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diff --git a/old/61126-0.txt b/old/61126-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0dff95a..0000000 --- a/old/61126-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6862 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Japan and the Pacific, by Manjiro Inagaki - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Japan and the Pacific - And a Japanese View of the Eastern Question - - -Author: Manjiro Inagaki - - - -Release Date: January 7, 2020 [eBook #61126] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC*** - - -E-text prepared by Richard Tonsing, MFR, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original maps. - See 61126-h.htm or 61126-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/61126/61126-h/61126-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/61126/61126-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/japanpacificandj00inagrich - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - - - - -JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC - - -[Illustration] - - -[Illustration: - - JAPAN & THE NORTH PACIFIC.] - - -JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC, - -And a Japanese View Of The Eastern Question. - -by - -MANJIRO INAGAKI, B.A. - -(_Cantab_) - -With Maps - - - - - - -London -T Fisher Unwin -Paternoster Square -MDCCCXC - - - - - TO - - JOHN ROBERT SEELEY M.A. HON. LL.D. - - _Regius Professor of Modern History Fellow of Gonville and Caius College - Cambridge_ - - THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY - - DEDICATED - - IN GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF HIS KINDNESS AND IN ADMIRATION OF HIS - QUALITIES AS A HISTORIAN - - BY THE AUTHOR - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PREFACE. - - -I feel that some explanation is due when a Japanese ventures to address -himself to English readers; my plea is that the matters on which I write -are of vital importance to England as well as to Japan. Though I feel -that my knowledge of English is so imperfect that many errors of idiom -and style and even of grammar must appear in my pages, yet I hope that -the courtesy which I have ever experienced in this country will be -extended also to my book. - -My aim has been twofold: on the one hand, to arouse my own countrymen to -a sense of the great part Japan has to play in the coming century; on -the other, to call the attention of Englishmen to the important position -my country occupies with regard to British interests in the far East. - -The first part deals with Japan and the Pacific Question: but so closely -is the latter bound up with the so-called Eastern Question that in the -second part I have traced the history of the latter from its genesis to -its present development. Commencing with a historical retrospect of -Russian and English policy in Eastern Europe, I have marked the -appearance of a rivalry between these two Powers which has extended from -Eastern Europe to Central Asia, and is extending thence to Eastern Asia -and the Pacific. This I have done because any movement in Eastern Europe -or Central Asia will henceforth infallibly spread northwards to the -Baltic and eastwards to the Pacific. An acquaintance with the Eastern -Question in all its phases will thus be necessary for the statesmen of -Japan in the immediate future. I have confined my view to England and -Russia because their interests in Asia and the North Pacific are so -direct and so important that they must enter into close relations with -my own country in the next century. - -I cannot claim an extensive knowledge of the problems I have sought to -investigate, but it is my intention to continue that investigation in -the several countries under consideration. By personal inquiries and -observations in Eastern Europe, the United States, Canada, Australia, -China, and the Malay Archipelago, I hope to correct some and confirm -others of my conclusions. - -I have to thank many members of the University of Cambridge for their -help during the writing and publication of my book. To Professor Seeley -especially, whose hints and suggestions with regard to the history of -the eighteenth century in particular have been so valuable to me, I -desire to tender my most hearty and grateful thanks. To Dr. Donald -Macalister (Fellow and Lecturer of St. John’s College) and Mr. Oscar -Browning, M.A. (Fellow and Lecturer of King’s College) I owe much for -kindly encouragement and advice and assistance in many ways, while I am -indebted to Mr. G. E. Green, M.A. (St. John’s College), for his labour -in revising proofs and the ready help he has given me through the many -years in which he has acted as my private tutor. - -The chief works which I have used are Professor Seeley’s “Expansion of -England,” Hon. Evelyn Ashley’s “Life of Lord Palmerston,” and Professor -Holland’s “European Concert in the Eastern Question.” The latter I have -consulted specially for the history of treaties. - - M. INAGAKI. - - CAIUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, - _April, 1890_. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - PART I. - PAGE - _JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC_ 21 - - England and Asia—The Persian war—The Chinese war—Russian - diplomacy in China—Singapore and Hong Kong—Labuan and Port - Hamilton—Position of Japan; its resources—Importance of - Chinese alliance to England—Strength of English position in - the Pacific at present—Possible danger from Russia through - Mongolia and Manchooria—Japan the key of the Pacific; her area - and people; her rapid development; her favourable position; - effect of Panama Canal on her commerce—England’s route to the - East by the Canadian Pacific Railway—Japanese - manufactures—Rivalry of Germany and England in the South - Pacific—Imperial Federation for England and her - colonies—Importance of island of Formosa—Comparative progress - of Russia and England—The coming struggle. - - - PART II. - - _THE EASTERN QUESTION._ - - I. - - FOREIGN POLICY OF ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND - EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 73 - - The Spanish Empire, its power, and its decline—Commercial - rivalry of England and Holland—The ascendency of France; - threatened by the Grand Alliance—The Spanish succession and - the Bourbon league—England’s connection with the war of the - Austrian succession—The Seven Years’ War—Revival of the - Anglo-Bourbon struggle in the American and Napoleonic wars. - - - II. - - FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA DURING THE REIGNS OF PETER, CATHERINE, - AND ALEXANDER 95 - - Peter the Great, and establishment of Russian power on the - Baltic—Consequent collision with the Northern States and the - Maritime Powers—Catherine II. and Poland—First - partition—Russia reaches the Black Sea—Russo-Austrian alliance - against Turkey opposed by Pitt—Second and third partitions of - Poland—Rise of Prussia—Alexander I. and the conquest of - Turkey—Treaty of Tilsit—Peace of Bucharest—Congress of - Vienna—French influence in the East destroyed. - - - III. - - THE NEW EUROPEAN SYSTEM 114 - - The concert of the Great Powers; its aims—It does not protect - small states from its own members, _e.g._, Polish - Revolution—How far can it solve the Turkish question? - - - IV. - - GREEK INDEPENDENCE 120 - - The Holy Alliance—The Greek insurrection—Interference of the - Three Powers—Battle of Navarino—Treaty of Adrianople—The - policy of Nicholas I.; Treaty of Unkiar Ikelessi—Turkey only - saved by English and French aid—Palmerston succeeds to - Canning’s policy. - - - V. - - THE CRIMEAN WAR 131 - - Nicholas I. alienates France from England by the Egyptian - question—Mehemet Ali and Palmerston’s convention against - him—Nicholas I. in England—The Protectorate of the Holy Land; - breach between Russia and France—Proposed partition of - Turkey—War of Russia and Turkey—The Vienna Note—Intervention - of France and England to save Turkey—Treaty of Paris; Russia - foiled—Correspondence between Palmerston and Aberdeen as to - the declaration of war—National feeling of England secures the - former’s triumph—French motives in joining in the war. - - - VI. - - THE BLACK SEA CONFERENCE 164 - - French influence destroyed by the Franco-Prussian War—Russia - annuls the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris—Condition - of Europe prevents their enforcement by the Powers—London - Conference; Russia secures the Black Sea; England’s - mistake—Alsace and Lorraine destroy the balance of power. - - - VII. - - THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR OF 1878 172 - - Bulgarian atrocities—The Andrassy Note; England destroys its - effect—The Berlin Memorandum; England opposes it—Russia - prepares for a Turkish war—Conference of Constantinople—New - Turkish Constitution—Russo-Turkish War—Treaty of San - Stefano—Intervention of the Powers—The Berlin Congress—Final - treaty of peace. - - - VIII. - - REMARKS ON TREATY OF BERLIN 195 - - The position of affairs—The Salisbury-Schouvaloff Memorandum - and its disastrous effect on the negotiations at - Berlin—Russia’s gain—England and Austria the guardians of - Turkey—Austria’s vigorous and straightforward Balkan - policy—Thwarted in Servia but triumphant in Bulgaria—Relations - of Greece to Austria—Solution of the Crete question—Neutrality - of Belgium threatened—Importance of Constantinople to Russia; - the Anglo-Turkish Convention—England’s feeble policy in Asia - Minor—The question of Egypt—A new route to India by railway - from the Mediterranean to Persian Gulf—England’s relation to - Constantinople. - - - IX. - - CENTRAL ASIA 227 - - Rise of British power in India—Rivalry of France—Aims of - Napoleon—Russian influence in Central Asia—Its great extension - after the Crimean War—And after the Berlin Congress—Possible - points of attack on India—Constantinople the real aim of - Russia’s Asiatic policy—Recent Russian annexations and - railways in Central Asia—Reaction of Asiatic movements on the - Balkan question—Dangerous condition of Austria—Possible future - Russian advances in Asia—England’s true policy the - construction of a speedy route to India by railway from the - Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf—Alliance of England, France, - Turkey, Austria, and Italy would effectively thwart Russian - schemes. - - - - - LIST OF MAPS. - - - 1. JAPAN AND THE NORTH PACIFIC _Frontispiece_ - - 2. THE PACIFIC AND ITS SEA ROUTES 46 - - 3. THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA IN EUROPE 97 - - 4. EASTERN EUROPE AND WESTERN ASIA 115 - - 5. THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA IN ASIA 233 - - - - - PART I. - JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. - - _England and Asia—The Persian war—The Chinese war—Russian diplomacy in - China—Singapore and Hong Kong—Labuan and Port Hamilton—Position of - Japan; its resources—Importance of Chinese alliance to - England—Strength of English position in the Pacific at - present—Possible danger from Russia through Mongolia and - Manchooria—Japan the key of the Pacific; her area and people; her - rapid development; her favourable position; effect of Panama Canal - on her commerce—England’s route to the East by the Canadian Pacific - Railway—Japanese manufactures—Rivalry of Germany and England in the - South Pacific—Imperial Federation for England and her - colonies—Importance of island of Formosa—Comparative progress of - Russia and England—The coming struggle._ - - -Without doubt the Pacific will in the coming century be the platform of -commercial and political enterprise. This truth, however, escapes the -eyes of ninety-nine out of a hundred, just as did the importance of -Eastern Europe in 1790, and of Central Asia in 1857. In the former case -England did not appreciate the danger of a Russian aggression of Turkey, -and so Pitt’s intervention in the Turkish Question failed. It was -otherwise in the second half of the nineteenth century, when the Crimean -War and the Berlin Congress proved great events in English history. In -1857 the national feeling in England was not aroused as to the -importance of defending Persia from foreign attack. Lord Palmerston had -written to Lord Clarendon, Feb. 17, 1857, “It is quite true, as you say, -that people in general are disposed to think lightly of our Persian War, -that is to say, not enough to see the importance of the question at -issue.” How strongly does the Afghan question attract the public -attention of England at the present day? - -It is very evident that in 1857 very few in England were awake to the -vital importance of withstanding Russian inroads into the far East, -viz., the Pacific. - -After defeating Russia miserably in the Crimean War and driving her back -at the Balkans by the Treaty of Paris, Lord Palmerston’s mind was now -revolving and discussing the following serious thought: “Where would -Russia stretch out her hands next?” - -I think I am not wrong in stating the following as Lord Palmerston’s -solution of the problem:— - -(_a_) That Russia was about to strike the English interests at -Afghanistan by an alliance with Persia. - -(_b_) That she would attack the Afghan frontier single-handed. - -(_c_) That an alliance would be formed with the Chinese, and a combined -hostility against Britain would be shown by both. - -(_d_) She would extend her Siberian territory to the Pacific on the -north, thereby obtaining a seaport on that ocean’s coast, and make it an -outpost for undermining English influence in Southern China. - - -Therefore in 1856 Lord Palmerston declared war against Persia remarking -that “we are beginning to reveal the first openings of trenches against -India by Russia.”[1] - -This policy proved a winning one. The Indian Mutiny of 1857, however, -scarcely gave Palmerston time to mature his Afghan Frontier scheme, -consequently his views with regard to that country were to a great -extent frustrated by Russia. - -In the autumn of 1856, the _Arrow_ dispute gave Palmerston his -long-wished for opportunity of gaining a stronghold in the South China -Sea. He declared war on China. The causes of this dispute on the English -side were morally unjust and legally untenable. Cobden brought forward a -resolution to this effect—that “The paper laid on the table failed to -establish satisfactory grounds for the violent measure resorted to.” -Disraeli, Russell, and Graham all supported Cobden’s motion. Mr. -Gladstone, who was also in favour of the motion, said, at the conclusion -of his speech, “with every one of us it rests to show that this House, -which is the first, the most ancient, and the noblest temple of freedom -in the world, is also the temple of that everlasting justice without -which freedom itself would only be a name, or only a curse, to mankind. -And I cherish the trust that when you, sir, rise in your place to-night -to declare the numbers of the division from the chair which you adorn, -the words which you speak will go forth from the halls of the House of -Commons as a message of British justice and wisdom to the farthest -corner of the world.” - -Mr. Gladstone, it certainly seems to me, only viewed the matter from a -moral point of view. If we look at it in this light, then the British -occupation of Port Hamilton was a still more striking example of English -“loose law and loose notion of morality in regard to Eastern nations.” - -Palmerston was defeated in the House by sixteen votes, but was returned -at the general election by a large majority backed by the aggressive -feelings of the English nation. - -He contended that “if the Chinese were right about the _Arrow_, they -were wrong about something else; if legality did not exactly justify -violence, it was at any rate required by _policy_.”[2] He described this -policy in the following way—“To maintain the rights, to defend the lives -and properties of British subjects, to _improve our relations with -China_, and in the selection and arrangement of those objects to perform -the duty which we owed to the country.” - -This is easy to understand, and showed at any rate a disposition, in -fact a wish, for the Anglo-Chinese alliance. - -The Treaty of Pekin was finally concluded in 1860, the terms of which -were—Toleration of Christianity, a revised tariff, payment of an -indemnity, and resident ambassadors at Pekin. - -Whatever might have been the policy of Palmerston in the Chinese War, -Russia took it as indirectly pointed at herself. - -General Ignatieff[3] was sent to China immediately as Russian -Plenipotentiary. It is said that he furnished maps to the allies, in -fact did his very best to bring the negotiations to a successful and -peaceful close, and immediately after the signing of the agreement, he -commenced overtures for his own country, and succeeded in obtaining from -China the cession of Eastern Siberia with Vladivostock and other -seaports on the Pacific (1858). - -Lord Elgin asked Ignatieff why Russia was so anxious to obtain naval -ports on the Pacific. He replied: “We do not want them for our own sake, -but chiefly in order that we may be in a position to compel the English -to recognize that it is worth their while to be friends with us rather -than foes.” - -Here began the struggle between England and Russia in the Pacific. - -In 1859 Russia obtained the Saghalien[4] Island, in the North Pacific, -from Japan, in exchange for the Kurile Island, while England was -bombarding[5] Kagoshima, a port in South Japan (1862), but the English -were virtually repelled from there. - -Previous to this period the English policy in Asia was to establish a -firm hold of Indian commerce with the South China Sea, for she could not -find so large and profitable a field of commerce elsewhere. Therefore -the English attention for the time being was entirely directed in that -quarter. - -In 1819 the island of Singapore, as well as all the seas, straits, and -islands lying within ten miles of its coast, were ceded to the British -by the Sultan of Johor. It then contained only a few hundred piratical -fishermen, but now it is on the great road of commerce between the -eastern and western portions of Maritime Asia, and is a most important -military and naval station. - -Hong Kong, an island off the southern coast of China, was occupied by -the English, and in 1842 was formally handed over by the Treaty of -Nankin. It has now become a great centre of trade, besides being a naval -and military station. - -In 1846 Labuan, the northern part of Borneo, was ceded to Great Britain -by the Sultan of Borneo, and owing to the influence of Sir James Brooke -a settlement was at once formed. Now it also, like Singapore, forms an -important commercial station, and transmits to both China and Europe the -produce of Borneo and the Malay Archipelago. - -Owing to the opening of seaports in Northern China for foreign trade in -1842, the growing Russian influence in the Northern Pacific and many -other circumstances caused England to perceive the necessity of having a -naval depôt and commercial harbour on the Tong Hai and on the Yellow -Sea. England was doubtless casting her eyes upon the Chusan Island or -some other island in the Chusan Archipelago, but did not dare to occupy -any one of them lest she should thereby offend the chief trading nation -of that quarter, viz., China. - -However, in 1885 England annexed Port Hamilton, on the southern coast of -the Corea, during the threatened breach with Russia on the Murghab -question. - -“Port Hamilton,” said the author of “The Present Condition of European -Politics,”[6] “was wisely occupied as a base from which, with or without -a Chinese alliance, Russia could be attacked on the Pacific. It is vital -to us that we should have a coaling station and a base of operations -within reach of Vladivostock and the Amoor at the beginning of a war, as -a guard-house for the protection of our China trade and for the -prevention of a sudden descent upon our colonies; ultimately as the head -station for our Canadian Pacific railroad trade; and at all times, and -especially in the later stages of the war, as an offensive station for -our main attack on Russia.” - -Port Hamilton forms the gate of Tong Hai and the Yellow Sea; it cannot, -however, become a base of operations for an attack on the Russian force -at Vladivostock and the Amoor unless an English alliance is formed with -Japan. The above writer shows an ignorance of the importance of the -situation of Japan in the Pacific question. Japan holds the key of the -North China Sea and Japan Sea in Tsushima.[7] She has fortified that -island, and placed it in direct communication with the naval station of -Sasebo, also with the military forces of Kumamoto. She also can send -troops and fleets from the Kure naval station and the garrison of -Hiroshima. She would also, if required, have other naval stations on the -coast of the Japan Sea ready for any emergency. In this manner she would -be able to keep out the British fleet from attacking Vladivostock and -the Amoor through the Japan Sea. Even if she might not be able to do -this single-handed she certainly could by an alliance with Russia. - -If also Japan occupied Fusan, on the south-eastern shore of the Corea, -the Japan Sea would be rendered almost impregnable from any southern -attack. - -Again, Port Hamilton would be useless as a head station for the Canadian -Pacific Railway trade without an Anglo-Japanese alliance. If you look at -the map, you can easily appreciate the situation. Japan, with many -hundreds of small islands, lies between 24° and 52° in N. lat., its -eastern shores facing the Pacific and cutting off a direct line from -Vancouver’s Island to Port Hamilton. It must therefore depend mainly -upon Japan as a financial and political success. - -Japan is now divided into six military districts, while the seas around -it are divided into five parts, each having its own chief station in -contemplation. The Government are now contemplating establishing a -strong naval station at Mororan in Hokkukaido, for the defence of the -district and also the shore of the northern part of the mainland, -especially of the Tsugaru Strait. The strait of Shimonoseki also has -been fortified and garrisoned on both sides, and has close communication -from the Kure naval station, and with Hiroshima, and Osaka. Railway -communication has also made great strides during the last few years, and -rapid transit has consequently greatly improved throughout the empire. - -If the Kiushiu, the Loo Choo, and the Miyako Islands are well looked -after by the Japanese fleet from the Sasebo naval station, then Japan -would be able to sever the communication between Vancouver’s Islands and -Port Hamilton, and also between the former place and Hong Kong to a -certain extent. The San-Francisco-Hong Kong route would be injured, and -Shanghai-Port-Hamilton line would be threatened. Without doubt _Japan is -the Key of the Pacific_. - -Reviewing the discussion, we find that Port Hamilton is rather useless -with regard to the Japan Sea and the Canadian Pacific railway road -without a Japanese alliance, but it would be of immense importance in -withstanding a Russian attack on the British interests from the Yellow -Sea through Mongolia or Manchooria. It is also an excellent position for -any offensive attack upon China in case of war breaking out. - -The British occupation of Port Hamilton was very galling to the Chinese -nation, in fact, quite as disagreeable as the occupation of Malta and -Corsica was to Italy, and the annexing of the Channel Islands and -Heligoland to France and Germany. It has therefore somewhat shaken the -Anglo-Chinese alliance. - -A Chinese alliance, however, is of far greater importance for English -interests than the occupation of Port Hamilton. If relations became -strained a severe blow would be dealt to English trade and commerce in -that part. The main portion of the commercial trade of China is with the -United Kingdom and her colonies; for instance, in 1887, the imports of -China from Great Britain, Hong Kong, and India amounted to about -89,000,000 tael, while the exports to the same countries were 48,000,000 -tael. It is hardly possible to find two countries more closely connected -by trade than England and China.[8] The Hamilton scheme was wisely -abandoned in 1887, and the English Government obtained a written -guarantee from China against a Russian occupation in future years. - -Viscount Cranbrook said in his reply to a question asked by Viscount -Sidmouth: “That the papers to which he referred did contain a written -statement, and a very long written statement on the part of the Chinese -Government giving the guarantee in question. It was not a mere verbal -statement by the Chinese Government, but a very deliberate note. It was -found that the Chinese had received from the Russian Government a -guarantee that Russia would not interfere with Corean territory in -future if the British did not, and the Chinese Government were naturally -in a position, on the faith of that guarantee by the Russian Government, -to give a guarantee to the British Government. The Marquess of -Salisbury, on the part of her Majesty’s Government, had accepted it as a -guarantee in writing from the Chinese Government.” - -This policy was undoubtedly an exceedingly wise and good one. By this -England not only regained a firm and complete commercial alliance, but -also maintained and strengthened a political alliance against Russian -attacks from the Corea and indirectly from Manchooria and Mongolia. - -England also saved money by the abandonment of the Port Hamilton scheme, -and saved her fleet from being, to a certain degree, scattered in such a -far-off quarter of the globe. - -England now holds complete sway both commercially and navally in the -Pacific. Lord Salisbury’s policy is worthy of all praise, together with -Mr. Gladstone’s original scheme. If the scheme had never been originated -there would not have been so firm an Anglo-Chinese alliance as there now -is. - -England’s power at the present time is three times as great as that of -Russia in the Pacific; in fact Russia has always been overweighted in -that respect. Therefore it is selfevident she could never be able to -withstand the combined Anglo-Chinese fleets. - -It seems to me that the only feasible plan for a Russian attack on -Anglo-Chinese alliance would be from Mongolia and Manchooria by means of -an alliance with the Mongolian Tartars. This would be preferable to -coping with England face to face in the Pacific. - -Chinese history plainly tells us that the Chinese could not withstand an -attack of the brave Mongol Tartars from the north, and that they have -proved a constant source of dread to them. - -The Great Wall which stretches across the whole northern limit of the -Chinese Empire from the sea to the farthest western corner of the -Province of Kansal, was built only for the defence of China against the -northern “daring” Tartars. - -Ghenghis Khan (1194), the rival of Attila, in the extent of his kingdom, -who overran the greater part of China and subdued nearly the whole of N. -Asia, who carried his arms into Persia and Delhi, drove the Indians on -to the Ganges, and also destroyed Astrakhan and the power of the -Ottoman, was a Mongolian Tartar. - -In the thirteenth century Kokpitsuretsu invaded China from Mongolia and -formed the Gen dynasty which ruled over the whole eastern part of Asia -except Japan (1280 to 1368). The founder of the present Chinese dynasty -was a Manchoorian. Both, however, were of Mongolian extraction, and well -kept up the fame of the Tartars for boldness and general daring. Since -their times the Tartars have fully maintained their title of being the -most warlike tribe in Asia. - -Therefore if Russia were allied with the Mongol Tartars she would be -able at least to reach the Yellow Sea, even if she were not able to do -China serious harm. - -Her best policy would be to extend the Omsk-Tomsk Railway[9] to Kiakhta -_viâ_ Kansk and Irkutsk, and from there to Ust Strelka and -Blagovestchensk through Nertchinsk; a branch also might be thrown off -from Kiakhta to Oorga, in the direction of Pekin, the metropolis of -China; two branches might also be constructed from Nertchinsk—(_a_) to -Isitsikar, through the western boundary of Manchooria, with the ultimate -object of reaching some convenient harbour on the Gulf of Leaotong, or -the Yellow Sea, _viâ_ Kirin[10] and Moukden—(_b_) to L. Kulon through -the northern boundary of Mongolia in the direction of Pekin; and to -construct a branch line from Blagovestchensk to Isitsikar _viâ_ Merghen. - -By these means Russia would not only open sources of untold wealth in -Siberia, but also secure a larger field of commerce in Manchooria and -Mongolia than she has done by the opening of the Trans-Caspian Railway. -It is clear that there would be more political and strategical -advantages in this quarter, than in Central Asia. Should Russia ever be -able to get possession of a seaport in the Gulf of Leaotong or in the -Yellow Sea, she would deal a heavy blow against the Anglo-Chinese -alliance, and ultimately frustrate, to a great extent, British -aspirations in the East. - -Russia, however, has worked in quite a different way, and is -strengthening the defences at Vladivostock both in military and naval -forces, and is acting towards the Corea in a gradually-increasing -aggressive spirit, which had succeeded in Europe and Central Asia -previously for more than one hundred and fifty years. - -Lord Derby well described the Russian tactics in the following -speech:—“It has never been preceded by storm, but by sap and mine. The -first process has been invariably that of fomenting discontent and -dissatisfaction amongst the subjects of subordinate states, then -proffering mediation, then offering assistance to the weaker party, then -declaring the independence of that party, then placing that independence -under the protection of Russia, and finally, from protection proceeding -to the incorporation, one by one, of those states into the gigantic body -of the Russian Empire.” - -But Russia should remember that a Russian annexation of Corea—“the -Turkey” in Asia—would necessitate an alliance of England, China, and -Japan, who all possess common interests in the Pacific and Yellow Sea; -also that it might cause a second Crimean war in the Pacific instead of -on the Black Sea. - -Japan was comparatively unknown until Commodore Perry, of the United -States, introduced her to European society in 1854. Since that date a -“wonderful metamorphosis” has taken place in every branch of -civilization. - -The total area of Japan is about 148,742 square miles, or nearly a -quarter greater than that of the United Kingdom, while the population is -about 38,000,000. The climate is very healthy, while the natural -resources are many. - -Japanese patriotism is very keen, and their love of country stands -before everything; they are brave, honest, and open-minded. The -following facts bear out the above statement: In 1281 the “Armada of -Mongol Tartars” reached the Japanese shores, only to be easily repulsed -in Kiushiu by the Japanese fleet. Hideyoshi in the sixteenth century -conquered the Corea, and General Saigo defeated and subjugated eighteen -of the resident chiefs with all their followers in Formosa (1873). - -One of the great traits in the Japanese character is that they never -hesitate to adopt new systems and laws if they consider them beneficial -for their country. Feudalism was abolished in 1871 without bloodshed. In -1879 city and prefectural assemblies were created, based on the -principle of the election. The new Constitution was promulgated in 1889, -and new Houses of Peers and Commons will be opened this year (1890). - -Railways are rapidly growing, over 1,000 miles already having been laid, -and soon the whole country will be opened out by the “iron horse.” All -the principal towns are connected by telegraph[11] with one another and -with Europe. The postal system[12] is carried out on English lines, -while the police force is strong and very efficient. The standing army -consists of about forty-three thousand men, which, however, could be -quickly increased to two hundred thousand in case of war, all trained -and equipped under the European system. The navy consists of thirty-two -ships, including several protected cruisers, and in this or next year it -will be reinforced by three more ironclads and five or six gunboats. The -Japanese navy is organized chiefly upon the pattern of the English navy. - -[Illustration: - - THE PACIFIC & ITS SEA ROUTES.] - -The geographical situation and condition of Japan are very favourable to -her future prosperity, both commercially and from a manufacturing point -of view. Look at a map of the world—the country lies between two of the -largest commercial nations, viz., the United States and China, the -former[13] being England’s great commercial rival of the present day, -while the latter offers a large field for trade and commerce. - -If M. de Lesseps’ scheme of the Panama Canal should happen to be -completed on his Suez Canal line, undoubtedly the Pacific Ocean would be -revolutionized in every way. Up to now the waterway from Europe to the -Pacific has been from the West, viz., _viâ_ the Suez Canal, or the Cape -of Good Hope. - -But in case of the “gate of the Pacific” being open, then European goods -could be transported in another direction, and the nations in the -Pacific would have two sea routes. Japan would be placed practically in -the _centre_ of _three large markets_—Europe, Asia, and America—and its -commercial prosperity would be ensured. - -If, however, the Panama scheme failed from one cause or another there -would be another sea route.[14] - -In 1887 the American Senate sanctioned the creation of a company for the -construction of a maritime canal across Nicaragua,[15] and the actual -work was begun in October, 1889. - -The President of the country, which has a surplus of 57,000,000 dollars, -alluding to the commencement of the Nicaragua Canal said in his message -to the Senate:— - -“This Government is ready to promote every proper requirement for the -adjustment of all questions presenting obstacles to its completion.” It -is therefore pretty sure, sooner or later, to be completed, and would -take the place of the Panama Canal and give the same advantages with -regard to the Pacific and Japan. - -“In the school of Carl Ritter,”[16] said Professor Seeley, “much has -been said of three stages of civilization determined by geographical -conditions—the potamic, which clings to rivers; the thalassic, which -grows up around inland seas; and lastly, the oceanic.” He also traced -the movements of the centre of commerce and intelligence in Europe, and -at last found out why England had attained her present greatness. - -Without doubt, since the discovery of a new world the whole world has -become the oceanic. - -But the discoveries of Watt and Stephenson, seem to me to have added -another stage to general civilization, viz., the railway; and it seems -also to me that we might call the present era “the railway-oceanic.” - -The Canadian Pacific Railway scheme was completed in 1887. It has a -total length of at least 3,000 miles, starting from Quebec and finishing -at Vancouver’s Island on the Pacific. Its marvellous success will also -considerably change the general tenor of the Pacific even more than the -Panama or Nicaragua scheme will do. An express train can cross in five -days, while the voyage from Vancouver to Yokohama in Japan, would only -occupy twelve days steaming at the rate of fourteen or fifteen knots an -hour. From England the whole journey to Shanghai and Hong Kong by this -route would take only thirty-four or thirty-five days, and Australia now -has direct communication with the mother country through a sister -colony. - -Last of all, Japan would have much better communication with the -European markets generally than is possible at the present time, if the -English proposed[17] mail steamers should run, and it is said that the -Canadian Pacific route would bring Japan within twenty-six or -twenty-seven days’ reach of England. - -On the other hand, if the Russian Siberian Railway scheme should be -carried out to the Pacific at Vladivostock, it would open a very large -field of trade and commerce with inland Siberia to Japan. It would be -still more so if the Chinese railways were extended so as to open the -entire empire.[18] - -Japan has not only a splendid future before her with regard to -commercial greatness, but has every chance of rising to the head of -manufacturing nations. In the latter respect she has advantages over -Vancouver’s Island and New South Wales, her rivals on the Pacific. She -is known to possess valuable mineral resources, having good coal mines -at Kiushiu and Hokkukaido. The climate of Japan varies in different -localities, but on the whole is exceedingly healthy. Consisting as the -country does of numerous islands she has many good harbours and trading -ports. Wages are low though they might rise if a corresponding increase -of labour is required. The credit system is fairly well carried out[19] -and is growing day by day. There are about four hundred banks, including -the Bank of Japan; and the medium of exchange has a regular standard. -The principal exports are silk, tea, coal, and rice. Japan is not the -producer of raw goods for manufacturing purposes, but simply works them -up. Her area is not in comparison with the commercial greatness which -she will attain in the future. She may import raw goods from America, -Australia, and the Asiatic countries, in the same way that England does. -Her position enables her also to obtain wool from Australia and -California, also cotton from China, Manchooria, India, and Queensland. -All these imports are worked up into different manufacturing goods. She -has an advantage here over England, for she has not so far to send her -manufactured goods, and does not need, like England, to send them all -round the world. - -Thus we see Japan has ample scope from a commercial point of view, and -has plenty of friendly countries close at home for the production of her -raw material, and has great advantages in sea routes to America and -Australia. - -The Japanese are born sailors, being islanders. - -There are several large steamship companies[20] whose ships are -continually plying along her own shores[21] and also to the mainland of -China, and one company contemplates shortly opening communication with -North and South America. It has often puzzled me why Japan does not hold -closer relations with Australia, especially as Australia is becoming one -of her most important neighbours in commerce. I can certainly predict -that if this suggestion comes to pass, that together they will in the -future hold the key of the Pacific trade. - -Australia and her near colonies have already begun to play an important -part in the affairs of the Pacific; and why should she not, considering -their natural wealth and general progress? European Powers have begun to -take great interest, both commercially and diplomatically, in these -colonies. England, France, Spain, and Holland long ago saw the advantage -of having secured coaling stations in the Pacific, and England and -France have always taken great care in selecting posts in the immediate -vicinity of the sea route between America and Australia; and since the -working of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Panama Canal, they have -begun to annex those islands which lie near the route from Panama to the -Australian colonies, and from the latter to Vancouver. The French -occupation of Tahiti and the Rapa (both containing good harbours) in -1880 was with the distinct object of controlling the sea route from -Panama to Sydney, Brisbane, and Auckland. England also began to fortify -Jamaica in 1887, and she is now casting her eyes on Raratonga. The -dispute regarding the New Hebrides and the Samoan Conference[22] were -simply for the protection of the Vancouvan-Australian-San-Franciscan -sea-ways. England has lately annexed the Ellice Islands and undoubtedly -will shortly occupy the Gilbert and Charlotte Islands. - -Germany also has been considering the Asiatic-Australian routes, -foreseeing that the whole Pacific question rests on that basis. In 1884 -she annexed New Guinea, and the Bismarckian policy proved a severe blow -to the British power in the North and West Pacific. There are three -great sea routes from New South Wales to Hong Kong and other parts of -the North Pacific; one travels eastward of the Solomon Islands and New -Caledonia (6,000 miles) and the other two westward of the -above-mentioned islands (5,500 and 5,000 miles). - -The German occupation of New Guinea actually resulted in her having the -entire control of these three important sea routes. The English -possession of the Treasury Islands, the depôt made there, and of the -Louisiade Archipelago is certainly not strong enough to protect these -routes, though they are very important for the defence of the Australian -colonies. Even the trade route from Vancouver’s Island to Brisbane has -to a certain extent been endangered. It would be policy on England’s -part to annex the Solomon Islands if she means to regain the prestige -which she has lost owing to the Germanic policy of annexation in the -Pacific. - -In order to firmly establish her power in this quarter, Germany, in -1885, raised a quarrel with Spain concerning the sovereignty of the -Caroline and Pelew Islands, but this quarrel was composed by the -mediation of the Pope. - -Frederick the Great “preferred regiments, as a ship cost as much as a -regiment.” Bismarck preferred “the Greater Germany,” and his policy was -“the German trade with the German flag” (_i.e._, the German flag shall -go where German trade has already established a footing). This policy -proved very successful, not only in the West Pacific, but also in the -North Pacific and the eastern coast of Africa. Germany now is the chief -colonizing rival of England. - -In 1883 Mr. Chester annexed all the parts of New Guinea with the -adjacent islands lying between 141 deg. and 155 deg. of E. long. Lord -Derby; however, annulled this annexation, regarding it as an unfriendly -act, and he also assured the Colonial Government that “Her Majesty’s -Government are confident that no foreign power contemplates interference -in New Guinea.” This occurred in May, 1884. But this prognostication did -not prove true, for in November of the same year Germany occupied New -Guinea. - -This caused much public indignation in the English colonies against the -Home Government, and the public of England recognized that the reasons -and complaints of the Australian Colonies were right and just. - -The movement of Imperial Federation sprang up in England, the chief -object of which was “a closer association between the Colonies and Great -Britain and Ireland for common national purposes such as colonial and -foreign policy, defence and trade.” The result of this was the Colonial -Conference in 1887; and Lord Salisbury, offering a hearty welcome to the -Colonial delegates, said: “I do not recommend you to indulge in schemes -of Constitution making;” but also said: “It will be the parent of a long -progeniture, and distant councils of the empire may, in some far-off -time, look back to the meeting in this room as the root from which their -greatness and beneficence sprang.” - -The following subjects were submitted for discussion: (1) The local -defence of ports other than Imperial coaling stations; (2) the naval -defence of the Australian Colonies; (3) measures of precaution in -relation to the defences of colonial ports; (4) various questions in -connection with the military aspects of telegraph cables, their -necessity for purpose of war, and their protection; (5) questions -relating to the employment and training of local or native troops to -serve as garrisons of works of defence; and, lastly (6), the promotion -of commercial and social relations by the development of our postal and -telegraphic communication. - -Thus, by means of this Conference, the military federation of the -British Empire was established. By its efforts the English squadron in -the China Sea and in the Australian seas are more closely connected -together than they have been before, and, if needed, the English forces -in the North Pacific would be reinforced by Australian troops. We saw an -instance of this in the late Egyptian campaign. - -One more question remains to be ventilated, viz., whether England is -able to secure absolute power in the North Pacific with the naval and -military forces she has at her command there, using Hong Kong as the -centre of war preparations. - -I answer in the negative. It could be maintained only by an occupier of -the Island of Formosa, the “Malta” of the North Pacific, which lies -between the North China Sea and the South China Sea. Its area is -estimated at 14,978 square miles. It has a healthy climate, tempered by -the influence of the sea and its mountains. Coal is to be found in -considerable quantities, although not of the best quality. Its natural -products are plentiful, such as sugar, tea, and rice. It possesses -several good harbours, one of which, Tam-sui, or Howei, is surrounded by -hills upwards of 2,000 feet high, and has a depth of 3½ fathoms with a -bar of 7½ feet. - -From this island, with a good navy, any power almost might be exerted -over the North and South China Seas, and over the Pacific highways from -Hong Kong to Australia, Panama, Nicaragua, San Francisco, Vancouver, -Japan, Shanghai. All these are in fairly close proximity to Formosa, and -the Shanghai route to Hong Kong actually runs between the island and the -China mainland. - -There remain still two or three more facts which must not be neglected -in order to obtain a fair view of this important question. - -(_a_) It is a fine post for any offensive attack upon China, and also a -stronghold for an attack upon the British power in the Pacific. If -fortified and defended by a navy from any other power, Formosa would -prove a great rival to Hong Kong, which would lose at least half of its -importance, commercially and strategically, and which has already been -somewhat weakened by the French occupation of Cochin China, in 1882.[23] - -(_b_) In case of Asiatic complications, England would naturally expect -reinforcements from Australia, and from the mother country by the -Canadian Pacific Railway, but after they arrive at Vancouver, and are on -transport, they will be at the mercy either of Japan or the occupier, -whoever it may be, of Formosa. Even the Bismarckian policy _re_ New -Guinea would be broken down, _i.e._, all commercial and strategical -communication between Hong Kong and Australia would be seriously -incommoded by the occupation of Formosa. - -(_c_) If China herself occupied Formosa thoroughly,[24] and allied with -Japan who occupies the Loo Choo Islands, they would be impregnable in -the sea above 20° of N. lat. - -Again, if the occupier of the Loo Choo Islands[25] also occupied Formosa -on a military basis, she again would have nearly absolute control of the -North Pacific. England would be supreme if she held both Hong Kong and -Formosa; Germany if the holder would not only complete the Bismarckian -policy in New Guinea, but would start a new Germanic policy in the North -Pacific. - -Thus we see that Japan, China, England, and Germany, might become -important actors in the China Sea, while Russia and China would be -actors behind the scenes in Manchooria and Mongolia. - -The whole result of a historical study of the foreign policy of England -and Russia tells us that Russia has increased her influence by annexing -and conquering in every[26] direction of the compass with Moscow as the -centre of the Empire. Peter the Great started in the direction of the -Baltic, _i.e._, north-west; Catherine II. towards the Crimea and Poland -in a south and westerly direction; Alexander I. confined his attention -to the Balkans and Caucasus, while Nicholas improved on the same -directions, and marched into Central Asia, and since 1858 the Russian -attention has been turned on the East, _i.e._, the Pacific. - -England, on the other hand, has added to her fame by establishing the -following naval and coaling stations along the great highways of trade:— - -Heligoland in the North Sea, the Channel Islands, Gibraltar, Malta, -Cyprus, Perim, Aden, Ceylon, Singapore, Hong Kong and Labuan; the -Accession Islands, St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope, in Africa; the -Bermuda Islands, Halifax, the West Indies, especially Jamaica, and the -Falkland Islands in America, besides many important islands in the South -and West Pacific. - -By means of these, in the present days of steam, she has been able to -maintain her place as the Queen of the Maritime World—a position -superior to Russia, although the latter country is lord of one-seventh -of the globe. - -With such great rivals, we can surely predict that at some future time -Russia will work her way into Manchooria and Mongolia to the Yellow Sea -and attack the North Pacific. “Everything is obtained by pains,” said -Peter the Great, in 1722; “even India was not easily found after the -long journey round the Cape of Good Hope.”[27] To this Soimonf, who -afterwards devoted himself for seventeen years to the exploration of -Siberia, and was its governor, said that “Russia had a much nearer road -to India, and explained the water system of Siberia, how easily and with -how little land carriage goods could be sent from Russia to the Pacific -and then by ships to India.” Peter replied, “It is a long distance and -of no use yet awhile.” But in the present days of telegraphy and -railroads it is not a great distance at all. - -England will without doubt occupy Formosa in order to uphold her power -in the same quarter. The result it would be almost impossible to -foretell. But this fact remains a certainty that will one day come to -pass, that England and Russia will at some future period fight for -supremacy in the North Pacific. Japan lies between the future -combatants! - - - - - PART II. - _THE EASTERN QUESTION._ - - - - - I. - FOREIGN POLICY OF ENGLAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND - EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. - - _The Spanish Empire, its power, and its decline—Commercial rivalry of - England and Holland—The ascendency of France; threatened by the - Grand Alliance—The Spanish succession and the Bourbon - league—England’s connection with the war of the Austrian - succession—The Seven Year’ War—Revival of the Anglo-Bourbon struggle - in the American and Napoleonic wars._ - - -Charles V. of Spain in the height of his power reigned over almost the -whole of Western Europe. Besides being King of Spain he was Archduke of -Austria, Duke of Burgundy, and Lord of Spanish-America. “The Emperor,” -said Sir William Cecil, “is aiming at the sovereignty of Europe which -cannot be obtained without the suppression of the reformed religion, and -unless he crushes the English nation he cannot crush the Reformation.” -Perceiving this important fact, Charles directed his attention to -England, and offered the hand of his son Philip to Mary of England who -was anxious to bring back the Catholic Faith into England. - -Their marriage took place in 1554, and proved a great help towards -re-establishing the Papal supremacy in England, besides making Spain and -England strong political allies. - -Charles V. abdicated in 1555 and spent the rest of his life in seclusion -at San Yusti, and the great part of his dominions, viz., the Colonies, -Italy, and the Netherlands descended to his son, Philip II., who was by -his marriage with Mary nominal King of England. - -On the childless death of Mary the English crown descended to Elizabeth -in 1558. Philip thereupon offered marriage to her, but the virgin queen -wisely declined. England was by this refusal emancipated from Papal -interference and the tyrannies of Philip, and Elizabeth resolved to -carry out her religious and political views independently. Her -doctrinal[28] reform and foreign policy naturally made Spain her bitter -enemy. - -In the Netherlands Philip’s general conduct raised the inhabitants to -revolt, and under the leadership of the Prince of Orange they soon -obtained a strong position, and eventually, in 1648, after a long and -protracted struggle, their independence was recognized. - -Thus the two great sea powers of Philip’s age were both common enemies -against the arrogance of Spain and were consequently united. - -In France a similar religious struggle, fierce and bitter, was raging. -Civil war was rampant and atrocities numerous, the massacre on St. -Bartholomew’s Day being a notable example. In 1585 the Catholic party -formed the “League,” whose main objects were the annihilation of the -reformed party, and the elevation of the Guises to the French throne -through an alliance with Philip II. of Spain. Its manifesto stated that -French subjects were not bound to recognize a prince who was not a -Catholic. The death of Henri III. made the situation worse, for two -candidates for the French throne appeared,—Henry of Navarre, who was -supported by the Huguenots and the Cardinal of Bourbon, whom the -Leaguers followed, while Philip II. laid claim to the throne on behalf -of his daughter by his third marriage with Elizabeth of Valois, sister -of Henri III. Hence, after the accession of the House of Bourbon, a -coalition of England, Holland, and France was formed against Philip II. -of Spain, and from 1600 to 1660 the European coalition was England, -Holland, and France, _versus_ the Spanish Empire. - -In the meantime Spain had acquired Portugal in 1580, by which both -countries became one state, and Philip II. sovereign of the whole -oceanic world. Portugal for sixty years remained a dependency of Spain, -and then the Spanish Empire had attained to vast and unwieldy -dimensions. She could no longer defend her colonies from foreign -invasion and plunder. The Dutch established themselves wherever they -pleased, and plundered and occupied most of the Portuguese possessions. -It has been truly said that the Colonial Empire of Holland was founded -at the expense first of Portugal, and ultimately of Spain.[29] - -England at this time was rapidly rising into the front rank of European -nations. In 1588 the “Invincible Armada” appeared in the English Channel -and was annihilated and disgraced. This was the introduction to that -English colonial greatness on which the sun never sets. - -Then came the beginning of the fall of the Spanish Empire. In 1640 -Cardinal Richelieu, the ablest French statesman, provoked Portugal to -rebel, his object being the aggrandizement of his own country abroad. -The revolt proved successful under John of Braganza, and again Portugal -posed as a nation. This proved a deadly blow to Spanish power, and -Cromwell finally crushed her power by his invincible foreign policy. He -seized Jamaica while Charles II. acquired Bombay. - -This gradual decay of Spain had a corresponding inspiriting effect on -England and Holland. Both became commercial and colonial rivals one with -another. Ashley Cooper said, “Holland is our great rival in the ocean -and in the New World. Let us destroy her though she be a Protestant -Power; let us destroy her with the help of a Catholic Power.”[30] - -The great naval victories of England and the Navigation Acts, 1651, -1663, and 1672,[31] crushed the Dutch carrying trade and navy, and -England now began to assume the supremacy of the whole oceanic world -which has from that time never departed from her. - -However, France gradually filled the breach left by Holland and Spain, -and became a great naval rival of England. The strength of all the -nations round her had been considerably weakened by the Thirty Years’ -War, while her commercial and manufacturing progress soon made her one -of the strongest European Powers. - -From 1660 to 1672 may be regarded as the period of the great national -rise of France. Louis XIV. laid claim to Belgium and Burgundy in 1665 on -the death of Philip IV. of Spain, and in order to enforce his claim his -army entered Flanders and Burgundy, but owing to the pressure of the -Triple Alliance[32] the unfavourable Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was -concluded. - -However, later on Louis broke the Triple Alliance and secured the -valuable assistance of England and Spain, and with the assistance of the -former nation he made a concerted attack upon Holland. France had now -reached the topmost rung of the ladder between 1678 and 1688. - -About this period the struggle against absolute monarchy was nearly -concluded in England, and was further strengthened in 1689 by the -Declaration of Rights. The English crown was offered to William of -Orange and Mary and accepted by them. Already this personal union had -caused an alliance to be formed between England and Holland, at that -time the two great Protestant Powers of Europe, against France the great -Roman Catholic upholder. - -If France had remained quiet during the above-mentioned internal -discord, England would have been unable to form the “Grand Alliance.” -Thus Louis committed a great error in assuming an offensive attitude -against the two Protestant Powers. This caused a coalition to be formed -against him of England, Holland, Spain, and Austria. - -This new system in Europe existed from 1688 to 1700. Then new -complications arose, for Charles II., King of Spain, died childless, and -the extinction of the Spanish House of Hapsburg seemed to be near at -hand. The question of a Spanish successor now occupied the minds of the -European cabinets after the Peace of Ryswick. - -There were three claimants: Louis XIV., Leopold I., and the Electoral -Prince of Bavaria. The dominions of the Spanish sovereign were still -extensive, viz., Spain itself, the Milan territory, Italy, the -Netherlands, and Spanish-America. To unite the Spanish monarchy with -that of France or Austria, would destroy the European balance of power. -Consequently a general council with regard to the succession took place, -and the First Partition Treaty was drawn up. Charles II. of Spain, -however, made a will, appointing Louis’ grandson, Philip of Anjou, as -his successor, so Louis XIV. determined to uphold the will rather than -the treaty. - -In 1701 the Duke of Anjou was peacefully proclaimed king as Philip V. -Louis XIV. on hearing this boasted that “Il n’y a plus de Pyrenees.” -This Bourbon succession in Spain changed the European system, and -henceforth we have England, Holland, and Austria, as opposed to France -and Spain. - -The Duke of Marlborough, who combined the qualities of a general, -diplomatist, and minister skilfully together, was the leader of the -Second Grand Alliance against the Houses of Bourbon. - -The inability of France to defend the Spanish Empire, followed by the -War of the Spanish Succession, paved the way for the Peace of Utrecht -(1713). By this treaty the Bourbons lost Italy and the Low Countries, -but retained the throne of Spain, thus still leaving that country open -to the influence of France. Hence the permanent alliance of France and -Spain was formed in the eighteenth century. - -Meanwhile Holland had fallen into decay through internal exhaustion -caused by her struggle against foreign enemies; thus England had taken -her place as the great maritime and colonial power. Thus we see the -struggle between England and France (supported by Spain) for the oceanic -world in the eighteenth century. - -By the Utrecht Treaty, France ceded to England Newfoundland, Arcadia, -and Hudson’s Bay territory, while Spain also ceded Gibraltar, the -Minorca Island, and the Asiento, the occupation of the two former making -another bitter enemy to England. - -Spain had already a hatred of English trade with her colonies in -America, so that only a single English ship was conceded by the Treaty -of Utrecht, giving thereby only a limited right of trade in South -America to England. But this was evaded by a vast system of smuggling -which arose and proved a constant source of dispute between England and -Spanish revenue officers and rendered peace almost impossible. - -In 1733 the first secret _pacte de famille_ had been concluded between -France and Spain for the ruin of English maritime trade. The American -coast was keenly watched, and the result was “The Jenkins’ Ear War,” -1739. - -Charles VI., having no son, established an order of succession by the -Pragmatic Sanction, signed by nearly all the European Powers, by which -his daughter, Maria Theresa, was to succeed to all the hereditary -dominions of Hapsburg. But on his death two claimants appeared on the -scene—the Elector of Bavaria and Philip V. of Spain. - -Walpole did his best to form a Grand Alliance between Hanover and -Prussia, also between England, Holland, and Austria. However, -Frederick’s claim to Silesia being refused by Austria, the French and -Prussian armies crossed the Rhine, 1741. Thus France began the War of -the Austrian Succession. In 1743 the Battle of Dettingen was fought -between England and France, the former fighting on behalf of Maria -Theresa, and as yet feeling her way carefully before she was brought -into direct conflict with the latter Power. - -After the Treaty of Worms the question at issue was changed to that of -naval supremacy, and the War of the Austrian Succession fell into the -background. - -In 1744, after an attempted invasion of England on behalf of the -Pretender, France declared war against both England and Austria. This -was bad policy, for if she had fought against one enemy at a time she -would have stood a far better chance of crushing England’s power. -Professor Seeley says, “If we compare together those seven wars between -1688 and 1815, we shall be struck with the fact that most of them were -double wars, and that there is one aspect between France and England, -another between France and Germany.... It is France,” says he, “that -suffers by it.”[33] - -England and Holland firmly allied with one another, and German troops -were subsidized by England. - -Against this alliance the second secret _pacte de famille_ was founded. - -Battles were fought on all sides, by land and sea, both in Europe and -America. In spite of French successes at Fontenoy and Laufeldt, she was -severely defeated both on the sea and in America. Louisburg fell, Cape -Breton Island was captured, and many other losses sustained. At length -the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle brought a nominal peace into the oceanic -world, in 1748. - -In 1756 this nominal peace came to an end, and the Seven Years’ War[34] -was fought out, both in the Old and New Worlds; Pitt the elder then -appeared as a great actor on England’s side, and used his great talents -to crush down the French Colonial Empire, and to obtain for his country -the sole mastery of the oceanic world. - -He was essentially a war Minister: “The war was vigorously carried on -throughout 1758 in every part of the globe where French could be found, -and in 1759 Pitt’s energy and his tact in choosing men everywhere were -rewarded by the extraordinary success by land and sea.”[35] - -The glorious death of Wolfe on the Heights of Abraham was followed by -the surrender of Montreal and the brilliant victory of Plassey in India -by Clive over the French. Pitt assured his countrymen that “they should -not be losers” (in giving pecuniary assistance to Frederick the Great) -“and that he would conquer America for them in Germany.” - -This proved true. In 1762 the fall of the French Colonial Empire -occurred, and England obtained Canada and India. - -This wonderful statesman[36] undoubtedly made England the first country -in the world. - - - _Three Wars of Revenge._ - -“A height of prosperity and glory unknown to any former age,”[37] was -reached in England during the administration of Chatham. Now the tide of -fortune began to run against England. - -The passing of the famous Stamp Act, and many other “repeated injuries -and usurpations,”[38] made the relations between England and the -American Colonies virtually hostile. At last the Colonies revolted, and -it gave Spain and France the long-wished-for opportunity of taking -revenge upon England. France and Spain formed the third _pacte de -famille_, and assisted the insurgent Colonies, and the independence of -the United States was acknowledged in 1783. - -In 1789 the French Revolution broke out, and the first effect felt in -England was the breaking-up of the Whig party. - -In 1792 Austria and Prussia invaded France in order to put down the -Republicans in that country. In retaliation France determined to declare -war against all countries governed by kings, which principle she -established by the “Decree of November 19th,” and in 1793 she declared -war against England and Holland. - -The younger Pitt had now come to the front. He was an economist and -advocated a peace policy. In the spring of 1792 he reduced the navy and -confidently looked forward to at least fifteen years of peace. There is -no doubt that if France had remained quiet his hopes would have proved -correct, and that the west bank of the Rhine would now be under French -rule. - -But France was eager to revenge past injuries put upon her by England; -and, as if in answer to her desires, the second Alexander the Great -appeared in Napoleon, and began “alarming the Old World with his -dazzling schemes of aggrandizement.” - -Against England his whole energies were directed. “Let us be masters,” -said he, “of the Channel for six hours and we are masters of the -world.”[39] In 1798, he captured Malta, occupied Egypt, and undertook a -campaign in Syria, as a furtherance to his desires of obtaining India, -at the same time retaining his ideas with regard to England. Malta to -Egypt, Egypt to India, India to England. - -In 1802 a momentary universal peace occurred. But Napoleon could not -rest, his ambition spurred him on. His anger was again kindled by the -English retention of Malta, after his defeat in Egypt, and he saw if -Malta was wrested from him his lofty schemes would be undermined. In -1803 he again declared war against England and Holland. He arrested all -the English residents in France between the ages of sixteen and sixty -and kept them confined. - -The younger Pitt was just the statesman fit to cope with him, and -frustrate his aims. He aimed at a European coalition,[40] by which all -threatening dangers from the overwhelming greatness of one nation might -be averted. - -On October 21, 1805, the glorious victory at Trafalgar, the outcome and -consummation of Nelson’s inspiring command, “England expects every man -to do his duty,” broke the naval power of France. And yet this was -followed by the capitulation of Ulm, the defeat at Austerlitz, and the -subsequent Treaty of Presburg, which broke up the coalition of England, -Russia, and Austria, and seriously affected Pitt’s health thereby. -Truly, “Austerlitz killed Pitt.”[41] - -At once Napoleon proceeded to turn the whole forces he had on the -Continent against England, especially after the Peace of Tilsit, (1807). -He first attacked England with the “Continental System,” _i.e._, he -prohibited all direct and indirect European trade with the British -Isles. This he confirmed by the Decrees of Berlin (1806) and Milan -(1807). - -In 1812 he invaded Russia and entered the famous city with the cry of -“Moscow! Moscow!” Even at that moment, however, his real aim of attack -was England, across the Channel. - -England was ever uppermost in his thoughts. “He conquers Germany, but -why? Because Austria and Russia, subsidized by England, march against -him while he is brooding at Boulogne over the conquest of England. When -Prussia was conquered, what was his first thought? That now he has a new -weapon against England, since he can impose the Continental System upon -all Europe. Why does he occupy Spain and Portugal? It is because they -are maritime countries, with fleets and colonies that may be used -against England.”[42] - -Napoleon was driven out of Moscow by fire, and his return march turned -literally into a defeat, while his plan of a direct attack in England, -through Belgium, three years after, was frustrated at Waterloo. - -Thus the scene of the great Napoleonic drama in English history closed -on June 18, 1815. - - - - - II. -FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA DURING THE REIGNS OF PETER THE GREAT, CATHERINE - II., AND ALEXANDER I. - - _Peter the Great, and establishment of Russian power on the - Baltic—Consequent collision with the Northern States and the - Maritime Powers—Catherine II. and Poland—First partition—Russia - reaches the Black Sea—Russo-Austrian alliance against Turkey opposed - by Pitt—Second and third partitions of Poland—Rise of - Prussia—Alexander I. and the conquest of Turkey—Treaty of - Tilsit—Peace of Bucharest—Congress of Vienna—French influence in the - East destroyed._ - - - _Peter the Great_ (1689–1725). - -The Russian territory now extends over one-seventh of the globe, and -Alexander III. rules over more than 100,000,000 souls. Russia is a -powerful political rival not only of England alone, but of all the -European Powers.[43] - -However, on Peter the Great’s accession to the throne, his country -covered an area of only 265,000 square miles, and no harbours were to be -found either on the Baltic or the Black Sea. This was felt to be a -serious obstacle for a rising Power. Peter himself said, in the preface -to the “Maritime Regulations”: “For some years I had the fill of my -desires on Lake Pereyaslavl, but finally it got too narrow for me. I -then went to the Kubensky Lake, but that was too shallow. I then decided -to _see the open sea_ and began often to beg the permission of my mother -to go to Archangel.”[44] His first and great object was to establish -harbours on the Baltic or the Black Sea. - -The Turks were the preliminary object of his attack. The first campaign -against Azof (1695) proved a failure, but a new campaign was started -again in 1696, and the Czar’s “bravery and his genius” were rewarded -with a great victory over Azof. Here begins the modern history of -Russia. - -[Illustration: - - THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA IN EUROPE.] - -Immediately after the capture of Azof Peter determined to carry out his -design of creating a large fleet on the Black Sea. For the purpose, “no -sooner had the festivities in Moscow ended than, at a general council of -the boyars, it was decided to send 3,000 families of peasants and 3,000 -streltsi and soldiers to populate the empty town of Azof and firmly to -establish the Russian power at the mouth of the Don. At a second council -Peter stated the absolute necessity for a large fleet, and apparently -with such convincing arguments, that the assembly decided that one -should be built. Both civilians and clergy were called upon for -sacrifices.”[45] - -Peter also sent fifty men of the highest families in Russia to Italy, -Holland, and England, to study the art of ship-building. Peter himself -visited Holland and England that he might learn ship-building. “One -thing, however, he could not learn there, and that was the construction -of galleys and galliots, such as were used in the Mediterranean, and -would be serviceable in the Bosphorus and on the coast of the Crimea. -For this he desired to go to Venice.”[46] This clearly shows us that -Peter had conceived the idea of establishing a strong navy on the Black -Sea. - -The revolt of the streltsi recalled him home; however, he found no -difficulty in suppressing the insurrection. - -After this, he sent an envoy to the Ottoman Empire to obtain permission -for the Russian fleet to enter the Black Sea, to which the Porte -replied: “The Black Sea and all its coasts are ruled by the Sultan -alone. They have never been in the possession of any other Power, and -since the Turks have gained sovereignty over this sea, from time -immemorial no foreign ship has ever sailed its water, nor ever will sail -them.” - -Meanwhile Charles XII., King of Sweden, began to assume an attitude of -hostility to Peter, and the Battle of Narva was fought, where Peter was -miserably defeated. After this war, Charles made Russia the great object -of his attack instead of Poland. He said, “I will treat with the Czar at -Moscow.” Peter replied, “My brother Charles wishes to play the part of -Alexander, but he will not find me Darius.” The Battle of Pultawa (1709) -soon decided Peter’s superiority, and the Peace of Nystadt (1721) added -the Baltic provinces and a number of islands in the Baltic to Russia. - -In 1703 “a great window for Russia to look out at Europe”—so Count -Algaratti called St. Petersburg—was made by Peter on the marshes of the -Neva. This step firmly established Russian power on the Baltic. - -But to establish Russian power on the Baltic at all was as great a -mistake as ever has been committed by so shrewd a statesman as Peter the -Great. The predominance of Russia in the Baltic with her strong navy -threatened the interest of the commerce and carrying-trade of the -English and Dutch. Hence it was natural enough that England and Holland, -two great maritime powers, should have joined to protect their interest -in the Baltic as well as the integrity of Sweden against Russian -aggression. In the case of the Northern War, England had formed an -alliance with Sweden and sent her fleet to the Baltic under command of -Admiral Norris to prevent the Russian sway on those waters. - -Had Peter thought less of the importance of the Baltic, and concentrated -his energies on obtaining a sure foothold in the Crimea, Constantinople -would now be a Russian southern capital. - - - _Catherine II._ (1762–1796). - -The Seven Years’ War had been brought to a finish when Catherine II. -ascended the Russian throne. The next great European complication was -brought about by the affairs of Poland. - -On the death of Augustus III., Stanislaus Poniatowski was elected King -of Poland, and at the request of Prussia and Russia the dissenters, -adherents of the Greek Church and the Protestants, received all civil -rights. - -In opposition to this a Confederation of Bar was formed in 1768, with -the object of dethroning the King. Catherine now began to interfere with -Poland on behalf of the Greek Christians, and supported the King with -her Russian army. This interference made her practically mistress of -Poland. Turkey, an ally of the Confederacy, being alarmed at the growing -Russian influence and being urged on by France, declared war upon Russia -in order to resist the progress of Catherine in Poland; but this proved -disastrous, as she was miserably defeated, both on land and sea, and -brought to the verge of ruin. This Russian success alarmed Western -Europe, and especially the two neighbouring Christian Powers, Prussia -and Austria, each of whom had a special interest in the existence of -Poland and Turkey. Catherine would not make peace without acquiring -territory as a compensation for her exertions and outlay, while Prussia -and Austria would not allow her to do this unless they acquired a -certain amount of territory themselves. Hence the First Partition of -Poland took place, by which the three Powers secured equal -aggrandizement, Russia receiving the eastern part of Lithuania as her -share. - -In 1774 the Treaty of Kutschouk Kainardji was concluded with Turkey, by -which the independence of the Mongol Tartars in the Crimea was -acknowledged by the Sultan; Russia obtained the right of protection over -all the Christian subjects of the Porte within a certain limit, and also -the right of free navigation in all Turkish waters for trading vessels. -This treaty firmly planted Russia on the northern coasts of the Black -Sea. - -In 1783 the Crimea was incorporated with Russia, and in 1787 Catherine -visited the southern part of Russia as far as Kherson, on the Black Sea. -Joseph II. of Austria, on hearing of her approach to his dominions, -hastened to meet her, and together they journeyed through the Crimea, -the Czarina unfolding to the Emperor both her own plans and those of -Potemkin, her favourite, viz., to expel all the Turks from Europe, -re-establish the old Empire of Greece, and place her younger grandson -Constantine on the throne of Constantinople. Joseph fell in with her -view, and it was hinted that something like a Western Empire should be -also constituted and placed under the Austrian sway. In this way a -division of the Ottoman Empire was contemplated between the two -countries. This soon aroused the suspicions of Turkey, and war was again -declared. But now it was two against one, and the fate of Turkey again -seemed sealed. - -William Pitt was the first statesman who directly opposed Russia and -tendered assistance to Turkey against Russian encroaching power. His -foreign policy of opposition to Russia has been followed more or less by -generations of English Ministers. The Triple Alliance of England, -Prussia, and Holland was formed by Pitt against the “Colossus of the -North,” in order to preserve the balance of power in Europe, and the -death of Joseph. II., saved Turkey again. Pitt, by means of this -Alliance, demanded that a peace be made between Russia and Turkey on the -_status quo ante bellum_, and threatened to maintain his demand by arms. -The English people, however, cared very little about a Russian invasion -of Turkey, while Catherine disregarded Pitt’s threats. - -Soon after a peace between Russia and Turkey was concluded at Jassy, by -which Turkey ceded Oczakow and the land between the Dnieper, Bug, and -Dniester, containing several good harbours, and notably Odessa; the -protectorate of Russia over Tiflis and Kartalinia was also recognized. - -By the above-mentioned acquisitions she felt certain that very soon -Constantinople would be in her hands. However, a nearer, and, in her -opinion, a more important matter engaged her attention. In 1792 the new -Constitution of Poland was drawn up by Ignaz Potocki, converting the -Elective Monarchy into an hereditary one, the House of Saxony supplying -a dynasty of kings. The Confederacy of Jargowitz, which was formed in -opposition to this new Constitution, called in the help of Russia. - -This now seemed to be a grand opportunity for Russia to finally annex -Poland, because the deaths of Frederick the Great (1786) and Joseph -(1790), and the French Revolution, which occupied the attention of all -Western Europe, set the Czarina free from her most watchful rivals. A -Russian army invaded Poland, and the new Constitution was repealed. -Prussian troops also entered Poland under the pretence of suppressing -Jacobinism, and Russia again found herself frustrated, and concluded a -Second Partition (1793) with Prussia, by which she received Lithuania, -Volhynin, and Podolia. - -In 1795 the Polish nation rebelled, under the leadership of Xoscruscko, -and this led to a Third Partition between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, -and the former Power added 181,000 square miles, with 6,000,000 -inhabitants, together with Curland, to her already vast dominions. - -By this last Partition a road of aggression was open towards Sweden on -the north-west, and towards Turkey on the south. - -Many combined circumstances led Russia to assume an aggressive policy -towards Turkey specially. Sweden, or rather Finland, was not of -sufficient importance as a prey to the “northern bear”—a warmer climate -was also wanted. Catherine had already discovered the mistaken policy of -Peter the Great, who had spent all his energy in getting the strongholds -of the Baltic in opposition to Charles XII. of Sweden. Russian sway on -the Baltic meant a direct opposition from two great sea Powers, viz., -England and Holland, whose interests would suffer thereby. A striking -proof of the opposition was seen in the case of the Northern War. - -The Partition of Poland produced another stray Power in the Baltic, to -wit, Prussia. - -Previous to the Partition of Poland, Prussia Proper and her dominions, -Brandenberg and Silesia, were separated, Poland being between them. The -First Partition joined the Prussian kingdom to the main body of the -Monarchy; by the Second and Third Partitions Prussia obtained the then -South Prussia and East Prussia, thereby uniting all into one compact -body. - -Thus unconsciously a powerful Russian enemy was being formed in the -Baltic. Thus Russia had three great enemies—England, Holland, and -Prussia, joined by Sweden and Denmark, on the Baltic. - -Catherine had already obtained a firm footing on the Black Sea coast, -and was confident of her ability to occupy Constantinople and make it a -Russian southern capital; the French Revolution attracting the attention -of Western Europe, the Ottoman Empire was left at the mercy of Russia. -Again a Russian occupation would give a fine prospect of extending -Russian authority into Danubian territory, Central Asia, and Asia Minor. - -So we may conclude that Catherine’s annexation of Poland was only a step -towards attaining her great aim, and gave her time to mature her plans. - -At this juncture Catherine died, and was succeeded by Paul (1796). He -reversed his mother’s policy by concluding an alliance with Turkey -against Napoleon, seeing that the latter’s policy was to destroy the -Turkish Empire for the benefit of France. He changed his policy later, -however, after his unsuccessful campaign in Holland, and threw himself -into Napoleon’s arms by establishing an armed neutrality in the north -against England. - - - _Alexander I._ (1801–1825). - -Catherine died (1796), but her plan did not perish with her. Alexander -I. proved a faithful expounder of the late Czarina’s schemes. - -His strong-handed policy was chiefly directed against Armenia and the -Persian frontier, although the Danubian territory, Poland and Finland, -did not escape his watchful eyes. Mingrelia and Imeretia were conquered -in 1803, Shiroan in 1805–1806. - -At last Alexander’s policy took a definite form at the Treaty of Tilsit -(1807), for by the first provision “Russia was to take possession of -Turkey in Europe, and push on her conquests in Asia as she thought -proper.” This secret treaty, which was made with Napoleon I., caused -great uneasiness in England, and a coolness sprang up between the two -Powers (1807–1812), although England had adhered to an Anglo-Russian -Alliance during Chatham’s administration, and Alexander joined the -coalition of 1805. - -In 1809 Russia gained Finland, with the whole of East Bothnia and part -of West Bothnia, as far as the River Tornea, by the Treaty of -Friedrichsham. The Peace of Bucharest (1812) was the result of England’s -mediation, by which Russia added Bessarabia, and the Pruth was made the -boundary between Russia and Turkey, while Russia gave up Moldavia and -Wallachia, which at that time were occupied by her. - -The quarrel between Russia and France concerning the “Continental -System”[47] brought about a French invasion of Russia by 678,000 men -(1812). But Russia coped successfully with her powerful foe. - -The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) met to restore the balance of power -and regulate the European relations, and also established the “Pentarchy -of the Great Powers.” Eight nations signed the Act of the Congress of -Vienna, by which Russia was, generally speaking, the greatest gainer, -for she received the greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. - -At the Congress of Vienna, Castlereagh (the English representative) -evidently had in view three aims—(1) to prevent any revival of the -Continental System; (2) to protect English communication with India; and -(3) to maintain her supremacy in the Mediterranean. For the first aim, -England obtained Heligoland, and the kingdom of the Netherlands was -formed, and “the surrender of Java was made to the Dutch by way of -increasing the wealth and power of that kingdom, and so helping to -re-establish the due counterpoise to French power which nature has given -to the possession of the Low Countries”; for the second aim, England -also obtained the possession of Cape Colony (from the Dutch) and the -Mauritius (from France) to render safe the road to India; and for the -third aim, England retained Malta, and also the seven Ionian islands -were brought under English protection. - -The Battle of Waterloo stamped out Napoleon’s[48] ambitious schemes. -French power and influence in Eastern Europe vanished with Napoleon, and -from that time France has not fully recovered, and is therefore unable -to settle the Eastern Question for her benefit. The Napoleonic plan of -occupying Constantinople has been stolen by Russia. - - - - - III. - THE NEW EUROPEAN SYSTEM. - - _The concert of the Great Powers; its aims—It does not protect small - states from its own members_, e.g., _Polish Revolution—How far can - it solve the Turkish question?_ - - -Napoleon the Great fell at the Battle of Waterloo, 1815. The “concert of -the Great Powers,” the primary object of which is to avoid the -recurrence of universal war in Europe, was first established at the -Congress of Vienna in the same year. This new European System is, -however, only applicable to the case of a small Power or Powers, but not -to the Great Powers themselves. For instance, in the Schleswig-Holstein, -as well as the Franco-Prussian War, none of the other Great Powers could -interfere, and matters were entirely left to themselves. - -[Illustration: - - EASTERN EUROPE & WESTERN ASIA.] - -But in the case of a lesser state or states becoming breaker of the -peace, the Great Powers have never hesitated to step in and settle the -difference according to their mutual agreement. We see good instance of -it in the Independence of Belgium. - -The “concert of the Great Powers” is actually a second phase of the Holy -Alliance, and the new system has usually its object the protection of a -smaller state against the larger. Greek Independence was a singular -example of the new system. The revolt of Greece was entirely suppressed -by the Sultan, and there was no hope of freeing themselves from the -Turkish yoke. Though hardly justifiable, the Great Powers at last -interfered, and made Greece an independent state. The Independence of -Italy was another example. - -Thus we see that under the new system now prevalent in Europe, a smaller -state _at least_ attains her end. - -Let us examine the Polish Revolution against Russia. The Poles said, Let -us revolt. We shall undoubtedly be beaten by Russia; but we don’t mind -that at all, because we shall _at last_ attain our own end through the -interference of the Great Powers. There was every reason for the event -turning out as they had calculated. Louis Napoleon was the first -European sovereign who interfered in the Polish Revolution, and he -invited England to join him. England, however, declined, owing to the -difficulties of the situation. France, from her isolation, failed in her -desires, and Louis Napoleon lost his European confidence. Truly the fall -of the French Empire began from that date. - -This Polish Revolution disclosed another characteristic of the new -European System. In the event of either country concerned being one of -the Great Powers, the system is of no effect at all. The late dispute -between England and Portugal comes under this heading. - -One more interesting question needs investigation. How far this new -European System is applicable to the question of Turkey, a country which -may be placed among the first-class Powers, and where Christian -inhabitants are in an inferior position to the Turkish Mahomedans. This -is what I have to discuss in the following five chapters. - - - - - IV. - GREEK INDEPENDENCE. - - _The Holy Alliance—The Greek insurrection—Interference of the Three - Powers—Battle of Navarino—Treaty of Adrianople—The policy of - Nicholas I.; Treaty of Unkiar Ikelessi—Turkey only saved by English - and French aid—Palmerston succeeds to Canning’s policy._ - - -Alexander I., Emperor of Russia; Francis, Emperor of Austria; and -William I., King of Prussia, formed what was known as the Holy Alliance, -the first-named being the chief instigator. - -Its aim was to promote peace and goodwill among European nations, based -upon Christianity, although it seemed quite liable to be abused for the -benefit of absolute monarchy, as in the case of Spain. Nearly all the -European Powers joined it, England[49] being the only one who declined. -England’s argument was that “such interference is inconsistent with the -fundamental laws of Great Britain. It must lead to a system of continual -interference incompatible with European interests and the independence -of nations.”[50] However, we are forced to admit and acknowledge that -the present system of Europe is conducted on the same lines, slightly -modified, as the Holy Alliance. - -At the end of the eighteenth century the songs of the poet Rhegus and -the revolutionary influence of France (1789) stirred up the Greeks to -feelings of hatred against the Porte. - -In 1821 the Danubian Provinces (Roumania), under the leadership of -Hypisilands, rose in rebellion, trusting to receiving assistance from -Alexander I., the instigator of the Holy Alliance. But their hopes were -shattered, and Turkey soon crushed the revolt. This was the only case in -which Russia did not interfere with Turkey in the Danubian question. - -A little reflection, however, will show the cause of the Russian -non-interference in this case. Alexander’s power and influence were -declining, and Russia was filled internally with discontent. Secret -societies flourished everywhere, and the Czar dreaded a revolution in -his own country if he gave help to the Danubian Provinces, which would -be approving a rebellion against a legitimate sovereign. - -The Greek rising in the Morea was answered by a counter Turkish massacre -of Greeks in most of the principal cities of Turkey, and Gregory, the -head of the Greek Church at Constantinople, was executed. This caused -great indignation in the Russias and war appeared imminent, but owing to -the mediation of England and Austria it was averted. - -There is no doubt that Russia felt that it was to her advantage to -assist a revolutionary movement, in order that she might secure as much -influence in Turkey as possible. But Austrian interest in the Balkans -was of vital importance. Her policy was naturally to oppose Russia in -her desires, in order to keep the Turkish honour unstained and use her -as a bulwark against Russia. - -However, great enthusiasm was aroused, not only in England, but also in -Germany and Switzerland. - -Lord Byron died,[51] and Shelley wrote for the Greek cause. Lord -Cochrane and Sir Richard Church fought, while the German poet, Müller, -and the Swiss Eynard, warmly upheld the cause of the oppressed Greeks. - -Notwithstanding this help, the Greeks were far from fortunate, and the -Sultan, with the help of the Egyptians, captured Athens. But their brave -defence of Missolonghi aroused the sympathies of the European Powers. - - - _Nicholas I._ (1825–1855). - -On the death of Alexander I. the Holy Alliance vanished (1825), and -Nicholas I. ascended the throne (1825–1855). Now the Greeks appealed to -England for help, and Canning[52] saw that it was the best policy for -England to assist Greece in order to control the ambitious plans of -Russia. Accordingly he sent the Duke of Wellington as the English -representative, and a protocol was signed at St. Petersburg by which -Greece was to remain tributary to the Sultan, but to be independent as -regards commercial relations. This protocol developed into the Treaty of -London, between England, France, and Russia, by which the three Powers -bound themselves to act as mediators in the Eastern question. The -mediation of the Powers was rejected by the Porte, but accepted by the -Greeks. The result was that the Turko-Egyptian fleet was totally -destroyed at the Battle of Navarino by the allies, and the Sultan -retreated from the Morea. Canning’s death in 1827 gave England an -opportunity of retiring from active participation in the alliance, -especially as she regarded the Battle of Navarino as an “untoward -event,” so Russia and Turkey were left alone in conflict. - -This, in my opinion, was a half-hearted policy on the part of England, -although the Cabinet at that time could do no other, because their -tenets would not allow them to help a revolutionary people against a -country governed by a legitimate sovereignty. - -Now had the long-wished-for opportunity arrived for Russia to carry into -effect on Turkey her long-cherished designs. Diebitch, a Russian -general, crossed the Balkans, and soon captured Adrianople; while -Paskevitch took Kars and Erzeroom in Asia. - -These successes resulted in the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), between -Russia and Turkey. By the treaty[53] Russia gave back almost all her -conquests to Turkey, only retaining the ports of Anapa and Poti, on the -eastern coast of the Black Sea, and the Protectorate powers of the Czar -over the Danubian Principalities were confirmed and extended. In return -Turkey acquiesced in all the provisions of the London Conference. - -This made Greece practically an independent state. - -Nicholas pursued the policy of Alexander I. with regard to the Asiatic -boundaries, and successfully carried on a war with Persia from 1826 to -1828 which was terminated by the Treaty of Turkmantchai (1828), Russia -receiving the provinces of Erivan and Nakhitcheven. This was the period -of the expansion of Russia, and the first appearance of Russia as a real -rival of Great Britain. - -Reviewing the general policy of Nicholas the reader cannot help being -struck with the skilful manner and clever system by which the Czar -carried out his plans. - -Before his reign the Russian attacks were all made particularly in the -south-west and south-east direction, viz., the Danubian territory, and -Armenia; but on his accession he began to attack from a more southerly -direction even than Turkey, viz., Greece, whom he assisted in rebellion -against her Turkish oppressors. From 1826–1828 he attacked in a -south-easterly quarter, viz., Armenia and Persia, at the same time -occupying Adrianople and threatening Constantinople. Finally, to -complete his plans, he struck a fatal blow at the heart of Turkey, viz., -its capital, Constantinople, in 1833, with the Treaty of Unkiar -Skelessi, by which Turkey was practically made a vassal of Russia. - -This treaty exercised a great influence upon foreign powers. For Russia -by it would have obtained actual possession not only of the Black Sea -but also of its only entrance, the Dardanelles, which thus would have -become a fortified Russian outpost. - -Turkey now was in a very precarious state. She was almost past the aid -of any earthly powers. But luckily two doctors stepped into the breach, -namely, England and France, and, after a course of treatment, the -following protocol was indited by the Pentarchy of Powers: “That ships -of war have at all times been prohibited from entering the Channel of -Constantinople, viz., by the Straits of the Dardanelles and of the Black -Sea.” - -Reshid Pacha had performed for Turkey great internal reforms, but, -unfortunately, he was exiled through a Court intrigue. This proved a -great blow to Turkish politics. - -Thus Turkey began to decline again; and, as John Bright said in an able -speech at Manchester (1854), “Turkey is a decaying nation;” and Cobden -on the same occasion said, “Turkey is a decaying country, and the Turks -cannot be permanently maintained as a ruling Power in Europe.” The Czar -himself said that “a sick man is dying,” referring to Turkey, in his -remarkable conversation with Sir Hamilton Seymour on January 28, 1853. - -When Turkey appeared at her last gasp she had been saved by England and -France. Now, for the second time, the same Powers rescued her from -annihilation. - -England a short time previously had been in a feeble state owing to her -severe war with Napoleon the Great. This had exhausted her financially -to a great extent.[54] - -However, Huskisson’s commercial policy (1823), Wellingtons Catholic -Emancipation (1829), Russell’s great Reform Bill (1832), and the Repeal -of the Corn Laws by Sir Robert Peel (1846), had exercised a refreshing -influence upon her general prosperity. - -Here Lord Palmerston, a disciple[55] of Canning, appeared on the scene -to play his part in “the European concert.” - - - - - V. - THE CRIMEAN WAR. - - _Nicholas I. alienates France from England by the Egyptian - question—Mehemet Ali and Palmerston’s convention against - him—Nicholas I. in England—The Protectorate of the Holy Land; breach - between Russia and France—Proposed partition of Turkey—War of Russia - and Turkey—The Vienna Note—Intervention of France and England to - save Turkey—Treaty of Paris; Russia foiled—Correspondence between - Palmerston and Aberdeen as to the declaration of war—National - feeling of England secures the former’s triumph—French motives in - joining in the war._ - - -Although Turkey was unable to withstand Russia alone, yet, with the help -of England and France, she was able to prevent the Russian inroad, on -the south. - -Nicholas, ever crafty, now turned his attention to fostering the minor -disputes which still existed between England and France. - -Being envious of the English naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, -France resumed her traditional policy of obtaining influence in Egypt, -in order to be able to have a stronghold there against English power, -and succeeded in making Egypt a faithful ally. - -England, on the other hand, clung to the alliance with Turkey, and -assisted the Sultan in quelling the rebellion of Mehemet Ali. - -Thus we see there existed a difference between the two Powers, -notwithstanding that Russia was a common rival of both. - -Nicholas used this difference as a tool to weaken the allies against his -own country. - -In 1839 Mehemet Ali, with the silent approval of Russia, determined to -become an independent monarch. - -Thiers, a minister of Louis Phillipe, in helping Mehemet Ali, the -viceroy of Egypt, had fallen into a Russian trap, although he believed -and hoped that he was following the traditional policy of Napoleon the -Great. This proved, however, a mistaken policy; for it was the general -European feeling that if war resulted the Egyptians would be victorious, -Constantinople would be in danger; the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi would -come into force, the Russians would rush to help the Porte, while the -Anglo-French fleets would be barred from the Dardanelles. - -Lord Palmerston saw that the united action of the five Great Powers -might settle the Eastern Question and destroy the influence of Russia, -which seemed to be too arbitrarily strong. His idea was that a -Conference should be held by the five Great Powers, and this was -approved of by all. - -There was no doubt that the Conference was not as unanimous as could be -wished, and certainly England did not agree with France on several -points. - -At length Palmerston made a convention with three of the Powers for an -armed interference in the Eastern Question. France was left alone. And -Palmerston determined to pursue the above-mentioned policy. - -Admiral Stopford captured Beyrout, and Sir Charles Napier bombarded -Acre. The fall of the fortress of Acre—which was thought to be -impregnable—before the English fleet, terminated the war, and Mehemet -Ali became only an hereditary ruler over Egypt under the over-lord of -the Porte. - -The breach between England and France having become serious, Russia -having obtained her desires stationed her fleet at Sebastopol, where it -remained quiescent during the English bombardment of Acre. - -Thus, although Lord Palmerston succeeded in crushing the French -Minister’s scheme, yet he fell into the snare laid for him by Russia, -viz., of bringing about a diplomatic disagreement between England and -France. - -But Russia did not gain by the transaction, for she in her turn lost her -single-handed power over Turkey, which was given into the hands of the -Five Powers. - -Lord Palmerston offered the following condition to the Turkish -Government. “England having, in conjunction with other Christian Powers, -succeeded in restoring Syria to the Sultan, she is entitled to expect -that the Sultan, in return for such assistance, should secure his -Christian subjects from oppression.”[56] - -At last the Syrian affairs were settled, but still England was always -dreading a French attack both on Egypt and Syria. - -In 1844 the Emperor Nicholas paid his famous visit to England. What was -his object in coming to England at such a period? The only idea that I -can put forward is, that he wanted to see to what extent the -Anglo-French disagreement[57] with regard to Syrian affairs had reached; -also to widen them as much as possible in order to make it impossible to -form an Anglo-French alliance against him, and thus leave him a free -hand in the settlement of the Eastern Question when the fall of Turkey -should take place. - -Nicholas was at once informed, after his arrival, by the British Prime -Minister, “that no foreign influence in Egypt would be allowed by the -British Government, who desired to keep the way open to India.” He at -once perceived that the English were fearful of the French historic -Napoleonic plans; and he at once used this fear to his advantage. - -He first proposed a partition of Turkey, knowing that the English -Government would not dare to agree to it, because it would hurt the -national feeling of England. Soon after the Anti-Napoleonic Revolution -was over the Holy Alliance was concluded between several European -Courts, and the moral feelings in the western states of Europe were to -defend the weak against the strong, and to resist unjust aggression. -These feelings were clearly shown during the Russian oppression of -Poland (1837), and in the Independence of Greece (1821–1829). - -In England these feelings had manifested themselves, and any English -Government which should venture to shock them would have been certainly -upset. Therefore, a proposed partition of Turkey by Russia was received -by the English Government with decided disfavour. - -Then the Czar proposed that the guardianship of the Holy Land should be -entrusted to Russia. This was his great aim, and was his principal -object. - -England found herself in a dilemma. What was she to do? She had already -refused the Czar’s first proposal, and she felt obliged to accept the -second. “The three representatives of the Conservative party, namely, -the Duke of Wellington, Sir Robert Peel, and Lord Aberdeen, met the Czar -and signed a secret memorandum, promising to exert their personal -influence on behalf of the Greeks as opposed to the Latin Church at -Jerusalem, and so practically to forward Russian claims to the -guardianship of the Holy Places, as opposed to those of France, who was -to be ignored in the matter. This memorandum, to a certain extent -favouring Russia’s claim to a protectorate of the Greek Church, was -never placed in the Foreign Office archives, but was forwarded in -succession from one English Foreign Secretary to another, until, as we -shall show, poor Lord Aberdeen (Wellington and Peel being dead) was -called on for his pound of flesh in 1853.”[58] - -Thus Nicholas attained the end he had in view, and left England, well -pleased with the brilliant reception he had met with. “The Greek and the -Catholic Church,” Lord Palmerston had written to Canning, 1849, “are -merely other names for Russian and French influence.” - -France at once perceived that the Czar’s visit to England was connected -with some secret arrangement to the prejudice of French interests, and -felt highly indignant. - -France did not lose any time, and commenced plans to overturn Russian -influence in the Holy Land. Russia resented this, thinking that France -would be her only enemy. The Holy Land dispute soon became general. - -The Turkish compromise did not please Russia and France. “Suddenly, the -French ambassador at Constantinople, M. de Lavalette, was instructed to -demand that the grants[59] to the Latin Church should be strictly -executed in the Holy Land.”[60] - -In 1852 Lord Aberdeen was made the British Prime Minister, and “the -Emperor Nicholas heard the tidings of Lord Aberdeen’s elevation to a -premiership with a delight he did not suppress.”[61] - -Nicholas thought that now an alliance between England and France was -impossible,[62] and at the same time, seeing that Prussia and Austria -were neutral, determined to obtain “the key of the Black Sea.”[63] - -However, he wanted to ascertain whether England would keep her secret -engagement to come to a separate understanding with him. He again -proposed a partition of Turkey, on January 28, 1853, at the same time -making use of the curious expression to Sir Hamilton Seymour that “a -sick man is dying,” and that his (the sick man’s) property should be -divided according to agreement between England and Russia. Nicholas’ -idea was (_a_) that Servia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, and the other -principalities of the Danube, should become independent states under -Russian protection, and (_b_) that he would “have no objection to -offer,” to the occupation of Egypt and Candia by England “in the event -of a distribution of the Ottoman Succession upon the fall of the -Empire,” (_c_) that Constantinople should never be held by the English -or French, or any other great nation, and Greece should not strengthen -herself “so as to become a powerful state,” and (_e_) that Russia should -occupy Constantinople provisionally, not “as a proprietor, of course, -but as a trustee.” - -“In answer to these overtures,” Kinglake says, “the Government of the -Queen disclaimed all notion of aiming at the possession of either -Constantinople or any other of the Sultan’s possessions, and accepted -the assurances to the like effect which were given by the Czar. It -combated the opinion that the extinction of the Ottoman Empire was near -at hand, and deprecated the discussions based on that supposition as -tending directly to produce the very result against which they were -meant to provide.”[64] - -Then the Czar sent Prince Menschikoff to Constantinople, and entrusted -to him the two following missions: viz., (_a_) to set forth a Russian -claim on the Holy Places, and (_b_) that all orthodox Christians, who -were subjects of Turkey, should be placed under the immediate -protectorate of Russia. - -The above second mission was planned by Russia owing to her deep -sympathy with the Sclavonic races, who had adhered to the same religion -although they were still under Turkish rule. But this bond was rapidly -getting weaker, and the Christian inhabitants were determined to throw -off, if possible, the Mahomedan yoke. - -But the second demand of Russia, to my mind, was an unjust claim, -because it would have considerably affected the independence or dignity -of the Sultan.[65] - -The English Ambassador in Turkey, Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, a great -opponent of Russia, advised the Porte to stand firm and resist to the -utmost the second demand.[66] He and Lord Clarendon (the English Foreign -Secretary), however, tried to persuade the Porte to agree to the first -demand, but the Porte, with decided firmness, declined to accept this -advice. - -This was followed, on May 21, 1853, by the departure of Prince -Menschikoff from Constantinople, with the threat that “he had come in -his great coat, but would return in his uniform.” Russia then crossed -the Pruth on July 2nd, and occupied the Danubian Principalities as a -preliminary to her demands. On the same day of the Russian invasion the -representatives of the Great Powers assembled at Vienna. This Congress -drew up what is known as the “Vienna Note.” Russia acceded to the terms -contained in the Note, but the Porte refused, and offered certain -amendments. The Powers after a time accepted them, and forwarded them to -Russia, who, however, rejected them.[67] The Conference then dissolved. - -In October, 1853, the Porte declared war on Russia; and the destruction -of the Turkish fleet at Sinope sealed the Russian acquiescence to the -declaration. - -England and France allied themselves with Turkey against Russia, and -declared war on March 28, 1854. - -The siege of Sebastopol lasted for nearly a year, and its fall was -followed by the Congress of Paris.[68] The plenipotentiaries of France, -England, Russia, Turkey, Sardinia, Austria, and at last Prussia, -assembled at Paris (February, 1856), and the “Treaty of Paris” was -signed, by which the following matters were settled:— - -1. The Great Powers “declare the Sublime Porte admitted to participate -in the advantages of the public law and system (concert) of Europe. -Their Majesties engage, each on his part, to respect the independence -and the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire; guarantee in common -the strict observance of that engagement; and will, in consequence, -consider any act tending to its violation, as a question of general -interest” (Art. VII.). - -2. “The Black Sea is neutralized; its waters and its ports thrown open -to the mercantile marine of every nation, are formally and in perpetuity -interdicted to the flag of war, either of the Powers possessing its -coasts, or of any other Power” (Art. XI.), and, “The Black Sea being -neutralized according to the terms of Article XI., the maintenance or -establishment upon its coast of military maritime arsenals becomes alike -unnecessary and purposeless; in consequence, His Majesty the Emperor of -all the Russias, and His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, engage not to -establish or to maintain upon that coast any military maritime arsenal” -(Art. XIII.). - -The docks and fortifications at Sebastopol were destroyed by the Western -Powers; but it was allowed that Russia and the Porte should keep up “the -number of light vessels necessary for the service of the coast” (Art. -XIV.), and merchant ships of all kinds were allowed freely to enter it. - -3. All control over the mouth of the Danube was taken from Russia and -entrusted to the authority of the Riverain Commission (Art. XVII.). “A -Commission shall be established, and shall be composed of delegates of -Austria, Bavaria, the Sublime Porte, and Würtemburg (one for each of -those Powers), to whom shall be added commissioners from the three -Danubian Principalities, whose nomination shall have been approved by -the Porte. This Commission, which shall be permanent: (1) Shall prepare -regulations of navigation and river police; (2) Shall remove the -impediments, of whatever nature they may be, which still prevent the -application to the Danube of the arrangements of the Treaty of Vienna; -(3) Shall order and cause to be executed the necessary works throughout -the whole course of the river; (4) Shall, after the dissolution of the -European Commission, see to maintaining the mouths of the Danube and the -neighbouring parts of the sea in a navigable state” (Art. XVII.). - -4. A portion of Bessarabia on the left bank of the Danube was ceded by -Russia in order to make the Turkish defence against Russia more easy, -and more fully to secure the freedom of the navigation of the Danube -(Art. XX.). - - -There is no doubt Russia was beaten by the combined alliance against -her. She had entirely overreached herself and miscalculated the temper -of the other Powers. She had thought that an Anglo-French alliance was -impossible, and that Prussia and Austria would have remained neutral. -Prussia indeed did maintain a neutrality at the commencement of the war, -and the King of Prussia himself said, “I am resolved to maintain a -position of complete neutrality, and to this I add with proud elevation -that my people and myself are of one mind. They require absolute -neutrality from me.” - -Austria, however, only maintained a conditional neutrality. The Austrian -Emperor, in replying to the Russian Ambassador, Count Orloff, said, -“Then must Austria be equally free to act as her interest and dignity -may direct,” if Russia was to cross the Danube, or seek to occupy fresh -territory, or not evacuate the Principalities when the war was over. - -Later on both Prussia and Austria formed a defensive alliance against -Russia, and with the consent of the Porte, the Principalities were -provisionally occupied by Austria. - -In England Lord Aberdeen did his utmost to bring about a peace between -Russia and Turkey, but it was a hopeless task. Lord Palmerston, on the -other hand, described the aggressive policy of Russia as follows:— - -“The policy and practice of the Russian Government has always been to -push forward its encroachments as fast and as far as the apathy or want -of firmness of other Governments would allow it to go, but always to -stop and retire when it was met with decided resistance, and then to -wait for the next favourable opportunity to make another spring on its -intended victim. In furtherance of this policy, the Russian Government -has always had two strings to its bow—moderate language and -disinterested professions at Petersburg and at London; active aggression -by its agents on the scene of operations. If the aggressions succeed -locally, the St. Petersburg Government adopts them as a _fait accompli_ -which it did not intend, but cannot, in honour, recede from. If the -local agents fail, they are disavowed and recalled, and the language -previously held is appealed to as a proof that the agents have -overstepped their instructions. This was exemplified, in the treaty of -Unkiar-Skelessi, and in the exploits of Simonivitch and Vikovitch in -Persia.”[69] And Lord Palmerston wrote as follows to Lord Aberdeen (July -4, 1853), when the combined fleets of England and France were at Besika -Bay:—“In the meantime, however, I hope you will allow the squadrons to -be ordered to go up to the Bosphorus as soon as it is known at -Constantinople that the Russians have entered the Principalities, and to -be further at liberty to go into the Black Sea, if necessary or useful -for the protection of Turkish territory. The advantages of such a course -seem to be— - -“First. That it would encourage and assist the Turks in those defensive -arrangements and organizations which the present crisis may give the -Turkish Government facilities for making, and the benefit of which, in -strengthening Turkey against attack, will continue after the crisis is -over. - -“Secondly. It would essentially tend to prevent any further inroad on -Turkish territory in Europe or in Asia, and it is manifest that any such -further inroad would much increase the difficulties of a settlement. - -“Thirdly. It would act as a wholesome check upon the Emperor and his -advisers, and would stimulate Austria and Prussia to increased exertions -to bring the Russian Government to reason. - -“Fourthly. It would relieve England and France from the disagreeable, -and not very creditable, position of waiting without venturing to enter -the back door as friends, while the Russians have taken forcible -possession of the front hall as enemies. - -“If these orders are to be given, I would suggest that it is very -important that they should be given without delay, so that we may be -able, when these matters are discussed this week in Parliament, to say -that such orders have been sent off. Of course they would at the same -time be communicated to the Russian Government.” - -But the Premier did not agree with Palmerston’s views. - -The combined fleets, at the request of the Sultan, passed up to -Constantinople (October 7, 1853). Palmerston then made two propositions -to the Cabinet:— - -“First. That instructions should be sent to Constantinople that, in the -event of war having been declared, the two squadrons should enter the -Black Sea, and should send word to the Russian admiral at Sebastopol -that, in the existing state of things, any Russian ship of war found -cruising in the Black Sea would be detained, and be given over to the -Turkish Government. - -“Secondly. That England and France should propose to the Sultan to -conclude a convention to the effect that, whereas war has unfortunately -broken out between Russia and Turkey, in consequence of differences -created by unjust demands made upon Turkey by Russia, and by -unwarrantable invasion of the Turkish territory by a Russian army; and -whereas it is deemed by England and France to be an object of general -European interest, and of special importance to them that the political -independence and the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire should -be maintained inviolate against Russian aggression, the two Powers -engage to furnish to the Sultan such naval assistance as may be -necessary in existing circumstances for the defence of his empire; and -they moreover engage to permit any of their respective subjects who may -be willing to do so, to enter the military or naval service of the -Sultan. In return, the Sultan is to engage that he will consult with -England and France as to the terms and conditions of the new treaty -which is to determine, on the conclusion of hostilities, the future -relations of Russia and Turkey.” - -But Lord Aberdeen in reply said:— - -“I cannot say that I think the present state of the Russo-Turkish -question would authorize such a proceeding on our part as that which you -intend to propose.” - -On November 1, 1853, Palmerston again said in concluding another letter -to Lord Aberdeen:— - -“It seems to me, then, that our course is plain, simple, and straight. -That we must help Turkey out of her difficulties by negotiation, if -possible; and that if negotiation fails, we must, by force of arms, -carry her safely through her dangers.” - -After the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope, Palmerston wrote -to Aberdeen as follows:— - -“Will you allow me this opportunity of repeating in writing what I have -more than once said verbally, on the state of things between Russia and -Turkey? It appears to me that we have two objects in view: the one to -put an end to the present war between these two Powers; the other to -prevent, as far as diplomatic arrangements can do so, a recurrence of -similar differences, and renewed dangers to the peace of Europe. - -“Now it seems to me that, unless Turkey shall be laid prostrate at the -feet of Russia by the disasters of the war—an event which England and -France could not without dishonour permit—no peace can be concluded -between the contending parties unless the Emperor consents to evacuate -the Principalities, to abandon his demands, and to renounce some of the -embarrassing stipulations of former treaties upon which he has founded -the pretensions which have been the cause of existing difficulties. - -“To bring the Emperor to agree to this, it is necessary to exert a -considerable pressure upon him; and the quarter in which that pressure -can at present be most easily brought to bear is the Black Sea and the -countries bordering upon it. In the Black Sea, the combined English, -French, and Turkish squadrons are indisputably superior to the Russian -fleet, and are able to give the law to that fleet. What I would strongly -recommend, therefore, is that which I proposed some months ago to the -Cabinet, namely, that the Russian Government and the Russian admiral at -Sebastopol should be informed that so long as Russian troops occupy the -Principalities, or hold a position in any other part of the Turkish -territory, no Russian ships of war can be allowed to show themselves out -of port in the Black Sea. - -“You will say that this would be an active hostility towards Russia; but -so is the declaration already made, that no Russian ships shall be -permitted to make any landing or attack on any part of the Turkish -territory. The only difference between the two declarations is that the -one already made is incomplete and insufficient for its purpose, and -that the one which I propose would be complete and sufficient. If the -Russian fleet were shut up in Sebastopol, it is probable that the Turks -would be able to make in Asia an impression that would tend to -facilitate the conclusion of peace. - -“With regard to the conditions of peace, it seems to me that the only -arrangement which could afford to Europe a fair security against future -dangers arising out of the encroachments of Russia on Turkey, and the -attempts of the Russian Government to interfere in the internal affairs -of the Turkish Empire, would be that arrangement which I have often -suggested, namely, that the treaty to be concluded between Russia and -Turkey should be an ordinary treaty of peace and friendship, of -boundaries, commerce, and mutual protection of the subjects of the one -party within the territories of the other; and that all the stipulations -which might be required for the privileges of the Principalities and of -Servia, and for the protection of the Christian religion and its -churches and the Ottoman dominions by the Sultan and the five Powers. By -such a treaty, Russia would be prevented from dealing single-handed with -Turkey in regard to those matters on which she has, from time to time, -endeavoured to fasten a quarrel on the Sultan.” - -Lord Aberdeen’s reply was:— - -“I confess I am not prepared to adopt the mode which you think most -likely to restore peace.” - -Lord Palmerston tendered his resignation on receiving this reply, but -withdrew it ten days after when the Cabinet adopted his views. - -On June 16, 1854, Lord Palmerston wrote to the Duke of Newcastle, then -Minister of War—“Our only chance of bringing Russia to terms is by -_offensive_ and not by defensive operations. We and the French ought to -go to the Crimea and take Sebastopol. If this blow were accompanied by -successful operations in Georgia and Circassia, we might have a Merry -Christmas and a Happy New Year.” - -Thus we see that the English policy during the Crimean crisis changed -from peace tactics to defensive operations, and was subsequently turned -into an offensive line of action which terminated in a brilliant triumph -for England. - -But how was Lord Palmerston able to carry out his war policy so -vigorously? The answer is a very simple one. He was backed and urged on -by the nation at large, who were incensed at the insolence of Russia. -Thus he was able to pursue his plans, being encouraged and supported by -a people who were well able to carry out what they resolved upon. - -Kinglake said he (Lord Palmerston) “was gifted with the instinct which -enables a man to read the heart of a nation.” - -His judgment was rightly pronounced, for Palmerston saw the feelings of -his national constituents and steered his course well and skilfully.[70] - -What, then, was the national feeling of England at that time? - -“In the present instance,” said the Prince Consort, “their (the English) -feeling is something of this sort: The Emperor of Russia is a tyrant, -the enemy of all liberty on the Continent, and the oppressor of Poland.” -From these royal remarks, I do not think I shall be far wrong in saying -that the growing tendency of the English people towards liberalism since -the Reform Bill of 1832, and the teaching of William Wilberforce, had -led them to consider Russia not only as a national enemy but as a -general opponent of the rights of humanity and civilization. No wonder -that a war became a necessity after this public manifestation. - -At the end of the last chapter I stated that England had rapidly -increased, in wealth and prosperity since the Repeal of the Corn Laws. -Gladstone, in the House of Commons, stated that such was the vigour and -elasticity of the English trade, that even after the disadvantage of a -bad harvest, and under the pressure of war, the imports from day to day, -and almost from hour to hour, were increasing, and that the very last -papers laid on the table showed within the last three months of the year -that there was an increase of £250,000 in the national exports.[71] -This, then, was one of the reasons which enabled England to carry on -this war so successfully. - -Let us turn our attention for a short time to France, which at this -period was undergoing considerable internal agitation. Republicanism was -now abolished and Monarchy reigned in its stead in the hands of Napoleon -III. (1852). There seemed every prospect of the French Monarchy being -firmly re-established. - -The French Emperor was very desirous of starting a European War for the -purpose of securing his seat on the throne, and also for the -aggrandizement of his country abroad.[72] The interests of his country, -both religious and political, were opposed to those of Russia with -regard to the Holy Places, while both England and France had a common -interest in keeping the Ottoman Empire from Russia. This latter interest -acted as a means of union between the two Powers, both of whom were -ready at any moment to attack Russia, and the publication of the Czar’s -memorable conversation with Sir H. Seymour still further cemented that -union. - -The result we have already seen. Russia was humiliated. - - - - - VI. - THE BLACK SEA CONFERENCE. - - _French influence destroyed by the Franco-Prussian War—Russia annuls - the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris—Condition of Europe - prevents their enforcement by the Powers—London Conference; Russia - secures the Black Sea; England’s mistake—Alsace and Lorraine destroy - the balance of power._ - - -Russia had convinced herself that the separation of England from France -was not a sufficient guarantee to hinder the possibility of the alliance -of the two Powers against her, because a common interest would unite -them immediately. Russia now determined to crush down one of the two -Powers, independently of the other, and was only waiting for an -opportunity to do so. - -In 1870 the Franco-Prussian War broke out through the question of the -Spanish Succession. England maintained a strict neutrality, and this now -seemed a glorious opportunity for Russia to carry out her long-cherished -designs. She supported Prussia _morally_, in this way hoping to crush -France, and then only England would be left to attack. The result proved -favourable; France was defeated by Prussia, and this was followed by the -fall of the Monarchy, and the proclamation of the Republic (September -14, 1870). - -Russia now looked around, and at a glance saw the favourable position -she occupied, and her strength. Austria had been weakened by the war -with Prussia in 1866, Spain and Italy were convulsed with revolutions, -Turkey was naturally weak; Prussia had suffered somewhat in 1866 with -Austria, and with France in 1870. France herself had undoubtedly -received a crushing blow, while England was worried over the Alabama -claims with America. - -Thus we see the balance of power was considerably shaken by the -Franco-Prussian War, while an alliance among the Western states seemed -impossible. - -In 1870 Western Europe was startled by Prince Gortchakoff’s declaration -that the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris, 1856, were null and -void. “He declared it would no longer be submitted to by his Imperial -master.”[73] - -England naturally felt very indignant, but was practically helpless, as -she was unable to get any ally from among the Western Powers, and she -felt unable to cope singly with Russia. The Government were perplexed, -and the Premier, Mr. W. E. Gladstone, sent Lord Odo Russell to the -German Chancellor to ask his advice on the subject, and to inform him -that “the question was of such a nature that England, with or without -allies, would have to go to war with Russia.” - -Prince Bismarck, who was afraid of a Franco-Russian alliance, and wished -to conciliate the Russian Emperor, recommended that a conference should -be held in St. Petersburg. The English Government objected to this, so a -Conference was held in London where the following provisions were agreed -to:— - -“Article I. Articles XI., XIII., and XIV., of the Treaty of Paris, 1856, -are abrogated. - -“Article II. The principle of the closing of the Straits of the -Dardanelles and the Bosphorus is maintained, with power to his Imperial -Majesty the Sultan to open the said Straits in time of peace to the -vessels of war of friendly and allied Powers, in case the Sublime Porte -should judge it necessary in order to secure the execution of the -stipulations of the Treaty of Paris. - -“Article III. The Black Sea remains, as heretofore, open to the -mercantile marine of all nations. - -“Article IV. The Commission managing the navigation of the Danube “is -maintained in its present composition” for a further period of twelve -years. - -“Article VIII. The high contracting parties renew and confirm all the -stipulations of 1856, which are not annulled or modified by the present -treaty.” - -This treaty resulted in what Russia wished, viz., the opening of the -Black Sea to Russian war ships—a right which she had held previous to -the Crimean War. - -Mr. Disraeli (afterwards Lord Beaconsfield) vigorously attacked the -Gladstonian policy by saying that “the neutral character of the Black -Sea is the essence of the Treaty of Paris, and that that, in fact, was -the question for which we had struggled and made great sacrifice and -endured these sufferings which never can be forgotten,” and the “point -upon which the negotiations for peace (at Vienna, 1855) was broken off -was the neutral character of the Black Sea.”[74] - -In answer to this attack Mr. Gladstone replied, “I do not speak from -direct communication with Lord Clarendon, but I have been told since his -death that he never attached a value to that neutralization. Again I do -not speak from direct communication, but I have been told that Lord -Palmerston always looked upon the neutralization as an arrangement which -might be maintained and held together for a limited number of years, but -which, from its character, it was impossible to maintain as a permanent -condition for a great settlement of Europe.” - -However, Russia had regained what she had lost at the close of the -Crimean War by skilful diplomacy. She now was perfectly at liberty to -keep her fleet in the Black Sea, and to refortify Sebastopol and Keotch -to such an extent as to render them impregnable. - -She felt gratified at the result of the Franco-Prussian War, and on -hearing that Prussia had annexed Alsace and Lorraine. General Ignatieff, -the Russian Ambassador at Constantinople, hastened to the German -Ambassador, Count Karserling, and said, “Permit me to congratulate you, -and _thank you_; for you it is a prodigious mistake, but on Russia you -have conferred the greatest possible boon.” At the time of the -annexation of the two French provinces, Germany thought that they would -prove of the greatest value to the German Empire, but this idea proved a -mistake, and since then Russia has used, and still uses them, as a pivot -on which the Eastern Question turns. - -Frederick III.’s idea of selling back Alsace and Lorraine would no doubt -prove a great benefit, not only to the German nation, but also to the -maintenance of the balance of power in Europe. - -Yet, though Bismarck defeated Napoleon III. in a sanguinary war, Prince -Gortschakoff had beaten all the signitary powers at the Treaty of Paris -by one stroke of the pen, and the greatest gainer, in the -Franco-Prussian War was not Germany but Russia. Verily, indeed, is it -once more proved that the Pen is mightier than the Sword. - - - - - VII. - THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR OF 1878. - - _Bulgarian atrocities—The Andrassy Note; England destroys its - effect—The Berlin Memorandum; England opposes it—Russia prepares for - a Turkish war—Conference of Constantinople—New Turkish - Constitution—Russo-Turkish War—Treaty of San Stefano—Intervention of - the Powers—The Berlin Congress—Final treaty of peace._ - - -The Slavs migrated to the Balkan Peninsula as early as 450 A.D., and -Bosnia remained the only Slavonic part of the Turkish Empire where a -native nobility owned the land and a peasantry tilled it for them. - -Having been defeated by the Turks, the nobility became Mahommedans to -save their patrimony, while the peasantry, having nothing to lose, -remained Christians; but the tyranny of their nobility at length obliged -the Turks to put an end to the Feudal System in Bosnia (1850–1851). - -In August, 1875, Herzegovina (the southwestern district of Bosnia) -revolted against the Sultan, being aided by a strong natural position -and receiving the assistance of both Servia and Montenegro. - -While this revolt was going on the Bulgarians also rose in rebellion -against the Sultan (1876), but were put down by the Turkish Government, -although not without shameful cruelties and outrages being committed by -the Turkish troops and militia, which caused great indignation -throughout Europe,[75] and specially so in Russia. This, therefore, gave -the latter country a good opportunity of claiming to be a general -protector of the Christians in Turkey. - -The Austro-Hungarian Minister, Count Andrassy, on behalf of Austria, -Germany, and Russia, drew up a Note in which five[76] chief concessions -were insisted upon from the Porte as necessary for the pacification of -the revolted provinces. - -Lord Derby, on behalf of the English Government, signed[77] it, but -added that the integrity[78] of the Ottoman Empire was to be respected. -Here the Czar caught a key-note of the English policy, and he played on -it afterwards to his own advantage. - -The Porte accepted the conditions of the Note, but the rebels did not -trust the Turkish promises, so the insurrections continued. - -The Czar then, with Gortschakoff, met Bismarck and Andrassy at Berlin, -and, together, they drew up the “Berlin Memorandum,”[79] in which the -three Powers asked the Sultan to grant an armistice for two months in -order that the demands of the insurgents might receive a fair -consideration. Italy and France added their voices, but England -refused[80] to sign the Memorandum and sent a powerful squadron to -Besika Bay, expecting that the Sultan would refuse the Memorandum -because it would endanger the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. This -“Berlin Memorandum” displays the skilful way in which Russia, under the -clever guidance of the Czar and his Minister Gortschakoff, carried on -negotiation. She was only seeking a _pretence_[81] for a single-handed -war policy with Turkey, and in order to do this she proposed measures at -Berlin which she knew would prove objectionable to England. Germany, who -dreaded a special alliance between France and Russia, was obliged to -agree to these measures, thus becoming a tool of Russia, who wanted to -make England first deviate from the Treaties of Paris and London, and, -if possible, to break down the balance of power in Europe which she -herself had already done by her withdrawal from the Black Sea clauses in -the Treaty of Paris. England fell into the snare together with the other -Powers. She objected to the Berlin Memorandum, refused to sign, and sent -a fleet to Besika Bay in support of her objection. This was just what -Russia desired. - -A new Sultan now ascended the throne, and Russian influence declined -while that of England increased. - -In July, 1876, Prince Milan of Servia, and Prince Mikita of Montenegro, -declared war against Turkey, having open assistance from Russia. The -rebels, however, were subjugated by the Turks. - -In November, 1876, Alexander II. of Russia, made a public declaration -that “if Turkey did not give due guarantees for the better government of -her Christian subjects he would force them to do so, either in concert -with his allies or by independent action.” - -The European Powers, in consequence of this proclamation, proposed a -Conference at Constantinople to settle the matter. The Czar, seeing that -the Conference was inevitable, agreed to it. The representatives met, -and, as was to be expected, asked nearly the same conditions as had been -contained in the “Andrassy Note.” - -The promulgation of a new Constitution for the Ottoman Empire was the -result of the Conference, much to the disappointment of Russia, who did -not expect that any such result would be arrived at. Thus, in order to -stop any further reforms or concessions being made by Turkey, she -succeeded in removing from power the author of the new Constitution, -viz., Midhat Pasha, who was an important personage in Turkish politics. - -The following little story shows the skilful way in which the Turkish -Minister was removed from power by the agency of Russia:— - -“During the Conference, the day after the Turks had proclaimed their new -Constitution, General Ignatieff met Sir W. White. - -“‘Have you read the Constitution?’ asked Ignatieff. ‘No,’ said the -Englishman; ‘what does it matter? It is not serious.’ ‘But,’ said -Ignatieff, ‘you must really read one Article;’ and so saying he pointed -out the Article which set forth that all provisions to the contrary -notwithstanding the Sultan was to retain an absolute right to banish -from the capital any person whose presence might seem objectionable to -him. ‘Mark my words,’ said Ignatieff, ‘the first man to be exiled under -that clause will be Midhat Pasha, the author of the Constitution.’ - -“The prediction was fulfilled to the letter. Meeting Ignatieff some time -after, Sir W. White recalled the prophecy and its fulfilment. ‘Oh! yes,’ -said the general, carelessly; ‘I arranged that.’ ‘But you had left -Constantinople before Midhat’s exile.’ ‘Certainly, but I arranged it -just before I left.’ ‘How?’ ‘It was very simple; the weather was stormy -in the Black Sea, and I could not leave for some days after the -departure of my colleague. I went on board my steamer and anchored -exactly opposite the Sultan’s palace. I did not go and bid him farewell, -but waited. In a day or two, as I anticipated, there came an -_aide-de-camp_ from the Sultan to express his regret and surprise that -I, whom he had known better than any of the Ambassadors, should be -departing without paying him a farewell visit. I replied that, of -course, I should have been delighted to have paid my respects to His -Majesty, but that it was no longer necessary. I had paid my farewell -visit to Midhat Pasha, as, under the Constitution, it was to him, not -the Sultan, that such an act of respect was due. Almost immediately -after arriving in Russia I heard of the exile of Midhat. My parting shot -had secured his downfall.’”[82] - -The Conference failed, and Russia declared war against Turkey, for now -she had obtained what she had been striving for during the diplomatic -transactions, viz., a pretence for a single-handed policy with regard to -Turkey, and, secondly, she had obtained sufficient time for making all -necessary war preparations. Now, although she had already got back what -she had lost in the Crimean War (through the Franco-Prussian War), yet -she was determined to obtain what she had intended to take at the -Crimean War, viz., Constantinople. - -A large Russian army crossed the Pruth (April, 1877), and encamped -before Constantinople. In Asia Kars was captured. This led to the Treaty -of San Stefano. - -By this treaty the Ottoman Empire in Europe was completely abrogated. It -recognized the independence of Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania; -Bulgaria was created, and its boundaries now extended to the Black and -Ægean Seas, embracing several valuable harbours. Although the latter -country still remained tributary to Turkey, yet Russia had the -appointment of a Christian prince in her hands. It has now to have a -separate administration, to be supervised by Russian commissioners, and -was also to be garrisoned by Russian troops. - -In Bosnia, Crete, Thessaly, and Epirus a certain amount of reform was to -be introduced by the Porte under the supervision of Russia. It was also -enacted that the part of Bessarabia taken from Russia in 1856 should be -ceded back to her, to which Lord Palmerston attached great value, -“because,” he said, “it is not of local, but of European interest.” -Kars, Batoum, and other adjoining districts in Asia were added to -Russia, by which cession she undoubtedly held the strongholds of -Armenia. Turkey had to pay Russia three hundred million roubles. - -The results of this treaty may be described as follows: It was nothing -less than (1) “To take all the European dominions of the Ottoman Empire -from the Porte and put them under the administration of Russia;” (2) “to -make the Black Sea as much a Russian lake as the Caspian;” (3) to give -Russia a firm hold of the Mediterranean, and thereby imperil the naval -supremacy of England in that quarter. - -Naturally, England could not accept the Treaty of San Stefano without -some alterations. Lord Derby resigned on the refusal of his demand that -the treaty should be laid before Parliament, and Lord Salisbury sent out -a vigorous circular which showed the injustice towards other races of a -large Bulgaria establishing Slav supremacy in the Balkan Peninsula under -Russian influence; also the loss of the ports of Bourgas and Batoum by -the Turks would give Russia command of the Black Sea trade, while the -cession of Kars to her would also influence Turkey’s Asiatic -possessions. This would also affect the English interests in the Persian -Gulf, the Levant, and the Suez Canal, which were in the Ottoman keeping, -and therefore was a matter of extreme solicitude for England. She would -be willing, however, to join in general stipulations made by the joint -Powers, but would not submit to Prince Gortschakoffs commands. Again, an -unpaid pecuniary debt owing to Russia by Turkey would give the former -dangerous power. - -The following words occur in the first despatch of the English -Government to Russia:— - -“The course on which the Russian Government has entered involves graver -and more serious consideration. It is in contravention of the -stipulation of the Treaty of Paris (March 30, 1856), by which Russia and -the other signatory Powers engaged, each on its own part, to respect the -independence and the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire. At the -close of the Conference of London of 1871, the above plenipotentiary, in -common with those of the other Powers, signed a declaration affirming it -to be an essential principle of the law of nations that no Power can -liberate itself from the engagement of a treaty, nor modify the -stipulations thereof, unless with the consent of the contracting parties -by means of an amicable arrangement. In taking action against Turkey on -his own part, and having recourse to arms without further consultation -with his allies, the Emperor of Russia has separated himself from the -European concert hitherto maintained, and has at the same time departed -from the rule to which he himself had solemnly recorded his -consent.”[83] - -The English Government addressed a second despatch to Russia, stating -that the English Government is “of opinion that any treaty concluded by -the Governments of Russia and the Porte affecting the treaties of 1856 -and 1871 must be a European treaty, and would not be valid without the -assent of the Powers who were parties to those treaties.” - -The Russian Minister’s (Gortschakoff’s) reply was received at last: “We -repeat the assurance that we do not intend to settle by ourselves -European questions having reference to the peace which is to be made.” - -Then the English Government sent another despatch to Russia and the -other foreign Courts, and it was communicated through an English -Ambassador at St. Petersburg that the Russian Emperor “stated -categorically that questions bearing on European interests will be -concerted with European Powers, and he had given Her Majesty’s -Government clear and positive assurance to this effect.” - -At length Austria, with the full appreciation of Russia, invited England -to a Conference at Berlin for the object of establishing “an European -agreement as to the modifications which it might become necessary to -introduce in existing treaties in order to make them harmonize with the -present situation.” - -The English Government, however, stipulated beforehand “that it would be -desirable to have it understood in the first place that all questions -dealt with in the San Stefano Treaty between Russia and Turkey” should -be fully considered in the Congress, and “that no alteration in the -condition of things previously established by treaty should be -acknowledged as valid until it has received the consent of the Powers.” - -Russia replied that “the preliminary treaty of peace between Russia and -Turkey will be textually committed to the Great Powers before the -meeting of the Congress, and that in the Congress itself each Power will -have full liberty of assent and of its free action” (“_la pleine liberté -de ses appréciations et de son action_”). - -This was a diplomatic triumph for England, and the treaty was formally -submitted to the Congress. But there were certain facts which must not -escape our notice, for just before the publication of the Treaty of San -Stefano the excitement in England had attained its zenith. Russia, -perceiving this, and hearing that England was quite ready to take up -arms against her, took the utmost precautions not to injure English -interests; so a Russian occupation of Constantinople, or any other -circumstance which might excite the enmity of England, were omitted in -the San Stefano Treaty. - -When this became known in England the excitement abated somewhat; and, -seeing this, Russia consented to submit the treaty to the Congress. - -The Congress was opened at Berlin, under the presidency of the German -Chancellor, Bismarck; and Beaconsfield firmly stood his ground at the -Congress, previously calling out the reserve forces and summoning seven -thousand Indian troops to Malta. Austria began to arm. Russia now could -not be obstinate. - -The following conditions were fixed and drawn up by the Congress:— - - - _Bulgaria._ - -Article I. Bulgaria is constituted an autonomous and tributary -principality under the suzerainty of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan; it -will have a Christian Government and a national militia. - -Article III. The Prince of Bulgaria shall be freely elected by the -population and confirmed by the Sublime Porte, with the assent of the -Powers. No member of the reigning dynasties of the Great European Powers -may be elected Prince of Bulgaria. - -In case of a vacancy in the princely dignity, the election of the new -prince shall take place under the same conditions and with the same -forms. - - - _Eastern Roumelia._ - -Article XIII. A province is formed south of the Balkans which will take -the name of “Eastern Roumelia,” and will remain under the direct -political and military authority of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, -under conditions of administrative autonomy. It shall have a Christian -Governor-general. - -Article XVII. The Governor-general of Eastern Roumelia shall be -nominated by the Sublime Porte, with the assent of the Powers, for a -term of five years. - - - _Crete, &c._ - -Article XXIII. The Sublime Porte undertakes to scrupulously apply to the -island of Crete the Organic Law of 1868, with such modifications as may -be considered equitable. - -Similar laws adapted to local requirements, excepting as regards the -exemption from taxation granted to Crete, shall also be introduced into -the other parts of Turkey in Europe for which no special organization -has been provided by the present treaty. - - - _Bosnia and Herzegovina._ - -Article XXV. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied -and administered by Austria-Hungary. - - - _Montenegro, Servia, and Roumania._ - -Article XXVI. The independence of Montenegro, Servia, and Roumania is -recognized by the Sublime Porte, and by all the high contracting -parties, subject to the conditions set forth in the following:— - -In Montenegro the difference of religious creeds and confessions shall -not be alleged against any person as a ground for exclusion or -incapacity in matters relating to the enjoyment of civil and political -rights, admission to public employments, functions, and honours, or the -exercise of the various professions and industries in any locality -whatsoever. - -The freedom and outward exercise of all forms of worship shall be -assured to all persons belonging to Montenegro, as well as to -foreigners; and no hindrance shall be offered either to the hierarchical -organization of the different communions or to their relations with -their spiritual chiefs. - -Article XLV. The principality of Roumania restores to His Majesty the -Emperor of Russia that portion of Bessarabian territory detached from -Russia by the Treaty of Paris of 1856. - - - _Cessions in Asia._ - -Article LVIII. The Sublime Porte cedes to the Russian Empire in Asia the -territories of Ardahan, Kars, and Batoum, together with the latter port. - -Article XIX. His Majesty the Emperor declares that it is his intention -to constitute Batoum a free port, essentially commercial. - -Article LX. The valley of Alaxhkerd and the town of Bayazid, ceded to -Russia, are restored to Turkey. - -The Sublime Porte cedes to Persia the town and territory of Khotou for -its delimitation of the frontiers of Turkey and of Persia.[84] - - - _The Anglo-Turkish Convention._ - -Article I. Batoum, Ardahan, Kars, or any of them, shall be retained by -Russia, and if any attempt shall be made at any future time by Russia to -take possession of any further territories of His Imperial Majesty the -Sultan in Asia, as fixed by the Definitive Treaty of Peace, England -engages to join His Imperial Majesty the Sultan in defending them by -force of arms. - -In order to enable England to make necessary provision for executing her -engagement, His Imperial Majesty the Sultan further consents to assign -the island of Cyprus to be occupied and administrated by England. - -Beaconsfield having thus attained “peace with honour” for England, -returned, and in a speech[85] in the House, said, “They are not -movements of war, they are operations of peace and civilization; we have -no reason to fear war. Her Majesty has fleets and armies which are -second to none.” - - - - - VIII. - REMARKS UPON THE TREATY OF BERLIN. - - _The position of affairs—The Salisbury-Schouvaloft Memorandum and its - disastrous effect on the negotiations at Berlin—Russia’s - gain—England and Austria the guardians of Turkey—Austria’s vigorous - and straightforward Balkan policy—Thwarted in Servia but triumphant - in Bulgaria—Relations of Greece to Austria—Solution of the Crete - question—Neutrality of Belgium threatened—Importance of - Constantinople to Russia; the Anglo-Turkish Convention—England’s - feeble policy in Asia Minor—The question of Egypt—A new route to - India by railway from the Mediterranean to Persian Gulf—England’s - relation to Constantinople._ - - -Let us now review and make a few remarks on the Treaty of Berlin. - -Firstly, the whole treaty seems to me to be virtually a repetition[86] -and revision of the conditions of the European concert in the Eastern -question. - -Prince Bismarck’s opinion was that the Treaty of San Stefano meant to -alter “the state of things as fixed by former European Conventions,” -consequently the Berlin Congress followed for “the free discussion of -the Cabinets’ signatories of the treaties of 1856 and 1871.” - -The Treaties of Paris and London being still in force, and owing to the -rise of a new nationality and the redistribution of territory, these -treaties were altered and amended by the Congress. - -Before we criticize the Treaty of Berlin we ought to bear two things in -our mind. (1) At the Conference of Paris, 1856, England, France, and -Turkey were victorious, while Russia was conquered. (2) At the Berlin -Congress, 1878, Russia was victorious over Turkey, while England and -France were neutral. - -In both meetings it was asserted and claimed that the Powers -collectively had the right of settling the Eastern Question as against -Russia’s single-handed interference, England leading the van with fair -words but selfish interests. - -On Russia concluding the San Stefano Treaty with Turkey, England said -that, according to the conditions of the Treaty of Paris, the Great -Powers of Europe “engaged each on its own part to respect the -independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire,” and consequently -Turkish affairs produced a general interest throughout Europe. - -Russia had committed a serious breach of “the law of nations” by a -treaty single-handed with Turkey. When the European Congress at Berlin -was consented to by Russia, England said that the Treaty of San Stefano -was not valid without the consent of the signatory Powers of the -Treaties of Paris and London. She also demanded from Russia that, “in -the Congress itself, each Power should have full liberty of assent and -free action.” These demands seemed perfectly reasonable. However, -England, before the Berlin meeting, contracted a secret agreement with -Russia, in which the modifications asked for by England in the Treaty of -San Stefano were specified. This agreement did not leave out the -bringing in of other changes by mutual consent, but, if these failed, -tended to be a mutual engagement by the ambassadors of Russia and Great -Britain as to their general behaviour and conduct at the Congress. This -secret agreement between the two Powers practically blocked the full -liberty of the other Powers and the full amount of good they might -otherwise have done. England had been one of the first to attack Russia -for committing a breach of the Treaties of Paris and London; yet she -overlooked the fact that she herself had morally broken the same -treaties by her secret negotiation with Russia, the other Powers not -being at the time cognizant of the fact. - -Once more Russia, by the Black Sea Conference, had gained full freedom -on the Black Sea, now she had regained the part of Bessarabia which she -had lost during the Crimean War, the principal object of which was to -drive Russia from the banks of the Danube. The above-mentioned territory -was ceded to Russia through the influence of Lord Salisbury, who had -secretly promised Schouvaloff, the Russian ambassador, that he would -support the Russian demand with regard to that land. - -By the Berlin Treaty England and Austria were invested with a special -responsibility for protecting the integrity of the Ottoman Empire -against Russian aggression—England in Asia Minor, and Austria in the -Balkans. - -If Russia attacked through Asia Minor the English interests would be -imperilled; and by the disappearance of the Balkan States, then Austria -would be open to Russian immediate attacks—a consummation which would be -little desired by that Power. - -This responsibility has undoubtedly from that time engrossed the -attention of Austria and Hungary. She has had to encounter several -difficulties. Bessarabia was no longer a Turkish province, and had been -ceded to Russia by the Salisbury-Schouvaloff memorandum. Also there, was -no possibility of the Balkan States being confederated owing to the -different races, language, and feelings of the nationality. - -In September, 1879, Bismarck visited Vienna and concluded an -Austro-German defensive alliance against the alliance of France and -Russia. Bismarck, however, described the German policy in the following -terse manner: “Fight by all means, if you feel yourself strong enough to -beat Russia single-handed. France and Germany will see all fair, and you -can hardly expect anybody effectually to help you.” - -Notwithstanding these rather unfavourable circumstances, and her -financial difficulties as well, still the policy of Austria is at the -present time carried on straightforwardly and vigorously, and the duty -with which she charged herself at the Berlin Treaty is ably done, and is -well backed up by the five million Magyars who inhabit Hungary and the -adjoining provinces. This nation had been cruelly put under Austria by -Russia (1848–49), and consequently their hatred against Russia was -deeply rooted. - -At present, therefore, Russia’s schemes with regard to Constantinople -have been frustrated, and Austria holds the lead in the Balkan Peninsula -race. - -Austria was asked to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, in order to secure -peace and order there. She did so, and, notwithstanding an armed -resistance, entered and fulfilled her promise. She is now strengthening -her hold on these states by stationary garrisons of soldiers in -different parts, and also Jesuits, who exercise a moral influence over -the people. The affairs of Servia have also deeply occupied the -attention of the Austrian Government. She captured King Milan, and used -him as a tool for her own purposes. Russia, however, desired to get hold -of Servia through the ex-queen. - -Intrigues at the Servian Court were numerous, and at last the miserable -divorce of the king and queen leaked out. The present young king -ascended the throne. This was a blow to the Austrian influence. - -Bulgaria had been declared an independent country by the Berlin Treaty. -On this state the question of supremacy between Russia and Austria in -the Balkans hangs to a great degree. In 1855 Bulgaria and Eastern -Roumelia were united into a single state. This revolution occasioned -very great displeasure in Russia, and under her influence Prince -Alexander was kidnapped and compelled to abdicate, and Prince Ferdinand -of Coburg was elected as the ruling prince. - -Although of German extraction, he is an Austrian by allegiance, and a -Roman Catholic. He was originally an officer in the Hungarian army. -There seems to me no doubt that his election was illegal, because, in -the first place, by the Berlin Treaty the ruling prince must belong to -the Greek Church. - -Prince Ferdinand was quite ready to submit his claim for decision to the -Great Powers, and abide by the result. All the Powers except England and -Austria declared that he had no claim to the crown, but the two had -their own way, and he ascended the Bulgarian throne—another repulse and -blow to Russian influence. Prince Alexander meanwhile was given a post -in the Austro-Hungarian army. Only recently, to show the friendly spirit -that exists between Austria and Bulgaria, a loan has been concluded and -advanced by the former to the latter. - -Undoubtedly Austria committed a slight mistake in her policy with regard -to Greece. She had arrogantly displayed her fleet and strength at -Salonika, which no doubt was a source of irritation to Greece. Her best -policy would have been kindness and consideration, not forcible means, -for the prosperity of Austria was to a certain extent dependent on her -treatment of neighbouring countries, and, together with the Great Powers -she was to a certain extent dependent upon Greece’s action. The latter, -therefore, was a necessary bulwark against Russian encroachments, and -was thus of primary importance to England, France, and Italy. If, -therefore, the Turks were driven from Europe, Greece would occupy the -place of Turkey with regard to Russia, and would be the only obstacle to -Russian Mediterranean advance. “I would never permit,” said the Czar -Nicholas, “such an extension of Greece as would render her a powerful -state.” Truly Greece might well be called the Belgium of the -Mediterranean! - -By the Berlin Treaty the Porte was advised to cede Thessaly and Epirus -to Greece. This was done, and as the Greeks were noted for being good -traders and sailors, great progress and improvement was made in their -newly acquired territory. - -It is difficult to see the reason why the Berlin Congress did not advise -the Porte to cede Crete to Greece. If the island was left alone it would -be harmless, and exercise no influence on the naval supremacy of the -Mediterranean. - -However, an occupation of Crete by a European Power would to a great -extent change the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean, destroy -European tranquillity and peace, the Levant would be in the hands of the -Cretan occupiers. Again, its position would completely command the Ægean -Sea, and if properly fortified might be rendered almost impregnable. Its -natural wealth, population, and general productiveness afford ample -resources both in times of war and peace; in fact, it might be very well -termed the Second Gate to the Black Sea. - -Therefore it seems to me the best policy to let this important island -remain in a neutral state by an agreement between the Great Powers, and -the sooner it is agreed to the better it would be for the peace of -Europe generally. - -In my opinion it would have been better to have placed it under Grecian -rule for the following reasons:— - -(1) Because Greece herself was a neutral nation. (2) They were a -commercial people, and peaceful, which would have a beneficial effect -upon the island. (3) More than half of the Cretan population are of -Grecian extraction. - -There is no doubt that if any one[87] of the Great Powers had proposed -the cession of Crete to Greece it would have met with the general -approbation of the Congress. This would not have met with Turkish -opposition, particularly as England had before the Berlin Congress -mentioned it in the Anglo-Turkish agreement; and to show that Turkey did -not attach much importance to Crete, it is related in Turkish history -that it was offered to Mehemet Ali as a reward for his help in the Greek -insurrection; besides, the national force of Turkey was not large enough -to utilize the strong natural position of the island. - -Austria,[88] unless she had been influenced by her national vanity, -would have agreed to such a proposal owing to the great value as a -national defence that she received from the Balkan States. Again, -Germany, France, and Italy could find no reasonable argument for -opposing this plan. - -The policy of England with regard to a neutral state has always been to -strengthen its national power, and that to such a degree as to properly -maintain its fixed neutrality. - -In 1815 England ceded the Java Islands to the Dutch on the formation of -the Netherlands at the Congress of Vienna. Why did she do this? For this -reason: because by doing this the new States would be rendered neutral -in case of a French or German invasion, and by this cession of Java the -Dutch national power was increased in every way, and their power of -maintaining a strict neutrality rendered stronger. - -Another instance may strengthen my statement. Corfu, an important -military and naval post, was put under English protection at the Vienna -Congress, 1815. Lord Palmerston at one time saw that it would be -impolitic to hand over Corfu to Austria, and declared that the islands -ought never to be abandoned by England. - -However, when the new kingdom of Greece was formed England cordially -agreed to hand over Corfu and several other islands to Greece, on the -condition that the Greeks should choose a king subject to the approval -of England. The fortifications of Corfu were demolished, and the -neutrality of the islands was declared by the Great Powers. - -These circumstances, then, tend to show us that England was distinctly -favourable[89] to the cession of Crete to Greece, and they were -considerably strengthened by the fact that Greece was an ally of -England, and the commercial relations between the two were very free. - -There is no doubt that the marriage of the Crown Prince of Greece with a -German Princess (1889) has morally strengthened the position and power -of Greece. However, Greece still needs material strength for the -maintenance of a strict neutrality. - -Turning to another country, we find that it is a matter of considerable -doubt whether Belgium can maintain a firm neutrality in case of a -Franco-German war. At the time of Lord Palmerston she might perhaps have -been able to do so, but the recent discoveries in the world of science, -and their application to military purposes, and the immense increase of -the French and German armies, have changed the military world, and the -neutrality of Belgium is a doubtful point. In 1887 an important -discussion on this question took place, which resulted in the -fortification of Namur and Liege. This was followed by the fortification -of the Meuse, but it is said that the Belgians have not enough troops to -garrison these newly-made defences. It has been publicly admitted in -Belgium that their national force is not sufficient to defend a -violation of neutrality against France and Germany, therefore Belgium -must regard the first violator of her neutrality as her national enemy, -and will be obliged to ally herself with a nation which is an enemy of -the state which has violated neutrality. This is not the Belgium which -Lord Palmerston meant it to be. - -Another important fact is that since the Franco-German war German -attention has been turned to the North Sea, and a new naval harbour and -arsenal have been built at Wihelmshafen. Two other large harbours in the -North Sea have also been improved lately, viz., Hamburg and Bremen. -Kiel, the finest port on the Baltic, has been confiscated, and is now -connected with the North Sea by a canal, through which ships of large -tonnage may one day pass. Numerous ironclads and fleets of large -merchant and emigrant steam vessels have been constructed which, in case -of war, can be armed and turned into transports. Her land forces have -been well organized and augmented, and military tactics scientifically -developed. From these threatening facts it is certain that in the event -of a Franco-German war both Holland and Belgium would occupy most -dangerous positions. Having these events staring them in the face, only -one expedient could present itself to the two states, viz., union. This -would enable them to show a powerful front to the rival Powers, and -would enable them both to maintain a united fixed neutrality, thus -showing Lord Palmerston’s mistaken policy of the separation of the two -states to be a weak one with regard to the present state of affairs, -though perhaps it may have served its purpose at that time. - -All these arguments go to prove that a cession of Crete to Greece would -be beneficial to both European and Grecian interests. - -Constantinople was hardly mentioned in the Berlin Treaty, although it is -said that Lord Beaconsfield had suggested to General Ignatieff a Russian -occupation of the Bosphorus with an English one of Mitylene. Ignatieff -said, however, that “Mitylene was too near, as it was only two hours’ -steam from the north of the Dardanelles.” Lord Beaconsfield did not, -therefore, press the discussion. The importance of Constantinople can be -explained in a few words. - -By possession of the Straits Russia would be able to make the Black Sea -a second Caspian, whose coasts are left undefended, and it would become -a great Russian arsenal, for ten or fifteen thousand troops would be -sufficient to shut out an English fleet from the Straits, and by this -means quite two hundred thousand Russian troops could be withdrawn from -the Black Sea and turned to the Balkans, Asia Minor, or Central Asia. - - - _The Anglo-Turkish Convention._ - -Notwithstanding the fact that Austria has fulfilled her contract in -preventing Russian aggression through the Balkans, yet Russia could find -a way through Asia Minor, although her progress through Asia was stopped -by England at the Anglo-Turkish Convention. - -By this treaty, however, England committed a still more grave and -serious breach of the Treaties of 1856 and 1871 than by this Berlin -Treaty. Yet although England and Russia had made a secret agreement -beforehand, still the Berlin Treaty was discussed and drawn up by the -Congress. Therefore England was only morally to blame. But the -Anglo-Turkish Convention was concluded between the two countries -themselves, and was never submitted for the consideration of the Great -Powers. Lord Beaconsfield sought to screen England by declaring that -Russia had concluded the San Stefano Treaty with Turkey without the -knowledge and consent of the Powers, and Russia herself, therefore, had -broken the principles of the 1856 and 1871 Treaties. Yet this did not -conceal the fact that England herself had not acted up to her tenets in -the Anglo-Turkish Convention. - -The Porte ceded Ardahan, Kars, and Batoum, together with its port, to -Russia. England occupied Cyprus, and engaged to defend Asiatic Turkey, -Syria, Palestine, Assyria, Arabia, and Armenia, against Russian -invasion. - -Has England performed her contract in Asiatic Turkey as Austria has done -in the Balkans? We will see. Cyprus is left almost in the same condition -as it was before our English occupation, and nothing has been done by -England for the defence of Asiatic Turkey, while only a few hundred -soldiers guard against a Russian invasion in Asia Minor. Surely this -cannot be a sufficient number of men to withstand a Russian army. What, -then, has become of the Anglo-Turkish Convention? Russia has taken -advantage of this, and is doing her utmost to bring about war in that -quarter. - -By the Berlin Treaty the Russian Emperor declared that it was his -_intention_ to constitute Batoum a free port essentially commercial. -Lord Salisbury interpreted this remark that the port of Batoum was to be -_only_ a commercial port. The Russian Emperor has, however, _changed his -intention_, and Batoum is essentially a fortress, and is connected with -Poti by a railway through Kutais. - -Why cannot, therefore, Russia have an idea of breaking the Berlin Treaty -with equal freedom as England did with regard to the Treaties of 1856 -and 1871 by concluding the Anglo-Turkish Convention single-handed? It -seems to me that Russia has a great opportunity of advancing to -Erzeroum, and from there proceeding to Alexandretta; and from there to -Constantinople. At any rate she has ample opportunities of reaching the -Persian Gulf by piercing the northern frontiers and western part of -Persia, and thus completing the far-seeing policies of Peter the Great, -Nicholas, and Alexander. - -How can England withstand this? When Cyprus was placed under English -administration both France and Italy were opposed to this, France -especially so, because she had a special interest with regard to Syria. -However, she concluded a secret agreement with England, that the latter -would consent to a French Protectorate over Tunis, which was done in -1881, a protectorate which is now extending to Tripoli. Many regard this -action of France as an indirect third offer of Egypt to England, the -first having been made by Nicholas I., and the second by Louis Philippe. - -Whatever the French occupation of Tunis might be, England occupied Egypt -in 1885, thus fulfilling Lord Palmerston’s prophecy of a quarter of a -century before, when he said that “if a practicable waterway were -created between the Gulf of Pelusium and the Red Sea England would be -compelled sooner or later to annex Egypt, and that he opposed M. de -Lessep’s scheme because he considered it undesirable that England should -annex territory in that part of the world.”[90] - -The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, and Lord Palmerston’s prophecy was -fulfilled. In 1875 the English Government purchased the Khedive’s shares -(£4,000,000) in the Suez Canal, and this was followed by the bombardment -of Alexandria by the British fleet in 1885. The chief aim of the English -occupation of Egypt was “to possess the inns on the north road.”[91] - -It will be impossible to avoid the conflict of English and French -interests as long as there is only one route through the Suez Canal to -India, and an Anglo-French alliance on the subject seems to be far -distant, particularly as England has three-fourths of the traffic -through the canal. - -It is also a matter of great importance that England should keep Egypt -orderly and peaceful. Lord Salisbury, in an excellent speech on Lord -Mayor’s Day, 1889, said: - -“We (English) have undertaken to sustain Egypt until she is competent to -sustain herself against every enemy, foreign or domestic. We cannot see -that that time has yet arrived. It may arrive quicker or later. Other -Powers may help us by concurring in measures which will improve the -position and increase the prosperity of Egypt, or they may defer that -day by taking an opposite course. But whether the day comes sooner or -later, our policy remains unaltered, and we will pursue our task to the -end.” - -We can easily get at the pith of Lord Salisbury’s speech. If France -again became a co-partner of England in establishing peace and order in -Egypt, then England would be quite willing to restore the dual control -with regard to Egypt, and Lord Salisbury in 1878 had declared that -England did not desire to annex Egypt. - -The dual control of France and England with regard to Egypt might -possibly settle affairs there temporarily, or neutralize that country on -the same lines as Belgium; but still this is not a sufficient guarantee -against an Anglo-French dispute on the Egyptian question. - -The French Government of the present day is not noted for stability, -always changing, never agreeing, and ready for foreign quarrels, and -although now they are supporting the English Government in Egypt, it is -not safe to depend upon them, for the feeling of rivalry is sure to -arise, and great caution has to be exercised in order to prevent -complications arising. No matter what happens, England must have free -communication with India, and as long as there is only one road, -ruptures will be inevitable, and there can be no firm alliance as in the -case of the Crimean War. - -It seems to me to be a favourable time to suggest to Turkey the -construction of a railway from Constantinople or some other port on the -Mediterranean to Bussorah on the Persian Gulf: why should not England -undertake the construction herself? This route would certainly possess -four great advantages: - -(1) It would be a shorter route to India. - -(2) It would be a valuable means of quick transportation of either -Turkish or English troops for the defence of Asia Minor. - -(3) It would avoid a clashing of English and French interests in Egypt -to a certain extent, and a dual control would thereby be strengthened, -and would produce two more results, viz:— - -(_a_) A firmer alliance between England and France. - -(_b_) England would be able to reduce her troops in Egypt, and devote -them to the defence of Asia Minor, and by this means be more able to -withstand Russian attacks in that quarter and in Persia. - -(4) Lastly, Turkey would be strengthened financially owing to the -prosperity of her commerce, and productions in Asia Minor, which is the -usual effect of such a communication. - -By this means England can fulfil her public duty to Turkey, which she -had undertaken to do by the Anglo-Turkish Convention, and can maintain -her national honour pledged when Lord Beaconsfield and Count Andrassy -discussed the defence of Turkey from Russian invasion in Asia and -Europe. - -It is difficult to see why this railway scheme was not brought forward -at the Anglo-Turkish Convention, because it appears to me to be of -primary importance for the defence of both Asia Minor and India; and -also how it escaped the mind of so clever a statesman as Lord -Beaconsfield. - -It has, however, been informally discussed both at political meetings -and by pamphlet only recently: the financial difficulties seemed quite -surmountable, but political opinions are decidedly at variance on the -subject. But it is my opinion that England would be perfectly right in -compelling Turkey to carry out this scheme, and if she was not able to -execute it, then England could perform it herself, and she would be only -fulfilling one of the duties which she has undertaken to perform with -the Sultan at the Anglo-Turkish Convention. - -The following articles strangely enough appeared in one of the English -daily papers[92]:— - -“The tradition, adhered to even by Lord Beaconsfield, of remaining -allied with Turkey at all hazards, is no longer advocated even by -Conservative occupants of the Foreign Office. Since the occupation by -England of Cyprus, and still more of Egypt, Constantinople has lost much -of its importance to England. The Russian fleet in the Black Sea would, -in the event of war, pass through the Dardanelles, with or without the -Sultan’s consent, and advance into the Mediterranean. The rule of the -Sultan at Constantinople, therefore, no longer affords a guarantee -against a Russian attack of the English possessions in the -Mediterranean. Russia already possesses a road to India _viâ_ Merv, and -the possession of Constantinople could afford her no resistance in this -direction.” - -“England, on the other hand, in the event of Russia’s impeding the -conveyance of English troops through the Suez Canal, has at her disposal -another way to India, one which leads exclusively through British -dominions—the new Canadian railway. One no longer thinks of defending -India at Constantinople, but in Afghanistan and on the Anglo-Afghan -frontier. England has as much interest as the other Powers in preventing -Russia from advancing towards Constantinople, but this is no longer held -to be a vital interest that would have to be protected even by force of -arms.” - -This is certainly a serious mistake in policy if backed up by the -English Government, even more so than that of the Duke of Wellington, -1827–1830. - -If Constantinople were once occupied by Russia, it is certain that -Turkey would be a thing of the past, the Russian fleet on the Black Sea -would at once sail into the Mediterranean and attack the English -supremacy there. The Russian occupation would enable them to withdraw -quite 200,000 troops from the Black Sea coasts which could be used for -an attack on the Balkans, Armenia, or Central Asia; Cyprus would be lost -to England, and Asia Minor to Turkey; Russia would have a largely -increased power in the Mediterranean, and the Persian Gulf would be no -longer open to English ships. - -If the Franco-Russian alliance of to-day remained firm, and war was to -be declared, then England would only have two long routes to India: -(_a_) round the Cape of Good Hope, (_b_) the new Canadian railway. Lord -Charles Beresford said, “With the Cape well fortified and held by a -military force, England might laugh at the world.” But the Cape would be -unsafe, owing to France having now firm hold of the Indian Ocean -“Malta,” viz., Madagascar. - -Notwithstanding that the new Canadian route passes exclusively through -British dominions, yet it cannot be called a direct route, for it is -certainly a seven days longer journey than the Gibraltar route to -Calcutta. Russia, on the other hand, could send an immense number of -troops in seven or ten days from Moscow to the Afghan frontiers, and in -about another extra day from St. Petersburg, or the Caucasian Peninsula. - -This would be all in favour of Russia gaining the first military move—a -matter of extreme importance in the present advanced stage of military -tactics. - -This question may also be viewed from two other points:— - -First, Cobden[93] and Bright were once under the idea that if Russia -occupied Constantinople, she would change into a peaceful and civilized -nation, and that England would be materially benefited commercially. -This was merely an imaginary dream, for there is no doubt in my mind -that a Russian occupation of the Turkish capital is a preliminary to -shutting out English trade from the Black Sea by heavy protective -duties. Second, England has engaged herself, together with the other -European Powers, to respect the integrity and independence of the -Ottoman Empire by the Treaties of Paris, London, and Berlin, and still -more emphatically by the Anglo-Turkish Convention. If, therefore, she -followed the policy of leaving Constantinople to its fate, and simply -defended her interests on the Afghan frontiers, she would at once be -branded with disgrace, and stigmatized as a breaker of the 1856, 1871, -and 1878 Treaties, and a backslider from the Anglo-Turkish Convention. - -At the present time, however, an indirect change of policy may be -observed. Early in March, 1889, the First Lord of the Admiralty (Lord -George Hamilton) introduced and passed the Naval Defences Bill, -authorizing an expenditure of £21,500,000 on the Navy by constructing -eight first and two second-class battle-ships, nine first-class and -thirty-three smaller cruisers, and eighteen torpedo gunboats. This -surely implies that England is determined to prevent Russian -encroachments both at Constantinople and in the Mediterranean. - -Reviewing the above, the following things seem plainly revealed, viz., -that Russia has in the majority of cases assumed an offensive policy -while England has maintained a defensive one with regard to Eastern -Europe. - -Pitt started a splendid scheme of resistance against Russia; Canning -worked upon it, and developed the European Concert scheme with regard to -Turkey; Palmerston improved, expanded, and eventually completed a -perfectly harmonious unison; while Beaconsfield composed and worked -variations upon the original strain of the Concert. Surely the example -of such noble and great statesmen is worthy of veneration both in the -present and the future. - - - - - IX. - CENTRAL ASIA. - - _Rise of British power in India—Rivalry of France—Aims of - Napoleon—Russian influence in Central Asia—Its great extension after - the Crimean War—And after the Berlin Congress—Possible points of - attack on India—Constantinople the real aim of Russia’s Asiatic - policy—Recent Russian annexations and railways in Central - Asia—Reaction of Asiatic movements on the Balkan question—Dangerous - condition of Austria—Possible future Russian advances in - Asia—England’s true policy the construction of a speedy route to - India by railway from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf—Alliance - of England, France, Turkey, Austria, and Italy would effectively - thwart Russian schemes._ - - -I do not mean to detain my readers for any length of time upon this -tedious subject which has been so often discussed. I shall sketch the -policy of England and Russia in the region in question. However, it must -not be forgotten that the subject is important, as it leads up to the -great Pacific Question which will occupy European attention for many -years to come. - -The foundation of the British Empire in India dates from the Battle of -Plassey, June 23, 1757, and Clive’s Second Governorship of the East -India Company established the India administration on a firm basis. - -Warren Hastings improved and properly organized the foundation laid by -Clive, and Lord Cornwallis consolidated Bengal and the other chief -states, and rendered them fairly secure. - -Lord Wellesley was the first who felt fully convinced that England -should be the permanent predominant Power in India, and he carried out -this policy by extensive subsidiary alliances with native princes by -which the states were placed under British protection. - -It is said that this policy was suggested by “the great events that were -taking place in Europe, where French ideas and French arms under the -genius of Bonaparte were reducing kingdoms and states to provinces of an -Empire.”[94] - -Lord Minto first opened relations with the Punjaub, Afghanistan, and -Persia. He was succeeded by Lord Moira, who saw that the British -frontiers in India could never be secured till the natural barrier of -the Himalayas and the sea were reached; while Lord Dalhousie proved a -faithful follower and improver of this policy, and at last made India a -completely organized state. - - - _England’s Opponents in British India._ - -The Portuguese ascendency in India was of short duration. It was -followed by a keen rivalry between the English and French, the former -eventually obtaining the precedence. This was owing to the naval -superiority of the English in Indian seas, under the wise guidance of -Chatham, supported by the skilful military and civil administration of -Clive and Hastings. - -In 1797–1798 Napoleon threatened to invade India from the north; first -he threatened an attack from the Deccan, then in the latter part of the -year he concluded an alliance with several Asiatic princes preparatory -to another attack from the same quarter. - -The Marquis Wellesley was at once sent out and landed in Madras, April -26, 1798. Affairs seemed critical. Napoleon was preparing for a great -invasion of Egypt prior to a descent on India. Tippoo Sultan, in India, -was raising troops, disciplined under French management, and -strengthened by French help, commanded by Raymond. Rao Sindia (the -Mahratta ruler), the Peshawar (Governor of Poonah), the Ameer of -Afghanistan, and Holkar were all hostile to English interests in India, -and threatened to plunge everything into war with the assistance of the -French. - -Wellesley plainly saw that a defensive policy was the best. Accordingly -he made an alliance with some of the Mahratta powers to frustrate a -French invasion from the north. He also strongly urged the English Home -Government to take possession of the Cape of Good Hope, and the Isles of -France and Bourbon, in order to cut off the sea route to India from -France. This advice was followed by the English Government, who retained -Malta, Mauritius, the Cape of Good Hope, and the Ionian Islands by the -provisions of the Congress of Vienna, 1815. - -He then began to crush Tippoo Sultan and his allies, and by the -brilliant victories of Assaye and Argaum brought them to his feet. -Having conquered these Native states he now began to take measures to -consolidate them. He allowed the princes to retain their titles, but -subjected them to the English Power, which secured them from foreign -aggression, and also let them have full liberty with regard to internal -administration. - -On his recall in 1805 a policy of non-interference was carried on by his -successor, Lord Cornwallis. - -During the Napoleonic European War, Lord Minto was Governor-General. -Under his able administration the French Isles of Bourbon and Mauritius -and the Dutch East Indian Islands were captured. He also sent political -missions into Persia, Sindia, and Poonah to crush down the French -influence and intrigue there. - -Napoleon fell in 1815, and the most formidable opponent to British -Indian interests disappeared. - -Yet the Marquis of Hastings and his successors still carried out the -same policy of annexation as had been in existence during the alarms of -Napoleon, and the Indian frontiers have ever since been keenly watched -and guarded from foreign attack. The second Mahratta War (1817–1819) and -the first Burmese War (1824–1826) are instances of British watchfulness -over the frontiers. - -As was to be expected, Russia appeared on the scene in the place of -France, and the drama of the Anglo-Russian struggle in Afghanistan was -enacted in 1837. - -[Illustration: - - THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA IN ASIA.] - -For some time previously Russia had been gradually advancing into -Central Asia. This movement started with Peter the Great, while -Alexander I. arranged with Napoleon by the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) to -annex whatever he pleased in Central Asia. Hence the Russian boast of -Nicholas that “Russia has no boundary in Central Asia.” For some time, -however, Turkish affairs occupied the Russian minds, and Asia was left -untouched, while for twenty or thirty years after the fall of Napoleon, -all the great countries were endeavouring to restore the balance of -power in Europe. Then in 1830 Russia began to show her hand, and seized -Jaxartes, and in 1837 the siege of Herat by the Persians (no doubt -incited by the Russians), which is sometimes called the north-western -gate of India, and the failure of negotiations with Dost Mohammed, who -was backed by Russian influence, urged the English to take strong -measures in order to protect India from Russian invasion, especially -through the two Afghan Passes, the Bolon and Khyber. - -The first English move was the sending of an expedition to Cabul, and -its occupation in 1839. Its intention was to place a ruler over -Afghanistan who should be under English influence. This was considered -defensive policy. - -In 1847 Lord Palmerston wrote to Lord John Russell the following:— - -“The roads through Persia are good, and the Caspian gives additional -facilities. From Astrabad through Afghanistan are very practicable -military roads. A Russian force in occupation of Afghanistan might -convert Afghanistan into the advanced post of Russia.” - -The annexation of Sind (1843), Punjaub (1849), Oudh (1856), and the -second Burmese War (1852), are all policies on the same lines. - -Just at this period Russia was warmly engaged with Turkish affairs, and -in 1853–1856 was employed in the Crimean War against England, France, -and Turkey. She was beaten, and by the Treaty of Paris was driven back -from the Danube, and forbidden to put a Russian fleet of any description -in the Black Sea, and the fortifications of Sebastopol were dismantled. -Thus a Russian advance on the Balkans and Armenia seemed then almost -hopeless. Therefore she turned her attention to Central Asia, and -vigorously carried out her plans for several years. - -In 1864 the Russian forces captured Tchenken, in Turkestan, and she had -advanced as far as the river Syr Daria. In 1865 she declared war with -Bokhara, and captured Taskend, which was followed by the surrender of -Khojind (1866). - -In 1867 the province of Syr Adria was annexed, and in the same year -Nicholas installed a Russian Government in Turkestan. In 1868 Samarcand -was subjugated, and the Ameer of Bokhara was practically made a vassal -of the Czar. In 1869 Krasnovodok, on the east coast of the Caspian, next -fell a prey to Russian greed, and a fort was built there, and at present -forms one of the Russian military outposts. - -During and after the Franco-German War she was busily engaged in Central -Asia, and still increased and extended her boundaries, until at length -the Oxus was reached, and the Clarendon boundary in 1872 for a time -stopped her roving footsteps. In 1873, however, the whole territory of -the Khan of Khiva was drawn in, and the river Atrak was now the boundary -with Persia. Zerafshan next fell before her, and now the Tian Shan -mountains and the eastern part of Semipolatinsk formed the eastern -boundary with China. Lastly, 1876 saw the annexation of Ferghana. - -Let us now direct our attention to the English frontiers and territory, -which she was trying to consolidate more firmly. - -The Indian Mutiny of 1857 had led to the transferring of the Government -of India from the East India Company to the Crown, and the reins of -government from a Governor-General to a Viceroy (1858). The tour of the -Prince of Wales through India, 1875–1876, had done a good deal of good -in creating a friendly feeling with the natives, and he had met with a -brilliant reception. This was the preliminary to Queen Victoria being -proclaimed Empress of India in 1877. - -The Russo-Turkish War (1878), the San Stefano Treaty, and the Congress -of Berlin, produced a new phase in the Afghan question. The opposition -of Austria to Russia at the Balkans, the defence of England in Asia -Minor, both by the provisions of the Berlin Treaty, and the -Anglo-Turkish Convention had frustrated the schemes of Russia in Europe; -she therefore turned her undivided energies to her advance in Central -Asia, with the object of dividing the attention and forces of the -English between Asia Minor and the Afghan frontiers. - -In 1880 the final conquest of the Turcomans along the northern frontier -of Persia and the east coast of the Caspian facilitated her designs, and -Askhabad was occupied. The dispute of the Kulja frontier with China was -a winning move also in the eastern direction, also a part of -Semipolatinsk was added, and fresh boundaries were made in the -south-west of Ferghana towards the Chinese Empire, which measure caused -England to adopt a defensive policy by the third Burmese War (1885). - -In 1882 the Russo-Merv Convention was concluded, finally deciding the -submission of the latter, while in 1884 “His Imperial Highness (of -Russia) had determined to accept the allegiance of the Merv-Turcomans, -and to send an officer to administer the government of that region.”[95] -The annexation of Merv gave Russia possession of the river Murghab, -giving her an opportunity of having a waterway to Herat if needed. - -This action compelled England to appoint a Commission to define the -North-West frontier of Afghanistan (1885). England at this time was -worried also with Egyptian affairs. Russia, notwithstanding, advanced -and occupied Sarakhs and various other posts on the North-West frontier, -all being strategically important. This aroused the English Government, -who at once asked for a vote of credit of £11,000,000, and began to show -such a determined front that Russia was compelled to make certain -concessions. - -However, at the conclusion of the negotiations it was found that Russia -had pushed herself a considerable distance towards Herat, and had -reached Ak Robat, while the railway to Samarcand was nearly finished. -Thus Russia certainly scored a winning point, and, if desirous, could -attack the Anglo-Indian frontier by three ways: - -(1) By advancing towards Cabul from Bokhara across the Oxus. - -(2) By marching towards Candahar _viâ_ Herat by the Meshed line. - -(3) By attacking the same place through the Attric Valley and Merv -route. - -The unsettled condition of the boundary between the Oxus and the Heri -Rud, and particularly the Upper Oxus, will undoubtedly prove a source of -discord between Russia and England for many years to come. - -In spite of the strenuous efforts of Russia in advancing, and extending -her power and boundaries in Central Asia, yet her great and absorbing -thought was not revealed openly to the watchful eyes of European Powers, -viz., to have full control of Constantinople, the key to the Black Sea, -and by obtaining this to command the Mediterranean and be paramount in -Western Europe. - -A favourite manœuvre in military operations is to try and divert an -opponent’s eyes from the true point of attack, and by so doing to weaken -the opposition at that point. - -As we have casually mentioned before, the elder Pitt “conquered America -in Germany,” and afterwards when Charles III. of Spain concluded a -secret Treaty known as the (third) “Family compact” with France, -intending really to make war upon England, Chatham “determined to attack -without delay the Havannah and Philippine Islands.” - -Again, as another illustration of the above statement, we saw that -Napoleon’s Egyptian expedition and his invasion of Russia were really -underhand blows at England. - -But why did he not attack America or Ireland? Surely if he had sailed -directly from Brest, 1798, to either of the above places, instead of -going to Egypt as he did, with the combined fleets of France, Spain, and -Holland, he would have dealt a much deadlier blow at British power. - -Let us examine the policy of Russia which has caused me to make the -above statement. - -Catherine II. had resolved to reach Constantinople through the Balkan -Peninsula. Pitt withstood this resolution by supporting the Ottoman -Empire, together with Austria, as conducive to the interests of both -nations. Austria, therefore, became an enemy of Russia. - -Alexander I., therefore, seeing the united interests of England, France, -Austria, and Turkey allied against him, changed his front and determined -to reach Constantinople along the Caucasian route. He plainly saw that -by this manœuvre he would compel England and France to defend the -Caucasus. - -At the beginning of his career the Czar Nicholas followed the same plans -as his predecessor, but carried them out much more firmly; he increased -his field of operations by invading Persia, 1826–1828, and occupied -Armenia. - -By this measure, no doubt, he expected to attract either England or -France, perhaps both of them, to the Caucasian Question, thereby -weakening the power of their alliance in the Balkans. France certainly -would feel considerable uneasiness for the Holy Places which had a -special charm for her Catholic followers. England would also have felt -qualms, seeing that if Russia occupied Persia, and made it an outpost -for attacking India through Afghanistan she would have considerable -trouble in defending her possession. However, this scheme did not prove -so effective as Nicholas wished, for it did not divide the attention of -England and France in the Balkans. - -Russia, therefore, perceiving this, followed the Napoleonic scheme of a -direct attack on India with the help of several Asiatic states. In 1830 -she first appeared in Central Asia and soon subjugated Persia and -induced the Shah to occupy Herat, 1837. Alarmed at this, the whole -energy of England was directed towards Afghanistan, and special -preparations, which lasted for a quarter of a century, were made to -defend an attack from that quarter. The home affairs of England, -together with these alarming schemes of Russia with regard to India, -determined the Wellington Ministry to advocate non-interference in -Balkan affairs. - -Russia also removed French opposition from the Balkans to Syria by -stirring up quarrels between the Greek and Latin Churches in Jerusalem. -In addition to this, as I have shown, Nicholas separated England and -France by his diplomatic tact. - -Thus Turkey was left alone with Austria in the Balkans. Nicholas then, -feeling confident of success, at once threatened Constantinople by -taking the steps which led to the Crimean War. He, however, overreached -himself, and was beaten, as we have seen, by the allied armies of -England, France, and Turkey. - -Immediately after the Crimean War Russia again stretched out her hands -on Persia as she had done in 1837. Lord Palmerston, however, closed them -by declaring war with the same country. “We are beginning,” wrote Lord -Palmerston, “to repel the first openings of trenches against India by -Russia, and whatever difficulties Ferokh may make about Afghanistan we -may be sure that Russia is his prompt and secret backer.”[96] - -In 1857 the peace of Paris was concluded by which the Shah renounced all -claim over Herat and Afghanistan. This was a clever political stroke -against a Russian attack on India. - -In 1849 Lord Palmerston wrote:— - -“Persia must, I (Lord Palmerston) fear, now be looked on as an advanced -post for Russia whenever she chooses to make use of it. She will command -it either by overpowering force or by bribing the state by prospect of -acquisition in Afghanistan.” - -However, ultimately the same policy was again resorted to by the Czar to -worry England in Central Asia. Again the Russians advanced into Central -Asia towards the Indian frontier and extended their borders both south -and east with great celerity. - -But a fresh complication arose extremely favourable for Russian plots. -The Franco-German War (1870) seemed to be an introduction to the -accomplishment of her wishes. France was miserably defeated, while the -hands of Germany were fully tied up with Alsace and Lorraine. Two -formidable opponents to Russian arms were therefore placed _hors de -combat_. England and Austria were thus the only powers left for the -defence of Constantinople. Austria had previously been weakened by a war -with Prussia. It therefore seemed that England was the only strong -supporter of the Ottoman Empire, and Russia determined to _conquer -Turkey in Central Asia_, so she conquered and annexed Central Asia as -far as possible until her boundaries reached Afghanistan and the Chinese -Empire in 1874. Being naturally alarmed at these encroachments, England -again was obliged to devote all her energies to the Indian and Afghan -frontiers, and engaged in the Afghan War. - -Russia now saw that she was in a better position with regard to Turkey -than she had been before the Crimean War, for although Turkey was still -assisted by Austria, yet the latter had not fully recovered from the -Prusso-Austrian War. Again France was in a convulsed state, while -England was harassed with Afghan affairs. A general alliance of the -Mediterranean Powers seemed therefore impossible. - -Russia, therefore, boldly declared war in 1878, and marched to the gates -of Constantinople, and eventually concluded the San Stefano Treaty. This -aroused both England and Austria, and, owing to their warlike attitude, -the Berlin Congress was convened, and Russia again found her hands -withheld from the Turkish metropolis, although she succeeded in -definitely dividing the attention of England and Austria in the Balkans -by turning English eyes towards Asia Minor. Her success was still -greater in obtaining the outlet of the Danube and the arsenal of Batoum -in the Black Sea. - -Glancing, then, at the situation generally, one can perceive that Russia -saw that the English opposition in Asia Minor would prove formidable, -but she did not think that the Austrian defence of the Balkans would -turn out so dangerous to her hopes. Her reasons for thinking this were -plain. England at this crisis was a nation of the first magnitude, both -in strength and wealth, and if only she (England) had fortified and -occupied Cyprus as she ought to have done, she would have proved a -valuable ally to Turkey, and would also have commanded the Ægean Sea. -Russia saw that the most advantageous policy would be to distract -England’s attention both from Cyprus and Asia Minor. To accomplish this -she for the _third time started to conquer Turkey through Central Asia_. - -In 1878 she concluded a secret agreement with Persia by which the -territory down to Sarakhs from the Russian frontier was ceded, to her. -Her influence in Khorasan was increasing day by day, and especially so -in Meshed, owing to the skill and tact of M. Vlassoff, the Russian -Consul-General in that district. India was again threatened by her, and -Herat approached. Her boundaries were extended into the Chinese -dominions, and great uneasiness was caused in England concerning the -boundary question of the Oxus. - -The most effective and important step, however, taken by Russia for the -accomplishment of her schemes, was the construction of the -Caspian-Samarcand Railway. It was started in 1881 with the primary -object of facilitating the war operations of General Skobeloff for the -reduction of the Tekkes. Lord Hartington called General Annenkoff, the -promoter of the railway, “a foolish fellow.” However, Samarcand was -reached in 1885, during the time that an Anglo-Russian war was -threatening about the Murghab question. Thus a general military[97] -communication of Russia with Asia was established. She had three ways of -sending troops and materials in the direction of the eastern shores of -the Caspian:— - -(1) From St. Petersburg to Saratoff on the Volga, _viâ_ Moscow, by -railway, from there to Astrakhan by steamboat on the river, and from the -latter place to Krasnovodsk or Uzan Ada. - -(2) From St. Petersburg to Voladis Caucase per railway, from thence to -Tiflis by post road (an eighteen hours’ journey), from Tiflis to Baku by -railway, and from there to Uzan Ada. - -(3) From Odessa or the Crimea to Poti on the eastern Black Sea coast by -steam, from Poti to Baku, and from there to Uzan Ada. - -The water traffic across the Caspian, from its different ports is -carried on by fifteen ships of the Caucasus and Mercury Company. They -are in receipt of a large annual subsidy from the state for the -conveyance of mails and troops, and also for the use of their boats for -transport in case of war. One of these fifteen steamers sails from Baku -to Uzan Ada twice a week.[98] - -The Trans-Caucasian Railway starts from the latter place, running east -and afterwards north-east to Merv. From there it proceeds in the same -direction, crossing the Oxus, passing Bokhara, and eventually terminates -at Samarcand—a distance altogether of about nine hundred miles. - -The work of laying the rails was done by two battalions of Russian -soldiers (five hundred each) and also by five thousand native labourers, -whose wage was threepence a day. Wages have since been increased to -sixpence a day. From the amount expended in labour we can see that the -railway expense did not prove inordinately dear, viz., 30,000,000 -roubles, including also the cost of the Siberian Railway, especially as -the Russian estimate at first was 60,000,000 roubles. The average rate -of laying the rails was exceedingly rapid, viz., four or five miles a -day. - -There are now one hundred and four locomotives and one thousand two -hundred wagons, fifteen new locomotives have lately been ordered, six -new passenger wagons, and eighty cistern cars. A commission has recently -reported in favour of a further grant to General Annenkoff of 8,000,000 -roubles.[99] - -This line has opened a wide field for trade with Central Asia. The -traffic in 1888 alone was about £3,000,000, and General Annenkoff -announced that the net profit of the railway in 1888 amounted to about -£80,000, that 2,000,000 pods of cotton had been conveyed by it during -the same year, and that in 1889 a total of 4,000,000 pods was -anticipated.[100] - -Viewing from a political and strategical point of view this railway has -been an even more important factor. The northern frontier of Persia by -its means has been placed completely at the mercy of Russia, and by it -she was enabled to consolidate her new Asiatic territories which she had -annexed and conquered, Russian troops were able to be transported to the -Afghan frontier at a very short notice from all parts of Russia. - -Without doubt the construction of the Trans-Caspian Railway and its -threatening results have proved of immense value for the success of -Russia. By its means England was induced to turn her attention from Asia -Minor to Indian affairs. This resulted in embroiling England with the -second Afghan War, compelled her to appoint a boundary commission, and -plunged her into the third Burmese War. All these catastrophes compelled -her to neglect her Anglo-Turkish Convention promises—a result aimed at -by her Russian friends(?) - -Even in Persia English influence is at a discount, and proportionately -Russian influence is rising. The appointment of Sir H. D. Wolff, a -clever diplomatist, to the Teheran Court, and the brilliant reception -accorded to the Shah during his recent visit by the English, were too -late to do any good. It may do good, and it may not. - -Let us now see what effect upon Austria the Russo-Asiatic policy had. - -Firstly, Austria had been left alone to cope with Russia in the Balkans, -and she was practicably left to defend the Ottoman Empire. France and -Germany were practicably disarmed, and were unable materially, to assist -Turkey against Russia. England, as we have seen before, was occupied -elsewhere, and had practically deserted Asia Minor, although this might -be altered if only she would station troops at Cyprus or somewhere near -at hand. Austria did not wish for a naval alliance only, which she -considered practically useless in event of war, but she wanted a -complete alliance. An alliance between the two Powers failed at the -Berlin Congress, and also in October, 1886. - -Thus Russia obtained her desires in dividing the two Powers in Europe -and Asia, and prevented a general alliance by threatening Central Asia. - -Certainly Austria had performed her Balkan duty well, although she was -clearly overweighted, and the result was internal exhaustion, financial -difficulties, social discontent, the result of pecuniary troubles.[101] - -Of all the great European cities, the socialists are at the present -moment strongest in Vienna. An able political writer of the present day -has said: “The Dualism of the Monarchy (Austria-Hungary) is very nearly -dead, and if Austria is to exist at all she must rapidly become -tripartite, and ultimately resolve herself into a somewhat loose -confederation.”[102] - -These domestic difficulties have caused her to gradually lose her -influence in the Balkans, and the abdication of King Milan of Servia has -proved a still more serious blow to her power in that quarter. - -It seems to me impolitic for Russia to go to war with the five million -Magyars. It would be better to influence Austria so as to increase her -internal discords and foster them by skilful diplomacy if she wished to -attain her objects. For instance, to demonstrate against the accession -of Prince Ferdinand to the Bulgarian throne, to oppose the Bulgarian -loans, and give pecuniary help herself to immigrants from Montenegro to -Servia. - -The consequence would be that Austria could not possibly remain peaceful -when inhabited by bitter anti-Russian Magyars. She would have to make -war preparations and spend money, and would thus increase her financial -difficulties, and the result would be the breaking down of the Dual -Monarchy, “the personal union of fifty-six states,” a mixture of races, -religions, and tongues. - -A strong and compact confederation can only be obtained by sound -financial dealings. Austria once broken down by internal discord, then -Constantinople and the Balkans would be Russian possessions. - -If Russia is desirous of accomplishing her ends, her great aim must be -to prevent any of the great Powers from making an alliance with Austria. -Owing to the Franco-Russian alliance, Russia is quite powerful enough to -hinder any effective alliance with Germany. - -With regard to an alliance with England, there is one strong barrier -which, if kept up, will always prevent such a coalition, viz., the -Trans-Caspian Railway. - -The following ideas would still further separate the two Powers:— - -(1) The extension of the railway from Samarcand to Kokan, because from -Kokan Russia can threaten to push on her border to Eastern Turkestan, -and move southward to Tibet, and from there will be able to threaten the -territory of Cashmere, which are the boundaries at present unsettled. - -(2) An extension of railway from Samarcand to Tashkend, which is -contemplated, and when completed will connect Siberia from a military -point of view. It can be also taken north-west, along the north-eastern -shore of the Aral Sea, and may be connected with the parent line at -Orenburg, and connected with Russia and Central Asia for military -purposes. - -(3) To construct a line from Mertvi, or Dead Bay, on the Caspian, to the -western shore of the Sea of Aral. This would prove another quick mode of -transit, particularly from St. Petersburg and Moscow to Kilif, on the -Oxus, and also to Samarcand. At present steamers ply on the Amu Daria -from the Aral Sea southwards as far as Kilif on the northern boundary of -Afghanistan. - -These steamers are 20 feet broad, 150 feet long, and are of 500–horse -power, travelling 16 miles an hour, and are capable of conveying 300 -soldiers and 20 officers. - -(4) To throw off a branch line from Bokhara to Kilif, and from there to -Balkh. - -(5) Two branch lines (_a_) from Merv to Herat, _viâ_ Penjdeh; (_b_) from -Merv to Sarakhs, _viâ_ Chacha, and still further to Kuhsan, in the -direction of Herat. - -(6) By entering the Persian dominion from the present northern boundary -to occupy Meshed, proceeding thence to Kuhsan to meet the line from -Sarakhs. - -In consequence of the approaching departure for Persia of M. de -Buelzoff, the newly-appointed minister at Teheran, most of the Russian -newspapers warmly advocated the immediate construction of a line from -the northern part of Persia. - -(7) An extension of railway from Meshed through Khorasan and Serstan -southwards as far as Nasirabad, and eventually to get a port on the -Persian Gulf or Indian Ocean. - -Once let Russia get the long-wished-for outlet in the southern seas, and -then she will be still more able to strike another blow against English -influence. There is not the least doubt that Persian affairs will occupy -the attention of England for some years to come. - -All these extensions will, if carried out, mean a Russian invasion all -along the Hindostan frontier, and thus would further indirectly her -European aspiration. - -On the other hand, looking from an English point of view, we can suggest -a scheme of frustration by means of sound and politic administration. - -For instance, at present large railways start from Calcutta, Madras, and -Bombay, traversing Delhi and Lahore, terminating at Peshawar; from -Lahore the line runs to Kurrachee, on the Arabian Sea, and a branch line -goes north-west from Sakkar to Pishin, _viâ_ Quetta. Thus we see the -English defence of her Indian frontier is fairly well looked after, -although a “_forward_” policy of railway construction in India may, and -no doubt will, be advantageous to English defence and commerce. - -England is certainly heavily handicapped owing to the want of a short -and safe communication with India. The Suez Canal is not safe enough, -both the Canadian Railway and the Cape of Good Hope routes are long, -therefore it is a matter of great moment that she should have a safe and -quick route by which she might despatch troops and materials with -celerity. - -The following route, if carried out, would prove of the very greatest -advantage to England. First, the occupation of the Karrack Island in the -Persian Gulf, which is in every respect suitable for a military station, -having good water and being healthy. It is with truth often termed the -key of the Persian Gulf. - -Secondly, a railway should be constructed from Scandarum, on the -Mediterranean, to Bussorah, on the Persian Gulf, through the Euphrates -Valley—a saving of from seven hundred to one thousand miles, and of -nearly four days. - -If an Afghan war arose, troops could be landed at Kurrachee instead of -Bombay, and time would be gained and the monsoon also avoided. Troops -could be forwarded at very short notice from Malta to Pishin and -Peshawar, with almost equal speed to that with which Russia can collect -troops in Central Asia. - -If once opened, the trade of Central Asia, India, and China would find -its way by this route, and open out Persian and Indian relations with -Europe as much as the Suez Canal[103] did after its opening; Persia -would be considerably strengthened. It would also, together with the -military occupation of Karrack and Cyprus (if done properly), give a -guarantee to both India and Persia against Russian attacks. - -The distance from Scandarum to Bussorah is only seven hundred miles, and -would be safe against attacks, being protected by the double rivers, the -Euphrates and Tigris, for most of its course. Its cost would be -estimated at £9,000,000, which might easily be raised in the London -market. Also if the Mudinia Aksu line be extended to Scandarum, _viâ_ -Kiniah or the Scutari-Ismid line to Aleppo, through Angora, Kaisariyeh, -and Abbiston, other beneficial effects may be produced. In the latter -case it amounts, and is practically similar, to an extension of the -Eastern Railway to the Persian Gulf, which starts from Paris, and passes -Vienna, Belgrade, Sophia, Adrianople, terminating at Constantinople. So -a direct land route could be obtained from Bussorah to Calais or -Rotterdam if a bridge was constructed over the Bosphorus. - -As I have already shown in chapter VIII., the construction of the -Euphrates Railway would avoid a Franco-English conflict of interests in -Egypt to a certain extent, and a dual control would be established; thus -a strong and effective alliance would ensue, caused by mutual interests, -and England would be able thereby to withdraw her troops from Egypt, and -devote them to the defence of Asia Minor. Thus a firm alliance between -England and Turkey would follow, and would prevent a Mahommedhan -rebellion in India against England, the Sultan being looked upon as the -Mahommedhan Pope. - -England will also be able to call Indian troops to her assistance in -Asia Minor. It will follow that as a larger number of troops and a -better communication is obtained in Asia Minor, Austria would be quite -willing to ally herself with England, instead of refusing, as she had -done twice before, the English power at sea being only of little use. -England and Austria therefore can not only jointly support Turkey, but -also England can “come to the assistance of Austria in Europe, and -Austria make common cause with England in the event of Turkey being -attacked in Asia Minor.” - -Having a French, Austrian, and Turkish alliance, England can send her -home troops both to India and Asia Minor by the Eastern Railway in a -very short space of time, and can strengthen both countries and also -help in the Balkans if required, and a firm and lasting alliance would -be made. - -Why cannot Italy join this alliance? It is a matter of necessity and -advantage, both geographically and strategically, to do so, and if an -alliance in Southern Europe could thus be made, the safety of the -Balkans, Asia Minor, Persia, and Afghanistan might be assured, even if -Germany joined Russia, and the lofty hopes of Russia would be dashed to -the ground. - - - THE END. - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - Lord Palmerston’s letter to Lord Clarendon, Feb. 17, 1857. - -Footnote 2: - - John Morley’s “The Life of Richard Cobden,” vol. ii. p. 189. - -Footnote 3: - - “In the year 1855 or 1856 his father’s influence succeeded in - procuring him a position in the suite of General Muravieff, who as - Governor-general of Eastern Siberia, had undertaken a more accurate - investigation of the Amoor territory, and was preparing for its - colonization. During this work, the French and English war with China - broke out; the allies occupied Pekin, and seemed to threaten the - existence of the Celestial Empire. This moment was taken advantage of - by Russia, who had already been negotiating for some time with China, - respecting the cession of a large territory south of the Amoor. - Ignatieff was sent to China as ambassador extraordinary” (F. E. - Bunnett’s “Russian Society,” p. 170). - -Footnote 4: - - “The preciousness of Saghalien in the eye of the Russians, however, - does not lie so much in its coal beds, its promise of future harvests, - its use as a penal colony, or its six hundred miles of length, but in - its situation commanding the northern entrance to the sea of Japan, - and guarding, like a huge breakwater, the mouth of the great river - Amoor” (John Geddie, F.R.G.S., “The Russian Empire,” p. 484). - -Footnote 5: - - “If war is made to enforce a commercial treaty, we run the risk of - engaging in protracted hostilities, and of earning a reputation for - quarrelling with every nation in the East.... The Japanese may well be - jealous of Europeans, who insult their usages and carry away their - gold” (Lord J. Russell to Mr. Alcock, Feb. 28, 1860). - -Footnote 6: - - “The Present Condition of European Politics,” p. 175. - -Footnote 7: - - Earl Russell, Nov. 22, 1861, echoed these conditions (four conditions) - and equivalent, and added a somewhat cunning addition: “_The opening - of the ports of Tsushima_ (in place of Osaka, the centre and trading - city of the Empire) _and the neighbouring coast of Corea as far as - Japanese authority extends_, to the trade of the treaty powers.” It - could only be the expectation of some secret advantages that do not at - first sight meet the eye that could have induced any one to propose - the port of Tsushima for that of Osaka (“Diplomacy in Japan,” p. 61). - The Japanese wisely declined the British offer. - -Footnote 8: - - IN 1887. IMPORTS IN VALUE FROM EXPORTS IN VALUE TO - Great Britain 25,666,477 tael 16,482,809 tael. - Hong Kong 57,761,039 tael 31,393,189 tael. - India 5,537,375 tael 797,579 tael. - Continent of Europe (without Russia) 2,587,548 tael 11,545,406 tael. - - The average value of the Haikwan tael during 1887 was 4s. 10¼d. (“The - Statesman’s Year-book,” 1889.) - -Footnote 9: - - The Czar approved of the plan for completing the Siberian Railway, and - for its connection with the Trans-Caucasian line, Jan., 1890; the - works are to be commenced by the 1st of May at the latest. - -Footnote 10: - - The Chinese Government gave its assent to the construction of a - railway from Pekin to Kirin _viâ_ Moukden Jan., 1890. - -Footnote 11: - - There are now more than sixteen million miles of wire, and in 1887 the - number of telegrams carried were about five millions (“The Statesman’s - Year-book,” 1889). - -Footnote 12: - - The post office carried, in 1887, 54,313,385 letters, 55,332,873 post - cards, 20,713,422 newspapers and books, 163,630 packets, 7,014,859 - letters and newspapers free of postage (“The Statesman’s Year-book,” - 1889). - -Footnote 13: - - “The English world-empire has two gigantic neighbours in the west and - in the east. In the West she has the United States, and in the East - Russia for a neighbour” (Prof. Seeley’s “Expansion of England,” p. - 288). - -Footnote 14: - - Extracts from a pamphlet written in 1847 by His Imperial Majesty, - Napoleon III.:— - - “There are certain countries which, from their geographical situation, - are destined to a highly prosperous future. Wealth, power, every - national advantage, flows into them, provided that where Nature has - done her utmost, man does not neglect to avail himself of her - beneficent assistance. - - “Those countries are in the most favourable conditions which are - situated on the high road of commerce, and which offer to commerce the - safest ports and harbours, as well as the most profitable interchange - of commodities. Such countries, finding in the intercourse of foreign - trade illimitable resources, are enabled to take advantage of the - fertility of their soil; and in this way a home trade springs up - commensurate with the increase of mercantile traffic. It is by such - means that Tyre and Carthage, Constantinople, Venice, Genoa, - Amsterdam, Liverpool, and London attained to such great prosperity, - rising from the condition of poor hamlets to extensive and affluent - commercial cities, and exhibiting to surrounding nations the - astonishing spectacle of powerful states springing suddenly from - unwholesome swamps and marshes. Venice in particular was indebted for - her overwhelming grandeur to the geographical position which - constituted her for centuries the _entrepôt_ between Europe and the - East; and it was only when the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope - opened a ship passage to the latter that her prosperity gradually - declined. Notwithstanding, so great was her accumulation of wealth, - and consequent commercial influence, that she withstood for three - centuries the formidable competition thus created. - - “There exists another city famous in history, although now fallen from - its pristine grandeur, so admirably situated as to excite the jealousy - of all the great European Powers, who combine to maintain in it a - government so far barbarous as to be incapable of taking advantage of - the great resources bestowed upon it by nature. The geographical - position of Constantinople is such as rendered her the queen of the - ancient world. Occupying, as she does, the central point between - Europe, Asia, and Africa, she could become the _entrepôt_ of the - commerce of all these countries, and obtain over them an immense - preponderance; for in politics, as in strategy, a central position - always commands the circumference. Situated between two seas, of - which, like two great lakes, she commands the entrance, she could shut - up in them, sheltered from the assaults of all other nations, the most - formidable fleets, by which she could exercise dominion in the - Mediterranean as well as in the Black Sea, thereby commanding the - entrance of the Danube, which opens the way to Germany, as well as the - sources of the Euphrates, which open the road to the Indies, dictating - her own terms to the commerce of Greece, France, Italy, Spain, and - Egypt. This is what the proud city of Constantine could be, and this - is what she is not, ‘because’ as Montesquieu says, ‘God permitted that - Turks should exist on earth, a people the most fit to possess - uselessly a great empire.’ - - “There exists in the New World a state as admirably situated as - Constantinople, and we must say, up to the present time, as uselessly - occupied; we allude to the state of Nicaragua. As Constantinople is - the centre of the ancient world, so is the town of Leon, or rather - Massaya, the centre of the new; and if the tongue of land which - separates its two lakes from the Pacific Ocean were cut through, she - would command by her central position the entire coast of North and - South America. Like Constantinople, Massaya is situated between two - extensive natural harbours, capable of giving shelter to the largest - fleets, safe from attack. The state of Nicaragua can become, better - than Constantinople, the necessary route for the great commerce of the - world, for it is for the United States the shortest road to China and - the East Indies, and for England and the rest of Europe to New - Holland, Polynesia, and the whole of the western coast of America. The - state of Nicaragua is, then, destined to attain to an extraordinary - degree of prosperity and grandeur; for that which renders its - political position more advantageous than that of Constantinople is, - that the great maritime powers of Europe would witness with pleasure, - and not with jealousy, its attainment of a station no less favourable - to its individual interests than to the commerce of the world. - - “France, England, Holland, Russia, and the United States, have a great - commercial interest in the establishment of a communication between - the two oceans; but England has more than the other powers a political - interest in the execution of this project. England will see with - pleasure Central America become a flourishing and powerful state, - which will establish a balance of power by creating in Spanish America - a new centre of active enterprise, powerful enough to give rise to a - great feeling of nationality and to prevent, by backing Mexico, any - further encroachment from the north. England will witness with - satisfaction the opening of a route which will enable her to - communicate more speedily with Oregon, China, and her possessions in - New Holland. She will find, in a word, that the advancement of Central - America will renovate the declining commerce of Jamaica and the other - English island in the Antilles, the progressive decay of which will be - thereby stopped. It is a happy coincidence that the political and - commercial prosperity of the state of Nicaragua is closely connected - with the policy of that nation which has the greatest preponderance on - the sea.” - -Footnote 15: - - “The total length of the canal from sea to sea would be little short - of 200 miles, viz., 15½ miles from the Pacific to the lake, 56½ across - the lake, and 119 to the Atlantic; total, 191 miles; and the Lake of - Nicaragua is navigable for ships of the largest class down to the - mouth of the river San Juan” (C. B. Pin’s “The Gate of the Pacific,” - p. 133). - -Footnote 16: - - Prof. Seeley’s “Expansion of England,” p. 87. - -Footnote 17: - - “The negotiations with the Imperial Government for the establishment - of a permanent line of first-class steamships, suitable for service as - armed cruisers in case of need, resulted in an official notification - that Her Majesty’s Government had decided to grant a subsidy of - £60,000 per annum for a monthly service between Vancouver and Hong - Kong, _viâ_ Yokohama” (“Canada, Statistical Abstract and Record for - the Year 1887,” p. 306). - -Footnote 18: - - “China is a storehouse of men and means; its outer door has scarcely - yet been opened” (R. E. Webster’s “The Trade of the World,” p. 317). - -Footnote 19: - - Sir H. Parkes, late Minister of England in Japan, said: “The statement - of the national liabilities this year (1878), shows that Japan has - kept faith with her foreign creditors, the interest on her foreign - debt and the sum requisite for the payment of the amount of capital - redeemed during the year having been duly provided. There is no reason - to doubt that care will be taken to ensure punctual payment in future - on this account until the entire extinction of this debt in 1895.” - Japan has never failed to pay her foreign debts. - -Footnote 20: - - There is also a Maritime Insurance Company. - -Footnote 21: - - Light-houses—fifty-seven in number and some of them are very powerful. - -Footnote 22: - - The Samoan Convention declared the Samoan Islands to be neutral - territory. The citizens and subjects of the signatory powers will - enjoy equal rights and the independence of the islands is recognized - with Malietou as king: Jan., 1890. - -Footnote 23: - - The whole history of the French in the East is indissolubly bound up - with the history of their efforts to destroy our Eastern supremacy. - Mauritius was occupied to enable French cruisers to prey on our East - Indiamen. Louis XIV. volunteered armed aid to Annam in order to cut - off Calcutta from Canton. A French occupation of Tonkin is a serious - matter. French cruisers supplied with coal from the mines of Tonkin - would lie in the fairway of our China trade, Burmah and Calcutta would - be effectually blockaded, and our outlying Oriental possessions - grievously threatened (C. B. Norman’s “Tonkin and France in the Far - East”). - -Footnote 24: - - The inhabitants of the eastern region refuse to recognize the Chinese - authority. China cannot control the people of Formosa at all. There is - a proverb, “Every three years an outbreak, every five a rebellion.” - -Footnote 25: - - In 1873 a Japanese vessel was wrecked on the eastern coast of Formosa - and the crew massacred by the savages. The Japanese Government sent an - expedition which was perfectly successful. Eighteen of the tribes in - Formosa were defeated and subjugated. - -Footnote 26: - - The Russian frontier has been advanced toward Berlin, - Dresden, Munich, Vienna, and Paris— about 700 miles - Towards Constantinople about 500 miles - Towards Stockholm about 630 miles - Towards Teheran about 1000 miles - Towards Peshawar about 1300 miles - -Footnote 27: - - E. Schuyler’s “Peter the Great,” vol. ii. p. 592. - -Footnote 28: - - “The separation of the Church of England from that of Rome, formally - accomplished under Henry VIII., was a political and legal rather than - a religious reformation. The doctrinal changes followed under Edward - VI. and Elizabeth” (Taswell-Langmead’s “English Constitutional - History,” p. 399). - -Footnote 29: - - “In the sixteenth century all Europe was aghast at the designs of - Philip II. of Spain. He had the great mines of the New World, or at - least levied a heavy tax on their produce. He seemed to be possessed - of inexhaustible riches. He was baffled, beaten, made bankrupt by the - Dutch, in whose country there was not an ounce of natural gold or - silver, who got all their money by trade, were rapidly becoming the - richest nation of Europe when Philip had ruined Spain and brought down - the Genoese traders, on his declaring himself bankrupt” (J. E. Thorold - Rogers’s, “The Economic Interpretation of History,” p. 95). - -Footnote 30: - - “Till this time our merchants were struggling to gain a footing and - open up trade between England and different quarters of the globe, and - endeavouring to prove that the encouragement of trade was for the - royal honour and benefit ... and their interests coincided with the - national ambition of out-doing the Dutch, who would not acknowledge - our sovereignty on the sea, and of thus attaining a mercantile - supremacy throughout the world” (Dr. Cunningham’s “Growth of English - Industry and Commerce,” p. 325). - -Footnote 31: - - (1) 1651. That the importation of goods into England, except in - English ships, or in the ships of the nation producing the goods, was - forbidden. - - (2) 1663. That the colonies should receive no goods whatsoever by - foreign vessels. - - (3) 1672. That all the principal articles of commerce should be - prohibited from being imported into England unless by English ships - manned by a crew of whom at least three-quarters were English - subjects. - -Footnote 32: - - England, Holland, and Sweden. - -Footnote 33: - - Prof. Seeley’s “Expansion of England,” p. 95. - -Footnote 34: - - “There was between England and France during the Seven Years’ War the - most disastrous struggle in which France was ever engaged. For all the - wars in Europe, from the Peace of Utrecht to the outbreak of the great - Continental War, were waged on behalf of monopolies of commerce, or, - to be more accurate, monopolies of market, for success meant the - exclusion of the beaten nation from the markets now secured by the - victorious rival. At the end of the Seven Years’ War France was - stripped of nearly every colony she possessed. At the beginning of it - she was the rival of England in North America and in India. At the end - of it she had scarce a foothold in either” (J. E. Thorold Rogers, “The - Economic Interpretation of History,” p. 110). - -Footnote 35: - - Macaulay’s famous Essay on the Earl of Chatham. - -Footnote 36: - - “His (the elder Pitt) greatness is throughout identified with the - Expansion of England; he is a statesman of Greater Britain. It is in - the buccaneering war with Spain that he sows his political wild oats; - his glory is won in the great colonial duel with France; his old age - is spent in striving to avert schism in Greater Britain” (Prof. - Seeley’s “Expansion of England,” p. 144). - -Footnote 37: - - The epitaph on Chatham’s monument in Westminster Abbey. - -Footnote 38: - - The declaration of American Independence. - -Footnote 39: - - “As in the American War, France avenges on England her expulsion from - the New World, so under Napoleon she makes Titanic efforts to recover - her lost place there. This, indeed, is Napoleon’s fixed view with - regard to England. He sees in England never the island, the European - state, but always the world Empire, the network of dependencies and - colonies and islands covering every sea, among which he was himself - destined to find his prison and his grave” (Seeley’s “Expansion of - England,” p. 33). - -Footnote 40: - - The first coalition of England, Prussia, Holland, and Sweden, was for - the purpose of keeping the European Peace. - - The second coalition (1799–1801), composed of Russia, England, - Austria, Portugal, Naples, and the Ottoman Empire. - - The third coalition (1805), composed of England, Russia, Austria, and - Sweden. - -Footnote 41: - - “Though he was still but forty-seven, the hollow voice and wasted - frame of the great Minister had long told that death was near, and the - blow to his hopes proved fatal. ‘Roll up that map,’ he said, pointing - to the map of Europe, ‘it will not be wanted these ten years.’ Once - only he rallied from stupor; and those who bent over him caught a - faint murmur of ‘My country! How I leave my country!’” (Green’s “Short - History of English People,” p. 799). - -Footnote 42: - - Prof. Seeley’s “Expansion of England,” p. 105. - -Footnote 43: - - Napoleon, at St. Helena, prophesied that before a century was over - Europe would be Cossack or Republican. - -Footnote 44: - - “The English victory at La Hogue, and the revival of the trade with - Holland, had much to do with Peter’s visit to Archangel” (E. - Schuyler’s “Peter the Great,” vol. i. p. 276). - -Footnote 45: - - E. Schuyler’s “Peter the Great,” vol. i. p. 323. - -Footnote 46: - - E. Schuyler’s “Peter the Great,” vol. i. p. 368. - -Footnote 47: - - “Upon the Continental System he (Napoleon) had staked everything. He - had united all Europe in the crusade against England; no state, least - of all such a state as Russia, could withdraw from the system without - practically joining England. Nevertheless, we may wonder that, if he - felt obliged to make war upon Russia, he should have chosen to wage it - in the manner he did, by an overwhelming invasion” (Seeley’s “A Short - History of Napoleon the Great,” p. 169). Prof. Seeley also told the - author that “if the Continental System had existed a little longer - England would have been ruined, because it seems to me that a - revolution would have taken place in England.” - -Footnote 48: - - “Napoleon’s great mistake was that he had laid his plan for an - invasion of England and a war in Europe at the same time” (Seeley’s “A - Short History of Napoleon the Great,” p. 115). - -Footnote 49: - - The Prince Regent declared his personal adherence to its principles. - -Footnote 50: - - Lord Castlereagh’s Speech, 1812. - -Footnote 51: - - He was “engaged in the glorious attempt to restore that country to her - ancient freedom and renown” (The Epitaph in the Church near Newstead). - -Footnote 52: - - “In the present state of European politics there seems to be in the - East a sort of vacuum, which it is advisable to supply, in order to - counterbalance the preponderance of the North.... If anything like an - equilibrium is to be upheld, Greece must be supported. Mr. Canning, I - think, understands this, and intends to behave towards Greece” (R. C. - Jebb’s “Modern Greece,” pp. 178–179). - -Footnote 53: - - This disadvantageous treaty for Russia was made owing to the - disappearance of immense numbers of soldiers. - -Footnote 54: - - “The pressure of the heavy taxation and of the debts, which now - reached eight hundred millions, was embittered by the general distress - of the country” (J. R. Green’s “A Short History of the English - People,” p. 812). - -Footnote 55: - - “Our ultimate object is the peace of the world; but let it not be said - that we cultivate peace either because we fear or because we are not - prepared for war. The resources created by peace are the means of war. - In cherishing these resources we but accumulate those means. Our - present repose is no more a proof of our inability to act than the - state of inertness and inactivity in which I have seen those mighty - masses that float in the waters above your town is a proof they are - devoid of strength and incapable of being fitted for action. You well - know how one of those stupendous masses now reposing on their shadow - in perfect stillness, how soon, upon any call of patriotism or - necessity, it would assume the likeness of an animated thing, instinct - with life and motion; how soon it would ruffle, as it were, its - swelling plumage; how quickly it would put forth all its beauty and - its bravery, collect its scattered elements of strength, and awake its - dormant thunders. Such as is one of these magnificent machines when - springing from inaction into a display of its strength, such is - England herself, while apparently passive and motionless she silently - causes power to be put forth on an adequate occasion” (Canning’s - speech at Plymouth, August, 1823). - -Footnote 56: - - Holland’s “European Concert on the Eastern Question,” p. 206. - -Footnote 57: - - “The growth of intimate relations between England and that country - France ... was manifestly viewed by him with jealous distrust, - calculated as it was to affect most seriously any designs which might - be entertained at St. Petersburg for enlarging Russian territory at - the expense of Turkey. To detach England from this alliance would - naturally be regarded by the Czar as a master-stroke of policy, and - the recent conduct of France in the Eastern Question may have seemed - to furnish an opening for making the attempt. If, however, as - currently believed at the time, one main object of his visit was to - ascertain for himself whether this was possible, he must soon have - been satisfied to the contrary by the very decided language with which - Sir Robert Peel received his suggestions as to the probably selfish - action of France, in the event of the affairs of Turkey coming to a - crisis” (Sir T. Martyn’s “Life of the Prince Consort,” vol. i. p. - 216). - -Footnote 58: - - Thornton’s “Foreign Secretaries of the Nineteenth Century,” vol. iii. - p. 100. - -Footnote 59: - - In 1840 France succeeded in obtaining from the Porte a grant of - distinguished privileges in regard to the Holy Land. - -Footnote 60: - - Ashley’s “Life of Lord Palmerston,” vol. i. p. 279. - -Footnote 61: - - Kinglake’s “History of Crimean War,” vol. i. p. 82. - -Footnote 62: - - Baron Brunnon, the Russian Minister, said, to Count Vitzthum, “he knew - that his Emperor (Nicholas), relying on Lord Aberdeen’s well-known - love of peace, and on the protocol which had been signed by Aberdeen - in 1844 under entirely different circumstances, regarded two things - impossible: first, that England should declare war against Russia; and - secondly, that she should conclude an alliance against Russia with - France” (Count Vitzthum’s “St. Petersburg and London,” vol. i. p. 66). - -Footnote 63: - - “Men dwelling amidst the snows of Russia are driven by very nature to - grow covetous when they hear of the happier lands where all the year - round there are roses and long sunny days. And since this people have - a seaboard and ports on the Euxine, they are forced by an everlasting - policy to desire the command of the straits which lead through the - heart of an empire into the midst of that world of which men kindle - thoughts when they speak of the Ægean and of Greece, and the Ionian - shores, and of Palestine and Egypt, and of Italy, and of France, and - of Spain, and the land of the Moors, and of the Atlantic beyond, and - the path of ships on the ocean” (Kinglake’s “Invasion of the Crimea,” - vol. i. p. 54). - -Footnote 64: - - Kinglake’s “Invasion of the Crimea,” vol. i. p. 90. - -Footnote 65: - - The Grand Vizier said the mission was meant “to win some important - right from Turkey, which would destroy her independence, and that the - Czar’s object was to trample under foot the rights of the Porte and - the independence of the Sovereign” (Kinglake’s “Invasion of the - Crimea,” vol. i. p. 99). - -Footnote 66: - - “That the Sultan’s promise to protect his Christian subjects in the - free exercise of their religion differed extremely from a right - conferred on any foreign Power to enforce that protection, and also - the same degree of interference might be dangerous to the Porte when - exercised by so powerful an empire as Russia, on behalf of ten - millions of Greeks” (Lord Stratford’s view). - -Footnote 67: - - “When the Emperor gave his reasons for rejecting the modifications we - found that he interpreted the Note in a manner quite different from - ourselves, and in a great degree justified the objections of Turks. We - could not therefore honestly continue to give an interpretation to the - Note, and ask the Turks again to sign it, when we knew that the - interpretation of the Emperor is entirely different” (Lord Sheridan’s - letter to Earl Russel, Sept. 22, 1853). - -Footnote 68: - - “I thought the Emperor Alexander had shown considerable moral courage - in making peace after the Crimean War, contrary to the general feeling - in Russia, and Prince D—— gave me the following curious details of - what occurred on that occasion, which he said had been related to him - by one of the Ministers present:—The Emperor called a Council of War - at St. Petersburg, which was composed of the following members: Prince - Dolgorouky, Minister of War; the Grand Duke Constantine, Minister of - Marine; M. de Broek, Minister of Finance; Count Blondoff, Prince - Moronzow, and, I think, M. Lapouchine, Minister of the Interior. The - Emperor first called on the Minister of War to report on the state of - the army, and he said the resources were exhausted, that more - recruiting was almost impossible, and that he did not see how the war - could be continued. The Emperor next addressed himself to his brother, - who, together with Count Blondoff, was in favour of continuing - hostilities at all risks. The Emperor asked what was the state of the - navy? The Grand Duke answered, ‘Sire, we have a fleet in the Baltic, - and another in the Black Sea.’ The Emperor acquiesced, but added, - ‘True; but those fleets have never left our harbours. Are they fit to - oppose the English and French fleets?’ The Grand Duke was obliged to - reply in the negative. ‘Then,’ said the Emperor, ‘it appears we have - no army and no fleet?’ The Grand Duke sighed, looked down, but made no - answer. The Emperor next addressed the Minister of Finance, and asked - what report he could give. He said, ‘Sire, we have just made one - disadvantageous loan, upon conditions imposed upon us at Hamburg, and - I believe another to be impossible.’ The Emperor then addressed the - Council, and said, ‘Gentlemen, it appears from what we have just heard - that we have neither army, navy, nor money; how, then, is it possible - for me to continue the war?’ Count Blondoff then stepped forward and - said, with deep emotion, ‘Sire, after the report we have just heard, - it is clear that your Majesty is forced to make peace, but at the same - time you must dismiss your incompetent Ministers, who have not known - how to serve either your father or yourself—dismiss us all.’ The - consternation of the other members of the Council at this outburst was - great, but peace was signed forthwith” (Lady Bloomfield’s “Court and - Diplomatic Life”). - -Footnote 69: - - A letter to Lord Clarendon, May 22, 1853. - -Footnote 70: - - The strength of Lord Palmerston’s character and his determination in - matters of ready action is well illustrated through an incident - recorded by Baron Bunsen (“Memoirs of Bunsen”): “Bunsen and Palmerston - had elected to be rowed over to Portsmouth from Osborne, when guests - of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, and, the weather being rough, the - Foreign Minister took the helm, demonstrating the connection between - steering the vessel of State, as Bunsen phrased it, and steering a - boat at sea—‘Oh, _one learns boating at Cambridge, even though one may - have learnt nothing better_,’ remarked Lord Palmerston; and guide the - craft safely to shore he certainly did. But when they landed, alas! - the train was gone.” - -Footnote 71: - - Gladstone’s speech, May 8, 1854. - -Footnote 72: - - “Napoleon’s object was clear: in the first place, to wrest from the - Emperor Nicholas the moral hegemony which he wielded on the Continent, - and then, after conquering Russia, to get his hands free to tear up - the treaties of 1815, restore to France her so-called natural - frontiers, and reconstruct the map of Europe in accordance with - Napoleonic ideas” (Count Vitzthum’s “St. Petersburg and London,” vol. - i. p. 73). - -Footnote 73: - - Earl Russell’s “Recollections and Suggestions, 1813–1873,” p. 476. - -Footnote 74: - - “No sooner had Napoleon learned that an English Cabinet Minister was - to go to Vienna than he sent thither also his own Minister of Foreign - Affairs, M. Drouyn de Lhuys, while Prince Gortschakoff, who had - already been designated as Nesselrode’s successor, represented Russia - at the Conference. The first two points—the cessation of the Russian - protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, and the regulation of the - navigation of the Danube in conformity with the resolutions of the - Congress of Vienna—presented little difficulty. On the other hand, a - lively word combat, and a not less lively interchange of despatches, - arose over the third point, which demanded the revision of the - Dardanelles Treaty of July 13, 1841, and the abrogation of Russian - supremacy in the Black Sea. The words, ‘mettre fin à la prépondérance - russe dans la Mer Noire,’ were of a very elastic nature, and capable - of various interpretations. The Western Powers, mindful of Europe, - demanded the neutralization of the Black Sea and a limitation of the - number of Russian and Turkish war ships. Gortschakoff declared that - Sebastopol was not yet taken, and probably never would be taken, and - that Russia must reject any attempt to limit her naval forces as a - humiliation unworthy of a Great Power. Austria then proposed a - compromise that Russia should pledge herself to maintain the _status - quo_ of 1853; and that each of the Western Powers should be entitled - to station two frigates in the Black Sea, in order to see that Russia - did not increase her fleet. At the same time Austria promised to - consider it as a _casus belli_ if Russia kept there a single ship of - war more than in 1853. M. Drouyn de Lhuys, who, in the interest of - exhausted France, was anxious to bring the war to an end, accepted - this proposed compromise, and induced Lord John Russell to do - likewise. Both were disavowed. Drouyn de Lhuys sent in his - resignation, and was succeeded at the Ministry on the Quai d’Orsay by - Walewski; but Lord John Russell, scorned alike by his friends and - foes, returned to London, and, in spite of all, remained Minister for - the present” (Count Vitzthum’s, “St. Petersburg and London.”) - -Footnote 75: - - In 1876 (September) Mr. Gladstone published his pamphlet entitled - “Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East.” It passed through - almost countless editions and created a great sensation. - -Footnote 76: - - “First, religious liberty, in the sense of religious equality, full - and entire; second, the abolition of tax-farming; third, the exclusive - application to Bosnia and Herzegovina of their own direct taxation; - fourth, the appointment of an executory Commission to carry these - reforms into effect, to be composed equally of Mahommedans and - Christians; fifth, the amelioration of the condition of the rural - population by some more satisfactory arrangement between the Christian - Rajahs and the Mahommedan Agas, or landowners” (The Duke of Argyll’s - “The Eastern Question,” vol. i. p. 161). - -Footnote 77: - - “Sir H. Elliot was directed to give a ‘general support’ to the - Andrassy Note. It will be seen that in the mode of giving this - ‘general support’ to the action of the European Powers, Her Majesty’s - Government here contrived to reduce the value of it to the lowest - possible amount, and expressly to negative the significance of it.... - But more than this—it is distinctly implied that any such meaning, if - it were entertained, would be a violation of the Ninth Article of the - Treaty of Paris. The Turks were thus encouraged to claim under that - treaty a licence and immunity which it never was intended to afford. - It is evident, therefore, that the British Cabinet only joined the - other Powers, first, because it was impossible to deny the justice of - the demand made on Turkey; secondly, because it would be inconvenient - to stand alone against the united opinion of all the other Cabinets of - Europe; thirdly, because Turkey herself saw some advantage in - accepting the communication” (Ibid. vol. i. p. 166). - -Footnote 78: - - Lord Derby said that “the Note now proposed was sure to lead to - farther diplomatic interference in the internal affairs of Turkey.” - -Footnote 79: - - “First, the provision of means sufficient to settle the refugees in - their homes; second, the distribution of these means by a mixed - Commission, with a Herzegovinian Christian as President; third, the - concentration of Turkish troops into certain places; fourth, the - retention of arms by the Christians; fifth, the Consuls or Delegates - of the Powers to have a watch over the application of the promised - reforms and repatriation of the people. The Memorandum farther - proceeded thus in its closing paragraph: If, however, the armistice - were to expire without the effort of the Powers being successful in - attaining the ends they have in view, the three Imperial Courts are of - opinion that it would become necessary to supplement their diplomatic - action by the sanction of an agreement, with a view to such - efficacious measures as might appear to be demanded in the interest of - general peace, to check the evil and prevent its development” (The - Duke of Argyll’s “The Eastern Question,” vol. i. p. 193). - -Footnote 80: - - “The objections of detail taken by the English Cabinet to the Berlin - Memorandum were at once met by Prince Bismarck by the declaration that - these points were entirely ‘open to discussion, that they might be - modified according to circumstances, and that he, for one, would - willingly entertain any improvement which Her Majesty’s Government - might have to propose.’... France implored Her Majesty’s Government to - reconsider its decision, and declared that persistence in it would, at - such a momentous crisis, be nothing short of a ‘public calamity.’ She - ‘could not conceal the apprehensions for the future to which this - refusal have given rise.’ Italy did the same. The position was, that - England objected to everything proposed by others, and had nothing to - propose herself. Continued trust in the Turks was her only suggestion” - (The Duke of Argyll’s “The Eastern Question,” vol. i. pp. 202, 203). - -Footnote 81: - - “At the first meeting of the Congress (June 13, 1878) Lord - Beaconsfield made his concerted objection to the advanced position of - the Russian troops at the gates of Constantinople. Count Schouvaloff - replied that this advanced position had been taken up by the Russian - army in consequence of the entry of the English fleet into the - Bosphorus. Prince Bismarck, the President of the Congress, expressed - himself satisfied with the Russian reply” (The Duke of Argyll’s “The - Eastern Question,” vol. ii. p. 144). - -Footnote 82: - - “Truth about Russia,” p. 282. - -Footnote 83: - - Lord Beaconsfield’s speech, April 8, 1878. - -Footnote 84: - - “The topics regulated by the three Treaties of Paris, London, and - Berlin are:— - - “(i.) The admission of the Porte to the concert of Europe (P. Art. 7). - - “(ii.) The agreement as to resort to mediation (P. 8). - - “(iii.) Religious equality in Turkey (P. 9; B. 62). - - “(iv.) The navigation of the Straits (P. 10; L. 2). - - “(v.) The navigation of the Black Sea (P. 12; L. 3). - - “(vi.) The navigation of the Danube (P. 13–19; L. 4–7; B. 52–57; L. - 1883). - - “(vii.) Roumania (B. 43–51). - - “(viii.) Servia (B. 34, 40–42). - - “(ix.) Montenegro (B. 26–31, 33). - - “(x.) Bulgaria (B. 1–12). - - “(xi.) Eastern Roumelia (B. 13–21). - - “(xii.) Bosnia and Herzegovina (B. 25). - - “(xiii.) Other European provinces (B. 23). - - “(xiv.) The Armenian provinces (B. 61). - - “(xv.) Cessions to Greece (B. 24; Cons. of 1881). - - “(xvi.) The Russian boundaries (B. 45, 58–60). - - “(xvii.) The Persian boundary (B. 60).” - - (Holland’s “European Concert in the Eastern Question”). - -Footnote 85: - - In the House of Lords, July 18, 1878. - -Footnote 86: - - See Holland’s “European Concert in the Eastern Question.” - -Footnote 87: - - At the ninth meeting of the Congress “the Greek delegates asked the - Congress to sanction the annexation to the Hellenic Kingdom of the - island of Crete, and the province of Thessaly and Epirus” (The Duke of - Argyll’s “The Eastern Question,” vol. ii. p. 167). - -Footnote 88: - - “Russia had pointedly and emphatically declared that she would not - oppose any larger measure of liberty which the Congress might desire - to secure to the provinces bordering on Greece. There was no symptom - of any serious opposition from any other Powers. But England had - deserted the cause of Greece, because they sold it to the Turks as - part of the price to be paid for the island of Cyprus” (The Duke of - Argyll’s, “The Eastern Question,” vol. ii. p. 170). - -Footnote 89: - - “Returning to Greece,” said Beaconsfield, “no one could doubt as to - the future of this country. States, like individuals, which have a - future, are in a position to be able to wait” (The Duke of Argyll’s - “The Eastern Question,” vol. ii. p. 169). - -Footnote 90: - - The explanation of Lord Palmerston’s opposition to M. de Lessep’s - scheme, which was given confidentially by him to one of his - subordinates in the Foreign Office. - -Footnote 91: - - “We do not want Egypt, or wish it for ourselves any more than any - rational man, with an estate in the north of England and a residence - in the south, would have wished to possess the inns on the north road. - All he could want would have been that the inns should be well kept, - always accessible, and furnishing him, when he came, with mutton chops - and post horses. We want to trade with Egypt, and to travel through - Egypt” (Lord Palmerston’s Letter to Lord Cowley, November 25, 1859). - -Footnote 92: - - _Pall Mall_, September 15, 1886. - -Footnote 93: - - “If Russia obtained Constantinople, she must cease to be barbarous - before she could become formidable; and if she made a great navy, it - must be by doing as the Venetians, the Dutch, the English, and the - Americans did, by the accumulation of wealth, the exercise of - industry, the superior skill and intelligence of her artizans” - (Cobden’s Manchester Speech). - -Footnote 94: - - Carlo’s “British India,” p. 59. - -Footnote 95: - - Sir E. Thornton’s telegram from St. Petersburg. - -Footnote 96: - - Lord Palmerston’s Letter to Lord Clarendon, Feb. 17, 1857. - -Footnote 97: - - “Russia is divided into fifteen military districts, which comprise - also Finland, Siberia, the Caucasus, the Trans-Caspian region, and - Turkestan. The entire Russian effective force, including officers, - artillery, engineers, train, &c., consists of— - - Regular army 1,766,278 - Cossack troops 145,325 - Irregular troops 6,331 - ————————— - Total 1,917,934 - ————————— - - By adding to these figures, the effective troops not levied in time of - peace, say 100,000 men, we reach an effective of 2,000,000 for the war - footing. The Russian militia, which may be called out in times of war, - amounts to 3,000,000 men” (_Harper’s Magazine_, January, 1890), “The - Russian Army” by a Russian General. - -Footnote 98: - - _The Times._ - -Footnote 99: - - _The Times._ - -Footnote 100: - - _The Times._ - -Footnote 101: - - “A disastrous bankruptcy was the result of the wars which marked the - beginning of the century, and the crash of 1873 caused most serious - loss both to state and individuals. The stock exchange of Vienna is - one of those where speculation is not rife. The Budget of 1888 for - Austria gave £41,335,000 as the amount of revenue, and £48,030,000 as - that of expenditure, and the public debt as £83,091,060. For Hungary, - the revenue was in 1887 £28,937,630, and the expenditure £29,547,853. - The public debt for the whole of the Empire is twenty-seven millions - of florins” Leger’s “History of Austro-Hungary” (translated by Mrs. B. - Hill), p. 633. - -Footnote 102: - - “The Present Condition of European Politics,” p. 203. - -Footnote 103: - - “A few years ago a swift voyage from England to Calcutta, _viâ_ the - Cape of Good Hope, was from a hundred and ten to a hundred and twenty - days. Now steamers by way of the Canal make the same voyage in about - thirty days. Here, then, is a diminution of 75 per cent. on the - enormous stocks of goods continually required to be held unused, - involving continued risk of depreciation, loss of interest, cost of - insurance, to meet the requirements of mere transit” (S. A. Wells’ - “Practical Economics,” p. 236). - - - - - The Gresham Press, - - UNWIN BROTHERS, - - CHILWORTH AND LONDON. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -[Illustration] - - - - - Select Books - - PUBLISHED BY - - Mr. T. FISHER UNWIN - - ❦ - - London: - PATERNOSTER SQUARE. - - - * * * * * - - - - - St. Nicholas Magazine - - FOR YOUNG FOLKS. - - Edited by Mrs. MARY MAPES DODGE. - - Price 1s. Monthly. - - -With the beginning of the Seventeenth Volume (_November, 1889_) =ST. -NICHOLAS= will be enlarged by the addition of eight or more pages to -each number, and the Magazine will be printed in a new and clearer-faced -type. 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