the front.</p>
<p>Noncommissioned officers are held responsible
for a systematic and orderly execution of the
work being performed by their units. The captain
cannot be everywhere along the line. He
has to depend upon the platoon and squad
leaders in the work. That is why you should
study it and know about it so as to be able to
make good when the time comes.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">Grenade Warfare</p>
<p>The use of hand grenades as an implement of
warfare dates back many centuries. History
records their use as far back as 1536. Up to the
close of the eighteenth century soldiers were
trained in the throwing of hand grenades, and
for this reason were called "grenadiers." At
first there were a few in each regiment, later
entire companies were formed, and finally each
infantry unit that corresponds to our battalion
of today had its own grenadier unit.</p>
<p>Then there was a period of time when more
open formations were adopted, when there was
less opportunity for the employment of grenades
and their use was practically eliminated from the
battlefield and confined to sieges, where they
have been used more or less since the dawn of
military history.</p>
<p>With the advent of the Russo-Japanese War
came the extensive use of trenches on the battlefield,
and with the trenches came the hand
grenades which were used in large quantities by
both sides. This was especially the case when
the fighting lines came to close quarters and in
the assaults against the forts at Port Arthur.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
<p>When the European war resolved itself into
trench warfare, such as it is today, the use of
hand-thrown projectiles assumed an importance
heretofore never attained, and today we find
ourselves employing hand grenades in every
phase of the conflict.</p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Employment of Grenadiers</p>
<p>Grenadiers are employed on both the offensive
and defensive. They accompany the attacking
lines in the advance on the enemy's positions,
they clear the fire trenches and communication
trenches after parts of the enemy's lines have
been taken, and on the defense they assist the
riflemen in repelling attack and engage the enemy
whenever he has obtained a lodgment in the
trenches.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Organization</div>
<p>While every infantryman
receives a certain amount of
instruction in grenade throwing,
there should be a grenadier squad in each
platoon specially instructed and trained in this
most effective auxiliary method of trench warfare.
Not all men possess the temperament and
qualifications necessary to make efficient grenadiers.
Hence the personnel of the grenadier
squad should be carefully selected. Strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
physique, personal courage and steadiness in
emergencies are the qualifications that count.
Men fond of outdoor sports, other things being
equal, will be found the best.</p>
<p>The grenadier squad is organized as follows:</p>
<p><i>Front Rank.</i></p>
<p class="noindent">
<span class="padding2">No. 1. First bayonet man.</span><br />
<span class="padding2">No. 2. Second bayonet man.</span><br />
<span class="padding2">No. 3. Grenade thrower.</span><br />
<span class="padding2">No. 4. Squad leader, observer and director.</span>
</p>
<p><i>Rear Rank.</i></p>
<p class="noindent">
<span class="padding2">No. 1. First carrier.</span><br />
<span class="padding2">No. 2. Second carrier.</span><br />
<span class="padding2">No. 3. Barricader.</span><br />
<span class="padding2">No. 4. Barricader.</span>
</p>
<div class="sidenote">Duties</div>
<p>The duties of the several
members of the squad vary
under different circumstances
of their tactical employment which will be fully
explained below. In general they are as follows:</p>
<p><i>Bayonet Men.</i>—The bayonet men move in
advance of the grenade throwers. When the
grenade thrower has thrown his grenades into
the objective trench the bayonet men must be
ready to take instant advantage of the temporary
demoralization of the enemy caused by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
explosions and clear the way for a repetition of
the operation.</p>
<p><i>Grenade Thrower.</i>—The grenade thrower must
be ready and able to throw a grenade at once
whenever the bayonet men or squad leader may
direct.</p>
<p><i>Squad Leader.</i>—The squad leader directs the
operations of the squad. He goes wherever his
presence is necessary. He keeps a close watch
to the flanks. He replaces casualties and attends
to the forwarding of grenades to the thrower.
He acts as a grenade thrower whenever he can
assist the operations in that capacity.</p>
<p><i>Carriers.</i>—The carriers carry as many grenades
as possible, and when their supply is exhausted
they go to the reserve depots and replenish.
They are responsible for a continuous supply of
grenades to the throwers.</p>
<p><i>Barricaders.</i>—The barricaders are charged
with the construction of barricades. They carry
sandbags and tools for filling them. In addition
they carry as many grenades as possible. They
hold themselves in readiness to go forward and
construct a barricade or cover at any point
designated by the squad leader.</p>
<p><i>General.</i>—All the men of the squad must be
trained and prepared to take over the duties of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
any other member. Before undertaking any
operation each man of the squad should
thoroughly understand the part he is to play in it.</p>
<p><i>Formation.</i>—The formation for the several
classes of tactical employment will be explained
when each is considered below.</p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Offensive Operations</p>
<p>When it has been decided to attack a certain
sector of the enemy's position a detailed reconnaissance
is made with a view to locating and
developing every element of the position, detailed
plans are made and imparted to all concerned.
(See Chapter XI.)</p>
<p>The phases of the attack consist of: (1) The
artillery preparation; (2) the infantry assault;
(3) the occupation and organization of the
captured position, and preparation to meet a
counter attack.</p>
<p>During the course of the artillery preparation
grenadier squads work their way across "no
man's land" and establish themselves sufficiently
close to throw grenades into the fire trenches.
Failing in this they accompany the assaulting
troops.</p>
<p>When they are able to work up close they cover
the advance of the infantry assaulting lines by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
showering grenades into the enemy's fire trenches
after the curtain of artillery fire has been extended
back into his position to prevent the supports
and reserves from coming up to the front.</p>
<p>All men of the squad carry as many grenades
as possible and such number as the squad
leader may designate act as throwers, while the
others act as carriers and prepare the grenades
for throwing. Accurate throwing, properly observed
and distributed, will greatly assist in
preparing for a successful assault.</p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Clearing Fire Trenches</p>
<p>No matter how well the infantry assault on the
enemy's fire trenches may be conducted, it rarely
succeeds in occupying the hostile position
throughout its entire length. Casualties, loss
of direction, and unexpected obstacles encountered
are bound to break up the assaulting line
more or less, thereby leaving gaps in the captured
position. Furthermore the attack on a line
of trenches takes place on a relatively small
front by a large number of men. When the
trenches are finally reached and a lodgment
effected there will be great overcrowding.
Provision must be made immediately for
extending the line, otherwise the casualties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
at these points will be exceedingly heavy.</p>
<p>It is the particular duty of the grenadier
squads to clear these "gaps" of the enemy as
quickly as possible. For this purpose an efficient
and well-organized storming party must be immediately
available.</p>
<p>Let us say that, after careful artillery preparation,
the assault has reached the enemy's fire
trench. There is much overcrowding at the
points where lodgments have been effected.
There is a gap in the line between two adjacent
elements. How is this cleared of the enemy?</p>
<p>The grenadier squad immediately forms for
action. Two bayonet men are in the lead,
followed by the grenade thrower, who is in turn
followed by the two carriers. Further to the
rear are the two barricaders, who carry a reserve
supply of grenades in addition to their sandbags
and shovels. The squad leader is where he can
best direct the operations.</p>
<p>The grenadier squad is formed as shown in
the <i>first position</i>, Plate 40.</p>
<p>1. The grenade thrower puts grenades: (1)
into bay 1, at <i>A</i>; (2) into bay 2, at <i>D</i>; (3) into
bay 1, at <i>B</i>; (4) into the traverse leg at <i>C</i>.</p>
<p>2. When the four grenades have exploded the
bayonet men rush into bay 1, the leader advancing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
into the first leg of the traverse trench below
<i>B</i>, while his mate remains in the bay for a
moment.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_093.jpg" id="i_093.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
<p class="caption"><i>PLATE 40.</i></p>
</div>
<p>3. The squad leader rushes around the traverse
to <i>A</i>, followed by the grenade thrower.</p>
<p>4. When the bay and the next traverse passages
are all cleared of the enemy the word
"O. K." is passed back to the squad leader by
the bayonet men. The bayonet men get into
their proper positions and the remainder of the
squad rush into the cleared bay 1 and prepare
for the further clearing of succeeding bays in the
same manner as described above.</p>
<p>Take the diagram on Plate 40. Study it out
in connection with the text and you will see
how this system works out.</p>
<p>The men work in pairs, the two bayonet men
together; the two carriers behind the thrower;
the two barricaders sufficiently far to the rear
to be protected by a corner of solid earth. The
squad leader must of necessity go where his
presence is necessary. Usually he stays as near
the grenade thrower as possible.</p>
<p>When the enemy's grenadier parties are also
very active in the sector, the distances between
pairs are extended so that no more than two
men are exposed in any one bay or traverse leg.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
<p>The formation of the squad must be preserved
as long as possible. You will appreciate that
when losses occur the squad leader will have to
replace men and the formation will have to be
modified to meet the changed conditions. This
makes it absolutely necessary that every member
of the squad be competent to take over the
duties of any other member.</p>
<p>When the squad has reached the limit of its
advance the barricaders will come forward and
construct a barricade in such position that it is
well in view from a corner some distance behind.</p>
<p>No passing of bombs forward from man to
man is permitted. When the first carrier's
supply is exhausted he returns to the rear to
secure a fresh supply from the reserve grenade
carriers who are following the grenade squad,
and who have by now advanced to a point where
their supply is available. As soon as his supply
is replenished he returns to his proper position
in the formation. Should the second carrier
run out of grenades the squad leader may cause
one of the barricaders to take all the grenades in
the possession of the two and replace him while
he goes to the rear to secure a fresh supply.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_095.jpg" id="i_095.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" width="390" height="600" />
<p class="caption">Illustration: PLATE 41<br />
Combat in a Communicating Trench</p>
</div>
<p>In the meantime other grenadier squads are
clearing out the communication and supervision<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
trenches, blocking up the exits to dugouts and
destroying machine-gun detachments that have
thus far escaped. The assaulting troops have
passed on towards the second line, covered by
the curtain of fire of the artillery.</p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Clearing Communication Trenches</p>
<p>The clearing of communication trenches is
effected much in the same manner as explained
for the fire trench. The grenadier squad is
organized and formed in the same manner. The
squad works its way into the communication
trench by bombing each leg until they arrive at
a point where the formation, as illustrated in
Plate 41, can be assumed. The grenade thrower
throws grenades into the trench at <i>B</i> and then
at <i>C</i>. As soon as these have exploded the bayonet
men take advantage of the confusion to
advance into the leg <i>A-B</i> under cover of the
shoulder <i>b</i>, the squad leader and thrower advance
to <i>A</i>, the carriers to the point formerly
occupied by the squad leader, and the barricaders
to the point formerly occupied by the
carriers. The thrower then puts grenades into
the trench at <i>C</i> and then at <i>D</i>, after which the
whole squad advances another notch as formerly
explained.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
<p>Where island traverses are encountered the
thrower puts a grenade on each side of the
traverse and one in the rear of it. The bayonet
men, one on a side, assault around the traverse
and meet on the far side, and the operation proceeds
as heretofore explained.</p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Night Operations</p>
<p>The grenadier squads may be called upon at
night, to perform any of the services that are
theirs by day, and in addition may be called
upon to make night reconnaissances. For this
work the men must be able to organize and reorganize
the squad quickly and noiselessly.
The throwers must be particularly efficient.
There must be the highest order of team work.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Grenadier Patrols</div>
<p>Grenadier patrols are sent
out at night to make reconnaissances
of the enemy's lines
with a view to getting information
which may include:</p>
<p>1. Location and organization of line.</p>
<p>2. The length of line occupied.</p>
<p>3. Numbers and disposition of occupying troops.</p>
<p>4. To get an accurate description of the ground.</p>
<p>5. To locate observation and listening posts
or any other advanced positions.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
<p>6. To locate machine guns.</p>
<p>These patrols may consist of from two men to
the entire grenadier squad. In a patrol of six
or eight men two of them carry rifles and belts,
bayonets fixed. The remaining members of the
patrol carry no equipment except a haversack
filled with grenades. The grenades are used
only in case of emergency. It is a reconnoitering
patrol charged with gaining information and
therefore does not enter into an encounter with
the enemy except as a last resort.</p>
<p>The men move or crawl without noise and
take advantage of all cover that the ground
affords. If they suspect they are observed,
they should "freeze" to the ground and remain
absolutely motionless. On dark nights it is
easy to lose the direction and for the men to
lose one another. Every device or scheme to
lessen risks in this respect must be employed.
The men may tie themselves lightly together so
they will not proceed in a bunch and at the same
time retain connection with each other.</p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Notes on Grenade Warfare</p>
<p>The first step in the training of a grenadier is
to overcome his fear of the grenade itself. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
is accomplished by first having him practice fuse
lighting with dummy grenades having live fuses.
The men will be impressed with the fact that the
grenades are dangerous weapons and that familiarity
in handling them must not be permitted
to degenerate into carelessness.</p>
<p>The next step towards efficiency is the development
of accuracy of throwing. For short
distances it may be lobbed from the shoulder
by a motion similar to "putting the shot."
Stick grenades may be thrown for a short distance
like throwing a dart. In the trenches the
grenade should be thrown with an overhand
motion like the bowler of a cricket ball, as there
is danger of exploding them by knocking the
hand against the back of the trench.</p>
<p>The men should be taught to throw from all
positions—standing, sitting, kneeling and prone.</p>
<p>Should the grenade with a time fuse be dropped
in the act of throwing, there is time to pick it up
and throw it out of the trench before it explodes.
Under no circumstances must it be allowed to
explode in the trench.</p>
<p>Communication throughout the squad in action
should be maintained at all times. System
is required to insure the throwers having a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
supply of grenades on hand all the time and that
casualties are promptly replaced.</p>
<p>Quick action is essential to success. Crawling
and stalking give the enemy what he is waiting
for.</p>
<p>Arrangements to assist a storming party by
rifle and machine-gun fire are of the utmost
value and should be provided whenever possible.
Care must be taken to provide a signal which
will mark the progress of the storming party
through the trenches. A helmet held up on a
bayonet will do this.</p>
<p>All grenadiers must be especially trained in
the filling of sandbags and making sandbag
barricades.</p>
<p>The work of the observer is difficult and requires
much practice. He must give his directions
to the thrower in no uncertain terms.
When the thrower has missed his objective the
observer will give positive directions for the
next throw. Instead of saying "A yard too
much to the left," he will say, "Throw a yard
to the right." Positive directions, even if only
half heard, are of some use; negative directions
are certain to be both confused and confusing.
The observer should be expert in the use of the
periscope.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Hand Grenades and Petards</p>
<p>The hand grenade used by our allies on the
western front is the bracelet grenade with
automatic firing mechanism and consists of a
ball of cast iron filled with an explosive and of a
leather bracelet which is fastened to the wrist.
To the bracelet is attached a piece of rope about
30 centimeters long, having an iron hook at its
end.</p>
<p>Just before the grenade is thrown, the hook is
engaged in the ring of the roughened wire of the
friction primer placed inside the fuse plug which
closes the cast iron ball. When the grenade is
thrown, the ring with the primer wire, held back
by the hook of the bracelet, is wrenched off by a
sudden movement of withdrawal from the wrist
and the fuse is fired. The explosion takes place
four or five seconds later.</p>
<p>This grenade is supplied to the fighting zone
ready for use. It is quite complicated. It can
be thrown about 25 meters.</p>
<p>The German grenade is composite; it can be
thrown by hand or fired from a rifle. As a hand
missile, it is used at short distances, 15 to 20
meters. It is composed of a copper rod to the
extremity of which is fixed a cast iron cylinder,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
grooved to facilitate its breaking into small
pieces at the moment of explosion. The explosive
is placed inside this cylinder. A copper
tube, also containing some explosive, is placed in
the interior. It is surmounted by a complicated
system for closing the grenade and for automatic
ignition by percussion, which results in at least
50 per cent of misfires.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_101.jpg" id="i_101.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="293" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41b.—British hand grenade No. 1.
</p>
<table style="width:250px" id="GRENADE_1" summary="BRITISH HAND GRENADE">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="c1 smaller"> <i>a.</i> Removable cap.</td>
<td class="c1 smaller"> <i>f.</i> Handle.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1 smaller"><i>b.</i> Detonator holder.</td>
<td class="c1 smaller"><i>g.</i> Safety pin.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1 smaller"><i>c.</i> Detonator.</td>
<td class="c1 smaller"><i>h.</i> Firing pin.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1 smaller"><i>d.</i> Explosive charge.</td>
<td class="c1 smaller"><i>i.</i> Cast iron ring.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c1 smaller"><i>e.</i> Wood block.</td>
<td class="c1 smaller"><i>j.</i> Streamer.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_102.jpg" id="i_102.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="271" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41c.—The latest type
British hand grenade.</p>
</div>
<div class="columns2 smaller">
<i>a.</i> Percussion cap.<br />
<i>b.</i> Firing pin.<br />
<i>c.</i> Safety pin. When in place
prevents firing pin from striking
primer. It is removed just before
throwing the grenade.<br />
<i>d.</i> Primer.<br />
<i>e.</i> Chamber filled with high explosive.<br />
<i>f.</i> Cast iron shell, serrated.<br />
<i>g.</i> Wooden handle.<br />
<i>h.</i> Streamers, to keep the grenade head-on.
</div>
<p>Used with the rifle, this grenade has a maximum
range of 400 meters. At the extremity opposite
the grenade, the copper rod ends in a copper
stem about 3 centimeters in length, movable
about the axis of the rod. This stem is covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
with a copper sleeve of slight thickness, which is
attached to it only at the extremity fastened to
the rod. The diameter of the exterior of the
sleeve must be such that it can be pushed into
the gun barrel without pressure. To fire the
grenade, a blank cartridge is placed in the
chamber of the rifle; the quantity of powder left
in the cartridge is regulated according to the
distance at which the missile is to be thrown. At
the moment of firing, the explosive gases penetrate
between the sleeve and the stem and jam
the sleeve against the grooves of the barrel.
The sleeve and the stem, which is attached to it,
take a movement of rotation in the grooves of
the barrel, which insures the direction of the
missile and the maximum efficiency of the explosive
gases of the cartridge.</p>
<p>The bracelet grenade and the German grenade
just described have to be made in a factory.
Attempts have been made to construct similar
missiles with the explosives which are at hand at
the front, cheddite and melinite. Several kinds
have been made: a primed cartridge and a primed
hand petard, fitted on a wooden paddle, a preserved
meat tin can filled with explosive, etc.</p>
<p>The Germans have hand petards similar to
those of the Allies but with different explosives.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
These missiles are primed by a detonator and a
slow match and can be thrown about 30 meters.
The discharge takes place either automatically
or by tinder. They are made on the spot and
very rapidly. The assaulting troops carry them
in baskets or strung on a circle of wire carried on
the shoulder.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_104.jpg" id="i_104.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="382" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41d.—Throwing hand grenades.</p>
</div>
<p>Grenades and petards constitute a terrible
weapon. These projectiles exert considerable
moral effect owing to the violence of their explosion
and the awful wounds they occasion, and
they make it possible to reach the enemy at points
where it is impossible to use the rifle and bayonet.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">Gas Warfare</p>
<p>Germany first made use of poisonous and asphyxiating
gases on the field of battle. It has
become an accepted element in the present war.
Every soldier should, therefore, have a knowledge
of the various ways in which gas is employed
in the attack, as well as the measures to be
taken to counteract its effect in the defense.</p>
<p>The two methods of disseminating the gas
over the battlefield are by emanation and
grenades charged with it.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Emanation</div>
<p>This method has for its object
to create a poisonous or
irritant atmosphere. This is
accomplished by means of the arsenic and
phosphorous gas being forced through tubes in
the direction of the enemy or by means of
liquefied chlorine, bromide, phosgene and sulphuretted
hydrogen gas stored in cylinders under
high pressure. To be successful the gas attack
must be attended by the following conditions.</p>
<p>1. The weather must be comparatively calm
with a wind blowing in the direction of the enemy
at about 5 miles an hour. If the wind is too
strong the gas will be carried over the enemy's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
trenches so rapidly that it will not settle in them.
If the wind is too light the gas will be carried up
into the air and disseminate or may even be
blown back into our own trenches, in which case
chloride of lime scattered about freely will disperse
them.</p>
<p>2. There must be no rain, for that would
quickly disseminate the gas and negative the
effect.</p>
<p>3. The attack must come as a surprise. If
the elements of surprise are missing and the
enemy has time to take protective measures, the
effect is lost. If the surprise is complete, the
enemy trenches should be emptied very quickly.</p>
<p>4. The gas used must be heavier than the air,
so that it will sift into the enemy's trenches as it
passes them. It is impracticable to decide upon
any definite hour for launching the gas attack.
Everything depends upon the direction and
velocity of the wind. If an hour has been tentatively
designated and the wind changes, the
attack will have to be postponed.</p>
<p>When an assault follows the gas attack the
men should wear the smoke helmets for at least
30 minutes after the dissemination has ceased;
in fact they must not be removed until the order
to do so is given by the officer commanding the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
attack. You will appreciate that the enemy's
machine gunners may have better protection
than the men in the bays of the trenches.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Shell and Grenade Method</div>
<p>In this method the gas dissemination
is effected by means
of shells or bombs being fired
into the enemy's trenches containing
the desired substances
which are released and give off irritant fumes on
explosion. The grenades used weigh about 1
pound. They are similar in appearance to the
ordinary tin can grenade. Their effect in a trench
will continue for 20 to 30 minutes. In the attack
a large number should be concentrated in a
particular area to produce a large volume of gas.
They are thrown by hand, trench mortar or
catapult.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Defense</div>
<p>Surprise must be guarded
against in every possible way.
The direction of the wind
must be continually watched, and when its
velocity and direction are specially favorable
the protective measures must be kept ready for
instant use and special observers posted. Previous
to an attack the enemy may remain comparatively
quiet for several days. Noises like
the moving of sheet iron may be heard. Preparations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
may be observed along the position.
When the attack starts a hissing noise is heard;
this latter is one of the indications that may be
evident at night.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Helmets</div>
<p>Each man on duty in the
trenches is provided with two
smoke helmets, specially devised
and constructed so as to absorb the gas
and neutralize its effect, and which if properly
cared for and used will provide complete protection
from any substance likely to be used by the
enemy. They are fitted with a valve tube
through which to breathe and with goggles to
see through. There are certain rules prescribed
for their care and use.</p>
<p>1. They must not be removed from the protective
covering except for actual use against an
attack.</p>
<p>2. When the helmet has been used once it
should be replaced by a new one.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Dummy Helmets</div>
<p>Dummy gas helmets will be
provided in each organization
by which the men may be
practiced in putting them on.
The men must be thoroughly drilled in the
methods to be employed.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
<p>The following directions accompany the helmets
issued to the British Army. When our
helmets are issued it is probable that each will
be accompanied by a complete set of rules for
its use and full instructions for the method of
getting into it and for its care and preservation.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_109.jpg" id="i_109.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" width="538" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41e.—Gas helmet.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Direction for Use and Care of Tube Helmets</p>
<div class="sidenote">Description</div>
<p>These helmets are the same
as the smoke helmet already
issued, except that stronger
chemicals are added and a tube valve provided
through which to breathe out. The tube valve
makes the helmet cooler and saves chemicals
from being affected by the breath. The wearer
cannot breathe <i>in</i> through the tube valve; this
is intended for breathing <i>out</i> only.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Directions for Use</div>
<p>Remove paper cap from
mouthpiece of tube valve.
Remove service cap. Pull helmet
over head. Adjust so
that goggles are over eyes. Tuck in skirt of
helmet under coat collar and button coat so as
to close in skirt of helmet. Hold the tube
lightly in lips or teeth like stem of pipe, so as
to be able to breathe in past it and out through it.</p>
<p><i>Breathe in through mouth and nose, using the
air inside the helmet. Breathe out through tube only.</i></p>
<div class="sidenote">Directions for Care of Tube Helmet</div>
<p>1. Do not remove the helmet
from its waterproof case
except to use for protection
against gas.</p>
<p>2. Never use your tube
helmet for practice or drill. Special helmets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
are kept in each company for instruction only.</p>
<p>Should the goggles become misty during use
they can be cleared by rubbing them gently
against the forehead.</p>
<p>When lacrimatory gases are used goggles
affording mechanical protection may be worn,
as these gases are not likely to irritate the lungs,
though they sometimes produce sickness.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Improvised Methods</div>
<p>If a soldier does not possess
one of the official pattern
respirators, the following measures
will be found useful:</p>
<p>1. Wet and wring out any woolen article, such
as a stocking or muffler, so as to form a thick pad
large enough to cover the nose and mouth, and
press firmly over both.</p>
<p>2. Place in a scarf, stocking or handkerchief,
a pad of about three handfuls of earth, preferably
damp, and tie it firmly over the mouth and nose.</p>
<p>3. A wet cloth pulled down over the eyes will
be found useful as additional protection, especially
against certain gases other than chlorine or when
the gas is too strong for the ordinary respirator.</p>
<p>4. A stocking, wetted with water and soda
solution or tea, folded into eight folds and
firmly held or tied over the nose.</p>
<p>5. A sock folded fourfold similarly wetted and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
held or tied. If the sock or comforter has been
soaked in soda solution it will still act efficiently
when dry, though, if possible, it should be moist.
The spare tapes from puttees may be used for
tying on the sock.</p>
<p>6. Any loose fabric, such as a sock, sandbag,
woolen scarf or comforter, soaked in urine, then
wrung out to allow of free breathing and tied
tightly over the nose and mouth.</p>
<p>In the absence of any other cloths, the flannel
waistbands issued for winter use could be used
for this purpose.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Knapsack Sprayers</div>
<p>Knapsack sprayers are issued
for use to clear gases out
of the trenches after the cloud
has blown over. A man with
the sprayer on his back (and wearing his smoke
helmet) slowly traverses the trench, working
the spray. If this is not done the heavy poisonous
gas may linger in the trench for days and
be a source of great danger.</p>
<p>If supports or reinforcements enter a trench
charged with gas, they should be preceded by a
man using a sprayer.</p>
<p>Sprayers are charged with sodium thiosulphate—more
commonly known as "hypo"—6<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
pounds being dissolved in a bucket of water and
a handful of ordinary washing soda added.</p>
<p>Garden syringes and buckets may be used if
sprayers are not available, but these are not so
effective. Sprayers should be charged before
they are taken up to the trenches, and should
be kept ready for immediate use.</p>
<p>Every officer defending a trench against an
enemy gas attack should endeavor to collect
information whenever possible, to be sent to
headquarters through the usual channels. Particularly
valuable is the capture of apparatus
used by the enemy either for disseminating gas
or for protection against it. If a shell attack is
made, unexploded shells or portions of them
should be sent through to headquarters at once.
The time of day, duration of attack, color, taste
or smell of gas used, effect on the eyes, breathing,
and all other symptoms should be noted. New
gases may be used at any time, and speedy information
greatly forwards the adoption of preventive
measures.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">Service in the Trenches</p>
<div class="sidenote">Preparations for Entering Trenches</div>
<p>Preparing to enter upon a
period of service in the trenches
the company commander
makes a complete inspection
of the company which includes:</p>
<p>1. Inspection of rifles and ammunition.</p>
<p>2. Inspection of equipment, contents of packs,
intrenching tools, field glasses, wire cutters, first-aid
packets, emergency rations, gas helmets,
identification tags, canteens, clothing, etc.</p>
<p>3. Canteens to be filled with water.</p>
<p>4. Test bayonets, fix and unfix.</p>
<p>5. Have company fill magazines.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Inspection of Section</div>
<p>The company commander
precedes the company into
the trenches and makes a tour
and inspection of the section
assigned, which includes:</p>
<p>1. Layout of the trenches: fire trench, supervision
trench, communication trenches, machine-gun
positions, snipers' positions, listening and
observation trenches, dugouts, latrines, etc.</p>
<p>2. Locate telephones, reserve ammunition and
munitions depots, water supply, gas alarms,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
tools and any trench accessories and utilities that
may be included in the section.</p>
<p>3. Get any information of the enemy that may
be of value from the outgoing company commander.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Tactical Disposition</div>
<p>The company commander
will then make his tactical
dispositions. In occupying
the trenches a certain section
of the line is assigned to each company. This
section contains so many bays of the trench.
The following dispositions are suggested as
meeting the requirements under our organization:</p>
<p>1. The company is organized into four platoons
of four squads each.</p>
<p>2. The section of the line assigned to the
company contains eight bays.</p>
<p>3. Support No. 1 consists of the first and second
platoons.</p>
<p>4. Support No. 2 consists of the third and
fourth platoons.</p>
<p>5. From Support No. 1: Two squads of the
first platoon occupy bays 1 and 2; two squads of
the second platoon occupy bays 3 and 4.</p>
<p>6. From Support No. 2: Two squads of the
third platoon occupy bays 5 and 6; two squads
of the fourth platoon occupy bays 7 and 8.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_116.jpg" id="i_116.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_116.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="245" />
<p class="caption">Plate 41f.<br />
Tactical dispositions<br />
One company of infantry.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
<p>7. Each squad establishes a double sentinel
post in the bay assigned to it and the remaining
members go into the squad shelters just in rear
of the bays. This gives three reliefs for a double
sentinel post and allows one extra man to be
utilized as "runner," etc.</p>
<p>8. The remainder of the company is established
in the company dugouts.</p>
<p>9. Depending upon the length of the tours of
duty of the company in the first line trenches,
the squads are changed according to a system
that will have to be varied to suit the occasion,
the squads in support taking their place in the
fire trench and those in the fire trench returning
to the support.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Going into the Trenches</div>
<p>Platoons enter by not more
than two squads at one time,
thus minimizing the danger
from shell fire. The platoon
commander will explain to his squad leaders the
extent of trench to be taken over and the action
to be taken in case they are caught under shell
fire or rapid fire while going up to the trenches.
A second in command in each squad will be
designated, so that if casualties occur among the
squad leaders the relief will proceed as previously
arranged.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
<p>The operation will proceed in silence. Rifles
must be carried so that they do not show over
the parapet. On reaching the fire trench the
men of the first relief are posted to relieve the
old detail and each man finds out any points
that may be useful from his predecessor on that
post.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Information to be Obtained</div>
<p>The platoon commander
confers with the commander of
the outgoing party and secures
all the information possible
about the position which includes:</p>
<p>1. Behavior of enemy during period preceding
relief, and any point in their line requiring special
information, <i>e. g.</i>, enemy may have cut wire as
though preparing to attack.</p>
<p>2. Machine-gun emplacement may be suspected
at some particular point.</p>
<p>3. Anything ascertained by patrols about
ground between firing lines, thus avoiding unnecessary
reconnaissance.</p>
<p>4. Any standing arrangements for patrols at
night, including point at which wire can best be
passed, ground to be patrolled, or place where
they can lie under cover.</p>
<p>5. Any parts of trench from which it is not safe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
to fire. Such positions are apt to occur in winding
trenches, and are not always recognizable in
the dark.</p>
<p>6. Special features of trench, recent improvements,
work not completed, dangerous points (on
which machine guns are trained at night), useful
loopholes for observation.</p>
<p>7. Places from which food and water can be
safely obtained.</p>
<p>8. Amount of ammunition, number of picks,
shovels and empty sandbags in that section of
the line.</p>
<p>Information on these points cannot always be
given properly by word of mouth. <i>Written</i> notes
and plans should therefore be handed over to a
platoon commander taking over for the first
time.</p>
<p>Every man is required to see that he has a good
firing position for all directions. Section commanders
must satisfy themselves that men have
done this, and report. <i>The whole line "Stands
to Arms" during the hour before dawn.</i></p>
<p>After dark, unless the moon is bright, rifles
should be left in firing position on the parapet.
All men not on sentry should keep rifles, with
bayonets fixed, in the trench.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
<div class="sidenote">Routine</div>
<p>1. Double sentinel posts are
established in each bay. They
are on post one hour at a time.</p>
<p>2. When the enemy's trench mortar detachments
are active, special sentinels will be posted
to give notice of coming bombs.</p>
<p>3. Every man in the platoon is to know:</p>
<p>(<i>a</i>) The location of the platoon reserve ammunition
and munitions.</p>
<p>(<i>b</i>) The location of latrines.</p>
<p>(<i>c</i>) The topography of the trenches in the
platoon section and the adjoining sections, including
the approaches. The location of the
accessory defenses, listening and observation
posts, machine-gun positions, snipers' positions,
trench mortar positions, etc.</p>
<p>(<i>d</i>) The tactical disposition in the sector and
the general disposition of the company.</p>
<p>(<i>e</i>) The location of loopholes.</p>
<p>(<i>f</i>) The places of especial danger in order that
he may stay away from them.</p>
<p>4. Rifles are inspected twice daily. Every precaution
is taken to keep the rifle and ammunition
free from mud.</p>
<p>5. There is a gas helmet parade daily.</p>
<p>6. Accurate sketches are made of the trench
and any addition or alteration entered on them.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_121.jpg" id="i_121.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_121.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="328" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 42.<br />
<i>Organization of fire of Observers in the Combat Trench</i></p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
<p>7. Loopholes are inspected at dusk.</p>
<p>8. Wire entanglements are inspected and repaired
under cover of darkness.</p>
<p>9. A log of events hour by hour should be kept
which shows every item of enemy activity and
the measures taken during the tour in the
trenches. This will be a valuable reference
when turning the trench over and will make a
record of the habits of the enemy that may be
most valuable as a guide for making plans to
circumvent him.</p>
<p>10. The police and sanitation of the trenches
will be carefully looked after.</p>
<p>11. Platoon commanders may divide the tour
of supervision of the platoon sector with the
squad leaders.</p>
<p>12. The whole company stands to arms during
the hour before dawn.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Observation</div>
<p>Observation of the enemy's
line should be continuous.
The observation and firing
system will be arranged so that all parts of the
enemy's line will be under observation and fire
at all times.</p>
<p>Plate 42 shows the arrangement in general.
The appliances for carrying it out are shown in
Plates 43, 44 and 45.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_122.jpg" id="i_122.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_122.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="568" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 43.</p>
</div>
<p>The observation is conducted through a small
loophole made by a stick through the parapet
or an iron tube run through and directed toward
the point to be observed. To conceal the exit
a few tufts of earth and grass are placed there
in an irregular manner. Steel loopholes may
also be employed for observation and firing
purposes. They may be arranged a yard or two
apart, so that one man observing through one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
can direct his mate using the rifle at the other
so that he may bring fire to bear upon any
member of the enemy's force that exposes himself
at the point under observation.</p>
<p>The loopholes, both observation and firing, are
arranged slantwise in the parapet so that the
observer does not look straight to his front nor
does the firer fire in that direction.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_123.jpg" id="i_123.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_123.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="441" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 44.—Observation loophole and rifle firing rack.</p>
</div>
<p>An aiming rack constructed so as to resist the
recoil of the rifle and not derange its aim on
firing may be arranged near the observation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
loophole. When the enemy exposes himself all
that is necessary is a press on the trigger and the
bullet goes straight to its mark. Such an aiming
rack may be easily constructed, as shown in
Plate 44.</p>
<p>Observation of the enemy trenches may also
be effected by use of the periscope or, in the
absence of one of these, by a looking-glass in a
slanted position fastened to a stick planted at
the rear wall of the trench and protruding over
the parapet, to reflect his trenches. (See Plate 45.)</p>
<div class="sidenote">Field Glasses</div>
<p>The enemy's trench usually
appears completely deserted,
but on observing it through
field glasses you are astonished by the details
revealed. You will see, from time to time, the
eye of the enemy observer who shows himself
at the loophole, or any other activity that is
capable of being observed from the outside.
The observer watching through the field glasses
will soon become so familiar with the appearance
of the opposing trenches that he will be able to
detect immediately any alteration in the obstacles,
or changes that may be made, such as
the establishment of new listening or observation
posts, new sap heads, machine-gun emplacements,
etc.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
<p>Observers are charged especially with detecting
the location of machine-gun emplacements.
The examination should be so complete and
detailed as to prevent their existence without
their location being accurately known.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_125.jpg" id="i_125.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_125.jpg" alt="" width="591" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 45.—Looking-glass periscope.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="i_126.jpg" id="i_126.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_126.jpg" alt="" width="351" height="600" />
<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 45a.—Trench showing wire overhead
cover and wire trapdoor obstacle. Machicoulis gallery in background.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
<p>Any observations of enemy activities, of any
nature whatever, are reported immediately so
that they may be passed on to the commander
whose unit is manning the trenches directly
opposite the same.</p>
<p>Loopholes should be screened at the rear by
a sandbag split and hung over them. They
should be carefully concealed to prevent their
location being discovered by the enemy. There
must be no alteration in the parapet where
they are located.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Snipers</div>
<p>The enemy's sojourn in the
trenches should be made as
disagreeable to him as possible.
He must be kept continually on the
alert. Our operations must be made a constant
menace to him. It is in this way that casualties
are effected and he is gradually worn out.
One of the best methods of accomplishing all of
the above is the employment of snipers, who are
specially selected and trained in this branch of
trench warfare.</p>
<p>The snipers are on duty all day, but they have
their nights in bed. They conduct their operations
in pairs and are given a definite post to
occupy and in exceptional cases may be given
a roving commission. The advantage of having<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
the same men regularly on the same post is that
they learn thoroughly the appearance of every
square foot of the ground included in their area
of observation and are able immediately to note
any change that may take place. They soon
learn where to look for the enemy and in fact
learn the habits, etc., of the enemy occupying
their sphere of observation.</p>
<p>The sniper must be an expert in:</p>
<p>1. The construction of loopholes by day and
by night.</p>
<p>2. The use of telescopic sights, field glasses,
periscopes and all optical contrivances designed
for observation purposes.</p>
<p>3. The selection of good positions for sniping.</p>
<p>4. Judging distances and estimating or measuring
ranges.</p>
<p>5. Rifle firing. He should be an expert
rifleman in order that full advantage may be
taken of the opportunities to inflict losses on
the enemy.</p>
<p>6. In trench warfare each pair of snipers
will be required to report each evening to the
company commander the result of their day's
operations.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
<div class="sidenote">What to Fire At</div>
<p>When the enemy makes his
attack you will generally fire
at those who appear in the
sector that has been allotted to
you to cover. You may, however, abandon
your target on your own initiative under the
following circumstances and fire:</p>
<p>1. On officers and noncommissioned officers.
These can be recognized by their gestures.
They are generally in the center of groups and
get up and start first. They should be disabled,
as this is the surest way of breaking up the attack.</p>
<p>2. At a group on the move. Fire should be
concentrated on an advancing group. The
time when the group is preparing to start its
rush may be indicated by rifles being raised
and the movements that take place along the
line. After a rush has started, look out for
the late comers trying to rejoin their comrades.
They make good targets.</p>
<p>3. When the enemy attempts to build up his
line to the front by a process of infiltration.
That is, by having single men crawl from one
point to the other, each man should be fired on
during his advance.</p>
<p>4. Fire will be immediately concentrated on
any machine gun that comes into action. With<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
the German gun prolonged firing heats the water
in the jacket to the boiling point and puffs of
steam are given off. Do not be deceived into
thinking that this necessarily gives away the
position of the gun, for this steam has been
piped to a distant place and allowed to escape
so as to draw fire that otherwise might be directed
on the real position of the gun.</p>
<p>5. On signallers or runners. These are carrying
information that will probably be of benefit
to the enemy's commander. You will appreciate
the necessity of preventing this.</p>
<p>6. On an enemy showing a flank. No opportunity
must be lost to fire upon an enemy that
exposes his flank. The fire of a single rifleman
down the flank may cause a whole line to retreat.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Use of Rifle Grenades</div>
<p>Rifle grenades are capable
of causing more losses to the
enemy than bombardment.
The rifle grenade arrives at
its destination unexpectedly without any noise;
it explodes before one has even time to get out
of the way. As it does not arrive at fixed hours
like the bombardment, the enemy cannot continually
avoid it by taking refuge in his dugouts
and shelters; when he is moving about a trench
which is subject to rifle grenading he must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
continually on the alert. This perpetual menace,
hour in and hour out, day in and day out, renders
his sojourn in the trenches extremely disagreeable.</p>
<p>Before rifle grenades are thrown careful observation
of the opposing trench must have been
made to determine the point where the grenade
is likely to do the greatest damage.</p>
<p>Rifles are placed in the aiming racks and the
grenades fired from time to time, day and night,
at moments when it seems propitious. In this
way a sentinel may be taken by surprise; a
noncommissioned officer or officer may be
caught unawares.</p>
<p>It should be remembered that we will probably
be able to throw twenty grenades to the
enemy's one. Advantage should always be
taken of this munitions superiority. Every man
of the enemy we can put out of action is one less
to kill us in the advance which will eventually
come. Sometimes the enemy will try to reply.
Here is where our munitions superiority comes
in again. We can fairly shower him with
grenades and make him take to his shelters.</p>
<p>It may be advisable to execute a sudden
burst of grenade fire. This is started by a
volley and followed by fire at will.</p>
<p>When the artillery has destroyed parts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
enemy's trenches or makes breaches in his
obstacles by day he will endeavor to repair
them at night. He may be considerably annoyed
and losses inflicted upon him by a well-directed
shower of rifle grenades arriving at
points where his working parties are located.
To make this effective the rifle racks should be
placed in position and secured during the day
after trial shots have demonstrated conclusively
the direction and angle for them.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Shelling</div>
<p>You will be impressed by the
shells, especially the big ones.
The din and blast of the
explosions are, to say the least, terrifying. But
you will soon come to know that the shell often
makes more noise than it does harm and that,
after a terrific bombardment, by no means is
everybody destroyed.</p>
<div class="sidenote">How to Protect Yourself from Shells</div>
<p>The big shell, which is so
appalling, is only really dangerous
if it falls on the place
where a man is standing, because
the splinters rise in the
air. Fall down flat when the shell bursts.
Even if you are quite close, there is comparatively
little risk. Get up immediately after the
explosion, especially if you are 200 to 300 yards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
away from the place where it burst. The
splinters do not fall for some time after the
explosion.</p>
<p>The steel helmets and the infantry pack will
furnish considerable protection from shrapnel
fragments and balls.</p>
<div class="sidenote">During the Combat</div>
<p>The safest place to avoid
the enemy's shell fire when
the attack has been launched
is close up to the enemy's
position, where the artillery fire has to cease for
fear of placing shells indiscriminately in his own
troops and ours. Some men, completely distracted,
lie down with their face to the ground.
They will be crushed where they lie. Artillery
fire, when it is violent, tends to throw the ranks
into confusion and disorder. You have only
ears for the roar of the approaching shell. You
slow down and attempt to seek cover where there
is no cover. The unit breaks up, and runs wild
or stops altogether. <i>Disorder and confusion
means massacre.</i></p>
<p>March strictly in place. To the front is your
safest haven of refuge. Get hold of the frightened
ones and keep them in place. You will
need them to help you when you reach the goal.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
<div class="sidenote">In the Trenches</div>
<p>Dugouts with strong overhead
cover are provided for
your protection when not
actually required to man the trench. In some
places it may be possible to dig shelter caves and
shore up the roofs.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Scouting and Patrolling</div>
<div class="blockquot">
<p><i>To the Reader</i>: You will find a wealth of information
on the methods to be employed by scouts
and patrols in a little book similar to this one in size,
entitled "Scouting and Patrolling," by the author of
this volume. Published and for sale by the United
States Infantry Association, Washington, D. C.
Price 50 cents, by mail, postpaid. <i>Get your copy
now and prepare yourself for these important duties.</i></p></div>
<p>Scouting and patrolling to
the front is of greatest importance.
It is kept up both
day and night. The units
occupying the first line send out patrols whenever
necessary. They are frequently able to obtain
valuable information and at the same time serve
to counteract the enemy's efforts in this direction.</p>
<p>The patrols generally consist of a junior
officer or noncommissioned officer and from four
to six selected men. Their operations are conducted
in accordance with the situation and the
mission they are sent on.</p>
<p>Hand grenades are frequently carried for both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
offensive and defensive operations. Grenade
patrols always carry them. The operations of
patrols may include:</p>
<p>1. Reconnaissance of sectors of the enemy's
position with a view to determining his dispositions
and arrangement of obstacles.</p>
<p>2. Making sketches of positions.</p>
<p>3. Capturing prisoners.</p>
<p>4. Opposing enemy patrols.</p>
<p>5. Harassing the enemy.</p>
<p>When the patrol goes out every man in the
sector of the firing line must be informed of such
fact and the possibility of its returning through
his post. It is not sufficient to simply notify the
men on post at the time the patrol goes out, as a
man cannot always be trusted to pass the information
on to his relief. Word should be
quietly taken along the line by the noncommissioned
officer in charge of the relief in person.
When the patrol is out, special instructions have
to be given with respect to firing. To cease
firing altogether is very undesirable. It arouses
the enemy's suspicions. A few trustworthy
riflemen are directed to fire high at intervals.
No lights are sent up while the patrol is out.</p>
<p>If the patrol is to remain stationary, similar
to the outguard of an outpost, communication<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
may be maintained by means of a string, spelling
out the messages by Morse code, two jerks
meaning a dash and one jerk meaning a dot.</p>
<p>Where night patrols have to remain out under
trying conditions special dugouts should be
reserved where they can rest upon their return.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Care of Arms</div>
<p>The infantryman's rifle is
his best friend. The personal
care that he gives to it is indicative
of his soldierness and discipline. Your
rifle must be kept in prime condition, otherwise
it may fail you at a critical moment. A canvas
breech cover that will protect the bolt and magazine
mechanism will be found a great advantage
when the rifle is not in use. Care must be taken
to exclude mud and dirt from the bolt mechanisms.
Do not put mud-covered cartridges into the
magazine. Wipe them off first. Arrange a
proper receptacle near your post for the storage
of your reserve ammunition. Be careful that
you do not clog the muzzle of the rifle with mud
and dirt. If fired in this condition it will ruin
the rifle. Be careful not to clog up the sight
cover with mud. Oil the rifle frequently with
good sperm oil. Half of the oilers in the squad
should be filled with oil and the other half with
Hoppe's No. 9 Powder Solvent.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p>
<p>Rifles must be carefully inspected daily by
platoon commanders and the men required to
work on them during the periods off post.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Care of Trenches</div>
<p>Repairs will have to be
made daily. The widening of
trenches in the making of
repairs should be strictly forbidden.
Under no circumstances must they be
altered in any manner except on the order of the
company commander.</p>
<p>Platoon commanders will go over every part of
the trench several times daily with the squad
leaders of the various sections and decide upon
the repairs and improvements to be made. A
complete and thorough police will be made
prior to being relieved. All refuse will be removed.
Fired cartridges will be disposed of, as
they might get imbedded in the trench floor and
hinder subsequent digging.</p>
<p>Each squad leader will be held strictly responsible
for the state of police of the section of
trench occupied by his squad.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Latrines</div>
<p>Latrines are located at convenient
points in the trenches.
For the men on duty in the
first line they are generally dug to the flank of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
connecting trench and connected therewith by a
passageway. Their location is plainly marked.</p>
<p>The rules of sanitation are even more strictly
observed in trenches than they are in soldier
camps. The trenches and passageways must not
under any circumstances be defiled. Latrines
should be kept clean and sanitary. They will be
carefully protected from flies. The free use of
chloride of lime daily is an absolute necessity.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Maps</div>
<p>A complete detailed plan of
our own trenches and as much
as is known of those of the
enemy opposite should be made, and be available
for study and to refer to in making reports.
Every bay of the trench should be numbered,
every traverse lettered. All junction points of
fire and communicating trenches, all dugouts,
all posts, mortar positions, machine-gun positions,
observation posts, and any points that it may be
necessary to refer to in reports should be designated
by numbers.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Frost Bite; Chilled Feet</div>
<p>The causes are:</p>
<p>1. Prolonged standing in
cold water or liquid mud.</p>
<p>2. Tight boots and leggings,
that interfere with the blood circulation.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
<div class="sidenote">Prevention</div>
<p>1. Before going into the
trenches wash the feet and
legs and dry them thoroughly.
The British Army has an issue of an anti-freeze
mixture which will probably be issued to our
troops also. The feet and legs should be rubbed
with it. Put on perfectly dry socks. An extra
pair of dry socks should be carried.</p>
<p>2. During the period of service in the trenches
the feet should be treated in this manner from
time to time.</p>
<p>3. When the feet are cold, hot water will not
be used for washing nor will they be held close to
a fire.</p>
<p>4. Rubber boots must be worn only in the
trenches. On no account must they be worn
while on reserve.</p>
<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Trench Soldiers' Creed</p>
<p>To be of the greatest effectiveness in the trench
every soldier, personally and collectively, must
be able to adopt the following creed and live
up to it:</p>
<p>1. We are here for two purposes, to do as
much damage as possible to the enemy and to
hold our section of the line against all attacks.
We are doing everything in our power to accomplish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
these missions. We realize that every
man of the enemy confronting us that is now
placed <i>hors de combat</i> will be there ready to
shoot us down when the assault takes place.
We realize also that if the enemy makes a lodgment
on our section of the line that it endangers
others and a costly counter attack may be
necessary. We <i>will</i> hold on.</p>
<p>2. With the means at hand and those we are
able to devise we will make the enemy's stay
in his trenches as uncomfortable and disagreeable
as possible. All of our utilities are being
utilized to the fullest extent and our various
detachments are organized and their tactical
operations are conducted with this object in
view.</p>
<p>3. We have done everything possible to
strengthen our line.</p>
<p>4. If, despite all the precautions we can take
and the hardest fight we are able to make, the
enemy succeeds in effecting a lodgment on our
section of the line, we will meet him with the
bayonet and fight to the last drop of our blood.</p>
<p>5. We are all familiar with the tactical dispositions
in our section of the line. Those of
us on the flanks connect up with the platoons
to our right and left. We know the route to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
company and battalion headquarters and know
where the nearest support is located. We
know the position of our machine guns and the
sector they cover. We are in constant communication
with the observing posts that cover
our front, and our observing posts covering the
other platoons are in constant communication
with them.</p>
<p>6. We know the firing position assigned to us
and are familiar with the use to be made of the
accessories furnished us. We can fire over the
parapet at the foot of our wire entanglements to
repel night attack.</p>
<p>7. We will at all times be careful about needlessly
exposing ourselves. We appreciate the
fact that it is absolutely stupid to get killed or
wounded in the trench through negligence. By
so doing one has served no purpose and a soldier
cannot be replaced. Our leaders have warned
us of the especially dangerous places. We know
where they are and avoid them except when our
presence there is necessary as a matter of duty.</p>
<p>8. The sections of the enemy's line that we are
to cover with our fire have all been pointed out
and each of us is familiar with same. We have
located the enemy's loopholes and are doing
our best to keep them under fire.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
<p>9. We know our way and move noiselessly
about the trenches. When we enter and leave
it is with absolute silence.</p>
<p>10. We are doing our utmost to collect information
about the enemy, his defenses, his
activity, his movements, and especially his
night operations. All of this information we
transmit immediately to the platoon leader.</p>
<p>11. We know the best way to get over our
parapet to reach the enemy.</p>
<p>12. Our appliances for protection from gas
attacks are complete and ready for instant use.
We have our helmets on our persons ready to
put on. We are familiar with their use and have
confidence in their effectiveness. We will wait
for the signal to don our gas helmets (signal is
usually made by beating a gong, and care must
be taken to follow exactly the directions for
putting on the gas helmets; carelessness may
mean your disablement).</p>
<p>13. Our trenches are drained and every precaution
is being taken to keep the drains and
sump holes in condition to perform their functions.</p>
<p>14. We have rendered the parapets and
shelters throughout our sector bullet-proof, and
effective measures are being taken to prevent
them from caving in.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
<p>15. We are keeping our trenches sanitary and
clean; our reserve munitions are carefully stored
in their proper places ready for instant use.
Refuse is always placed in receptacles when it
can be carried away. We do not under any
circumstances litter up our trench floor. Our
empty shells are collected and sent to the rear.</p>
<p>16. Our rifles are our best friends. We keep
them clean, well oiled, and in readiness for
instant use. Our bayonets we have with us at
all times ready to be placed on the rifle. We
protect our rifle ammunition from the mud, as
we realize that muddy cartridges will clog the
breech mechanism and cause mal-function.</p>
<p>17. We are taking every precaution to prevent
"trench feet;" when practicable we take off
our shoes and rub our feet for 15 minutes each
day. We do not wear tight shoes and leggings
that tend to interfere with blood circulation.
We each have a pair of dry socks to put on. We
do not wear rubber boots except when it is absolutely
necessary.</p>
<p>18. We observe the orders regarding the
wearing of equipment.</p>
<p>19. We do not drink any water except that
from authorized sources. We replenish our
canteens whenever practicable.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
<p>In addition to the above the platoon commander
must be able to adopt the following and·
live up to them:</p>
<p>1. My sentries are posted in the proper places.
They are posted by noncommissioned officers.
They have the proper orders. No man is ever
on duty more than one hour at a time. I visit
them at frequent intervals.</p>
<p>2. I have a runner ready to carry a message
to company headquarters. I realize that any
information of the enemy that I may secure may
be of great importance at regimental and other
headquarters. I will therefore send it back with
the utmost dispatch.</p>
<p>3. I am familiar with the methods of communicating
with the artillery, of giving them
information and of asking them for support.</p>
<p>4. My patrols operating to the front at night
have been properly instructed and are doing
their duty effectively. All sentries in the trench
have been notified when they are out and cautioned
to look out for their return.</p>
<p>5. I have given complete and detailed instruction
covering what to do in case of gas attacks
and the sending out of the S. O. S. signal. I
have gas and attack messages already prepared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
and ready to send after inserting the time and
place in them.</p>
<p>6. I know the name of every man in my platoon
and they all know me.</p>
<p>7. I am here to inflict as much damage as
possible on the enemy and to hold my part of
the line. <i>I will do it!</i></p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent larger">The Attack in Trench Warfare</p>
<div class="sidenote">Objectives</div>
<p>The objectives which must
be dealt with in the attack
of an intrenched position such
as will be found on the western front are:</p>
<p>1. The trenches of the first line.</p>
<p>2. The supporting points.</p>
<p>3. The trenches of the second line.</p>
<p>By a study of the text preceding this you must
realize that in the defense of these objectives
there will be employed artillery, rifles, grenades
and machine guns.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Artillery Preparation</div>
<p>The first phase of the attack
is the artillery preparation.
In order that the infantry may
make the attack with a minimum
of losses, the artillery must have destroyed
the wire entanglements and obstacles that obstruct
the advance, or at least have sufficiently
breached them to permit their being negotiated.
The destruction of these obstacles is never complete.
It would require too great an expenditure
of ammunition. The infantry occupying the
hostile trenches must be simply overwhelmed
with artillery fire so that they will be unable to
man the parapets when the assault is launched.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
During the artillery preparation the hostile
infantry does not occupy their firing positions
in the trenches but remain in their dugouts,
which are fully protected from all but the heaviest
shells. Only a few observers are left in the
trenches.</p>
<p>When the bombardment against this particular
part of the line ceases the infantry leave their
dugouts and man the firing positions. To prevent
this is one of the most important as well
as most difficult tasks of the artillery. This
may be effected by a well-directed fire on the
exits to the dugouts with a view to caving them
in and thus preventing the egress of the occupants
The enemy may sometimes be induced to
leave his shelter prematurely by the following
ruse:</p>
<p>1. Cease the artillery fire.</p>
<p>2. Open a heavy rifle fire; this causes the enemy
to believe that the assault has begun and he will
man his parapets in strength.</p>
<p>3. After waiting for several minutes open the
artillery again with even increased vigor.</p>
<p>The hostile infantry may be forced out of his
dugouts by the use of shells and grenades containing
suffocating gases which penetrate the
shelters and make them untenable.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
<p>The artillery is also charged with putting the
enemy's artillery out of action to prevent them
from firing upon the attacking infantry.</p>
<p>If the enemy artillery is left free, it will shell
our trenches and approaches, causing casualties
and confusion and thus interfering with the
formation for the attack. The location of
hostile batteries is effected by aerial reconnaissance.</p>
<p>Another task of the artillery is to prevent the
hostile reserves from coming up to reinforce their
firing lines. These reserves will be located back
in the second line until their presence is required
at the front. As long as the artillery preparation
continues they remain in the shelters, but
as soon as it ceases they man the trenches. The
artillery must therefore extend its fire to the
second line and continue it while the first line is
being rushed. Back of the second position the
enemy holds strong reserves. The entrance of
these into action must be prevented. This
is accomplished by extending the curtain of fire
still further to the rear. The supporting points
must receive a lion's share of attention for, bristling
with machine guns and trench mortars,
they are the really dangerous elements to the infantry
attack after it passes the first line trenches.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
<p>The weapon which inflicts the greatest losses
on the assaulting infantry is the machine gun,
which appears suddenly out of the ground and
lays low whole units. By a careful reconnaissance
these machine-gun positions are ferreted
out and every possible means are taken to effect
their destruction.</p>
<p>The effectiveness of the artillery preparation
depends simply upon superiority of guns and
munitions. In this respect we now possess a
great advantage, for the state of our munition
supply is such that our artillery may fire several
shells to one of the enemy. This is what established
the superiority.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Organization of Infantry Attack</div>
<p>The organization of the attacking
infantry corresponds
in a general way to the organization
of the position being
attacked. A first line of assault
is organized. Its mission is the capture
of the enemy's first line trenches. A second line
follows, having for its mission the assault and
capture of the second line trenches. A separate
organization of these two lines is necessary for
the reason that the first attacking line is generally
so disorganized in the fighting that it no longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
possesses the cohesion necessary to carry it
through to the second line. It has been found
necessary to launch a comparatively fresh and
intact force against it.</p>
<p>As the first position is organized into several
separate lines of defense, so also is the first
attacking line organized and launched in two
or more waves, those in rear being in the nature
of reinforcements to those in front.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Objectives</div>
<p>Each unit of the attacking
line is assigned a distinct objective.
Certain units are
given the mission of attacking the supporting
points to prevent their enfilading the units advancing
through the intervals between them.</p>
<p>The main efforts are made along the lines between
the supporting points, as to assault the
latter would entail a casualty list not commensurate
with the results. The effort against them
is made with a view to neutralizing their effect.
If the attack is successful in the intervals,
the supporting points will fall as a result.</p>
<p>The waves of the first line are directed against
the first position, the second against the second
position. The reserves held under the orders of
the division commander are employed where
the development of the situation dictates.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
<p>Further to the rear, and under orders of the
supreme commander, large bodies of reinforcements
are held ready to be moved rapidly to
points where progress has been made to such an
extent that maneuver operations are practicable.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Preparation for the Assault</div>
<p>Preparatory to the assault,
numerous saps (trenches) are
run out to the front from the
main firing trenches. The
night before the attack, a parallel is broken out
connecting the sap heads. This parallel is
amply supplied with short ladders and is occupied
by the companies composing the first wave
of the attack. The saps and the main trenches
are also filled with men assigned to the following
waves, who will move into the parallel as soon
as the first wave leaves it. As the artillery
preparation ceases, the first waves rush up the
ladders in succession and move out to the assault.</p>
<div class="sidenote">The First Wave</div>
<p>As the artillery preparation
against the first line is completed
and the curtain of fire
shifted far into the enemy's position, the infantry
of the first wave emerges from the parallel
and moves out. The formation and gait depend
upon the distance to the hostile trench.
If the artillery preparation has been effective<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
and the distance is not more than 100 yards, it
is expected that the wave will be able to reach
the fire trench without firing, except possibly
when the wire is reached. If the distance is
much greater than 100 yards, it is necessary to
cover the advance with rifle fire. This is accomplished
by a line of skirmishers deployed at
extended intervals, which precedes the wave at
about 50 yards. The wave starts out at a walk,
carefully aligned. It afterwards takes up the
double time and advances by rushes until the
wire entanglements are reached.</p>
<p>From this moment the period of the charge
and individual combat begins. The men can
no longer be kept from firing. Each tries to
protect himself with his rifle. Each man locates
his opening in the wire through which he is to go
and makes for it. The line reforms on the
other side. With rifles at the high charge (a
position to our old head parry, but slanting
slightly upward from right to left) the line
rushes upon the enemy. Each man runs straight
towards the part of the trench in front of him
and jumps upon the parapet. By rifle shots
and bayonet thrusts he destroys everything in
his way. Men selected in advance take charge
of the prisoners. The line is reformed, lying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
down just beyond the fire trench, and fire is
opened against the second line. Men are positively
forbidden to enter the communication
trenches. They are most inviting for cover,
but a man rarely gets out of them.</p>
<p>The grenadier squad proceed to their work of
clearing the fire and communication trenches.</p>
<div class="sidenote">The Second Wave</div>
<p>The second wave of the first
line starts forward at the
moment the first wave reaches
the hostile trenches. If it
starts sooner, it will unite with the first at the
entanglement and become involved in the fight
for the fire trench. It will be broken up prematurely
and will be unable to take advantage
of the developments of the fight of the first
wave. The reinforcement by the second wave
and the disorganization produced by the assault
lead to a mixture of units in the trenches of the
first position. Before starting out to the assault
of the next trench it is necessary that order be
restored. When this is accomplished the attack
is launched against the second line. In front
of the supporting points the combat rages.
The men are barely able to hold on the outer
edges. In the interval the advance has reached
high tide and has expanded like a wave and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
stopped. This is the limit that can be expected
of the first line.</p>
<p>Hasty cover is prepared and advantage taken
of such cover as may exist. All elements of
the attack open fire on the second position.</p>
<div class="sidenote">The Second Line</div>
<p>Under the cover of these
operations the second line has
come up in a series of three
lines, where it is built up compact
at the position of the stopped first line.
From this point its attack against the enemy's
second line is launched. The lines are worked
up to a point from which the assault is to be
made, and when the time comes the first wave
dashes out to the attack, followed by the second
wave in the same manner as the assault against
the first position was made.</p>
<p>The action of the two lines of attack may be
expected to overwhelm the greater part of the
two main hostile positions. At certain points,
however, the resistance will hold out, and, if
not overcome, will constitute points of support
to which the enemy may bring up reinforcements
and even turn the tide of battle by a
counter attack.</p>
<p>To deal with these points that hold out, as
well as with hostile reinforcements which may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
arrive, the reserve is launched into action, which
brings the attack into the open ground beyond
the second line of defense, and maneuver operations
are begun. The mobile units are rapidly
thrown into action, and large forces from the
general reserve are hurried to the point where
the lines of defense are broken through.</p>
<p>From what has gone before we may deduce
that the following conditions must prevail to
attain success in an attack on a prepared position:</p>
<p>1. The attack must be planned down to the
most minute detail.</p>
<p>2. There must be a greatly superior force of
artillery concentrated at the point of attack,
and the artillery preparation must be thorough.</p>
<p>3. The infantry must be sufficient in number,
training and morale to perform the tasks that
will he demanded of them.</p>
<p>4. The arrangements for the supply of ammunition
to the firing line must be planned and
carried out in all its details.</p>
<p>5. Plans for meeting counter attacks must be
thorough and complete. The capture of a position
is often less difficult than its retention.</p>
<p>6. Finally, every officer and man must know
exactly what he is to do.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p class="ac noindent"><span class="x-larger">Scouting and Patrolling</span><br /><br />
By<br /><br />
Capt. W. H. WALDRON<br />
29th Infantry<br /><br />
Cloth Bound—Fits the Pocket<br /><br />
3d EDITION</p>
<hr class="small" />
<p class="ac noindent">Price, 50 cents postpaid</p>
<hr class="small" />
<p>The best, most complete and practical treatment
of the subject that has been produced.</p>
<p class="ac noindent">What To Do and How To Do It</p>
<p>Just the book needed for the instruction of the
enlisted men of your organization.</p>
<p>Every soldier in the Army should have a copy
and know its contents.</p>
<p class="ac noindent">Endorsed by Leading Officers of the Army</p>
<hr class="small" />
<p class="ac noindent">
Published and for sale by<br />
The United States Infantry Association<br />
Union Trust Building<br />
Washington, D. C.</p>
<p class="ac noindent p2">Comment from Leading Officers of the Army</p>
<p>"I have a copy of 'Scouting and Patrolling' and wish every
other person in the military service had one. You have
presented an interesting and very important subject in a very
convenient, readable form and in its logical sequence. I
commend the book to all soldiers. They will benefit by a
careful study of its contents."</p>
<p>"The most complete and valuable treatise on scout and
patrol work that has been published. The small size and
shape of the little volume make it a convenient pocket reference
book suitable for field work."</p>
<p>"It covers the duties that will fall to the lot of the soldier
in time of war better than any work heretofore published. I
predict that every company commander in the Army will
eventually use it as a text-book in the instruction of his
organization."</p>
<p>"Your book is excellent. I am amazed at the great amount
of information you have concentrated in such a small volume.
I shall certainly recommend it to the captains of my regiment
as a book for instruction in noncommissioned officers' schools.
I feel that I should congratulate you on it as an American
text-book on the subject that is far superior to any of the
foreign publications."</p>
<p>"I find it be to an excellent work on the subject. It is
thorough and to the point. Its size, extremely small cost and
valuable contents ought to recommend it to every soldier in
the Army."</p>
<p>"I cordially endorse it as being wonderfully comprehensive
and comprehensible in covering the subject."</p>
<p>"I am impressed with its simplicity and completeness. It
is a most valuable book for the noncommissioned officer and
private."</p>
<p>"The book is thoroughly practical and the arrangement
admirable. It is certainly the best book on the subject that
I have ever seen."</p>
<p class="ac noindent p2">A few extracts from numerous book reviews</p>
<p>"Devoid of technicalities and written in an interesting and
understandable style. It is a most instructive book. With
unessentials eliminated, it gives a store of information in
language that any man can understand."</p>
<p>"It covers a wide and difficult ground. The dozen chapters
of the little book not only instruct the soldier thoroughly in
the duties of reconnaissance but place at his convenient disposal
a valuable store of information as to military messages,
signaling, map reading, reconnaissance reports, first-aid and
kindred subjects."</p>
<p>"It covers very concisely every feature of this most important
branch of military training: it is entertainingly written
and generously illustrated throughout."</p>
<p class="ac noindent"><span class="x-larger">Tactical Talks</span><br />
By Capt. W. H. Waldron, 29th Infantry</p>
<p class="noindent">To the Reader:</p>
<p>The up-to-date method of instruction and training in Minor
Tactics is this:</p>
<p>1. Prepare a tactical problem covering the subject under consideration.</p>
<p>2. Take the noncommissioned officers out on a TACTICAL
WALK and make a solution of the various situations.</p>
<p>3. Follow this by taking the company out on a tactical
exercise for the solving of the identical problem that you solved
in the TACTICAL WALK.</p>
<p>This method will bring results that will surprise you. In
the Tactical Walk, tactical situations are presented to the noncommissioned
officers for practical solution on the ground and
they are firmly impressed on the minds of the men. When
the same problem is brought up for solution with the troops
you will see your noncommissioned officers going about their
various tasks in a business-like manner with a knowledge of
what to do and how to do it, that they have never had before.
This inspires the confidence of the men in their noncommissioned
officers and as a result the entire organization is
lifted to a much higher "tactical level" than they have been
able to attain heretofore.</p>
<p>TACTICAL WALKS is an entirely original work. It was
written with a view to inaugurating this system of instruction
and training throughout the Army. The subjects included are:</p>
<p>Outposts, reconnoitering patrols, visiting patrols, advance
guards, flank guards, detached posts, organization of a small
defensive position. The largest unit considered is a company
and that only incidentally. The main element is the platoon
and patrol.</p>
<p>For each walk a tactical problem has been prepared in
blank. This can be adapted to any terrain that is available.</p>
<p>Following the problem there are a number of tactical situations
such as one would encounter in actual service.</p>
<p>The discussions and explanations cover every phase of the
subject under consideration in a purely practical manner.</p>
<p>A practical solution is then arrived at and set forth.</p>
<p>At the end of the solution to each situation there is inserted a
Director's Key, which gives the complete synopsis of what has
gone before.</p>
<p>Every officer in the Army should have a copy. It will save
a lot of time preparing for the conduct of Tactical Walks.
Every noncommissioned officer should have a copy and study
its contents. By so doing he prepares himself for the duties
that he will be called upon to perform in the field.</p>
<p>ORDER YOUR COPY TODAY.</p>
<p>The price is $1.50 per copy, postage paid.</p>
<p>Copies of the book may be had from any one of the agencies
enumerated on page v of this book.</p>
<p class="ar">
<span class="smcap">W. H. Waldron</span>,<br />
<i>Captain, Twenty-ninth Infantry</i>.
</p>
<div class="transnote p2">
<p class="ac noindent x-larger">Transcriber's Note:</p>
<ul>
<li>The original spelling, hyphenation, and punctuation have been retained,
with the exception of apparent typographical errors which have been
corrected.</li>
<li>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</li>
<li>Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant
form was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</li>
<li>Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs
and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that
references them. The list of Illustrations paginations were
changed accordingly.</li>
<li>Other corrections:
<ul>
<li>p. 13: Frustrom → frustum (… a frustum of a cone….)</li>
<li>p. 75: dorm → form (The form is then raised….)</li>
<li>p. 78: staple → stable (… make a stable, compact pile….)</li>
<li>p. 109: Plate 40a re-numbered to 41e.</li>
<li>p. 116: Plate 41a re-numbered to 41f.</li>
<li>p. 120: Plate 41 re-numbered to 42.</li>
<li>p. 126: machacoulis → machicoulis (Machicoulis gallery in background.)</li>
<li>p. 127: he → be (Loopholes should be screened….)</li>
<li>p. 155: he → be (… tasks that will be demanded of them.)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<hr class="nonvis" />
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 61330 ***</div>
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