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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Elements of Trench Warfare - -Author: William Waldron - -Release Date: February 6, 2020 [EBook #61330] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF TRENCH WARFARE *** - - - - -Produced by Brian Coe, Christian Boissonnas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="ac noindent"><span class="larger"> - -Elements of</span><br /><br /> -<span class="x-larger">Trench Warfare</span><br /><br /> -Waldron</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> - - -<h1> -Elements of<br /> -<span class="larger">Trench Warfare</span></h1> - -<p class="ac noindent"><i>By</i><br /> -<br /> -<span class="x-larger">Captain William H. Waldron</span><br /> -29th U. S. Infantry<br /> -<br /> -<span class="smaller">DISTINGUISHED GRADUATE INFANTRY AND<br /> -CAVALRY SCHOOL, 1905<br /> - -GRADUATE ARMY STAFF COLLEGE, 1906<br /> - -GRADUATE ARMY WAR COLLEGE, 1911<br /> - -ASSISTANT DIRECTOR ARMY WAR<br /> -COLLEGE COURSE, 1911-12</span></p> - -<p class="ac noindent p2"> -<i>Author of</i><br /> -"Scouting and Patrolling"<br /> -"Tactical Walks"</p> - -<p class="ac noindent p2">Price 60 cents</p> - -<p class="ac noindent p2"> -Washington<br /> -1917 -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ac noindent"> -Copyright, 1917, by<br /> -<span class="smcap">William H. Waldron</span></p> - -<p class="ac noindent xx-smaller"> -NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D. C.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="Agencies" id="Agencies"></a>Agencies</h2> -</div> - -<p>This book may be purchased from any one of the -following agencies:</p> - -<p class="ac noindent"> -The Book Department<br /> -<span class="smcap">Army and Navy Register</span><br /> -Washington, D. C.<br /> -<br /> -The Book Department<br /> -<span class="smcap">U. S. Infantry Association</span><br /> -Union Trust Building<br /> -Washington, D. C.<br /> -<br /> -The Book Department<br /> -<span class="smcap">Army Service Schools</span><br /> -Fort Leavenworth, Kansas<br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Edwin N. Appleton</span><br /> -No. 1, Broadway, New York City<br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">The Army and Navy Co-operative Co.</span><br /> -721 17th Street N. W.<br /> -Washington, D. C.<br /> -or<br /> -16 E. 42d Street, New York City<br /> -<br /> -<b>The price is 60 cents, postage paid</b><br /> -<br /> -<i>See "Tactical Walks" advertisement in the back<br /> -of this book.</i> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>NOTICE</h2> - - -<p>There is a wealth of material in this little book -that will interest the soldier. From the illustrations -alone he will be able to obtain a good -general idea of the subject.</p> - -<p>It is essentially a soldier's book, written in -language that he can understand. The price -has been kept within the limits of his pocketbook.</p> - -<p>With a view to securing a wide distribution of -the book I desire to secure a representative in -every organization in the Army. I have an -attractive proposition to make to competent -parties.</p> - -<p>A letter will bring particulars. My address -will be found in the Army List and Directory. -If this is not available, a letter addressed as -follows will be forwarded to me:</p> - -<p class="ac noindent"> -Captain W. H. Waldron,<br /> -29th Infantry,<br /> -Care of "Infantry Journal,"<br /> -Washington, D. C.<br /> -<span style="padding-left:8em;">(Signed) <span class="smcap">W. H. Waldron</span>. -</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table id="CONTENTS" summary="CONTENTS"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="c1"></td> - <td class="c2"><span class="x-smaller">Page</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a>—The Organization of a Section of - the Position</td> - <td class="c2">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a>—Obstacles. Construction, repair. - Wire entanglements, barricades, land mines, inundation</td> - <td class="c2">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a>—Lookout and Listening Posts: - Types. Construction, service</td> - <td class="c2">18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a>—Field Trenches: Traversed trenches. - Types of trenches. Drainage. - Communication trenches. Dugouts. Penetration of projectiles. Communication. - Trench mortar positions. Machine guns. Supporting points</td> - <td class="c2">24</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a>—Use and Improvement of Natural Cover</td> - <td class="c2">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a>—Revetments: Sandbags. Fascines. Hurdles. Gabions</td> - <td class="c2">64</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a>—Working Parties: Details of - organization. Laying out tasks. Operations</td> - <td class="c2">80</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a>—Grenade Warfare: - Organization and tactics of grenadiers. Offensive - operations. Clearing fire trenches. Clearing communication trenches. Night operations. - Grenade patrols. Notes on grenade warfare </td> - <td class="c2">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a>—Gas Warfare: Methods of dissemination of gas. - Gas helmets, care and use of. Sprayers - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td> - <td class="c2">105</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a>—Service in the Trenches: Preparations - for entering. Inspection of - trenches. Tactical dispositions. Going into the trenches. Information routine. - Observation field glasses. Snipers. What to fire at. Use of rifle grenades. - Scouting and patrolling. Care of arms. Care of trenches. Latrines. Maps. Frost bite. - The trench soldier's creed</td> - <td class="c2">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a>—The Attack in Trench Warfare</td> - <td class="c2">146</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - -<p>This little book has been prepared with a view -to placing before the soldier a store of information -on the subject of Trench Warfare as it has -been developed on the battle fronts of Europe, -and giving him some idea of the nature of the -service that he will be called upon to perform -when the time arrives for him to do his "bit."</p> - -<p>The illustrations have been carefully prepared -and arranged to the end that the soldier may -gain a fair knowledge of the subject from them -alone. The text is intended to treat the subject -in a purely elementary manner that the soldier -may be able to understand.</p> - -<p>The size of the book is such that it may be -conveniently carried in the pocket and referred -to as occasion requires. The price has been -kept down to the point where it is available to -the soldier.</p> - -<p>If the book assists in his preparation for the -front and, by reason of the knowledge that he -has gained from it, helps to make him more -efficient when he gets there, it will have served -its purpose.</p> - -<p class="ar"> -<span class="smcap">The Author.</span> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">Organization</p> - - -<p>The normal organization of an intrenched -position includes the following elements from -front to rear:</p> - -<p>1. In front of the position and at a variable -distance from the first line fire trench there is a -line of wire entanglements. (See Obstacles, p. 4.)</p> - -<p>2. Close up to the wire entanglements there -is an intrenched post known as the "listening -post," which is connected with the first line fire -trench by a zigzag communicating trench. -(See Listening Posts, p. 18.)</p> - -<p>3. Then comes the first line fire trench with -attached machine-gun emplacements at convenient -points. (See Fire Trench and Machine-Gun -Emplacements, pp. 24 and 44.)</p> - -<p>4. The fire trench is so narrow that lateral -communication along it is effected only with -difficulty. In order to provide a passageway a -communication or supervision trench is provided -a few yards in rear of the fire trench. Passageways -lead from this communication trench to the -fire trench and to the dugouts located along it.</p> - -<p>5. At a variable distance in rear of the fire -trench (100 to 200 yards) the emplacements for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> -bomb-throwing apparatus and trench mortars -are located. These are connected up laterally -by a communication trench which joins with -the main communication trench running from -front to rear through the position. (See Emplacements -for Trench Mortars, p. 41.)</p> - -<p>6. From 100 to 400 yards to the rear of the -first line fire trench, and generally parallel to -it, is the supporting trench or cover for the supports. -This trench is invariably provided with -strong overhead cover and a system of dugouts -for the protection of the troops. (See Cover for -Supports, p. 48.)</p> - -<p>7. This whole arrangement of trenches is -connected throughout from front to rear, and -laterally, by a system of zigzag communication -trenches.</p> - -<p>Take this brief description together with -Plate 1, the drawing that accompanies this -volume, and study the two until you get the -entire system fixed firmly in your mind; that is, -until you get a mental picture of all the elements -included in the system.</p> - -<p>After you have done this, study on through -the book in order that you may know the purpose -of each of these elements and how one -links up with the other.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_002.jpg" id="i_002.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_002.jpg" alt="" width="347" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><i>PLAN OF THE ORGANIZATION OF AN INTRENCHED POSITION</i><br /> - <span class="smcap">Plate</span> 1</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_003.jpg" id="i_003.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_003.jpg" alt="" width="376" height="577" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 2</p> -</div> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> - -<p>This is the typical system now in use in the -European war theaters. Circumstances at certain -places may render some variations necessary, -and it must not be inferred that the trace -of the works is the same throughout. As a rule -the types of trenches (altered when necessary -to meet local conditions) illustrated herein are -the ones in actual use on the war fronts.</p> - -<p>All of these trenches and their accessories -constitute what is known as the first line. At a -distance of from 2,000 to 5,000 yards in rear of -this first line a second line, organized in a similar -manner, is to be found.</p> - -<p>At intervals of from 800 to 1,500 yards along -the first line-centers of resistance, or what we -know as "supporting points," are located. -These consist of fortified villages, or a network -(labyrinth) of trenches, provided with every -defensive device known to modern warfare. -The object of these supporting points is to bring -a flanking fire to bear on the intervals between -them, with the idea that an attacking force -cannot advance beyond them without capturing -them.</p> - -<p>Plate 2 shows the general scheme of the occupation -of a sector of the line by a field army of -two divisions.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">Obstacles</p> - - -<p>The element of the defensive line nearest the -enemy is a line or series of lines of obstacles -which are designed for the purpose of:</p> - -<p>1. Protecting the lines from surprise.</p> - -<p>2. Reducing the momentum of the attack, by -breaking up the unity of action and cohesion.</p> - -<p>3. Holding the enemy under the effective fires -of the defenders.</p> - -<p>The conditions that obstacles should fulfil -are as follows. They must—</p> - -<p>1. Be close to the defender's position. As a -rule on the western front they are not more -than from 50 to 100 yards distant. If they are -too close it may be possible to throw hand -grenades from the far edge of them into the -defender's trenches.</p> - -<p>2. As far as practicable, be sheltered and -screened from the enemy. Shell fire is the most -effective method of destroying obstacles. If -they are not concealed they may furnish aiming -points for the enemy's fire against the first line -fire trench by his being able to estimate its location -with reference to the obstacle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> - -<p>3. Afford no cover or screen to the enemy.</p> - -<p>4. Be so placed that the enemy will come upon -them as a surprise.</p> - -<p>5. Be so constructed as to be difficult of removal -under fire and impracticable to negotiate -while still reasonably intact.</p> - -<p>6. Be arranged so as not to interfere with a -counter attack. The obstacles may have occasional -gaps left in them which may be mined.</p> - -<p>The different classes of obstacles are: Abatis, -low wire entanglements, high wire entanglements, -barricades, mines, fougasses, crows feet, -military pits with wire entanglements, inundations, -etc.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_005.jpg" id="i_005.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="190" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 3.—Abatis.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Abatis (pronounced <i>abatee</i>) consists of branches -of trees lying parallel to each other, butts -pointing to the rear, and the branches interlaced -with barbed wire. All leaves and small twigs -should be removed and the stiff ends of branches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> -pointed. The butts are staked or tied down of, -anchored by covering them with earth. When -more than one row is used the branches overlap -the butts of those in front so as to make the -abatis about 5 feet high. An abatis formed by -felling trees towards the enemy, leaving the -butt hanging to the stump, is called <i>slashing</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_006.jpg" id="i_006.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_006.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="279" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 4.—Slashing.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Wire Entanglements</div> - -<p>Barbed wire is the material -most employed in the construction -of obstacles. It -may be used in the following -manner:</p> - -<p>1. As a simple trip, for giving the alarm. It -is stretched just above the ground and attached -to some object that will cause a noise to be made -if molested.</p> - -<p>2. A simple wire fence, to cause delay and -confusion to the enemy in his advance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> - -<p>3. As an adjunct to tree and brushwood entanglement.</p> - -<p>4. As a wire entanglement.</p> - -<p>5. As a covering for portable cylinders.</p> - -<p>The advantages of the barbed wire entanglement -are:</p> - -<p>1. It is easily and quickly made,</p> - -<p>2. It is difficult to destroy.</p> - -<p>3. It is difficult to get through.</p> - -<p>4. It offers no obstruction to the view and fire -of the defense.</p> - -<p>The low wire entanglement is constructed as -follows:</p> - -<p>1. Drive stakes in the ground until they project -about 18 inches. The stakes should be -about 6 feet apart, those in each row being opposite -the intervals in adjacent rows,</p> - -<p>2. The wire is then passed loosely from the -head of one stake to another, wound around each -and stapled.</p> - -<p>3. Where two or more wires cross they should -be tied together.</p> - -<p>A more useful and efficient modification of -the low wire entanglement is made by stapling -the wire down the sides of the stakes, allowing -five or more feet of slack wire between stakes. -Drive the stakes in the ground until the top is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> -flush. This results in a loose network of tangled -wires difficult to get through, easily concealed, -and difficult to remove.</p> - -<p>The high wire entanglement is made by driving -stakes so that they protrude from 4 to 6 feet -above the ground. They are placed at irregular -intervals 5 to 8 feet apart. The head of each -stake is connected with the foot of adjoining -stakes with the wire loosely drawn, wound -around the stakes and stapled fast. Each -center post should be stayed by four wires. -There should be a trip wire about 9 inches from -the ground all the way across the front and -another about a foot from the top of the center -posts. Barbed wire may then be hung in festoons -throughout the entanglement, with no -fixed pattern. To increase the entanglement -wire may be stapled to the foot of the posts, -as indicated in the paragraph above, before -they are driven. Large nails should be driven -in the tops of the posts with half their length -protruding. A number of the wires in the entanglement -should be fastened together where -they cross. The wire should be passed through -paint, if practicable, to take away the bright -color. The posts should be painted the color -of the surrounding country. Under the conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> -encountered on the western front this -work has to be done hastily. It is best, therefore, -to limit the first stage of construction to -just so many strands as will form a nucleus for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> -the whole entanglement, in order that the area -may be covered by an obstacle before interruption -occurs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_009-a.jpg" id="i_009-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_009-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="313" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 4a.—Plan of wire entanglement.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_009-b.jpg" id="i_009-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_009-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="322" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 5.—High wire entanglement.</p> -</div> - - -<p><i>Tight wires help the enemy's advance by forming -supports for hurdles. It must be constantly -borne in mind that the wires must not be stretched -taut.</i></p> - -<p>A portable wire entanglement is constructed -by stretching wire loosely around a wooden -framework, either circular or square or made on -a knife rest, and rolling it into position to close -up gaps that may have been made in the entanglement. -The illustration shows the wooden -framework.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_010.jpg" id="i_010.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_010.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="370" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 5a.—Alarm trap.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_011.jpg" id="i_011.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_011.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="272" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 6.—Portable entanglement. Constructed in the - trenches and rolled into position.</p> -</div> - - -<p>The ordinary repairs to entanglements are -made under cover of darkness by working parties -detailed for the purpose. Iron posts that can -be quickly placed in position are advantageous, -their disadvantage being that they may retard -bullets that would go through the ordinary -wooden posts, thus furnishing just that much -cover and protection to attacking parties.</p> - -<p>In the construction and repair of entanglements -care must be taken to see that they are -firmly fastened into the ground with numerous -stay posts or "deadmen." This is to prevent -the enemy from pulling them to pieces with -grappling hooks connected to ropes that lead to -his trenches and are attached to powerful windlasses -or capstans.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Barricades</div> - -<p>Barricades are employed for -the defense of streets, roads, -bridges, etc. They may be -made out of any available material such as -furniture, vehicles (overturned or with wheels -removed), carts filled with stones, bales of -goods, etc.</p> - -<p>Where trees grow along the roadside they may -be felled across the road. If necessary, barbed -wire may be run through the branches to make -the passage more difficult.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_012.jpg" id="i_012.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_012.jpg" alt="" width="458" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 7.—Plan of barricade for blocking a road.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> - -<p>Barricades should not as a rule close the road -entirely to traffic. Passages are required to -allow the defenders to pass through when it is -necessary to do so. Hence they should be made -in two parts, one overlapping the other, as shown -in the illustration.</p> - -<p>A <i>fougass</i> is a mine so arranged that upon -explosion a large mass of stones is projected -against the enemy. An excavation is made in -the shape of a frustum of a cone, inclining the -axis in the direction of the enemy so as to make -an angle with the horizon of about 45 degrees. -The sides splay outward slightly. A box of -powder is placed in a recess at the bottom. -This is covered with a platform of wood several -inches thick, on which the stones are piled.</p> - -<p>The fuse is placed in a groove cut at the back -of the excavation, or the mine may be exploded -by means of electricity.</p> - -<p>The line of least resistance for the charge must -be arranged so that the powder will act in the -direction of the axis and not vertically. This -is accomplished by throwing the excavated -earth on the crest towards the defender's side -and ramming it well.</p> - -<p>To ascertain the powder charge for any fougass, -divide the number of pounds of stone in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> -charge by 150. This gives the number of pounds -of powder in the powder charge. Thus a fougass -charged with about 70 pounds of powder will -throw about 5 tons of stone over a surface -about 160 yards long and 120 yards wide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_014-a.jpg" id="i_014-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_014-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="276" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 8.—Fougass.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_014-b.jpg" id="i_014-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_014-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="357" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 9.—Vertical fougass.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> - -<p>When broken up a cubic foot of stone weighs -about 100 pounds.</p> - -<p>A vertical type of fougass is also shown. A -charge of 25 pounds of powder should scatter a -cubic yard of stones over an area about 200 by -100 yards.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Small Land Mines</p> - -<p>Land mines are placed in the line of the advance -of the enemy and exploded either by electricity -or fuse from the defense. They are made -by digging holes from 2 to 3 yards deep, either -by excavation or by boring. In the former case -the charge is placed in a recess which extends -into the solid earth at the side of the hole, which -is then refilled and tamped. In the latter case -the charge is placed in the bottom of the hole, -which is then refilled and solidly tamped. In -common earth the powder charge for a 2-yard -hole is 25 pounds. That for a 3-yard hole is 80 -pounds. The diameter of the crater formed will -be about twice the depth of the charge.</p> - -<p>The mines may be arranged in one or more -rows. The intervals between mines should be -such that the craters will nearly but not quite -join. The position of the mines should be concealed -as much as possible and further sophisticated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> -by disturbing the ground slightly at points -where there are no mines and so situated as to -suggest a systematic arrangement.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_016.jpg" id="i_016.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" width="495" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 9a.—Land mine.<br /> - -<i>F</i>, Line from powder charge to battery.<br /> - -<i>P</i>, Powder charge.</p> -</div> - - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Inundation</p> - -<p>Backing up the water of a stream so that it -overflows a considerable area forms a good -obstacle, even though of fordable depth. If -shallow, the difficulty of fording may be increased -by irregular holes or ditches dug before the water -comes up, or by constructing wire entanglements -in the water. It may be employed with advantage -when the drainage of a considerable area<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> -passes through a restricted opening, as a natural -gorge, culvert or bridge.</p> - -<p>Open cribs filled with stones, or tighter ones -filled with gravel, may form the basis of the -obstruction to the flow of the water. The -usual method of tightening spaces or cracks between -cribs is by throwing in earth or alternate -layers of straw, hay, grass, earth, or sacks of -clay. A continuous construction, as shown in -the illustration, may be employed. The ends of -the dam must be carried well into the solid earth -to prevent the water from cutting around them. -This type of dam is easily destroyed by artillery -fire, and cannot be depended upon.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_017.jpg" id="i_017.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_017.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="258" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 10.—Dam construction.</p> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">Lookout and Listening Posts</p> - - -<p>Except when the garrison are actually required -to man the parapet, they will be kept -under cover, with the exception of a few lookouts, -whose duty it is to give timely warning of -the movements of the enemy.</p> - -<p>When the opposing forces are in close proximity -to each other mining operations are generally -resorted to by both sides to compass the destruction -of the opposing works and open the way for -an attack.</p> - -<p>Lookout and listening posts serve the double -purpose of having a few men at the most advantageous -places for observation at the front and -flanks and providing points at some distance to -the front of the first line fire trenches from which -listeners may be able to discover the location -and direction of enemy mining operations before -they really menace the fire trench.</p> - -<p>In the normal case there will be some natural -cover available. Such, however, is not always -the case, and specially constructed observation -stations have to be provided.</p> - -<p>The posts should be placed in advance of the -first line trench, the distance depending upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> -circumstances which have to be determined in -each particular instance. They must be fully -protected from reverse fire so that there will be -no chance of the observer masking the fire of his -comrades manning the fire trench.</p> - -<p>Unless the ground is very favorable it will be -found difficult to provide for observation above -ground. Where there are natural features such -as embankments, mounds, hedgerows, ruins of -buildings, etc., it may be possible to make -provision for observation even by day.</p> - -<p>Where a loophole is used, the type having the -narrower end outward should be provided.</p> - -<p>In the open type of post the observation -directly to the front may be greatly facilitated -by the use of the periscope. (Plate 11.)</p> - -<p>A good, strong parapet thrown up and chopped -off at the corners will enable the observer to -cover areas from an oblique direction from -the post and protect him from fire from the -front.</p> - -<p>In the covered type the observer is provided -loopholes having the splay towards him. These -may also be constructed to the oblique rather -than to the front. When this is done, provision -must be made to cover the entire front of the -position from the several posts. (Plate 12.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_020-a.jpg" id="i_020-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_020-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="465" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 11.—Open type of listening post.</p> -</div> - - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_020-b.jpg" id="i_020-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_020-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="425" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 12.—Covered type of listening post.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_021.jpg" id="i_021.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="401" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 13.—A listening and observation post.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> - -<p>The post may be connected with the first -line fire trench by a narrow zigzag trench or by -an underground passage. If the former, it must -be thoroughly concealed and have no excavated -earth visible. If it can be located along a hedge -or some other natural feature its location may -remain unknown to the enemy for a considerable -length of time. Where a communication gallery -is constructed the roof and walls must be suitably -shored up by casing and supports.</p> - -<p>The sentinel in the listening post carries no -accouterments. It has been found that the -creaking noise made by equipment when the -sentinel moves has been taken for mining operations -of the enemy by his comrades.</p> - -<p>Listening galleries should never be left without -a sentinel. There should be a depot of arms and -hand grenades near the entrance to the gallery -in case men are attacked while on duty from -either above or below ground.</p> - -<p>Listening will be conducted at specified times, -or on some prearranged signal, and for a definite -period. During this time all within the listening -area, including the trenches, must remain absolutely -motionless.</p> - -<p>Infantry manning a trench can assist listening -by digging a small pit, 6 feet deep below the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> -trench, and running a bore-hole out 20 feet or -more.</p> - -<p>The enemy is always listening for indications -of the direction and position of gallery heads. -Work must therefore be carried on with a minimum -of noise. Shouting down the shafts of -galleries is absolutely forbidden.</p> - -<p>When the mining operations of the enemy are -detected a report should be made at once to the -officer in charge of that section of the trench.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">Field Trenches</p> - - -<p>The next element of the defensive position is -the <i>first line fire trenches</i>. These are located so as -to have a good field of fire to the front for several -hundred yards and so constructed as to give -the greatest cover and protection from the fire -of the enemy.</p> - -<p>An unbroken, continuous trench would be -exposed to enfilade fire. A shell, shrapnel or -grenade bursting therein would have widespread -effect. To overcome these elements the trench -is constructed in short lengths, with traverses -between them, and technically known as the -<i>traverse type</i>.</p> - -<p>Better defilade is thus secured and the material -effect of any burst is confined to narrow limits.</p> - -<p>The trench interval between the traverses is -known as the "bay," which should not ordinarily -be longer than 18 feet. Longer bays invite -heavy casualties in case the trench is enfiladed or -a high explosive shell finds its mark.</p> - -<p>The illustration, Plate 14, shows a trace of the -traversed type of fire trench.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_025.jpg" id="i_025.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="297" /> - <p class="caption"><i>PLAN OF TRAVERSED TYPE OF FIRE TRENCH</i><br /> - <span class="ac noindent"><i>PLATE 14.</i></span></p> -</div> -<div class="columns2 smaller"> - 1. Length of bay, 18 feet.<br /> - 2. Width of traverse, 5 feet.<br /> - 3. Length of traverse, 5 feet.<br /> - 4. Overlap of traverse, 3 feet.<br /> - 5. Height of traverse depends - upon defilade required and practicability of concealment.</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Type of Trench</p> - -<p>Formerly, protection from the enemy's fire -was obtained by thickness of parapet. In the -trench warfare of today it is obtained by completely -concealing the riflemen in a deep, narrow -trench with a very low parapet.</p> - -<p>The height over which the average man can -fire is about 5 feet or about five-sixths of his own -height. This factor determines the height of -the parapet above the firing banquet of the trench -or the height of bottom of loophole above the -same point, when the latter is employed.</p> - -<p>The type of trench in general use today is the -simple standing trench shown in Plate 15.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_026.jpg" id="i_026.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_026.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="343" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate 15.</span>—Simple standing trench. 1. Width at top, 3 - feet 4 inches. 2. Width at bottom, over all, 2 feet 8 - inches. 3. Width of firing banquet, 1 foot 4 inches. - 4. Height of parapet above firing banquet, 5 feet. - 5. Height of parapet above bottom of trench, 6 feet 4 inches.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_027.jpg" id="i_027.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="292" /> - <p class="caption"><i>PLATE 15a.<br /> - Type of INSTRUCTION FIRE TRENCH AT VALCARTIER CANADA<br /> - Used in the instruction of Canadian Troops.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Drainage</p> - -<p>If a trench is to be occupied for any length of -time, especially if much ground or falling water -is to be encountered, drainage becomes of prime -importance. Many years ago a celebrated -military authority asserted that "nothing so -saps the courage of a soldier as to wet the seat -of his breeches." This may be accepted as a -true maxim, especially in cold weather. The -trench should therefore be made as dry as -possible. The floor of the trench should be -given a sufficient slope to the rear where an -intercepting drain should carry the water to prepared -sumps or to a point from which it can be -disposed of by drainage. Provision should also -be made to exclude surface drainage from the -trenches.</p> - -<p>A scheme for trench drainage is shown in the -illustrations (Plates 16, 17 and 18).</p> - -<p>Overhead cover may be provided as shown in -Plates 19 and 20.</p> - -<p>Loopholes are made wherever head cover is -provided. Where the enemy's trenches are -close, there is considerable danger in using them. -Collective firing takes place over the parapet. -When loopholes are used they should face half-right<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> -or half-left and not directly to the front.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_029-a.jpg" id="i_029-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_029-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="451" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 16.—Method of draining trench.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_029-b.jpg" id="i_029-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_029-b.jpg" alt="" width="592" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 17.—Details of trench drainage.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_029-c.jpg" id="i_029-c.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_029-c.jpg" alt="" width="685" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 18.—Detail of trench drainage.</p> -</div> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_030-a.jpg" id="i_030-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_030-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 19.—Overhead cover.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_030-b.jpg" id="i_030-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_030-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="342" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 19a.—Overhead cover.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_031-a.jpg" id="i_031-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_031-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="297" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 20.—Overhead cover.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_031-b.jpg" id="i_031-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_031-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="358" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 20a.—Overhead cover.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> - -<p>The disadvantages of loopholes are:</p> - -<p>1. The difficulty of concealing firing points. -Loopholes give the enemy's snipers an easy mark.</p> - -<p>2. They lessen the number of rifles that can -be used at a given point.</p> - -<p>3. The necessary head cover makes it difficult -to get out of the trench quickly.</p> - -<p>4. Damaged head cover often spoils a good -firing point.</p> - -<p>The three types of loopholes are:</p> - -<p>1. Narrowest point of the opening nearest the -marksman. This type is most difficult to conceal, -much of the parapet thickness is cut away -and, if of hard material, tends to deflect the -bullets into the firer's face. This defect may be -remedied somewhat by stepping the surface of -the loophole.</p> - -<p>2. Narrowest point to the front. Easiest to -conceal but gives a limited field of view.</p> - -<p>3. Narrowest point midway between the front -and rear. A compromise between the first two -types.</p> - -<p>The following general remarks on the construction -of loopholes are taken from a work based -upon the experience gained during the war in -Europe:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> - -<p>1. The angle of splay is usually 60 degrees. -The thicker the parapet the smaller must be the -angle of splay.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_033.jpg" id="i_033.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="" width="310" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 21.—Types of loopholes.</p> -</div> - - -<p>2. The marksman holds his rifle in a line connecting -the right shoulder, the eye and the object, -hence most of the body lies to the left of the -rifle. The loophole should be made to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> right, -with a niche in the wall of the parapet -from the hip to the armpit, to bring the left -shoulder well forward. It will be found that -this permits the right elbow to be placed on the edge of the parapet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_034.jpg" id="i_034.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_034.jpg" alt="" width="397" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 22.—Methods of constructing loopholes - with sandbags.</p> -</div> - - -<p>3. Box loopholes with screens or blindage may -be used, but should be placed by a skilled marksman. -The great disadvantage is that the enemy -notes these parapet alterations. Steel loophole -plates are now provided for this type of loophole, -As the Germans sometimes use a steel bullet -with great penetrating power, it is advisable to -place two plates together to insure protection.</p> - -<p>4. With every precaution that may be taken -it is difficult to conceal a loophole. A good plan -is to deceive the enemy by using painted sandbags -and preparing plenty of dummy loopholes.</p> - -<p>5. The minimum width of loopholes should -be 2-1/2 inches. If narrower than this, it is impossible -to use both eyes to judge distances -correctly.</p> - -<p>6. The parapet should be so sloped that there -is a maximum grazing fire when the rifle is fired -as it lies on the parapet.</p> - -<p>To insure that the bullet will not graze the -parapet, although the sights are clear, look -through the barrel with the bolt removed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Communication Trench</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_036.jpg" id="i_036.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="372" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 23.—Type of communication trench.</p> -</div> - - -<p>In the first line fire trenches -there are so many crooks and -turns and the trench itself is -so narrow that passage along -the same is very difficult. To provide for this -lateral communication a trench known as the -communication or supervision trench is dug. It -runs generally parallel to and a short distance in -rear of the fire trench and is connected therewith -by zigzag approaches. The factor that determines -the distance between the fire trench and the -communication trench is that it should be at such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> -a distance that a shell bursting in one of the bays -would not destroy the communication trench.</p> - -<p>The location of the communication trench with -respect to the fire trench and the arrangements of -the approaches is shown in detail in Plate 1.</p> - -<p>The profile of the ordinary communication -trench is shown in Plate 23.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Dugouts</div> - -<p>During the artillery bombardment -few men are left in -the fire trenches. The remainder -of the garrison is held under cover a -short distance to the rear. This cover is provided -by a system of dugouts connected with -the fire trench through underground passageways -that lead to the communication trench. -This arrangement is shown in Plate 1.</p> - -<p>A profile of the latest type of dugout is shown -in Plate 24.</p> - -<p>The solid earth cover is from 12 to 18 feet -thick, which gives protection from all but the -very largest caliber shells.</p> - -<p>Effective resistance is supplied by roofing -materials as follows:</p> - -<p>1. From shrapnel bullets: 2-inch planks covered -with 12 inches of earth.</p> - -<p>2. From 3-inch shells: 4-inch planks supporting -4 feet of earth with a top layer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> -of heavy stones to cause an early shell burst.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_038.jpg" id="i_038.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="256" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 24.—Type of dugout.</p> -</div> - -<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></p> - -<p>3. From howitzers of less than 6 inches caliber: -12-inch beams or logs covered with 8 feet of -earth.</p> - -<p>4. From the largest caliber guns: 15 to 25 -feet of earth.</p> - -<p>The following table shows the penetration of -the German S bullet at a range of 200 yards:</p> - -<table style="width:300px" id="PENETRATION" summary="German S Bullet Penetration"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="c1"></td> - <td class="c2"><span class="smaller"><i>Inches</i></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Steel plate</td> - <td class="c2">⅜</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Broken stone</td> - <td class="c2">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Brickwork, cement and mortar</td> - <td class="c2">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Brickwork, lime and mortar</td> - <td class="c2">14</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Sandbags</td> - <td class="c2">24</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Sand, loose</td> - <td class="c2">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Hardwood, oak, etc.</td> - <td class="c2">38</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Earth</td> - <td class="c2">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Soft wood, poplar, etc.</td> - <td class="c2">58</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Clay</td> - <td class="c2">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1">Dry turf</td> - <td class="c2">80</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - - -<p>In addition to the regular "dugouts" for the -supports, the latest type trenches have squad -dugouts just in rear of the bays of the fire trench. -These provide shelter during bombardment for -the members of the squad not actually required -on duty in the trench bay.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_040.jpg" id="i_040.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 24a.—Section of traversed type of fire trench - showing entrance to squad dugout.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">Communications</div> - -<p>The fire trench is connected -with the cover for supports -by a system of zigzag trenches -having the profile shown in -Plate 23. The arrangement is shown in Plate 1.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Trench Mortar Positions</div> - -<p>Somewhere between the first -line fire trench and the cover -for the supports is a line of -emplacements for the trench -mortars. Plate 25 shows a profile of the emplacement.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_041.jpg" id="i_041.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_041.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="242" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 25.—Profile of trench mortar emplacement.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p> - -<p>The arrangement of the position is shown in -Plate 1.</p> - -<p>These trench mortars are used to hurl charges -of high explosives varying from 25 to 100 pounds -into the enemy's lines. They have a range of -from 300 to 1,800 yards.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_042.jpg" id="i_042.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="580" height="469" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 25a.—Trench mortar.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_043.jpg" id="i_043.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" width="567" height="580" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 25b.—Improvised catapult.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Cover for Supports</div> - -<p>At a variable distance to -the rear of the first line fire -trench is located the cover -for supports, which is organized -much in the same manner as the first line -system of trenches and affords a second position -in the system to fall back to in case of -necessity. These trenches are provided with -overhead cover and numerous dugouts for the -protection of the men.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Machine Guns</div> - -<p>At every available place -throughout the defensive position -machine guns are located, -typical positions of which are shown in Plate 1.</p> - -<p>The typical types of cover are shown in Plates -26 and 27.</p> - -<p>Machine guns are a very potent factor in -trench warfare. They are now being employed -to a far greater extent than ever before, and the -number is increasing on all the battle fronts -as fast as they can be manufactured. The -machine-gun positions are carefully concealed -from the enemy, and fire is not opened until it -is certain that it will be effective.</p> - -<p>The selection of the sites for the emplacements -should be made with a view to bringing a powerful -enfilade or oblique fire on the attacking enemy -at effective range, to provide a flanking fire for -supporting troops, and to sweep gaps in the line -of obstacles.</p> - -<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_045.jpg" id="i_045.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="347" /> - <p class="caption"><i>From World's Work.</i><br /> - <span class="smcap">Plate</span> 26.—Profile of type of cover for machine gun.</p> -</div> - -<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_046.jpg" id="i_046.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="527" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27.—Type of cover for machine guns.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Their fire should come as a surprise to the -attacking party.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the construction of cover for machine guns -the following points should be observed:</p> - -<p>1. They must have a platform for the gun and -gunner. This may be provided for in the construction -of the emplacement or built up with -sandbags. The platform should be 3 feet wide -and 6-1/2 feet in length.</p> - -<p>2. If head cover is provided, it should not -differ in appearance from that constructed elsewhere -in the trenches. The loopholes must be -blinded with gunny sacks.</p> - -<p>3. The front of the emplacement should be -cut under to receive the leg of the tripod, thus -bringing the gun up closer to the parapet and -furnishing more cover for the gunner.</p> - -<p>4. Splinter-proof shelters should be provided -near at hand for the members of the gun detachment.</p> - -<p>5. Where the enemy's trenches are near, -the position for the emplacement should be -selected by day and the actual work done under -cover of darkness.</p> - -<p>6. The guns should be located so that they -support each other by their fire. Alternate -positions should be constructed.</p> - -<p>7. When located to enfilade straight lines of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> -trenches, special capioniers should be constructed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Supporting Points</div> - -<p>At intervals from 800 to -1,500 yards along the first -line, supporting points are -established. They may consist -of a fortified village or a specially prepared -position having a "labyrinth" of trenches and -rendered well nigh impregnable to infantry -assault by every defensive device known to -modern warfare. They are designed to bring -a flanking fire to bear upon the intervening intervals -with the idea that troops cannot pass -beyond them until they are reduced.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Village Defense</div> - -<p>The following was the actual -scheme employed for the defense -of a French village, and -exemplifies the thoroughness with which defenses -must be organized.</p> - -<p>The village was about 700 yards in rear of -the front line, and had three keeps surrounded -with wire entanglements and independent of -each other, but with an elaborate system of -communication trenches. Water and four days' -rations were stored in each keep, and wells dug. -Each of the keeps held about one company. -The communication trenches were about 6 feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> -deep, used as far as possible as fire trenches, and -well traversed. Firing platforms were revetted -with brushwood, and shelters made all over the -village. In addition to keeps, a series of lines -existed in the rear of the front line, intercommunicating -and provided with barbed wire. A -small wood on one point of the front was defended -by a network of low wire entanglements -and a line of high wire netting.</p> - -<p>Every officer had to know all about his section -and its communications with right and left. -Telephone wires were laid low down in communication -trenches and fastened a few inches from -ground with wooden pickets.</p> - -<p>Machine guns were placed so as to flank -salients. A 65-mm. field gun was placed in the -front line to sweep the village, and an observation -station placed in a tree. The observer -wore a green mask and green sheet.</p> - -<p>Great use was made of brushwood and undergrowth -to revet steps of firing platform.</p> - -<p>All work was carried out by regimental officers -and men without help from the engineers, who -were fully employed in mining. The garrison -of the village and the front line trenches in the -vicinity was about one battalion, but the fire -trenches were sufficient for three battalions.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V[1]</h2> -</div> - -<p>[1]: This chapter reprinted from <i>Infantry Journal</i>.</p> - -<p>Use and Improvement of Natural Cover</p> - - -<p><i>A screen or mask</i> consists of hedges, crops, -underbrush, etc., which hide the rifleman without, -however, protecting him from fire.</p> - -<p><i>Cover or shelter</i> consists of walls, earthworks, -etc., which protect the rifleman from fire.</p> - -<p>On the battlefield, natural features that -screen and shelter should be utilized as much as -possible, as they possess the following advantages -over artificial works:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Their organization demands less work.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Concealment is easier.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) From their nature, it is difficult for the -enemy to estimate, for a given length, the number -of men sheltered.</p> - -<p>They possess, however, certain disadvantages:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The protection is sometimes so excellent -that, morally as well as materially, it becomes -difficult to leave the shelter. Example: quarries -with obstructed exits. Therefore, good judgment -must be exercised in the selection.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Some of them are too visible. Example: -large hedges. In this case their range can be -easily found.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> - -<p>As a general rule, do not occupy them uniformly -and do not change the appearance of the -organized parts.</p> - -<p>Organization of the cover:</p> - -<p>To organize the cover which protects troops -from fire, construct suitable positions for firing -and resting. To utilize the screens which merely -hide the troops without protecting them from -fire, dig trenches behind these screens in the -following manner:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Choose the points which give the best field -of fire.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Construct cover for firing.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Construct a shelter.</p> - -<p>The constructions are usually "individual" -in the first period of work; afterwards, they are -organized "collectively." The covers are: (1) -for riflemen lying down, (2) for riflemen sitting -down, and (3) for riflemen standing up.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Individual Organization of Natural Cover</p> - -<p>Examples of hasty individual cover behind -trees, bushes, or branches:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Fallen tree (logs or branches), the height -of which is at a maximum of 1 foot above the -ground:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_052-a.jpg" id="i_052-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_052-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="131" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27a.—Use of the cover without improvement.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_052-b.jpg" id="i_052-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_052-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="211" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27b.—First period.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_052-c.jpg" id="i_052-c.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_052-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="310" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27c.—Second period.<br /> - Progressive improvement of the cover.</p> -</div> - - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Fallen tree, the top of which is more than -1 foot above the ground.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_053-a.jpg" id="i_053-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_053-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="183" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27d.—First period.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_053-b.jpg" id="i_053-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_053-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="205" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27e.—Second period.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_053-c.jpg" id="i_053-c.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_053-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="272" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27f.—Third period.</p> -</div> - - - -<p>Wood which does not afford sufficient protection -against bullets must be reinforced by earth -at the right and against the cover 1 foot behind.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> -Plates 27d, 27e, and 27f show the progressive -improvement of the cover.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_054-a.jpg" id="i_054-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_054-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="121" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27g.—Sharp ridges, furrows, or top of a crest at - the end of a gentle slope.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Examples of hasty individual covers behind a -furrow, a crest, a heap of sand or earth:</p> - -<p>Dig the ground as near as possible to crest <i>A</i> of -the furrow in the manner indicated for the cover -installed behind a fallen tree more than 1 foot -high.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_054-b.jpg" id="i_054-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_054-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="86" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27h.—Narrow furrows.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Use the earth excavated between furrows <i>A</i> -and <i>B</i> to build up the earth between furrows <i>B</i> -and <i>C</i> and fill up furrow <i>C</i>; continue afterwards -as for the sharp ridge.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_055.jpg" id="i_055.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="575" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27i.—Low wall of earth, or earth - and sand heaps, more than 2 feet high (two methods, <i>A</i> or <i>B</i>).</p> -</div> - - -<p>(<i>A</i>) Lower the height about 8 inches; throw -the earth forward. Dig a trench as indicated in -the figure.</p> - -<p>(<i>B</i>) Make a loophole in the pile of earth, -showing oneself as little as possible. Improve -the firing position by making a place for the right -leg and an elbow rest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> - -<p>Examples of hasty shelters (individual) arranged -behind a large stone or heap of stones:</p> - -<p>A heap of stones, the top of which is 1 foot at -a maximum above the ground:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_056-a.jpg" id="i_056-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_056-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="183" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27j.—First period.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_056-b.jpg" id="i_056-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_056-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="261" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27k.—Second period.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">General Organization of Natural Cover</p> - -<p>This consists in connecting up and coordinating -the individual work under the direction of the -squad commander. The work should be carried -out on the lines adopted for the individual work; -and the rules prescribed for the construction of -artificial cover (profiles, depths, various shelters)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> -should be followed as far as possible. In arranging -the cover, the squads should utilize the natural -features of the terrain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_057-a.jpg" id="i_057-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_057-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="200" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27l.—Arrangement for a mound of earth.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_057-b.jpg" id="i_057-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_057-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="197" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27m.—Arrangement for a dry ditch.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_057-c.jpg" id="i_057-c.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_057-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="193" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27n.—Arrangement for a sunken road defended on - the side towards the enemy.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_058-a.jpg" id="i_058-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_058-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="165" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27o.—Arrangement for a sunken road defended - from the rear.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Ditches full of water, drains, streams:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_058-b.jpg" id="i_058-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_058-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="267" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27p.—Arrangement of a large ditch.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_058-c.jpg" id="i_058-c.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_058-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="226" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27q.—Arrangement of a ditch full of water.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> - -<p>Ordinary roads, road and railroad embankments, -and sunken roads:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_059-a.jpg" id="i_059-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_059-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="178" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27r.—Arrangement of an ordinary road defended - on the side toward the enemy.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_059-b.jpg" id="i_059-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_059-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="170" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27s.—Same defended from the rear.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_059-c.jpg" id="i_059-c.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_059-c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="214" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27t.—Road embankment, defended from the rear.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_060-a.jpg" id="i_060-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_060-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="310" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27u.—Arrangement of a railroad embankment.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_060-b.jpg" id="i_060-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_060-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="376" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27v.—Arrangement of a sunken road.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Hedges and woods:</p> - -<p>Dig a trench behind the hedge and throw the -earth against it; make openings in the hedge to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> -facilitate view and fire (Plate 27w). If the hedge -is low, deepen the trench, but make the parapet -lower than the hedge which masks it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_061-a.jpg" id="i_061-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_061-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="331" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27w.—Arrangement of a hedge.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_061-b.jpg" id="i_061-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_061-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="293" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27x.—Arrangement of the edge of a wood.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Avoid destroying the natural appearance of the -wood; do not cut the trees and brush on a certain -depth, but cut off branches where necessary to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> -obtain a field of fire. Behind this strip cut the -brush and small trees so as to make a path 3 to -4 yards wide. Construct a trench behind the -mask of trees. The parapet can be raised up to -2 or even 3 feet. Construct abatis on the parts -of the border of the wood, where it will not interfere -with the fire.</p> - -<p>Walls:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_062-a.jpg" id="i_062-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_062-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="298" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27y.—Arrangement of a wall 2 feet 8 - inches high.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_062-b.jpg" id="i_062-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_062-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="401" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27z.—Arrangement of a wall 8 feet high.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_063-a.jpg" id="i_063-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_063-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="204" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 28.—Arrangement of a wall more than 8 feet high - without making loopholes.</p> -</div> - - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_063-b.jpg" id="i_063-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_063-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="488" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 28a.—Arrangement of an iron fence - built on a low wall.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">Revetments</p> - - -<p>A <i>revetment</i> is a covering or facing placed -upon an earth slope to enable it to stand at an -inclination greater than it would naturally assume. -Some revetments also increase the tenacity -of slopes and diminish the injury by fire. -The upper parts of revetments that may be -struck by projectiles which penetrate the cover -of earth must not be made of materials of large -units which will splinter when struck. The upper -part of the revetments is technically known as -<i>crowning</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Sandbags</div> - -<p>Sandbags are made of coarse -canvas or burlap. They are -33 inches long and 14 inches -wide. They are filled loosely with earth or sand -about 1/2 cubic foot to a bag. Having been -placed in position they are pounded down with -a shovel to a rectangular form when they will fill -a space about 20 by 13 by 5 inches.</p> - -<p>The sandbag revetment is constructed by laying -alternate rows of headers and stretchers, -breaking joints. The tied ends of the headers -and seams of the stretchers are put into the -parapet. Men working in pairs lay the bags<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> -and set them firmly in place with a spade or -mallet.</p> - -<p>The advantages are:</p> - -<p>1. The portability of the empty bags. Only -62 pounds per one hundred bags.</p> - -<p>2. They may be filled with any kind of soil.</p> - -<p>3. They are rapidly filled and easily placed in -position.</p> - -<p>4. They are invaluable in making repairs.</p> - -<p>5. They will not splinter.</p> - -<p>The only disadvantage is that they are not -durable. The cloth soon goes to decay and the -filling material crumbles away.</p> - -<p>Plate 29 shows the appearance of a sandbag -revetment as seen from the front and from the -end.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_065.jpg" id="i_065.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="286" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 29.—Sandbag revetment.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> - -<p>A squad of six men with two shovels and one -pick should fill 150 bags in an hour. One man -uses the pick, two shovel the dirt into the bag, -one holds the bag open and two men tie the bags. -Having the filled bags ready to hand ten men -will lay 75 square feet of revetment in an hour. -Four men lay the bags and flatten them out -while six carry them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Brush</div> - -<p>Brush is used in many -forms for revetting. Almost -any kind will serve the purpose. -For weaving, it must be live and is most -pliable when not in leaf. It should not be more -than 1 inch in diameter at the butt. When cut -it should be assorted in sizes for the different -class of revetments. Poles 2-1/2 inches in diameter -are cut for the supports.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Fascines</div> - -<p>A <i>fascine</i> is a cylindrical -bundle of brushwood tightly -bound. The usual length is -18 feet, the diameter 9 inches, and the weight -normally about 140 pounds. Lengths of 6 and -9 feet, which are sometimes used, are most conveniently -obtained by sawing a standard fascine -into two or three pieces.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_067.jpg" id="i_067.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="186" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 29a.—Fascine.</p> -</div> - -<p>Fascines are made in a cradle which consists of -five trestles, the outer ones being 16 feet apart.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a><br /><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> -The trestle is made by driving two sticks about -6-1/2 feet long and 3 inches in diameter in the -ground and lashed at the intersection as shown in -Plate 29a. In making the cradle, plant the two -end trestles first. Stretch a line from one to the -other over the intersection. Place the others 4 -feet apart and lash them so that each intersection -comes fairly to the line.</p> - -<p><i>To build a fascine</i>, straight pieces of brush, -1 or 2 inches at the butt, are laid on, the butts -projecting at the end 1 foot beyond the trestle. -Leaves should be stripped and unruly branches -cut off, or partially cut through, so that they -will lie close. The larger, straighter brush -should be laid on the outside, butts alternating -in direction, and smaller stuff in the center. -The general object is to so dispose the brush as -to make the fascine of uniform size, strength, -and stiffness from end to end.</p> - -<p>When the cradle is nearly filled, the fascine -is compressed or <i>choked</i> by the <i>fascine choker</i> -(Plate 30), which consists of two bars, 4 feet -long, joined 18 inches from the ends by a chain -4 feet long. The chain is marked at 14 inches -each way from the middle by inserting a ring -or special link. To use, two men standing on -opposite sides pass the chain under the brush,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> -place the short ends of the handles on top and -pass the bars, short end first, across to each -other. They then bear down on the long ends -until the marks on the chain come together. -Chokers may be improvised from sticks and -rope or wire.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_069.jpg" id="i_069.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_069.jpg" alt="" width="538" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 30.—Method of using the - fascine choker.</p> -</div> - - -<p><i>Binding</i> will be done with a double turn of -wire or tarred rope. It should be done in twelve -places 18 inches apart, the end binders 3 inches -outside the end trestles. To bind a fascine will -require 66 feet of wire.</p> - -<p>Improvised binders may be made from rods -of live brush; hickory or hazel is the best. Place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> -the butt under the foot and twist the rod to -partially separate the fibers and make it flexible. -A rod so prepared is called a <i>withe</i>. To use a -withe, make a half-turn and twist at the smaller -end. Pass the withe around the brush and the -large end through the eye. Draw taut and -double the large end back, taking two half-hitches -over its own standing part.</p> - -<p><i>A fascine revetment</i> is made by placing the -fascines as shown in Plate 31. The use of -headers and anchors is absolutely necessary in -loose soils only, but they greatly strengthen the -revetment in any case. A fascine revetment -<i>must always be crowned</i> with sod or bags.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_070.jpg" id="i_070.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="309" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 31.—Fascine revetment.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> - -<p>In all brush weaving the following terms have -been adopted and are convenient to use:</p> - -<p><i>Randing.</i>—Weaving a single rod in and out -between pickets.</p> - -<p><i>Slewing.</i>—Weaving two or more rods together -in the same way.</p> - -<p><i>Pairing.</i>—Carrying two rods together, crossing -each other in and out at each picket.</p> - -<p><i>Wattling.</i>—A general term applied to the -woven part of brush construction.</p> - -<p>A <i>hurdle</i> is a basket work made of brushwood. -If made in pieces the usual size is 2 feet 9 inches -by 6 feet, though the width may be varied so -that it will cover the desired height of slope.</p> - -<p>A hurdle is made by describing on the ground -an arc of a circle of 8-foot radius and on the -arc driving ten pickets, 8 inches apart, covering -6 feet out to out. Brush is then woven in and -out and well compacted. The concave side of -a hurdle should be placed next the earth. It -warps less than if made flat.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_072-a.jpg" id="i_072-a.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_072-a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 32.—Method of laying out hurdle.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_072-b.jpg" id="i_072-b.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_072-b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="358" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 33.—Hurdle.</p> -</div> - - -<p>In <i>weaving the hurdle</i>, begin randing at the -middle space at the bottom. Reaching the end, -twist the rod as described for a withe but at one -point only, bend it around the end picket and -work back. Start a second rod before the first -one is quite out, slewing the two for a short distance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> -Hammer the wattling down snug on -the pickets with a block of wood and continue -until the top is reached. It improves the -hurdle to finish the edges with two selected rods -paired. A pairing may be introduced in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> -middle, if desired, to give the hurdle extra endurance -if it is to be used as a pavement or -floor. If the hurdle is not to be used at once, or -if it is to be transported, it must be <i>sewed</i>. The -sewing is done with wire, twine or withes at -each end and in the middle, with stitches about -6 inches long, as shown in Plate 33. About -40 feet of wire is required to sew one hurdle. -No. 14 is about the right size, and a coil of 100 -pounds will sew forty hurdles. Three men -should make a hurdle in two hours, two wattling -and the third preparing the rods.</p> - -<p><i>Continuous Hurdle.</i>—If conditions permit the -revetment to be built in place, the hurdle is -made continuous for considerable lengths. The -pickets may be larger; they are driven further -apart, 12 or 18 inches, and the brush may be -heavier. The construction is more rapid. The -pickets are driven with a little more slant than -is intended and must be anchored to the parapet. -A line of poles, with wire attached at intervals of -two or three pickets, will answer. The wires -should be made fast to the pickets after the -wattling is done. They will interfere with the -weaving if fastened sooner. Two men should -make 4 yards of continuous hurdling of ordinary -height in one hour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Brush Revetment.</i>—Pickets may be set as -above described and the brush laid inside them -without weaving, being held in place by bringing -the earth up with it. In this case the -anchors must be fastened before the brush laying -begins. The wires are not much in the way in -this operation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_074.jpg" id="i_074.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" width="444" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 34.—Gabion.</p> -</div> - - -<p><i>Gabion Making.</i>—A <i>gabion</i> is a cylindrical -basket with open ends, made of brush woven -on pickets or stakes as described for hurdles. -The usual size is 2 feet outside diameter and 2<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> -feet 9 inches height of wattling. On account of -the sharp curvature somewhat better brush is required -for gabions than will do for hurdles. The -<i>gabion form</i> is made of wood, 21 inches diameter, -with equidistant notches around the circumference, -equal in number to the number of pickets -to be used, usually eight to fourteen; less if the -brush is large and stiff, more if small and pliable. -The notches should be of such depth -that the pickets will project to 1 inch outside -the circle. The pickets should be 1-1/2 to 2 inches -in diameter, 3 feet 6 inches long, sharpened, -half at the small and half at the large end.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_075.jpg" id="i_075.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="364" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 35.</p> -</div> - - -<p><i>To Make a Gabion.</i>—The form is placed on -the ground. The pickets are driven vertically -in the ground, large and small ends down, alternately. -The form is then raised a foot and held -by placing a lashing around outside the pickets, -tightened with a rack stick. (See Plate 36.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_076.jpg" id="i_076.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_076.jpg" alt="" width="402" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 36.—Forming the gabion supports.</p> -</div> - - -<p>The wattling is randed or slewed from the -form up. The form is then dropped down, the -gabion inverted, and the wattling completed. -If the brush is small, uniform, and pliable, pairing -will make a better wattling than randing. -If not for immediate use, the gabion must be -sewed as described for hurdles, the same quantity -of wire being required.</p> - -<p>The gabion, when wattled and sewed, is completed -by cutting off the tops of the pickets, -1 inch from the web, the bottom 3 inches.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> -The latter are sharpened after cutting and driving -a pairing picket through the middle of its -length and a little to one side of the axis. Three -men should make a gabion in an hour.</p> - -<p>Gabions may be made without the forms, but -the work is slower and not so good. The circle -is struck on the ground and the pickets driven -at the proper points. The weaving is done -from the ground up. The entire time of one -man is required to keep the pickets in their -proper positions.</p> - -<p>If brush is scarce, gabions may be made with -6 inches of wattling at each end, the middle -being left open. In filling, the open parts may -be lined with straw, grass, brush, or grain sacks -to keep the earth from running out.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_077.jpg" id="i_077.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_077.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="235" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 37.—Methods of use of gabion.</p> -</div> - - -<p><i>Gabion Revetment.</i>—The use of gabions in -revetment is illustrated in Plate 37. If more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> -than two tiers are used, the separating fascines -should be anchored back. Gabion revetment -should be crowned with sod or sandbag.</p> - -<p>The advantages of gabion revetment are very -great. It can be put in place without extra -labor, faster and with less exposure than any -other. It is self-supporting and gives cover -from view and partial cover from fire quicker -than any other form. Several forms of gabions -made of material other than brush have been -used. Some of them are sheet iron, empty -barrels and hoops. The disadvantages of iron -are that it splinters badly, is heavy, and has not -given satisfaction. If any special materials are -supplied, the methods of using them will, in -view of the foregoing explanation, be obvious.</p> - -<p><i>Timber or Pole Revetment.</i>—Poles too large for -use in any other way may be cut to length and -stood on end to form a revetment. The lower -end should be in a small trench and have a -waling piece in front of them. There must also -be a waling piece or cap at or near the top, -anchored back. Plate 38 shows this form.</p> - -<p><i>Miscellaneous Revetments.</i>—Any receptacles for -earth which will -make a stable, compact pile, -such as boxes, baskets, cans, etc., may be used -for a revetment. Canvas or burlap stretched<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> -behind pickets is being used to a great extent on -the battle fronts of Europe. If the soil will make -adobe, an excellent revetment may be made of -them, but it will not stand wet weather.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_079.jpg" id="i_079.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" width="494" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 38.—Timber revetment.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">Working Parties</p> - - -<p>The infantryman will always be called upon to -construct the trench which he is to occupy. -Each company is provided with portable tools, -which the men carry, and each infantry regiment -is provided with tools for the purpose. The -digging tools consist of picks and shovels.</p> - -<p>When it has been decided to locate fire trenches -along a certain line officers will lay out the cutting -lines and mark them with tape or otherwise. A -company will be assigned for the construction of -a definite section of the trench.</p> - -<p>Let us work out the procedure, assuming that -the work may go on unmolested by the enemy. -Such, however, is not usually the case. The -enemy will do anything in his power to prevent -construction work. If, however, we are familiar -with the details of the work and know how to go -about it in an orderly and systematic manner -under conditions of noninterference by the -enemy, we will be able to carry out these details -of organization and procedure under more or -less trying conditions when the time comes.</p> - -<p>Officers have established the trace of the trench -and marked the cutting lines. It is the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> -traversed type, 18 feet bays with traverses 5 -feet wide and 5 feet deep, as shown in Plate 14.</p> - -<p>The company is composed of, say twelve -squads organized into three platoons of four -squads each. Six bays of the trench have been -assigned to the organization for construction. -This gives a task to each platoon of two bays, -including one complete traverse and a half -traverse on each flank.</p> - -<p>Tools have been issued to the first and third -squads of each platoon, the front rank men -carrying picks and the rear rank men shovels.</p> - -<p>The company is marched in column of squads -to the site of the trench, approaching it from the -rear, and halted with the head of the column -fifteen paces in rear of and opposite the right of -the section assigned; that is, in rear of the first -bay of the section. The second platoon is then -conducted by the platoon commander and halted -with its head opposite the third bay. The -third platoon is in like manner conducted to the -rear of the fifth bay. Each platoon commander -then has the two rear squads of his platoon, -conducted to a point behind the bay on his left, -<i>i. e.</i>, the second, fourth and sixth respectively. -This allows two squads for the work in each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> -bay, the leading squad furnishing the first relief -and the rear squad the second.</p> - -<p>The leading squad of each column is then -marched to a point two paces in rear of the rear -cutting line of the trench, where they take off -their packs and lay their rifles on them. The -corporal and his rear rank man fall out. The -corporal assigns tasks, number ones to the first -2-yard section, number twos to the second and -number threes the third.</p> - -<p>The tasks are shown in Plate 39. The corporal -superintends the work. Number 4 rear rank -marks out the cutting lines with his shovel -around the traverses and starts work on them.</p> - -<p>Experience has shown that the best method of -dividing up the work is to group the men in -pairs, one man with a pick and one with a shovel -and to prescribe that they relieve each other.</p> - -<p>The leading squads assigned to each bay work -at top speed for 30 minutes. At the end of the -twenty-eighth minute the corporal of the rear -squad brings his men up and deploys them. At a -signal from the platoon commander the men of -the first and third squads drop their tools, get -out of the trench, and proceed to the rear, where -they rest. The men of the second and fourth -squads jump into the trench and take up the -task. At the end of another 30 minutes this -procedure is again carried out.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_083.jpg" id="i_083.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_083.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="216" /> - <p class="caption"><i>PLATE 39.<br /> - ORGANIZATION OF A WORKING PARTY</i></p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> - -<p>This scheme of assigning tasks and procedure -was given an exhaustive test in 1915 in the course -of testing out various types of intrenching tools. -It worked to perfection.</p> - -<p>The bays are first completed, after which the -traverses begun by No. 4 rear rank are finished -up. Great care should be taken to make the -dimensions of the trench as accurate as possible. -The squad leader is held responsible for this. -He should provide himself with two sticks. On -one the following lengths are laid off: 1 foot, -width of berms, and height of parapet; 1 foot 4 -inches, width of firing banquet, height of firing -banquet above bottom of trench, and width of -bottom of trench. The other stick has the following -lengths measured on it: 4 feet, depth of trench -from ground surface to the top of firing banquet; -5 feet 4 inches, depth of trench from ground -surface to bottom of trench. (See Plate 15 for -dimensions of standing trench.)</p> - -<p>When the circumstances are such that the -work of trench construction is interfered with by -the enemy, a modification of the system outlined -here will have to be made, but the details should -be adhered to as closely as possible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> - -<p>When night work is necessary the trace should -be staked out before complete darkness sets in. -If the trace can only be made after dark, visible -reference points needed with white paper, white -tape or screened flashlights may be utilized. -Stick to the details of the deployment, the laying -out of tasks and the procedure as indicated for -day work as closely as possible. Avoid making -any more noise than is absolutely necessary; -allow no smoking and require such conversation -as is necessary to be made in whispers. Protect -the workers by a system of patrols to the front.</p> - -<p>Noncommissioned officers are held responsible -for a systematic and orderly execution of the -work being performed by their units. The captain -cannot be everywhere along the line. He -has to depend upon the platoon and squad -leaders in the work. That is why you should -study it and know about it so as to be able to -make good when the time comes.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">Grenade Warfare</p> - - -<p>The use of hand grenades as an implement of -warfare dates back many centuries. History -records their use as far back as 1536. Up to the -close of the eighteenth century soldiers were -trained in the throwing of hand grenades, and -for this reason were called "grenadiers." At -first there were a few in each regiment, later -entire companies were formed, and finally each -infantry unit that corresponds to our battalion -of today had its own grenadier unit.</p> - -<p>Then there was a period of time when more -open formations were adopted, when there was -less opportunity for the employment of grenades -and their use was practically eliminated from the -battlefield and confined to sieges, where they -have been used more or less since the dawn of -military history.</p> - -<p>With the advent of the Russo-Japanese War -came the extensive use of trenches on the battlefield, -and with the trenches came the hand -grenades which were used in large quantities by -both sides. This was especially the case when -the fighting lines came to close quarters and in -the assaults against the forts at Port Arthur.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> - -<p>When the European war resolved itself into -trench warfare, such as it is today, the use of -hand-thrown projectiles assumed an importance -heretofore never attained, and today we find -ourselves employing hand grenades in every -phase of the conflict.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Employment of Grenadiers</p> - -<p>Grenadiers are employed on both the offensive -and defensive. They accompany the attacking -lines in the advance on the enemy's positions, -they clear the fire trenches and communication -trenches after parts of the enemy's lines have -been taken, and on the defense they assist the -riflemen in repelling attack and engage the enemy -whenever he has obtained a lodgment in the -trenches.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Organization</div> - -<p>While every infantryman -receives a certain amount of -instruction in grenade throwing, -there should be a grenadier squad in each -platoon specially instructed and trained in this -most effective auxiliary method of trench warfare. -Not all men possess the temperament and -qualifications necessary to make efficient grenadiers. -Hence the personnel of the grenadier -squad should be carefully selected. Strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> -physique, personal courage and steadiness in -emergencies are the qualifications that count. -Men fond of outdoor sports, other things being -equal, will be found the best.</p> - -<p>The grenadier squad is organized as follows:</p> - -<p><i>Front Rank.</i></p> - -<p class="noindent"> -<span class="padding2">No. 1. First bayonet man.</span><br /> -<span class="padding2">No. 2. Second bayonet man.</span><br /> -<span class="padding2">No. 3. Grenade thrower.</span><br /> -<span class="padding2">No. 4. Squad leader, observer and director.</span> -</p> - -<p><i>Rear Rank.</i></p> - -<p class="noindent"> -<span class="padding2">No. 1. First carrier.</span><br /> -<span class="padding2">No. 2. Second carrier.</span><br /> -<span class="padding2">No. 3. Barricader.</span><br /> -<span class="padding2">No. 4. Barricader.</span> -</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Duties</div> - -<p>The duties of the several -members of the squad vary -under different circumstances -of their tactical employment which will be fully -explained below. In general they are as follows:</p> - -<p><i>Bayonet Men.</i>—The bayonet men move in -advance of the grenade throwers. When the -grenade thrower has thrown his grenades into -the objective trench the bayonet men must be -ready to take instant advantage of the temporary -demoralization of the enemy caused by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> -explosions and clear the way for a repetition of -the operation.</p> - -<p><i>Grenade Thrower.</i>—The grenade thrower must -be ready and able to throw a grenade at once -whenever the bayonet men or squad leader may -direct.</p> - -<p><i>Squad Leader.</i>—The squad leader directs the -operations of the squad. He goes wherever his -presence is necessary. He keeps a close watch -to the flanks. He replaces casualties and attends -to the forwarding of grenades to the thrower. -He acts as a grenade thrower whenever he can -assist the operations in that capacity.</p> - -<p><i>Carriers.</i>—The carriers carry as many grenades -as possible, and when their supply is exhausted -they go to the reserve depots and replenish. -They are responsible for a continuous supply of -grenades to the throwers.</p> - -<p><i>Barricaders.</i>—The barricaders are charged -with the construction of barricades. They carry -sandbags and tools for filling them. In addition -they carry as many grenades as possible. They -hold themselves in readiness to go forward and -construct a barricade or cover at any point -designated by the squad leader.</p> - -<p><i>General.</i>—All the men of the squad must be -trained and prepared to take over the duties of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> -any other member. Before undertaking any -operation each man of the squad should -thoroughly understand the part he is to play in it.</p> - -<p><i>Formation.</i>—The formation for the several -classes of tactical employment will be explained -when each is considered below.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Offensive Operations</p> - -<p>When it has been decided to attack a certain -sector of the enemy's position a detailed reconnaissance -is made with a view to locating and -developing every element of the position, detailed -plans are made and imparted to all concerned. -(See Chapter XI.)</p> - -<p>The phases of the attack consist of: (1) The -artillery preparation; (2) the infantry assault; -(3) the occupation and organization of the -captured position, and preparation to meet a -counter attack.</p> - -<p>During the course of the artillery preparation -grenadier squads work their way across "no -man's land" and establish themselves sufficiently -close to throw grenades into the fire trenches. -Failing in this they accompany the assaulting -troops.</p> - -<p>When they are able to work up close they cover -the advance of the infantry assaulting lines by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> -showering grenades into the enemy's fire trenches -after the curtain of artillery fire has been extended -back into his position to prevent the supports -and reserves from coming up to the front.</p> - -<p>All men of the squad carry as many grenades -as possible and such number as the squad -leader may designate act as throwers, while the -others act as carriers and prepare the grenades -for throwing. Accurate throwing, properly observed -and distributed, will greatly assist in -preparing for a successful assault.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Clearing Fire Trenches</p> - -<p>No matter how well the infantry assault on the -enemy's fire trenches may be conducted, it rarely -succeeds in occupying the hostile position -throughout its entire length. Casualties, loss -of direction, and unexpected obstacles encountered -are bound to break up the assaulting line -more or less, thereby leaving gaps in the captured -position. Furthermore the attack on a line -of trenches takes place on a relatively small -front by a large number of men. When the -trenches are finally reached and a lodgment -effected there will be great overcrowding. -Provision must be made immediately for -extending the line, otherwise the casualties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> -at these points will be exceedingly heavy.</p> - -<p>It is the particular duty of the grenadier -squads to clear these "gaps" of the enemy as -quickly as possible. For this purpose an efficient -and well-organized storming party must be immediately -available.</p> - -<p>Let us say that, after careful artillery preparation, -the assault has reached the enemy's fire -trench. There is much overcrowding at the -points where lodgments have been effected. -There is a gap in the line between two adjacent -elements. How is this cleared of the enemy?</p> - -<p>The grenadier squad immediately forms for -action. Two bayonet men are in the lead, -followed by the grenade thrower, who is in turn -followed by the two carriers. Further to the -rear are the two barricaders, who carry a reserve -supply of grenades in addition to their sandbags -and shovels. The squad leader is where he can -best direct the operations.</p> - -<p>The grenadier squad is formed as shown in -the <i>first position</i>, Plate 40.</p> - -<p>1. The grenade thrower puts grenades: (1) -into bay 1, at <i>A</i>; (2) into bay 2, at <i>D</i>; (3) into -bay 1, at <i>B</i>; (4) into the traverse leg at <i>C</i>.</p> - -<p>2. When the four grenades have exploded the -bayonet men rush into bay 1, the leader advancing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> -into the first leg of the traverse trench below -<i>B</i>, while his mate remains in the bay for a -moment.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_093.jpg" id="i_093.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" /> - <p class="caption"><i>PLATE 40.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p>3. The squad leader rushes around the traverse -to <i>A</i>, followed by the grenade thrower.</p> - -<p>4. When the bay and the next traverse passages -are all cleared of the enemy the word -"O. K." is passed back to the squad leader by -the bayonet men. The bayonet men get into -their proper positions and the remainder of the -squad rush into the cleared bay 1 and prepare -for the further clearing of succeeding bays in the -same manner as described above.</p> - -<p>Take the diagram on Plate 40. Study it out -in connection with the text and you will see -how this system works out.</p> - -<p>The men work in pairs, the two bayonet men -together; the two carriers behind the thrower; -the two barricaders sufficiently far to the rear -to be protected by a corner of solid earth. The -squad leader must of necessity go where his -presence is necessary. Usually he stays as near -the grenade thrower as possible.</p> - -<p>When the enemy's grenadier parties are also -very active in the sector, the distances between -pairs are extended so that no more than two -men are exposed in any one bay or traverse leg.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> - -<p>The formation of the squad must be preserved -as long as possible. You will appreciate that -when losses occur the squad leader will have to -replace men and the formation will have to be -modified to meet the changed conditions. This -makes it absolutely necessary that every member -of the squad be competent to take over the -duties of any other member.</p> - -<p>When the squad has reached the limit of its -advance the barricaders will come forward and -construct a barricade in such position that it is -well in view from a corner some distance behind.</p> - -<p>No passing of bombs forward from man to -man is permitted. When the first carrier's -supply is exhausted he returns to the rear to -secure a fresh supply from the reserve grenade -carriers who are following the grenade squad, -and who have by now advanced to a point where -their supply is available. As soon as his supply -is replenished he returns to his proper position -in the formation. Should the second carrier -run out of grenades the squad leader may cause -one of the barricaders to take all the grenades in -the possession of the two and replace him while -he goes to the rear to secure a fresh supply.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_095.jpg" id="i_095.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" width="390" height="600" /> - <p class="caption">Illustration: PLATE 41<br /> - Combat in a Communicating Trench</p> -</div> - - -<p>In the meantime other grenadier squads are -clearing out the communication and supervision<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> -trenches, blocking up the exits to dugouts and -destroying machine-gun detachments that have -thus far escaped. The assaulting troops have -passed on towards the second line, covered by -the curtain of fire of the artillery.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Clearing Communication Trenches</p> - -<p>The clearing of communication trenches is -effected much in the same manner as explained -for the fire trench. The grenadier squad is -organized and formed in the same manner. The -squad works its way into the communication -trench by bombing each leg until they arrive at -a point where the formation, as illustrated in -Plate 41, can be assumed. The grenade thrower -throws grenades into the trench at <i>B</i> and then -at <i>C</i>. As soon as these have exploded the bayonet -men take advantage of the confusion to -advance into the leg <i>A-B</i> under cover of the -shoulder <i>b</i>, the squad leader and thrower advance -to <i>A</i>, the carriers to the point formerly -occupied by the squad leader, and the barricaders -to the point formerly occupied by the -carriers. The thrower then puts grenades into -the trench at <i>C</i> and then at <i>D</i>, after which the -whole squad advances another notch as formerly -explained.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p> - -<p>Where island traverses are encountered the -thrower puts a grenade on each side of the -traverse and one in the rear of it. The bayonet -men, one on a side, assault around the traverse -and meet on the far side, and the operation proceeds -as heretofore explained.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Night Operations</p> - -<p>The grenadier squads may be called upon at -night, to perform any of the services that are -theirs by day, and in addition may be called -upon to make night reconnaissances. For this -work the men must be able to organize and reorganize -the squad quickly and noiselessly. -The throwers must be particularly efficient. -There must be the highest order of team work.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Grenadier Patrols</div> - -<p>Grenadier patrols are sent -out at night to make reconnaissances -of the enemy's lines -with a view to getting information -which may include:</p> - -<p>1. Location and organization of line.</p> - -<p>2. The length of line occupied.</p> - -<p>3. Numbers and disposition of occupying troops.</p> - -<p>4. To get an accurate description of the ground.</p> - -<p>5. To locate observation and listening posts -or any other advanced positions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> - -<p>6. To locate machine guns.</p> - -<p>These patrols may consist of from two men to -the entire grenadier squad. In a patrol of six -or eight men two of them carry rifles and belts, -bayonets fixed. The remaining members of the -patrol carry no equipment except a haversack -filled with grenades. The grenades are used -only in case of emergency. It is a reconnoitering -patrol charged with gaining information and -therefore does not enter into an encounter with -the enemy except as a last resort.</p> - -<p>The men move or crawl without noise and -take advantage of all cover that the ground -affords. If they suspect they are observed, -they should "freeze" to the ground and remain -absolutely motionless. On dark nights it is -easy to lose the direction and for the men to -lose one another. Every device or scheme to -lessen risks in this respect must be employed. -The men may tie themselves lightly together so -they will not proceed in a bunch and at the same -time retain connection with each other.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Notes on Grenade Warfare</p> - -<p>The first step in the training of a grenadier is -to overcome his fear of the grenade itself. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> -is accomplished by first having him practice fuse -lighting with dummy grenades having live fuses. -The men will be impressed with the fact that the -grenades are dangerous weapons and that familiarity -in handling them must not be permitted -to degenerate into carelessness.</p> - -<p>The next step towards efficiency is the development -of accuracy of throwing. For short -distances it may be lobbed from the shoulder -by a motion similar to "putting the shot." -Stick grenades may be thrown for a short distance -like throwing a dart. In the trenches the -grenade should be thrown with an overhand -motion like the bowler of a cricket ball, as there -is danger of exploding them by knocking the -hand against the back of the trench.</p> - -<p>The men should be taught to throw from all -positions—standing, sitting, kneeling and prone.</p> - -<p>Should the grenade with a time fuse be dropped -in the act of throwing, there is time to pick it up -and throw it out of the trench before it explodes. -Under no circumstances must it be allowed to -explode in the trench.</p> - -<p>Communication throughout the squad in action -should be maintained at all times. System -is required to insure the throwers having a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> -supply of grenades on hand all the time and that -casualties are promptly replaced.</p> - -<p>Quick action is essential to success. Crawling -and stalking give the enemy what he is waiting -for.</p> - -<p>Arrangements to assist a storming party by -rifle and machine-gun fire are of the utmost -value and should be provided whenever possible. -Care must be taken to provide a signal which -will mark the progress of the storming party -through the trenches. A helmet held up on a -bayonet will do this.</p> - -<p>All grenadiers must be especially trained in -the filling of sandbags and making sandbag -barricades.</p> - -<p>The work of the observer is difficult and requires -much practice. He must give his directions -to the thrower in no uncertain terms. -When the thrower has missed his objective the -observer will give positive directions for the -next throw. Instead of saying "A yard too -much to the left," he will say, "Throw a yard -to the right." Positive directions, even if only -half heard, are of some use; negative directions -are certain to be both confused and confusing. -The observer should be expert in the use of the -periscope.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Hand Grenades and Petards</p> - -<p>The hand grenade used by our allies on the -western front is the bracelet grenade with -automatic firing mechanism and consists of a -ball of cast iron filled with an explosive and of a -leather bracelet which is fastened to the wrist. -To the bracelet is attached a piece of rope about -30 centimeters long, having an iron hook at its -end.</p> - -<p>Just before the grenade is thrown, the hook is -engaged in the ring of the roughened wire of the -friction primer placed inside the fuse plug which -closes the cast iron ball. When the grenade is -thrown, the ring with the primer wire, held back -by the hook of the bracelet, is wrenched off by a -sudden movement of withdrawal from the wrist -and the fuse is fired. The explosion takes place -four or five seconds later.</p> - -<p>This grenade is supplied to the fighting zone -ready for use. It is quite complicated. It can -be thrown about 25 meters.</p> - -<p>The German grenade is composite; it can be -thrown by hand or fired from a rifle. As a hand -missile, it is used at short distances, 15 to 20 -meters. It is composed of a copper rod to the -extremity of which is fixed a cast iron cylinder,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> -grooved to facilitate its breaking into small -pieces at the moment of explosion. The explosive -is placed inside this cylinder. A copper -tube, also containing some explosive, is placed in -the interior. It is surmounted by a complicated -system for closing the grenade and for automatic -ignition by percussion, which results in at least -50 per cent of misfires.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_101.jpg" id="i_101.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="293" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41b.—British hand grenade No. 1. -</p> - -<table style="width:250px" id="GRENADE_1" summary="BRITISH HAND GRENADE"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="c1 smaller"> <i>a.</i> Removable cap.</td> - <td class="c1 smaller"> <i>f.</i> Handle.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1 smaller"><i>b.</i> Detonator holder.</td> - <td class="c1 smaller"><i>g.</i> Safety pin.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1 smaller"><i>c.</i> Detonator.</td> - <td class="c1 smaller"><i>h.</i> Firing pin.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1 smaller"><i>d.</i> Explosive charge.</td> - <td class="c1 smaller"><i>i.</i> Cast iron ring.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="c1 smaller"><i>e.</i> Wood block.</td> - <td class="c1 smaller"><i>j.</i> Streamer.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_102.jpg" id="i_102.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="271" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41c.—The latest type - British hand grenade.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="columns2 smaller"> - -<i>a.</i> Percussion cap.<br /> - -<i>b.</i> Firing pin.<br /> - -<i>c.</i> Safety pin. When in place -prevents firing pin from striking -primer. It is removed just before -throwing the grenade.<br /> - -<i>d.</i> Primer.<br /> - -<i>e.</i> Chamber filled with high explosive.<br /> - -<i>f.</i> Cast iron shell, serrated.<br /> - -<i>g.</i> Wooden handle.<br /> - -<i>h.</i> Streamers, to keep the grenade head-on. -</div> - -<p>Used with the rifle, this grenade has a maximum -range of 400 meters. At the extremity opposite -the grenade, the copper rod ends in a copper -stem about 3 centimeters in length, movable -about the axis of the rod. This stem is covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> -with a copper sleeve of slight thickness, which is -attached to it only at the extremity fastened to -the rod. The diameter of the exterior of the -sleeve must be such that it can be pushed into -the gun barrel without pressure. To fire the -grenade, a blank cartridge is placed in the -chamber of the rifle; the quantity of powder left -in the cartridge is regulated according to the -distance at which the missile is to be thrown. At -the moment of firing, the explosive gases penetrate -between the sleeve and the stem and jam -the sleeve against the grooves of the barrel. -The sleeve and the stem, which is attached to it, -take a movement of rotation in the grooves of -the barrel, which insures the direction of the -missile and the maximum efficiency of the explosive -gases of the cartridge.</p> - -<p>The bracelet grenade and the German grenade -just described have to be made in a factory. -Attempts have been made to construct similar -missiles with the explosives which are at hand at -the front, cheddite and melinite. Several kinds -have been made: a primed cartridge and a primed -hand petard, fitted on a wooden paddle, a preserved -meat tin can filled with explosive, etc.</p> - -<p>The Germans have hand petards similar to -those of the Allies but with different explosives.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> -These missiles are primed by a detonator and a -slow match and can be thrown about 30 meters. -The discharge takes place either automatically -or by tinder. They are made on the spot and -very rapidly. The assaulting troops carry them -in baskets or strung on a circle of wire carried on -the shoulder.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_104.jpg" id="i_104.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="382" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41d.—Throwing hand grenades.</p> -</div> - -<p>Grenades and petards constitute a terrible -weapon. These projectiles exert considerable -moral effect owing to the violence of their explosion -and the awful wounds they occasion, and -they make it possible to reach the enemy at points -where it is impossible to use the rifle and bayonet.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">Gas Warfare</p> - - -<p>Germany first made use of poisonous and asphyxiating -gases on the field of battle. It has -become an accepted element in the present war. -Every soldier should, therefore, have a knowledge -of the various ways in which gas is employed -in the attack, as well as the measures to be -taken to counteract its effect in the defense.</p> - -<p>The two methods of disseminating the gas -over the battlefield are by emanation and -grenades charged with it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Emanation</div> - -<p>This method has for its object -to create a poisonous or -irritant atmosphere. This is -accomplished by means of the arsenic and -phosphorous gas being forced through tubes in -the direction of the enemy or by means of -liquefied chlorine, bromide, phosgene and sulphuretted -hydrogen gas stored in cylinders under -high pressure. To be successful the gas attack -must be attended by the following conditions.</p> - -<p>1. The weather must be comparatively calm -with a wind blowing in the direction of the enemy -at about 5 miles an hour. If the wind is too -strong the gas will be carried over the enemy's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> -trenches so rapidly that it will not settle in them. -If the wind is too light the gas will be carried up -into the air and disseminate or may even be -blown back into our own trenches, in which case -chloride of lime scattered about freely will disperse -them.</p> - -<p>2. There must be no rain, for that would -quickly disseminate the gas and negative the -effect.</p> - -<p>3. The attack must come as a surprise. If -the elements of surprise are missing and the -enemy has time to take protective measures, the -effect is lost. If the surprise is complete, the -enemy trenches should be emptied very quickly.</p> - -<p>4. The gas used must be heavier than the air, -so that it will sift into the enemy's trenches as it -passes them. It is impracticable to decide upon -any definite hour for launching the gas attack. -Everything depends upon the direction and -velocity of the wind. If an hour has been tentatively -designated and the wind changes, the -attack will have to be postponed.</p> - -<p>When an assault follows the gas attack the -men should wear the smoke helmets for at least -30 minutes after the dissemination has ceased; -in fact they must not be removed until the order -to do so is given by the officer commanding the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> -attack. You will appreciate that the enemy's -machine gunners may have better protection -than the men in the bays of the trenches.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Shell and Grenade Method</div> - -<p>In this method the gas dissemination -is effected by means -of shells or bombs being fired -into the enemy's trenches containing -the desired substances -which are released and give off irritant fumes on -explosion. The grenades used weigh about 1 -pound. They are similar in appearance to the -ordinary tin can grenade. Their effect in a trench -will continue for 20 to 30 minutes. In the attack -a large number should be concentrated in a -particular area to produce a large volume of gas. -They are thrown by hand, trench mortar or -catapult.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Defense</div> - -<p>Surprise must be guarded -against in every possible way. -The direction of the wind -must be continually watched, and when its -velocity and direction are specially favorable -the protective measures must be kept ready for -instant use and special observers posted. Previous -to an attack the enemy may remain comparatively -quiet for several days. Noises like -the moving of sheet iron may be heard. Preparations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> -may be observed along the position. -When the attack starts a hissing noise is heard; -this latter is one of the indications that may be -evident at night.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Helmets</div> - -<p>Each man on duty in the -trenches is provided with two -smoke helmets, specially devised -and constructed so as to absorb the gas -and neutralize its effect, and which if properly -cared for and used will provide complete protection -from any substance likely to be used by the -enemy. They are fitted with a valve tube -through which to breathe and with goggles to -see through. There are certain rules prescribed -for their care and use.</p> - -<p>1. They must not be removed from the protective -covering except for actual use against an -attack.</p> - -<p>2. When the helmet has been used once it -should be replaced by a new one.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Dummy Helmets</div> - -<p>Dummy gas helmets will be -provided in each organization -by which the men may be -practiced in putting them on. -The men must be thoroughly drilled in the -methods to be employed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> - -<p>The following directions accompany the helmets -issued to the British Army. When our -helmets are issued it is probable that each will -be accompanied by a complete set of rules for -its use and full instructions for the method of -getting into it and for its care and preservation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_109.jpg" id="i_109.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" width="538" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41e.—Gas helmet.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Direction for Use and Care of Tube Helmets</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Description</div> - -<p>These helmets are the same -as the smoke helmet already -issued, except that stronger -chemicals are added and a tube valve provided -through which to breathe out. The tube valve -makes the helmet cooler and saves chemicals -from being affected by the breath. The wearer -cannot breathe <i>in</i> through the tube valve; this -is intended for breathing <i>out</i> only.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Directions for Use</div> - -<p>Remove paper cap from -mouthpiece of tube valve. -Remove service cap. Pull helmet -over head. Adjust so -that goggles are over eyes. Tuck in skirt of -helmet under coat collar and button coat so as -to close in skirt of helmet. Hold the tube -lightly in lips or teeth like stem of pipe, so as -to be able to breathe in past it and out through it.</p> - -<p><i>Breathe in through mouth and nose, using the -air inside the helmet. Breathe out through tube only.</i></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Directions for Care of Tube Helmet</div> - -<p>1. Do not remove the helmet -from its waterproof case -except to use for protection -against gas.</p> - -<p>2. Never use your tube -helmet for practice or drill. Special helmets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> -are kept in each company for instruction only.</p> - -<p>Should the goggles become misty during use -they can be cleared by rubbing them gently -against the forehead.</p> - -<p>When lacrimatory gases are used goggles -affording mechanical protection may be worn, -as these gases are not likely to irritate the lungs, -though they sometimes produce sickness.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Improvised Methods</div> - -<p>If a soldier does not possess -one of the official pattern -respirators, the following measures -will be found useful:</p> - -<p>1. Wet and wring out any woolen article, such -as a stocking or muffler, so as to form a thick pad -large enough to cover the nose and mouth, and -press firmly over both.</p> - -<p>2. Place in a scarf, stocking or handkerchief, -a pad of about three handfuls of earth, preferably -damp, and tie it firmly over the mouth and nose.</p> - -<p>3. A wet cloth pulled down over the eyes will -be found useful as additional protection, especially -against certain gases other than chlorine or when -the gas is too strong for the ordinary respirator.</p> - -<p>4. A stocking, wetted with water and soda -solution or tea, folded into eight folds and -firmly held or tied over the nose.</p> - -<p>5. A sock folded fourfold similarly wetted and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> -held or tied. If the sock or comforter has been -soaked in soda solution it will still act efficiently -when dry, though, if possible, it should be moist. -The spare tapes from puttees may be used for -tying on the sock.</p> - -<p>6. Any loose fabric, such as a sock, sandbag, -woolen scarf or comforter, soaked in urine, then -wrung out to allow of free breathing and tied -tightly over the nose and mouth.</p> - -<p>In the absence of any other cloths, the flannel -waistbands issued for winter use could be used -for this purpose.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Knapsack Sprayers</div> - -<p>Knapsack sprayers are issued -for use to clear gases out -of the trenches after the cloud -has blown over. A man with -the sprayer on his back (and wearing his smoke -helmet) slowly traverses the trench, working -the spray. If this is not done the heavy poisonous -gas may linger in the trench for days and -be a source of great danger.</p> - -<p>If supports or reinforcements enter a trench -charged with gas, they should be preceded by a -man using a sprayer.</p> - -<p>Sprayers are charged with sodium thiosulphate—more -commonly known as "hypo"—6<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> -pounds being dissolved in a bucket of water and -a handful of ordinary washing soda added.</p> - -<p>Garden syringes and buckets may be used if -sprayers are not available, but these are not so -effective. Sprayers should be charged before -they are taken up to the trenches, and should -be kept ready for immediate use.</p> - -<p>Every officer defending a trench against an -enemy gas attack should endeavor to collect -information whenever possible, to be sent to -headquarters through the usual channels. Particularly -valuable is the capture of apparatus -used by the enemy either for disseminating gas -or for protection against it. If a shell attack is -made, unexploded shells or portions of them -should be sent through to headquarters at once. -The time of day, duration of attack, color, taste -or smell of gas used, effect on the eyes, breathing, -and all other symptoms should be noted. New -gases may be used at any time, and speedy information -greatly forwards the adoption of preventive -measures.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">Service in the Trenches</p> - - -<div class="sidenote">Preparations for Entering Trenches</div> - -<p>Preparing to enter upon a -period of service in the trenches -the company commander -makes a complete inspection -of the company which includes:</p> - -<p>1. Inspection of rifles and ammunition.</p> - -<p>2. Inspection of equipment, contents of packs, -intrenching tools, field glasses, wire cutters, first-aid -packets, emergency rations, gas helmets, -identification tags, canteens, clothing, etc.</p> - -<p>3. Canteens to be filled with water.</p> - -<p>4. Test bayonets, fix and unfix.</p> - -<p>5. Have company fill magazines.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Inspection of Section</div> - -<p>The company commander -precedes the company into -the trenches and makes a tour -and inspection of the section -assigned, which includes:</p> - -<p>1. Layout of the trenches: fire trench, supervision -trench, communication trenches, machine-gun -positions, snipers' positions, listening and -observation trenches, dugouts, latrines, etc.</p> - -<p>2. Locate telephones, reserve ammunition and -munitions depots, water supply, gas alarms,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> -tools and any trench accessories and utilities that -may be included in the section.</p> - -<p>3. Get any information of the enemy that may -be of value from the outgoing company commander.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Tactical Disposition</div> - -<p>The company commander -will then make his tactical -dispositions. In occupying -the trenches a certain section -of the line is assigned to each company. This -section contains so many bays of the trench. -The following dispositions are suggested as -meeting the requirements under our organization:</p> - -<p>1. The company is organized into four platoons -of four squads each.</p> - -<p>2. The section of the line assigned to the -company contains eight bays.</p> - -<p>3. Support No. 1 consists of the first and second -platoons.</p> - -<p>4. Support No. 2 consists of the third and -fourth platoons.</p> - -<p>5. From Support No. 1: Two squads of the -first platoon occupy bays 1 and 2; two squads of -the second platoon occupy bays 3 and 4.</p> - -<p>6. From Support No. 2: Two squads of the -third platoon occupy bays 5 and 6; two squads -of the fourth platoon occupy bays 7 and 8.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_116.jpg" id="i_116.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_116.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="245" /> - <p class="caption">Plate 41f.<br /> - Tactical dispositions<br /> - One company of infantry.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> - -<p>7. Each squad establishes a double sentinel -post in the bay assigned to it and the remaining -members go into the squad shelters just in rear -of the bays. This gives three reliefs for a double -sentinel post and allows one extra man to be -utilized as "runner," etc.</p> - -<p>8. The remainder of the company is established -in the company dugouts.</p> - -<p>9. Depending upon the length of the tours of -duty of the company in the first line trenches, -the squads are changed according to a system -that will have to be varied to suit the occasion, -the squads in support taking their place in the -fire trench and those in the fire trench returning -to the support.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Going into the Trenches</div> - -<p>Platoons enter by not more -than two squads at one time, -thus minimizing the danger -from shell fire. The platoon -commander will explain to his squad leaders the -extent of trench to be taken over and the action -to be taken in case they are caught under shell -fire or rapid fire while going up to the trenches. -A second in command in each squad will be -designated, so that if casualties occur among the -squad leaders the relief will proceed as previously -arranged.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> - -<p>The operation will proceed in silence. Rifles -must be carried so that they do not show over -the parapet. On reaching the fire trench the -men of the first relief are posted to relieve the -old detail and each man finds out any points -that may be useful from his predecessor on that -post.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Information to be Obtained</div> - -<p>The platoon commander -confers with the commander of -the outgoing party and secures -all the information possible -about the position which includes:</p> - -<p>1. Behavior of enemy during period preceding -relief, and any point in their line requiring special -information, <i>e. g.</i>, enemy may have cut wire as -though preparing to attack.</p> - -<p>2. Machine-gun emplacement may be suspected -at some particular point.</p> - -<p>3. Anything ascertained by patrols about -ground between firing lines, thus avoiding unnecessary -reconnaissance.</p> - -<p>4. Any standing arrangements for patrols at -night, including point at which wire can best be -passed, ground to be patrolled, or place where -they can lie under cover.</p> - -<p>5. Any parts of trench from which it is not safe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> -to fire. Such positions are apt to occur in winding -trenches, and are not always recognizable in -the dark.</p> - -<p>6. Special features of trench, recent improvements, -work not completed, dangerous points (on -which machine guns are trained at night), useful -loopholes for observation.</p> - -<p>7. Places from which food and water can be -safely obtained.</p> - -<p>8. Amount of ammunition, number of picks, -shovels and empty sandbags in that section of -the line.</p> - -<p>Information on these points cannot always be -given properly by word of mouth. <i>Written</i> notes -and plans should therefore be handed over to a -platoon commander taking over for the first -time.</p> - -<p>Every man is required to see that he has a good -firing position for all directions. Section commanders -must satisfy themselves that men have -done this, and report. <i>The whole line "Stands -to Arms" during the hour before dawn.</i></p> - -<p>After dark, unless the moon is bright, rifles -should be left in firing position on the parapet. -All men not on sentry should keep rifles, with -bayonets fixed, in the trench.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Routine</div> - -<p>1. Double sentinel posts are -established in each bay. They -are on post one hour at a time.</p> - -<p>2. When the enemy's trench mortar detachments -are active, special sentinels will be posted -to give notice of coming bombs.</p> - -<p>3. Every man in the platoon is to know:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The location of the platoon reserve ammunition -and munitions.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) The location of latrines.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) The topography of the trenches in the -platoon section and the adjoining sections, including -the approaches. The location of the -accessory defenses, listening and observation -posts, machine-gun positions, snipers' positions, -trench mortar positions, etc.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) The tactical disposition in the sector and -the general disposition of the company.</p> - -<p>(<i>e</i>) The location of loopholes.</p> - -<p>(<i>f</i>) The places of especial danger in order that -he may stay away from them.</p> - -<p>4. Rifles are inspected twice daily. Every precaution -is taken to keep the rifle and ammunition -free from mud.</p> - -<p>5. There is a gas helmet parade daily.</p> - -<p>6. Accurate sketches are made of the trench -and any addition or alteration entered on them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_121.jpg" id="i_121.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_121.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="328" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 42.<br /> - <i>Organization of fire of Observers in the Combat Trench</i></p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> - -<p>7. Loopholes are inspected at dusk.</p> - -<p>8. Wire entanglements are inspected and repaired -under cover of darkness.</p> - -<p>9. A log of events hour by hour should be kept -which shows every item of enemy activity and -the measures taken during the tour in the -trenches. This will be a valuable reference -when turning the trench over and will make a -record of the habits of the enemy that may be -most valuable as a guide for making plans to -circumvent him.</p> - -<p>10. The police and sanitation of the trenches -will be carefully looked after.</p> - -<p>11. Platoon commanders may divide the tour -of supervision of the platoon sector with the -squad leaders.</p> - -<p>12. The whole company stands to arms during -the hour before dawn.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Observation</div> - -<p>Observation of the enemy's -line should be continuous. -The observation and firing -system will be arranged so that all parts of the -enemy's line will be under observation and fire -at all times.</p> - -<p>Plate 42 shows the arrangement in general. -The appliances for carrying it out are shown in -Plates 43, 44 and 45.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_122.jpg" id="i_122.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_122.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="568" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 43.</p> -</div> - - -<p>The observation is conducted through a small -loophole made by a stick through the parapet -or an iron tube run through and directed toward -the point to be observed. To conceal the exit -a few tufts of earth and grass are placed there -in an irregular manner. Steel loopholes may -also be employed for observation and firing -purposes. They may be arranged a yard or two -apart, so that one man observing through one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> -can direct his mate using the rifle at the other -so that he may bring fire to bear upon any -member of the enemy's force that exposes himself -at the point under observation.</p> - -<p>The loopholes, both observation and firing, are -arranged slantwise in the parapet so that the -observer does not look straight to his front nor -does the firer fire in that direction.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_123.jpg" id="i_123.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_123.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="441" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 44.—Observation loophole and rifle firing rack.</p> -</div> - - -<p>An aiming rack constructed so as to resist the -recoil of the rifle and not derange its aim on -firing may be arranged near the observation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> -loophole. When the enemy exposes himself all -that is necessary is a press on the trigger and the -bullet goes straight to its mark. Such an aiming -rack may be easily constructed, as shown in -Plate 44.</p> - -<p>Observation of the enemy trenches may also -be effected by use of the periscope or, in the -absence of one of these, by a looking-glass in a -slanted position fastened to a stick planted at -the rear wall of the trench and protruding over -the parapet, to reflect his trenches. (See Plate 45.)</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Field Glasses</div> - -<p>The enemy's trench usually -appears completely deserted, -but on observing it through -field glasses you are astonished by the details -revealed. You will see, from time to time, the -eye of the enemy observer who shows himself -at the loophole, or any other activity that is -capable of being observed from the outside. -The observer watching through the field glasses -will soon become so familiar with the appearance -of the opposing trenches that he will be able to -detect immediately any alteration in the obstacles, -or changes that may be made, such as -the establishment of new listening or observation -posts, new sap heads, machine-gun emplacements, -etc.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> - -<p>Observers are charged especially with detecting -the location of machine-gun emplacements. -The examination should be so complete and -detailed as to prevent their existence without -their location being accurately known.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_125.jpg" id="i_125.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_125.jpg" alt="" width="591" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 45.—Looking-glass periscope.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i_126.jpg" id="i_126.jpg"></a> - <img src="images/i_126.jpg" alt="" width="351" height="600" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 45a.—Trench showing wire overhead - cover and wire trapdoor obstacle. Machicoulis gallery in background.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p> - -<p>Any observations of enemy activities, of any -nature whatever, are reported immediately so -that they may be passed on to the commander -whose unit is manning the trenches directly -opposite the same.</p> - -<p>Loopholes should be screened at the rear by -a sandbag split and hung over them. They -should be carefully concealed to prevent their -location being discovered by the enemy. There -must be no alteration in the parapet where -they are located.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Snipers</div> - -<p>The enemy's sojourn in the -trenches should be made as -disagreeable to him as possible. -He must be kept continually on the -alert. Our operations must be made a constant -menace to him. It is in this way that casualties -are effected and he is gradually worn out. -One of the best methods of accomplishing all of -the above is the employment of snipers, who are -specially selected and trained in this branch of -trench warfare.</p> - -<p>The snipers are on duty all day, but they have -their nights in bed. They conduct their operations -in pairs and are given a definite post to -occupy and in exceptional cases may be given -a roving commission. The advantage of having<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> -the same men regularly on the same post is that -they learn thoroughly the appearance of every -square foot of the ground included in their area -of observation and are able immediately to note -any change that may take place. They soon -learn where to look for the enemy and in fact -learn the habits, etc., of the enemy occupying -their sphere of observation.</p> - -<p>The sniper must be an expert in:</p> - -<p>1. The construction of loopholes by day and -by night.</p> - -<p>2. The use of telescopic sights, field glasses, -periscopes and all optical contrivances designed -for observation purposes.</p> - -<p>3. The selection of good positions for sniping.</p> - -<p>4. Judging distances and estimating or measuring -ranges.</p> - -<p>5. Rifle firing. He should be an expert -rifleman in order that full advantage may be -taken of the opportunities to inflict losses on -the enemy.</p> - -<p>6. In trench warfare each pair of snipers -will be required to report each evening to the -company commander the result of their day's -operations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">What to Fire At</div> - -<p>When the enemy makes his -attack you will generally fire -at those who appear in the -sector that has been allotted to -you to cover. You may, however, abandon -your target on your own initiative under the -following circumstances and fire:</p> - -<p>1. On officers and noncommissioned officers. -These can be recognized by their gestures. -They are generally in the center of groups and -get up and start first. They should be disabled, -as this is the surest way of breaking up the attack.</p> - -<p>2. At a group on the move. Fire should be -concentrated on an advancing group. The -time when the group is preparing to start its -rush may be indicated by rifles being raised -and the movements that take place along the -line. After a rush has started, look out for -the late comers trying to rejoin their comrades. -They make good targets.</p> - -<p>3. When the enemy attempts to build up his -line to the front by a process of infiltration. -That is, by having single men crawl from one -point to the other, each man should be fired on -during his advance.</p> - -<p>4. Fire will be immediately concentrated on -any machine gun that comes into action. With<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> -the German gun prolonged firing heats the water -in the jacket to the boiling point and puffs of -steam are given off. Do not be deceived into -thinking that this necessarily gives away the -position of the gun, for this steam has been -piped to a distant place and allowed to escape -so as to draw fire that otherwise might be directed -on the real position of the gun.</p> - -<p>5. On signallers or runners. These are carrying -information that will probably be of benefit -to the enemy's commander. You will appreciate -the necessity of preventing this.</p> - -<p>6. On an enemy showing a flank. No opportunity -must be lost to fire upon an enemy that -exposes his flank. The fire of a single rifleman -down the flank may cause a whole line to retreat.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Use of Rifle Grenades</div> - -<p>Rifle grenades are capable -of causing more losses to the -enemy than bombardment. -The rifle grenade arrives at -its destination unexpectedly without any noise; -it explodes before one has even time to get out -of the way. As it does not arrive at fixed hours -like the bombardment, the enemy cannot continually -avoid it by taking refuge in his dugouts -and shelters; when he is moving about a trench -which is subject to rifle grenading he must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> -continually on the alert. This perpetual menace, -hour in and hour out, day in and day out, renders -his sojourn in the trenches extremely disagreeable.</p> - -<p>Before rifle grenades are thrown careful observation -of the opposing trench must have been -made to determine the point where the grenade -is likely to do the greatest damage.</p> - -<p>Rifles are placed in the aiming racks and the -grenades fired from time to time, day and night, -at moments when it seems propitious. In this -way a sentinel may be taken by surprise; a -noncommissioned officer or officer may be -caught unawares.</p> - -<p>It should be remembered that we will probably -be able to throw twenty grenades to the -enemy's one. Advantage should always be -taken of this munitions superiority. Every man -of the enemy we can put out of action is one less -to kill us in the advance which will eventually -come. Sometimes the enemy will try to reply. -Here is where our munitions superiority comes -in again. We can fairly shower him with -grenades and make him take to his shelters.</p> - -<p>It may be advisable to execute a sudden -burst of grenade fire. This is started by a -volley and followed by fire at will.</p> - -<p>When the artillery has destroyed parts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> -enemy's trenches or makes breaches in his -obstacles by day he will endeavor to repair -them at night. He may be considerably annoyed -and losses inflicted upon him by a well-directed -shower of rifle grenades arriving at -points where his working parties are located. -To make this effective the rifle racks should be -placed in position and secured during the day -after trial shots have demonstrated conclusively -the direction and angle for them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Shelling</div> - -<p>You will be impressed by the -shells, especially the big ones. -The din and blast of the -explosions are, to say the least, terrifying. But -you will soon come to know that the shell often -makes more noise than it does harm and that, -after a terrific bombardment, by no means is -everybody destroyed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How to Protect Yourself from Shells</div> - -<p>The big shell, which is so -appalling, is only really dangerous -if it falls on the place -where a man is standing, because -the splinters rise in the -air. Fall down flat when the shell bursts. -Even if you are quite close, there is comparatively -little risk. Get up immediately after the -explosion, especially if you are 200 to 300 yards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> -away from the place where it burst. The -splinters do not fall for some time after the -explosion.</p> - -<p>The steel helmets and the infantry pack will -furnish considerable protection from shrapnel -fragments and balls.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">During the Combat</div> - -<p>The safest place to avoid -the enemy's shell fire when -the attack has been launched -is close up to the enemy's -position, where the artillery fire has to cease for -fear of placing shells indiscriminately in his own -troops and ours. Some men, completely distracted, -lie down with their face to the ground. -They will be crushed where they lie. Artillery -fire, when it is violent, tends to throw the ranks -into confusion and disorder. You have only -ears for the roar of the approaching shell. You -slow down and attempt to seek cover where there -is no cover. The unit breaks up, and runs wild -or stops altogether. <i>Disorder and confusion -means massacre.</i></p> - -<p>March strictly in place. To the front is your -safest haven of refuge. Get hold of the frightened -ones and keep them in place. You will -need them to help you when you reach the goal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">In the Trenches</div> - -<p>Dugouts with strong overhead -cover are provided for -your protection when not -actually required to man the trench. In some -places it may be possible to dig shelter caves and -shore up the roofs.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Scouting and Patrolling</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><i>To the Reader</i>: You will find a wealth of information -on the methods to be employed by scouts -and patrols in a little book similar to this one in size, -entitled "Scouting and Patrolling," by the author of -this volume. Published and for sale by the United -States Infantry Association, Washington, D. C. -Price 50 cents, by mail, postpaid. <i>Get your copy -now and prepare yourself for these important duties.</i></p></div> - -<p>Scouting and patrolling to -the front is of greatest importance. -It is kept up both -day and night. The units -occupying the first line send out patrols whenever -necessary. They are frequently able to obtain -valuable information and at the same time serve -to counteract the enemy's efforts in this direction.</p> - -<p>The patrols generally consist of a junior -officer or noncommissioned officer and from four -to six selected men. Their operations are conducted -in accordance with the situation and the -mission they are sent on.</p> - -<p>Hand grenades are frequently carried for both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> -offensive and defensive operations. Grenade -patrols always carry them. The operations of -patrols may include:</p> - -<p>1. Reconnaissance of sectors of the enemy's -position with a view to determining his dispositions -and arrangement of obstacles.</p> - -<p>2. Making sketches of positions.</p> - -<p>3. Capturing prisoners.</p> - -<p>4. Opposing enemy patrols.</p> - -<p>5. Harassing the enemy.</p> - -<p>When the patrol goes out every man in the -sector of the firing line must be informed of such -fact and the possibility of its returning through -his post. It is not sufficient to simply notify the -men on post at the time the patrol goes out, as a -man cannot always be trusted to pass the information -on to his relief. Word should be -quietly taken along the line by the noncommissioned -officer in charge of the relief in person. -When the patrol is out, special instructions have -to be given with respect to firing. To cease -firing altogether is very undesirable. It arouses -the enemy's suspicions. A few trustworthy -riflemen are directed to fire high at intervals. -No lights are sent up while the patrol is out.</p> - -<p>If the patrol is to remain stationary, similar -to the outguard of an outpost, communication<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> -may be maintained by means of a string, spelling -out the messages by Morse code, two jerks -meaning a dash and one jerk meaning a dot.</p> - -<p>Where night patrols have to remain out under -trying conditions special dugouts should be -reserved where they can rest upon their return.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Care of Arms</div> - -<p>The infantryman's rifle is -his best friend. The personal -care that he gives to it is indicative -of his soldierness and discipline. Your -rifle must be kept in prime condition, otherwise -it may fail you at a critical moment. A canvas -breech cover that will protect the bolt and magazine -mechanism will be found a great advantage -when the rifle is not in use. Care must be taken -to exclude mud and dirt from the bolt mechanisms. -Do not put mud-covered cartridges into the -magazine. Wipe them off first. Arrange a -proper receptacle near your post for the storage -of your reserve ammunition. Be careful that -you do not clog the muzzle of the rifle with mud -and dirt. If fired in this condition it will ruin -the rifle. Be careful not to clog up the sight -cover with mud. Oil the rifle frequently with -good sperm oil. Half of the oilers in the squad -should be filled with oil and the other half with -Hoppe's No. 9 Powder Solvent.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p> - -<p>Rifles must be carefully inspected daily by -platoon commanders and the men required to -work on them during the periods off post.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Care of Trenches</div> - -<p>Repairs will have to be -made daily. The widening of -trenches in the making of -repairs should be strictly forbidden. -Under no circumstances must they be -altered in any manner except on the order of the -company commander.</p> - -<p>Platoon commanders will go over every part of -the trench several times daily with the squad -leaders of the various sections and decide upon -the repairs and improvements to be made. A -complete and thorough police will be made -prior to being relieved. All refuse will be removed. -Fired cartridges will be disposed of, as -they might get imbedded in the trench floor and -hinder subsequent digging.</p> - -<p>Each squad leader will be held strictly responsible -for the state of police of the section of -trench occupied by his squad.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Latrines</div> - -<p>Latrines are located at convenient -points in the trenches. -For the men on duty in the -first line they are generally dug to the flank of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> -connecting trench and connected therewith by a -passageway. Their location is plainly marked.</p> - -<p>The rules of sanitation are even more strictly -observed in trenches than they are in soldier -camps. The trenches and passageways must not -under any circumstances be defiled. Latrines -should be kept clean and sanitary. They will be -carefully protected from flies. The free use of -chloride of lime daily is an absolute necessity.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Maps</div> - -<p>A complete detailed plan of -our own trenches and as much -as is known of those of the -enemy opposite should be made, and be available -for study and to refer to in making reports. -Every bay of the trench should be numbered, -every traverse lettered. All junction points of -fire and communicating trenches, all dugouts, -all posts, mortar positions, machine-gun positions, -observation posts, and any points that it may be -necessary to refer to in reports should be designated -by numbers.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Frost Bite; Chilled Feet</div> - -<p>The causes are:</p> - -<p>1. Prolonged standing in -cold water or liquid mud.</p> - -<p>2. Tight boots and leggings, -that interfere with the blood circulation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Prevention</div> - -<p>1. Before going into the -trenches wash the feet and -legs and dry them thoroughly. -The British Army has an issue of an anti-freeze -mixture which will probably be issued to our -troops also. The feet and legs should be rubbed -with it. Put on perfectly dry socks. An extra -pair of dry socks should be carried.</p> - -<p>2. During the period of service in the trenches -the feet should be treated in this manner from -time to time.</p> - -<p>3. When the feet are cold, hot water will not -be used for washing nor will they be held close to -a fire.</p> - -<p>4. Rubber boots must be worn only in the -trenches. On no account must they be worn -while on reserve.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent larger p2">Trench Soldiers' Creed</p> - -<p>To be of the greatest effectiveness in the trench -every soldier, personally and collectively, must -be able to adopt the following creed and live -up to it:</p> - -<p>1. We are here for two purposes, to do as -much damage as possible to the enemy and to -hold our section of the line against all attacks. -We are doing everything in our power to accomplish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> -these missions. We realize that every -man of the enemy confronting us that is now -placed <i>hors de combat</i> will be there ready to -shoot us down when the assault takes place. -We realize also that if the enemy makes a lodgment -on our section of the line that it endangers -others and a costly counter attack may be -necessary. We <i>will</i> hold on.</p> - -<p>2. With the means at hand and those we are -able to devise we will make the enemy's stay -in his trenches as uncomfortable and disagreeable -as possible. All of our utilities are being -utilized to the fullest extent and our various -detachments are organized and their tactical -operations are conducted with this object in -view.</p> - -<p>3. We have done everything possible to -strengthen our line.</p> - -<p>4. If, despite all the precautions we can take -and the hardest fight we are able to make, the -enemy succeeds in effecting a lodgment on our -section of the line, we will meet him with the -bayonet and fight to the last drop of our blood.</p> - -<p>5. We are all familiar with the tactical dispositions -in our section of the line. Those of -us on the flanks connect up with the platoons -to our right and left. We know the route to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> -company and battalion headquarters and know -where the nearest support is located. We -know the position of our machine guns and the -sector they cover. We are in constant communication -with the observing posts that cover -our front, and our observing posts covering the -other platoons are in constant communication -with them.</p> - -<p>6. We know the firing position assigned to us -and are familiar with the use to be made of the -accessories furnished us. We can fire over the -parapet at the foot of our wire entanglements to -repel night attack.</p> - -<p>7. We will at all times be careful about needlessly -exposing ourselves. We appreciate the -fact that it is absolutely stupid to get killed or -wounded in the trench through negligence. By -so doing one has served no purpose and a soldier -cannot be replaced. Our leaders have warned -us of the especially dangerous places. We know -where they are and avoid them except when our -presence there is necessary as a matter of duty.</p> - -<p>8. The sections of the enemy's line that we are -to cover with our fire have all been pointed out -and each of us is familiar with same. We have -located the enemy's loopholes and are doing -our best to keep them under fire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p> - -<p>9. We know our way and move noiselessly -about the trenches. When we enter and leave -it is with absolute silence.</p> - -<p>10. We are doing our utmost to collect information -about the enemy, his defenses, his -activity, his movements, and especially his -night operations. All of this information we -transmit immediately to the platoon leader.</p> - -<p>11. We know the best way to get over our -parapet to reach the enemy.</p> - -<p>12. Our appliances for protection from gas -attacks are complete and ready for instant use. -We have our helmets on our persons ready to -put on. We are familiar with their use and have -confidence in their effectiveness. We will wait -for the signal to don our gas helmets (signal is -usually made by beating a gong, and care must -be taken to follow exactly the directions for -putting on the gas helmets; carelessness may -mean your disablement).</p> - -<p>13. Our trenches are drained and every precaution -is being taken to keep the drains and -sump holes in condition to perform their functions.</p> - -<p>14. We have rendered the parapets and -shelters throughout our sector bullet-proof, and -effective measures are being taken to prevent -them from caving in.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p> - -<p>15. We are keeping our trenches sanitary and -clean; our reserve munitions are carefully stored -in their proper places ready for instant use. -Refuse is always placed in receptacles when it -can be carried away. We do not under any -circumstances litter up our trench floor. Our -empty shells are collected and sent to the rear.</p> - -<p>16. Our rifles are our best friends. We keep -them clean, well oiled, and in readiness for -instant use. Our bayonets we have with us at -all times ready to be placed on the rifle. We -protect our rifle ammunition from the mud, as -we realize that muddy cartridges will clog the -breech mechanism and cause mal-function.</p> - -<p>17. We are taking every precaution to prevent -"trench feet;" when practicable we take off -our shoes and rub our feet for 15 minutes each -day. We do not wear tight shoes and leggings -that tend to interfere with blood circulation. -We each have a pair of dry socks to put on. We -do not wear rubber boots except when it is absolutely -necessary.</p> - -<p>18. We observe the orders regarding the -wearing of equipment.</p> - -<p>19. We do not drink any water except that -from authorized sources. We replenish our -canteens whenever practicable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> - -<p>In addition to the above the platoon commander -must be able to adopt the following and· -live up to them:</p> - -<p>1. My sentries are posted in the proper places. -They are posted by noncommissioned officers. -They have the proper orders. No man is ever -on duty more than one hour at a time. I visit -them at frequent intervals.</p> - -<p>2. I have a runner ready to carry a message -to company headquarters. I realize that any -information of the enemy that I may secure may -be of great importance at regimental and other -headquarters. I will therefore send it back with -the utmost dispatch.</p> - -<p>3. I am familiar with the methods of communicating -with the artillery, of giving them -information and of asking them for support.</p> - -<p>4. My patrols operating to the front at night -have been properly instructed and are doing -their duty effectively. All sentries in the trench -have been notified when they are out and cautioned -to look out for their return.</p> - -<p>5. I have given complete and detailed instruction -covering what to do in case of gas attacks -and the sending out of the S. O. S. signal. I -have gas and attack messages already prepared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> -and ready to send after inserting the time and -place in them.</p> - -<p>6. I know the name of every man in my platoon -and they all know me.</p> - -<p>7. I am here to inflict as much damage as -possible on the enemy and to hold my part of -the line. <i>I will do it!</i></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ac noindent larger">The Attack in Trench Warfare</p> - - -<div class="sidenote">Objectives</div> - -<p>The objectives which must -be dealt with in the attack -of an intrenched position such -as will be found on the western front are:</p> - -<p>1. The trenches of the first line.</p> - -<p>2. The supporting points.</p> - -<p>3. The trenches of the second line.</p> - -<p>By a study of the text preceding this you must -realize that in the defense of these objectives -there will be employed artillery, rifles, grenades -and machine guns.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Artillery Preparation</div> - -<p>The first phase of the attack -is the artillery preparation. -In order that the infantry may -make the attack with a minimum -of losses, the artillery must have destroyed -the wire entanglements and obstacles that obstruct -the advance, or at least have sufficiently -breached them to permit their being negotiated. -The destruction of these obstacles is never complete. -It would require too great an expenditure -of ammunition. The infantry occupying the -hostile trenches must be simply overwhelmed -with artillery fire so that they will be unable to -man the parapets when the assault is launched.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> -During the artillery preparation the hostile -infantry does not occupy their firing positions -in the trenches but remain in their dugouts, -which are fully protected from all but the heaviest -shells. Only a few observers are left in the -trenches.</p> - -<p>When the bombardment against this particular -part of the line ceases the infantry leave their -dugouts and man the firing positions. To prevent -this is one of the most important as well -as most difficult tasks of the artillery. This -may be effected by a well-directed fire on the -exits to the dugouts with a view to caving them -in and thus preventing the egress of the occupants -The enemy may sometimes be induced to -leave his shelter prematurely by the following -ruse:</p> - -<p>1. Cease the artillery fire.</p> - -<p>2. Open a heavy rifle fire; this causes the enemy -to believe that the assault has begun and he will -man his parapets in strength.</p> - -<p>3. After waiting for several minutes open the -artillery again with even increased vigor.</p> - -<p>The hostile infantry may be forced out of his -dugouts by the use of shells and grenades containing -suffocating gases which penetrate the -shelters and make them untenable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> - -<p>The artillery is also charged with putting the -enemy's artillery out of action to prevent them -from firing upon the attacking infantry.</p> - -<p>If the enemy artillery is left free, it will shell -our trenches and approaches, causing casualties -and confusion and thus interfering with the -formation for the attack. The location of -hostile batteries is effected by aerial reconnaissance.</p> - -<p>Another task of the artillery is to prevent the -hostile reserves from coming up to reinforce their -firing lines. These reserves will be located back -in the second line until their presence is required -at the front. As long as the artillery preparation -continues they remain in the shelters, but -as soon as it ceases they man the trenches. The -artillery must therefore extend its fire to the -second line and continue it while the first line is -being rushed. Back of the second position the -enemy holds strong reserves. The entrance of -these into action must be prevented. This -is accomplished by extending the curtain of fire -still further to the rear. The supporting points -must receive a lion's share of attention for, bristling -with machine guns and trench mortars, -they are the really dangerous elements to the infantry -attack after it passes the first line trenches.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p> - -<p>The weapon which inflicts the greatest losses -on the assaulting infantry is the machine gun, -which appears suddenly out of the ground and -lays low whole units. By a careful reconnaissance -these machine-gun positions are ferreted -out and every possible means are taken to effect -their destruction.</p> - -<p>The effectiveness of the artillery preparation -depends simply upon superiority of guns and -munitions. In this respect we now possess a -great advantage, for the state of our munition -supply is such that our artillery may fire several -shells to one of the enemy. This is what established -the superiority.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Organization of Infantry Attack</div> - -<p>The organization of the attacking -infantry corresponds -in a general way to the organization -of the position being -attacked. A first line of assault -is organized. Its mission is the capture -of the enemy's first line trenches. A second line -follows, having for its mission the assault and -capture of the second line trenches. A separate -organization of these two lines is necessary for -the reason that the first attacking line is generally -so disorganized in the fighting that it no longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> -possesses the cohesion necessary to carry it -through to the second line. It has been found -necessary to launch a comparatively fresh and -intact force against it.</p> - -<p>As the first position is organized into several -separate lines of defense, so also is the first -attacking line organized and launched in two -or more waves, those in rear being in the nature -of reinforcements to those in front.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Objectives</div> - -<p>Each unit of the attacking -line is assigned a distinct objective. -Certain units are -given the mission of attacking the supporting -points to prevent their enfilading the units advancing -through the intervals between them.</p> - -<p>The main efforts are made along the lines between -the supporting points, as to assault the -latter would entail a casualty list not commensurate -with the results. The effort against them -is made with a view to neutralizing their effect. -If the attack is successful in the intervals, -the supporting points will fall as a result.</p> - -<p>The waves of the first line are directed against -the first position, the second against the second -position. The reserves held under the orders of -the division commander are employed where -the development of the situation dictates.</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> - -<p>Further to the rear, and under orders of the -supreme commander, large bodies of reinforcements -are held ready to be moved rapidly to -points where progress has been made to such an -extent that maneuver operations are practicable.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Preparation for the Assault</div> - -<p>Preparatory to the assault, -numerous saps (trenches) are -run out to the front from the -main firing trenches. The -night before the attack, a parallel is broken out -connecting the sap heads. This parallel is -amply supplied with short ladders and is occupied -by the companies composing the first wave -of the attack. The saps and the main trenches -are also filled with men assigned to the following -waves, who will move into the parallel as soon -as the first wave leaves it. As the artillery -preparation ceases, the first waves rush up the -ladders in succession and move out to the assault.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The First Wave</div> - -<p>As the artillery preparation -against the first line is completed -and the curtain of fire -shifted far into the enemy's position, the infantry -of the first wave emerges from the parallel -and moves out. The formation and gait depend -upon the distance to the hostile trench. -If the artillery preparation has been effective<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> -and the distance is not more than 100 yards, it -is expected that the wave will be able to reach -the fire trench without firing, except possibly -when the wire is reached. If the distance is -much greater than 100 yards, it is necessary to -cover the advance with rifle fire. This is accomplished -by a line of skirmishers deployed at -extended intervals, which precedes the wave at -about 50 yards. The wave starts out at a walk, -carefully aligned. It afterwards takes up the -double time and advances by rushes until the -wire entanglements are reached.</p> - -<p>From this moment the period of the charge -and individual combat begins. The men can -no longer be kept from firing. Each tries to -protect himself with his rifle. Each man locates -his opening in the wire through which he is to go -and makes for it. The line reforms on the -other side. With rifles at the high charge (a -position to our old head parry, but slanting -slightly upward from right to left) the line -rushes upon the enemy. Each man runs straight -towards the part of the trench in front of him -and jumps upon the parapet. By rifle shots -and bayonet thrusts he destroys everything in -his way. Men selected in advance take charge -of the prisoners. The line is reformed, lying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> -down just beyond the fire trench, and fire is -opened against the second line. Men are positively -forbidden to enter the communication -trenches. They are most inviting for cover, -but a man rarely gets out of them.</p> - -<p>The grenadier squad proceed to their work of -clearing the fire and communication trenches.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Second Wave</div> - -<p>The second wave of the first -line starts forward at the -moment the first wave reaches -the hostile trenches. If it -starts sooner, it will unite with the first at the -entanglement and become involved in the fight -for the fire trench. It will be broken up prematurely -and will be unable to take advantage -of the developments of the fight of the first -wave. The reinforcement by the second wave -and the disorganization produced by the assault -lead to a mixture of units in the trenches of the -first position. Before starting out to the assault -of the next trench it is necessary that order be -restored. When this is accomplished the attack -is launched against the second line. In front -of the supporting points the combat rages. -The men are barely able to hold on the outer -edges. In the interval the advance has reached -high tide and has expanded like a wave and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> -stopped. This is the limit that can be expected -of the first line.</p> - -<p>Hasty cover is prepared and advantage taken -of such cover as may exist. All elements of -the attack open fire on the second position.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Second Line</div> - -<p>Under the cover of these -operations the second line has -come up in a series of three -lines, where it is built up compact -at the position of the stopped first line. -From this point its attack against the enemy's -second line is launched. The lines are worked -up to a point from which the assault is to be -made, and when the time comes the first wave -dashes out to the attack, followed by the second -wave in the same manner as the assault against -the first position was made.</p> - -<p>The action of the two lines of attack may be -expected to overwhelm the greater part of the -two main hostile positions. At certain points, -however, the resistance will hold out, and, if -not overcome, will constitute points of support -to which the enemy may bring up reinforcements -and even turn the tide of battle by a -counter attack.</p> - -<p>To deal with these points that hold out, as -well as with hostile reinforcements which may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> -arrive, the reserve is launched into action, which -brings the attack into the open ground beyond -the second line of defense, and maneuver operations -are begun. The mobile units are rapidly -thrown into action, and large forces from the -general reserve are hurried to the point where -the lines of defense are broken through.</p> - -<p>From what has gone before we may deduce -that the following conditions must prevail to -attain success in an attack on a prepared position:</p> - -<p>1. The attack must be planned down to the -most minute detail.</p> - -<p>2. There must be a greatly superior force of -artillery concentrated at the point of attack, -and the artillery preparation must be thorough.</p> - -<p>3. The infantry must be sufficient in number, -training and morale to perform the tasks that -will he demanded of them.</p> - -<p>4. The arrangements for the supply of ammunition -to the firing line must be planned and -carried out in all its details.</p> - -<p>5. Plans for meeting counter attacks must be -thorough and complete. The capture of a position -is often less difficult than its retention.</p> - -<p>6. Finally, every officer and man must know -exactly what he is to do.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p class="ac noindent"><span class="x-larger">Scouting and Patrolling</span><br /><br /> - -By<br /><br /> - -Capt. W. H. WALDRON<br /> -29th Infantry<br /><br /> -Cloth Bound—Fits the Pocket<br /><br /> -3d EDITION</p> - -<hr class="small" /> - -<p class="ac noindent">Price, 50 cents postpaid</p> - -<hr class="small" /> - -<p>The best, most complete and practical treatment -of the subject that has been produced.</p> - -<p class="ac noindent">What To Do and How To Do It</p> - -<p>Just the book needed for the instruction of the -enlisted men of your organization.</p> - -<p>Every soldier in the Army should have a copy -and know its contents.</p> - -<p class="ac noindent">Endorsed by Leading Officers of the Army</p> - -<hr class="small" /> - -<p class="ac noindent"> -Published and for sale by<br /> -The United States Infantry Association<br /> -Union Trust Building<br /> -Washington, D. C.</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent p2">Comment from Leading Officers of the Army</p> - -<p>"I have a copy of 'Scouting and Patrolling' and wish every -other person in the military service had one. You have -presented an interesting and very important subject in a very -convenient, readable form and in its logical sequence. I -commend the book to all soldiers. They will benefit by a -careful study of its contents."</p> - -<p>"The most complete and valuable treatise on scout and -patrol work that has been published. The small size and -shape of the little volume make it a convenient pocket reference -book suitable for field work."</p> - -<p>"It covers the duties that will fall to the lot of the soldier -in time of war better than any work heretofore published. I -predict that every company commander in the Army will -eventually use it as a text-book in the instruction of his -organization."</p> - -<p>"Your book is excellent. I am amazed at the great amount -of information you have concentrated in such a small volume. -I shall certainly recommend it to the captains of my regiment -as a book for instruction in noncommissioned officers' schools. -I feel that I should congratulate you on it as an American -text-book on the subject that is far superior to any of the -foreign publications."</p> - -<p>"I find it be to an excellent work on the subject. It is -thorough and to the point. Its size, extremely small cost and -valuable contents ought to recommend it to every soldier in -the Army."</p> - -<p>"I cordially endorse it as being wonderfully comprehensive -and comprehensible in covering the subject."</p> - -<p>"I am impressed with its simplicity and completeness. It -is a most valuable book for the noncommissioned officer and -private."</p> - -<p>"The book is thoroughly practical and the arrangement -admirable. It is certainly the best book on the subject that -I have ever seen."</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent p2">A few extracts from numerous book reviews</p> - -<p>"Devoid of technicalities and written in an interesting and -understandable style. It is a most instructive book. With -unessentials eliminated, it gives a store of information in -language that any man can understand."</p> - -<p>"It covers a wide and difficult ground. The dozen chapters -of the little book not only instruct the soldier thoroughly in -the duties of reconnaissance but place at his convenient disposal -a valuable store of information as to military messages, -signaling, map reading, reconnaissance reports, first-aid and -kindred subjects."</p> - -<p>"It covers very concisely every feature of this most important -branch of military training: it is entertainingly written -and generously illustrated throughout."</p> - - -<p class="ac noindent"><span class="x-larger">Tactical Talks</span><br /> -By Capt. W. H. Waldron, 29th Infantry</p> - - -<p class="noindent">To the Reader:</p> - -<p>The up-to-date method of instruction and training in Minor -Tactics is this:</p> - -<p>1. Prepare a tactical problem covering the subject under consideration.</p> - -<p>2. Take the noncommissioned officers out on a TACTICAL -WALK and make a solution of the various situations.</p> - -<p>3. Follow this by taking the company out on a tactical -exercise for the solving of the identical problem that you solved -in the TACTICAL WALK.</p> - -<p>This method will bring results that will surprise you. In -the Tactical Walk, tactical situations are presented to the noncommissioned -officers for practical solution on the ground and -they are firmly impressed on the minds of the men. When -the same problem is brought up for solution with the troops -you will see your noncommissioned officers going about their -various tasks in a business-like manner with a knowledge of -what to do and how to do it, that they have never had before. -This inspires the confidence of the men in their noncommissioned -officers and as a result the entire organization is -lifted to a much higher "tactical level" than they have been -able to attain heretofore.</p> - -<p>TACTICAL WALKS is an entirely original work. It was -written with a view to inaugurating this system of instruction -and training throughout the Army. The subjects included are:</p> - -<p>Outposts, reconnoitering patrols, visiting patrols, advance -guards, flank guards, detached posts, organization of a small -defensive position. The largest unit considered is a company -and that only incidentally. The main element is the platoon -and patrol.</p> - -<p>For each walk a tactical problem has been prepared in -blank. This can be adapted to any terrain that is available.</p> - -<p>Following the problem there are a number of tactical situations -such as one would encounter in actual service.</p> - -<p>The discussions and explanations cover every phase of the -subject under consideration in a purely practical manner.</p> - -<p>A practical solution is then arrived at and set forth.</p> - -<p>At the end of the solution to each situation there is inserted a -Director's Key, which gives the complete synopsis of what has -gone before.</p> - -<p>Every officer in the Army should have a copy. It will save -a lot of time preparing for the conduct of Tactical Walks. -Every noncommissioned officer should have a copy and study -its contents. By so doing he prepares himself for the duties -that he will be called upon to perform in the field.</p> - -<p>ORDER YOUR COPY TODAY.</p> - -<p>The price is $1.50 per copy, postage paid.</p> - -<p>Copies of the book may be had from any one of the agencies -enumerated on page v of this book.</p> - -<p class="ar"> -<span class="smcap">W. H. Waldron</span>,<br /> -<i>Captain, Twenty-ninth Infantry</i>. -</p> - -<div class="transnote p2"> - <p class="ac noindent x-larger">Transcriber's Note:</p> - <ul> - <li>The original spelling, hyphenation, and punctuation have been retained, - with the exception of apparent typographical errors which have been - corrected.</li> - <li>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</li> - <li>Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant - form was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</li> - <li>Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs - and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that - references them. The list of Illustrations paginations were - changed accordingly.</li> - <li>Other corrections: - <ul> - <li>p. 13: Frustrom → frustum (… a frustum of a cone….)</li> - <li>p. 75: dorm → form (The form is then raised….)</li> - <li>p. 78: staple → stable (… make a stable, compact pile….)</li> - <li>p. 109: Plate 40a re-numbered to 41e.</li> - <li>p. 116: Plate 41a re-numbered to 41f.</li> - <li>p. 120: Plate 41 re-numbered to 42.</li> - <li>p. 126: machacoulis → machicoulis (Machicoulis gallery in background.)</li> - <li>p. 127: he → be (Loopholes should be screened….)</li> - <li>p. 155: he → be (… tasks that will be demanded of them.)</li> - </ul> - </li> - </ul> -</div> - -<hr class="nonvis" /> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Elements of Trench Warfare, by William Waldron - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF TRENCH WARFARE *** - -***** This file should be named 61330-h.htm or 61330-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/3/3/61330/ - -Produced by Brian Coe, Christian Boissonnas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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