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diff --git a/old/61330-0.txt b/old/61330-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b3225ac..0000000 --- a/old/61330-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3799 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Elements of Trench Warfare, by William Waldron - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Elements of Trench Warfare - -Author: William Waldron - -Release Date: February 6, 2020 [EBook #61330] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF TRENCH WARFARE *** - - - - -Produced by Brian Coe, Christian Boissonnas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - ----------- - -Elements of Trench Warfare - -Waldron - - - - - Elements of - Trench Warfare - - _By_ - - Captain William H. Waldron - - 29th U. S. Infantry - - DISTINGUISHED GRADUATE INFANTRY AND - CAVALRY SCHOOL, 1905 - - GRADUATE ARMY STAFF COLLEGE, 1906 - - GRADUATE ARMY WAR COLLEGE, 1911 - - ASSISTANT DIRECTOR ARMY WAR - COLLEGE COURSE, 1911-12 - - _Author of_ - - “Scouting and Patrolling” - - “Tactical Walks” - - Price 60 cents - - Washington - - 1917 - - - - - Copyright, 1917, by - - WILLIAM H. WALDRON - - NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D. C. - - - - -Agencies - - -This book may be purchased from any one of the following agencies: - - The Book Department - ARMY AND NAVY REGISTER - Washington, D. C. - - The Book Department - U. S. INFANTRY ASSOCIATION - Union Trust Building - Washington, D. C. - - The Book Department - ARMY SERVICE SCHOOLS - Fort Leavenworth, Kansas - - EDWIN N. APPLETON - No. 1, Broadway, New York City - - THE ARMY AND NAVY CO-OPERATIVE CO. - 721 17th Street N. W. - Washington, D. C. - or - 16 E. 42d Street, New York City - - =The price is 60 cents, postage paid= - - _See “Tactical Walks” advertisement in the back - of this book._ - - - - -NOTICE - - -There is a wealth of material in this little book that will interest -the soldier. From the illustrations alone he will be able to obtain a -good general idea of the subject. - -It is essentially a soldier’s book, written in language that he can -understand. The price has been kept within the limits of his pocketbook. - -With a view to securing a wide distribution of the book I desire to -secure a representative in every organization in the Army. I have an -attractive proposition to make to competent parties. - -A letter will bring particulars. My address will be found in the Army -List and Directory. If this is not available, a letter addressed as -follows will be forwarded to me: - - Captain W. H. Waldron, - 29th Infantry, - Care of “Infantry Journal,” - Washington, D. C. - - (Signed) W. H. WALDRON. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Page - - Chapter I.—The Organization of a Section of the Position 1 - - Chapter II.—Obstacles. Construction, repair. Wire entanglements, - barricades, land mines, inundation 4 - - Chapter III.—Lookout and Listening Posts: Types. Construction, - service 18 - - Chapter IV.—Field Trenches: Traversed trenches. Types of trenches. - Drainage. Communication trenches. Dugouts. Penetration of - projectiles. Communication. Trench mortar positions. Machine - guns. Supporting points 24 - - Chapter V.—Use and Improvement of Natural Cover 50 - - Chapter VI.—Revetments: Sandbags. Fascines. Hurdles. Gabions 64 - - Chapter VII.—Working Parties: Details of organization. Laying out - tasks. Operations 80 - - Chapter VIII.—Grenade Warfare: Organization and tactics of - grenadiers. Offensive operations. Clearing fire trenches. - Clearing communication trenches. Night operations. Grenade - patrols. Notes on grenade warfare 86 - - Chapter IX.—Gas Warfare: Methods of dissemination of gas. Gas - helmets, care and use of. Sprayers 105 - - Chapter X.—Service in the Trenches: Preparations for entering. - Inspection of trenches. Tactical dispositions. Going into the - trenches. Information routine. Observation field glasses. - Snipers. What to fire at. Use of rifle grenades. Scouting and - patrolling. Care of arms. Care of trenches. Latrines. Maps. - Frost bite. The trench soldier’s creed 114 - - Chapter XI.—The Attack in Trench Warfare 146 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -This little book has been prepared with a view to placing before the -soldier a store of information on the subject of Trench Warfare as -it has been developed on the battle fronts of Europe, and giving him -some idea of the nature of the service that he will be called upon to -perform when the time arrives for him to do his “bit.” - -The illustrations have been carefully prepared and arranged to the end -that the soldier may gain a fair knowledge of the subject from them -alone. The text is intended to treat the subject in a purely elementary -manner that the soldier may be able to understand. - -The size of the book is such that it may be conveniently carried in the -pocket and referred to as occasion requires. The price has been kept -down to the point where it is available to the soldier. - -If the book assists in his preparation for the front and, by reason -of the knowledge that he has gained from it, helps to make him more -efficient when he gets there, it will have served its purpose. - - THE AUTHOR. - - - - -CHAPTER I - -Organization - - -The normal organization of an intrenched position includes the -following elements from front to rear: - -1. In front of the position and at a variable distance from the first -line fire trench there is a line of wire entanglements. (See Obstacles, -p. 4.) - -2. Close up to the wire entanglements there is an intrenched post known -as the “listening post,” which is connected with the first line fire -trench by a zigzag communicating trench. (See Listening Posts, p. 18.) - -3. Then comes the first line fire trench with attached machine-gun -emplacements at convenient points. (See Fire Trench and Machine-Gun -Emplacements, pp. 24 and 44.) - -4. The fire trench is so narrow that lateral communication along it -is effected only with difficulty. In order to provide a passageway a -communication or supervision trench is provided a few yards in rear of -the fire trench. Passageways lead from this communication trench to the -fire trench and to the dugouts located along it. - -5. At a variable distance in rear of the fire trench (100 to 200 yards) -the emplacements for bomb-throwing apparatus and trench mortars are -located. These are connected up laterally by a communication trench -which joins with the main communication trench running from front to -rear through the position. (See Emplacements for Trench Mortars, p. 41.) - -6. From 100 to 400 yards to the rear of the first line fire trench, and -generally parallel to it, is the supporting trench or cover for the -supports. This trench is invariably provided with strong overhead cover -and a system of dugouts for the protection of the troops. (See Cover -for Supports, p. 48.) - -7. This whole arrangement of trenches is connected throughout from -front to rear, and laterally, by a system of zigzag communication -trenches. - -Take this brief description together with Plate 1, the drawing that -accompanies this volume, and study the two until you get the entire -system fixed firmly in your mind; that is, until you get a mental -picture of all the elements included in the system. - -After you have done this, study on through the book in order that you -may know the purpose of each of these elements and how one links up -with the other. - -[Illustration: _PLAN OF THE ORGANIZATION OF AN INTRENCHED POSITION_ - -PLATE 1] - -[Illustration: PLATE 2] - -This is the typical system now in use in the European war theaters. -Circumstances at certain places may render some variations necessary, -and it must not be inferred that the trace of the works is the same -throughout. As a rule the types of trenches (altered when necessary to -meet local conditions) illustrated herein are the ones in actual use on -the war fronts. - -All of these trenches and their accessories constitute what is known as -the first line. At a distance of from 2,000 to 5,000 yards in rear of -this first line a second line, organized in a similar manner, is to be -found. - -At intervals of from 800 to 1,500 yards along the first line-centers of -resistance, or what we know as “supporting points,” are located. These -consist of fortified villages, or a network (labyrinth) of trenches, -provided with every defensive device known to modern warfare. The -object of these supporting points is to bring a flanking fire to bear -on the intervals between them, with the idea that an attacking force -cannot advance beyond them without capturing them. - -Plate 2 shows the general scheme of the occupation of a sector of the -line by a field army of two divisions. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -Obstacles - - -The element of the defensive line nearest the enemy is a line or series -of lines of obstacles which are designed for the purpose of: - -1. Protecting the lines from surprise. - -2. Reducing the momentum of the attack, by breaking up the unity of -action and cohesion. - -3. Holding the enemy under the effective fires of the defenders. - -The conditions that obstacles should fulfil are as follows. They must— - -1. Be close to the defender’s position. As a rule on the western front -they are not more than from 50 to 100 yards distant. If they are too -close it may be possible to throw hand grenades from the far edge of -them into the defender’s trenches. - -2. As far as practicable, be sheltered and screened from the enemy. -Shell fire is the most effective method of destroying obstacles. If -they are not concealed they may furnish aiming points for the enemy’s -fire against the first line fire trench by his being able to estimate -its location with reference to the obstacle. - -3. Afford no cover or screen to the enemy. - -4. Be so placed that the enemy will come upon them as a surprise. - -5. Be so constructed as to be difficult of removal under fire and -impracticable to negotiate while still reasonably intact. - -6. Be arranged so as not to interfere with a counter attack. The -obstacles may have occasional gaps left in them which may be mined. - -The different classes of obstacles are: Abatis, low wire entanglements, -high wire entanglements, barricades, mines, fougasses, crows feet, -military pits with wire entanglements, inundations, etc. - -[Illustration: PLATE 3.—Abatis.] - -Abatis (pronounced _abatee_) consists of branches of trees lying -parallel to each other, butts pointing to the rear, and the branches -interlaced with barbed wire. All leaves and small twigs should be -removed and the stiff ends of branches pointed. The butts are staked or -tied down of, anchored by covering them with earth. When more than one -row is used the branches overlap the butts of those in front so as to -make the abatis about 5 feet high. An abatis formed by felling trees -towards the enemy, leaving the butt hanging to the stump, is called -_slashing_. - -[Illustration: PLATE 4.—Slashing.] - -[Sidenote: Wire Entanglements] - -Barbed wire is the material most employed in the construction of -obstacles. It may be used in the following manner: - -1. As a simple trip, for giving the alarm. It is stretched just above -the ground and attached to some object that will cause a noise to be -made if molested. - -2. A simple wire fence, to cause delay and confusion to the enemy in -his advance. - -3. As an adjunct to tree and brushwood entanglement. - -4. As a wire entanglement. - -5. As a covering for portable cylinders. - -The advantages of the barbed wire entanglement are: - -1. It is easily and quickly made, - -2. It is difficult to destroy. - -3. It is difficult to get through. - -4. It offers no obstruction to the view and fire of the defense. - -The low wire entanglement is constructed as follows: - -1. Drive stakes in the ground until they project about 18 inches. The -stakes should be about 6 feet apart, those in each row being opposite -the intervals in adjacent rows, - -2. The wire is then passed loosely from the head of one stake to -another, wound around each and stapled. - -3. Where two or more wires cross they should be tied together. - -A more useful and efficient modification of the low wire entanglement -is made by stapling the wire down the sides of the stakes, allowing -five or more feet of slack wire between stakes. Drive the stakes in -the ground until the top is flush. This results in a loose network of -tangled wires difficult to get through, easily concealed, and difficult -to remove. - -The high wire entanglement is made by driving stakes so that they -protrude from 4 to 6 feet above the ground. They are placed at -irregular intervals 5 to 8 feet apart. The head of each stake is -connected with the foot of adjoining stakes with the wire loosely -drawn, wound around the stakes and stapled fast. Each center post -should be stayed by four wires. There should be a trip wire about 9 -inches from the ground all the way across the front and another about -a foot from the top of the center posts. Barbed wire may then be -hung in festoons throughout the entanglement, with no fixed pattern. -To increase the entanglement wire may be stapled to the foot of the -posts, as indicated in the paragraph above, before they are driven. -Large nails should be driven in the tops of the posts with half their -length protruding. A number of the wires in the entanglement should be -fastened together where they cross. The wire should be passed through -paint, if practicable, to take away the bright color. The posts should -be painted the color of the surrounding country. Under the conditions -encountered on the western front this work has to be done hastily. It -is best, therefore, to limit the first stage of construction to just -so many strands as will form a nucleus for the whole entanglement, in -order that the area may be covered by an obstacle before interruption -occurs. - -[Illustration: PLATE 4a.—Plan of wire entanglement.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 5.—High wire entanglement.] - -_Tight wires help the enemy’s advance by forming supports for hurdles. -It must be constantly borne in mind that the wires must not be -stretched taut._ - -A portable wire entanglement is constructed by stretching wire loosely -around a wooden framework, either circular or square or made on a knife -rest, and rolling it into position to close up gaps that may have been -made in the entanglement. The illustration shows the wooden framework. - -[Illustration: PLATE 5a.—Alarm trap.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 6.—Portable entanglement. Constructed in the -trenches and rolled into position.] - -The ordinary repairs to entanglements are made under cover of darkness -by working parties detailed for the purpose. Iron posts that can be -quickly placed in position are advantageous, their disadvantage being -that they may retard bullets that would go through the ordinary wooden -posts, thus furnishing just that much cover and protection to attacking -parties. - -In the construction and repair of entanglements care must be taken to -see that they are firmly fastened into the ground with numerous stay -posts or “deadmen.” This is to prevent the enemy from pulling them -to pieces with grappling hooks connected to ropes that lead to his -trenches and are attached to powerful windlasses or capstans. - -[Sidenote: Barricades] - -Barricades are employed for the defense of streets, roads, bridges, -etc. They may be made out of any available material such as furniture, -vehicles (overturned or with wheels removed), carts filled with stones, -bales of goods, etc. - -Where trees grow along the roadside they may be felled across the road. -If necessary, barbed wire may be run through the branches to make the -passage more difficult. - -[Illustration: PLATE 7.—Plan of barricade for blocking a road.] - -Barricades should not as a rule close the road entirely to traffic. -Passages are required to allow the defenders to pass through when it -is necessary to do so. Hence they should be made in two parts, one -overlapping the other, as shown in the illustration. - -A _fougass_ is a mine so arranged that upon explosion a large mass of -stones is projected against the enemy. An excavation is made in the -shape of a frustum of a cone, inclining the axis in the direction of -the enemy so as to make an angle with the horizon of about 45 degrees. -The sides splay outward slightly. A box of powder is placed in a recess -at the bottom. This is covered with a platform of wood several inches -thick, on which the stones are piled. - -The fuse is placed in a groove cut at the back of the excavation, or -the mine may be exploded by means of electricity. - -The line of least resistance for the charge must be arranged so that -the powder will act in the direction of the axis and not vertically. -This is accomplished by throwing the excavated earth on the crest -towards the defender’s side and ramming it well. - -To ascertain the powder charge for any fougass, divide the number of -pounds of stone in the charge by 150. This gives the number of pounds -of powder in the powder charge. Thus a fougass charged with about 70 -pounds of powder will throw about 5 tons of stone over a surface about -160 yards long and 120 yards wide. - -[Illustration: PLATE 8.—Fougass.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 9.—Vertical fougass.] - -When broken up a cubic foot of stone weighs about 100 pounds. - -A vertical type of fougass is also shown. A charge of 25 pounds of -powder should scatter a cubic yard of stones over an area about 200 by -100 yards. - - -Small Land Mines - -Land mines are placed in the line of the advance of the enemy and -exploded either by electricity or fuse from the defense. They are -made by digging holes from 2 to 3 yards deep, either by excavation or -by boring. In the former case the charge is placed in a recess which -extends into the solid earth at the side of the hole, which is then -refilled and tamped. In the latter case the charge is placed in the -bottom of the hole, which is then refilled and solidly tamped. In -common earth the powder charge for a 2-yard hole is 25 pounds. That for -a 3-yard hole is 80 pounds. The diameter of the crater formed will be -about twice the depth of the charge. - -The mines may be arranged in one or more rows. The intervals between -mines should be such that the craters will nearly but not quite join. -The position of the mines should be concealed as much as possible and -further sophisticated by disturbing the ground slightly at points -where there are no mines and so situated as to suggest a systematic -arrangement. - -[Illustration: PLATE 9a.—Land mine. - -_F_, Line from powder charge to battery. - -_P_, Powder charge.] - - -Inundation - -Backing up the water of a stream so that it overflows a considerable -area forms a good obstacle, even though of fordable depth. If shallow, -the difficulty of fording may be increased by irregular holes or -ditches dug before the water comes up, or by constructing wire -entanglements in the water. It may be employed with advantage when the -drainage of a considerable area passes through a restricted opening, as -a natural gorge, culvert or bridge. - -Open cribs filled with stones, or tighter ones filled with gravel, may -form the basis of the obstruction to the flow of the water. The usual -method of tightening spaces or cracks between cribs is by throwing in -earth or alternate layers of straw, hay, grass, earth, or sacks of -clay. A continuous construction, as shown in the illustration, may be -employed. The ends of the dam must be carried well into the solid earth -to prevent the water from cutting around them. This type of dam is -easily destroyed by artillery fire, and cannot be depended upon. - -[Illustration: PLATE 10.—Dam construction.] - - - - -CHAPTER III - -Lookout and Listening Posts - - -Except when the garrison are actually required to man the parapet, they -will be kept under cover, with the exception of a few lookouts, whose -duty it is to give timely warning of the movements of the enemy. - -When the opposing forces are in close proximity to each other mining -operations are generally resorted to by both sides to compass the -destruction of the opposing works and open the way for an attack. - -Lookout and listening posts serve the double purpose of having a few -men at the most advantageous places for observation at the front and -flanks and providing points at some distance to the front of the first -line fire trenches from which listeners may be able to discover the -location and direction of enemy mining operations before they really -menace the fire trench. - -In the normal case there will be some natural cover available. Such, -however, is not always the case, and specially constructed observation -stations have to be provided. - -The posts should be placed in advance of the first line trench, the -distance depending upon circumstances which have to be determined in -each particular instance. They must be fully protected from reverse -fire so that there will be no chance of the observer masking the fire -of his comrades manning the fire trench. - -Unless the ground is very favorable it will be found difficult to -provide for observation above ground. Where there are natural features -such as embankments, mounds, hedgerows, ruins of buildings, etc., it -may be possible to make provision for observation even by day. - -Where a loophole is used, the type having the narrower end outward -should be provided. - -In the open type of post the observation directly to the front may be -greatly facilitated by the use of the periscope. (Plate 11.) - -A good, strong parapet thrown up and chopped off at the corners will -enable the observer to cover areas from an oblique direction from the -post and protect him from fire from the front. - -In the covered type the observer is provided loopholes having the splay -towards him. These may also be constructed to the oblique rather than -to the front. When this is done, provision must be made to cover the -entire front of the position from the several posts. (Plate 12.) - -[Illustration: PLATE 11.—Open type of listening post.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 12.—Covered type of listening post.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 13.—A listening and observation post.] - -The post may be connected with the first line fire trench by a narrow -zigzag trench or by an underground passage. If the former, it must be -thoroughly concealed and have no excavated earth visible. If it can be -located along a hedge or some other natural feature its location may -remain unknown to the enemy for a considerable length of time. Where -a communication gallery is constructed the roof and walls must be -suitably shored up by casing and supports. - -The sentinel in the listening post carries no accouterments. It has -been found that the creaking noise made by equipment when the sentinel -moves has been taken for mining operations of the enemy by his comrades. - -Listening galleries should never be left without a sentinel. There -should be a depot of arms and hand grenades near the entrance to the -gallery in case men are attacked while on duty from either above or -below ground. - -Listening will be conducted at specified times, or on some prearranged -signal, and for a definite period. During this time all within the -listening area, including the trenches, must remain absolutely -motionless. - -Infantry manning a trench can assist listening by digging a small pit, -6 feet deep below the trench, and running a bore-hole out 20 feet or -more. - -The enemy is always listening for indications of the direction and -position of gallery heads. Work must therefore be carried on with a -minimum of noise. Shouting down the shafts of galleries is absolutely -forbidden. - -When the mining operations of the enemy are detected a report should be -made at once to the officer in charge of that section of the trench. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -Field Trenches - - -The next element of the defensive position is the _first line fire -trenches_. These are located so as to have a good field of fire to -the front for several hundred yards and so constructed as to give the -greatest cover and protection from the fire of the enemy. - -An unbroken, continuous trench would be exposed to enfilade fire. A -shell, shrapnel or grenade bursting therein would have widespread -effect. To overcome these elements the trench is constructed in short -lengths, with traverses between them, and technically known as the -_traverse type_. - -Better defilade is thus secured and the material effect of any burst is -confined to narrow limits. - -The trench interval between the traverses is known as the “bay,” which -should not ordinarily be longer than 18 feet. Longer bays invite heavy -casualties in case the trench is enfiladed or a high explosive shell -finds its mark. - -The illustration, Plate 14, shows a trace of the traversed type of fire -trench. - -[Illustration: _PLAN OF TRAVERSED TYPE OF FIRE TRENCH_ - -_PLATE 14._ - - 1. Length of bay, 18 feet. - 2. Width of traverse, 5 feet. - 3. Length of traverse, 5 feet. - 4. Overlap of traverse, 3 feet. - 5. Height of traverse depends upon defilade required and - practicability of concealment. -] - - -Type of Trench - -Formerly, protection from the enemy’s fire was obtained by thickness of -parapet. In the trench warfare of today it is obtained by completely -concealing the riflemen in a deep, narrow trench with a very low -parapet. - -The height over which the average man can fire is about 5 feet or about -five-sixths of his own height. This factor determines the height of the -parapet above the firing banquet of the trench or the height of bottom -of loophole above the same point, when the latter is employed. - -The type of trench in general use today is the simple standing trench -shown in Plate 15. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE 15.—Simple standing trench. 1. Width at top, 3 feet 4 inches. - 2. Width at bottom, over all, 2 feet 8 inches. 3. Width of firing - banquet, 1 foot 4 inches. 4. Height of parapet above firing banquet, 5 - feet. 5. Height of parapet above bottom of trench, 6 feet 4 inches. - ] - -[Illustration: _PLATE 15a._ - -_Type of_ - -_INSTRUCTION FIRE TRENCH AT VALCARTIER CANADA_ - -_Used in the instruction of Canadian Troops._] - - -Drainage - -If a trench is to be occupied for any length of time, especially if -much ground or falling water is to be encountered, drainage becomes -of prime importance. Many years ago a celebrated military authority -asserted that “nothing so saps the courage of a soldier as to wet the -seat of his breeches.” This may be accepted as a true maxim, especially -in cold weather. The trench should therefore be made as dry as -possible. The floor of the trench should be given a sufficient slope to -the rear where an intercepting drain should carry the water to prepared -sumps or to a point from which it can be disposed of by drainage. -Provision should also be made to exclude surface drainage from the -trenches. - -A scheme for trench drainage is shown in the illustrations (Plates 16, -17 and 18). - -Overhead cover may be provided as shown in Plates 19 and 20. - -Loopholes are made wherever head cover is provided. Where the enemy’s -trenches are close, there is considerable danger in using them. -Collective firing takes place over the parapet. When loopholes are used -they should face half-right or half-left and not directly to the front. - -[Illustration: PLATE 16.—Method of draining trench.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 17.—Details of trench drainage.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 18.—Detail of trench drainage.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 19.—Overhead cover.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 19a.—Overhead cover.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 20.—Overhead cover.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 20a.—Overhead cover.] - -The disadvantages of loopholes are: - -1. The difficulty of concealing firing points. Loopholes give the -enemy’s snipers an easy mark. - -2. They lessen the number of rifles that can be used at a given point. - -3. The necessary head cover makes it difficult to get out of the trench -quickly. - -4. Damaged head cover often spoils a good firing point. - -The three types of loopholes are: - -1. Narrowest point of the opening nearest the marksman. This type is -most difficult to conceal, much of the parapet thickness is cut away -and, if of hard material, tends to deflect the bullets into the firer’s -face. This defect may be remedied somewhat by stepping the surface of -the loophole. - -2. Narrowest point to the front. Easiest to conceal but gives a limited -field of view. - -3. Narrowest point midway between the front and rear. A compromise -between the first two types. - -The following general remarks on the construction of loopholes are -taken from a work based upon the experience gained during the war in -Europe: - -1. The angle of splay is usually 60 degrees. The thicker the parapet -the smaller must be the angle of splay. - -[Illustration: PLATE 21.—Types of loopholes.] - -2. The marksman holds his rifle in a line connecting the right -shoulder, the eye and the object, hence most of the body lies to the -left of the rifle. The loophole should be made to the right, with a -niche in the wall of the parapet from the hip to the armpit, to bring -the left shoulder well forward. It will be found that this permits the -right elbow to be placed on the edge of the parapet. - -[Illustration: PLATE 22.—Methods of constructing loopholes with -sandbags.] - -3. Box loopholes with screens or blindage may be used, but should be -placed by a skilled marksman. The great disadvantage is that the enemy -notes these parapet alterations. Steel loophole plates are now provided -for this type of loophole, As the Germans sometimes use a steel bullet -with great penetrating power, it is advisable to place two plates -together to insure protection. - -4. With every precaution that may be taken it is difficult to conceal a -loophole. A good plan is to deceive the enemy by using painted sandbags -and preparing plenty of dummy loopholes. - -5. The minimum width of loopholes should be 2-1/2 inches. If narrower -than this, it is impossible to use both eyes to judge distances -correctly. - -6. The parapet should be so sloped that there is a maximum grazing fire -when the rifle is fired as it lies on the parapet. - -To insure that the bullet will not graze the parapet, although the -sights are clear, look through the barrel with the bolt removed. - -[Sidenote: Communication Trench] - -[Illustration: PLATE 23.—Type of communication trench.] - -In the first line fire trenches there are so many crooks and turns and -the trench itself is so narrow that passage along the same is very -difficult. To provide for this lateral communication a trench known -as the communication or supervision trench is dug. It runs generally -parallel to and a short distance in rear of the fire trench and is -connected therewith by zigzag approaches. The factor that determines -the distance between the fire trench and the communication trench is -that it should be at such a distance that a shell bursting in one of -the bays would not destroy the communication trench. - -The location of the communication trench with respect to the fire -trench and the arrangements of the approaches is shown in detail in -Plate 1. - -The profile of the ordinary communication trench is shown in Plate 23. - -[Sidenote: Dugouts] - -During the artillery bombardment few men are left in the fire trenches. -The remainder of the garrison is held under cover a short distance -to the rear. This cover is provided by a system of dugouts connected -with the fire trench through underground passageways that lead to the -communication trench. This arrangement is shown in Plate 1. - -A profile of the latest type of dugout is shown in Plate 24. - -The solid earth cover is from 12 to 18 feet thick, which gives -protection from all but the very largest caliber shells. - -Effective resistance is supplied by roofing materials as follows: - -1. From shrapnel bullets: 2-inch planks covered with 12 inches of earth. - -2. From 3-inch shells: 4-inch planks supporting 4 feet of earth with a -top layer of heavy stones to cause an early shell burst. - -[Illustration: PLATE 24.—Type of dugout.] - -3. From howitzers of less than 6 inches caliber: 12-inch beams or logs -covered with 8 feet of earth. - -4. From the largest caliber guns: 15 to 25 feet of earth. - -The following table shows the penetration of the German S bullet at a -range of 200 yards: - - _Inches_ - - Steel plate 3/8 - - Broken stone 6 - - Brickwork, cement and mortar 9 - - Brickwork, lime and mortar 14 - - Sandbags 24 - - Sand, loose 30 - - Hardwood, oak, etc. 38 - - Earth 50 - - Soft wood, poplar, etc. 58 - - Clay 60 - - Dry turf 80 - -In addition to the regular “dugouts” for the supports, the latest -type trenches have squad dugouts just in rear of the bays of the fire -trench. These provide shelter during bombardment for the members of the -squad not actually required on duty in the trench bay. - -[Illustration: PLATE 24a.—Section of traversed type of fire trench -showing entrance to squad dugout.] - -[Sidenote: Communications] - -The fire trench is connected with the cover for supports by a system of -zigzag trenches having the profile shown in Plate 23. The arrangement -is shown in Plate 1. - -[Sidenote: Trench Mortar Positions] - -Somewhere between the first line fire trench and the cover for the -supports is a line of emplacements for the trench mortars. Plate 25 -shows a profile of the emplacement. - -[Illustration: PLATE 25.—Profile of trench mortar emplacement.] - -The arrangement of the position is shown in Plate 1. - -These trench mortars are used to hurl charges of high explosives -varying from 25 to 100 pounds into the enemy’s lines. They have a range -of from 300 to 1,800 yards. - -[Illustration: PLATE 25a.—Trench mortar.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 25b.—Improvised catapult.] - -[Sidenote: Cover for Supports] - -At a variable distance to the rear of the first line fire trench is -located the cover for supports, which is organized much in the same -manner as the first line system of trenches and affords a second -position in the system to fall back to in case of necessity. These -trenches are provided with overhead cover and numerous dugouts for the -protection of the men. - -[Sidenote: Machine Guns] - -At every available place throughout the defensive position machine guns -are located, typical positions of which are shown in Plate 1. - -The typical types of cover are shown in Plates 26 and 27. - -Machine guns are a very potent factor in trench warfare. They are -now being employed to a far greater extent than ever before, and the -number is increasing on all the battle fronts as fast as they can be -manufactured. The machine-gun positions are carefully concealed from -the enemy, and fire is not opened until it is certain that it will be -effective. - -The selection of the sites for the emplacements should be made with a -view to bringing a powerful enfilade or oblique fire on the attacking -enemy at effective range, to provide a flanking fire for supporting -troops, and to sweep gaps in the line of obstacles. - -[Illustration: - - _From World’s Work._ - -PLATE 26.—Profile of type of cover for machine gun.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27.—Type of cover for machine guns.] - -Their fire should come as a surprise to the attacking party. - -In the construction of cover for machine guns the following points -should be observed: - -1. They must have a platform for the gun and gunner. This may be -provided for in the construction of the emplacement or built up with -sandbags. The platform should be 3 feet wide and 6-1/2 feet in length. - -2. If head cover is provided, it should not differ in appearance from -that constructed elsewhere in the trenches. The loopholes must be -blinded with gunny sacks. - -3. The front of the emplacement should be cut under to receive the -leg of the tripod, thus bringing the gun up closer to the parapet and -furnishing more cover for the gunner. - -4. Splinter-proof shelters should be provided near at hand for the -members of the gun detachment. - -5. Where the enemy’s trenches are near, the position for the -emplacement should be selected by day and the actual work done under -cover of darkness. - -6. The guns should be located so that they support each other by their -fire. Alternate positions should be constructed. - -7. When located to enfilade straight lines of trenches, special -capioniers should be constructed. - -[Sidenote: Supporting Points] - -At intervals from 800 to 1,500 yards along the first line, supporting -points are established. They may consist of a fortified village or -a specially prepared position having a “labyrinth” of trenches and -rendered well nigh impregnable to infantry assault by every defensive -device known to modern warfare. They are designed to bring a flanking -fire to bear upon the intervening intervals with the idea that troops -cannot pass beyond them until they are reduced. - -[Sidenote: Village Defense] - -The following was the actual scheme employed for the defense of a -French village, and exemplifies the thoroughness with which defenses -must be organized. - -The village was about 700 yards in rear of the front line, and had -three keeps surrounded with wire entanglements and independent of each -other, but with an elaborate system of communication trenches. Water -and four days’ rations were stored in each keep, and wells dug. Each -of the keeps held about one company. The communication trenches were -about 6 feet deep, used as far as possible as fire trenches, and well -traversed. Firing platforms were revetted with brushwood, and shelters -made all over the village. In addition to keeps, a series of lines -existed in the rear of the front line, intercommunicating and provided -with barbed wire. A small wood on one point of the front was defended -by a network of low wire entanglements and a line of high wire netting. - -Every officer had to know all about his section and its communications -with right and left. Telephone wires were laid low down in -communication trenches and fastened a few inches from ground with -wooden pickets. - -Machine guns were placed so as to flank salients. A 65-mm. field gun -was placed in the front line to sweep the village, and an observation -station placed in a tree. The observer wore a green mask and green -sheet. - -Great use was made of brushwood and undergrowth to revet steps of -firing platform. - -All work was carried out by regimental officers and men without help -from the engineers, who were fully employed in mining. The garrison of -the village and the front line trenches in the vicinity was about one -battalion, but the fire trenches were sufficient for three battalions. - - - - -CHAPTER V[1] - -[1]: This chapter reprinted from _Infantry Journal_. - -Use and Improvement of Natural Cover - - -_A screen or mask_ consists of hedges, crops, underbrush, etc., which -hide the rifleman without, however, protecting him from fire. - -_Cover or shelter_ consists of walls, earthworks, etc., which protect -the rifleman from fire. - -On the battlefield, natural features that screen and shelter should be -utilized as much as possible, as they possess the following advantages -over artificial works: - -(_a_) Their organization demands less work. - -(_b_) Concealment is easier. - -(_c_) From their nature, it is difficult for the enemy to estimate, for -a given length, the number of men sheltered. - -They possess, however, certain disadvantages: - -(_a_) The protection is sometimes so excellent that, morally as well -as materially, it becomes difficult to leave the shelter. Example: -quarries with obstructed exits. Therefore, good judgment must be -exercised in the selection. - -(_b_) Some of them are too visible. Example: large hedges. In this case -their range can be easily found. - -As a general rule, do not occupy them uniformly and do not change the -appearance of the organized parts. - -Organization of the cover: - -To organize the cover which protects troops from fire, construct -suitable positions for firing and resting. To utilize the screens which -merely hide the troops without protecting them from fire, dig trenches -behind these screens in the following manner: - -(_a_) Choose the points which give the best field of fire. - -(_b_) Construct cover for firing. - -(_c_) Construct a shelter. - -The constructions are usually “individual” in the first period of work; -afterwards, they are organized “collectively.” The covers are: (1) -for riflemen lying down, (2) for riflemen sitting down, and (3) for -riflemen standing up. - - -Individual Organization of Natural Cover - -Examples of hasty individual cover behind trees, bushes, or branches: - -(_a_) Fallen tree (logs or branches), the height of which is at a -maximum of 1 foot above the ground: - -[Illustration: PLATE 27a.—Use of the cover without improvement.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27b.—First period.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27c.—Second period. - -Progressive improvement of the cover.] - -(_b_) Fallen tree, the top of which is more than 1 foot above the -ground. - -[Illustration: PLATE 27d.—First period.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27e.—Second period.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27f.—Third period.] - -Wood which does not afford sufficient protection against bullets must -be reinforced by earth at the right and against the cover 1 foot -behind. Plates 27d, 27e, and 27f show the progressive improvement of -the cover. - -[Illustration: PLATE 27g.—Sharp ridges, furrows, or top of a crest at -the end of a gentle slope.] - -Examples of hasty individual covers behind a furrow, a crest, a heap of -sand or earth: - -Dig the ground as near as possible to crest _A_ of the furrow in the -manner indicated for the cover installed behind a fallen tree more than -1 foot high. - -[Illustration: PLATE 27h.—Narrow furrows.] - -Use the earth excavated between furrows _A_ and _B_ to build up the -earth between furrows _B_ and _C_ and fill up furrow _C_; continue -afterwards as for the sharp ridge. - -[Illustration: PLATE 27i.—Low wall of earth, or earth and sand heaps, -more than 2 feet high (two methods, _A_ or _B_).] - -(_A_) Lower the height about 8 inches; throw the earth forward. Dig a -trench as indicated in the figure. - -(_B_) Make a loophole in the pile of earth, showing oneself as little -as possible. Improve the firing position by making a place for the -right leg and an elbow rest. - -Examples of hasty shelters (individual) arranged behind a large stone -or heap of stones: - -A heap of stones, the top of which is 1 foot at a maximum above the -ground: - -[Illustration: PLATE 27j.—First period.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27k.—Second period.] - - -General Organization of Natural Cover - -This consists in connecting up and coordinating the individual work -under the direction of the squad commander. The work should be carried -out on the lines adopted for the individual work; and the rules -prescribed for the construction of artificial cover (profiles, depths, -various shelters) should be followed as far as possible. In arranging -the cover, the squads should utilize the natural features of the -terrain. - -[Illustration: PLATE 27l.—Arrangement for a mound of earth.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27m.—Arrangement for a dry ditch.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27n.—Arrangement for a sunken road defended on the -side towards the enemy.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27o.—Arrangement for a sunken road defended from -the rear.] - -Ditches full of water, drains, streams: - -[Illustration: PLATE 27p.—Arrangement of a large ditch.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27q.—Arrangement of a ditch full of water.] - -Ordinary roads, road and railroad embankments, and sunken roads: - -[Illustration: PLATE 27r.—Arrangement of an ordinary road defended on -the side toward the enemy.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27s.—Same defended from the rear.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27t.—Road embankment, defended from the rear.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27u.—Arrangement of a railroad embankment.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27v.—Arrangement of a sunken road.] - -Hedges and woods: - -Dig a trench behind the hedge and throw the earth against it; make -openings in the hedge to facilitate view and fire (Plate 27w). If the -hedge is low, deepen the trench, but make the parapet lower than the -hedge which masks it. - -[Illustration: PLATE 27w.—Arrangement of a hedge.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27x.—Arrangement of the edge of a wood.] - -Avoid destroying the natural appearance of the wood; do not cut -the trees and brush on a certain depth, but cut off branches where -necessary to obtain a field of fire. Behind this strip cut the brush -and small trees so as to make a path 3 to 4 yards wide. Construct a -trench behind the mask of trees. The parapet can be raised up to 2 or -even 3 feet. Construct abatis on the parts of the border of the wood, -where it will not interfere with the fire. - -Walls: - -[Illustration: PLATE 27y.—Arrangement of a wall 2 feet 8 inches high.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27z.—Arrangement of a wall 8 feet high.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 28.—Arrangement of a wall more than 8 feet high -without making loopholes.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 28a.—Arrangement of an iron fence built on a low -wall.] - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -Revetments - - -A _revetment_ is a covering or facing placed upon an earth slope to -enable it to stand at an inclination greater than it would naturally -assume. Some revetments also increase the tenacity of slopes and -diminish the injury by fire. The upper parts of revetments that may be -struck by projectiles which penetrate the cover of earth must not be -made of materials of large units which will splinter when struck. The -upper part of the revetments is technically known as _crowning_. - -[Sidenote: Sandbags] - -Sandbags are made of coarse canvas or burlap. They are 33 inches long -and 14 inches wide. They are filled loosely with earth or sand about -1/2 cubic foot to a bag. Having been placed in position they are -pounded down with a shovel to a rectangular form when they will fill a -space about 20 by 13 by 5 inches. - -The sandbag revetment is constructed by laying alternate rows of -headers and stretchers, breaking joints. The tied ends of the headers -and seams of the stretchers are put into the parapet. Men working in -pairs lay the bags and set them firmly in place with a spade or mallet. - -The advantages are: - -1. The portability of the empty bags. Only 62 pounds per one hundred -bags. - -2. They may be filled with any kind of soil. - -3. They are rapidly filled and easily placed in position. - -4. They are invaluable in making repairs. - -5. They will not splinter. - -The only disadvantage is that they are not durable. The cloth soon goes -to decay and the filling material crumbles away. - -Plate 29 shows the appearance of a sandbag revetment as seen from the -front and from the end. - -[Illustration: PLATE 29.—Sandbag revetment.] - -A squad of six men with two shovels and one pick should fill 150 bags -in an hour. One man uses the pick, two shovel the dirt into the bag, -one holds the bag open and two men tie the bags. Having the filled bags -ready to hand ten men will lay 75 square feet of revetment in an hour. -Four men lay the bags and flatten them out while six carry them. - -[Sidenote: Brush] - -Brush is used in many forms for revetting. Almost any kind will serve -the purpose. For weaving, it must be live and is most pliable when not -in leaf. It should not be more than 1 inch in diameter at the butt. -When cut it should be assorted in sizes for the different class of -revetments. Poles 2-1/2 inches in diameter are cut for the supports. - -[Sidenote: Fascines] - -A _fascine_ is a cylindrical bundle of brushwood tightly bound. The -usual length is 18 feet, the diameter 9 inches, and the weight normally -about 140 pounds. Lengths of 6 and 9 feet, which are sometimes used, -are most conveniently obtained by sawing a standard fascine into two or -three pieces. - -[Illustration: PLATE 29a.—Fascine.] - -Fascines are made in a cradle which consists of five trestles, the -outer ones being 16 feet apart. The trestle is made by driving two -sticks about 6-1/2 feet long and 3 inches in diameter in the ground and -lashed at the intersection as shown in Plate 29a. In making the cradle, -plant the two end trestles first. Stretch a line from one to the other -over the intersection. Place the others 4 feet apart and lash them so -that each intersection comes fairly to the line. - -_To build a fascine_, straight pieces of brush, 1 or 2 inches at the -butt, are laid on, the butts projecting at the end 1 foot beyond -the trestle. Leaves should be stripped and unruly branches cut off, -or partially cut through, so that they will lie close. The larger, -straighter brush should be laid on the outside, butts alternating in -direction, and smaller stuff in the center. The general object is to so -dispose the brush as to make the fascine of uniform size, strength, and -stiffness from end to end. - -When the cradle is nearly filled, the fascine is compressed or _choked_ -by the _fascine choker_ (Plate 30), which consists of two bars, 4 feet -long, joined 18 inches from the ends by a chain 4 feet long. The chain -is marked at 14 inches each way from the middle by inserting a ring or -special link. To use, two men standing on opposite sides pass the chain -under the brush, place the short ends of the handles on top and pass -the bars, short end first, across to each other. They then bear down on -the long ends until the marks on the chain come together. Chokers may -be improvised from sticks and rope or wire. - -[Illustration: PLATE 30.—Method of using the fascine choker.] - -_Binding_ will be done with a double turn of wire or tarred rope. It -should be done in twelve places 18 inches apart, the end binders 3 -inches outside the end trestles. To bind a fascine will require 66 feet -of wire. - -Improvised binders may be made from rods of live brush; hickory or -hazel is the best. Place the butt under the foot and twist the rod to -partially separate the fibers and make it flexible. A rod so prepared -is called a _withe_. To use a withe, make a half-turn and twist at -the smaller end. Pass the withe around the brush and the large end -through the eye. Draw taut and double the large end back, taking two -half-hitches over its own standing part. - -_A fascine revetment_ is made by placing the fascines as shown in Plate -31. The use of headers and anchors is absolutely necessary in loose -soils only, but they greatly strengthen the revetment in any case. A -fascine revetment _must always be crowned_ with sod or bags. - -[Illustration: PLATE 31.—Fascine revetment.] - -In all brush weaving the following terms have been adopted and are -convenient to use: - -_Randing._—Weaving a single rod in and out between pickets. - -_Slewing._—Weaving two or more rods together in the same way. - -_Pairing._—Carrying two rods together, crossing each other in and out -at each picket. - -_Wattling._—A general term applied to the woven part of brush -construction. - -A _hurdle_ is a basket work made of brushwood. If made in pieces the -usual size is 2 feet 9 inches by 6 feet, though the width may be varied -so that it will cover the desired height of slope. - -A hurdle is made by describing on the ground an arc of a circle of -8-foot radius and on the arc driving ten pickets, 8 inches apart, -covering 6 feet out to out. Brush is then woven in and out and well -compacted. The concave side of a hurdle should be placed next the -earth. It warps less than if made flat. - -[Illustration: PLATE 32.—Method of laying out hurdle.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 33.—Hurdle.] - -In _weaving the hurdle_, begin randing at the middle space at the -bottom. Reaching the end, twist the rod as described for a withe but -at one point only, bend it around the end picket and work back. Start -a second rod before the first one is quite out, slewing the two for a -short distance. Hammer the wattling down snug on the pickets with a -block of wood and continue until the top is reached. It improves the -hurdle to finish the edges with two selected rods paired. A pairing -may be introduced in the middle, if desired, to give the hurdle extra -endurance if it is to be used as a pavement or floor. If the hurdle -is not to be used at once, or if it is to be transported, it must be -_sewed_. The sewing is done with wire, twine or withes at each end and -in the middle, with stitches about 6 inches long, as shown in Plate -33. About 40 feet of wire is required to sew one hurdle. No. 14 is -about the right size, and a coil of 100 pounds will sew forty hurdles. -Three men should make a hurdle in two hours, two wattling and the third -preparing the rods. - -_Continuous Hurdle._—If conditions permit the revetment to be built -in place, the hurdle is made continuous for considerable lengths. -The pickets may be larger; they are driven further apart, 12 or 18 -inches, and the brush may be heavier. The construction is more rapid. -The pickets are driven with a little more slant than is intended and -must be anchored to the parapet. A line of poles, with wire attached -at intervals of two or three pickets, will answer. The wires should -be made fast to the pickets after the wattling is done. They will -interfere with the weaving if fastened sooner. Two men should make 4 -yards of continuous hurdling of ordinary height in one hour. - -_Brush Revetment._—Pickets may be set as above described and the brush -laid inside them without weaving, being held in place by bringing the -earth up with it. In this case the anchors must be fastened before -the brush laying begins. The wires are not much in the way in this -operation. - -[Illustration: PLATE 34.—Gabion.] - -_Gabion Making._—A _gabion_ is a cylindrical basket with open ends, -made of brush woven on pickets or stakes as described for hurdles. The -usual size is 2 feet outside diameter and 2 feet 9 inches height of -wattling. On account of the sharp curvature somewhat better brush is -required for gabions than will do for hurdles. The _gabion form_ is -made of wood, 21 inches diameter, with equidistant notches around the -circumference, equal in number to the number of pickets to be used, -usually eight to fourteen; less if the brush is large and stiff, more -if small and pliable. The notches should be of such depth that the -pickets will project to 1 inch outside the circle. The pickets should -be 1-1/2 to 2 inches in diameter, 3 feet 6 inches long, sharpened, half -at the small and half at the large end. - -[Illustration: PLATE 35.] - -_To Make a Gabion._—The form is placed on the ground. The pickets -are driven vertically in the ground, large and small ends down, -alternately. The form is then raised a foot and held by placing a -lashing around outside the pickets, tightened with a rack stick. (See -Plate 36.) - -[Illustration: PLATE 36.—Forming the gabion supports.] - -The wattling is randed or slewed from the form up. The form is then -dropped down, the gabion inverted, and the wattling completed. If -the brush is small, uniform, and pliable, pairing will make a better -wattling than randing. If not for immediate use, the gabion must -be sewed as described for hurdles, the same quantity of wire being -required. - -The gabion, when wattled and sewed, is completed by cutting off the -tops of the pickets, 1 inch from the web, the bottom 3 inches. The -latter are sharpened after cutting and driving a pairing picket through -the middle of its length and a little to one side of the axis. Three -men should make a gabion in an hour. - -Gabions may be made without the forms, but the work is slower and not -so good. The circle is struck on the ground and the pickets driven -at the proper points. The weaving is done from the ground up. The -entire time of one man is required to keep the pickets in their proper -positions. - -If brush is scarce, gabions may be made with 6 inches of wattling at -each end, the middle being left open. In filling, the open parts may be -lined with straw, grass, brush, or grain sacks to keep the earth from -running out. - -[Illustration: PLATE 37.—Methods of use of gabion.] - -_Gabion Revetment._—The use of gabions in revetment is illustrated in -Plate 37. If more than two tiers are used, the separating fascines -should be anchored back. Gabion revetment should be crowned with sod or -sandbag. - -The advantages of gabion revetment are very great. It can be put in -place without extra labor, faster and with less exposure than any -other. It is self-supporting and gives cover from view and partial -cover from fire quicker than any other form. Several forms of gabions -made of material other than brush have been used. Some of them are -sheet iron, empty barrels and hoops. The disadvantages of iron are that -it splinters badly, is heavy, and has not given satisfaction. If any -special materials are supplied, the methods of using them will, in view -of the foregoing explanation, be obvious. - -_Timber or Pole Revetment._—Poles too large for use in any other way -may be cut to length and stood on end to form a revetment. The lower -end should be in a small trench and have a waling piece in front of -them. There must also be a waling piece or cap at or near the top, -anchored back. Plate 38 shows this form. - -_Miscellaneous Revetments._—Any receptacles for earth which will make a -stable, compact pile, such as boxes, baskets, cans, etc., may be used -for a revetment. Canvas or burlap stretched behind pickets is being -used to a great extent on the battle fronts of Europe. If the soil will -make adobe, an excellent revetment may be made of them, but it will not -stand wet weather. - -[Illustration: PLATE 38.—Timber revetment.] - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -Working Parties - - -The infantryman will always be called upon to construct the trench -which he is to occupy. Each company is provided with portable tools, -which the men carry, and each infantry regiment is provided with tools -for the purpose. The digging tools consist of picks and shovels. - -When it has been decided to locate fire trenches along a certain -line officers will lay out the cutting lines and mark them with tape -or otherwise. A company will be assigned for the construction of a -definite section of the trench. - -Let us work out the procedure, assuming that the work may go on -unmolested by the enemy. Such, however, is not usually the case. The -enemy will do anything in his power to prevent construction work. If, -however, we are familiar with the details of the work and know how -to go about it in an orderly and systematic manner under conditions -of noninterference by the enemy, we will be able to carry out these -details of organization and procedure under more or less trying -conditions when the time comes. - -Officers have established the trace of the trench and marked the -cutting lines. It is the ordinary traversed type, 18 feet bays with -traverses 5 feet wide and 5 feet deep, as shown in Plate 14. - -The company is composed of, say twelve squads organized into three -platoons of four squads each. Six bays of the trench have been assigned -to the organization for construction. This gives a task to each platoon -of two bays, including one complete traverse and a half traverse on -each flank. - -Tools have been issued to the first and third squads of each platoon, -the front rank men carrying picks and the rear rank men shovels. - -The company is marched in column of squads to the site of the trench, -approaching it from the rear, and halted with the head of the column -fifteen paces in rear of and opposite the right of the section -assigned; that is, in rear of the first bay of the section. The second -platoon is then conducted by the platoon commander and halted with -its head opposite the third bay. The third platoon is in like manner -conducted to the rear of the fifth bay. Each platoon commander then has -the two rear squads of his platoon, conducted to a point behind the -bay on his left, _i. e._, the second, fourth and sixth respectively. -This allows two squads for the work in each bay, the leading squad -furnishing the first relief and the rear squad the second. - -The leading squad of each column is then marched to a point two paces -in rear of the rear cutting line of the trench, where they take off -their packs and lay their rifles on them. The corporal and his rear -rank man fall out. The corporal assigns tasks, number ones to the first -2-yard section, number twos to the second and number threes the third. - -The tasks are shown in Plate 39. The corporal superintends the work. -Number 4 rear rank marks out the cutting lines with his shovel around -the traverses and starts work on them. - -Experience has shown that the best method of dividing up the work is to -group the men in pairs, one man with a pick and one with a shovel and -to prescribe that they relieve each other. - -The leading squads assigned to each bay work at top speed for 30 -minutes. At the end of the twenty-eighth minute the corporal of the -rear squad brings his men up and deploys them. At a signal from the -platoon commander the men of the first and third squads drop their -tools, get out of the trench, and proceed to the rear, where they rest. -The men of the second and fourth squads jump into the trench and take -up the task. At the end of another 30 minutes this procedure is again -carried out. - -[Illustration: _PLATE 39._ - -_ORGANIZATION OF A WORKING PARTY_] - -This scheme of assigning tasks and procedure was given an exhaustive -test in 1915 in the course of testing out various types of intrenching -tools. It worked to perfection. - -The bays are first completed, after which the traverses begun by No. -4 rear rank are finished up. Great care should be taken to make the -dimensions of the trench as accurate as possible. The squad leader is -held responsible for this. He should provide himself with two sticks. -On one the following lengths are laid off: 1 foot, width of berms, and -height of parapet; 1 foot 4 inches, width of firing banquet, height of -firing banquet above bottom of trench, and width of bottom of trench. -The other stick has the following lengths measured on it: 4 feet, depth -of trench from ground surface to the top of firing banquet; 5 feet 4 -inches, depth of trench from ground surface to bottom of trench. (See -Plate 15 for dimensions of standing trench.) - -When the circumstances are such that the work of trench construction -is interfered with by the enemy, a modification of the system outlined -here will have to be made, but the details should be adhered to as -closely as possible. - -When night work is necessary the trace should be staked out before -complete darkness sets in. If the trace can only be made after dark, -visible reference points needed with white paper, white tape or -screened flashlights may be utilized. Stick to the details of the -deployment, the laying out of tasks and the procedure as indicated for -day work as closely as possible. Avoid making any more noise than is -absolutely necessary; allow no smoking and require such conversation as -is necessary to be made in whispers. Protect the workers by a system of -patrols to the front. - -Noncommissioned officers are held responsible for a systematic and -orderly execution of the work being performed by their units. The -captain cannot be everywhere along the line. He has to depend upon the -platoon and squad leaders in the work. That is why you should study it -and know about it so as to be able to make good when the time comes. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -Grenade Warfare - - -The use of hand grenades as an implement of warfare dates back many -centuries. History records their use as far back as 1536. Up to the -close of the eighteenth century soldiers were trained in the throwing -of hand grenades, and for this reason were called “grenadiers.” At -first there were a few in each regiment, later entire companies -were formed, and finally each infantry unit that corresponds to our -battalion of today had its own grenadier unit. - -Then there was a period of time when more open formations were adopted, -when there was less opportunity for the employment of grenades and -their use was practically eliminated from the battlefield and confined -to sieges, where they have been used more or less since the dawn of -military history. - -With the advent of the Russo-Japanese War came the extensive use of -trenches on the battlefield, and with the trenches came the hand -grenades which were used in large quantities by both sides. This was -especially the case when the fighting lines came to close quarters and -in the assaults against the forts at Port Arthur. - -When the European war resolved itself into trench warfare, such as it -is today, the use of hand-thrown projectiles assumed an importance -heretofore never attained, and today we find ourselves employing hand -grenades in every phase of the conflict. - - -Employment of Grenadiers - -Grenadiers are employed on both the offensive and defensive. They -accompany the attacking lines in the advance on the enemy’s positions, -they clear the fire trenches and communication trenches after parts -of the enemy’s lines have been taken, and on the defense they assist -the riflemen in repelling attack and engage the enemy whenever he has -obtained a lodgment in the trenches. - -[Sidenote: Organization] - -While every infantryman receives a certain amount of instruction in -grenade throwing, there should be a grenadier squad in each platoon -specially instructed and trained in this most effective auxiliary -method of trench warfare. Not all men possess the temperament and -qualifications necessary to make efficient grenadiers. Hence the -personnel of the grenadier squad should be carefully selected. Strong -physique, personal courage and steadiness in emergencies are the -qualifications that count. Men fond of outdoor sports, other things -being equal, will be found the best. - -The grenadier squad is organized as follows: - -_Front Rank._ - - No. 1. First bayonet man. - No. 2. Second bayonet man. - No. 3. Grenade thrower. - No. 4. Squad leader, observer and director. - -_Rear Rank._ - - No. 1. First carrier. - No. 2. Second carrier. - No. 3. Barricader. - No. 4. Barricader. - -[Sidenote: Duties] - -The duties of the several members of the squad vary under different -circumstances of their tactical employment which will be fully -explained below. In general they are as follows: - -_Bayonet Men._—The bayonet men move in advance of the grenade throwers. -When the grenade thrower has thrown his grenades into the objective -trench the bayonet men must be ready to take instant advantage of the -temporary demoralization of the enemy caused by the explosions and -clear the way for a repetition of the operation. - -_Grenade Thrower._—The grenade thrower must be ready and able to throw -a grenade at once whenever the bayonet men or squad leader may direct. - -_Squad Leader._—The squad leader directs the operations of the squad. -He goes wherever his presence is necessary. He keeps a close watch to -the flanks. He replaces casualties and attends to the forwarding of -grenades to the thrower. He acts as a grenade thrower whenever he can -assist the operations in that capacity. - -_Carriers._—The carriers carry as many grenades as possible, and when -their supply is exhausted they go to the reserve depots and replenish. -They are responsible for a continuous supply of grenades to the -throwers. - -_Barricaders._—The barricaders are charged with the construction of -barricades. They carry sandbags and tools for filling them. In addition -they carry as many grenades as possible. They hold themselves in -readiness to go forward and construct a barricade or cover at any point -designated by the squad leader. - -_General._—All the men of the squad must be trained and prepared to -take over the duties of any other member. Before undertaking any -operation each man of the squad should thoroughly understand the part -he is to play in it. - -_Formation._—The formation for the several classes of tactical -employment will be explained when each is considered below. - - -Offensive Operations - -When it has been decided to attack a certain sector of the enemy’s -position a detailed reconnaissance is made with a view to locating and -developing every element of the position, detailed plans are made and -imparted to all concerned. (See Chapter XI.) - -The phases of the attack consist of: (1) The artillery preparation; -(2) the infantry assault; (3) the occupation and organization of the -captured position, and preparation to meet a counter attack. - -During the course of the artillery preparation grenadier squads work -their way across “no man’s land” and establish themselves sufficiently -close to throw grenades into the fire trenches. Failing in this they -accompany the assaulting troops. - -When they are able to work up close they cover the advance of the -infantry assaulting lines by showering grenades into the enemy’s fire -trenches after the curtain of artillery fire has been extended back -into his position to prevent the supports and reserves from coming up -to the front. - -All men of the squad carry as many grenades as possible and such number -as the squad leader may designate act as throwers, while the others act -as carriers and prepare the grenades for throwing. Accurate throwing, -properly observed and distributed, will greatly assist in preparing for -a successful assault. - - -Clearing Fire Trenches - -No matter how well the infantry assault on the enemy’s fire trenches -may be conducted, it rarely succeeds in occupying the hostile position -throughout its entire length. Casualties, loss of direction, and -unexpected obstacles encountered are bound to break up the assaulting -line more or less, thereby leaving gaps in the captured position. -Furthermore the attack on a line of trenches takes place on a -relatively small front by a large number of men. When the trenches -are finally reached and a lodgment effected there will be great -overcrowding. Provision must be made immediately for extending the -line, otherwise the casualties at these points will be exceedingly -heavy. - -It is the particular duty of the grenadier squads to clear these “gaps” -of the enemy as quickly as possible. For this purpose an efficient and -well-organized storming party must be immediately available. - -Let us say that, after careful artillery preparation, the assault has -reached the enemy’s fire trench. There is much overcrowding at the -points where lodgments have been effected. There is a gap in the line -between two adjacent elements. How is this cleared of the enemy? - -The grenadier squad immediately forms for action. Two bayonet men are -in the lead, followed by the grenade thrower, who is in turn followed -by the two carriers. Further to the rear are the two barricaders, who -carry a reserve supply of grenades in addition to their sandbags and -shovels. The squad leader is where he can best direct the operations. - -The grenadier squad is formed as shown in the _first position_, Plate -40. - -1. The grenade thrower puts grenades: (1) into bay 1, at _A_; (2) into -bay 2, at _D_; (3) into bay 1, at _B_; (4) into the traverse leg at _C_. - -2. When the four grenades have exploded the bayonet men rush into bay -1, the leader advancing into the first leg of the traverse trench below -_B_, while his mate remains in the bay for a moment. - -[Illustration: _PLATE 40._] - -3. The squad leader rushes around the traverse to _A_, followed by the -grenade thrower. - -4. When the bay and the next traverse passages are all cleared of -the enemy the word “O. K.” is passed back to the squad leader by the -bayonet men. The bayonet men get into their proper positions and the -remainder of the squad rush into the cleared bay 1 and prepare for the -further clearing of succeeding bays in the same manner as described -above. - -Take the diagram on Plate 40. Study it out in connection with the text -and you will see how this system works out. - -The men work in pairs, the two bayonet men together; the two carriers -behind the thrower; the two barricaders sufficiently far to the rear -to be protected by a corner of solid earth. The squad leader must of -necessity go where his presence is necessary. Usually he stays as near -the grenade thrower as possible. - -When the enemy’s grenadier parties are also very active in the sector, -the distances between pairs are extended so that no more than two men -are exposed in any one bay or traverse leg. - -The formation of the squad must be preserved as long as possible. You -will appreciate that when losses occur the squad leader will have to -replace men and the formation will have to be modified to meet the -changed conditions. This makes it absolutely necessary that every -member of the squad be competent to take over the duties of any other -member. - -When the squad has reached the limit of its advance the barricaders -will come forward and construct a barricade in such position that it is -well in view from a corner some distance behind. - -No passing of bombs forward from man to man is permitted. When the -first carrier’s supply is exhausted he returns to the rear to secure a -fresh supply from the reserve grenade carriers who are following the -grenade squad, and who have by now advanced to a point where their -supply is available. As soon as his supply is replenished he returns to -his proper position in the formation. Should the second carrier run out -of grenades the squad leader may cause one of the barricaders to take -all the grenades in the possession of the two and replace him while he -goes to the rear to secure a fresh supply. - -[Illustration: PLATE 41 - -_Combat in a Communicating Trench_] - -In the meantime other grenadier squads are clearing out the -communication and supervision trenches, blocking up the exits to -dugouts and destroying machine-gun detachments that have thus far -escaped. The assaulting troops have passed on towards the second line, -covered by the curtain of fire of the artillery. - - -Clearing Communication Trenches - -The clearing of communication trenches is effected much in the same -manner as explained for the fire trench. The grenadier squad is -organized and formed in the same manner. The squad works its way into -the communication trench by bombing each leg until they arrive at a -point where the formation, as illustrated in Plate 41, can be assumed. -The grenade thrower throws grenades into the trench at _B_ and then at -_C_. As soon as these have exploded the bayonet men take advantage of -the confusion to advance into the leg _A-B_ under cover of the shoulder -_b_, the squad leader and thrower advance to _A_, the carriers to the -point formerly occupied by the squad leader, and the barricaders to the -point formerly occupied by the carriers. The thrower then puts grenades -into the trench at _C_ and then at _D_, after which the whole squad -advances another notch as formerly explained. - -Where island traverses are encountered the thrower puts a grenade on -each side of the traverse and one in the rear of it. The bayonet men, -one on a side, assault around the traverse and meet on the far side, -and the operation proceeds as heretofore explained. - - -Night Operations - -The grenadier squads may be called upon at night, to perform any of the -services that are theirs by day, and in addition may be called upon -to make night reconnaissances. For this work the men must be able to -organize and reorganize the squad quickly and noiselessly. The throwers -must be particularly efficient. There must be the highest order of team -work. - -[Sidenote: Grenadier Patrols] - -Grenadier patrols are sent out at night to make reconnaissances of the -enemy’s lines with a view to getting information which may include: - -1. Location and organization of line. - -2. The length of line occupied. - -3. Numbers and disposition of occupying troops. - -4. To get an accurate description of the ground. - -5. To locate observation and listening posts or any other advanced -positions. - -6. To locate machine guns. - -These patrols may consist of from two men to the entire grenadier -squad. In a patrol of six or eight men two of them carry rifles and -belts, bayonets fixed. The remaining members of the patrol carry no -equipment except a haversack filled with grenades. The grenades are -used only in case of emergency. It is a reconnoitering patrol charged -with gaining information and therefore does not enter into an encounter -with the enemy except as a last resort. - -The men move or crawl without noise and take advantage of all cover -that the ground affords. If they suspect they are observed, they should -“freeze” to the ground and remain absolutely motionless. On dark -nights it is easy to lose the direction and for the men to lose one -another. Every device or scheme to lessen risks in this respect must -be employed. The men may tie themselves lightly together so they will -not proceed in a bunch and at the same time retain connection with each -other. - - -Notes on Grenade Warfare - -The first step in the training of a grenadier is to overcome his -fear of the grenade itself. This is accomplished by first having him -practice fuse lighting with dummy grenades having live fuses. The -men will be impressed with the fact that the grenades are dangerous -weapons and that familiarity in handling them must not be permitted to -degenerate into carelessness. - -The next step towards efficiency is the development of accuracy of -throwing. For short distances it may be lobbed from the shoulder by -a motion similar to “putting the shot.” Stick grenades may be thrown -for a short distance like throwing a dart. In the trenches the grenade -should be thrown with an overhand motion like the bowler of a cricket -ball, as there is danger of exploding them by knocking the hand against -the back of the trench. - -The men should be taught to throw from all positions—standing, sitting, -kneeling and prone. - -Should the grenade with a time fuse be dropped in the act of throwing, -there is time to pick it up and throw it out of the trench before it -explodes. Under no circumstances must it be allowed to explode in the -trench. - -Communication throughout the squad in action should be maintained at -all times. System is required to insure the throwers having a supply of -grenades on hand all the time and that casualties are promptly replaced. - -Quick action is essential to success. Crawling and stalking give the -enemy what he is waiting for. - -Arrangements to assist a storming party by rifle and machine-gun fire -are of the utmost value and should be provided whenever possible. Care -must be taken to provide a signal which will mark the progress of the -storming party through the trenches. A helmet held up on a bayonet will -do this. - -All grenadiers must be especially trained in the filling of sandbags -and making sandbag barricades. - -The work of the observer is difficult and requires much practice. He -must give his directions to the thrower in no uncertain terms. When -the thrower has missed his objective the observer will give positive -directions for the next throw. Instead of saying “A yard too much -to the left,” he will say, “Throw a yard to the right.” Positive -directions, even if only half heard, are of some use; negative -directions are certain to be both confused and confusing. The observer -should be expert in the use of the periscope. - - -Hand Grenades and Petards - -The hand grenade used by our allies on the western front is the -bracelet grenade with automatic firing mechanism and consists of a ball -of cast iron filled with an explosive and of a leather bracelet which -is fastened to the wrist. To the bracelet is attached a piece of rope -about 30 centimeters long, having an iron hook at its end. - -Just before the grenade is thrown, the hook is engaged in the ring -of the roughened wire of the friction primer placed inside the fuse -plug which closes the cast iron ball. When the grenade is thrown, the -ring with the primer wire, held back by the hook of the bracelet, is -wrenched off by a sudden movement of withdrawal from the wrist and the -fuse is fired. The explosion takes place four or five seconds later. - -This grenade is supplied to the fighting zone ready for use. It is -quite complicated. It can be thrown about 25 meters. - -The German grenade is composite; it can be thrown by hand or fired -from a rifle. As a hand missile, it is used at short distances, 15 to -20 meters. It is composed of a copper rod to the extremity of which is -fixed a cast iron cylinder, grooved to facilitate its breaking into -small pieces at the moment of explosion. The explosive is placed inside -this cylinder. A copper tube, also containing some explosive, is placed -in the interior. It is surmounted by a complicated system for closing -the grenade and for automatic ignition by percussion, which results in -at least 50 per cent of misfires. - -[Illustration: PLATE 41b.—British hand grenade No. 1. - - _a._ Removable cap. - _b._ Detonator holder. - _c._ Detonator. - _d._ Explosive charge. - _e._ Wood block. - _f._ Handle. - _g._ Safety pin. - _h._ Firing pin. - _i._ Cast iron ring. - _j._ Streamer. -] - -[Illustration: PLATE 41c.—The latest type British hand grenade. - -_a._ Percussion cap. - -_b._ Firing pin. - -_c._ Safety pin. When in place prevents firing pin from striking -primer. It is removed just before throwing the grenade. - -_d._ Primer. - -_e._ Chamber filled with high explosive. - -_f._ Cast iron shell, serrated. - -_g._ Wooden handle. - -_h._ Streamers, to keep the grenade head-on.] - -Used with the rifle, this grenade has a maximum range of 400 meters. -At the extremity opposite the grenade, the copper rod ends in a copper -stem about 3 centimeters in length, movable about the axis of the rod. -This stem is covered with a copper sleeve of slight thickness, which is -attached to it only at the extremity fastened to the rod. The diameter -of the exterior of the sleeve must be such that it can be pushed into -the gun barrel without pressure. To fire the grenade, a blank cartridge -is placed in the chamber of the rifle; the quantity of powder left -in the cartridge is regulated according to the distance at which the -missile is to be thrown. At the moment of firing, the explosive gases -penetrate between the sleeve and the stem and jam the sleeve against -the grooves of the barrel. The sleeve and the stem, which is attached -to it, take a movement of rotation in the grooves of the barrel, which -insures the direction of the missile and the maximum efficiency of the -explosive gases of the cartridge. - -The bracelet grenade and the German grenade just described have to -be made in a factory. Attempts have been made to construct similar -missiles with the explosives which are at hand at the front, cheddite -and melinite. Several kinds have been made: a primed cartridge and a -primed hand petard, fitted on a wooden paddle, a preserved meat tin can -filled with explosive, etc. - -The Germans have hand petards similar to those of the Allies but with -different explosives. These missiles are primed by a detonator and a -slow match and can be thrown about 30 meters. The discharge takes place -either automatically or by tinder. They are made on the spot and very -rapidly. The assaulting troops carry them in baskets or strung on a -circle of wire carried on the shoulder. - -[Illustration: PLATE 41d.—Throwing hand grenades.] - -Grenades and petards constitute a terrible weapon. These projectiles -exert considerable moral effect owing to the violence of their -explosion and the awful wounds they occasion, and they make it possible -to reach the enemy at points where it is impossible to use the rifle -and bayonet. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -Gas Warfare - - -Germany first made use of poisonous and asphyxiating gases on the -field of battle. It has become an accepted element in the present war. -Every soldier should, therefore, have a knowledge of the various ways -in which gas is employed in the attack, as well as the measures to be -taken to counteract its effect in the defense. - -The two methods of disseminating the gas over the battlefield are by -emanation and grenades charged with it. - -[Sidenote: Emanation] - -This method has for its object to create a poisonous or irritant -atmosphere. This is accomplished by means of the arsenic and -phosphorous gas being forced through tubes in the direction of the -enemy or by means of liquefied chlorine, bromide, phosgene and -sulphuretted hydrogen gas stored in cylinders under high pressure. -To be successful the gas attack must be attended by the following -conditions. - -1. The weather must be comparatively calm with a wind blowing in the -direction of the enemy at about 5 miles an hour. If the wind is too -strong the gas will be carried over the enemy’s trenches so rapidly -that it will not settle in them. If the wind is too light the gas will -be carried up into the air and disseminate or may even be blown back -into our own trenches, in which case chloride of lime scattered about -freely will disperse them. - -2. There must be no rain, for that would quickly disseminate the gas -and negative the effect. - -3. The attack must come as a surprise. If the elements of surprise are -missing and the enemy has time to take protective measures, the effect -is lost. If the surprise is complete, the enemy trenches should be -emptied very quickly. - -4. The gas used must be heavier than the air, so that it will sift into -the enemy’s trenches as it passes them. It is impracticable to decide -upon any definite hour for launching the gas attack. Everything depends -upon the direction and velocity of the wind. If an hour has been -tentatively designated and the wind changes, the attack will have to be -postponed. - -When an assault follows the gas attack the men should wear the smoke -helmets for at least 30 minutes after the dissemination has ceased; in -fact they must not be removed until the order to do so is given by the -officer commanding the attack. You will appreciate that the enemy’s -machine gunners may have better protection than the men in the bays of -the trenches. - -[Sidenote: Shell and Grenade Method] - -In this method the gas dissemination is effected by means of shells -or bombs being fired into the enemy’s trenches containing the desired -substances which are released and give off irritant fumes on explosion. -The grenades used weigh about 1 pound. They are similar in appearance -to the ordinary tin can grenade. Their effect in a trench will -continue for 20 to 30 minutes. In the attack a large number should be -concentrated in a particular area to produce a large volume of gas. -They are thrown by hand, trench mortar or catapult. - -[Sidenote: Defense] - -Surprise must be guarded against in every possible way. The direction -of the wind must be continually watched, and when its velocity and -direction are specially favorable the protective measures must be -kept ready for instant use and special observers posted. Previous to -an attack the enemy may remain comparatively quiet for several days. -Noises like the moving of sheet iron may be heard. Preparations may be -observed along the position. When the attack starts a hissing noise is -heard; this latter is one of the indications that may be evident at -night. - -[Sidenote: Helmets] - -Each man on duty in the trenches is provided with two smoke helmets, -specially devised and constructed so as to absorb the gas and -neutralize its effect, and which if properly cared for and used will -provide complete protection from any substance likely to be used by the -enemy. They are fitted with a valve tube through which to breathe and -with goggles to see through. There are certain rules prescribed for -their care and use. - -1. They must not be removed from the protective covering except for -actual use against an attack. - -2. When the helmet has been used once it should be replaced by a new -one. - -[Sidenote: Dummy Helmets] - -Dummy gas helmets will be provided in each organization by which the -men may be practiced in putting them on. The men must be thoroughly -drilled in the methods to be employed. - -The following directions accompany the helmets issued to the British -Army. When our helmets are issued it is probable that each will -be accompanied by a complete set of rules for its use and full -instructions for the method of getting into it and for its care and -preservation. - -[Illustration: PLATE 41e.—Gas helmet.] - - -Direction for Use and Care of Tube Helmets - -[Sidenote: Description] - -These helmets are the same as the smoke helmet already issued, except -that stronger chemicals are added and a tube valve provided through -which to breathe out. The tube valve makes the helmet cooler and saves -chemicals from being affected by the breath. The wearer cannot breathe -_in_ through the tube valve; this is intended for breathing _out_ only. - -[Sidenote: Directions for Use] - -Remove paper cap from mouthpiece of tube valve. Remove service cap. -Pull helmet over head. Adjust so that goggles are over eyes. Tuck in -skirt of helmet under coat collar and button coat so as to close in -skirt of helmet. Hold the tube lightly in lips or teeth like stem of -pipe, so as to be able to breathe in past it and out through it. - -_Breathe in through mouth and nose, using the air inside the helmet. -Breathe out through tube only._ - -[Sidenote: Directions for Care of Tube Helmet] - -1. Do not remove the helmet from its waterproof case except to use for -protection against gas. - -2. Never use your tube helmet for practice or drill. Special helmets -are kept in each company for instruction only. - -Should the goggles become misty during use they can be cleared by -rubbing them gently against the forehead. - -When lacrimatory gases are used goggles affording mechanical protection -may be worn, as these gases are not likely to irritate the lungs, -though they sometimes produce sickness. - -[Sidenote: Improvised Methods] - -If a soldier does not possess one of the official pattern respirators, -the following measures will be found useful: - -1. Wet and wring out any woolen article, such as a stocking or muffler, -so as to form a thick pad large enough to cover the nose and mouth, and -press firmly over both. - -2. Place in a scarf, stocking or handkerchief, a pad of about three -handfuls of earth, preferably damp, and tie it firmly over the mouth -and nose. - -3. A wet cloth pulled down over the eyes will be found useful as -additional protection, especially against certain gases other than -chlorine or when the gas is too strong for the ordinary respirator. - -4. A stocking, wetted with water and soda solution or tea, folded into -eight folds and firmly held or tied over the nose. - -5. A sock folded fourfold similarly wetted and held or tied. If the -sock or comforter has been soaked in soda solution it will still act -efficiently when dry, though, if possible, it should be moist. The -spare tapes from puttees may be used for tying on the sock. - -6. Any loose fabric, such as a sock, sandbag, woolen scarf or -comforter, soaked in urine, then wrung out to allow of free breathing -and tied tightly over the nose and mouth. - -In the absence of any other cloths, the flannel waistbands issued for -winter use could be used for this purpose. - -[Sidenote: Knapsack Sprayers] - -Knapsack sprayers are issued for use to clear gases out of the trenches -after the cloud has blown over. A man with the sprayer on his back (and -wearing his smoke helmet) slowly traverses the trench, working the -spray. If this is not done the heavy poisonous gas may linger in the -trench for days and be a source of great danger. - -If supports or reinforcements enter a trench charged with gas, they -should be preceded by a man using a sprayer. - -Sprayers are charged with sodium thiosulphate—more commonly known as -“hypo”—6 pounds being dissolved in a bucket of water and a handful of -ordinary washing soda added. - -Garden syringes and buckets may be used if sprayers are not available, -but these are not so effective. Sprayers should be charged before they -are taken up to the trenches, and should be kept ready for immediate -use. - -Every officer defending a trench against an enemy gas attack should -endeavor to collect information whenever possible, to be sent to -headquarters through the usual channels. Particularly valuable is the -capture of apparatus used by the enemy either for disseminating gas or -for protection against it. If a shell attack is made, unexploded shells -or portions of them should be sent through to headquarters at once. The -time of day, duration of attack, color, taste or smell of gas used, -effect on the eyes, breathing, and all other symptoms should be noted. -New gases may be used at any time, and speedy information greatly -forwards the adoption of preventive measures. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -Service in the Trenches - - -[Sidenote: Preparations for Entering Trenches] - -Preparing to enter upon a period of service in the trenches the company -commander makes a complete inspection of the company which includes: - -1. Inspection of rifles and ammunition. - -2. Inspection of equipment, contents of packs, intrenching tools, -field glasses, wire cutters, first-aid packets, emergency rations, gas -helmets, identification tags, canteens, clothing, etc. - -3. Canteens to be filled with water. - -4. Test bayonets, fix and unfix. - -5. Have company fill magazines. - -[Sidenote: Inspection of Section] - -The company commander precedes the company into the trenches and makes -a tour and inspection of the section assigned, which includes: - -1. Layout of the trenches: fire trench, supervision trench, -communication trenches, machine-gun positions, snipers’ positions, -listening and observation trenches, dugouts, latrines, etc. - -2. Locate telephones, reserve ammunition and munitions depots, water -supply, gas alarms, tools and any trench accessories and utilities that -may be included in the section. - -3. Get any information of the enemy that may be of value from the -outgoing company commander. - -[Sidenote: Tactical Disposition] - -The company commander will then make his tactical dispositions. In -occupying the trenches a certain section of the line is assigned to -each company. This section contains so many bays of the trench. The -following dispositions are suggested as meeting the requirements under -our organization: - -1. The company is organized into four platoons of four squads each. - -2. The section of the line assigned to the company contains eight bays. - -3. Support No. 1 consists of the first and second platoons. - -4. Support No. 2 consists of the third and fourth platoons. - -5. From Support No. 1: Two squads of the first platoon occupy bays 1 -and 2; two squads of the second platoon occupy bays 3 and 4. - -6. From Support No. 2: Two squads of the third platoon occupy bays 5 -and 6; two squads of the fourth platoon occupy bays 7 and 8. - -[Illustration: PLATE 41f. - -TACTICAL DIS - -POSITIONS - -ONE COMPANY OF INFANTRY.] - -7. Each squad establishes a double sentinel post in the bay assigned to -it and the remaining members go into the squad shelters just in rear -of the bays. This gives three reliefs for a double sentinel post and -allows one extra man to be utilized as “runner,” etc. - -8. The remainder of the company is established in the company dugouts. - -9. Depending upon the length of the tours of duty of the company in -the first line trenches, the squads are changed according to a system -that will have to be varied to suit the occasion, the squads in support -taking their place in the fire trench and those in the fire trench -returning to the support. - -[Sidenote: Going into the Trenches] - -Platoons enter by not more than two squads at one time, thus minimizing -the danger from shell fire. The platoon commander will explain to his -squad leaders the extent of trench to be taken over and the action to -be taken in case they are caught under shell fire or rapid fire while -going up to the trenches. A second in command in each squad will be -designated, so that if casualties occur among the squad leaders the -relief will proceed as previously arranged. - -The operation will proceed in silence. Rifles must be carried so that -they do not show over the parapet. On reaching the fire trench the men -of the first relief are posted to relieve the old detail and each man -finds out any points that may be useful from his predecessor on that -post. - -[Sidenote: Information to be Obtained] - -The platoon commander confers with the commander of the outgoing party -and secures all the information possible about the position which -includes: - -1. Behavior of enemy during period preceding relief, and any point in -their line requiring special information, _e. g._, enemy may have cut -wire as though preparing to attack. - -2. Machine-gun emplacement may be suspected at some particular point. - -3. Anything ascertained by patrols about ground between firing lines, -thus avoiding unnecessary reconnaissance. - -4. Any standing arrangements for patrols at night, including point at -which wire can best be passed, ground to be patrolled, or place where -they can lie under cover. - -5. Any parts of trench from which it is not safe to fire. Such -positions are apt to occur in winding trenches, and are not always -recognizable in the dark. - -6. Special features of trench, recent improvements, work not completed, -dangerous points (on which machine guns are trained at night), useful -loopholes for observation. - -7. Places from which food and water can be safely obtained. - -8. Amount of ammunition, number of picks, shovels and empty sandbags in -that section of the line. - -Information on these points cannot always be given properly by word of -mouth. _Written_ notes and plans should therefore be handed over to a -platoon commander taking over for the first time. - -Every man is required to see that he has a good firing position for all -directions. Section commanders must satisfy themselves that men have -done this, and report. _The whole line “Stands to Arms” during the hour -before dawn._ - -After dark, unless the moon is bright, rifles should be left in firing -position on the parapet. All men not on sentry should keep rifles, with -bayonets fixed, in the trench. - -[Sidenote: Routine] - -1. Double sentinel posts are established in each bay. They are on post -one hour at a time. - -2. When the enemy’s trench mortar detachments are active, special -sentinels will be posted to give notice of coming bombs. - -3. Every man in the platoon is to know: - -(_a_) The location of the platoon reserve ammunition and munitions. - -(_b_) The location of latrines. - -(_c_) The topography of the trenches in the platoon section and the -adjoining sections, including the approaches. The location of the -accessory defenses, listening and observation posts, machine-gun -positions, snipers’ positions, trench mortar positions, etc. - -(_d_) The tactical disposition in the sector and the general -disposition of the company. - -(_e_) The location of loopholes. - -(_f_) The places of especial danger in order that he may stay away from -them. - -4. Rifles are inspected twice daily. Every precaution is taken to keep -the rifle and ammunition free from mud. - -5. There is a gas helmet parade daily. - -6. Accurate sketches are made of the trench and any addition or -alteration entered on them. - -[Illustration: PLATE 42. - -_Organization of fire of Observers in the Combat Trench_] - -7. Loopholes are inspected at dusk. - -8. Wire entanglements are inspected and repaired under cover of -darkness. - -9. A log of events hour by hour should be kept which shows every -item of enemy activity and the measures taken during the tour in the -trenches. This will be a valuable reference when turning the trench -over and will make a record of the habits of the enemy that may be most -valuable as a guide for making plans to circumvent him. - -10. The police and sanitation of the trenches will be carefully looked -after. - -11. Platoon commanders may divide the tour of supervision of the -platoon sector with the squad leaders. - -12. The whole company stands to arms during the hour before dawn. - -[Sidenote: Observation] - -Observation of the enemy’s line should be continuous. The observation -and firing system will be arranged so that all parts of the enemy’s -line will be under observation and fire at all times. - -Plate 42 shows the arrangement in general. The appliances for carrying -it out are shown in Plates 43, 44 and 45. - -[Illustration: PLATE 43.] - -The observation is conducted through a small loophole made by a stick -through the parapet or an iron tube run through and directed toward -the point to be observed. To conceal the exit a few tufts of earth and -grass are placed there in an irregular manner. Steel loopholes may also -be employed for observation and firing purposes. They may be arranged -a yard or two apart, so that one man observing through one can direct -his mate using the rifle at the other so that he may bring fire to bear -upon any member of the enemy’s force that exposes himself at the point -under observation. - -The loopholes, both observation and firing, are arranged slantwise in -the parapet so that the observer does not look straight to his front -nor does the firer fire in that direction. - -[Illustration: PLATE 44.—Observation loophole and rifle firing rack.] - -An aiming rack constructed so as to resist the recoil of the rifle and -not derange its aim on firing may be arranged near the observation -loophole. When the enemy exposes himself all that is necessary is a -press on the trigger and the bullet goes straight to its mark. Such an -aiming rack may be easily constructed, as shown in Plate 44. - -Observation of the enemy trenches may also be effected by use of the -periscope or, in the absence of one of these, by a looking-glass in a -slanted position fastened to a stick planted at the rear wall of the -trench and protruding over the parapet, to reflect his trenches. (See -Plate 45.) - -[Sidenote: Field Glasses] - -The enemy’s trench usually appears completely deserted, but on -observing it through field glasses you are astonished by the details -revealed. You will see, from time to time, the eye of the enemy -observer who shows himself at the loophole, or any other activity -that is capable of being observed from the outside. The observer -watching through the field glasses will soon become so familiar with -the appearance of the opposing trenches that he will be able to detect -immediately any alteration in the obstacles, or changes that may be -made, such as the establishment of new listening or observation posts, -new sap heads, machine-gun emplacements, etc. - -Observers are charged especially with detecting the location of -machine-gun emplacements. The examination should be so complete and -detailed as to prevent their existence without their location being -accurately known. - -[Illustration: PLATE 45.—Looking-glass periscope.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 45a.—Trench showing wire overhead cover and wire -trapdoor obstacle. Machicoulis gallery in background.] - -Any observations of enemy activities, of any nature whatever, are -reported immediately so that they may be passed on to the commander -whose unit is manning the trenches directly opposite the same. - -Loopholes should be screened at the rear by a sandbag split and hung -over them. They should be carefully concealed to prevent their location -being discovered by the enemy. There must be no alteration in the -parapet where they are located. - -[Sidenote: Snipers] - -The enemy’s sojourn in the trenches should be made as disagreeable -to him as possible. He must be kept continually on the alert. Our -operations must be made a constant menace to him. It is in this way -that casualties are effected and he is gradually worn out. One of -the best methods of accomplishing all of the above is the employment -of snipers, who are specially selected and trained in this branch of -trench warfare. - -The snipers are on duty all day, but they have their nights in bed. -They conduct their operations in pairs and are given a definite post -to occupy and in exceptional cases may be given a roving commission. -The advantage of having the same men regularly on the same post is that -they learn thoroughly the appearance of every square foot of the ground -included in their area of observation and are able immediately to note -any change that may take place. They soon learn where to look for the -enemy and in fact learn the habits, etc., of the enemy occupying their -sphere of observation. - -The sniper must be an expert in: - -1. The construction of loopholes by day and by night. - -2. The use of telescopic sights, field glasses, periscopes and all -optical contrivances designed for observation purposes. - -3. The selection of good positions for sniping. - -4. Judging distances and estimating or measuring ranges. - -5. Rifle firing. He should be an expert rifleman in order that full -advantage may be taken of the opportunities to inflict losses on the -enemy. - -6. In trench warfare each pair of snipers will be required to report -each evening to the company commander the result of their day’s -operations. - -[Sidenote: What to Fire At] - -When the enemy makes his attack you will generally fire at those who -appear in the sector that has been allotted to you to cover. You may, -however, abandon your target on your own initiative under the following -circumstances and fire: - -1. On officers and noncommissioned officers. These can be recognized by -their gestures. They are generally in the center of groups and get up -and start first. They should be disabled, as this is the surest way of -breaking up the attack. - -2. At a group on the move. Fire should be concentrated on an advancing -group. The time when the group is preparing to start its rush may be -indicated by rifles being raised and the movements that take place -along the line. After a rush has started, look out for the late comers -trying to rejoin their comrades. They make good targets. - -3. When the enemy attempts to build up his line to the front by a -process of infiltration. That is, by having single men crawl from one -point to the other, each man should be fired on during his advance. - -4. Fire will be immediately concentrated on any machine gun that comes -into action. With the German gun prolonged firing heats the water in -the jacket to the boiling point and puffs of steam are given off. Do -not be deceived into thinking that this necessarily gives away the -position of the gun, for this steam has been piped to a distant place -and allowed to escape so as to draw fire that otherwise might be -directed on the real position of the gun. - -5. On signallers or runners. These are carrying information that will -probably be of benefit to the enemy’s commander. You will appreciate -the necessity of preventing this. - -6. On an enemy showing a flank. No opportunity must be lost to fire -upon an enemy that exposes his flank. The fire of a single rifleman -down the flank may cause a whole line to retreat. - -[Sidenote: Use of Rifle Grenades] - -Rifle grenades are capable of causing more losses to the enemy than -bombardment. The rifle grenade arrives at its destination unexpectedly -without any noise; it explodes before one has even time to get out of -the way. As it does not arrive at fixed hours like the bombardment, the -enemy cannot continually avoid it by taking refuge in his dugouts and -shelters; when he is moving about a trench which is subject to rifle -grenading he must be continually on the alert. This perpetual menace, -hour in and hour out, day in and day out, renders his sojourn in the -trenches extremely disagreeable. - -Before rifle grenades are thrown careful observation of the opposing -trench must have been made to determine the point where the grenade is -likely to do the greatest damage. - -Rifles are placed in the aiming racks and the grenades fired from time -to time, day and night, at moments when it seems propitious. In this -way a sentinel may be taken by surprise; a noncommissioned officer or -officer may be caught unawares. - -It should be remembered that we will probably be able to throw twenty -grenades to the enemy’s one. Advantage should always be taken of this -munitions superiority. Every man of the enemy we can put out of action -is one less to kill us in the advance which will eventually come. -Sometimes the enemy will try to reply. Here is where our munitions -superiority comes in again. We can fairly shower him with grenades and -make him take to his shelters. - -It may be advisable to execute a sudden burst of grenade fire. This is -started by a volley and followed by fire at will. - -When the artillery has destroyed parts of the enemy’s trenches or makes -breaches in his obstacles by day he will endeavor to repair them at -night. He may be considerably annoyed and losses inflicted upon him by -a well-directed shower of rifle grenades arriving at points where his -working parties are located. To make this effective the rifle racks -should be placed in position and secured during the day after trial -shots have demonstrated conclusively the direction and angle for them. - -[Sidenote: Shelling] - -You will be impressed by the shells, especially the big ones. The din -and blast of the explosions are, to say the least, terrifying. But -you will soon come to know that the shell often makes more noise than -it does harm and that, after a terrific bombardment, by no means is -everybody destroyed. - -[Sidenote: How to Protect Yourself from Shells] - -The big shell, which is so appalling, is only really dangerous if it -falls on the place where a man is standing, because the splinters rise -in the air. Fall down flat when the shell bursts. Even if you are quite -close, there is comparatively little risk. Get up immediately after -the explosion, especially if you are 200 to 300 yards away from the -place where it burst. The splinters do not fall for some time after the -explosion. - -The steel helmets and the infantry pack will furnish considerable -protection from shrapnel fragments and balls. - -[Sidenote: During the Combat] - -The safest place to avoid the enemy’s shell fire when the attack -has been launched is close up to the enemy’s position, where the -artillery fire has to cease for fear of placing shells indiscriminately -in his own troops and ours. Some men, completely distracted, lie -down with their face to the ground. They will be crushed where they -lie. Artillery fire, when it is violent, tends to throw the ranks -into confusion and disorder. You have only ears for the roar of the -approaching shell. You slow down and attempt to seek cover where there -is no cover. The unit breaks up, and runs wild or stops altogether. -_Disorder and confusion means massacre._ - -March strictly in place. To the front is your safest haven of refuge. -Get hold of the frightened ones and keep them in place. You will need -them to help you when you reach the goal. - -[Sidenote: In the Trenches] - -Dugouts with strong overhead cover are provided for your protection -when not actually required to man the trench. In some places it may be -possible to dig shelter caves and shore up the roofs. - -[Sidenote: Scouting and Patrolling] - - _To the Reader_: You will find a wealth of information on the - methods to be employed by scouts and patrols in a little book similar - to this one in size, entitled “Scouting and Patrolling,” by the author - of this volume. Published and for sale by the United States Infantry - Association, Washington, D. C. Price 50 cents, by mail, postpaid. _Get - your copy now and prepare yourself for these important duties._ - -Scouting and patrolling to the front is of greatest importance. It is -kept up both day and night. The units occupying the first line send out -patrols whenever necessary. They are frequently able to obtain valuable -information and at the same time serve to counteract the enemy’s -efforts in this direction. - -The patrols generally consist of a junior officer or noncommissioned -officer and from four to six selected men. Their operations are -conducted in accordance with the situation and the mission they are -sent on. - -Hand grenades are frequently carried for both offensive and defensive -operations. Grenade patrols always carry them. The operations of -patrols may include: - -1. Reconnaissance of sectors of the enemy’s position with a view to -determining his dispositions and arrangement of obstacles. - -2. Making sketches of positions. - -3. Capturing prisoners. - -4. Opposing enemy patrols. - -5. Harassing the enemy. - -When the patrol goes out every man in the sector of the firing line -must be informed of such fact and the possibility of its returning -through his post. It is not sufficient to simply notify the men on post -at the time the patrol goes out, as a man cannot always be trusted to -pass the information on to his relief. Word should be quietly taken -along the line by the noncommissioned officer in charge of the relief -in person. When the patrol is out, special instructions have to be -given with respect to firing. To cease firing altogether is very -undesirable. It arouses the enemy’s suspicions. A few trustworthy -riflemen are directed to fire high at intervals. No lights are sent up -while the patrol is out. - -If the patrol is to remain stationary, similar to the outguard of an -outpost, communication may be maintained by means of a string, spelling -out the messages by Morse code, two jerks meaning a dash and one jerk -meaning a dot. - -Where night patrols have to remain out under trying conditions special -dugouts should be reserved where they can rest upon their return. - -[Sidenote: Care of Arms] - -The infantryman’s rifle is his best friend. The personal care that -he gives to it is indicative of his soldierness and discipline. Your -rifle must be kept in prime condition, otherwise it may fail you at a -critical moment. A canvas breech cover that will protect the bolt and -magazine mechanism will be found a great advantage when the rifle is -not in use. Care must be taken to exclude mud and dirt from the bolt -mechanisms. Do not put mud-covered cartridges into the magazine. Wipe -them off first. Arrange a proper receptacle near your post for the -storage of your reserve ammunition. Be careful that you do not clog -the muzzle of the rifle with mud and dirt. If fired in this condition -it will ruin the rifle. Be careful not to clog up the sight cover with -mud. Oil the rifle frequently with good sperm oil. Half of the oilers -in the squad should be filled with oil and the other half with Hoppe’s -No. 9 Powder Solvent. - -Rifles must be carefully inspected daily by platoon commanders and the -men required to work on them during the periods off post. - -[Sidenote: Care of Trenches] - -Repairs will have to be made daily. The widening of trenches in the -making of repairs should be strictly forbidden. Under no circumstances -must they be altered in any manner except on the order of the company -commander. - -Platoon commanders will go over every part of the trench several times -daily with the squad leaders of the various sections and decide upon -the repairs and improvements to be made. A complete and thorough police -will be made prior to being relieved. All refuse will be removed. Fired -cartridges will be disposed of, as they might get imbedded in the -trench floor and hinder subsequent digging. - -Each squad leader will be held strictly responsible for the state of -police of the section of trench occupied by his squad. - -[Sidenote: Latrines] - -Latrines are located at convenient points in the trenches. For the -men on duty in the first line they are generally dug to the flank of -a connecting trench and connected therewith by a passageway. Their -location is plainly marked. - -The rules of sanitation are even more strictly observed in trenches -than they are in soldier camps. The trenches and passageways must not -under any circumstances be defiled. Latrines should be kept clean and -sanitary. They will be carefully protected from flies. The free use of -chloride of lime daily is an absolute necessity. - -[Sidenote: Maps] - -A complete detailed plan of our own trenches and as much as is known -of those of the enemy opposite should be made, and be available for -study and to refer to in making reports. Every bay of the trench should -be numbered, every traverse lettered. All junction points of fire and -communicating trenches, all dugouts, all posts, mortar positions, -machine-gun positions, observation posts, and any points that it may be -necessary to refer to in reports should be designated by numbers. - -[Sidenote: Frost Bite; Chilled Feet] - -The causes are: - -1. Prolonged standing in cold water or liquid mud. - -2. Tight boots and leggings, that interfere with the blood circulation. - -[Sidenote: Prevention] - -1. Before going into the trenches wash the feet and legs and dry them -thoroughly. The British Army has an issue of an anti-freeze mixture -which will probably be issued to our troops also. The feet and legs -should be rubbed with it. Put on perfectly dry socks. An extra pair of -dry socks should be carried. - -2. During the period of service in the trenches the feet should be -treated in this manner from time to time. - -3. When the feet are cold, hot water will not be used for washing nor -will they be held close to a fire. - -4. Rubber boots must be worn only in the trenches. On no account must -they be worn while on reserve. - - -Trench Soldiers’ Creed - -To be of the greatest effectiveness in the trench every soldier, -personally and collectively, must be able to adopt the following creed -and live up to it: - -1. We are here for two purposes, to do as much damage as possible to -the enemy and to hold our section of the line against all attacks. We -are doing everything in our power to accomplish these missions. We -realize that every man of the enemy confronting us that is now placed -_hors de combat_ will be there ready to shoot us down when the assault -takes place. We realize also that if the enemy makes a lodgment on -our section of the line that it endangers others and a costly counter -attack may be necessary. We _will_ hold on. - -2. With the means at hand and those we are able to devise we will make -the enemy’s stay in his trenches as uncomfortable and disagreeable as -possible. All of our utilities are being utilized to the fullest extent -and our various detachments are organized and their tactical operations -are conducted with this object in view. - -3. We have done everything possible to strengthen our line. - -4. If, despite all the precautions we can take and the hardest fight -we are able to make, the enemy succeeds in effecting a lodgment on our -section of the line, we will meet him with the bayonet and fight to the -last drop of our blood. - -5. We are all familiar with the tactical dispositions in our section -of the line. Those of us on the flanks connect up with the platoons -to our right and left. We know the route to company and battalion -headquarters and know where the nearest support is located. We know -the position of our machine guns and the sector they cover. We are in -constant communication with the observing posts that cover our front, -and our observing posts covering the other platoons are in constant -communication with them. - -6. We know the firing position assigned to us and are familiar with the -use to be made of the accessories furnished us. We can fire over the -parapet at the foot of our wire entanglements to repel night attack. - -7. We will at all times be careful about needlessly exposing ourselves. -We appreciate the fact that it is absolutely stupid to get killed or -wounded in the trench through negligence. By so doing one has served no -purpose and a soldier cannot be replaced. Our leaders have warned us of -the especially dangerous places. We know where they are and avoid them -except when our presence there is necessary as a matter of duty. - -8. The sections of the enemy’s line that we are to cover with our fire -have all been pointed out and each of us is familiar with same. We have -located the enemy’s loopholes and are doing our best to keep them under -fire. - -9. We know our way and move noiselessly about the trenches. When we -enter and leave it is with absolute silence. - -10. We are doing our utmost to collect information about the enemy, -his defenses, his activity, his movements, and especially his night -operations. All of this information we transmit immediately to the -platoon leader. - -11. We know the best way to get over our parapet to reach the enemy. - -12. Our appliances for protection from gas attacks are complete and -ready for instant use. We have our helmets on our persons ready to -put on. We are familiar with their use and have confidence in their -effectiveness. We will wait for the signal to don our gas helmets -(signal is usually made by beating a gong, and care must be taken -to follow exactly the directions for putting on the gas helmets; -carelessness may mean your disablement). - -13. Our trenches are drained and every precaution is being taken to -keep the drains and sump holes in condition to perform their functions. - -14. We have rendered the parapets and shelters throughout our sector -bullet-proof, and effective measures are being taken to prevent them -from caving in. - -15. We are keeping our trenches sanitary and clean; our reserve -munitions are carefully stored in their proper places ready for instant -use. Refuse is always placed in receptacles when it can be carried -away. We do not under any circumstances litter up our trench floor. Our -empty shells are collected and sent to the rear. - -16. Our rifles are our best friends. We keep them clean, well oiled, -and in readiness for instant use. Our bayonets we have with us at all -times ready to be placed on the rifle. We protect our rifle ammunition -from the mud, as we realize that muddy cartridges will clog the breech -mechanism and cause mal-function. - -17. We are taking every precaution to prevent “trench feet;” when -practicable we take off our shoes and rub our feet for 15 minutes each -day. We do not wear tight shoes and leggings that tend to interfere -with blood circulation. We each have a pair of dry socks to put on. We -do not wear rubber boots except when it is absolutely necessary. - -18. We observe the orders regarding the wearing of equipment. - -19. We do not drink any water except that from authorized sources. We -replenish our canteens whenever practicable. - -In addition to the above the platoon commander must be able to adopt -the following and· live up to them: - -1. My sentries are posted in the proper places. They are posted by -noncommissioned officers. They have the proper orders. No man is -ever on duty more than one hour at a time. I visit them at frequent -intervals. - -2. I have a runner ready to carry a message to company headquarters. I -realize that any information of the enemy that I may secure may be of -great importance at regimental and other headquarters. I will therefore -send it back with the utmost dispatch. - -3. I am familiar with the methods of communicating with the artillery, -of giving them information and of asking them for support. - -4. My patrols operating to the front at night have been properly -instructed and are doing their duty effectively. All sentries in the -trench have been notified when they are out and cautioned to look out -for their return. - -5. I have given complete and detailed instruction covering what to do -in case of gas attacks and the sending out of the S. O. S. signal. I -have gas and attack messages already prepared and ready to send after -inserting the time and place in them. - -6. I know the name of every man in my platoon and they all know me. - -7. I am here to inflict as much damage as possible on the enemy and to -hold my part of the line. _I will do it!_ - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -The Attack in Trench Warfare - - -[Sidenote: Objectives] - -The objectives which must be dealt with in the attack of an intrenched -position such as will be found on the western front are: - -1. The trenches of the first line. - -2. The supporting points. - -3. The trenches of the second line. - -By a study of the text preceding this you must realize that in the -defense of these objectives there will be employed artillery, rifles, -grenades and machine guns. - -[Sidenote: Artillery Preparation] - -The first phase of the attack is the artillery preparation. In order -that the infantry may make the attack with a minimum of losses, the -artillery must have destroyed the wire entanglements and obstacles -that obstruct the advance, or at least have sufficiently breached them -to permit their being negotiated. The destruction of these obstacles -is never complete. It would require too great an expenditure of -ammunition. The infantry occupying the hostile trenches must be simply -overwhelmed with artillery fire so that they will be unable to man the -parapets when the assault is launched. During the artillery preparation -the hostile infantry does not occupy their firing positions in the -trenches but remain in their dugouts, which are fully protected from -all but the heaviest shells. Only a few observers are left in the -trenches. - -When the bombardment against this particular part of the line ceases -the infantry leave their dugouts and man the firing positions. To -prevent this is one of the most important as well as most difficult -tasks of the artillery. This may be effected by a well-directed fire -on the exits to the dugouts with a view to caving them in and thus -preventing the egress of the occupants The enemy may sometimes be -induced to leave his shelter prematurely by the following ruse: - -1. Cease the artillery fire. - -2. Open a heavy rifle fire; this causes the enemy to believe that the -assault has begun and he will man his parapets in strength. - -3. After waiting for several minutes open the artillery again with even -increased vigor. - -The hostile infantry may be forced out of his dugouts by the use of -shells and grenades containing suffocating gases which penetrate the -shelters and make them untenable. - -The artillery is also charged with putting the enemy’s artillery out of -action to prevent them from firing upon the attacking infantry. - -If the enemy artillery is left free, it will shell our trenches and -approaches, causing casualties and confusion and thus interfering with -the formation for the attack. The location of hostile batteries is -effected by aerial reconnaissance. - -Another task of the artillery is to prevent the hostile reserves from -coming up to reinforce their firing lines. These reserves will be -located back in the second line until their presence is required at -the front. As long as the artillery preparation continues they remain -in the shelters, but as soon as it ceases they man the trenches. -The artillery must therefore extend its fire to the second line and -continue it while the first line is being rushed. Back of the second -position the enemy holds strong reserves. The entrance of these into -action must be prevented. This is accomplished by extending the curtain -of fire still further to the rear. The supporting points must receive a -lion’s share of attention for, bristling with machine guns and trench -mortars, they are the really dangerous elements to the infantry attack -after it passes the first line trenches. - -The weapon which inflicts the greatest losses on the assaulting -infantry is the machine gun, which appears suddenly out of the ground -and lays low whole units. By a careful reconnaissance these machine-gun -positions are ferreted out and every possible means are taken to effect -their destruction. - -The effectiveness of the artillery preparation depends simply upon -superiority of guns and munitions. In this respect we now possess a -great advantage, for the state of our munition supply is such that our -artillery may fire several shells to one of the enemy. This is what -established the superiority. - -[Sidenote: Organization of Infantry Attack] - -The organization of the attacking infantry corresponds in a general -way to the organization of the position being attacked. A first line -of assault is organized. Its mission is the capture of the enemy’s -first line trenches. A second line follows, having for its mission -the assault and capture of the second line trenches. A separate -organization of these two lines is necessary for the reason that the -first attacking line is generally so disorganized in the fighting that -it no longer possesses the cohesion necessary to carry it through to -the second line. It has been found necessary to launch a comparatively -fresh and intact force against it. - -As the first position is organized into several separate lines of -defense, so also is the first attacking line organized and launched in -two or more waves, those in rear being in the nature of reinforcements -to those in front. - -[Sidenote: Objectives] - -Each unit of the attacking line is assigned a distinct objective. -Certain units are given the mission of attacking the supporting points -to prevent their enfilading the units advancing through the intervals -between them. - -The main efforts are made along the lines between the supporting -points, as to assault the latter would entail a casualty list not -commensurate with the results. The effort against them is made with a -view to neutralizing their effect. If the attack is successful in the -intervals, the supporting points will fall as a result. - -The waves of the first line are directed against the first position, -the second against the second position. The reserves held under the -orders of the division commander are employed where the development of -the situation dictates. - -Further to the rear, and under orders of the supreme commander, large -bodies of reinforcements are held ready to be moved rapidly to points -where progress has been made to such an extent that maneuver operations -are practicable. - -[Sidenote: Preparation for the Assault] - -Preparatory to the assault, numerous saps (trenches) are run out to the -front from the main firing trenches. The night before the attack, a -parallel is broken out connecting the sap heads. This parallel is amply -supplied with short ladders and is occupied by the companies composing -the first wave of the attack. The saps and the main trenches are also -filled with men assigned to the following waves, who will move into -the parallel as soon as the first wave leaves it. As the artillery -preparation ceases, the first waves rush up the ladders in succession -and move out to the assault. - -[Sidenote: The First Wave] - -As the artillery preparation against the first line is completed -and the curtain of fire shifted far into the enemy’s position, the -infantry of the first wave emerges from the parallel and moves out. -The formation and gait depend upon the distance to the hostile trench. -If the artillery preparation has been effective and the distance is -not more than 100 yards, it is expected that the wave will be able to -reach the fire trench without firing, except possibly when the wire -is reached. If the distance is much greater than 100 yards, it is -necessary to cover the advance with rifle fire. This is accomplished by -a line of skirmishers deployed at extended intervals, which precedes -the wave at about 50 yards. The wave starts out at a walk, carefully -aligned. It afterwards takes up the double time and advances by rushes -until the wire entanglements are reached. - -From this moment the period of the charge and individual combat begins. -The men can no longer be kept from firing. Each tries to protect -himself with his rifle. Each man locates his opening in the wire -through which he is to go and makes for it. The line reforms on the -other side. With rifles at the high charge (a position to our old head -parry, but slanting slightly upward from right to left) the line rushes -upon the enemy. Each man runs straight towards the part of the trench -in front of him and jumps upon the parapet. By rifle shots and bayonet -thrusts he destroys everything in his way. Men selected in advance take -charge of the prisoners. The line is reformed, lying down just beyond -the fire trench, and fire is opened against the second line. Men are -positively forbidden to enter the communication trenches. They are most -inviting for cover, but a man rarely gets out of them. - -The grenadier squad proceed to their work of clearing the fire and -communication trenches. - -[Sidenote: The Second Wave] - -The second wave of the first line starts forward at the moment the -first wave reaches the hostile trenches. If it starts sooner, it will -unite with the first at the entanglement and become involved in the -fight for the fire trench. It will be broken up prematurely and will be -unable to take advantage of the developments of the fight of the first -wave. The reinforcement by the second wave and the disorganization -produced by the assault lead to a mixture of units in the trenches -of the first position. Before starting out to the assault of the -next trench it is necessary that order be restored. When this is -accomplished the attack is launched against the second line. In front -of the supporting points the combat rages. The men are barely able to -hold on the outer edges. In the interval the advance has reached high -tide and has expanded like a wave and stopped. This is the limit that -can be expected of the first line. - -Hasty cover is prepared and advantage taken of such cover as may exist. -All elements of the attack open fire on the second position. - -[Sidenote: The Second Line] - -Under the cover of these operations the second line has come up in a -series of three lines, where it is built up compact at the position -of the stopped first line. From this point its attack against the -enemy’s second line is launched. The lines are worked up to a point -from which the assault is to be made, and when the time comes the first -wave dashes out to the attack, followed by the second wave in the same -manner as the assault against the first position was made. - -The action of the two lines of attack may be expected to overwhelm -the greater part of the two main hostile positions. At certain -points, however, the resistance will hold out, and, if not overcome, -will constitute points of support to which the enemy may bring up -reinforcements and even turn the tide of battle by a counter attack. - -To deal with these points that hold out, as well as with hostile -reinforcements which may arrive, the reserve is launched into action, -which brings the attack into the open ground beyond the second line -of defense, and maneuver operations are begun. The mobile units are -rapidly thrown into action, and large forces from the general reserve -are hurried to the point where the lines of defense are broken through. - -From what has gone before we may deduce that the following conditions -must prevail to attain success in an attack on a prepared position: - -1. The attack must be planned down to the most minute detail. - -2. There must be a greatly superior force of artillery concentrated at -the point of attack, and the artillery preparation must be thorough. - -3. The infantry must be sufficient in number, training and morale to -perform the tasks that will be demanded of them. - -4. The arrangements for the supply of ammunition to the firing line -must be planned and carried out in all its details. - -5. Plans for meeting counter attacks must be thorough and complete. The -capture of a position is often less difficult than its retention. - -6. Finally, every officer and man must know exactly what he is to do. - - - - -Scouting and Patrolling - -By - - Capt. W. H. WALDRON - 29th Infantry - Cloth Bound—Fits the Pocket - 3d EDITION - -Price, 50 cents postpaid - -The best, most complete and practical treatment of the subject that has -been produced. - -What To Do and How To Do It - -Just the book needed for the instruction of the enlisted men of your -organization. - -Every soldier in the Army should have a copy and know its contents. - -Endorsed by Leading Officers of the Army - - Published and for sale by - The United States Infantry Association - Union Trust Building - Washington, D. C. - - -Comment from Leading Officers of the Army - -“I have a copy of ‘Scouting and Patrolling’ and wish every other person -in the military service had one. You have presented an interesting and -very important subject in a very convenient, readable form and in its -logical sequence. I commend the book to all soldiers. They will benefit -by a careful study of its contents.” - -“The most complete and valuable treatise on scout and patrol work that -has been published. The small size and shape of the little volume make -it a convenient pocket reference book suitable for field work.” - -“It covers the duties that will fall to the lot of the soldier in time -of war better than any work heretofore published. I predict that every -company commander in the Army will eventually use it as a text-book in -the instruction of his organization.” - -“Your book is excellent. I am amazed at the great amount of information -you have concentrated in such a small volume. I shall certainly -recommend it to the captains of my regiment as a book for instruction -in noncommissioned officers’ schools. I feel that I should congratulate -you on it as an American text-book on the subject that is far superior -to any of the foreign publications.” - -“I find it be to an excellent work on the subject. It is thorough and -to the point. Its size, extremely small cost and valuable contents -ought to recommend it to every soldier in the Army.” - -“I cordially endorse it as being wonderfully comprehensive and -comprehensible in covering the subject.” - -“I am impressed with its simplicity and completeness. It is a most -valuable book for the noncommissioned officer and private.” - -“The book is thoroughly practical and the arrangement admirable. It is -certainly the best book on the subject that I have ever seen.” - - -A few extracts from numerous book reviews - -“Devoid of technicalities and written in an interesting and -understandable style. It is a most instructive book. With unessentials -eliminated, it gives a store of information in language that any man -can understand.” - -“It covers a wide and difficult ground. The dozen chapters of the -little book not only instruct the soldier thoroughly in the duties -of reconnaissance but place at his convenient disposal a valuable -store of information as to military messages, signaling, map reading, -reconnaissance reports, first-aid and kindred subjects.” - -“It covers very concisely every feature of this most important branch -of military training: it is entertainingly written and generously -illustrated throughout.” - - - - -TACTICAL TALKS - -By Capt. W. H. Waldron, 29th Infantry - - -To the Reader: - -The up-to-date method of instruction and training in Minor Tactics is -this: - -1. Prepare a tactical problem covering the subject under consideration. - -2. Take the noncommissioned officers out on a TACTICAL WALK and make a -solution of the various situations. - -3. Follow this by taking the company out on a tactical exercise for the -solving of the identical problem that you solved in the TACTICAL WALK. - -This method will bring results that will surprise you. In the Tactical -Walk, tactical situations are presented to the noncommissioned officers -for practical solution on the ground and they are firmly impressed on -the minds of the men. When the same problem is brought up for solution -with the troops you will see your noncommissioned officers going about -their various tasks in a business-like manner with a knowledge of what -to do and how to do it, that they have never had before. This inspires -the confidence of the men in their noncommissioned officers and as a -result the entire organization is lifted to a much higher “tactical -level” than they have been able to attain heretofore. - -TACTICAL WALKS is an entirely original work. It was written with a view -to inaugurating this system of instruction and training throughout the -Army. The subjects included are: - -Outposts, reconnoitering patrols, visiting patrols, advance guards, -flank guards, detached posts, organization of a small defensive -position. The largest unit considered is a company and that only -incidentally. The main element is the platoon and patrol. - -For each walk a tactical problem has been prepared in blank. This can -be adapted to any terrain that is available. - -Following the problem there are a number of tactical situations such as -one would encounter in actual service. - -The discussions and explanations cover every phase of the subject under -consideration in a purely practical manner. - -A practical solution is then arrived at and set forth. - -At the end of the solution to each situation there is inserted a -Director’s Key, which gives the complete synopsis of what has gone -before. - -Every officer in the Army should have a copy. It will save a lot of -time preparing for the conduct of Tactical Walks. Every noncommissioned -officer should have a copy and study its contents. By so doing he -prepares himself for the duties that he will be called upon to perform -in the field. - -ORDER YOUR COPY TODAY. - -The price is $1.50 per copy, postage paid. - -Copies of the book may be had from any one of the agencies enumerated -on page v of this book. - - W. H. WALDRON, - _Captain, Twenty-ninth Infantry_. - - - ┌───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ Transcriber’s Note: │ - │ │ - │ Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. │ - │ Others are noted below. │ - │ │ - │ Italicized words are surrounded by underline characters, _like │ - │ this_, Words in bold characters are surrounded by equal signs, │ - │ =like this=. │ - │ │ - │ Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs │ - │ and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that │ - │ references them. │ - │ │ - │ Other corrections: │ - │ │ - │ p. 13: Frustrom --> frustum (… a frustum of a cone….) │ - │ p. 75: dorm --> form (The form is then raised….) │ - │ p. 78: staple --> stable (… make a stable, compact pile….) │ - │ p. 109: Plate 40a re-numbered to 41e. │ - │ p. 116: Plate 41a re-numbered to 41f. │ - │ p. 120: Plate 41 re-numbered to 42. │ - │ p. 126: machacoulis --> machicoulis (Machicoulis gallery in │ - │ background.) │ - │ p. 127: he --> be (Loopholes should be screened….) │ - │ p. 155: he --> be (… tasks that will be demanded of them.) │ - └───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ - - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Elements of Trench Warfare, by William Waldron - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF TRENCH WARFARE *** - -***** This file should be named 61330-0.txt or 61330-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/3/3/61330/ - -Produced by Brian Coe, Christian Boissonnas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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