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diff --git a/old/61113-0.txt b/old/61113-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 69163c6..0000000 --- a/old/61113-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29309 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Natural History of Pliny, volume 4 (of -6), by Pliny, the Elder - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: The Natural History of Pliny, volume 4 (of 6) - by Pliny, the Elder - -Author: Pliny, the Elder - -Translator: John Bostock - Henry T. Riley - -Release Date: January 6, 2020 [EBook #61113] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF PLINY *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Stephen Rowland, Tony Browne, -Brian Wilcox and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s notes: - -Italic text is denoted _thus_. - -See further note at the end of this volume. - - - - - BOHN’S CLASSICAL LIBRARY. - - NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY. - - VOL. IV. - - - - - THE - - NATURAL HISTORY - - OF - - PLINY. - - TRANSLATED, - - WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS - - - BY THE LATE - - JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.R.S., - - AND - - H. T. RILEY, ESQ., B.A., - - LATE SCHOLAR OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE. - - VOL. IV. - - LONDON: - HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. - MDCCCLVI. - - - - -CONTENTS - -OF THE FOURTH VOLUME. - - - BOOK XVIII. - - THE NATURAL HISTORY OF GRAIN. - - CHAP. Page - - 1. Taste of the ancients for agriculture 1 - - 2. When the first wreaths of corn were used at Rome 3 - - 3. The jugerum of land 4 - - 4. How often and on what occasions corn has sold at a remarkably - low price 7 - - 5. Illustrious men who have written upon agriculture 9 - - 6. Points to be observed in buying land 11 - - 7. The proper arrangements for a farm-house 13 - - 8. Maxims of the ancients on agriculture 16 - - 9. The different kinds of grain 19 - - 10. The history of the various kinds of grain _ib._ - - 11. Spelt 24 - - 12. Wheat 25 - - 13. Barley: rice 27 - - 14. Polenta 28 - - 15. Ptisan 29 - - 16. Tragum _ib._ - - 17. Amylum _ib._ - - 18. The nature of barley 30 - - 19. Arinca, and other kinds of grain that are grown in the - East 31 - - 20. Winter wheat. Similago, or fine flour 32 - - 21. The fruitfulness of Africa in wheat 35 - - 22. Sesame. Erysimum or irio. Horminum 36 - - 23. The mode of grinding corn _ib._ - - 24. Millet 38 - - 25. Panic _ib._ - - 26. The various kinds of leaven _ib._ - - 27. The method of making bread: origin of the art 39 - - 28. When bakers were first introduced at Rome 40 - - 29. Alica 41 - - 30. The leguminous plants: the bean 43 - - 31. Lentils. Pease 46 - - 32. The several kinds of chick-pease _ib._ - - 33. The kidney-bean 47 - - 34. The rape _ib._ - - 35. The turnip 48 - - 36. The lupine 49 - - 37. The vetch 51 - - 38. The fitch _ib._ - - 39. Silicia _ib._ - - 40. Secale or asia 52 - - 41. Farrago: the cracca _ib._ - - 42. Ocinum: ervilia _ib._ - - 43. Lucerne 53 - - 44. The diseases of grain: the oat 54 - - 45. The best remedies for the diseases of grain 57 - - 46. The crops that should be sown in the different soils 59 - - 47. The different systems of cultivation employed by various - nations 60 - - 48. The various kinds of ploughs 62 - - 49. The mode of ploughing _ib._ - - 50. The methods of harrowing, stubbing, and hoeing, employed - for each description of grain. The use of the harrow 66 - - 51. Extreme fertility of soil 67 - - 52. The method of sowing more than once in the year 68 - - 53. The manuring of land _ib._ - - 54. How to ascertain the quality of seed 69 - - 55. What quantity of each kind of grain is requisite for - sowing a jugerum 71 - - 56. The proper times for sowing 72 - - 57. Arrangement of the stars according to the terrestrial days - and nights 74 - - 58. The rising and setting of the stars 77 - - 59. The epochs of the seasons 78 - - 60. The proper time for winter sowing 79 - - 61. When to sow the leguminous plants and the poppy 81 - - 62. Work to be done in the country in each month - respectively _ib._ - - 63. Work to be done at the winter solstice 82 - - 64. Work to be done between the winter solstice and the - prevalence of the west winds 83 - - 65. Work to be done between the prevalence of the west winds - and the vernal equinox 84 - - 66. Work to be done after the vernal equinox 86 - - 67. Work to be done after the rising of the Vergiliæ: - hay-making 88 - - 68. The summer solstice 92 - - 69. Causes of sterility 97 - - 70. Remedies against these noxious influences 101 - - 71. Work to be done after the summer solstice 102 - - 72. The harvest 103 - - 73. The methods of storing corn 104 - - 74. The vintage, and the works of autumn 107 - - 75. The revolutions of the moon 111 - - 76. The theory of the winds 113 - - 77. The laying out of lands according to the points of the - wind 114 - - 78. Prognostics derived from the sun 117 - - 79. Prognostics derived from the moon 119 - - 80. Prognostics derived from the stars 120 - - 81. Prognostics derived from thunder 121 - - 82. Prognostics derived from clouds _ib._ - - 83. Prognostics derived from mists 122 - - 84. Prognostics derived from fire kindled by man _ib._ - - 85. Prognostics derived from water _ib._ - - 86. Prognostics derived from tempests 123 - - 87. Prognostics derived from aquatic animals and birds _ib._ - - 88. Prognostics derived from quadrupeds 124 - - 89. Prognostics derived from plants 125 - - 90. Prognostics derived from food _ib._ - - - BOOK XIX. - - THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF FLAX, AND AN ACCOUNT OF VARIOUS - GARDEN PLANTS. - - 1. The nature of flax—marvellous facts relative thereto 129 - - 2. How flax is sown: twenty-seven principal varieties of it 131 - - 3. The mode of preparing flax 135 - - 4. Linen made of asbestos 136 - - 5. At what period linen was first dyed 138 - - 6. At what period coloured awnings were first employed in the - theatres _ib._ - - 7. The nature of spartum 139 - - 8. The mode of preparing spartum 140 - - 9. At what period spartum was first employed 141 - - 10. The bulb eriophorus _ib._ - - 11. Plants which spring up and grow without a root—plants - which grow, but cannot be reproduced from seed 142 - - 12. Misy; iton; and geranion 143 - - 13. Particulars connected with the truffle 144 - - 14. The pezica _ib._ - - 15. Laserpitium, laser, and maspetum _ib._ - - 16. Magydaris 147 - - 17. Madder 148 - - 18. The radicula _ib._ - - 19. The pleasures of the garden 149 - - 20. The laying out of garden ground 154 - - 21. Plants other than grain and shrubs 155 - - 22. The natural history of twenty different kinds of plants - grown in gardens—the proper methods to be followed in - sowing them respectively _ib._ - - 23. Vegetables of a cartilaginous nature—cucumbers. Pepones 156 - - 24. Gourds 158 - - 25. Rape. Turnips 161 - - 26. Radishes 162 - - 27. Parsnips 165 - - 28. The skirret 166 - - 29. Elecampane 167 - - 30. Bulbs, squills, and arum 168 - - 31. The roots, flowers, and leaves of all these plants. - Garden plants which lose their leaves 170 - - 32. Varieties of the onion 171 - - 33. The leek 173 - - 34. Garlic 174 - - 35. The number of days required for the respective plants to - make their appearance above ground 177 - - 36. The nature of the various seeds 178 - - 37. Plants of which there is but a single kind. Plants of - which there are several kinds 179 - - 38. The nature and varieties of twenty-three garden plants. - The lettuce; its different varieties 180 - - 39. Endive 182 - - 40. Beet: four varieties of it 183 - - 41. Cabbages; the several varieties of them 185 - - 42. Wild and cultivated asparagus 188 - - 43. Thistles 190 - - 44. Other plants that are sown in the garden: ocimum; rocket; - and nasturtium 191 - - 45. Rue _ib._ - - 46. Parsley 192 - - 47. Mint _ib._ - - 48. Olusatrum 193 - - 49. The caraway 194 - - 50. Lovage _ib._ - - 51. Dittander 195 - - 52. Gith _ib._ - - 53. The poppy 196 - - 54. Other plants which require to be sown at the autumnal - equinox 197 - - 55. Wild thyme; sisymbrium _ib._ - - 56. Four kinds of ferulaceous plants. Hemp 198 - - 57. The maladies of garden plants 199 - - 58. The proper remedies for these maladies. How ants are best - destroyed. The best remedies against caterpillars and - flies 200 - - 59. What plants are benefitted by salt water 201 - - 60. The proper method of watering gardens _ib._ - - 61. The juices and flavours of garden herbs 202 - - 62. Piperitis, libanotis, and smyrnium 203 - - - BOOK XX. - - REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE GARDEN PLANTS. - - 1. Introduction 206 - - 2. The wild cucumber: twenty-six remedies 207 - - 3. Elaterium: twenty-seven remedies 208 - - 4. The anguine or erratic cucumber: five remedies 209 - - 5. The cultivated cucumber: nine remedies 210 - - 6. Pepones: eleven remedies 211 - - 7. The gourd: seventeen remedies. The somphus: one remedy 212 - - 8. The colocynthis: ten remedies _ib._ - - 9. Rape: nine remedies 213 - - 10. Wild rape: one remedy 214 - - 11. Turnips; those known as bunion and bunias: five - remedies _ib._ - - 12. The wild radish, or armoracia: one remedy 215 - - 13. The cultivated radish: forty-three remedies _ib._ - - 14. The parsnip: five remedies. The hibiscum, wild mallow, or - plistolochia: eleven remedies 218 - - 15. The staphylinos, or wild parsnip: twenty-two remedies _ib._ - - 16. Gingidion: one remedy 219 - - 17. The skirret: eleven remedies 220 - - 18. Sile, or hartwort: twelve remedies 221 - - 19. Elecampane: eleven remedies 222 - - 20. Onions: twenty-seven remedies _ib._ - - 21. Cutleek: thirty-two remedies 223 - - 22. Bulbed leek: thirty-nine remedies 225 - - 23. Garlic: sixty-one remedies _ib._ - - 24. The lettuce: forty-two remedies. The goat-lettuce: - four remedies 228 - - 25. Cæsapon: one remedy. Isatis: one remedy. The wild lettuce: - seven remedies _ib._ - - 26. Hawk-weed: seventeen remedies 229 - - 27. Beet: twenty-four remedies 232 - - 28. Limonion, or neuroides: three remedies 233 - - 29. Endive: three remedies _ib._ - - 30. Cichorium or chreston, otherwise called pancration or - ambula: twelve remedies 234 - - 31. Hedypnoïs: four remedies _ib._ - - 32. Seris, three varieties of it: seven remedies borrowed - from it 235 - - 33. The cabbage: eighty-seven remedies. Recipes mentioned - by Cato _ib._ - - 34. Opinions of the Greeks relative thereto 237 - - 35. Cabbage-sprouts 239 - - 36. The wild cabbage: thirty-seven remedies 240 - - 37. The lapsana: one remedy 241 - - 38. The sea-cabbage: one remedy _ib._ - - 39. The squill: twenty-three remedies _ib._ - - 40. Bulbs: thirty remedies 243 - - 41. Bulbine: one remedy. Bulb emetic 244 - - 42. Garden asparagus; with the next, twenty-four remedies 245 - - 43. Corruda, libycura, or orminum _ib._ - - 44. Parsley: seventeen remedies 246 - - 45. Apiastrum, or melissophyllum 247 - - 46. Olusatrum or Hipposelinon: eleven remedies. Oreoselinon: - two remedies. Helioselinon: one remedy 248 - - 47. Petroselinon: one remedy. Buselinon: one remedy _ib._ - - 48. Ocimum: thirty-five remedies 249 - - 49. Rocket: twelve remedies 250 - - 50. Nasturtium: forty-two remedies 251 - - 51. Rue: eighty-four remedies 252 - - 52. Wild mint: twenty remedies 256 - - 53. Mint: forty-one remedies 257 - - 54. Pennyroyal: twenty-five remedies 259 - - 55. Wild pennyroyal: seventeen remedies 260 - - 56. Nep: nine remedies 261 - - 57. Cummin: forty-eight remedies. Wild cummin: twenty-six - remedies 262 - - 58. Ammi: ten remedies 263 - - 59. The capparis or caper: eighteen remedies 264 - - 60. Ligusticum, or lovage: four remedies 265 - - 61. Cunila bubula: five remedies _ib._ - - 62. Cunila gallinacea, or origanum: five remedies 266 - - 63. Cunilago: eight remedies _ib._ - - 64. Soft cunila: three remedies. Libanotis: three remedies _ib._ - - 65. Cultivated cunila: three remedies. Mountain cunila: seven - remedies 267 - - 66. Piperitis, or siliquastrum: five remedies _ib._ - - 67. Origanum, onitis, or prasion: six remedies 268 - - 68. Tragoriganum: nine remedies _ib._ - - 69. Three varieties of Heracleotic origanum: thirty remedies _ib._ - - 70. Dittander: three remedies 270 - - 71. Gith, or melanthion: twenty-three remedies _ib._ - - 72. Anise: sixty-one remedies 271 - - 73. Where the best anise is found: various remedies derived - from this plant 272 - - 74. Dill: nine remedies 274 - - 75. Sacopenium, or sagapenon: thirteen remedies _ib._ - - 76. The white poppy: three remedies. The black poppy: eight - remedies. Remarks on sleep. Opium. Remarks in disfavour - of the potions known as “anodynes, febrifuges, - digestives, and cœliacs.” In what way the juices of - these plants are to be collected 275 - - 77. The poppy called rhœas: two remedies 278 - - 78. The wild poppy called ceratitis, glaucium, or paralium: - six remedies _ib._ - - 79. The wild poppy called heraclium, or aphron: four remedies. - Diacodion _ib._ - - 80. The poppy called tithymalon, or paralion: three remedies 279 - - 81. Porcillaca or purslain, otherwise called peplis: - twenty-five remedies 280 - - 82. Coriander: twenty-one remedies 282 - - 83. Orage: fourteen remedies _ib._ - - 84. The mallow called malope: thirteen remedies. The mallow - called malache: one remedy. The mallow called althæa or - plistolochia: fifty-nine remedies 283 - - 85. Wild lapathum or oxalis, otherwise called lapathum - cantherinum, or rumex: one remedy. Hydrolapathum: two - remedies. Hippolapathum: six remedies. Oxylapathum: - four remedies 287 - - 86. Cultivated lapathum: twenty-one remedies. Bulapathum: one - remedy 288 - - 87. Mustard, the three kinds of it: forty-four remedies _ib._ - - 88. Adarca: forty-eight remedies 290 - - 89. Marrubium or prasion, otherwise linostrophon, philopais, - or philochares: twenty-nine remedies _ib._ - - 90. Wild thyme: eighteen remedies 292 - - 91. Sisymbrium or thymbræum: twenty-three remedies 293 - - 92. Linseed: thirty remedies 294 - - 93. Blite: six remedies 295 - - 94. Meum, and meum athamanticum: seven remedies _ib._ - - 95. Fennel: twenty-two remedies 296 - - 96. Hippomarathron, or myrsineum: five remedies _ib._ - - 97. Hemp: nine remedies 297 - - 98. Fennel-giant: eight remedies 298 - - 99. The thistle or scolymos: six remedies 299 - - 100. The composition of theriaca _ib._ - - - BOOK XXI. - - AN ACCOUNT OF FLOWERS, AND THOSE USED FOR CHAPLETS MORE - PARTICULARLY. - - 1. The nature of flowers and gardens 304 - - 2. Garlands and chaplets _ib._ - - 3. Who invented the art of making garlands: when they first - received the name of “corollæ,” and for what reason 305 - - 4. Who was the first to give chaplets with leaves of silver - and gold. Lemnisci: who was the first to emboss them 306 - - 5. The great honour in which chaplets were held by the - ancients _ib._ - - 6. The severity of the ancients in reference to chaplets 307 - - 7. A citizen decked with flowers by the Roman people 308 - - 8. Plaited chaplets. Needle-work chaplets. Nard-leaf chaplets. - Silken chaplets _ib._ - - 9. Authors who have written on flowers. An anecdote relative - to Queen Cleopatra and chaplets 309 - - 10. The rose: twelve varieties of it 310 - - 11. The lily: four varieties of it 314 - - 12. The narcissus: three varieties of it 316 - - 13. How seed is stained to produce tinted flowers 317 - - 14. How the several varieties of the violet are respectively - produced, grown, and cultivated. The three different - colours of the violet. The five varieties of the yellow - violet _ib._ - - 15. The caltha. The scopa regia 318 - - 16. The bacchar. The combretum. Asarum _ib._ - - 17. Saffron: in what places it grows best. What flowers were - known at the time of the Trojan war 319 - - 18. The nature of odours 321 - - 19. The iris 324 - - 20. The saliunca 325 - - 21. The polium or teuthrion _ib._ - - 22. Fabrics which rival the colour of flowers 326 - - 23. The amaranth 327 - - 24. The cyanos: the holochrysos 328 - - 25. The petilium: the bellio _ib._ - - 26. The chrysocome, or chrysitis 329 - - 27. Shrubs, the blossoms of which are used for chaplets _ib._ - - 28. Shrubs, the leaves of which are used for chaplets _ib._ - - 29. The melothron, spiræa, and origanum. The oneorum or - cassia; two varieties of it. The melissophyllum or - melittæna. The melilote, otherwise known as Campanian - garland 330 - - 30. Three varieties of trefoil: the myophonum _ib._ - - 31. Two varieties of thyme. Plants produced from blossoms and - not from seed 331 - - 32. Conyza 332 - - 33. The flower of Jove. The hemerocalles. The helenium. The - phlox. Plants in which the branches and roots are - odoriferous 333 - - 34. The abrotonum. The adonium: two varieties of it. Plants - which reproduce themselves. The leucanthemum 334 - - 35. Two varieties of the amaracus _ib._ - - 36. The nyctegreton, or chenamyche, or nyctalops 335 - - 37. Where the melilote is found _ib._ - - 38. The succession in which flowers blossom: the spring - flowers. The violet. The chaplet anemone or phrenion. - The herb œnanthe. The melanthium. The helichrysos. - The gladiolus. The hyacinth 336 - - 39. The summer flowers—the lychnis: the tiphyon. Two varieties - of the pothos. Two varieties of the orsinum. The - vincapervinca or chamædaphne—a plant which is an - ever-green 337 - - 40. The duration of life in the various kinds of flowers 339 - - 41. Plants which should be sown among flowers for bees. The - cerintha _ib._ - - 42. The maladies of bees, and the remedies for them 340 - - 43. The food of bees _ib._ - - 44. Poisoned honey, and the remedies to be employed by those - who have eaten it 341 - - 45. Maddening honey 342 - - 46. Honey that flies will not touch 343 - - 47. Beehives, and the attention which should be paid to them 344 - - 48. That bees are sensible of hunger 345 - - 49. The method of preparing wax. The best kinds of wax. Punic - wax _ib._ - - 50. Plants which grow spontaneously: the use made of them by - various nations, their nature, and remarkable facts - connected with them. The strawberry, the tamnus, and - the butcher’s broom. The batis, two varieties of it. - The meadow parsnip. The hop 347 - - 51. The colocasia _ib._ - - 52. The cichorium. The anthalium or anticellium, or anthyllum. - The œtum. The arachidna. The aracos. The candryala. The - hypochœris. The caucalis. The anthriscum. The scandix. - The tragopogon. The parthenium or leucanthes, amaracus, - perdicium, or muralis. The trychnum or strychnum, - halicacabum, callias, dorycnion, manicon, peritton, - neuras, morio, or moly. The corchorus. The aphace. The - acynopos. The epipetron. Plants which never flower. - Plants which are always in flower 348 - - 53. Four varieties of the cnecos 350 - - 54. Plants of a prickly nature: the erynge, the glycyrrhiza, - the tribulus, the anonis, the pheos or stœbe, and the - hippophaes _ib._ - - 55. Four varieties of the nettle. The lamium and the scorpio 351 - - 56. The carduus, the acorna, the phonos, the leucanthos, the - chalceos, the cnecos, the polyacanthos, the onopyxos, - the helxine, the scolymos, the chamæleon, the tetralix, - and acanthice mastiche 353 - - 57. The cactos: the pternix, pappos, and ascalias 354 - - 58. The tribulus: the anonis 355 - - 59. Plants classified according to their stems: the coronopus, - the anchusa, the anthemis, the phyllanthes, the crepis, - and the lotus _ib._ - - 60. Plants classified according to their leaves. Plants which - never lose their leaves: plants which blossom a little - at a time: the heliotropium and the adiantum, the - remedies derived from which will be mentioned in the - following Book 356 - - 61. The various kinds of eared plants: the stanyops; the - alopecuros; the stelephurus, ortyx, or plantago; the - thryallis 357 - - 62. The perdicium. The ornithogale _ib._ - - 63. Plants which only make their appearance at the end of a - year. Plants which begin to blossom at the top. Plants - which begin to blossom at the lower part 358 - - 64. The lappa, a plant which produces within itself. The - opuntia, which throws out a root from the leaf _ib._ - - 65. The iasione. The chondrylla. The picris, which remains in - flower the whole year through _ib._ - - 66. Plants in which the blossom makes its appearance before - the stem. Plants in which the stem appears before the - blossom. Plants which blossom three times in the year 359 - - 67. The cypiros. The thesion _ib._ - - 68. The asphodel, or royal spear. The anthericus or albucus _ib._ - - 69. Six varieties of the rush: four remedies derived from the - cypiros 361 - - 70. The cyperos: fourteen remedies. The cyperis. The cypira 363 - - 71. The holoschœnus 364 - - 72. Ten remedies derived from the sweet-scented rush, or - teuchites _ib._ - - 73. Remedies derived from the flowers before mentioned: - thirty-two remedies derived from the rose _ib._ - - 74. Twenty-one remedies derived from the lily 366 - - 75. Sixteen remedies derived from the narcissus 367 - - 76. Seventeen remedies derived from the violet 368 - - 77. Seventeen remedies derived from the bacchar. One remedy - derived from the combretum _ib._ - - 78. Eight remedies derived from asarum 369 - - 79. Eight remedies derived from gallic nard _ib._ - - 80. Four remedies derived from the plant called “phu” 370 - - 81. Twenty remedies derived from saffron _ib._ - - 82. Syrian crocomagna: two remedies _ib._ - - 83. Forty-one remedies derived from the iris: two remedies - derived from the saliunca 371 - - 84. Eighteen remedies derived from the polium 372 - - 85. Three remedies derived from the holochrysos. Six remedies - derived from the chrysocome 373 - - 86. Twenty-one remedies derived from the melissophyllum _ib._ - - 87. Thirteen remedies derived from the melilote 374 - - 88. Four remedies derived from the trefoil _ib._ - - 89. Twenty-eight remedies derived from thyme 375 - - 90. Four remedies derived from the hemerocalles 376 - - 91. Five remedies derived from the helenium _ib._ - - 92. Twenty-two remedies derived from the abrotonum 377 - - 93. One remedy derived from the leucanthemum. Nine remedies - derived from the amaracus 378 - - 94. Ten remedies derived from the anemone or phrenion 379 - - 95. Six remedies derived from the œnanthe 380 - - 96. Eleven remedies derived from the helichrysos _ib._ - - 97. Eight remedies derived from the hyacinth 381 - - 98. Seven remedies derived from the lychnis _ib._ - - 99. Four remedies derived from the vincapervinca 382 - - 100. Three remedies derived from butcher’s broom _ib._ - - 101. Two remedies derived from the batis _ib._ - - 102. Two remedies derived from the colocasia _ib._ - - 103. Six remedies derived from the anthyllium or anthyllum 383 - - 104. Eight remedies derived from the parthenium, leucanthes, - or amaracus _ib._ - - 105. Eight remedies derived from the trychnum or strychnum, - halicacabum, callias, dorycnion, manicon, neuras, - morio, or moly 384 - - 106. Six remedies derived from the corchorus 386 - - 107. Three remedies derived from the cnecos _ib._ - - 108. One remedy derived from the pesoluta _ib._ - - 109. An explanation of Greek terms relative to weights and - measures _ib._ - - - BOOK XXII. - - THE PROPERTIES OF PLANTS AND FRUITS. - - 1. The properties of plants 389 - - 2. Plants used by nations for the adornment of the person _ib._ - - 3. Employment of plants for dyeing. Explanation of the terms - sagmen, verbena, and clarigatio 390 - - 4. The grass crown: how rarely it has been awarded 392 - - 5. The only persons that have been presented with this crown 393 - - 6. The only centurion that has been thus honoured 394 - - 7. Remedies derived from other chaplet plants 395 - - 8. The erynge or eryngium 396 - - 9. The eryngium, called centum capita: thirty remedies 397 - - 10. The acanos: one remedy 398 - - 11. The glycyrrhiza or adipsos: fifteen remedies 399 - - 12. Two varieties of the tribulus: twelve remedies 400 - - 13. The stœbe or pheos 401 - - 14. Two varieties of the hippophaes: two remedies _ib._ - - 15. The nettle: sixty-one remedies 402 - - 16. The lamium: seven remedies 404 - - 17. The scorpio, two kinds of it: one remedy 405 - - 18. The leucacantha, phyllos, ischias, or polygonatos: four - remedies _ib._ - - 19. The helxine: twelve remedies 406 - - 20. The perdicium, parthenium, urceolaris, or astercum: eleven - remedies 407 - - 21. The chamæleon, ixias, ulophonon, or cynozolon; two - varieties of it: twelve remedies _ib._ - - 22. The coronopus 409 - - 23. The anchusa: fourteen remedies _ib._ - - 24. The pseudoanchusa, echis, or doris: three remedies 410 - - 25. The onochilon, archebion, onochelis, rhexia, or enchrysa: - thirty remedies _ib._ - - 26. The anthemis, leucanthemis, leucanthemum, chamæmelum, or - melanthium; three varieties of it: eleven remedies 411 - - 27. The lotus plant: four remedies 412 - - 28. The lotometra: two remedies _ib._ - - 29. The heliotropium, helioscopium, or verrucaria: twelve - remedies. The heliotropium, tricoccum, or scorpiuron: - fourteen remedies 413 - - 30. The adiantum, callitrichos, trichomanes, polytrichos, or - saxifragum; two varieties of it: twenty-eight remedies 415 - - 31. The picris: one remedy. The thesion: one remedy 417 - - 32. The asphodel: fifty-one remedies _ib._ - - 33. The halimon: fourteen remedies 419 - - 34. The acanthus, pæderos, or melamphyllos: five remedies 421 - - 35. The bupleuron: five remedies _ib._ - - 36. The buprestis: one remedy 422 - - 37. The elaphoboscon: nine remedies _ib._ - - 38. The scandix: nine remedies. The anthriscum: two remedies 423 - - 39. The iasione: four remedies _ib._ - - 40. The caucalis: twelve remedies 424 - - 41. The sium: eleven remedies _ib._ - - 42. The sillybum 425 - - 43. The scolymos or limonia: five remedies _ib._ - - 44. The sonchos: two varieties: fifteen remedies 426 - - 45. The condrion or chondrylla: six remedies 427 - - 46. Mushrooms; peculiarities of their growth 428 - - 47. Fungi; signs by which the venomous kinds may be - recognized: nine remedies 429 - - 48. Silphium: seven remedies 431 - - 49. Laser: thirty-nine remedies 432 - - 50. Propolis: five remedies 434 - - 51. The various influences of different aliments upon the - disposition 435 - - 52. Hydromel: eighteen remedies 436 - - 53. Honied wine: six remedies 437 - - 54. Melitites: three remedies 438 - - 55. Wax: eight remedies _ib._ - - 56. Remarks in disparagement of medicinal compositions 439 - - 57. Remedies derived from grain. Siligo: one remedy. Wheat: - one remedy. Chaff: two remedies. Spelt: one remedy. - Bran: one remedy. Olyra or arinca: two remedies 440 - - 58. The various kinds of meal: twenty-eight remedies 441 - - 59. Polenta: eight remedies 442 - - 60. Fine flour: five remedies. Puls: one remedy. Meal used - for pasting papyrus, one remedy _ib._ - - 61. Alica: six remedies 443 - - 62. Millet: six remedies 444 - - 63. Panic: four remedies _ib._ - - 64. Sesame: seven remedies. Sesamoides: three remedies. - Anticyricum: three remedies _ib._ - - 65. Barley: nine remedies. Mouse-barley, by the Greeks called - phœnice: one remedy 445 - - 66. Ptisan: four remedies 446 - - 67. Amylum: eight remedies. Oats: one remedy _ib._ - - 68. Bread: twenty-one remedies 447 - - 69. Beans: sixteen remedies _ib._ - - 70. Lentils: seventeen remedies 448 - - 71. The elelisphacos, sphacos, or salvia: thirteen remedies 449 - - 72. The chickpea and the chicheling vetch: twenty-three - remedies 450 - - 73. The fitch: twenty remedies 451 - - 74. Lupines: thirty-five remedies 452 - - 75. Irio or erysimum, by the Gauls called vela: fifteen - remedies 453 - - 76. Horminum: six remedies 454 - - 77. Darnel: five remedies _ib._ - - 78. The plant miliaria: one remedy 455 - - 79. Bromos: one remedy _ib._ - - 80. Orobanche or cynomorion: one remedy _ib._ - - 81. Remedies for injuries inflicted by insects which breed - among leguminous plants _ib._ - - 82. The use made of the yeast of zythum 456 - - - BOOK XXIII. - - THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE CULTIVATED TREES. - - 1. Introduction 457 - - 2. The vine _ib._ - - 3. The leaves and shoots of the vine: seven remedies 458 - - 4. Omphacium extracted from the vine: fourteen remedies 459 - - 5. Œnanthe: twenty-one remedies 460 - - 6. Grapes, fresh gathered 461 - - 7. Various kinds of preserved grapes: eleven remedies _ib._ - - 8. Cuttings of the vine: one remedy 462 - - 9. Grape-stones: six remedies _ib._ - - 10. Grape-husks: eight remedies 463 - - 11. The grapes of the theriaca: four remedies _ib._ - - 12. Raisins, or astaphis: fourteen remedies _ib._ - - 13. The astaphis agria, otherwise called staphis or taminia: - twelve remedies 464 - - 14. The labrusca, or wild vine: twelve remedies 465 - - 15. The salicastrum: twelve remedies _ib._ - - 16. The white vine, otherwise called ampeloleuce, staphyle, - melothron, psilotrum, archezostis, cedrostis, or madon: - thirty-one remedies 466 - - 17. The black vine, otherwise called bryonia, chironia, - gynæcanthe, or apronia: thirty-five remedies 468 - - 18. Must: fifteen remedies _ib._ - - 19. Particulars relative to wine 469 - - 20. The Surrentine wines: three remedies. The Alban wines: - two remedies. The Falernian wines: six remedies 470 - - 21. The Setine wines; one observation upon them. The Statan - wines; one observation upon them. The Signian wines: - one remedy 471 - - 22. Other wines: sixty-four remedies _ib._ - - 23. Sixty-one observations relative to wine 473 - - 24. In what maladies wine should be administered; how it - should be administered, and at what times 474 - - 25. Ninety-one observations with reference to wine 477 - - 26. Artificial wines _ib._ - - 27. Vinegar: twenty-eight remedies 478 - - 28. Squill vinegar: seventeen remedies 480 - - 29. Oxymeli: seven remedies 481 - - 30. Sapa: seven remedies _ib._ - - 31. Lees of wine: twelve remedies 482 - - 32. Lees of vinegar: seventeen remedies 483 - - 33. Lees of sapa: four remedies 484 - - 34. The leaves of the olive-tree: twenty-three remedies _ib._ - - 35. The blossom of the olive: four remedies _ib._ - - 36. White olives: four remedies. Black olives: three remedies 485 - - 37. Amurca of olives: twenty-one remedies 486 - - 38. The leaves of the wild olive: sixteen remedies 487 - - 39. Omphacium: three remedies 488 - - 40. Oil of œnanthe: twenty-eight remedies _ib._ - - 41. Castor oil: sixteen remedies 489 - - 42. Oil of almonds: sixteen remedies 490 - - 43. Oil of laurel: nine remedies _ib._ - - 44. Oil of myrtle: twenty remedies _ib._ - - 45. Oil of chamæmyrsine, or oxymyrsine; oil of cypros; oil of - citrus; oil of walnuts; oil of cnidium; oil of mastich; - oil of balanus; various remedies 491 - - 46. The cyprus, and the oil extracted from it; sixteen - remedies. Gleucinum: one remedy 492 - - 47. Oil of balsamum: fifteen remedies _ib._ - - 48. Malobathrum: five remedies 493 - - 49. Oil of henbane: two remedies. Oil of lupines: one remedy. - Oil of narcissus: one remedy. Oil of radishes: five - remedies. Oil of sesame: three remedies. Oil of lilies: - three remedies. Oil of Selga: one remedy. Oil of - Iguvium: one remedy _ib._ - - 50. Elæomeli: two remedies. Oil of pitch: two remedies 494 - - 51. The palm: nine remedies _ib._ - - 52. The palm which produces the myrobalanum: three remedies 495 - - 53. The palm called elate: sixteen remedies _ib._ - - 54. Remedies derived from the blossoms, leaves, fruit, - branches, bark, juices, roots, wood, and ashes of - various kinds of trees. Six observations upon apples. - Twenty-two observations upon quinces. One observation - upon struthea 496 - - 55. The sweet apples called melimela: six observations upon - them. Sour apples: four observations upon them 497 - - 56. Citrons: five observations upon them 498 - - 57. Punic apples, or pomegranates: twenty-six remedies _ib._ - - 58. The composition called stomatice: fourteen remedies 499 - - 59. Cytinus: eight remedies 500 - - 60. Balaustium: twelve remedies _ib._ - - 61. The wild pomegranate 501 - - 62. Pears: twelve observations upon them 502 - - 63. Figs: one hundred and eleven observations upon them _ib._ - - 64. The wild fig: forty-two observations upon it 505 - - 65. The herb crineon: three remedies 507 - - 66. Plums: four observations upon them _ib._ - - 67. Peaches: two remedies 508 - - 68. Wild plums; two remedies _ib._ - - 69. The lichen on plum-trees; two remedies _ib._ - - 70. Mulberries; thirty-nine remedies _ib._ - - 71. The medicament called stomatice, arteriace, or - panchrestos; four remedies 509 - - 72. Cherries: five observations upon them 511 - - 73. Medlars: two remedies. Sorbs: two remedies 512 - - 74. Pine-nuts: thirteen remedies _ib._ - - 75. Almonds: twenty-nine remedies _ib._ - - 76. Greek nuts: one remedy 513 - - 77. Walnuts: twenty-four remedies. The Mithridatic antidote 514 - - 78. Hazel-nuts: three observations upon them. Pistachio-nuts: - eight observations upon them. Chesnuts: five - observations upon them 515 - - 79. Carobs: five observations upon them. The cornel: one - remedy. The fruit of the arbutus 516 - - 80. The laurel: sixty-nine observations upon it _ib._ - - 81. Myrtle: sixty observations upon it 519 - - 82. Myrtidanum: thirteen remedies 521 - - 83. The wild myrtle, otherwise called oxymyrsine, or - chamæmyrsine, and the ruscus: six remedies _ib._ - - - - -NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY. - - - - -BOOK XVIII. - -THE NATURAL HISTORY OF GRAIN. - - - - -CHAP. 1. (1.)—TASTE OF THE ANCIENTS FOR AGRICULTURE. - - -We now pass on to the Natural History of the various grains, of the -garden plants and flowers, and indeed of all the other productions, -with the exception of the trees and shrubs, which the Earth, in her -bounteousness, affords us—a boundless field for contemplation, if -even we regard the herbs alone, when we take into consideration the -varieties of them, their numbers, the flowers they produce, their -odours, their colours, their juices, and the numerous properties they -possess—all of which have been engendered by her with a view to either -the preservation or the gratification of the human race. - -On entering, however, upon this branch of my subject, it is my wish -in the first place to plead the cause of the Earth, and to act as -the advocate of her who is the common parent of all, although in the -earlier[1] part of this work I have already had occasion to speak in -her defence. For my subject matter, as I proceed in the fulfilment -of my task, will now lead me to consider her in the light of being -the producer of various noxious substances as well; in consequence of -which it is that we are in the habit of charging her with our crimes, -and imputing to her a guilt that is our own. She has produced poisons, -it is true; but who is it but man that has found them out? For the -birds of the air and the beasts of the field, it is sufficient to be -on their guard against them, and to keep at a distance from them. The -elephant, we find, and the urus, know how to sharpen[2] and renovate -their teeth against the trunks of trees, and the rhinoceros against -rocks; wild boars, again, point their tusks like so many poniards by -the aid of both rocks and trees; and all animals, in fact, are aware -how to prepare themselves for the infliction of injury upon others; but -still, which is there among them all, with the exception of man, that -dips his weapons in poison? As for ourselves, we envenom the point of -the arrow,[3] and we contrive to add to the destructive powers of iron -itself; by the aid of poisons we taint the waters of the stream, and we -infect the various elements of Nature; indeed, the very air even, which -is the main support of life, we turn into a medium for the destruction -of life. - -And it is not that we are to suppose that animals are ignorant of these -means of defence, for we have already had occasion to point out[4] the -preparations which they make against the attacks of the serpent, and -the methods they devise for effecting a cure when wounded by it; and -yet, among them all, there is not one that fights by the aid of the -poison that belongs to another, with the sole exception of man. Let us -then candidly confess our guilt, we who are not contented even with the -poisons as Nature has produced them; for by far the greater portion of -them, in fact, are artificially prepared by the human hand! - -And then besides, is it not the fact, that there are many men, the -very existence of whom is a baneful poison, as it were? Like that of -the serpent, they dart their livid tongue, and the venom of their -disposition corrodes every object upon which it concentrates itself. -Ever vilifying and maligning, like the ill-omened birds of the night, -they disturb the repose of that darkness which is so peculiarly their -own, and break in upon the quiet of the night even, by their moans and -wailings, the only sounds they are ever heard to emit. Like animals -of inauspicious presage, they only cross our path to prevent us from -employing our energies or becoming useful to our fellow-men; and the -only enjoyment that is sought by their abominable aspirations is -centred in their universal hatred of mankind. - -Still, however, even in this respect Nature has asserted her majestic -sway; for how much more numerous[5] are the good and estimable -characters which she has produced! just in the same proportion that we -find her giving birth to productions which are at once both salutary -and nutritious to man. It is in our high esteem for men such as these, -and the commendations they bestow, that we shall be content to leave -the others, like so many brakes and brambles, to the devouring flames -of their own bad passions, and to persist in promoting the welfare of -the human race; and this, with all the more energy and perseverance, -from the circumstance that it has been our object throughout, rather -to produce a work of lasting utility than to ensure ourselves a -widely-spread renown. We have only to speak, it is true, of the -fields and of rustic operations; but still, it is upon these that -the enjoyment of life so materially depends, and that the ancients -conferred the very highest rank in their honours and commendations. - - - - -CHAP. 2. (2.)—WHEN THE FIRST WREATHS OF CORN WERE USED AT ROME. - - -Romulus was the first who established the Arval[6] priesthood at -Rome. This order consisted of the eleven sons of Acca Larentia, his -nurse,[7] together with Romulus himself, who assumed the appellation -of the twelfth of the brotherhood. Upon this priesthood he bestowed, -as being the most august distinction that he could confer upon it, a -wreath of ears of corn, tied together with a white fillet; and this, in -fact, was the first chaplet that was ever used at Rome. This dignity -is only ended with life itself, and whether in exile or in captivity, -it always attends its owner. In those early days, two jugera of land -were considered enough for a citizen of Rome, and to none was a larger -portion than this allotted. And yet, at the present day, men who but -lately were the slaves of the Emperor Nero have been hardly content -with pleasure-gardens that occupied the same space as this; while they -must have fishponds, forsooth, of still greater extent, and in some -instances I might add, perhaps, kitchens even as well. - -Numa first established the custom of offering corn to the gods, and -of propitiating them with the salted[8] cake; he was the first, too, -as we learn from Hemina, to parch spelt, from the fact that, when -in this state, it is more wholesome as an aliment.[9] This method, -however, he could only establish one way: by making an enactment, to -the effect that spelt is not in a pure state for offering, except when -parched. He it was, too, who instituted the Fornacalia,[10] festivals -appropriated for the parching of corn, and others,[11] observed with -equal solemnity, for the erection and preservation of the “termini,” -or boundaries of the fields: for these termini, in those days, they -particularly regarded as gods; while to other divinities they gave the -names of Seia,[12] from “sero,” “to sow,” and of Segesta, from the -“segetes,” or “crops of standing corn,” the statues of which goddesses -we still see erected in the Circus. A third divinity it is forbidden by -the rules of our religion to name even[13] beneath a roof. In former -days, too, they would not so much as taste the corn when newly cut, nor -yet wine when just made, before the priests had made a libation of the -first-fruits. - - - - -CHAP. 3. (3.)—THE JUGERUM OF LAND. - - -That portion of land used to be known as a “jugerum,” which was -capable of being ploughed by a single “jugum,” or yoke of oxen, in -one day; an “actus”[14] being as much as the oxen could plough at a -single spell, fairly estimated, without stopping. This last was one -hundred and twenty feet in length; and two in length made a jugerum. -The most considerable recompense that could be bestowed upon generals -and valiant citizens, was the utmost extent of land around which a -person could trace a furrow with the plough in a single day. The whole -population, too, used to contribute a quarter[15] of a sextarius of -spelt, or else half a one, per head. - -From agriculture the earliest surnames were derived. Thus, for -instance, the name of Pilumnus was given to him who invented the -“pilum,” or pestle of the bake-house, for pounding corn; that of -Piso was derived from “piso,” to grind corn; and those of Fabius, -Lentulus, and Cicero, from the several varieties[16] of leguminous -plants in the cultivation of which respectively these individuals -excelled. One individual of the family of the Junii received the name -of “Bubulcus,”[17] from the skill he displayed in breeding oxen. Among -the sacred ceremonials, too, there was nothing that was held more holy -than the marriage by confarreation,[18] and the woman just married used -to present a cake made of spelt.[19] Careless cultivation of the land -was in those times an offence that came under the cognizance of the -censors; and, as we learn from Cato,[20] when it was said that such -and such a man was a good agriculturist or a good husbandman, it was -looked upon as the very highest compliment that could be paid him. A -man came to be called “locuples,” or “rich,” from being “loci plenus,” -or “full of earth.” Money, too, received its name of “pecunia,”[21] -from “pecus,” “cattle.” At the present day, even, in the registers of -the censors, we find set down under the head of “pascua,” or “pasture -lands,” everything from which the public revenues are derived, from the -fact that for a long period of time pasture lands were the only sources -of the public revenue. Fines, too, were only imposed in the shape of -paying so many sheep or so many oxen; and the benevolent spirit of the -ancient laws deserves remark, which most considerately enjoined that -the magistrate, when he indicted a penalty, should never impose a fine -of an ox before having first condemned the same party to the payment of -a sheep. - -Those who celebrated the public games in honour of the ox received the -name of Bubetii.[22] King Servius was the first who impressed upon our -copper coin[23] the figures of sheep and oxen. To depasture cattle -secretly by night upon the unripe crops on plough lands, or to cut them -in that state, was made by the Twelve Tables[24] a capital offence in -the case of an adult; and it was enacted that the person guilty of it -should be hanged, in order to make due reparation to the goddess Ceres, -a punishment more severe, even, than that inflicted for murder. If, on -the other hand, the offender was not an adult, he was beaten at the -discretion of the prætor; a penalty double the amount of the damage was -also exacted. - -The various ranks, too, and distinctions in the state had no other -origin than the pursuits of agriculture. The rural tribes held the -foremost rank, and were composed of those who possessed lands; while -those of the city, a place to which it was looked upon as ignominious -to be transferred, had the discredit thrown upon them of being an -indolent race. Hence it was that these last were only four in number, -and received their names from the several parts of the City which they -respectively inhabited; being the Suburran, the Palatine, Colline, and -Exquiline tribes. Every ninth day[25] the rural tribes used to visit -the city for the purpose of marketing, and it was for this reason that -it was made illegal to hold the comitia upon the Nundinæ; the object -being that the country people might not be called away thereby from -the transaction of their business. In those days repose and sleep were -enjoyed upon straw. Even to glory itself, in compliment to corn, the -name was given of “adorea.”[26] - -For my own part, I greatly admire[27] the modes of expression -employed in our ancient language: thus, for instance, we read in the -Commentaries of the Priesthood to the following effect:—“For deriving -an augury from the sacrifice of a bitch,[28] a day should be set apart -before the ear of corn appears from out of the sheath,[29] and then -again before it enters the sheath.” - - - - -CHAP. 4.—HOW OFTEN AND ON WHAT OCCASIONS CORN HAS SOLD AT A REMARKABLY -LOW PRICE. - - -The consequence was, that when the Roman manners were such as these, -the corn that Italy produced was sufficient for its wants, and it had -to be indebted to no province for its food; and not only this, but -the price of provisions was incredibly cheap. Manius Marcius, the -ædile[30] of the people, was the first who gave corn to the people at -the price of one as for the modius. L. Minutius Augurinus,[31] the -same who detected, when eleventh tribune of the people, the projects -of Spurius Mælius, reduced the price of corn on three market days,[32] -to one as per modius; for which reason a statue was erected in honour -of him, by public subscription, without the Trigeminian Gate.[33] -T. Seius distributed corn to the people, in his ædileship,[34] at -one as per modius, in remembrance of which statues were erected in -honour of him also in the Capitol and the Palatium: on the day of his -funeral he was borne to the pile on the shoulders of the Roman people. -In the year,[35] too, in which the Mother of the Gods was brought -to Rome, the harvest of that summer, it is said, was more abundant -than it had been for ten years before. M. Varro informs us, that in -the year[36] in which L. Metellus exhibited so many elephants in his -triumphal procession, a modius of spelt was sold for one as, which was -the standard price also of a congius of wine, thirty pounds’ weight -of dried figs, ten pounds of olive oil, and twelve pounds of flesh -meat. Nor did this cheapness originate in the wide-spread domains of -individuals encroaching continually upon their neighbours, for by a -law proposed by Licinius Stolo, the landed property of each individual -was limited to five hundred jugera; and he himself was convicted under -his own law of being the owner of more than that amount, having as a -disguise prevailed upon his son to lend him his name. Such were the -prices of commodities at a time when the fortunes of the republic were -rapidly on the increase. The words, too, that were uttered by Manius -Curius[37] after his triumphs and the addition of an immense extent of -territory to the Roman sway, are well known: “The man must be looked -upon,” said he, “as a dangerous citizen, for whom seven jugera of land -are not enough;” such being the amount of land that had been allotted -to the people after the expulsion of the kings. - -What, then, was the cause of a fertility so remarkable as this? The -fact, we have every reason to believe, that in those days the lands -were tilled by the hands of generals even, the soil exulting beneath -a plough-share crowned with wreaths of laurel, and guided by a -husbandman graced with triumphs: whether it is that they tended the -seed with the same care that they had displayed in the conduct of -wars, and manifested the same diligent attention in the management of -their fields that they had done in the arrangement of the camp, or -whether it is that under the hands of honest men everything prospers -all the better, from being attended to with a scrupulous exactness. -The honours awarded to Serranus[38] found him engaged in sowing his -fields, a circumstance to which he owes his surname.[39] Cincinnatus -was ploughing his four jugera of land upon the Vaticanian Hill—the -same that are still known as the “Quintian Meadows,”[40] when the -messenger brought him the dictatorship—finding him, the tradition says, -stripped to the work, and his very face begrimed with dust. “Put on -your clothes,” said he, “that I may deliver to you the mandates of the -senate and people of Rome.” In those days these messengers bore the -name of “viator,” or “wayfarer,” from the circumstance that their usual -employment was to fetch the senators and generals from their fields. - -But at the present day these same lands are tilled by slaves whose -legs are in chains, by the hands of malefactors and men with a branded -face! And yet the Earth is not deaf to our adjurations, when we address -her by the name of “parent,” and say that she receives our homage[41] -in being tilled by hands such as these; as though, forsooth, we ought -not to believe that she is reluctant and indignant at being tended in -such a manner as this! Indeed, ought we to feel any surprise were the -recompense she gives us when worked by chastised slaves,[42] not the -same that she used to bestow upon the labours of warriors? - - - - -CHAP. 5.—ILLUSTRIOUS MEN WHO HAVE WRITTEN UPON AGRICULTURE. - - -Hence it was that to give precepts upon agriculture became one of -the principal occupations among men of the highest rank, and that -in foreign nations even. For among those who have written on this -subject we find the names of kings even, Hiero, for instance, Attalus -Philometor, and Archelaüs, as well as of generals, Xenophon, for -example, and Mago the Carthaginian. Indeed, to this last writer did -the Roman senate award such high honours, that, after the capture of -Carthage, when it bestowed the libraries of that city upon the petty -kings of Africa, it gave orders, in his case only, that his thirty-two -Books should be translated into the Latin language, and this, although -M. Cato had already compiled his Book of Precepts; it took every care -also to entrust the execution of this task to men who were well versed -in the Carthaginian tongue, among whom was pre-eminent D. Silanus, a -member of one of the most illustrious families of Rome. I have already -indicated,[43] at the commencement of this work, the numerous learned -authors and writers in verse, together with other illustrious men, -whose authority it is my intention to follow; but among the number I -may here more particularly distinguish M. Varro, who, at the advanced -age of eighty-eight years, thought it his duty to publish a treatise -upon this subject. - -(4.) Among the Romans the cultivation of the vine was introduced at a -comparatively recent period, and at first, as indeed they were obliged -to do, they paid their sole attention to the culture of the fields. The -various methods of cultivating the land will now be our subject; and -they shall be treated of by us in no ordinary or superficial manner, -but in the same spirit in which we have hitherto written; enquiry shall -be made with every care first into the usages of ancient days, and then -into the discoveries of more recent times, our attention being devoted -alike to the primary causes of these operations, and the reasons upon -which they are respectively based. We shall make mention,[44] too, -of the various constellations, and of the several indications which, -beyond all doubt, they afford to the earth; and the more so, from the -fact that those writers who have hitherto treated of them with any -degree of exactness, seem to have written their works for the use of -any class of men but the agriculturist. - - - - -CHAP. 6.—POINTS TO BE OBSERVED IN BUYING LAND. - - -First of all, then, I shall proceed in a great measure according to -the dicta of the oracles of agriculture; for there is no branch of -practical life in which we find them more numerous or more unerring. -And why should we not view in the light of oracles those precepts which -have been tested by the infallibility of time and the truthfulness of -experience? - -(5.) To make a beginning, then, with Cato[45]—“The agricultural -population,” says he, “produces the bravest men, the most valiant -soldiers,[46] and a class of citizens the least given of all to evil -designs.—Do not be too eager in buying a farm.—In rural operations -never be sparing of your trouble, and, above all, when you are -purchasing land.—A bad bargain is always a ground for repentance.—Those -who are about to purchase land, should always have an eye more -particularly to the water there, the roads, and the neighbourhood.” -Each of these points is susceptible of a very extended explanation, and -replete with undoubted truths. Cato[47] recommends, too, that an eye -should be given to the people in the neighbourhood, to see how they -look: “For where the land is good,” says he, “the people will look -well-conditioned and healthy.” - -Atilius Regulus, the same who was twice consul in the Punic War, used -to say[48] that a person should neither buy an unhealthy piece of -land in the most fertile locality, nor yet the very healthiest spot -if in a barren country. The salubrity of land, however, is not always -to be judged of from the looks of the inhabitants, for those who are -well-seasoned are able to withstand the effects of living in pestilent -localities even. And then, besides, there are some localities that are -healthy during certain periods of the year only; though, in reality, -there is no soil that can be looked upon as really valuable that is not -healthy all the year through. “That[49] is sure to be bad land against -which its owner has a continual struggle.” Cato recommends us before -everything, to see that the land which we are about to purchase not -only excels in the advantages of locality, as already stated, but is -really good of itself. We should see, too, he says, that there is an -abundance of manual labour in the neighbourhood, as well as a thriving -town; that there are either rivers or roads, to facilitate the carriage -of the produce; that the buildings upon the land are substantially -erected, and that the land itself bears every mark of having been -carefully tilled—a point upon which I find that many persons are -greatly mistaken, as they are apt to imagine that the negligence of -the previous owner is greatly to the purchaser’s advantage; while the -fact is, that there is nothing more expensive than the cultivation of a -neglected soil. - -For this reason it is that Cato[50] says that it is best to buy land -of a careful proprietor, and that the methods adopted by others ought -not to be hastily rejected—that it is the same with land as with -mankind—however great the proceeds, if at the same time it is lavish -and extravagant, there will be no great profits left. Cato looks upon -a vineyard as the most[51] profitable investment; and he is far from -wrong in that opinion, seeing that he takes such particular care to -retrench all superfluous expenses. In the second rank he places gardens -that have a good supply of water, and with good reason, too, supposing -always that they are near a town. The ancients gave to meadow lands the -name of “parata,” or lands “always ready.”[52] - -Cato being asked, on one occasion, what was the most certain source -of profit, “Good pasture land,” was his answer; upon which, enquiry -was made what was the next best. “Pretty good[53] pasture lands,” -said he—the amount of all which is, that he looked upon that as the -most certain source of income which stands in need of the smallest -outlay. This, however, will naturally vary in degree, according to the -nature of the respective localities; and the same is the case with the -maxim[54] to which he gives utterance, that a good agriculturist must -be fond of selling. The same, too, with his remark, that in his youth -a landowner should begin to plant without delay, but that he ought -not to build until the land is fully brought into cultivation, and -then only a little at a time: and that the best plan is, as the common -proverb has it, “To profit by the folly of others;”[55] taking due -care, however, that the keeping up of a farm-house does not entail too -much expense. Still, however, those persons are guilty of no falsehood -who are in the habit of saying that a proprietor who is well housed -comes all the oftener to his fields, and that “the master’s forehead is -of more use than his back.”[56] - - - - -CHAP. 7. (6.)—THE PROPER ARRANGEMENTS FOR A FARM-HOUSE. - - -The proper plan to be pursued is this:[57] the farm-house must not -be unsuitable for the farm, nor the farm for the house; and we must -be on our guard against following the examples of L. Lucullus and Q. -Scævola, who, though living in the same age, fell into the two opposite -extremes; for whereas the farm-house of Scævola was not large enough -for the produce of his farm, the farm of Lucullus was not sufficiently -large for the house he built upon it; an error which gave occasion to -the reproof of the censors, that on his farm there was less of ground -for ploughing than of floor for sweeping. The proper arrangements for -a farm-house are not to be made without a certain degree of skill. C. -Marius, who was seven times consul, was the last person who had one -built at Misenum;[58] but he erected it with such a degree of that -artistic skill which he had displayed in castrametation, that Sylla -Felix[59] even made the remark, that in comparison with Marius, all the -others had been no better than blind.[60] - -It is generally agreed, that a farm-house ought neither to be built -near a marsh, nor with a river in front of it; for, as Homer[61] has -remarked, with the greatest correctness, unwholesome vapours are always -exhaled from rivers before the rising of the sun. In hot localities, -a farm-house should have a northern aspect, but where it is cold, it -should look towards the south; where, on the other hand, the site is -temperate, the house should look due east. Although, when speaking[62] -of the best kinds of soil, I may seem to have sufficiently discussed -the characteristics by which it may be known, I shall take the present -opportunity of adding a few more indications, employing the words of -Cato[63] more particularly for the purpose. “The dwarf-elder,” says -he, “the wild plum,[64] the bramble the small bulb,[65] trefoil, -meadow grass,[66] the quercus, and the wild pear and wild apple, are -all of them indicative of a corn land. The same is the case, too, -where the land is black, or of an ashy colour. All chalky soils are -scorching, unless they are very thin; the same, too, with sand, unless -it is remarkably fine. These remarks, however, are more applicable to -champaign localities than declivities.” - -The ancients were of opinion, that before everything, moderation should -be observed in the extent of a farm; for it was a favourite maxim of -theirs, that we ought to sow the less, and plough the more: such too, I -find, was the opinion entertained by Virgil,[67] and indeed, if we must -confess the truth, it is the wide-spread domains that have been the -ruin[68] of Italy, and soon will be that of the provinces as well. Six -proprietors were in possession of one half of Africa,[69] at the period -when the Emperor Nero had them put to death. With that greatness of -mind which was so peculiarly his own, and of which he ought not to -lose the credit, Cneius Pompeius would never purchase the lands that -belonged to a neighbour. Mago has stated it as his opinion, that a -person, on buying a farm, ought at once to sell his town house;[70] an -opinion, however, which savours of too great rigidity, and is by no -means conformable to the public good. It is with these words, indeed, -that he begins his precepts; a good proof, at all events, that he looks -upon the personal inspection of the owner as of primary importance. - -The next point which requires our care is to employ a farm-steward[71] -of experience, and upon this, too, Cato[72] has given many useful -precepts. Still, however, it must suffice for me to say that the -steward ought to be a man nearly as clever as his master, though -without appearing to know it. It is the very worst plan of all, to have -land tilled by slaves let loose from the houses of correction, as, -indeed, is the case with all work entrusted to men who live without -hope. I may possibly appear guilty of some degree of rashness in making -mention of a maxim of the ancients, which will very probably be looked -upon as quite incredible—“That nothing is so disadvantageous as to -cultivate land in the highest style of perfection.” L. Tarius Rufus, a -man who, born in the very lowest ranks of life, by his military talents -finally attained the consulship,[73] and who in other respects adhered -to the old-fashioned notions of thriftiness, made away with about one -hundred millions of sesterces, which, by the liberality of the late -Emperor Augustus, he had contrived to amass, in buying up lands in -Picenum, and cultivating them in the highest style, his object being -to gain a name thereby; the consequence of which was, that his heir -renounced[74] the inheritance. Are we of opinion, then, that ruin and -starvation must be the necessary consequence of such a course as this? -Yes, by Hercules! and the very best plan of all is to let moderation -guide our judgment in all things. To cultivate land well is absolutely -necessary, but to cultivate it in the very highest style is mere -extravagance, unless, indeed, the work is done by the hands of a man’s -own family, his tenants, or those whom he is obliged to keep at any -rate. But besides this, even when the owner tills the land itself, -there are some crops which it is really not worth the while to gather, -if we only take into account the manual labour expended upon them. The -olive, too, should never be too highly[75] cultivated, nor must certain -soils, it is said, be too carefully tilled, those of Sicily,[76] for -instance; hence it is, that new comers there so often find themselves -deceived.[77] - - - - -CHAP. 8.—MAXIMS OF THE ANCIENTS ON AGRICULTURE. - - -In what way, then, can land be most profitably cultivated? Why, in -the words of our agricultural oracles, “by making good out of bad.” -But here it is only right that we should say a word in justification -of our forefathers, who in their precepts on this subject had nothing -else in view but the benefit of mankind: for when they use the term -“bad” here, they only mean to say that which costs the smallest amount -of money. The principal object with them was in all cases to cut down -expenses to the lowest possible sum; and it was in this spirit that -they made the enactments which pronounced it criminal for a person who -had enjoyed a triumph, to be in possession, among his other furniture, -of ten pounds’ weight of silver plate: which permitted a man, upon the -death of his farm-steward, to abandon all his victories, and return to -the cultivation of his lands—such being the men the culture of whose -farms the state used to take upon itself; and thus, while they led our -armies, did the senate act as their steward. - -It was in the same spirit, too, that those oracles of ours have given -utterance to these other precepts, to the effect that he is a bad -agriculturist who has to buy what his farm might have supplied him -with; that the man is a bad manager who does in the day-time what he -might have done in the night, except, indeed, when the state of the -weather does not allow it; that he is a worse manager still, who does -on a work-day what he might have done on a feast-day;[78] but that -he is the very worst of all, who works under cover in fine weather, -instead of labouring in the fields. - -I cannot refrain from taking the present opportunity of quoting one -illustration afforded us by ancient times, from which it will be found -that it was the usage in those days to bring before the people even -questions connected with the various methods employed in agriculture, -and will be seen in what way men were accustomed to speak out in their -own defence. C. Furius Chresimus, a freedman, having found himself -able, from a very small piece of land, to raise far more abundant -harvests than his neighbours could from the largest farms, became the -object of very considerable jealousy among them, and was accordingly -accused of enticing away the crops of others by the practice of -sorcery. Upon this, a day was named by Spurius Calvinus, the curule -ædile, for his appearance. Apprehensive of being condemned, when the -question came to be put to the vote among the tribes, he had all his -implements of husbandry brought into the Forum, together with his -farm servants, robust, well-conditioned, and well-clad people, Piso -says. The iron tools were of first-rate quality, the mattocks were -stout and strong, the plough-shares ponderous and substantial, and -the oxen sleek and in prime condition. When all this had been done, -“Here, Roman citizens,” said he, “are my implements of magic; but it is -impossible for me to exhibit to your view, or to bring into this Forum, -those midnight toils of mine, those early watchings, those sweats, -and those fatigues.” Upon this, by the unanimous voice of the people, -he was immediately acquitted. Agriculture, in fact, depends upon the -expenditure of labour and exertion; and hence it is that the ancients -were in the habit of saying, that it is the eye of the master that does -more towards fertilizing a field than anything else. - -We shall give the rest of these precepts in their appropriate places, -according as we find them adapted to each variety of cultivation; but -in the meantime we must not omit some of a general nature, which here -recur to our recollection, and more particularly that maxim of Cato, -as profitable as it is humane: “Always act in such a way as to secure -the love of your neighbours.” He then proceeds to state his reasons -for giving this advice, but it appears to me that no one surely can -entertain the slightest doubt upon the subject. One of the very first -recommendations that he gives is to take every care that the farm -servants are kept in good condition.[79] It is a maxim universally -agreed upon in agriculture, that nothing must be done too late; and -again, that everything must be done at its proper season; while there -is a third precept, which reminds us that opportunities lost can never -be regained. The malediction uttered by Cato against rotten ground -has been treated of at some length already;[80] but there is another -precept which he is never tired of repeating, “Whatever can be done by -the help of the ass, will cost the least money.” - -Fern will be sure to die at the end of a couple of years, if you -prevent it from putting forth leaves; the most efficient method of -ensuring this is to beat the branches with a stick while they are in -bud; for then the juices that drop from it will kill the roots.[81] It -is said, too, that fern will not spring up again if it is pulled up by -the roots about the turn of the summer solstice, or if the stalks are -cut with the edge of a reed, or if it is turned up with a plough-share -with a reed placed[82] upon it. In the same way, too, we are told -that reeds may be effectually ploughed up, if care is taken to place -a stalk of fern upon the share. A field infested with rushes should -be turned up with the spade, or, if the locality is stony, with a -two-pronged mattock: overgrown shrubs are best removed by fire. Where -ground is too moist, it is an advantageous plan to cut trenches in it -and so drain it; where the soil is cretaceous, these trenches should he -left open; and where it is loose, they should be strengthened with a -hedge to prevent them from falling in. When these drains are made on a -declivity, they should have a layer of gutter tiles at the bottom, or -else house tiles with the face upwards: in some cases, too, they should -be covered[83] with earth, and made to run into others of a larger -size and wider; the bottom, also, should, if possible, have a coating -of stones or of gravel. The openings, too, should be strengthened -with two stones placed on either side, and another laid upon the top. -Democritus has described a method of rooting up a forest, by first -macerating the flower of the lupine[84] for one day in the juice of -hemlock, and then watering the roots of the trees with it. - - - - -CHAP. 9. (7.)—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAIN. - - -As the field is now prepared, we shall proceed to speak of the nature -of the various kinds of grain; we must premise, however, that there -are two principal classes of grain, the cereals,[85] comprising wheat -and barley, and the legumina, such as the bean and the chick-pea, for -instance. The difference between these two classes is too well known to -require any further description. - - - - -CHAP. 10.—THE HISTORY OF THE VARIOUS KINDS OF GRAIN. - - -The cereals are divided again into the same number of varieties, -according to the time of the year at which they are sown. The winter -grains are those which are put in the ground about the setting of -the Vergiliæ,[86] and there receive their nutriment throughout the -winter, for instance, wheat,[87] spelt,[88] and barley.[89] The summer -grains are those which are sown in summer, before the rising of the -Vergiliæ,[90] such as millet,[91] panic,[92] sesame,[93] horminum,[94] -and irio,[95] in accordance, however, with the usage of Italy only; -for in Greece and Asia all the grains are sown just after the setting -of the Vergiliæ. There are some, again, that are sown at either season -in Italy, and others at a third period, or, in other words, in the -spring. Some authors give the name of spring-grain to millet, panic, -lentils,[96] chick-peas,[97] and alica,[98] while they call wheat, -barley, beans, turnips, and rape, sementive or early sowing seeds. -Certain species of wheat are only sown to make fodder for cattle, and -are known by the name of “farrago,”[99] or mixed grain; the same, too, -with the leguminous plants, the vetch, for instance. The lupine,[100] -however, is grown in common as food for both cattle and men. - -All the leguminous[101] plants, with the exception of the bean, -have a single root, hard and tough, like wood, and destitute of -numerous ramifications; the chick-pea has the deepest root of all. -Corn has numerous fibrous roots, but no ramifications. Barley makes -its appearance[102] above ground the seventh day after sowing; the -leguminous plants on the fourth, or at the very latest, the seventh; -the bean from the fifteenth day to the twentieth: though in Egypt the -leguminous plants appear as early as the third day after they are sown. -In barley, one extremity of the grain throws out the root, and the -other the blade; this last flowers, too, before the other grain. In -the cereals in general it is the thicker end of the seed that throws -out the root, the thinner end the blossom; while in the other seeds -both root and blossom issue from the same part. - -During the winter, corn is in the blade; but in the spring winter -corn throws out a tall stem. As for millet and panic, they grow with -a jointed and grooved[103] stalk, while sesame has a stem resembling -that of fennel-giant. The fruit of all these seeds is either contained -in an ear, as in wheat and barley, for instance, and protected from -the attacks of birds and small animals by a prickly beard bristling -like so many palisades; or else it is enclosed in pods, as in the -leguminous plants, or in capsules, as in sesame and the poppy. Millet -and panic can only be said to belong to the grower and the small -birds in common, as they have nothing but a thin membrane to cover -them, without the slightest protection. Panic receives that name from -the panicule[104] or down that is to be seen upon it; the head of it -droops languidly, and the stalk tapers gradually in thickness, being -of almost the toughness and consistency of wood: the head is loaded -with grain closely packed, there being a tuft upon the top, nearly -a foot in length. In millet the husks which embrace the grain bend -downward with a wavy tuft upon the edge. There are several varieties -of panic, the mammose, for instance, the ears of which are in clusters -with small edgings of down, the head of the plant being double; it is -distinguished also according to the colour, the white, for instance, -the black, the red, and the purple even. Several kinds of bread are -made from millet, but very little from panic: there is no grain known -that weighs heavier than millet, and which swells more in baking. A -modius of millet will yield sixty pounds’ weight of bread; and three -sextarii steeped in water will make one modius of fermenty.[105] A kind -of millet[106] has been introduced from India into Italy within the -last ten years, of a swarthy colour, large grain, and a stalk like -that of the reed. This stalk springs up to the height of seven feet, -and has tufts of a remarkable size, known by the name of “phobæ.”[107] -This is the most prolific of all the cereals, for from a single grain -no less than three sextarii[108] are produced: it requires, however, to -be sown in a humid soil. - -Some kinds of corn begin to form the ear at the third joint, and others -at the fourth, though at its first formation the ear remains still -concealed. Wheat, however, has four[109] articulations, spelt[110] six, -and barley eight. In the case of these last, the ear does not begin -to form before the number of joints, as above mentioned, is complete. -Within four or five days, at the very latest, after the ear has given -signs of forming, the plant begins to flower, and in the course of as -many days or a little more, sheds its blossom: barley blossoms at the -end of seven days at the very latest. Varro says that the grains are -perfectly formed at the end of four times[111] nine days from their -flowering, and are ready for cutting at the ninth month. - -The bean, again, first appears in leaf, and then throws out a stalk, -which has no articulations[112] upon it. The other leguminous plants -have a tough, ligneous stalk, and some of them throw out branches, -the chick-pea, the fitch, and the lentil, for instance. In some of -the leguminous plants, the pea, for example, the stem creeps along -the ground, if care is not taken to support it by sticks: if this -precaution is omitted, the quality is deteriorated. The bean and the -lupine are the only ones among the leguminous plants that have a -single stem: in all the others the stem throws out branches, being of -a ligneous nature, very thin, and in all cases hollow. Some of these -plants throw out the leaves from the root, others at the top.[113] -Wheat, barley, and the vetch, all the plants, in fact, which produce -straw, have a single leaf only at the summit: in barley, however, this -leaf is rough, while in the others it is smooth. * * * In the bean, -again, the chick-pea, and the pea, the leaves are numerous and divided. -In corn the leaf is similar to that of the reed, while in the bean it -is round, as also in a great proportion of the leguminous plants. In -the ervilia[114] and the pea the leaf is long,[115] in the kidney-bean -veined, and in sesame[116] and irio the colour of blood. The lupine and -the poppy are the only ones among these plants that lose[117] their -leaves. - -The leguminous plants remain a longer time in flower, the fitch and the -chick-pea more particularly; but the bean is in blossom the longest of -them all, for the flower remains on it forty days; not, indeed, that -each stalk retains its blossom for all that length of time, but, as the -flower goes off in one, it comes on in another. In the bean, too, the -crop is not ripe all at once, as is the case with corn; for the pods -make their appearance at different times, at the lowest parts first, -the blossom mounting upwards by degrees. - -When the blossom is off in corn, the stalk gradually thickens, and it -ripens within forty days at the most. The same is the case, too, with -the bean, but the chick-pea takes a much shorter time to ripen; indeed, -it is fit for gathering within forty days from the time that it is -sown. Millet, panic, sesame, and all the summer grains are ripe within -forty days after blossoming, with considerable variations, of course, -in reference to soil and weather. Thus, in Egypt, we find barley cut -at the end of six months, and wheat at the end of seven, from the time -of sowing. In Hellas, again, barley is cut in the seventh month, and -in Peloponnesus in the eighth; the wheat being got in at a still later -period. - -Those grains which grow on a stalk of straw are enclosed in an -envelope protected by a prickly beard; while in the bean and the -leguminous plants in general they are enclosed in pods upon branches -which shoot alternately from either side. The cereals are the best -able to withstand the winter, but the leguminous plants afford the -most substantial food. In wheat, the grain has several coats, but in -barley,[118] more particularly, it is naked and exposed; the same, -too, with arinca,[119] but most of all, the oat. The stem is taller in -wheat than it is in barley, but the ear is more bearded[120] in the -last. Wheat, barley, and winter-wheat[121] are threshed out; they are -cleaned, too, for sowing just as they are prepared for the mill, there -being no necessity for parching[122] them. Spelt, on the other hand, -millet, and panic, cannot be cleaned without parching them; hence it is -that they are always sown raw and with the chaff on. Spelt is preserved -in the husk, too, for sowing, and, of course, is not in such case -parched by the action of fire. - - - - -CHAP. 11.—SPELT. - - -Of all these grains barley is the lightest,[123] its weight rarely -exceeding fifteen pounds to the modius, while that of the bean is -twenty-two. Spelt is much heavier than barley, and wheat heavier than -spelt. In Egypt they make a meal[124] of olyra,[125] a third variety -of corn that grows there. The Gauls have also a kind of spelt peculiar -to that country: they give it the name of “brace,”[126] while to us it -is known as “sandala:” it has a grain of remarkable whiteness. Another -difference, again, is the fact that it yields nearly four pounds more -of bread to the modius than any other kind of spelt. Verrius states -that for three hundred years the Romans made use of no other meal than -that of corn. - - - - -CHAP. 12.—WHEAT. - - -There are numerous kinds of wheat which have received their names from -the countries where they were first produced. For my part, however, -I can compare no kind of wheat to that of Italy either for whiteness -or weight, qualities for which it is more particularly distinguished: -indeed it is only with the produce of the more mountainous parts of -Italy that the foreign wheats can be put in comparison. Among these -the wheat of Bœotia[127] occupies the first rank, that of Sicily the -second, and that of Africa the third. The wheats of Thrace, Syria, -and, more recently, of Egypt, used to hold the third rank for weight, -these facts having been ascertained through the medium of the athletes; -whose powers of consumption, equal to those of beasts of burden, have -established the gradations in weight, as already stated. Greece, too, -held the Pontic[128] wheat in high esteem; but this has not reached -Italy as yet. Of all the varieties of grain, however, the Greeks -gave the preference to the kinds called dracontion, strangia, and -Selinusium, the chief characteristic of which is a stem of remarkable -thickness: it was this, in the opinion of the Greeks, that marked -them as the peculiar growth of a rich soil. On the other hand, they -recommended for sowing in humid soils an extremely light and diminutive -species of grain, with a remarkably thin stalk, known to them as -speudias, and standing in need of an abundance of nutriment. Such, at -all events, were the opinions generally entertained in the reign of -Alexander the Great, at a time when Greece was at the height of her -glory, and the most powerful country in the world. Still, however, -nearly one hundred and forty-four years before the death of that prince -we find the poet Sophocles, in his Tragedy of “Triptolemus,” praising -the corn of Italy before all others. The passage, translated word for -word, is to the following effect:— - - “And favour’d Italy grows white with hoary wheat.” - -And it is this whiteness that is still one of the peculiar merits of -the Italian wheat; a circumstance which makes me the more surprised to -find that none of the Greek writers of a later period have made any -reference to it. - -Of the various kinds of wheat which are imported at the present day -into Rome, the lightest in weight are those which come from Gaul and -Chersonnesus; for, upon weighing them, it will be found that they do -not yield more than twenty pounds to the modius. The grain of Sardinia -weighs half a pound more, and that of Alexandria one-third of a pound -more than that of Sardinia; the Sicilian wheat is the same in weight as -the Alexandrian. The Bœotian wheat, again, weighs a whole pound more -than these last, and that of Africa a pound and three quarters. In -Italy beyond the Padus, the spelt, to my knowledge, weighs twenty-five -pounds to the modius, and, in the vicinity of Clusium, six-and-twenty. -We find it a rule, universally established by Nature, that in every -kind of commissariat bread[129] that is made, the bread exceeds the -weight of the grain by one-third; and in the same way it is generally -considered that that is the best kind of wheat, which, in kneading, -will absorb one congius of water.[130] There are some kinds of wheat -which give, when used by themselves, an additional weight equal to -this: the Balearic wheat, for instance, which to a modius of grain -yields thirty-five pounds weight of bread. Others, again, will only -give this additional weight by being mixed with other kinds, the -Cyprian wheat and the Alexandrian, for example; which, if used by -themselves, will yield no more than twenty pounds to the modius. The -wheat of Cyprus is swarthy, and produces a dark bread; for which reason -it is generally mixed with the white wheat of Alexandria; the mixture -yielding twenty-five pounds of bread to the modius of grain. The wheat -of Thebais, in Egypt, when made into bread, yields twenty-six pounds -to the modius. To knead the meal with sea-water, as is mostly done -in the maritime districts, for the purpose of saving the salt, is -extremely pernicious; there is nothing, in fact, that will more readily -predispose the human body to disease. In Gaul and Spain, where they -make a drink[131] by steeping corn in the way that has been already -described—they employ the foam[132] which thickens upon the surface as -a leaven: hence it is that the bread in those countries is lighter than -that made elsewhere. - -There are some differences, also, in the stem of wheat; for the better -the kind the thicker it is. In Thrace, the stem of the wheat is covered -with several coats,[133] which are rendered absolutely necessary by the -excessive cold of those regions. It is the cold, also, that led to the -discovery there of the three-month[134] wheat, the ground being covered -with snow most of the year. At the end mostly of three months after -it has been sown, this wheat is ready for cutting, both in Thrace and -in other parts of the world as well. This variety is well known, too, -throughout all the Alpine range, and in the northern provinces there -is no kind of wheat that is more prolific; it has a single stem only, -is by no means of large size in any part of it, and is never sown but -in a thin, light soil. There is a two-month[135] wheat also found in -the vicinity of Ænos, in Thrace, which ripens the fortieth day after -sowing; and yet it is a surprising fact, that there is no kind of wheat -that weighs heavier than this, while at the same time it produces no -bran. Both Sicily and Achaia grow it, in the mountainous districts -of those countries; as also Eubœa, in the vicinity of Carystus. So -greatly, then, is Columella in error,[136] in supposing that there is -no distinct variety of three-month wheat even; the fact being that -these varieties have been known from the very earliest times. The -Greeks give to these wheats the name of “setanion.” It is said that in -Bactria the grains of wheat are of such an enormous size, that a single -one is as large as our ears of corn.[137] - - - - -CHAP. 13.—BARLEY: RICE. - - -Of all the cereals the first that is sown is barley. We shall state -the appropriate time for sowing each kind when we come to treat of the -nature of each individually. In India, there is both a cultivated -and a wild[138] barley, from which they make excellent bread, as well -as alica.[139] But the most favourite food of all there is rice,[140] -from which they prepare a ptisan[141] similar to that made from barley -in other parts of the world. The leaves of rice are fleshy,[142] very -like those of the leek, but broader; the stem is a cubit in height, the -blossom purple, and the root globular, like a pearl in shape.[143] - - - - -CHAP. 14.—POLENTA. - - -Barley is one of the most ancient aliments of man, a fact that is -proved by a custom of the Athenians, mentioned by Menander,[144] -as also by the name of “hordearii,”[145] that used to be given to -gladiators. The Greeks, too, prefer barley to anything else for making -polenta.[146] This food is made in various ways: in Greece, the barley -is first steeped in water, and then left a night to dry. The next day -they parch it, and then grind it in the mill. Some persons parch it -more highly, and then sprinkle it again with a little water; after -which they dry it for grinding. Others shake the grain from out of the -ear while green, and, after cleaning and soaking it in water, pound it -in a mortar. They then wash the paste in baskets, and leave it to dry -in the sun; after which they pound it again, clean it, and grind it in -the mill. But whatever the mode of preparation adopted, the proportions -are always twenty pounds of barley to three pounds of linseed,[147] -half a pound of coriander, and fifteen drachmæ[148] of salt: the -ingredients are first parched, and then ground in the mill. - -Those who want it for keeping, store it in new earthen vessels, with -fine flour and bran. In Italy, the barley is parched without being -steeped in water, and then ground to a fine meal, with the addition -of the ingredients already mentioned, and some millet as well. Barley -bread, which was extensively used by the ancients, has now fallen into -universal disrepute, and is mostly used as a food for cattle only. - - - - -CHAP. 15.—PTISAN. - - -With barley, too, the food called ptisan[149] is made, a most -substantial and salutary aliment, and one that is held in very high -esteem. Hippocrates, one of the most famous writers on medical science, -has devoted a whole volume to the praises of this aliment. The ptisan -of the highest quality is that which is made at Utica; that of Egypt -is prepared from a kind of barley, the grain of which grows with two -points.[150] In Bætica and Africa, the kind of barley from which this -food is made is that which Turranius calls the “smooth”[151] barley: -the same author expresses an opinion, too, that olyra[152] and rice are -the same. The method of preparing ptisan is universally known. - - - - -CHAP. 16.—TRAGUM. - - -In a similar manner, too, tragum is prepared from seed[153] wheat, but -only in Campania and Egypt. - - - - -CHAP. 17.—AMYLUM. - - -Amylum is prepared from every kind of wheat, and from winter-wheat[154] -as well; but the best of all is that made from three-month wheat. -The invention of it we owe to the island of Chios, and still, at the -present day, the most esteemed kind comes from there; it derives its -name from its being made without the help of the mill.[155] Next to the -amylum made with three-month wheat, is that which is prepared from the -lighter kinds of wheat. In making it, the grain is soaked in fresh -water, placed in wooden vessels; care being taken to keep it covered -with the liquid, which is changed no less than five times in the course -of the day. If it can be changed at night as well, it is all the better -for it, the object being to let it imbibe the water gradually and -equally. When it is quite soft, but before it turns sour, it is passed -through linen cloth, or else wicker-work, after which it is poured out -upon a tile covered with leaven, and left to harden in the sun. Next to -the amylum of Chios, that of Crete is the most esteemed, and next to -that the Ægyptian. The tests of its goodness are its being light and -smooth: it should be used, too, while it is fresh. Cato,[156] among our -writers, has made mention of it. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—THE NATURE OF BARLEY. - - -Barley-meal, too, is employed for medicinal purposes; and it is a -curious fact, that for beasts of burden they make a paste of it, which -is first hardened by the action of fire, and then ground. It is then -made up into balls, which are introduced with the hand into the paunch, -the result of which is, that the vigour and muscular strength of the -animal is considerably increased. In some kinds of barley, the ears -have two rows of grains,[157] and in others more; in some cases, as -many as six.[158] The grain itself, too, presents certain differences, -being long and thin, or else short or round, white, black,[159] or, -in some instances, of a purple colour. This last kind is employed for -making polenta: the white is ill adapted for standing the severity -of the weather. Barley is the softest of all the grains: it can only -be sown in a dry, loose soil,[160] but fertile withal. The chaff of -barley ranks among the very best; indeed, for litter there is none that -can be compared with it. Of all grain, barley is the least exposed to -accidents, as it is gathered before the time that mildew begins to -attack wheat; for which reason it is that the provident agriculturist -sows only as much wheat as may be required for food. The saying is, -that “barley is sown in a money-bag,” because it so soon returns a -profit. The most prolific kind of all is that which is got in at -Carthage,[161] in Spain, in the month of April. It is in the same month -that it is sown in Celtiberia, and yet it yields two harvests in the -same year. All kinds of barley are cut sooner than other grain, and -immediately after they are ripe; for the straw is extremely brittle, -and the grain is enclosed in a husk of remarkable thinness. It is said, -too, that a better polenta[162] is made from it, if it is gathered -before it is perfectly ripe. - - - - -CHAP. 19. (8.)—ARINCA, AND OTHER KINDS OF GRAIN THAT ARE GROWN IN THE -EAST. - - -The several kinds of corn are not everywhere the same; and even where -they are the same, they do not always bear a similar name. The kinds -most universally grown are spelt, by the ancients known as “adorea,” -winter wheat,[163] and wheat;[164] all these being common to many -countries. Arinca was originally peculiar to Gaul, though now it -is widely diffused over Italy as well. Egypt, too, Syria, Cilicia, -Asia, and Greece, have their own peculiar kinds, known by the names -of zea,[165] olyra, and tiphe.[166] In Egypt, they make a fine flour -from wheat of their own growth, but it is by no means equal to that of -Italy. Those countries which employ zea, have no spelt. Zea, however, -is to be found in Italy, and in Campania more particularly, where -it is known by the name of “seed.”[167] The grain that bears this -name enjoys a very considerable celebrity, as we shall have occasion -to state[168] on another occasion; and it is in honour of this that -Homer[169] uses the expression, ζείδωρος ἄρουρα, and not, as -some suppose, from the fact of the earth giving life.[170] Amylum is -made, too, from this grain, but of a coarser[171] quality than the -kind already mentioned;[172] this, however, is the only difference that -is perceptible. - -The most hardy kind, however, of all the grains is spelt, and the best -to stand the severity of the weather; it will grow in the very coldest -places, as also in localities that are but half tilled, or soils that -are extremely hot, and destitute of water. This was the earliest food -of the ancient inhabitants of Latium; a strong proof of which is the -distributions of adorea that were made in those times, as already -stated.[173] It is evident, too, that the Romans subsisted for a long -time upon pottage,[174] and not bread; for we find that from its name -of “puls,” certain kinds of food are known, even at the present day, -as “pulmentaria.”[175] Ennius, too, the most ancient of our poets, -in describing the famine in a siege, relates how that the parents -snatched away the messes of pottage[176] from their weeping children. -At the present day, even, the sacrifices in conformity with the ancient -rites, as well as those offered upon birthdays, are made with parched -pottage.[177] This food appears to have been as much unknown in those -days in Greece as polenta was in Italy. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—WINTER WHEAT. SIMILAGO, OR FINE FLOUR. - - -There is no grain that displays a greater avidity than wheat, and -none that absorbs a greater quantity of nutriment. With all propriety -I may justly call winter wheat[178] the very choicest of all the -varieties of wheat. It is white, destitute of all flavour,[179] and not -oppressive[180] to the stomach. It suits moist localities particularly -well, such as we find in Italy and Gallia Comata; but beyond the -Alps it is found to maintain its character only in the territory of -the Allobroges and that of the Memini; for in the other parts of -those countries it degenerates at the end of two years into common -wheat.[181] The only method of preventing this is to take care and sow -the heaviest grains only. - -(9.) Winter wheat furnishes bread of the very finest quality and the -most esteemed delicacies of the bakers. The best bread that is known -in Italy is made from a mixture of Campanian winter wheat with that -of Pisæ. The Campanian kind is of a redder colour, while the latter -is white; when mixed with chalk,[182] it is increased in weight. The -proper proportion for the yield of Campanian wheat to the modius of -grain is four sextarii of what is known as bolted flour;[183] but when -it is used in the rough and has not been bolted, then the yield should -be five sextarii of flour. In addition to this, in either case there -should be half a modius of white meal, with four sextarii of coarse -meal, known as “seconds,” and the same quantity of bran.[184] The Pisan -wheat produces five sextarii of fine flour to the modius; in other -respects it yields the same as that of Campania. The wheat of Clusium -and Arretium gives another sextarius of fine flour, but the yield is -similar to that of the kinds already mentioned in all other respects. -If, however, as much of it as possible is converted into fine wheat -meal, the modius will yield sixteen pounds weight of white bread, -and three of seconds, with half a modius of bran. These differences, -however, depend very materially upon the grinding; for when the grain -is ground quite dry it produces more meal, but when sprinkled with salt -water[185] a whiter flour, though at the same time a greater quantity -of bran. It is very evident that “farina,” the name we give to meal, is -derived from “far.” A modius of meal made from Gallic winter wheat, -yields twenty-two pounds of bread; while that of Italy, if made into -bread baked in tins,[186] will yield two or three pounds more. When the -bread is baked in the oven,[187] two pounds must be added in weight in -either case. - -(10.) Wheat yields a fine flour[188] of the very highest quality. In -African wheat the modius ought to yield half a modius of fine flour and -five sextarii of pollen, that being the name given to fine wheat meal, -in the same way that that of winter wheat is generally known as “flos,” -or the “flower.” This fine meal is extensively used in copper works -and paper manufactories. In addition to the above, the modius should -yield four sextarii of coarse meal, and the same quantity of bran. -The finest wheaten flour will yield one hundred[189] and twenty-two -pounds of bread, and the fine meal of winter wheat one hundred[189] -and seventeen, to the modius of grain. When the prices of grain are -moderate, meal sells at forty asses the modius, bolted wheaten flour at -eight asses more, and bolted flour of winter wheat, at sixteen asses -more. There is another distinction again in fine wheaten flour, which -originated formerly in the days of L. Paulus. There were three classes -of wheat; the first of which would appear to have yielded seventeen -pounds of bread, the second eighteen, and the third nineteen pounds and -a third: to these were added two pounds and a half of seconds,[190] and -the same quantity of brown[190] bread, with six sextarii of bran.[191] - -Winter wheat never ripens all at once, and yet there is none of the -cereals that can so ill brook any delay; it being of so delicate a -nature, that the ears directly they are ripe will begin to shed their -grain. So long, however, as it is in stalk, it is exposed to fewer -risks than other kinds of wheat, from the fact of its always having -the ear upright, and not retaining the dew, which is a prolific cause -of mildew. - -From arinca[192] a bread of remarkable sweetness is made. The grains -in this variety lie closer than they do in spelt; the ear, too, is -larger and more weighty. It is rarely the case that a modius of this -grain does not weigh full sixteen pounds. In Greece they find great -difficulty in threshing it; and hence it is that we find Homer[193] -saying that it is given to beasts of burden, this being the same as -the grain that he calls “olyra.” In Egypt it is threshed without -any difficulty, and is remarkably prolific. Spelt has no beard, and -the same is the case with winter wheat, except[194] that known as -the Laconian variety. To the kinds already mentioned we have to add -bromos,[195] the winter wheat just excepted, and tragos,[196] all -of them exotics introduced from the East, and very similar to rice. -Tiphe[197] also belongs to the same class, from which in our part -of the world a cleaned grain resembling rice is prepared. Among the -Greeks, too, there is the grain known as zea; and it is said that -this, as well as tiphe, when cleaned from the husk and sown, will -degenerate[198] and assume the form of wheat; not immediately, but in -the course of three years. - - - - -CHAP. 21.—THE FRUITFULNESS OF AFRICA IN WHEAT. - - -There is no grain more prolific than wheat, Nature having bestowed -upon it this quality, as being the substance which she destined for -the principal nutriment of man. A modius of wheat, if the soil is -favourable, as at Byzacium,[199] a champaign district of Africa, -will yield as much as one hundred and fifty[200] modii of grain. The -procurator of the late Emperor Augustus sent him from that place—a fact -almost beyond belief—little short of four hundred shoots all springing -from a single grain; and we have still in existence his letters on the -subject. In a similar manner, too, the procurator of Nero sent him -three hundred and sixty stalks all issuing from a single grain.[201] -The plains of Leontium in Sicily, and other places in that island, -as well as the whole of Bætica, and Egypt more particularly, yield -produce a hundred-fold. The most prolific kinds of wheat are the ramose -wheat,[202] and that known as the “hundred-grain”[203] wheat. Before -now, as many as one hundred beans, too, have been found on a single -stalk. - - - - -CHAP. 22.—SESAME. ERYSIMUM, OR IRIO. HORMINUM. - - -We have spoken[204] of sesame, millet, and panic as belonging to the -summer grains. Sesame[205] comes from India, where they extract an -oil from it; the colour of its grain is white. Similar in appearance -to this is the erysimum of Asia and Greece, and indeed it would be -identical with it were it not that the grain is better filled.[206] -It is the same grain that is known among us as “irio;” and strictly -speaking, ought rather to be classed among the medicaments than the -cereals. Of the same nature, too, is the plant called “horminum”[207] -by the Greeks, though resembling cummin[208] in appearance; it is sown -at the same time as sesame: no animal will eat either this or irio -while green. - - - - -CHAP. 23.—THE MODE OF GRINDING CORN. - - -All the grains are not easily broken. In Etruria they first parch the -spelt in the ear, and then pound it with a pestle shod with iron at -the end. In this instrument the iron is notched[209] at the bottom, -sharp ridges running out like the edge of a knife, and concentrating -in the form of a star; so that if care is not taken to hold the pestle -perpendicularly while pounding, the grains will only be splintered and -the iron teeth broken. Throughout the greater part of Italy, however, -they employ a pestle that is only rough[210] at the end, and wheels -turned by water, by means of which the corn is gradually ground. I -shall here set forth the opinions given by Mago as to the best method -of pounding corn. He says that the wheat should be steeped first of -all in water, and then cleaned from the husk; after which it should be -dried in the sun, and then pounded with the pestle; the same plan, he -says, should be adopted in the preparation of barley. In the latter -case, however, twenty sextarii of grain require only two sextarii of -water. When lentils are used, they should be first parched, and then -lightly pounded with the bran; or else, adopting another method, a -piece of unbaked brick and half a modius of sand[211] should be added -to every twenty sextarii of lentils. - -Ervilia should be treated in the same way as lentils. Sesame should -be first steeped in warm water, and then laid out to dry, after which -it should be rubbed out briskly, and then thrown into cold water, so -that the chaff may be disengaged by floating to the surface. After -this is done, the grain should again be spread out in the sun, upon -linen cloths, to dry. Care, however, should be taken to lose no time -in doing this, as it is apt to turn musty, and assume a dull, livid -colour. The grains, too, which are just cleaned from the husk, require -various methods of pounding. When the beard is ground by itself, -without the grain, the result is known as “acus,”[212] but it is only -used by goldsmiths.[213] If, on the other hand, it is beaten out on -the threshing-floor, together with the straw, the chaff has the name of -“palea,” * * * * and in most parts of the world is employed as fodder -for beasts of burden. The residue of millet, panic, and sesame, is -known to us as “apluda;” but in other countries it is called by various -other names. - - - - -CHAP. 24.—MILLET. - - -Campania is particularly prolific in millet, and a fine white porridge -is made from it: it makes a bread, too, of remarkable sweetness. The -nations of Sarmatia[214] live principally on this porridge, and even -the raw meal, with the sole addition of mares’ milk, or else blood[215] -extracted from the thigh of the horse. The Æthiopians know of no other -grain but millet and barley. - - - - -CHAP. 25.—PANIC. - - -The people of Gaul, and of Aquitania[216] more particularly, make use -of panic; the same is the case, too, in Italy beyond the Padus, with -the addition, however, of the bean, without which they prepare none -of their food. There is no aliment held in higher esteem than panic -by the nations of Pontus. The other summer grains thrive better in -well-watered soils than in rainy localities; but water is by no means -beneficial to millet or panic when they are coming into blade. It -is recommended not to sow them among vines or fruit-trees, as it is -generally thought that these crops impoverish the soil. - - - - -CHAP. 26. (11)—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF LEAVEN. - - -Millet is more particularly employed for making leaven; and if kneaded -with must,[217] it will keep a whole year. The same is done, too, with -the fine wheat-bran of the best quality; it is kneaded with white must -three days old, and then dried in the sun, after which it is made -into small cakes. When required for making bread, these cakes are -first soaked in water, and then boiled with the finest spelt flour, -after which the whole is mixed up with the meal; and it is generally -thought that this is the best method of making bread. The Greeks have -established a rule that for a modius of meal eight ounces of leaven is -enough. - -These kinds of leaven, however, can only be made at the time of -vintage, but there is another leaven which may be prepared with barley -and water, at any time it may happen to be required. It is first made -up into cakes of two pounds in weight, and these are then baked upon -a hot hearth, or else in an earthen dish upon hot ashes and charcoal, -being left till they turn of a reddish brown. When this is done, the -cakes are shut close in vessels, until they turn quite sour: when -wanted for leaven, they are steeped in water first. When barley bread -used to be made, it was leavened with the meal of the fitch,[218] or -else the chicheling vetch,[219] the proportion being, two pounds of -leaven to two modii and a half of barley meal. At the present day, -however, the leaven is prepared from the meal that is used for making -the bread. For this purpose, some of the meal is kneaded before adding -the salt, and is then boiled to the consistency of porridge, and left -till it begins to turn sour. In most cases, however, they do not warm -it at all, but only make use of a little of the dough that has been -kept from the day before. It is very evident that the principle which -causes the dough to rise is of an acid nature, and it is equally -evident that those persons who are dieted upon fermented bread are -stronger[220] in body. Among the ancients, too, it was generally -thought that the heavier wheat is, the more wholesome it is. - - - - -CHAP. 27.—THE METHOD OF MAKING BREAD: ORIGIN OF THE ART. - - -It seems to me quite unnecessary to enter into an account of -the various kinds of bread that are made. Some kinds, we find, -receive their names from the dishes with which they are eaten, the -oyster-bread,[221] for instance: others, again, from their peculiar -delicacy, the artolaganus,[222] or cake-bread, for example; and -others from the expedition with which they are prepared, such as the -“speusticus,”[223] or “hurry-bread.” Other varieties receive their -names from the peculiar method of baking them, such as oven-bread,[224] -tin-bread,[225] and mould-bread.[226] It is not so very long since that -we had a bread introduced from Parthia, known as water-bread,[227] from -a method in kneading it, of drawing out the dough by the aid of water, -a process which renders it remarkably light, and full of holes, like -a sponge: some call this Parthian bread. The excellence of the finest -kinds of bread depends principally on the goodness of the wheat, and -the fineness of the bolter. Some persons knead the dough with eggs or -milk, and butter even has been employed for the purpose by nations -that have had leisure to cultivate the arts of peace, and to give -their attention to the art of making pastry. Picenum still maintains -its ancient reputation for making the bread which it was the first to -invent, alica[228] being the grain employed. The flour is kept in soak -for nine days, and is kneaded on the tenth with raisin juice, in the -shape of long rolls; after which it is baked in an oven in earthen -pots, till they break. This bread, however, is never eaten till it has -been well[229] soaked, which is mostly done in milk mixed with honey. - - - - -CHAP. 28.—WHEN BAKERS WERE FIRST INTRODUCED AT ROME. - - -There were no bakers at Rome until[230] the war with King Perseus, more -than five hundred and eighty years after the building of the City. The -ancient Romans used to make their own bread, it being an occupation -which belonged to the women, as we see the case in many nations even -at the present day. Plautus speaks of the artopta, or bread-tin, in -his Comedy of the Aulularia,[231] though there has been considerable -discussion for that very reason among the learned, whether or not that -line really belongs to him. We have the fact, too, well ascertained, in -the opinion of Ateius Capito, that the cooks in those days were in the -habit of making the bread for persons of affluence, while the name of -“pistor”[232] was only given to the person who pounded, or “pisebat,” -the spelt. In those times, they had no cooks in the number of their -slaves, but used to hire them for the occasion from the market. The -Gauls were the first to employ the bolter that is made of horse-hair; -while the people of Spain make their sieves and meal-dressers of -flax,[233] and the Egyptians of papyrus and rushes. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—ALICA. - - -But among the very first things of all, we ought to speak of the -method employed in preparing alica,[234] a most delightful and most -wholesome food, and which incontestably confers upon Italy the highest -rank among the countries that produce the cereals. This delicacy is -prepared, no doubt, in Egypt as well, but of a very inferior quality, -and not worth our notice. In Italy, however, it is prepared in numerous -places, the territories of Verona and Pisæ, for example; but that of -Campania is the most highly esteemed. There, at the foot of mountains -capped with clouds, runs a plain, not less in all than forty miles -in extent. The land here—to give a description first of the nature -of the soil—is dusty on the surface, but spongy below, and as porous -as pumice. The inconveniences that generally arise from the close -vicinity of mountains are here converted into so many advantages: for -the soil, acting on it as a sort of filter, absorbs the water of the -abundant rains that fall; the consequence of which is, that the water -not being left to soak or form mud on the surface, the cultivation is -greatly facilitated thereby. This land does not return, by the aid of -any springs, the moisture it has thus absorbed, but thoroughly digests -it, by warming it in its bosom, in a heated oven as it were. The ground -is kept cropped the whole year through, once with panic, and twice -with spelt; and yet in the spring, when the soil is allowed to have a -moment’s repose, it will produce roses more odoriferous by far than -the cultivated rose: for the earth here is never tired of producing, -a circumstance in which originated the common saying, that Campania -produces more unguents[235] than other countries do oil. - -In the same degree, however, that the Campanian soil excels that of -all other countries, so does that part of it which is known to us as -Laboriæ,[236] and to the Greeks as Phlegræum, surpass all the rest. -This district is bounded on two sides by the consular high road, which -leads from Puteoli to Capua on the one side, and from Cumæ on the other. - -Alica is prepared from the grain called zea, which we have already -mentioned[237] as being known to us as “seed” wheat. The grain is -cleansed in a wooden mortar, for fear lest stone, from its hardness, -should have the effect of grating it. The motive power for raising the -pestle, as is generally known, is supplied by slaves working in chains, -the end of it being enclosed in a case of iron. After the husks have -been removed by this process, the pure grain is broken to pieces, the -same implements being employed. In this way, there are three different -kinds of alica made, the finest, the seconds, and the coarse, which -last is known as “aphærema.”[238] Still, however, these various -kinds have none of them that whiteness as yet for which they are so -distinguished, though even now they are preferable to the Alexandrian -alica. With this view—a most singular fact—chalk[239] is mixed with -the meal, which, upon becoming well incorporated with it, adds very -materially to both the whiteness and the shortness[240] of the mixture. -This chalk is found between Puteoli and Neapolis, upon a hill called -Leucogæum;[241] and there is still in existence a decree of the late -Emperor Augustus, (who established a colony at Capua), which orders a -sum of twenty thousand sesterces to be paid annually from his exchequer -to the people of Neapolis, for the lease of this hill. His motive for -paying this rent, he stated, was the fact that the people of Campania -had alleged that it was impossible to make their alica without the -help of this mineral. In the same hill, sulphur is found as well, and -the springs of Araxus issue from its declivities, the waters of which -are particularly efficacious for strengthening the sight, healing -wounds, and preventing the teeth from becoming loose. - -A spurious kind of alica is made, more particularly of a degenerate -kind of zea grown in Africa; the ears of it are larger and blacker -than those of the genuine kind, and the straw is short. This grain is -pounded with sand, and even then it is with the greatest difficulty -that the outer coats are removed; when stripped, the grain fills one -half only of the original measure. Gypsum, in the proportion of one -fourth, is then sprinkled[242] over it, and after the mixture has been -well incorporated, it is bolted through a meal-sieve. The portion that -remains behind, after this is done, is known as “excepticia,”[243] and -consists of the coarser parts; while that which has passed through is -submitted to a second process, with a finer sieve; and that which then -refuses to pass has the name of “secundaria.”[244] That, again, which, -in a similar manner, is submitted to a third sifting, with a sieve of -the greatest fineness, which will only admit of sand passing through -it, is known as “cribraria,”[245] when it remains on the top of the -sieve. - -There is another method, again, that is employed every where for -adulterating it. They pick out the whitest and largest grains of wheat, -and parboil them in earthen pots; these are then dried in the sun till -they have regained their original size, after which they are lightly -sprinkled with water, and then ground in a mill. A better granæum[246] -is made from zea than from wheat, although it is nothing else, in fact, -but a spurious alica: it is whitened by the addition of boiled milk, in -place of chalk. - - - - -CHAP. 30. (12.)—THE LEGUMINOUS PLANTS: THE BEAN. - - -We now come to the history of the leguminous plants, among which -the place of honour must be awarded to the bean;[247] indeed, some -attempts have even been made to use it for bread. Bean meal is known -as “lomentum;” and, as is the case with the meal of all leguminous -plants, it adds considerably, when mixed with flour, to the weight of -the bread. Beans are on sale at the present day for numerous purposes, -and are employed for feeding cattle, and man more particularly. They -are mixed, also, among most nations, with wheat,[248] and panic -more particularly, either whole or lightly broken. In our ancient -ceremonials, too, bean pottage[249] occupies its place in the religious -services of the gods. Beans are mostly eaten together with other food, -but it is generally thought that they dull the senses, and cause -sleepless nights attended with dreams. Hence it is that the bean has -been condemned[250] by Pythagoras; though, according to some, the -reason for this denunciation was the belief which he entertained -that the souls of the dead are enclosed in the bean: it is for this -reason, too, that beans are used in the funereal banquets of the -Parentalia.[251] According to Varro, it is for a similar cause that the -Flamen abstains from eating beans: in addition to which, on the blossom -of the bean, there are certain letters of ill omen to be found. - -There are some peculiar religious usages connected with the bean. It -is the custom to bring home from the harvest a bean by way of auspice, -which, from that circumstance, has the name of “referiva.”[252] In -sales by public auction, too, it is thought lucky to include a bean -in the lot for sale. It is a fact, too, that the bean is the only one -among all the grains that fills out at the increase of the moon,[253] -however much it may have been eaten away: it can never be thoroughly -boiled in sea-water, or indeed any other water that is salt. - -The bean is the first leguminous plant that is sown; that being done -before the setting of the Vergiliæ, in order that it may pass the -winter in the ground. Virgil[254] recommends that it should be sown in -spring, according to the usage of the parts of Italy near the Padus: -but most people prefer the bean that has been sown early to that of -only three months’ growth; for, in the former case, the pods as well as -the stalk afford a most agreeable fodder for cattle. When in blossom -more particularly, the bean requires water; but after the blossom has -passed off, it stands in need of but very little. It fertilizes[255] -the ground in which it has been sown as well as any manure; hence it -is that in the neighbourhood of Thessaly and Macedonia, as soon as it -begins to blossom, they turn up[256] the ground. - -The bean, too, grows wild in most countries, as in those islands of the -Northern Ocean, for instance, which for that reason have been called by -us the “Fabariæ.”[257] In Mauritania, also, it is found in a wild state -in various parts, but so remarkably hard that it will never become soft -by boiling. - -In Egypt there is a kind of bean[258] which grows upon a thorny stalk; -for which reason the crocodiles avoid it, being apprehensive of danger -to their eyes. This stalk is four cubits in length, and its thickness, -at the very most, that of the finger: were it not for the absence of -articulations in it, it would resemble a soft reed in appearance. The -head is similar to that of the poppy, being of a rose colour: the beans -enclosed in this head are not above thirty in number; the leaves are -large, and the fruit is bitter and odoriferous. The root, however, is -highly esteemed by the natives as a food, whether eaten raw or well -boiled; it bears a strong resemblance to that of the reed. This plant -grows also in Syria and Cilicia, and upon the banks of Lake Torone in -Chalcidice. - - - - -CHAP. 31.—LENTILS. PEASE. - - -Among the leguminous plants the lentil is sown in the month of -November, and the pea,[259] among the Greeks. The lentil thrives best -in a soil that is rather thin than rich, and mostly stands in need of -dry weather. There are two kinds of lentil grown in Egypt; one of which -is rounder and blacker than the other, which has a peculiar shape of -its own. The name of this plant has been applied to various uses, and -among others has given origin to our word “lenticula.”[260] I find it -stated in some authors that a lentil diet is productive of evenness of -temper. The pea requires to be sown in a warm, sunny spot, and is ill -able to endure cold; hence in Italy and the more rigorous climates, it -is sown in the spring only, a light, loose soil being chosen for the -purpose. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—THE SEVERAL KINDS OF CHICK-PEASE. - - -The chick-pea[261] is naturally salt,[262] for which reason it is -apt to scorch the ground, and should only be sown after it has been -steeped a day in water. This plant presents considerable differences in -reference to size, colour,[263] form, and taste. One variety resembles -in shape a ram’s head, from which circumstance it has received the name -of “arietinum;” there are both the white and the black arietinum. There -is also the columbine chick-pea, by some known as the “pea of Venus;” -it is white, round, and smooth, being smaller than the arietinum, and -is employed in the observances of the night festivals or vigils. The -chicheling vetch,[264] too, is a diminutive kind of chick-pea, unequal -and angular, like[265] the pea. The chick-pea that is the sweetest in -flavour is the one that bears the closest resemblance to the fitch; the -pod in the black and the red kinds is more firmly closed than in the -white ones. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—THE KIDNEY-BEAN. - - -The pod of the chick-pea is rounded, while in other leguminous plants -it is long and broad, like the seed which it contains; in the pea, -again, it is of a cylindrical form. In the case of the kidney-bean[266] -it is usual to eat the pod together with the seed. This last may -be sown in all kinds of soils indifferently, between the ides of -October[267] and the calends of November.[268] As soon as ever the -leguminous plants begin to ripen, they ought to be plucked, for the -pods will very soon open and the seed fall out, in which case it is -very difficult to find: the same is the case, too, with the lupine. -But before we pass on to the lupine, it will be as well to make some -mention of the rape.[269] - - - - -CHAP. 34. (13.)—THE RAPE. - - -The Latin writers have only treated of this plant in a cursory manner, -while those of Greece have considered it a little more attentively; -though even they have ranked it among the garden plants. If, however, a -methodical arrangement is to be strictly observed, it should be spoken -of immediately after corn, or the bean, at all events; for next to -these two productions, there is no plant that is of more extensive use. -For, in the first place, all animals will feed upon it as it grows; -and it is far from being the least nutritious plant in the fields for -various kinds of birds, when boiled in water more particularly. Cattle, -too, are remarkably fond of the leaves of rape; and the stalks and -leaves, when in season, are no less esteemed as a food for man than -the sprouts of the cabbage;[269] these, too, when turned yellow and -left to die in the barn, are even more highly esteemed than[270] when -green. As to the rape itself, it will keep all the better if left in -its mould, after which it should be dried in the open air till the -next crop is nearly ripe, as a resource in case of scarcity. Next to -those of the grape and corn, this is the most profitable harvest of -all for the countries that lie beyond the Padus. The rape is by no -means difficult to please in soil, for it will grow almost anywhere, -indeed where nothing else can be sown. It readily derives nutriment -from fogs and hoar-frosts, and grows to a marvelous size; I have seen -them weighing upwards of forty pounds.[271] It is prepared for table -among us in several ways, and is made to keep till the next crop, its -fermentation[272] being prevented by preserving it in mustard. It is -also tinted with no less than six colours in addition to its own, and -with purple even; indeed, that which is used by us as food ought to be -of no other colour.[273] - -The Greeks have distinguished two principal species of rape, the male -and the female,[274] and have discovered a method of obtaining them -both from the same seed; for when it is sown thick, or in a hard, -cloggy soil, the produce will be male. The smaller the seed the better -it is in quality. There are three kinds of rape in all; the first is -broad and flat, the second of a spherical shape, and the third, to -which the name of “wild” rape[275] has been given, throws out a long -root, similar in appearance to a radish, with an angular, rough leaf, -and an acrid juice, which, if extracted about harvest, and mixed with -a woman’s milk, is good for cleansing the eyes and improving defective -sight. The colder the weather the sweeter they are, and the larger, it -is generally thought; heat makes them run to leaf. The finest rape of -all is that grown in the district of Nursia: it is valued at as much as -one sesterce[276] per pound, and, in times of scarcity, two even. That -of the next best quality is produced on Mount Algidus. - - - - -CHAP. 35.—THE TURNIP. - - -The turnip[277] of Amiternum, which is pretty nearly of the same -nature as the rape, thrives equally well in a cold soil. It is sown -just before the calends of March,[278] four sextarii of seed to the -jugerum. The more careful growers recommend that the ground should be -turned up five times before putting in the turnip, and four for rape, -care being taken, in both cases, to manure it well. Rape, they say, -will thrive all the better, if it is sown together with some chaff. -They will have it, too, that the sower ought to be stripped, and that -he should offer up a prayer while sowing, and say: “I sow this for -myself and for my neighbours.” The proper time for sowing both kinds -is the period that intervenes between the festivals[279] of the two -divinities, Neptune and Vulcan. It is said, too—and it is the result -of very careful observation—that these plants will thrive wonderfully -well, if they are sown as many days after the festival of Neptune as -the moon was old when the first snow fell the previous winter. They are -sown in spring as well, in warm and humid localities. - - - - -CHAP. 36. (14.)—THE LUPINE. - - -The lupine is the next among the leguminous plants that is in -extensive use, as it serves for food for man in common with the hoofed -quadrupeds. To prevent it from springing out of the pod[280] while -being gathered, and so lost, the best plan is to gather it immediately -after a shower. Of all the seeds that are sown, there is not one of a -more marvellous nature than this, or more favoured by the earth. First -of all, it turns every day with the sun,[281] and shows the hour to -the husbandman, even though the weather should happen to be cloudy and -overcast. It blossoms, too, no less than three times, and so attached -is it to the earth, that it does not require to be covered with the -soil; indeed, this is the only seed that does not require the earth to -be turned up for sowing it. It thrives more particularly on a sandy, -dry, and even gravelly soil; and requires no further care to be taken -in its cultivation. To such a degree is it attached to the earth, that -even though left upon a soil thickly covered with brambles, it will -throw out a root amid the leaves and brakes, and so contrive to reach -the ground. We have already stated[282] that the soil of a field or -vineyard is enriched by the growth of a crop of lupines; indeed, so -far is it from standing in need of manure, that the lupines will act -upon it as well as the very best. It is the only seed that requires no -outlay at all, so much so, in fact, that there is no necessity to carry -it even to the spot where it is sown; for it may be sown the moment it -is brought from the threshing-floor:[283] and from the fact that it -falls from the pod of its own accord, it stands in need of no one to -scatter it. - -This is[284] the very first grain sown and the last that is gathered, -both operations generally taking place in the month of September; -indeed, if this is not done before winter sets in, it is liable to -receive injury from the cold. And then, besides, it may even be left -with impunity to lie upon the ground, in case showers should not -immediately ensue and cover it in, it being quite safe from the attacks -of all animals, on account of its bitter taste: still, however, it is -mostly covered up in a slight furrow. Among the thicker soils, it is -attached to a red earth more particularly. In order to enrich[285] -this earth, it should be turned up just after the third blossom; but -where the soil is sandy, after the second. Chalky and slimy soils are -the only ones that it has an aversion to; indeed, it will never come -to anything when sown in them. Soaked in warm water, it is used as a -food, too, for man. One modius is a sufficient meal for an ox, and it -is found to impart considerable vigour to cattle; placed, too, upon the -abdomen[286] of children, it acts as a remedy in certain cases. It is -an excellent plan to season the lupine by smoking it; for when it is -kept in a moist state, maggots are apt to attack the germ, and render -it useless for reproduction. If cattle have eaten it off while in leaf, -as a matter of necessity it should be ploughed in as soon as possible. - - - - -CHAP. 37. (15.)—THE VETCH. - - -The vetch,[287] too, enriches the soil, and its cultivation entails no -labour on the agriculturist. It is sown after the ground has been but -once turned up, and requires neither hoeing nor manuring; nothing at -all, indeed, except harrowing. There are three periods for sowing it; -the first is about the setting of Arcturus, when it is intended for -feeding cattle in the month of December, while in the blade; this crop, -too, is the best of all for seed, for, although grazed upon, it will -bear just as well. The second crop is sown in the month of January, -and the last in March; this last being the best crop for fodder. Of -all the seeds this is the one that thrives best in a dry soil; still, -however, it manifests no repugnance to a shaded locality. This grain, -if gathered when quite ripe, produces a chaff superior to that of any -other. If sown near vines supported by trees, the vetch will draw away -the juices from the vines, and make them languid. - - - - -CHAP. 38.—THE FITCH. - - -The cultivation of the fitch,[288] too, is attended with no difficulty. -It requires weeding, however, more than the vetch. Like it, the fitch -has certain medicinal[289] properties; for we find the fact still kept -in remembrance by some letters of his, that the late Emperor Augustus -was cured by its agency. Five modii will sow as much ground as a yoke -of oxen can plough in a day. If sown in the month of March,[290] it -is injurious, they say, to oxen: and when sown in autumn, it is apt -to produce head-ache. If, however, it is put in the ground at the -beginning of spring, it will be productive of no bad results. - - - - -CHAP. 39. (16.)—SILICIA. - - -Silicia,[291] or, in other words, fenugreek, is sown after a light -ploughing[292] merely, the furrows being no more than some four -fingers in depth; the less the pains that are bestowed upon it the -better it will thrive—a singular fact that there should be anything -that profits from neglect. The kinds, however, that are known as -“secale” and “farrago” require harrowing only. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—SECALE OR ASIA. - - -The people of Taurinum, at the foot of the Alps, give to secale[293] -the name of “asia;” it is a very inferior[294] grain, and is only -employed to avert positive famine. It is prolific, but has a straw -of remarkable thinness; it is also black and sombre-looking, but -weighs extremely heavy. Spelt is mixed with this grain to modify its -bitterness,[295] and even then it is very disagreeable to the stomach. -It will grow upon any soil, and yields a hundred-fold; it is employed -also as a manure for enriching the land. - - - - -CHAP. 41.—FARRAGO: THE CRACCA. - - -Farrago, a mixture made of the refuse of “far,” or spelt, is sown very -thick, the vetch being sometimes mingled with it; in Africa, this -mixture is sometimes made with barley. All these mixtures, however, -are only intended for cattle, and the same is the case with the -cracca,[296] a degenerate kind of leguminous plant. Pigeons, it is -said, are so remarkably fond of this grain, that they will never leave -the place where it has been given to them. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—OCINUM: ERVILIA. - - -Among the ancients there was a sort of fodder, to which Cato[297] gives -the name of “ocinum;” it was employed by them to stop scouring in oxen. -This was a mixture of various kinds of fodder, cut green before the -frosts came on. Mamilius Sura, however, explains the term differently, -and says that ten modii of beans, two of vetches, and the same quantity -of ervilia,[298] were mixed and sown in autumn on a jugerum of land. -He states, also, that it is a still better plan to mix some Greek -oats[299] with it, the grain of which never falls to the ground; this -mixture, according to him, was ocinum, and was usually sown as a food -for oxen. Varro[300] informs us that it received its name on account of -the celerity with which it springs up, from the Greek ὠκέως, “quickly.” - - - - -CHAP. 43.—LUCERNE. - - -Lucerne[301] is by nature an exotic to Greece even, it having been -first introduced into that country from Media,[302] at the time of -the Persian wars with King Darius; still it deserves to be mentioned -among the very first of these productions. So superior are its -qualities, that a single sowing will last more than thirty[303] -years. It resembles trefoil in appearance, but the stalk and leaves -are articulated. The longer it grows in the stalk, the narrower is -the leaf. Amphilochus has devoted a whole book to this subject and -the cytisus.[304] The ground in which it is sown, being first cleaned -and cleared of stones, is turned up in the autumn, after which it is -ploughed and harrowed. It is then harrowed a second and a third time, -at intervals of five days; after which manure is laid upon it. This -seed requires either a soil that is dry, but full of nutriment, or -else a well-watered one. After the ground has been thus prepared, the -seed is put in in the month of May;[305] for if sown earlier, it is in -danger from the frosts. It is necessary to sow the seed very thick, -so that all the ground may be occupied, and no room left for weeds to -shoot up in the intervals; a result which may be secured by sowing -twenty modii to the jugerum. The seed must be stirred at once with the -rake, to prevent the sun from scorching it, and it should be covered -over with earth as speedily as possible. If the soil is naturally damp -or weedy, the lucerne will be overpowered, and the spot degenerate -into an ordinary pasture; it is necessary, therefore, directly the -crop is an inch in height, to disengage it from all weeds, by hand, in -preference to the weeding-hook. - -It is cut when it is just beginning to flower, and this is repeated -as often as it throws out new blossoms; which happens mostly six[306] -times in the year, and four at the very least. Care should be taken to -prevent it from running to seed, as it is much more valuable as fodder, -up to the third year. It should be hoed in the spring, and cleared of -all other plants; and in the third year the surface should be well -worked with the weeding-hook. By adopting this method, the weeds will -be effectually destroyed, though without detriment to the lucerne, in -consequence of the depth of its roots. If the weeds should happen to -get ahead of it, the only remedy is to turn it up repeatedly with the -plough, until the roots of the weeds are thoroughly destroyed. This -fodder should never be given to cattle to satiety, otherwise it may be -necessary to let blood; it is best, too, when used while green. When -dry, it becomes tough and ligneous, and falls away at last into a thin, -useless dust. As to the cytisus, which also occupies the very foremost -rank among the fodders, we have already spoken[307] of it at sufficient -length when describing the shrubs. It remains for us now to complete -our account of all the cereals, and we shall here devote a portion of -it to the diseases to which they are subject. - - - - -CHAP. 44. (17.)—THE DISEASES OF GRAIN: THE OAT. - - -The foremost feature of disease in wheat is the oat.[308] Barley, -too, will degenerate into the oat; so much so, in fact, that the oat -has become an equivalent for corn; for the people of Germany are in -the habit of sowing it, and make their porridge of nothing else. This -degeneracy is owing more particularly to humidity of soil and climate; -and a second cause is a weakness in the seed, the result of its being -retained too long in the ground before it makes its appearance above -it. The same, too, will be the consequence, if the seed is decayed -when put in the ground. This may be known, however, the moment it -makes its appearance, from which it is quite evident that the defect -lies in the root. There is another form of disease, too, which closely -resembles the oat, and which supervenes when the grain, already -developed to its full size, but not ripe, is struck by a noxious blast, -before it has acquired its proper body and strength; in this case, the -seed pines away in the ear, by a kind of abortion, as it were, and -totally disappears. - -The wind is injurious to wheat and barley, at three[309] periods of -the year in particular: when they are in blossom, directly the blossom -has passed off, and just as the seed is beginning to ripen. In this -last case, the grain wastes away, while in the two former ones it is -prevented from being developed. Gleams of sunshine, every now and -then, from the midst of clouds, are injurious to corn. Maggots, too, -breed[310] in the roots, when the rains that follow the seed-time are -succeeded by a sudden heat, which encloses the humidity in the ground. -Maggots make their appearance,[311] also, in the grain, when the ear -ferments through heat succeeding a fall of rain. There is a small -beetle, too, known by the name of “cantharis,”[312] which eats away -the blade. All these insects die, however, as soon as their nutriment -fails them. Oil,[313] pitch, and grease are prejudicial to grain, and -care should be taken not to let them come in contact with the seed -that is sown. Rain is only beneficial to grain while in the blade; it -is injurious to wheat and barley while they are in blossom, but is -not detrimental to the leguminous plants, with the exception of the -chick-pea. When grain is beginning to ripen, rain is injurious, and -to barley in particular. There is a white grass[314] that grows in -the fields, very similar to panic in appearance, but fatal to cattle. -As to darnel,[315] the tribulus,[316] the thistle,[317] and the -burdock,[318] I can consider them, no more than the bramble, among -the maladies that attack the cereals, but rather as so many pests -inflicted on the earth. Mildew,[319] a malady resulting from the -inclemency of the weather, and equally attacking the vine[320] and -corn, is in no degree less injurious. It attacks corn most frequently -in localities which are exposed to dews, and in vallies which have -not a thorough draught for the wind; windy and elevated spots, on the -other hand, are totally exempt from it. Another evil, again, in corn, -is over-luxuriance, when it falls to the ground beneath the weight[321] -of the grain. One evil, however, to which all crops in common, the -chick-pea even, are exposed, is the attacks of the caterpillar, when -the rain, by washing away the natural saltness of the vegetation, makes -it[322] all the more tempting for its sweetness. - -There is a certain plant,[323] too, which kills the chick-pea and -the fitch, by twining around them; the name of it is “orobanche.” In -a similar manner, also, wheat is attacked by darnel,[324] barley by -a long-stalked plant, called “ægilops,”[325] and the lentil by an -axe-leafed grass, to which, from the resemblance[326] of the leaf, the -Greeks have given the name of “pelecinon.” All these plants, too, kill -the others by entwining around them. In the neighbourhood of Philippi, -there is a plant known as ateramon,[327] which grows in a rich soil, -and kills the bean, after it has been exposed, while wet, to the -blasts of a certain wind: when it grows in a thin, light soil, this -plant is called “teramon.” The seed of darnel is extremely minute, -and is enclosed in a prickly husk. If introduced into bread, it will -speedily produce vertigo; and it is said that in Asia and Greece, the -bath-keepers, when they want to disperse a crowd of people, throw this -seed upon burning coals. The phalangium, a diminutive insect of the -spider genus,[328] breeds in the fitch, if the winter happens to be -wet. Slugs, too, breed in the vetch, and sometimes a tiny snail makes -its way out of the ground, and eats it away in a most singular manner. - -These are pretty nearly all the maladies to which grain is subject. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—THE BEST REMEDIES FOR THE DISEASES OF GRAIN. - - -The best remedy for these maladies, so long as grain is in the blade, -is the weeding-hook, and, at the moment of sowing, ashes.[329] As to -those diseases which develope themselves in the seed and about the -root, with due care precautions may be effectually employed against -them. It is generally supposed that if seed has been first steeped in -wine,[330] it will be less exposed to disease. Virgil[331] recommends -that beans should be drenched with nitre and amurca of olives; and he -says that if this is done, they will be all the larger. Some persons, -again, are of opinion, that they will grow of increased size, if the -seed is steeped for three days before it is sown in a solution of -urine and water. If the ground, too, is hoed three times, a modius -of beans in the pod, they say, will yield not less than a modius of -shelled[332] beans. Other seeds, again, it is said, will be exempt -from the attacks of maggots, if bruised cypress[333] leaves are mixed -with them, or if they are sown just at the moon’s conjunction. Many -persons, for the more effectual protection of millet, recommend that -a bramble-frog should be carried at night round the field before the -hoeing is done, and then buried in an earthen vessel in the middle of -it. If this is done, they say, neither sparrows nor worms will attack -the crop. The frog, however, must be disinterred before the millet -is cut; for if this is neglected, the produce will be bitter. It is -pretended, too, that all seeds which have been touched by the shoulders -of a mole are remarkably productive. - -Democritus recommends that all seeds before they are sown should be -steeped in the juice of the herb known as “aizoüm,”[334] which grows on -tiles or shingles, and is known to us by the Latin name of “sedum” or -“digitellum.”[335] If blight prevails, or if worms are found adhering -to the roots, it is a very common remedy to sprinkle the plants with -pure amurca of olives without salt, and then to hoe the ground. If, -however, the crop should be beginning to joint, it should be stubbed -at once, for fear lest the weeds should gain the upper hand. I know -for certain[336] that flights of starlings and sparrows, those pests -to millet and panic, are effectually driven away by means of a certain -herb, the name of which is unknown to me, being buried at the four -corners of the field: it is a wonderful thing to relate, but in such -case not a single bird will enter it. Mice are kept away by the ashes -of a weasel or a cat being steeped in water and then thrown upon the -seed, or else by using the water in which the body of a weasel or a -cat has been boiled. The odour, however, of these animals makes itself -perceived in the bread even; for which reason it is generally thought -a better plan to steep the seed in ox-gall.[337] As for mildew, that -greatest curse of all to corn, if branches of laurel are fixed in the -ground, it will pass away from the field into the leaves of the laurel. -Over-luxuriance in corn is repressed by the teeth of cattle,[338] but -only while it is in the blade; in which case, if depastured upon ever -so often, no injury to it when in the ear will be the result. If the -ear, too, is once cut off, the grain, it is well known, will assume a -larger[339] form, but will be hollow within and worthless, and if sown, -will come to nothing. - -At Babylon, however, they cut the blade twice, and then let the cattle -pasture on it a third time, for otherwise it would run to nothing -but leaf. Even then, however, so fertile is the soil, that it yields -fifty, and, indeed, with care, as much as a hundred, fold. Nor is the -cultivation of it attended with any difficulty, the only object being -to let the ground be under water as long as possible, in order that -the extreme richness and exuberance of the soil may be modified. The -Euphrates, however, and the Tigris do not deposit a slime, in the same -way that the Nilus does in Egypt, nor does the soil produce vegetation -spontaneously; but still, so great is the fertility, that, although the -seed is only trodden in with the foot, a crop springs up spontaneously -the following year. So great a difference in soils as this, reminds me -that I ought to take this opportunity of specifying those which are the -best adapted for the various kinds of grain. - - - - -CHAP. 46.—THE CROPS THAT SHOULD BE SOWN IN THE DIFFERENT SOILS. - - -This, then, is the opinion expressed by Cato[340] on the subject: “In -a dense and fertile soil wheat should be sown: but if the locality is -subject to fogs, rape, radishes, millet, and panic. Where the land[341] -is cold and moist, sowing should be commenced earlier; but where it is -hot, at a later period. In a red, black, or gravelly soil, provided -it is not watery, lupines should be sown; but in chalk, red earth, or -a watery soil, spelt.[342] Where a locality is dry, free from weeds, -and not overshadowed, wheat should be put in; and where the soil is -strong and powerful, beans. Vetches should be grown in a soil as free -from water and weeds as possible; while wheat and winter wheat are best -adapted to an open, elevated locality, fully exposed to the warmth of -the sun. The lentil thrives best in a meagre, red earth, free from -weeds. Barley is equally suited for fallow land and for a soil that is -not intended to be fallow, and three-month wheat, for a soil upon which -a crop of ordinary wheat would never ripen, but strong enough to bear.” - -The following, too, is sound advice:[343] Those plants should be sown -in a thin soil which do not stand in need of much nutriment, the -cytisus, for instance, and such of the leguminous plants, with the -exception of the chick-pea, as are taken up by the roots and not cut. -From this mode of gathering them—“legere”—the legumina derive their -name. Where it is a rich earth, those plants should be grown which -require a greater proportion of nutriment, coleworts for instance, -wheat, winter-wheat, and flax. The result, then, will be, that a light -soil will be given to barley—the root of that grain standing in need -of less nutriment—while a more dense, though easily-worked soil, will -be assigned to wheat. In humid localities spelt should be sown in -preference to wheat; but where the soil is of moderate temperature, -either wheat or barley may be grown. Declivities produce a stronger -growth of wheat, but in smaller quantities. Spelt and winter-wheat -adopt a moist, cretaceous soil in preference to any other. - -(18.) The only occasion on which there ever was a prodigy connected -with grain, at least that I am aware of, was in the consulship of -P. Ælius and Cneius Cornelius, the year[344] in which Hannibal was -vanquished: on that occasion, we find it stated, corn was seen growing -upon trees.[345] - - - - -CHAP. 47.—THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF CULTIVATION EMPLOYED BY VARIOUS -NATIONS. - - -As we have now spoken at sufficient length of the several varieties -of grain and soil, we shall proceed to treat of the methods adopted -in tilling the ground, taking care, in the very first place, to make -mention of the peculiar facilities enjoyed by Egypt in this respect. -In that country, performing the duties of the husbandman, the Nile -begins to overflow, as already stated,[346] immediately after the -summer solstice or the new moon, gradually at first, but afterwards -with increased impetuosity, as long as the sun remains in the sign -of Leo. When the sun has passed into Virgo, the impetuosity of the -overflow begins to slacken, and when he has entered Libra the river -subsides. Should it not have exceeded twelve cubits in its overflow, -famine is the sure result; and this is equally the case if it should -chance to exceed sixteen; for the higher it has risen, the more slowly -it subsides, and, of course, the seed-time is impeded in proportion. It -was formerly a very general belief that immediately upon the subsiding -of the waters the Egyptians were in the habit of driving herds of -swine over the ground, for the purpose of treading the seed into the -moist soil—and it is my own impression that this was done in ancient -times. At the present day even, the operation is not attended with much -greater labour. It is well known, however, that the seed is first laid -upon the slime that has been left by the river on its subsidence, and -then ploughed in; this being done at the beginning of November. After -this is done, a few persons are employed in stubbing, an operation -known there as “botanismos.” The rest of the labourers, however, have -no occasion to visit the land again till a little before the calends -of April,[347] and then it is with the reaping-hook. The harvest is -completed in the month of May. The stem is never so much as a cubit in -length, as there is a stratum of sand beneath the slime, from which -last alone the grain receives its support. The best wheat of all is -that of the region of Thebais, Egypt[348] being of a marshy character. - -The method adopted at Seleucia in Babylonia is very similar to this, -but the fertility there is still greater, owing to the overflow of the -Euphrates and Tigris,[349] the degree of irrigation being artificially -modified in those parts. In Syria, too, the furrows are made extremely -light, while in many parts of Italy, again, it takes as many as -eight oxen to pant and blow at a single plough. All the operations -of agriculture, but this in particular, should be regulated by the -oracular precept—“Remember that every locality has its own tendencies.” - - - - -CHAP. 48.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF PLOUGHS. - - -Ploughs are of various kinds. The coulter[350] is the iron part that -cuts up the dense earth before it is broken into pieces, and traces -beforehand by its incisions the future furrows, which the share, -reversed,[351] is to open out with its teeth. Another kind—the common -plough-share—is nothing more than a lever, furnished with a pointed -beak; while another variety, which is only used in light, easy soils, -does not present an edge projecting from the share-beam throughout, -but only a small point at the extremity. In a fourth kind again, this -point is larger and formed with a cutting edge; by the agency of which -implement, it both cleaves the ground, and, with the sharp edges at the -sides, cuts up the weeds by the roots. There has been invented, at a -comparatively recent period, in that part of Gaul[352] known as Rhætia, -a plough with the addition of two small wheels, and known by the name -of “plaumorati.”[353] The extremity of the share in this has the form -of a spade: it is only used, however, for sowing in cultivated lands, -and upon soils which are nearly fallow. The broader the plough-share, -the better it is for turning up the clods of earth. Immediately after -ploughing, the seed is put into the ground, and then harrows[354] -with long teeth are drawn over it. Lands which have been sown in this -way require no hoeing, but two or three pairs of oxen are employed in -ploughing. It is a fair estimate to consider that a single yoke of oxen -can work forty jugera of land in the year, where the soil is light, and -thirty where it is stubborn. - - - - -CHAP. 49. (19.)—THE MODE OF PLOUGHING. - - -In ploughing, the most rigid attention should be paid to the oracular -precepts given by Cato[355] on the subject. “What is the essence of -good tillage? Good ploughing. What is the second point? Ploughing -again. What is the third point? Manuring. Take care not to make crooked -furrows. Be careful to plough at the proper time.” In warm localities -it is necessary to open the ground immediately after the winter -solstice, but where it is cold, directly after the vernal equinox: -this, too, should be done sooner in dry districts than in wet ones, in -a dense soil than a loose one, in a rich land than a meagre one. In -countries where the summers are hot and oppressive, the soil cretaceous -or thin, it is the best plan to plough between the summer solstice and -the autumnal equinox. Where, on the other hand, the heat is moderate, -with frequent falls of rain, and the soil rich and full of vegetation, -the ploughing should be done during the prevalence of the heat. A deep, -heavy soil, again, should be ploughed in winter; but one that is very -thin and dry, only just before putting in the seed. - -Tillage, too, has its own particular rules[356]—Never touch the ground -while it is wet and cloggy; plough with all your might; loosen the -ground before you begin to plough. This method has its advantages, for -by turning up the clods the roots of the weeds are killed. Some persons -recommend that in every case the ground should be turned up immediately -after the vernal equinox. Land that has been ploughed once in spring, -from that circumstance has the name of “vervactum.”[357] This, too, -is equally necessary in the case of fallow land, by which term is -meant land that is sown only in alternate years. The oxen employed in -ploughing should be harnessed as tightly as possible, to make them -plough with their heads up; attention paid to this point will prevent -them from galling the neck. If it is among trees and vines that you are -ploughing, the oxen should be muzzled, to prevent them from eating off -the tender buds. There should be a small bill-hook, too, projecting -from the plough-tail, for the purpose of cutting up the roots; this -plan being preferable to that of turning them up with the share, and so -straining the oxen. When ploughing, finish the furrow at one spell, and -never stop to take breath in the middle. - -It is a fair day’s work to plough one jugerum, for the first time, nine -inches in depth; and the second time, one jugerum and a half—that is to -say, if it is an easy soil. If this, however, is not the case, it will -take a day to turn up half a jugerum for the first time, and a whole -jugerum the second; for Nature has set limits to the powers of animals -even. The furrows should be made, in every case, first in a straight -line, and then others should be drawn, crossing them obliquely.[358] -Upon a hill-side the furrows are drawn transversely[359] only, the -point of the share inclining upwards at one moment and downwards[360] -at another. Man, too, is so well fitted for labour, that he is able to -supply the place of the ox even; at all events, it is without the aid -of that animal that the mountain tribes plough, having only the hoe to -help them.[361] - -The ploughman, unless he stoops to his work, is sure to -prevaricate,[362] a word which has been transferred to the Forum, as a -censure upon those who transgress—at any rate, let those be on their -guard against it, where it was first employed. The share should be -cleaned every now and then with a stick pointed with a scraper. The -ridges that are left between every two furrows, should not be left in a -rough state, nor should large clods be left protruding from the ground. -A field is badly ploughed that stands in need of harrowing after the -seed is in; but the work has been properly done, when it is impossible -to say in which direction the share has gone. It is a good plan, too, -to leave a channel every now and then, if the nature of the spot -requires it, by making furrows of a larger size, to draw off the water -into the drains. - -(20.) After the furrows have been gone over again transversely, the -clods are broken, where there is a necessity for it, with either the -harrow or the rake;[363] and this operation is repeated after the -seed has been put in. This last harrowing is done, where the usage of -the locality will allow of it, with either a toothed harrow, or else a -plank attached to the plough. This operation of covering in the seed -is called “lirare,” from which is derived the word “deliratio.”[364] -Virgil,[365] it is generally thought, intends to recommend sowing after -_four_ ploughings, in the passage where he says that land will bear the -best crop, which has twice felt the sun and twice the cold. Where the -soil is dense, as in most parts of Italy, it is a still better plan to -go over the ground five times before sowing; in Etruria, they give the -land as many as nine ploughings first. The bean, however, and the vetch -may be sown with no risk, without turning up the land at all; which, of -course, is so much labour saved. - -We must not here omit to mention still one other method of ploughing, -which the devastations of warfare have suggested in Italy that lies -beyond the Padus. The Salassi,[366] when ravaging the territories which -lay at the foot of the Alps, made an attempt to lay waste the crops of -panic and millet that were just appearing above the ground. Finding, -however, that Nature resisted all their endeavours, they passed the -plough over the ground, the result of which was that the crops were -more abundant than ever; and this it was that first taught us the -method of ploughing in, expressed by the word “artrare,” otherwise -“aratrare,” in my opinion the original form. This is done either just -as the stem begins to develope itself, or else when it has put forth -as many as two or three leaves. Nor must we withhold from the reader -a more recent method, which was discovered the year but one before -this,[367] in the territory of the Treviri. The crops having been -nipped by the extreme severity of the winter, the people sowed the land -over again in the month of March, and had a most abundant harvest. - -We shall now proceed to a description of the peculiar methods employed -in cultivating each description of grain. - - - - -CHAP. 50. (21.)—THE METHODS OF HARROWING, STUBBING, AND HOEING, -EMPLOYED FOR EACH DESCRIPTION OF GRAIN. THE USE OF THE HARROW. - - -For winter wheat, spelt, wheat, zea,[368] and barley, harrow, hoe and -stub upon the days which will be mentioned[369] in the sequel. A single -hand per jugerum will be quite enough for any one of these kinds of -grain. The operation of hoeing loosens the ground in spring when it has -been hardened and saddened by the rigours of the winter, and admits -the early sun to the interior. In hoeing, every care must be taken not -to go beneath the roots of the corn; in the case of wheat, zea, and -barley, it is best to give a couple of hoeings. Stubbing,[370] when -the crop is just beginning to joint, cleanses it of all noxious weeds, -disengages the roots of the corn, and liberates the growing blade from -the clods. Among the leguminous plants, the chick-pea requires the same -treatment that spelt does. The bean requires no stubbing, being quite -able of itself to overpower all weeds; the lupine, too, is harrowed -only. Millet and panic are both harrowed and hoed; but this operation -is never repeated, and they do not require stubbing. Fenugreek and the -kidney-bean require harrowing only. - -There are some kinds of ground, the extreme fertility of which obliges -the grower to comb down the crops while in the blade—this is done with -a sort of harrow[371] armed with pointed iron teeth—and even then he -is obliged to depasture cattle upon them. When, however, the blade has -been thus eaten down, it stands in need of hoeing to restore it to its -former vigour. - -But in Bactria, and at Cyrenæ in Africa, all this trouble has been -rendered quite unnecessary by the indulgent benignity of the climate, -and after the seed is in, the owner has no occasion to return to the -field till the time has come for getting in the harvest. In those parts -the natural dryness of the soil prevents noxious weeds from springing -up, and, aided by the night dews alone, the soil supplies its nutriment -to the grain. Virgil[372] recommends that the ground should be left to -enjoy repose every other year; and this, no doubt, if the extent of -the farm will admit of it, is the most advantageous plan. If, however, -circumstances will not allow of it, spelt should be sown upon the -ground that has been first cropped with lupines, vetches, or beans; -for all these have a tendency to make the soil more fertile. We ought -to remark here more particularly, that here and there certain plants -are sown for the benefit of others, although, as already stated in the -preceding Book,[373] not to repeat the same thing over again, they are -of little value themselves. But it is the nature of each soil that is -of the greatest importance. - - - - -CHAP. 51. (22.)—EXTREME FERTILITY OF SOIL. - - -There is a city of Africa, situate in the midst of the sands as you -journey towards the Syrtes and Great Leptis, Tacape[374] by name. The -soil there, which is always well-watered, enjoys a degree of fertility -quite marvellous. Through this spot, which extends about three miles -each way, a spring of water flows—in great abundance it is true—but -still, it is only at certain hours that its waters are distributed -among the inhabitants. Here, beneath a palm of enormous size, grows -the olive, beneath the olive the fig, beneath the fig, again, the -pomegranate, beneath the pomegranate the vine, and beneath the vine -we find sown, first wheat, then the leguminous plants, and after them -garden herbs—all in the same year, and all growing beneath another’s -shade. Four cubits square of this same ground—the cubit[375] being -measured with the fingers contracted and not extended—sell at the rate -of four denarii.[376] But what is more surprising than all, is the fact -that here the vine bears twice, and that there are two vintages in the -year. Indeed, if the fertility of the soil were not distributed in this -way among a multitude of productions, each crop would perish from its -own exuberance: as it is, there is no part of the year that there is -not some crop or other being gathered in; and yet, it is a well-known -fact, that the people do nothing at all to promote this fruitfulness. - -There are very considerable differences, too, in the nature of water, -as employed for the purposes of irrigation. In the province of Gallia -Narbonensis there is a famous fountain, Orge by name; within it there -grow plants which are sought for with such eagerness by the cattle, -that they will plunge over head into the water to get at them; it is a -well ascertained[377] fact, however, that these plants, though growing -in the water, receive their nutriment only from the rains that fall. -It is as well then that every one should be fully acquainted with the -nature, not only of the soil, but of the water too. - - - - -CHAP. 52. (23.)—THE METHOD OF SOWING MORE THAN ONCE IN THE YEAR. - - -If the soil is of that nature which we have already[378] spoken of as -“tender,”[379] after a crop of barley has been grown upon it, millet -may be sown, and after the millet has been got in, rape. In succession -to these, again, barley may be put in, or else wheat, as in Campania; -and it will be quite enough, in such case, to plough the ground when -the seed is sown. There is another rotation again—when the ground has -been cropped with spelt,[380] it should lie fallow the four winter -months; after which, spring beans should be put in, to keep it occupied -till the time comes for cropping it with winter beans. Where the soil -is too rich, it may lie fallow one year, care being taken after sowing -it with corn to crop it with the leguminous plants the third year.[381] -Where, on the other hand, it is too thin, the land should lie fallow up -to the third year even. Some persons recommend that corn should never -be sown except in land which has lain fallow the year before. - - - - -CHAP. 53.—THE MANURING OF LAND. - - -The proper method of manuring is here a very important subject for -consideration—we have already treated of it at some length in the -preceding Book.[382] The only point that is universally agreed upon -is, that we must never sow without first manuring the ground; although -in this respect even there are certain rules to be observed. Millet, -panic, rape, and turnips should never be sown in any but a manured -soil. If, on the other hand, the land is not manured, sow wheat there -in preference to barley. The same, too, with fallow lands; though in -these it is generally recommended that beans should be sown. It should -be remembered, however, that wherever beans are sown, the land should -have been manured at as recent a period as possible. If it is intended -to crop ground in autumn, care must be taken to plough in manure in -the month of September, just after rain has fallen. In the same way, -too, if it is intended to sow in spring, the manure should be spread -in the winter. It is the rule to give eighteen cart-loads of manure to -each jugerum, and to spread it well before ploughing it in,[383] or -sowing the seed.[384] If this manuring, however, is omitted, it will -be requisite to spread the land with aviary dust just before hoeing -is commenced. To clear up any doubts with reference to this point, I -would here observe that the fair price for a cart-load of manure is one -denarius; where, too, sheep furnish one cart-load, the larger cattle -should furnish ten:[385] unless this result is obtained, it is a clear -proof that the husbandman has littered his cattle badly. - -There are some persons who are of opinion that the best method of -manuring land is to pen sheep there, with nets erected to prevent them -from straying. If land is not manured, it will get chilled; but if, on -the other hand, it is over-manured, it becomes burnt up: it is a much -better plan, too, to manure little and often than in excess. The warmer -the soil is by nature, the less manure it requires. - - - - -CHAP. 54. (24.)—HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE QUALITY OF SEED. - - -The best seed of all is that which is of the last year’s growth. That -which is two years old is inferior, and three the worst of all—beyond -that, it is unproductive.[386] The same definite rule which applies -to one kind of seed is applicable to them all: the seed which falls -to the bottom[387] on the threshing-floor, should be reserved for -sowing, for being the most weighty it is the best in quality: there is -no better method, in fact, of ascertaining its quality. The grains of -those ears which have intervals between the seed should be rejected. -The best grain is that which has a reddish hue,[388] and which, when -broken between the teeth, presents the same[389] colour; that which -has more white within is of inferior quality. It is a well-known fact -that some lands require more seed than others, from which circumstance -first arose a superstition that exists among the peasantry; it is their -belief that when the ground demands the seed with greater avidity -than usual, it is famished, and devours the grain. It is consistent -with reason to put in the seed where the soil is humid sooner than -elsewhere, to prevent the grain from rotting in the rain: on dry spots -it should be sown later, and just before the fall of a shower, so that -it may not have to lie long without germinating and so come to nothing. -When the seed is put in early it should be sown thick, as it is a -considerable time before it germinates; but when it is put in later, it -should be sown thinly, to prevent it from being suffocated. There is a -certain degree of skill, too, required in scattering the seed evenly; -to ensure this, the hand must keep time[390] with the step, moving -always with the right foot. There are certain persons, also, who have -a secret method[391] of their own, having been born[392] with a happy -hand which imparts fruitfulness to the grain. Care should be taken not -to sow seed in a warm locality which has been grown in a cold one, nor -should the produce of an early soil be sown in a late one. Those who -give advice to the contrary have quite misapplied their pains. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—WHAT QUANTITY OF EACH KIND OF GRAIN IS REQUISITE FOR SOWING A -JUGERUM. - - -[393] In a soil of middling quality, the proper proportion of seed is -five modii of wheat or winter-wheat to the jugerum, ten of spelt or of -seed-wheat—that being the name which we have mentioned[394] as being -given to one kind of wheat—six of barley, one-fifth more of beans than -of wheat, twelve of vetches, three of chick-pease, chicheling vetches, -and pease, ten of lupines, three of lentils—(these last, however, it is -said, must be sown with dry manure)—six of fitches, six of fenugreek, -four of kidney-beans, twenty of hay grass,[395] and four sextarii -of millet and panic. Where the soil is rich, the proportion must be -greater, where it is thin, less.[396] - -There is another distinction, too, to be made; where the soil is -dense, cretaceous, or moist, there should be six modii of wheat or -winter-wheat to the jugerum, but where the land is loose, dry, and -prolific, four will be enough. A meagre soil, too, if the crop is not -very thinly sown, will produce a diminutive, empty ear. Rich lands give -a number of stalks to each grain, and yield a thick crop from only a -light sowing. The result, then, is, that from four to six modii must be -sown, according to the nature of the soil; though there are some who -make it a rule that five modii is the proper proportion for sowing, -neither more nor less, whether it is a densely-planted locality, a -declivity, or a thin, meagre soil. To this subject bears reference an -oracular precept which never can be too carefully observed[397]—“Don’t -rob the harvest.”[398] Attius, in his Praxidicus,[399] has added that -the proper time for sowing is, when the moon is in Aries, Gemini, Leo, -Libra, and Aquarius. Zoroaster says it should be done when the sun has -passed twelve degrees of Scorpio, and the moon is in Taurus. - - - - -CHAP. 56.—THE PROPER TIMES FOR SOWING. - - -We now come to a subject which has been hitherto deferred by us, and -which requires our most careful attention—the proper times for sowing. -This is a question that depends in a very great degree upon the stars; -and I shall therefore make it my first care to set forth all the -opinions that have been written in reference to the subject. Hesiod, -the first writer who has given any precepts upon agriculture, speaks -of one period only for sowing—the setting of the Vergiliæ: but then -he wrote in Bœotia, a country of Hellas, where, as we have already -stated,[400] they are still in the habit of sowing at that period. - -It is generally agreed by the most correct writers, that with the -earth, as with the birds and quadrupeds, there are certain impulses -for reproduction; and the epoch for this is fixed by the Greeks at -the time when the earth is warm and moist. Virgil[401] says that -wheat and spelt should be sown at the setting of the Vergiliæ, barley -between the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice, and vetches,[402] -kidney-beans, and lentils at the setting of Boötes:[403] it is of great -importance, therefore, to ascertain the exact days of the rising and -setting of these constellations, as well as of the others. There are -some, again, who recommend the sowing to be done before the setting -of the Vergiliæ, but only in a dry soil, and in those provinces where -the weather is hot; for the seed, they say,[404] if put in the ground -will keep, there being no moisture to spoil it, and within a single day -after the next fall of rain, will make its appearance above ground. -Others, again, are of opinion that sowing should begin about seven days -after the setting of the Vergiliæ, a period which is mostly followed by -rain. Some think that cold soils should be sown immediately after the -autumnal equinox, and a warm soil later, so that the blade may not put -forth too luxuriantly before winter. - -It is universally agreed, however, that the sowing should not be done -about the period of the winter solstice; for this very good reason—the -winter seeds, if put in before the winter solstice, will make their -appearance above ground on the seventh day, whereas, if they are sown -just after it, they will hardly appear by the fortieth. There are some, -however, who begin very early, and have a saying to justify their -doing so, to the effect that if seed sown too early often disappoints, -seed put in too late always does so. On the other hand, again, there -are some who maintain that it is better to sow in spring than in a -bad autumn; and they say that if they find themselves obliged to sow -in spring, they would choose the period that intervenes between the -prevalence of the west winds[405] and the vernal equinox. Some persons, -however, take no notice of the celestial phenomena, and only regulate -their movements by the months. In spring they put in flax, the oat, and -the poppy, up to the feast of the Quinquatria,[406] as we find done at -the present day by the people of Italy beyond the Padus. There, too, -they sow beans and winter-wheat in the month of November, and spelt at -the end of September, up to the ides of October:[407] others, however, -sow this last after the ides of October, as late as the calends of -November.[408] - -The persons who do this take no notice, consequently, of the phenomena -of Nature, while others, again, lay too much stress upon them, and -hence, by these refined subtleties and distinctions, only add to their -blindness; for here are ignorant rustics, not only dealing with a -branch of learning, but that branch astronomy! It must still, however, -be admitted that the observation of the heavens plays a very important -part in the operations of agriculture; and Virgil,[409] we find, -gives it as his advice, that before any thing else, we should learn -the theory of the winds, and the revolutions of the stars; for, as he -says, the agriculturist, no less than the mariner, should regulate his -movements thereby. It is an arduous attempt, and almost beyond all hope -of success, to make an endeavour to introduce the divine science of the -heavens to the uninformed mind of the rustic; still, however, with a -view to such vast practical results as must be derived from this kind -of knowledge, I shall make the attempt. There are some astronomical -difficulties, however, which have been experienced by the learned even, -that ought to be first submitted for consideration, in order that -the mind may feel some encouragement on abandoning the study of the -heavens, and may be acquainted with facts at least, even though it is -still unable to see into futurity. - - - - -CHAP. 57. (25.)—ARRANGEMENT OF THE STARS ACCORDING TO THE TERRESTRIAL -DAYS AND NIGHTS. - - -In the first place, it is almost an utter impossibility to calculate -with a fair degree of accuracy the days of the year and the movements -of the sun. To the three hundred and sixty-five days there are still to -be added the intercalary days, the result of the additional quarters of -a day and night: hence it is, that it is found impossible to ascertain -with exactness the proper periods for the appearance of the stars. To -this we must add, too, a certain degree of uncertainty connected with -these matters, that is universally admitted; thus, for instance, bad -and wintry weather will often precede, by several days, the proper -period for the advent of that season, a state of things known to the -Greeks as προχειμάζειν;[410] while at another time, it will last longer -than usual, a state of circumstances known as ἐπιχειμάζειν.[411] The -effects, too, of the changes that take place in the seasons will -sometimes be felt later, and at other times earlier, upon their -reaching the face of the earth; and we not unfrequently hear the remark -made, upon the return of fine weather, that the action of such and such -a constellation is now completed.[412] And then, again, as all these -phænomena depend upon certain stars, arranged and regulated in the -vault of heaven, we find intervening, in accordance with the movements; -of certain stars, hailstorms and showers, themselves productive of no -slight results, as we have already observed,[413] and apt to interfere -with the anticipated regular recurrence of the seasons. Nor are we to -suppose that these disappointments fall upon the human race only, for -other animated beings, as well as ourselves, are deceived in regard -to them, although endowed with even a greater degree of sagacity -upon these points than we are, from the fact of their very existence -depending so materially upon them. Hence it is, that we sometimes -see the summer birds killed by too late or too early cold, and the -winter birds by heat coming out of the usual season. It is for this -reason, that Virgil[414] has recommended us to study the courses of the -planets, and has particularly warned us to watch the passage of the -cold star Saturn. - -There are some who look upon the appearance of the butterfly as the -surest sign of spring, because of the extreme delicacy of that insect. -In this present year,[415] however, in which I am penning these lines, -it has been remarked that the flights of butterflies have been killed -three several times, by as many returns of the cold; while the foreign -birds, which brought us by the sixth of the calends of February[416] -every indication of an early spring, after that had to struggle against -a winter of the greatest severity. In treating of these matters, we -have to meet a twofold difficulty: first of all, we have to ascertain -whether or not the celestial phænomena are regulated by certain laws, -and then we have to seek how to reconcile those laws with apparent -facts. We must, however, be more particularly careful to take into -account the convexity of the earth, and the differences of situation -in the localities upon the face of the globe; for hence it is, that -the same constellation shows itself to different nations at different -times, the result being, that its influence is by no means perceptible -everywhere at the same moment. This difficulty has been considerably -enhanced, too, by various authors, who, after making their observations -in different localities, and indeed, in some instances, in the same -locality, have yet given us varying or contradictory results. - -There have been three great schools of astronomy, the Chaldæan, the -Ægyptian, and the Grecian. To these has been added a fourth school, -which was established by the Dictator Cæsar among ourselves, and to -which was entrusted the duty of regulating the year in conformity -with the sun’s revolution,[417] under the auspices of Sosigenes, -an astronomer of considerable learning and skill. His theory, too, -upon the discovery of certain errors, has since been corrected, no -intercalations having been made for twelve[418] successive years, -upon its being found that the year which before had anticipated the -constellations, was now beginning to fall behind them. Even Sosigenes -himself, too, though more correct than his predecessors, has not -hesitated to show, by his continual corrections in the three several -treatises which he composed, that he still entertained great doubts -on the subject. The writers, too, whose names are inserted at the -beginning of this work,[419] have sufficiently revealed the fact of -these discrepancies, the opinions of one being rarely found to agree -with those of another. This, however, is less surprising in the case -of those whose plea is the difference of the localities in which they -wrote. But with reference to those who, though living in the same -country, have still arrived at different results, we shall here mention -one remarkable instance of discrepancy. Hesiod—for under his name, -also, we have a treatise extant on the Science of the Stars[420]—has -stated that the morning setting of the Vergiliæ takes place at the -moment of the autumnal equinox; whereas Thales, we find, makes it the -twenty-fifth day after the equinox, Anaximander the twenty-ninth, and -Euctemon the forty-eighth. - -As for ourselves, we shall follow the calculations made by Julius -Cæsar,[421] which bear reference more particularly to Italy; though at -the same time, we shall set forth the dicta of various other writers, -bearing in mind that we are treating not of an individual country, -but of Nature considered in her totality. In doing this, however, we -shall name, not the writers themselves, for that would be too lengthy -a task, but the countries in reference to which they speak. The reader -must bear in mind, then, that for the sake of saving space, under the -head of Attica, we include the islands of the Cyclades as well; under -that of Macedonia, Magnesia and Thracia; under that of Egypt, Phœnice, -Cyprus, and Cilicia; under that of Bœotia, Locris, Phocis, and the -adjoining countries; under that of Hellespont, Chersonesus, and the -contiguous parts as far as Mount Athos; under that of Ionia, Asia[422] -and the islands of Asia; under that of Peloponnesus, Achaia, and the -regions lying to the west of it. Chaldæa, when mentioned, will signify -Assyria and Babylonia, as well. - -My silence as to Africa,[423] Spain, and the provinces of Gaul, will -occasion no surprise, from the fact that no one has published any -observations made upon the stars in those countries. Still, however, -there will be no difficulty in calculating them, even for these regions -as well, on reference being made to the parallels which have been set -forth in the Sixth Book.[424] By adopting this course, an accurate -acquaintance may be made with the astronomical relations, not only of -individual nations, but of cities even as well. By taking the circular -parallels which we have there appended to the several portions of the -earth respectively, and applying them to the countries in question, -that are similarly situate, it will be found that the rising of the -heavenly bodies will be the same for all parts within those parallels, -where the shadows projected are of equal length. It is also deserving -of remark, that the seasons have their periodical recurrences, without -any marked difference, every four years, in consequence of the -influence[425] of the sun, and that the characteristics of the seasons -are developed in excess every eighth year, at the revolution of every -hundredth moon. - - - - -CHAP. 58.—THE RISING AND SETTING OF THE STARS. - - -The whole of this system is based upon the observation of three -branches of the heavenly phænomena, the rising of the constellations, -their setting, and the regular recurrence of the seasons. These risings -and settings may be observed in two different ways:—The stars are -either concealed, and cease to be seen at the rising of the sun, or -else present themselves to our view at his setting—this last being more -generally known by the name of “emersion” than of “rising,” while their -disappearance is rather an “occultation” than a “setting.”—Considered, -again, in another point of view, when upon certain days they begin to -appear or disappear, at the setting or the rising of the sun, as the -case may be, these are called their morning or their evening settings -or risings, according as each of these phænomena takes place at -day-break or twilight. It requires an interval of three quarters of an -hour at least before the rising of the sun or after his setting, for -the stars to be visible to us. In addition to this, there are certain -stars which rise and set twice.[426] All that we here state bears -reference, it must be remembered, to the fixed stars only. - - - - -CHAP. 59.—THE EPOCHS OF THE SEASONS. - - -The year is divided into four periods or seasons, the recurrence of -which is indicated by the increase or diminution of the daylight. -Immediately after the winter solstice the days begin to increase, -and by the time of the vernal equinox, or in other words, in ninety -days and three hours, the day is equal in length to the night. After -this, for ninety-four days and twelve hours, the days continue -to increase, and the nights to diminish in proportion, up to the -summer solstice; and from that point the days, though gradually -decreasing, are still in excess of the nights for ninety-two days, -twelve hours, until the autumnal equinox. At this period the days -are of equal length with the nights, and after it they continue to -decrease inversely to the nights until the winter solstice, a period -of eighty-eight days and three hours. In all these calculations, it -must be remembered, equinoctial[427] hours are spoken of, and not -those measured arbitrarily in reference to the length of any one day -in particular. All these seasons, too, commence at the eighth degree -of the signs of the Zodiac. The winter solstice begins at the eighth -degree of Capricorn, the eighth[428] day before the calends of January, -in general;[429] the vernal equinox at the eighth degree of Aries; -the summer solstice, at the eighth degree of Cancer; and the autumnal -equinox at the eighth degree of Libra: and it is rarely that these -days do not respectively give some indication of a change in the -weather. - -These four seasons again, are subdivided, each of them, into two -equal parts. Thus, for instance, between the summer solstice and the -autumnal equinox, the setting of the Lyre,[430] on the forty-sixth -day, indicates the beginning of autumn; between the autumnal equinox -and the winter solstice, the morning setting of the Vergiliæ, on the -forty-fourth day, denotes the beginning of winter; between the winter -solstice and the vernal equinox, the prevalence of the west winds on -the forty-fifth day, denotes the commencement of spring; and between -the vernal equinox and the summer solstice, the morning rising of -the Vergiliæ, on the forty-eighth day, announces the commencement -of summer. We shall here make seed-time, or in other words, the -morning setting of the Vergiliæ, our starting-point;[431] and shall -not interrupt the thread of our explanation by making any mention of -the minor constellations, as such a course would only augment the -difficulties that already exist. It is much about this period that the -stormy constellation of Orion departs, after traversing a large portion -of the heavens.[432] - - - - -CHAP. 60.—THE PROPER TIME FOR WINTER SOWING. - - -Most persons anticipate the proper time for sowing, and begin to put in -the corn immediately after the eleventh day of the autumnal equinox, -at the rising of the Crown, when we may reckon, almost to a certainty, -upon several days of rainy weather in succession. Xenophon[433] is of -opinion, that sowing should not be commenced until the Deity has given -us the signal for it, a term by which Cicero understands the rains -that prevail in November. The true method to be adopted, however, is -not to sow until the leaves begin to fall. Some persons are of opinion -that this takes place at the setting of the Vergiliæ, or the third -day before the ides of November, as already stated,[434] and they -carefully observe it, for it is a constellation very easily remarked -in the heavens, and warns us to resume our winter clothes.[435] Hence -it is, that immediately on its setting, the approach of winter is -expected, and care is taken by those who are on their guard against -the exorbitant charges of the shop-keepers, to provide themselves with -an appropriate dress. If the Vergiliæ set with cloudy weather, it -forebodes a rainy winter, and the prices of cloaks[436] immediately -rise; but if, on the other hand, the weather is clear at that period, a -sharp winter is to be expected, and then the price of garments of other -descriptions is sure to go up. But as to the husbandman, unacquainted -as he is with the phænomena of the heavens, his brambles are to him -in place of constellations, and if he looks at the ground he sees it -covered with their leaves. This fall of the leaves, earlier in one -place and later in another, is a sure criterion of the temperature -of the weather; for there is a great affinity between the effects -produced by the weather in this respect, and the nature of the soil -and climate. There is this peculiar advantage, too, in the careful -observation of these effects, that they are sure to be perceptible -throughout the whole earth, while at the same time they have certain -features which are peculiar to each individual locality.—A person may -perhaps be surprised at this, who does not bear in mind that the herb -pennyroyal,[437] which is hung up in our larders, always blossoms on -the day of the winter solstice; so firmly resolved is Nature that -nothing shall remain concealed from us, and in that spirit has given us -the fall of the leaf as the signal for sowing. - -Such is the true method of interpreting all these phænomena, granted -to us by Nature as a manifestation of her will. It is in this way that -she warns us to prepare the ground, makes us a promise of a manure, as -it were, in the fall of the leaves, announces to us that the earth and -the productions thereof are thus protected by her against the cold, and -warns us to hasten the operations of agriculture. - - - - -CHAP. 61.—WHEN TO SOW THE LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AND THE POPPY. - - -Varro[438] has given no other sign but this[439] for our guidance in -sowing the bean. Some persons are of opinion that it should be sown at -full moon, the lentil between the twenty-fifth and thirtieth day of -the moon, and the vetch on the same days of the moon; and they assure -us that if this is done they will be exempt from the attacks of slugs. -Some say, however, that if wanted for fodder, they may be sown at -these periods, but if for seed, in the spring. There is another sign, -more evident still, supplied us by the marvellous foresight of Nature, -with reference to which we will give the words employed by Cicero[440] -himself: - - “The lentisk, ever green and ever bent - Beneath its fruits, affords a threefold crop: - Thrice teeming, thrice it warns us when to plough.” - -One of the periods here alluded to, is the same that is now under -consideration, being the appropriate time also for sowing flax and -the poppy.[441] With reference to this last, Cato gives the following -advice: “Burn, upon land where corn has been grown, the twigs and -branches which are of no use to you, and when that is done, sow the -poppy there.” The wild poppy, which is of an utility that is quite -marvellous, is boiled in honey as a remedy for diseases in the -throat,[442] while the cultivated kind is a powerful narcotic. Thus -much in reference to winter sowing. - - - - -CHAP. 62.—WORK TO BE DONE IN THE COUNTRY IN EACH MONTH RESPECTIVELY. - - -And now, in order to complete what we may call in some measure an -abridgment of the operations of agriculture, it is as well to add -that it will be a good plan at the same period to manure the roots of -trees, and to mould up the vines—a single hand being sufficient for -one jugerum. Where, too, the nature of the locality will allow it, the -vines, and the trees upon which they are trained, should be lopped, and -the soil turned up with the mattock for seed plots; trenches, too, -should be opened out, and the water drained from off the fields, and -the presses[443] should be well washed and put away. Never put eggs -beneath the hen between the calends of November[444] and the winter -solstice:[445] during all the summer and up to the calends of November, -you may put thirteen under the hen; but the number must be smaller in -winter, not less than nine, however. Democritus is of opinion, that -the winter will turn out of the same character[446] as the weather -on the day of the winter solstice and the three succeeding days; the -same too with the summer and the weather at the summer solstice. -About the winter solstice, for about twice seven days mostly, while -the halcyon[447] is sitting, the winds are lulled, and the weather -serene;[448] but in this case, as in all others, the influence of the -stars must only be judged of by the result, and we must not expect the -changes of the weather, as if out upon their recognizances,[449] to -make their appearance exactly on certain predetermined days. - - - - -CHAP. 63.—WORK TO BE DONE AT THE WINTER SOLSTICE. - - -Be careful never to touch the vine at the winter solstice. Hyginus -recommends us to strain and even rack-off wine at the seventh day after -the winter solstice, provided the moon is seven days old. About this -period, also, the cherry-tree, he says, should be planted. Acorns, -too, should now be put in soak for the oxen, a modius for each pair. -If given in larger quantities, this food will prove injurious to their -health; and whenever it is given, if they are fed with it for less than -thirty days in succession, an attack of scab in the spring, it is said, -will be sure to make you repent. - -This, too, is the period that we have already assigned[450] for -cutting timber—other kinds of work, again, may be found for the hours -of the night, which are then so greatly prolonged. There are baskets, -hurdles, and panniers to be woven, and wood to be cut for torches: -squared stays[451] for the vine may be prepared, too, thirty in the day -time, and if rounded,[452] as many as sixty. In the long hours of the -evening, too, some five squared stays, or ten rounded ones may be got -ready, and the same number while the day is breaking. - - - - -CHAP. 64.—WORK TO BE DONE BETWEEN THE WINTER SOLSTICE AND THE -PREVALENCE OF THE WEST WINDS. - - -Between the winter solstice and the period when the west winds begin -to prevail, the following, according to Cæsar, are the more important -signs afforded by the constellations: the Dog sets in the morning, upon -the third[453] day before the calends of January; a day on the evening -of which the Eagle sets to the people of Attica and the adjoining -countries. On the day before[454] the nones of January, according to -Cæsar’s computation, the Dolphin rises in the morning, and on the -next day, the Lyre, upon the evening of which the Arrow sets to the -people of Egypt. Upon the sixth[455] day before the ides of January, -the Dolphin sets in the evening, and Italy has many days of continuous -cold; the same is the case also when the sun enters Aquarius, about the -sixteenth[456] day before the calends of February. On the eighth[457] -before the calends of February, the star which Tubero calls the Royal -Star[458] sets in the morning in the breast of Leo, and in the evening -of the day before[459] the nones of February, the Lyre sets. - -During the latter days of this period, whenever the nature of the -weather will allow of it, the ground should be turned up with a double -mattock, for planting the rose and the vine—sixty men to a jugerum. -Ditches, too, should be cleaned out, or new ones made; and the time of -day-break may be usefully employed in sharpening iron tools, fitting on -handles, repairing such dolia[460] as may have been broken, and rubbing -up and cleaning their staves. - - - - -CHAP. 65.—WORK TO BE DONE BETWEEN THE PREVALENCE OF THE WEST WINDS AND -THE VERNAL EQUINOX. - - -Between the prevalence of the west winds and the vernal equinox, -the fourteenth day before[461] the calends of March, according to -Cæsar, announces three days of changeable weather; the same is the -case, too, with the eighth[462] before the calends of March, at the -first appearance of the swallow, Arcturus rising on the evening of -the next day. Cæsar has observed, that the same takes place on the -third[463] before the nones of March, at the rising of Cancer; and -most authorities say the same with reference to the emersion of the -Vintager.[464] On the eighth[465] before the ides of March, the -northern limb of Pisces[466] rises, and on the next day Orion, at which -period also, in Attica, the Kite is first seen. Cæsar has noted, too, -the setting of Scorpio on the ides of March,[467] a day that was so -fatal to him; and on the fifteenth[468] before the calends of April, -the Kite appears in Italy. On the twelfth[469] before the calends of -April, the Horse sets in the morning. - -This interval of time is a period of extreme activity for the -agriculturist, and affords him a great number of occupations, in -reference to which, however, he is extremely liable to be deceived. He -is summoned to the commencement of these labours, not upon the day on -which the west winds ought to begin, but upon the day on which they -really do begin, to blow. This moment then must be looked for with -the most careful attention, as it is a signal which the Deity has -vouchsafed us in this month, attended with no doubts or equivocations, -if only looked for with scrupulous care. We have already stated in the -Second Book,[470] the quarter in which this wind blows, and the exact -point from which it comes, and before long we shall have occasion to -speak of it again still more in detail. - -In the mean time, however, setting out from the day, whatever it may -happen to be, on which the west winds begin to prevail (for it is not -always on the seventh before the ides of February[471] that they do -begin), whether, in fact, they begin to blow before the usual time, as -is the case with an early spring, or whether after, which generally -happens when the winter is prolonged—there are subjects innumerable to -engage the attention of the agriculturist, and those, of course, should -be the first attended to, which will admit of no delay. Three month -wheat must now be sown, the vine pruned in the way we have already[472] -described, the olive carefully attended to, fruit-trees put in and -grafted, vineyards cleaned and hoed, seedlings laid out, and replaced -in the nursery by others, the reed, the willow, and the broom planted -and lopped, and the elm, the poplar, and the plane planted in manner -already mentioned. At this period, also, the crops of corn ought to -be weeded,[473] and the winter kinds, spelt more particularly, well -hoed. In doing this, there is a certain rule to be observed, the proper -moment being when four blades have made their appearance, and with the -bean this should never be done until three leaves have appeared above -ground; even then, however, it is a better plan to clean them only with -a slight hoeing, in preference to digging up the ground—but in no case -should they ever be touched the first fifteen days of their blossom. -Barley must never be hoed except when it is quite dry: take care, too, -to have all the pruning done by the vernal equinox. Four men will be -sufficient for pruning a jugerum of vineyard, and each hand will be -able to train fifteen vines to their trees.[474] - -At this period, too, attention should be paid to the gardens and -rose-beds, subjects which will be separately treated of in succeeding -Books; due care should be given to ornamental gardening as well. It is -now, too, the very best time for making ditches. The ground should now -be opened for future purposes, as we find recommended by Virgil[475] -in particular, in order that the sun may thoroughly warm the clods. It -is a piece of even more sound advice, which recommends us to plough no -lands in the middle of spring but those of middling quality; for if -this is done with a rich soil, weeds will be sure to spring up in the -furrows immediately; and if, on the other hand, it is a thin, meagre -land, as soon as the heat comes on, it will be dried up, and so lose -all the moisture which should be reserved to nourish the seed when -sown. It is a much better plan, beyond a doubt, to plough such soils as -these in autumn. - -Cato[476] lays down the following rules for the operations of spring. -“Ditches,” he says, “should be dug in the seed-plots, vines should be -grafted, and the elm, the fig, the olive, and other fruit-trees planted -in dense and humid soils. Such meadows[477] as are not irrigated, -must be manured in a dry moon, protected from the western blasts, and -carefully cleaned: noxious weeds must be rooted up, fig-trees cleared, -new seed-plots made, and the old ones dressed: all this should be done -before you begin to hoe the vineyard. When the pear is in blossom, too, -you should begin to plough, where it is a meagre gravelly soil. When -you have done all this, you may plough the more heavy, watery soils, -doing this the last of all.” - -The proper time for ploughing, then,[478] is denoted by these two -signs, the earliest fruit of the lentisk[479] making its appearance, -and the blossoming of the pear. There is a third sign however, as -well, the flowering of the squill among the bulbous,[480] and of the -narcissus among the garland, plants. For both the squill and the -narcissus, as well as the lentisk, flower three times, denoting by -their first flowering the first period for ploughing, by the second -flowering the second, and by the third flowering the last; in this -way it is that one thing affords hints for another. There is one -precaution, too, that is by no means the least important among them -all, not to let ivy touch the bean while in blossom; for at this -period the ivy is noxious[481] to it, and most baneful in its effects. -Some plants, again afford certain signs which bear reference more -particularly to themselves, the fig for instance; when a few leaves -only are found shooting from the summit, like a cup in shape, then it -is more particularly that the fig-tree should be planted. - - - - -CHAP. 66.—WORK TO BE DONE AFTER THE VERNAL EQUINOX. - - -The vernal equinox appears to end on the eighth[482] day before the -calends of April. Between the equinox and the morning rising of the -Vergiliæ, the calends[483] of April announce, according to Cæsar, -[stormy weather].[484] Upon the third[485] before the nones of April, -the Vergiliæ set in the evening in Attica, and the day after in -Bœotia, but according to Cæsar and the Chaldæans, upon the nones.[486] -In Egypt, at this time, Orion and his Sword begin to set. According -to Cæsar, the setting of Libra on the sixth before[487] the ides of -April announces rain. On the fourteenth before[488] the calends of -May, the Suculæ set to the people of Egypt in the evening, a stormy -constellation, and significant of tempests both by land and sea. -This constellation sets on the sixteenth[489] in Attica, and on the -fifteenth, according to Cæsar, announcing four days of bad weather in -succession: in Assyria it sets upon the twelfth[490] before the calends -of May. This constellation has ordinarily the name of Parilicium, -from the circumstance that the eleventh[491] before the calends of -May is observed as the natal day of the City of Rome; upon this day, -too, fine weather generally returns, and gives us a clear sky for our -observations. The Greeks call the Suculæ by the name of “Hyades,”[492] -in consequence of the rain and clouds which they bring with them; -while our people, misled by the resemblance of the Greek name to -another word[493] of theirs, meaning a “pig,” have imagined that the -constellation receives its name from that word, and have consequently -given it, in their ignorance, the name of “Suculæ,” or the “Little -Pigs.” - -In the calculations made by Cæsar, the eighth[494] before the calends -of May is a day remarked, and on the seventh[495] before the calends, -the constellation of the Kids rises in Egypt. On the sixth before[496] -the calends, the Dog sets in the evening in Bœotia and Attica, and the -Lyre rises in the morning. On the fifth[497] before the calends of May, -Orion has wholly set to the people of Assyria, and on the fourth[498] -before the calends the Dog. On the sixth before[499] the nones of May, -the Suculæ rise in the morning, according to the calculation of Cæsar, -and on the eighth before[500] the ides, the She-goat, which announces -rain. In Egypt the Dog sets in the evening of the same day. Such are -pretty nearly the movements of the constellations up to the sixth -before[501] the ides of May, the period of the rising of the Vergiliæ. - -In this interval of time, during the first fifteen days, the -agriculturist must make haste and do all the work for which he has not -been able to find time before the vernal equinox; and he should bear -in mind that those who are late in pruning their vines are exposed -to jibes and taunts, in imitation of the note of the bird of passage -known to us as the cuckoo.[502] For it is looked upon as a disgrace, -and one that subjects him to well-merited censure, for that bird, upon -its arrival, to find him only then pruning his vines. Hence it is, -too, that we find those cutting jokes,[503] of which our peasantry are -the object, at the beginning of spring. Still, however, all such jokes -are to be looked upon as most abominable, from the ill omens[504] they -convey. - -In this way, then, we see that, in agricultural operations, the most -trifling things are construed as so many hints supplied us by Nature. -The latter part of this period is the proper time for sowing panic -and millet; the precise moment, however, is just after the barley has -ripened. In the case of the very same land, too, there is one sign that -points in common both to the ripening of the barley and the sowing of -panic and millet—the appearance of the glow-worm, shining in the fields -at night. “Cicindelæ”[505] is the name given by the country people to -these flying stars, while the Greeks call them “lampyrides,”—another -manifestation of the incredible bounteousness of Nature. - - - - -CHAP. 67. (27.)—WORK TO BE DONE AFTER THE RISING OF THE VERGILIÆ: -HAY-MAKING. - - -Nature had already formed the Vergiliæ, a noble group of stars, in the -heavens; but not content with these, she has made others as well for -the face of the earth, crying aloud, as it were:[506] “Why contemplate -the heavens, husbandman? Why, rustic, look up at the stars? Do not the -nights already afford you a sleep too brief for your fatigues? Behold -now! I scatter stars amid the grass for your service, and I reveal them -to you in the evening, as you return from your work; and that you may -not disregard them, I call your attention to this marvel. Do you not -see how the wings of this insect cover a body bright and shining like -fire, and how that body gives out light in the hours of the night even? -I have given you plants to point out to you the hours, and, that you -may not have to turn your eyes from the earth, even to view the sun, -the heliotropium and the lupine have been made by me to move with his -movements. Why then still look upwards, and scan the face of heaven? -Behold, here before your very feet are your Vergiliæ; upon a certain -day do they make their appearance, and for a certain time do they stay. -Equally certain, too, it is that of that constellation they are the -offspring. Whoever, then, shall put in his summer seeds before they -have made their appearance, will infallibly find himself in the wrong.” - -It is in this interval, too, that the little bee comes forth, and -announces that the bean is about to blossom; for it is the bean -in flower that summons it forth. We will here give another sign, -which tells us when the cold is gone; as soon as ever you see the -mulberry[507] in bud, you have no occasion to fear any injury from the -rigour of the weather. - -It is the time, now, to put in cuttings of the olive, to clear away -between the olive-trees, and, in the earlier days of the equinox, to -irrigate the meadows. As soon, however, as the grass puts forth a -stem, you must shut off the water from the fields.[508] You must now -lop the leafy branches of the vine, it being the rule that this should -be done as soon as the branches have attained four fingers in length; -one labourer will be sufficient for a jugerum. The crops of corn, too, -should be hoed over again, an operation which lasts twenty days. It is -generally thought, however, that it is injurious to both vine and corn -to begin hoeing directly after the equinox. This is the proper time, -too, for washing sheep. - -After the rising of the Vergiliæ the more remarkable signs are, -according to Cæsar, the morning rising of Arcturus, which takes -place on the following day;[509] and the rising of the Lyre on the -third[510] before the ides of May. The She-goat sets in the evening of -the twelfth before[511] the calends of June, and in Attica the Dog. -On the eleventh[512] before the calends of June, according to Cæsar, -Orion’s Sword begins to appear; and, according to the same writer, -on the fourth[513] before the nones of June the Eagle rises in the -evening, and in Assyria as well. On the seventh[514] before the ides -of June Arcturus sets in the morning to the people of Italy, and on -the fourth[515] before the ides the Dolphin rises in the evening. On -the seventeenth[516] before the calends of July Orion’s Sword rises in -Italy, and, four days later, in Egypt. On the eleventh[517] before the -calends of July, according to Cæsar’s reckoning, Orion’s Sword begins -to set; and the eighth[518] before the calends of July, the longest day -in the year, with the shortest night, brings us to the summer solstice. - -In this interval of time the vine should be cleared of its superfluous -branches, and care taken to give an old vine one turning up at the -roots, a young tree two. Sheep, too, are sheared at this period, -lupines turned up for manuring the land, the ground dug, vetches cut -for fodder, and beans gathered in and threshed. - -(28.) About the calends of June[519] the meadows are mown; the -cultivation of which, the one which is the easiest of all, and -requires the smallest outlay, leads me to enter into some further -details relative to it. Meadow lands should be selected in a rich, -or else a moist or well-watered, soil, and care should be taken to -drain the rain-water upon them from the high-road. The best method -of ensuring a good crop of grass, is first to plough the land, and -then to harrow it: but, before passing the harrow over it, the ground -should be sprinkled with such seed as may have fallen from the hay in -the hay-lofts and mangers. The land should not be watered, however, -the first year,[520] nor should cattle be put to graze upon it before -the second hay-harvest, for fear lest the blade should be torn up by -the roots, or be trodden down and stunted in its growth. Meadow land -will grow old in time, and it requires to be renovated every now and -then, by sowing upon it a crop of beans, or else rape or millet, after -which it should be sown the next year with corn, and then left for hay -the third. Care, too, should be taken, every time the grass is cut, to -pass the sickle over the ground, and so cut the aftermath which the -mowers have left behind; for it is a very bad plan to leave any of the -grass and let it shed its seed there. The best crop for meadow land is -trefoil,[521] and the next best is grass;[522] nummulus[523] is the -very worst of all, as it bears a pod which is particularly injurious; -equisætis,[524] too, which derives its name from its resemblance to -horse-hair, is of a noxious character. The proper time for mowing grass -is when the ear begins to shed its blossom and to grow strong: care -must be taken to cut it before it becomes dry and parched. “Don’t mow -your hay too late,” says Cato;[525] “but cut it before the seed is -ripe.” Some persons turn the water upon it the day before mowing, where -it is practicable to do so. It is the best plan to cut hay in the night -while the dews are falling.[526] In some parts of Italy the mowing is -not done till after harvest. - -This operation, too, was a very expensive one in ancient times. In -those days the only whetstones[527] known were those of Crete and other -places beyond sea, and they only used oil to sharpen the scythe with. -For this purpose the mower moved along, with a horn, to hold the oil, -fastened to his thigh. Italy has since furnished us with whetstones -which are used with water, and give an edge to the iron quite equal -to that imparted by the file; these water-whetstones, however, turn -green very quickly. Of the scythe[528] there are two varieties; the -Italian,[529] which is considerably shorter than the other, and can -be handled among underwood even; and the Gallic, which makes quicker -work[530] of it, when employed on extensive domains, for there they -cut the grass in the middle only, and pass over the shorter blades. -The Italian mowers cut with one hand only. It is a fair day’s work -for one man to cut a jugerum of grass, and for another to bind twelve -hundred sheaves of four pounds each. When the grass is cut it should -be turned towards the sun, and must never be stacked until it is quite -dry. If this last precaution is not carefully taken, a kind of vapour -will be seen arising from the rick in the morning, and as soon as the -sun is up it will ignite to a certainty, and so be consumed. When -the grass has been cut, the meadow must be irrigated again, for the -purpose of ensuring a crop in the autumn, known to us as the “cordum,” -or aftermath. At Interamna in Umbria the grass is cut four times[531] -a-year, and this although the meadows there are not irrigated,—in most -places, three. After all this has been done, too, the pasturage of the -land is found no less lucrative than the hay it has produced. This, -however, is a matter of consideration for those more particularly who -rear large herds of cattle, and every one whose occupation it is to -breed beasts of burden, will have his own opinions upon the subject: it -is found, however, the most lucrative of all by those whose business it -is to train chariot-horses. - - - - -CHAP. 68.—THE SUMMER SOLSTICE. - - -We have already stated[532] that the summer solstice arrives at the -eighth degree of Cancer, and upon the eighth day before[533] the -calends of July: this is an important crisis in the year, and of great -interest to the whole earth. Up to this period from the time of the -winter solstice the days have gone on increasing, and the sun has -continued for six months making his ascension towards the north; having -now surmounted the heights of the heavens, at this point he reaches the -goal, and after doing so, commences his return towards the south; the -consequence of which is, that for the next six months he increases the -nights and subtracts from the length of the days. From this period, -then, it is the proper time to gather in and store away the various -crops in succession, and so make all due preparations for the rigour -and severity of the winter. - -It was only to be expected that Nature should point out to us the -moment of this change by certain signs of an indubitable character; -and she has accordingly placed them beneath the very hands of the -agriculturist, bidding the leaves turn round[534] upon that day, and -so denote that the luminary has now run its course. And it is not the -leaves of trees only that are wild and far remote that do this, nor -have those persons who are on the look-out for these signs to go into -devious forests and mountain tracts to seek them. Nor yet, on the other -hand, are they to be seen in the leaves of trees only that are grown -in the vicinity of cities or reared by the hand of the ornamental -gardener, although in them they are to be seen as well. Nature upon -this occasion turns the leaf of the olive which meets us at every -step; she turns the leaf of the linden, sought by us, as it is, for a -thousand purposes; she turns the leaf of the white poplar, too, wedded -to the vine that grows upon its trunk. And still, for her, all this -is not enough. “You have the elm,” she says, “reared for the support -of the vine, and the leaf of that I will make to turn as well. The -leaves of this tree you have to gather for fodder, the leaves of the -vine you prune away. Only look upon them, and there you behold the -solstice;[535] they are now pointing towards a quarter of the heavens -the reverse of that towards which they looked the day before. The -twigs of the withy, that most lowly of trees, you employ for tying -things without number. You are a head taller than it—I will make its -leaves to turn round as well. Why complain, then, that you are but a -rustic peasant? It shall be no fault of mine if you do not understand -the heavens and become acquainted with the movements of the celestial -bodies. I will give another sign, too, that shall address itself to -your ear—only listen for the cooing of the ring-doves; and beware -of supposing that the summer solstice is past, until you see the -wood-pigeon sitting on her eggs.” - -Between the summer solstice and the setting of the Lyre, on the sixth -day before the calends of July,[536] according to Cæsar’s reckoning, -Orion rises, and upon the fourth[537] before the nones of July, his -Belt rises to the people of Assyria. Upon the morning of the same -day, also, the scorching constellation of Procyon rises. This last -constellation has no name with the Romans, unless, indeed, we would -consider it as identical with Canicula,[538] or Lesser Dog, which we -find depicted among the stars; this last is productive of excessive -heat, as we shall shortly have further occasion to state. On the -fourth[539] before the nones of July, the Crown sets in the morning to -the people of Chaldæa, and in Attica, the whole of Orion has risen by -that day. On the day before[540] the ides of July, the rising of Orion -ends to the Egyptians also; on the sixteenth[541] before the calends -of August, Procyon rises to the people of Assyria, and, the day but -one after, of nearly all other countries as well, indicating a crisis -that is universally known among all nations, and which by us is called -the rising of the Dog-star; the sun at this period entering the first -degree of Leo. The Dog-star rises on the twenty-third day after the -summer solstice; the influence of it is felt by both ocean, and earth, -and even by many of the animals as well, as stated by us elsewhere on -the appropriate occasions.[542] No less veneration, in fact, is paid -to this star, than to those that are consecrated to certain gods; it -kindles the flames of the sun, and is one great source of the heats of -summer. - -On the thirteenth[543] day before the calends of August, the Eagle -sets in the morning to the people of Egypt, and the breezes that are -the precursors of the Etesian winds, begin to blow; these, according -to Cæsar, are first perceived in Italy, on the tenth before[544] the -calends of August. The Eagle sets in the morning of that day to the -people of Attica, and on the third before[545] the calends of August, -the Royal Star in the breast of Leo rises in the morning, according -to Cæsar. On the eighth before[546] the ides of August, one half of -Arcturus has ceased to be visible, and on the third before[547] the -ides the Lyre, by its setting, opens the autumn,—according to Cæsar at -least; though a more exact calculation has since shown, that this takes -place on the sixth day before[548] the ides of that month. - -The time that intervenes between these periods is one that is of -primary importance in the cultivation of the vine; as the constellation -of which we have spoken, under the name of Canicula, has now to decide -upon the fate of the grape. It is at this period that the grapes are -said to be charred,[549] a blight falling upon them which burns them -away, as though red-hot coals had been applied to them. There is no -hail that can be compared with this destructive malady, nor yet any -of those tempests, which have been productive of such scarcity and -dearth. For the evil effects of these, at the very utmost, are only -felt in isolated districts, while the coal blight,[550] on the other -hand, extends over whole countries, far and wide. Still, however, -the remedy would not be very difficult, were it not that men would -much rather calumniate Nature, than help themselves. It is said that -Democritus,[551] who was the first to comprehend and demonstrate that -close affinity which exists between the heavens and the earth, finding -his laborious researches upon that subject slighted by the more opulent -of his fellow-citizens, and presaging the high price of oil, which was -about to result upon the rising of the Vergiliæ, (as we have already -mentioned,[552] and shall have to explain more fully hereafter), bought -up all the oil in the country, which was then at a very low figure, -from the universal expectation of a fine crop of olives; a proceeding -which greatly surprised all who knew that a life of poverty and -learned repose was so entirely the object of his aspirations. When, -however, his motives had been fully justified by the result, and vast -riches had flowed in upon him apace, he returned all his profits to -the disappointed proprietors, whose avarice had now taught them to -repent, thinking it quite sufficient to have thus proved how easy it -was for him to acquire riches whenever he pleased. At a more recent -period, again, Sextius,[553] a Roman philosopher residing at Athens, -made a similar application of his knowledge. Such, then, is the utility -of science, the instruction provided by which it shall be my aim, as -clearly and as perspicuously as possible, to apply to the various -occupations of a country life. - -Most writers have said that it is the dew, scorched by a burning -sun, that is the cause of mildew[554] in corn, and of coal blight in -the vine; this, however, seems to me in a great measure incorrect, -and it is my opinion that all blights result entirely from cold, and -that the sun is productive of no injurious effects whatever. This, in -fact, will be quite evident, if only a little attention is paid to the -subject; for we find that the blight makes its appearance at first in -the night time only, and before the sun has shone with any vigour. The -natural inference is, that it depends entirely upon the moon, and more -particularly as such a calamity as this is never known to happen except -at the moon’s conjunction, or else at the full moon, periods at which -the influence of that heavenly body is at its greatest height. For at -both of these periods, as already[555] stated by us more than once, -the moon is in reality at the full; though during her conjunction she -throws back to the heavens all the light which she has received from -the sun. The difference in the effects produced by the moon at these -two periods is very great, though at the same time equally apparent; -for at the conjunction, that body is extremely hot in summer, but cold -in winter; while, on the other hand, at the full moon, the nights -are cold in summer, but warm in winter. The reason of this, although -Fabianus and the Greek writers adopt another method of explaining it, -is quite evident. During the moon’s conjunction in summer, she must -of necessity move along with the sun in an orbit nearer to the earth, -and so become warmed by the heat which she receives by reason of -her closer vicinity to the sun. In winter, again, at the time of the -conjunction, she is farther off from us, the sun being also removed to -a greater distance. On the other hand, again, when the moon is at the -full in summer, she is more remote from the earth, and in opposition -with the sun; while, in winter, she approaches nearer to us at that -period, by adopting the same orbit as at her conjunction in summer. -Naturally humid herself, as often as from her position she is cold, she -congeals to an unlimited extent the dews which fall at that period of -the year. - - - - -CHAP. 69.—CAUSES OF STERILITY. - - -But we ought always to bear in mind, more particularly, that there -are two varieties of evils that are inflicted upon the earth by the -heavens. The first of these, known by us under the name of “tempests,” -comprehends hail-storms, hurricanes and other calamities of a similar -nature; when these take place at the full moon, they come upon us with -additional intensity. These tempests take their rise in certain noxious -constellations, as already stated by us on several occasions, Arcturus, -for instance, Orion, and the Kids. - -The other evils that are thus inflicted upon us, supervene with a -bright, clear sky, and amid the silence of the night, no one being -sensible of them until we have perceived their effects. These -dispensations are universal and of a totally different character from -those previously mentioned, and have various names given to them, -sometimes mildew, sometimes blast, and sometimes coal blight; but in -all cases sterility is the infallible result. It is of these last that -we have now to speak, entering into details which have not hitherto -been treated of by any writer; and first of all we will explain the -causes of them. - -(29.) Independently of the moon, there are two principal causes of -these calamities, which emanate more particularly from two quarters -of the heavens of but limited extent. On the one hand, the Vergiliæ -exercise an especial influence on our harvests, as it is with their -rising that the summer begins, and with their setting, the winter; -thus embracing, in the space of six months, the harvest, the vintage, -and the ripening of all the vegetable productions. In addition to -this, there is a circular tract in the heavens, quite visible to the -human eye even, known as the Milky Way. It is the emanations from -this, flowing as it were from the breast, that supply their milky[556] -nutriment to all branches of the vegetable world. Two constellations -more particularly mark this circular tract, the Eagle in the north, and -Canicula in the south; of this last, we have already made mention[557] -in its appropriate place. This circle traverses also Sagittarius and -Gemini, and passing through the centre of the sun, cuts the equinoctial -line below, the constellation of the Eagle making its appearance at -the point of intersection on the one side, and Canicula on the other. -Hence it is that the influences of both these constellations develope -themselves upon all cultivated lands; it being at these points only -that the centre of the sun is brought to correspond with that of the -earth. If, then, at the moments of the rising and the setting of these -constellations, the air, soft and pure, transmits these genial and -milky emanations to the earth, the crops will thrive and ripen apace; -but if, on the other hand, the moon, as already[558] mentioned, sheds -her chilling dews, the bitterness thereof infuses itself into these -milky secretions, and so kills the vegetation in its birth. The measure -of the injury so inflicted on the earth depends, in each climate, upon -the combination of the one or other of these causes; and hence it is -that it is not felt in equal intensity throughout the whole earth, nor -even precisely at the same moment of time. We have already[559] said -that the Eagle rises in Italy on the thirteenth day[560] before the -calends of January, and the ordinary course of Nature does not permit -us before that period to reckon with any degree of certainty upon the -fruits of the earth; for if the moon should happen to be in conjunction -at that time, it will be a necessary consequence, that all the winter -fruits, as well as the early ones, will receive injury more or less. - -The life led by the ancients was rude and illiterate; still, as will -be readily seen, the observations they made were not less remarkable -for ingenuity than are the theories of the present day. With them there -were three set periods for gathering in the produce of the earth, and -it was in honour of these periods that they instituted the festive -days, known as the Robigalia,[561] the Floralia, and the Vinalia. The -Robigalia were established by Numa in the fortieth year of his reign, -and are still celebrated on the seventh day before the calends of -May, as it is at this period that mildew[562] mostly makes its first -attacks upon the growing corn. Varro fixes this crisis at the moment -at which the sun enters the tenth degree of Taurus, in accordance -with the notions that prevailed in his day: but the real cause is the -fact, that thirty-one[563] days after the vernal equinox, according -to the observations of various nations, the Dog-star sets between -the seventh and fourth before the calends of May, a constellation -baneful in itself, and to appease which a young dog should first be -sacrificed.[564] The same people also, in the year of the City 513, -instituted the Floralia, a festival held upon the fourth before[565] -the calends of May, in accordance with the oracular injunctions of the -Sibyl, to secure a favourable season for the blossoms and flowers. -Varro fixes this day as the time at which the sun enters the fourteenth -degree of Taurus. If there should happen to be a full moon during -the four days at this period, injury to the corn and all the plants -that are in blossom, will be the necessary result. The First Vinalia, -which in ancient times were established on the ninth before[566] the -calends of May, for the purpose of tasting[567] the wines, have no -signification whatever in reference to the fruits of the earth, any -more than the festivals already mentioned have in reference to the -vine and the olive; the germination of these last not commencing, in -fact, till the rising of the Vergiliæ, on the Sixth day before[568] the -ides of May, as already mentioned on previous occasions.[569] This, -again, is another period of four days, which should never be blemished -by dews, as the chilling constellation of Arcturus, which sets on the -following day, will be sure to nip the vegetation; still less ought -there to be a full moon at this period. - -On the fourth before[570] the nones of June, the Eagle rises again in -the evening, a critical day for the olives and vines in blossom, if -there should happen to be a full moon. For my part, I am of opinion -that the eighth[571] before the calends of July, the day of the -summer solstice, must be a critical day, for a similar reason; and -that the rising of the Dog-star, twenty-three days after the summer -solstice, must be so too, in case the moon is then in conjunction; for -the excessive heat is productive of injurious effects, and the grape -becomes prematurely ripened, shrivelled, and tough. Again, if there is -a full moon on the fourth before[572] the nones of July, when Canicula -rises to the people of Egypt, or at least on the sixteenth before[573] -the calends of August, when it rises in Italy, it is productive of -injurious results. The same is the case, too, from the thirteenth day -before[574] the calends of August, when the Eagle sets, to the tenth -before[575] the calends of that month. The Second Vinalia, which are -celebrated on the fourteenth[576] before the calends of September, bear -no reference to these influences. Varro fixes them at the period at -which the Lyre begins its morning setting, and says that this indicates -the beginning of autumn, the day having been set apart for the purpose -of propitiating the weather: at the present day, however, it is -observed that the Lyre sets on the sixth before[577] the ides of August. - -Within these periods there are exerted the sterilizing influences of -the heavens, though I am far from denying that they may be considerably -modified by the nature of the locality, according as it is cold or -hot. Still, however, it is sufficient for me to have demonstrated -the theory; the modifications of its results depending, in a great -degree, upon attentive observation. It is beyond all question too, -that either one of these two causes will be always productive of -its own peculiar effects, the full moon, I mean, or else the moon’s -conjunction. And here it suggests itself how greatly we ought to admire -the bounteous provisions made for us by Nature; for, in the first -place, these calamitous results cannot by any possibility befall us -every year, in consequence of the fixed revolutions of the stars; nor -indeed, when they do happen, beyond a few nights in the year, and it -may be easily known beforehand which nights those are likely to be. -In order, too, that we might not have to apprehend these injuries to -vegetation in all the months, Nature has so ordained that the times -of the moon’s conjunction in summer, and of the full moon in winter, -with the exception of two days only at those respective periods, are -well ascertained, and that there is no danger to be apprehended on any -but the nights of summer, and those nights the shortest of all; in -the day-time, on the other hand, there is nothing to fear. And then, -besides, these phænomena may be so easily understood, that the ant -even, that most diminutive of insects, takes its rest during the moon’s -conjunction, but toils on, and that during the night as well, when the -moon is at the full; the bird, too, called the “parra”[578] disappears -upon the day on which Sirius rises, and never reappears until that -star has set; while the witwall,[579] on the other hand, makes its -appearance on the day of the summer solstice. The moon, however, is -productive of no noxious effects at either of these periods, except -when the nights are clear, and every movement of the air is lulled; for -so long as clouds prevail, or the wind is blowing, the night dews never -fall. And then, besides, there are certain remedies to counteract these -noxious influences. - - - - -CHAP. 70.—REMEDIES AGAINST THESE NOXIOUS INFLUENCES. - - -When you have reason to fear these influences, make bonfires in the -fields and vineyards of cuttings or heaps of chaff, or else of the -weeds that have been rooted up; the smoke[580] will act as a good -preservative. The smoke, too, of burning chaff will be an effectual -protection against the effects of fogs, when likely to be injurious. -Some persons recommend that three crabs should be burnt[581] alive -among the trees on which the vines are trained, to prevent these from -being attacked by coal blight; while others say that the flesh of the -silurus[582] should be burnt in a slow fire, in such a way that the -smoke may be dispersed by the wind throughout the vineyard. - -Varro informs us, that if at the setting of the Lyre, which is the -beginning of autumn, a painted grape[583] is consecrated in the midst -of the vineyard, the bad weather will not be productive of such -disastrous results as it otherwise would. Archibius[584] has stated, in -a letter to Antiochus, king of Syria, that if a bramble-frog[585] is -buried in a new earthen vessel, in the middle of a corn-field, there -will be no storms to cause injury. - - - - -CHAP. 71.—WORK TO BE DONE AFTER THE SUMMER SOLSTICE. - - -The following are the rural occupations for this interval of time—the -ground must have another turning up, and the trees must be cleared -about the roots and moulded up, where the heat of the locality requires -it. Those plants, however, which are in bud must not be spaded at the -roots, except where the soil is particularly rich. The seed-plots, too, -must be well cleared with the hoe, the barley-harvest got in, and the -threshing-floor prepared for the harvest with chalk, as Cato[586] tells -us, slackened with amurca of olives; Virgil[587] makes mention of a -method still more laborious even. In general, however, it is considered -sufficient to make it perfectly level, and then to cover it with a -solution of cow-dung[588] and water; this being thought sufficient to -prevent the dust from rising. - - - - -CHAP. 72. (30.)—THE HARVEST. - - -The mode of getting in the harvest varies considerably. In the vast -domains of the provinces of Gaul a large hollow frame,[589] armed with -teeth and supported on two wheels, is driven through the standing corn, -the beasts being yoked[590] behind it; the result being, that the ears -are torn off and fall within the frame. In other countries the stalks -are cut with the sickle in the middle, and the ears are separated by -the aid of paddle-forks.[591] In some places, again, the corn is torn -up by the roots; and it is asserted by those who adopt this plan, -that it is as good as a light turning up for the ground, whereas, in -reality, they deprive it of its juices.[592] There are differences in -other respects also: in places where they thatch their houses with -straw, they keep the longest haulms for that purpose; and where hay is -scarce, they employ the straw for litter. The straw of panic is never -used for thatching, and that of millet is mostly burnt; barley-straw, -however, is always preserved, as being the most agreeable of all as a -food for oxen. In the Gallic provinces panic and millet are gathered, -ear by ear, with the aid of a comb carried in the hand. - -In some places the corn is beaten out by machines[593] upon the -threshing-floor, in others by the feet of mares, and in others with -flails. The later wheat is cut, the more prolific[594] it is; but if -it is got in early, the grain is finer and stronger. The best rule -is to cut it before the grain hardens, and just as it is changing -colour:[595] though the oracles on husbandry say that it is better to -begin the harvest two days too soon than two days too late. Winter -and other wheat must be treated exactly the same way both on the -threshing-floor and in the granary. Spelt, as it is difficult to be -threshed, should be stored with the chaff on, being only disengaged of -the straw and the beard. - -Many countries make use of chaff[596] for hay; the smoother and -thinner it is, and the more nearly resembling dust, the better; hence -it is that the chaff[597] of millet is considered the best, that -of barley being the next best, and that of wheat the worst of all, -except for beasts that are hard worked. In stony places they break the -haulms, when dry, with staves, for the cattle to lie upon: if there -is a deficiency of chaff, the straw as well is ground for food. The -following is the method employed in preparing it: it is cut early and -sprinkled with bay salt,[598] after which it is dried and rolled up in -trusses, and given to the oxen as wanted, instead of hay. Some persons -set fire to the stubble in the fields, a plan that has been greatly -extolled by Virgil:[599] the chief merit of it is that the seed of the -weeds is effectually destroyed. The diversity of the methods employed -in harvesting mainly depends upon the extent of the crops and the price -of labour. - - - - -CHAP. 73.—THE METHODS OF STORING CORN. - - -Connected with this branch of our subject is the method of storing -corn. Some persons recommend that granaries should be built for the -purpose at considerable expense, the walls being made of brick, and -not less than three[600] feet thick; the corn, they say, should be -let in from above, the air being carefully excluded, and no windows -allowed. Others, again, say that the granary should have an aspect in -no direction but the north-east or north, and that the walls should be -built without lime, that substance being extremely injurious[601] to -corn; as to what we find recommended in reference to amurca of olives, -we have already mentioned it on a former[602] occasion. In some places -they build their granaries of wood, and upon pillars,[603] thinking it -the best plan to leave access for the air on every side, and from below -even. Some persons think, however, that the grain diminishes in bulk if -laid on a floor above the level of the ground, and that it is liable -to ferment beneath a roof of tiles. Many persons say, too, that the -grain should never be stirred up to air[604] it, as the weevil is never -known to penetrate beyond four fingers in depth; consequently, beyond -that depth there is no danger. According to Columella,[605] the west -wind is beneficial to grain, a thing that surprises me, as that wind is -generally a very parching[606] one. Some persons recommend that, before -housing the corn, a bramble-frog should be hung up by one of the hind -legs at the threshold of the granary. To me it appears that the most -important precaution of all is to house the grain at the proper time; -for if it is unripe when cut, and not sufficiently firm, or if it is -got in in a heated state, it follows of necessity that noxious insects -will breed in it. - -There are several causes which contribute to the preservation of grain; -the outer[607] coats in some kinds are more numerous, as in millet, for -instance; the juices are of an oleaginous nature,[608] and so supply -ample moisture, as in sesame, for example; while in other kinds, again, -they are naturally bitter,[609] as in the lupine and the chicheling -vetch. It is in wheat more particularly that insects breed, as it is -apt to heat from the density of its juices, and the grain is covered -with a thick bran. In barley the chaff is thinner, and the same is the -case with all the leguminous seeds: it is for this reason that they do -not ordinarily breed insects. The bean, however, is covered with a coat -of a thicker substance; and hence it is that it ferments. Some persons -sprinkle wheat, in order to make it keep the longer, with amurca[610] -of olives, a quadrantal to a thousand modii: others, again, with -powdered Chalcidian or Carian chalk, or with worm-wood.[611] There is -a certain earth found at Olynthus, and at Cerinthus, in Eubœa, which -prevents grain from spoiling. If garnered in the ear, grain is hardly -ever found to suffer any injury. - -The best plan, however, of preserving grain, is to lay it up in -trenches, called “siri,” as they do in Cappadocia, Thracia, Spain, and -at * * * in Africa. Particular care is taken to dig these trenches in a -dry soil, and a layer of chaff is then placed at the bottom; the grain, -too, is always stored in the ear. In this case, if no air is allowed -to penetrate to the corn, we may rest assured that no noxious insects -will ever breed in it. Varro[612] says, that wheat, if thus stored, -will keep as long as fifty years, and millet a hundred; and he assures -us that beans and other leguminous grain, if put away in oil jars with -a covering of ashes, will keep for a great length of time. He makes -a statement, also, to the effect that some beans were preserved in a -cavern in Ambracia from the time of King Pyrrhus until the Piratical -War of Pompeius Magnus, a period of about two hundred and twenty years. - -The chick-pea is the only grain in which no insect will breed while in -the granary. Some persons place upon the heaps of the leguminous grains -pitchers full of vinegar and coated with pitch, a stratum of ashes -being laid beneath; and they fancy that if this is done, no injury -will happen. Some, again, store them in vessels which have held salted -provisions, with a coating of plaster on the top, while other persons -are in the habit of sprinkling lentils with vinegar scented with -laser,[613] and, when dry, giving them a covering of oil. But the most -effectual method of all is to get in everything that you would preserve -from injury at the time of the moon’s conjunction; and hence it is of -the greatest importance to know, when getting in the harvest, whether -it is for garnering or whether for immediate sale. If cut during the -increase of the moon, grain will increase in size. - - - - -CHAP. 74. (31.)—THE VINTAGE, AND THE WORKS OF AUTUMN. - - -In accordance with the ordinary divisions of the year, we now come to -autumn, a period which extends from the setting of the Lyre to the -autumnal equinox, and from that to the setting of the Vergiliæ and the -beginning of winter. In these intervals, the more important periods -are marked by the rising of the Horse to the people of Attica, in the -evening of the day before[614] the ides of August; upon which day also -the Dolphin sets in Egypt, and, according to Cæsar, in Italy. On the -eleventh[615] before the calends of September, the star called the -Vintager begins to rise in the morning, according to Cæsar’s reckoning, -and to the people of Assyria: it announces the ripening of the vintage, -a sure sign of which is the change of colour in the grape. On the -fifth[616] before the calends of September, the Arrow sets in Assyria, -and the Etesian winds cease to blow: on the nones[617] of September, -the Vintager rises in Egypt, and in the morning of that day, Arcturus -rises to the people of Attica: on the same morning, too, the Arrow -sets. In the fifth before[618] the ides of September, according to -Cæsar, the She-Goat rises in the evening; and one half of Arcturus -becomes visible on the day before[619] the ides of September, being -portentous[620] of boisterous weather for five days, both by land and -sea. - -The theory relative to the effects produced by Arcturus, is stated in -the following terms: if showers prevail, it is said, at the setting of -the Dolphin, they will not cease so long as Arcturus is visible. The -departure of the swallows may be looked upon as the sign of the rising -of Arcturus; for if overtaken by it, they are sure to perish. - -On the sixteenth day before[621] the calends of October, the Ear of -Corn, which Virgo holds, rises to the people of Egypt in the morning, -and by this day the Etesian winds have quite ceased to blow. According -to Cæsar, this constellation rises on the fourteenth[622] before -the calends, and it affords its prognostics to the Assyrians on the -thirteenth. On the eleventh before[623] the calends of October, the -point of junction[624] in Pisces disappears, and upon the eighth[625] -is the autumnal equinox. It is a remarkable fact, and rarely the -case, that Philippus, Callippus, Dositheus, Parmeniscus, Conon,[626] -Criton, Democritus, and Eudoxus, all agree that the She-Goat rises in -the morning of the fourth before[627] the calends of October, and on -the third[628] the Kids. On the sixth day before[629] the nones of -October, the Crown rises in the morning to the people of Attica, and -upon the morning of the fifth,[630] the Charioteer sets. On the fourth -before[631] the nones of October, the Crown, according to Cæsar’s -reckoning, begins to rise, and on the evening of the day after is the -setting of the constellation of the Kids. On the eighth before[632] -the ides of October, according to Cæsar, the bright star rises that -shines in the Crown, and on the evening of the sixth before[633] the -ides the Vergiliæ, rise. Upon the ides[634] of October, the Crown has -wholly risen. On the seventeenth before[635] the calends of November, -the Suculæ rise in the evening, and on the day before the calends, -according to Cæsar’s reckoning, Arcturus sets, and the Suculæ[636] rise -with the sun. In the evening of the fourth day before[637] the nones of -November, Arcturus sets. On the fifth before[638] the ides of November, -Orion’s Sword begins to set; and on the third[639] before the ides the -Vergiliæ set. - -In this interval of time, the rural operations consist in sowing rape -and turnips, upon the days which have been mentioned on a previous -occasion.[640] The people in the country are of opinion, that it is not -a good plan to sow rape after the departure of the stork; but for my -own part, I am of opinion that it should be sown after the Vulcanalia, -and the early kind at the same time as panic. After the setting of -the Lyre, vetches should be sown, kidney-beans and hay-grass: it is -generally recommended that this should be done while the moon is in -conjunction. This, too, is the proper time for gathering in the leaves: -it is fair work for one woodman, to fill four baskets[641] in the day. -If the leaves are gathered while the moon is on the wane, they will not -decay; they ought not to be dry, however, when gathered. - -The ancients were of opinion, that the vintage is never ripe before -the equinox; but at the present day I find that it is gathered in -before that period; it will be as well, therefore, to give the signs -and indications by which the proper moment may be exactly ascertained. -The rules for getting in the vintage are to the following effect: -Never gather the grape in a heated state,[642] or in other words, when -the weather is dry, and before the rains have fallen; nor ought it to -be gathered when covered with dew,—or in other words, when dews have -fallen during the night,—nor yet before the dews have been dispelled by -the sun. Commence the vintage when the bearing-shoots begin to recline -upon the stem, or when, after a grape is removed from the bunch, the -space left empty is not filled up; this being a sure proof that the -berry has ceased to increase in size. It is of the greatest consequence -to the grape, that it should be gathered while the moon is on the -increase. Each pressing should fill twenty culei,[643] that being the -fair proportion. To fill twenty culei and vats[644] from twenty jugera -of vineyard, a single press will be enough. In pressing the grape, -some persons use a single press-board, but it is a better plan to -employ two, however large the single ones may be. It is the length of -them that is of the greatest consequence, and not the thickness: if -wide, however, they press the fruit all the better. The ancients used -to screw down the press-boards with ropes and leather thongs, worked -by levers. Within the last hundred years the Greek press has been -invented, with thick spiral grooves running down the[645] stem. To -this stem there are spokes attached, which project like the rays of a -star, and by means of which the stem is made to lift a box filled with -stones—a method that is very highly approved of. It is only within the -last two-and-twenty years, that a plan has been discovered of employing -smaller press-boards, and a less unwieldy press: to effect this, the -height has been reduced, and the stem of the screw placed in the -middle, the whole pressure being concentrated upon broad planks[646] -placed over the grapes, which are covered also with heavy weights above. - -This is the proper time for gathering fruit; the best moment for doing -so is when it has begun to fall through ripeness, and not from the -effects of the weather. This is the season, too, for extracting the -lees of wine, and for boiling defrutum:[647] this last must be done -on a night when there is no moon, or if it is a full moon, in the -day-time. At other times of the year, it must be done either before -the moon has risen, or after it has set. The grapes employed for this -purpose should never be gathered from a young vine, nor yet from a tree -that is grown in a marshy spot, nor should any grapes be used but those -that are perfectly ripe: the liquor, too, should never be skimmed with -anything but a leaf,[648] for if the vessel should happen to be touched -with wood, the liquor, it is generally thought, will have a burnt and -smoky flavour. - -The proper time for the vintage is between the equinox and the setting -of the Vergiliæ, a period of forty-four days. It is a saying among the -growers, that to pitch wine-vessels after that day, in consequence of -the coldness of the weather, is only so much time lost. Still, however, -I have seen, before now persons getting in the vintage on the calends -of January[649] even, in consequence of the want of wine-vessels, and -putting the must into receivers,[650] or else pouring the old wine out -of its vessels, to make room for new liquor of a very doubtful quality. -This, however, happens not so often in consequence of an over-abundant -crop, as through carelessness, or else the avarice which leads people -to wait for a rise in prices. The method that is adopted by the most -economical managers, is to use the produce supplied by each year,[651] -and this, too, is found in the end the most lucrative mode of -proceeding. As for the other details relative to wines, they have been -discussed at sufficient length already;[652] and it has been stated on -a previous occasion,[653] that as soon as the vintage is got in, the -olives should at once be gathered, with other particulars relative to -the olive after the setting of the Vergiliæ. - - - - -CHAP. 75. (32.)—THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE MOON. - - -I shall now proceed to add some necessary information relative to the -moon, the winds, and certain signs and prognostics, in order that I -may complete the observations I have to make with reference to the -sidereal system. Virgil[654] has even gone so far, in imitation of -Democritus, as to assign certain operations to certain days[655] of the -moon; but my sole object shall be, as, indeed, it has been throughout -this work, to consult that utility which is based upon a knowledge and -appreciation of general principles. - -All vegetable productions are cut, gathered, and housed to more -advantage while the moon is on the wane than while it is on the -increase. Manure must never be touched except when the moon is on the -wane; and land must be manured more particularly while the moon is -in conjunction, or else at the first quarter. Take care to geld your -boars, bulls, rams, and kids, while the moon is on the wane. Put eggs -under the hen at a new moon. Make your ditches in the night-time, when -the moon is at full. Cover up the roots of trees, while the moon is at -full. Where the soil is humid, put in seed at the moon’s conjunction, -and during the four days about that period. It is generally -recommended, too, to give an airing to corn and the leguminous grains, -and to garner them, towards the end of the moon; to make seed-plots -when the moon is above the horizon; and to tread out the grape, to fell -timber, and to do many other things that have been mentioned in their -respective places, when the moon is below it. - -The observation of the moon, in general, as already observed in the -Second Book,[656] is not so very easy, but what I am about here to -state even rustics will be able to comprehend: so long as the moon is -seen in the west, and during the earlier hours of the night, she will -be on the increase, and one half of her disk will be perceived; but -when the moon is seen to rise at sunset and opposite to the sun, so -that they are both perceptible at the same moment, she will be at full. -Again, as often as the moon rises in the east, and does not give her -light in the earlier hours of the night, but shows herself during a -portion of the day, she will be on the wane, and one half of her only -will again be perceptible: when the moon has ceased to be visible, -she is in conjunction, a period known to us as “interlunium.”[657] -During the conjunction, the moon will be above the horizon the same -time as the sun, for the whole of the first day; on the second, she -will advance upon the night ten-twelfths of an hour and one-fourth of -a twelfth;[658] on the third day, the same as on the second, and * * -* so on in succession up to the fifteenth day, the same proportional -parts of an hour being added each day. On the fifteenth day she will be -above the horizon all night, and below it all day. On the sixteenth, -she will remain below the horizon ten-twelfths of an hour, and -one-fourth of a twelfth, at the first hour of the night, and so on in -the same proportion day after day, up to the period of her conjunction; -and thus, the same time which, by remaining under the horizon, she -withdraws from the first part of the night, she will add to the end -of the night by remaining above the horizon. Her revolutions, too, -will occupy thirty days one month, and twenty-nine the next, and so on -alternately. Such is the theory of the revolutions of the moon. - - - - -CHAP. 76. (33.)—THE THEORY OF THE WINDS. - - -The theory of the winds[659] is of a somewhat more intricate nature. -After observing the quarter in which the sun rises on any given day, at -the sixth[660] hour of the day take your position in such a manner as -to have the point of the sun’s rising on your left; you will then have -the south directly facing you, and the north at your back: a line drawn -through a field in this direction[661] is called the “cardinal”[662] -line. The observer must then turn round, so as to look upon his shadow, -for it will be behind him. Having thus changed his position, so as to -bring the point of the sun’s rising on that day to the right, and that -of his setting to the left, it will be the sixth hour of the day, at -the moment when the shadow straight before him is the shortest. Through -the middle of this shadow, taken lengthwise, a furrow must be traced -in the ground with a hoe, or else a line drawn with ashes, some twenty -feet in length, say; in the middle of this line, or, in other words, -at the tenth foot in it, a small circle must then be described: to -this circle we may give the name of the “umbilicus,” or “navel.” That -point in the line which lies on the side of the head of the shadow will -be the point from which the north wind blows. You who are engaged in -pruning trees, be it your care that the incisions made in the wood do -not face this point; nor should the vine-trees[663] or the vines have -this aspect, except in the climates of Africa,[664] Cyrenæ, or Egypt. -When the wind blows, too, from this point, you must never plough, nor, -in fact, attempt any other of the operations of which we shall have to -make mention.[665] - -That part of the line which lies between the umbilicus and the feet of -the shadow will look towards the south, and indicate the point from -which the south wind[666] blows, to which, as already mentioned,[667] -the Greeks have given the name of Notus. When the wind comes from this -quarter, you, husbandman, must never fell wood or touch the vine. -In Italy this wind is either humid or else of a burning heat, and -in Africa it is accompanied with intense heat[668] and fine clear -weather. In Italy the bearing branches should be trained to face this -quarter, but the incisions made in the trees or vines when pruned must -never face it. Let those be on their guard against this wind upon -the four[669] days at the rising of the Vergiliæ, who are engaged in -planting the olive, as well as those who are employed in the operations -of grafting or inoculating. - -It will be as well, too, here to give some advice, in reference to the -climate of Italy, as to certain precautions to be observed at certain -hours of the day. You, woodman, must never lop the branches in the -middle of the day; and you, shepherd, when you see midday approaching -in summer, and the shadow gradually decreasing, drive your flocks from -out of the sun into some well-shaded spot. When you lead the flocks to -pasture in summer, let them face the west before midday,[670] and after -that time, the east: if this precaution is not adopted, calamitous -results will ensue; the same, too, if the flocks are led in winter or -spring to pastures covered with dew. Nor must you let them feed with -their faces to the north, as already mentioned;[671] for the wind will -either close their eyes or else make them bleared, and they will die of -looseness. If you wish to have females,[672] you should let the dams -have their faces towards the north while being covered. - - - - -CHAP. 77. (34.)—THE LAYING OUT OF LANDS ACCORDING TO THE POINTS OF THE -WIND. - - -We have already stated[673] that the umbilicus should be described in -the middle of the line. Let another line be drawn transversely through -the middle of it, and it will be found to run from due east to due -west; a trench cut through the land in accordance with this line is -known by the name of “decumanus.” Two other lines must then be traced -obliquely across them in the form of the letter X, in such a way as to -run exactly from right and left of the northern point to left and right -of the southern one. All these lines must pass through the centre of -the umbilicus, and all must be of corresponding length, and at equal -distances. This method should always be adopted in laying out land; or -if it should be found necessary to employ it frequently, a plan[674] -of it may be made in wood, sticks of equal length being fixed upon the -surface of a small tambour,[675] but perfectly round. In the method -which I am here explaining, it is necessary to point out one precaution -that must always be observed by those who are unacquainted with the -subject. The point that must be verified first of all is the south, -as that is always the same; but the sun, it must be remembered, rises -every day at a point in the heavens different to that of his rising on -the day before, so that the east must never be taken as the basis for -tracing the lines. - -Having now ascertained the various points of the heavens, the extremity -of the line that is nearest to the north, but lying to the east of it, -will indicate the solstitial rising, or, in other words, the rising -of the sun on the longest day, as also the point from which the wind -Aquilo[676] blows, known to the Greeks by the name of Boreas. You -should plant all trees and vines facing this point, but take care -never to plough, or sow corn, or plant in seed plots, while this wind -is blowing, for it has the effect of drying up and blasting the roots -of the trees while being transplanted. Be taught in time—one thing is -good for grown trees, another for them while they are but young. Nor -have I forgotten the fact, that it is at this point of the heavens -that the Greeks place the wind, to which they give the name of Cæcias; -Aristotle, a man of most extensive learning, who has assigned to Cæcias -this position, explains that it is in consequence of the convexity -of the earth, that Aquilo blows in an opposite direction to the wind -called Africus. - -The agriculturist, however, has nothing to fear from Aquilo, in respect -to the operations before mentioned, all the year through; for this wind -is softened by the sun in the middle of the summer, and, changing -its name, is known by that of Etesias.[677] When you feel the cold, -then, be on your guard; for, whatever the noxious effects that are -attributed to Aquilo, the more sensibly will they be felt when the wind -blows from due north. In Asia, Greece, Spain, the coasts of Italy, -Campania, and Apulia, the trees that support the vines, as well as the -vines themselves, should have an aspect towards the north-east. If you -wish to have male produce, let the flock feed in such a way, that this -wind may have the opportunity of fecundating the male, whose office -it is to fecundate the females. The wind Africus, known to the Greeks -by the name of Libs, blows from the south-west, the opposite point to -Aquilo; when animals, after coupling, turn their heads towards this -quarter,[678] you may be sure that female produce has been conceived. - -The third[679] line from the north, which we have drawn transversely -through the shadow, and called by the name of “decumanus,” will -point due east, and from this quarter the wind Subsolanus blows, by -the Greeks called Apeliotes. It is to this point that, in healthy -localities, farm-houses and vineyards are made to look. This wind is -accompanied with soft, gentle showers; Favonius, however, the wind -that blows from due west, the opposite quarter to it, is of a drier -nature; by the Greeks it is known as Zephyrus. Cato has recommended -that olive-yards should look due west. It is this wind that begins the -spring, and opens the earth; it is moderately cool, but healthy. As -soon as it begins to prevail, it indicates that the time has arrived -for pruning the vine, weeding the corn, planting trees, grafting -fruit-trees, and trimming the olive; for its breezes are productive of -the most nutritious effects. - -The fourth[680] line from the north, and the one that lies nearest -the south on the eastern side, will indicate the point of the sun’s -rising at the winter solstice, and the wind Volturnus, known by the -name of Eurus to the Greeks. This wind is warm and dry, and beehives -and vineyards, in the climates of Italy and the Gallic provinces, -should face this quarter. Directly opposite to Volturnus, the wind -Corus blows; it indicates the point of the sun’s setting at the summer -solstice, and lies on the western side next to the north. By the -Greeks it is called Argestes, and is one of the very coldest of the -winds, which, in fact, is the case with all the winds that blow from -the north; this wind, too, brings hailstorms with it, for which reason -it is necessary to be on our guard against it no less than the north. -If Volturnus begins to blow from a clear quarter of the heavens, it -will not last till night; but if it is Subsolanus, it will prevail for -the greater part of the night. Whatever the wind that may happen to -be blowing, if it is accompanied by heat, it will be sure to last for -several days. The earth announces the approach of Aquilo, by drying on -a sudden, while on the approach of Auster, the surface becomes moist -without any apparent cause. - - - - -CHAP. 78. (35.)—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE SUN. - - -Having now explained the theory of the winds, it seems to me the -best plan, in order to avoid any repetition, to pass on to the other -signs and prognostics that are indicative of a change of weather. I -find, too, that this is a kind of knowledge that greatly interested -Virgil,[681] for he mentions the fact, that during the harvest even, he -has often seen the winds engage in a combat that was absolutely ruinous -to the improvident agriculturist. There is a tradition, too, to the -effect that Democritus, already mentioned, when his brother Damasus was -getting in his harvest in extremely hot weather, entreated him to leave -the rest of the crop, and house with all haste that which had been -cut; and it was only within a very few hours that his prediction was -verified by a most violent storm. On the other hand, it is particularly -recommended never to plant reeds except when rain is impending, and -only to sow corn just before a shower; we shall therefore briefly -touch upon the prognostics of this description, making enquiry more -particularly into those among them that have been found the most useful. - -In the first place, then, we will consider those prognostics of the -weather which are derived from the sun.[682] If the sun is bright at -its rising, and not burning hot, it is indicative of fine weather, -but if pale, it announces wintry weather accompanied with hail. If the -sun is bright and clear when it sets, and if it rises with a similar -appearance, the more assured of fine weather may we feel ourselves. If -it is hidden in clouds at its rising, it is indicative of rain, and of -wind, when the clouds are of a reddish colour just before sunrise; if -black clouds are intermingled with the red ones, they betoken rain as -well. When the sun’s rays at its rising or setting appear to unite, -rainy weather may be looked for. When the clouds are red at sunset, -they give promise[683] of a fine day on the morrow; but if, at the -sun’s rising, the clouds are dispersed in various quarters, some to -the south, and some to the north-east, even though the heavens in the -vicinity of the sun may be bright, they are significant of rain and -wind. If at the sun’s rising or setting, its rays appear contracted, -they announce the approach of a shower. If it rains at sunset, or if -the sun’s rays attract the clouds towards them, it is portentous of -stormy weather on the following day. When the sun, at its rising, -does not emit vivid rays, although there are no clouds surrounding -it, rain may be expected. If before sunrise the clouds collect into -dense masses, they are portentous of a violent storm; but if they -are repelled from the east and travel westward, they indicate fine -weather. When clouds are seen surrounding the face of the sun, the less -the light they leave, the more violent the tempest will be: but if -they form a double circle round the sun, the storm will be a dreadful -one. If this takes place at sunrise or sunset, and the clouds assume -a red hue, the approach of a most violent storm is announced: and if -the clouds hang over the face of the sun without surrounding it, they -presage wind from the quarter from which they are drifting, and rain as -well, if they come from the south. - -If, at its rising, the sun is surrounded with a circle, wind may -be looked for in the quarter in which the circle breaks; but if it -disappears equally throughout, it is indicative of fine weather. If the -sun at its rising throws out its rays afar through the clouds, and the -middle of its disk is clear, there will be rain; and if its rays are -seen before it rises, both rain and wind as well. If a white circle -is seen round the sun at its setting, there will be a slight storm in -the night; but if there is a mist around it, the storm will be more -violent. If the sun is pale at sunset, there will be wind, and if there -is a dark circle round it, high winds will arise in the quarter in -which the circle breaks. - - - - -CHAP. 79.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE MOON. - - -The prognostics derived from the moon, assert their right to occupy -our notice in the second place. In Egypt, attention is paid, more -particularly, to the fourth day of the moon. If, when the moon rises, -she shines with a pure bright light, it is generally supposed that -we shall have fine weather; but if she is red, there will be wind, -and if of a swarthy[684] hue, rain. If upon the fifth day of the moon -her horns are obtuse, they are always indicative of rain, but if -sharp and erect, of wind, and this on the fourth day of the moon more -particularly. If her northern horn is pointed and erect, it portends -wind; and if it is the lower horn that presents this appearance, the -wind will be from the south; if both of them are erect, there will be -high winds in the night. If upon the fourth day of the moon she is -surrounded by a red circle, it is portentous of wind and rain. - -In Varro we find it stated to the following effect:—“If, at the fourth -day of the moon, her horns are erect, there will be great storms at -sea, unless, indeed, she has a circlet[685] around her, and that -circlet unblemished; for by that sign we are informed that there will -be no stormy weather before full moon. If, at the full moon, one half -of her disk is clear, it is indicative of fine weather, but if it is -red, of wind, and if black, of rain. If a darkness comes over the face -of the moon, covered with clouds, in whatever quarter it breaks, from -that quarter wind may be expected. If a twofold circle surrounds the -moon, the storm will be more violent, and even more so still, if there -are three circles, or if they are black, broken, and disjointed. If -the new moon at her rising has the upper horn obscured, there will be -a prevalence of rainy weather, when she is on the wane; but if it is -the lower horn that is obscured, there will be rain before full moon; -if, again, the moon is darkened in the middle of her disk, there will -be rain when she is at full. If the moon, when full, has a circle -round her, it indicates wind from the quarter in the circle which is -the brightest; but if at her rising the horns are obtuse, they are -portentous of a frightful tempest. If, when the west wind prevails, -the moon does not make her appearance before her fourth day, there -will be a prevalence of stormy weather throughout the month. If on -the sixteenth day the moon has a bright, flaming appearance, it is a -presage of violent tempests.” - -There are eight different epochs of the moon, or periods at which -she makes certain angles of incidence with the sun, and most persons -only notice the prognostics derived from the moon, according to the -places which they occupy between these angles. The periods of these -angles are the third day, the seventh, the eleventh, the fifteenth, -the nineteenth, the twenty-third, the twenty-seventh, and that of the -conjunction. - - - - -CHAP. 80.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE STARS. - - -In the third rank must be placed the prognostics derived from the -stars. These bodies are sometimes to be seen shooting to and fro;[686] -when this happens, winds immediately ensue, in that part of the heavens -in which the presage has been afforded. When the heavens are equally -bright throughout their whole expanse, at the periods previously -mentioned,[687] the ensuing autumn will be fine and cool. If the spring -and summer have passed not without some rain, the autumn will be fine -and settled,[688] and there will be but little wind: when the autumn -is fine, it makes a windy winter. When the brightness of the stars is -suddenly obscured, though without[689] clouds or fog, violent tempests -may be expected. If numerous stars are seen to shoot,[690] leaving a -white track behind them, they presage wind from that quarter.[691] If -they follow in quick succession from the same quarter, the wind will -blow steadily, but if from various quarters of the heavens, the wind -will shift in sudden gusts and squalls. If circles are seen to surround -any of the planets, there will be rain.[692] In the constellation of -Cancer, there are two small stars to be seen, known as the Aselli,[693] -the small space that lies between them being occupied by a cloudy -appearance, which is known as the Manger;[694] when this cloud is -not visible in a clear sky, it is a presage of a violent storm. If a -fog conceals from our view the one of these stars which lies to the -north-east, there will be high winds from the south; but if it is -the star which lies to the south that is so obscured, then the wind -will be from the north-east. The rainbow, when double, indicates the -approach[695] of rain; but if seen after rain, it gives promise, though -by no means a certain one, of fine weather. Circular clouds around some -of the stars are indicative of rain. - - - - -CHAP. 81.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THUNDER. - - -When, in summer, there is more thunder than lightning, wind may be -expected from that quarter; but if, on the other hand, there is not -so much thunder as lightning, there will be a fall of rain. When it -lightens in a clear sky, there will be rain, and if there is thunder as -well, stormy weather; but if it lightens from all four quarters of the -heavens, there will be a dreadful tempest. When it lightens from the -north-east only, it portends rain on the following day; but when from -the north, wind may be expected from that quarter. When it lightens on -a clear night from the south, the west, or the north-west, there will -be wind and rain from those quarters. Thunder[696] in the morning is -indicative of wind, and at midday of rain. - - - - -CHAP. 82.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM CLOUDS. - - -When clouds are seen moving in a clear sky, wind may be expected in the -quarter from which they proceed; but if they accumulate in one spot, as -they approach the sun they will disperse. If the clouds are dispersed -by a north-east wind, it is a presage of high winds, but if by a wind -from the south, of rain. If at sunset the clouds cover the heavens -on either side of the sun, they are indicative of tempest; if they -are black and lowering in the east, they threaten rain in the night, -but if in the west, on the following day. If the clouds spread in -large numbers from the east, like fleeces of wool in appearance, they -indicate a continuance of rain for the next three days. When the clouds -settle on the summits of the mountains,[697] there will be stormy -weather; but if the clouds clear away, it will be fine. When the clouds -are white and lowering, a hailstorm, generally known as a “white”[698] -tempest, is close at hand. An isolated cloud, however small,[699] -though seen in a clear sky, announces wind and storm. - - - - -CHAP. 83.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM MISTS. - - -Mists descending from the summits of mountains, or from the heavens, or -settling in the vallies,[700] give promise of fine weather. - - - - -CHAP. 84.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM FIRE KINDLED BY MAN. - - -Next to these are the prognostics that are derived from fire kindled -upon the earth.[701] If the flames are pallid, and emit a murmuring -noise, they are considered to presage stormy weather; and fungi upon -the burning wick of the lamp are a sign of rain.[702] If the flame is -spiral and flickering, it is an indication of wind, and the same is the -case when the lamp goes out of itself, or is lighted with difficulty. -So, too, if the snuff hangs down, and sparks gather upon it, or if the -burning coals adhere[703] to vessels taken from off the fire, or if the -fire, when covered up, sends out hot embers or emits sparks, or if the -cinders gather into a mass upon the hearth, or the coals burn bright -and glowing. - - - - -CHAP. 85.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM WATER. - - -There are certain prognostics, too, that may be derived from water. -If, when the sea is calm, the water ripples in the harbour, with a -hollow, murmuring noise, it is a sign of wind, and if in winter, of -rain as well. If the coasts and shores re-echo while the sea is calm, -a violent tempest may be expected; and the same when the sea, though -calm, is heard to roar, or throws up foam and bubbling spray. If -sea pulmones[704] are to be seen floating on the surface, they are -portentous of stormy weather for many days to come. Very frequently, -too, the sea is seen to swell in silence, and more so than when ruffled -by an ordinary breeze; this is an indication that the winds are at work -within its bosom already. - - - - -CHAP. 86.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM TEMPESTS THEMSELVES. - - -The reverberations, too, of the mountains, and the roaring of the -forests, are indicative of certain phænomena; and the same is the case -when the leaves are seen to quiver,[705] without a breath of wind, -the downy filaments of the poplar or thorn to float in the air, and -feathers to skim along the surface of the water.[706] In champaign -countries, the storm gives notice of its approach by that peculiar -muttering[707] which precedes it; while the murmuring that is heard in -the heavens affords us no doubtful presage of what is to come. - - - - -CHAP. 87.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM AQUATIC ANIMALS, AND BIRDS. - - -The animals, too, afford us certain presages; dolphins, for instance, -sporting in a calm sea, announce wind in the quarter from which they -make their appearance.[708] When they throw up the water in a billowy -sea, they announce the approach of a calm. The loligo,[709] springing -out of the water, shell-fish adhering to various objects, sea-urchins -fastening by their stickles upon the sand, or else burrowing in it, -are so many indications of stormy weather: the same, too, when -frogs[710] croak more than usual, or coots[711] make a chattering in -the morning. Divers, too, and ducks, when they clean their feathers -with the bill, announce high winds; which is the case also when the -aquatic birds unite in flocks, cranes make for the interior, and -divers[712] and sea-mews forsake the sea or the creeks. Cranes when -they fly aloft in silence announce fine weather, and so does the -owlet,[713] when it screeches during a shower; but if it is heard in -fine weather, it presages a storm. Ravens, too, when they croak with a -sort of gurgling noise and shake their feathers, give warning of the -approach of wind, if their note is continuous: but if, on the other -hand, it is smothered, and only heard at broken intervals, we may -expect rain, accompanied with high winds. Jackdaws, when they return -late from feeding, give notice of stormy weather, and the same with -the white birds,[714] when they unite in flocks, and the land birds, -when they descend with cries to the water and besprinkle themselves, -the crow more particularly. The swallow,[715] too, when it skims along -the surface of the water so near as to ripple it every now and then -with its wings, and the birds that dwell in the trees, when they hide -themselves in their nests, afford similar indications; geese, too, when -they set up a continuous gabbling,[716] at an unusual time, and the -heron,[717] when it stands moping in the middle of the sands. - - - - -CHAP. 88.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM QUADRUPEDS. - - -Nor, indeed, is it surprising that the aquatic birds, or any birds, -in fact, should have a perception of the impending changes of the -atmosphere. Sheep, however, when they skip and frisk with their clumsy -gambols,[718] afford us similar prognostics; oxen, when they snuff -upwards towards the sky, and lick[719] themselves against the hair; -unclean swine, when they tear to pieces the trusses of hay that are put -for other animals;[720] bees, when, contrary to their natural habits -of industry, they keep close within the hive; ants, when they hurry to -and fro, or are seen carrying forth their eggs; and earthworms,[721] -emerging from their holes—all these indicate approaching changes in the -weather. - - - - -CHAP. 89.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM PLANTS. - - -It is a well-known fact, that trefoil bristles up, and its leaves stand -erect, upon the approach of a tempest. - - - - -CHAP. 90.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM FOOD. - - -At our repasts, too, and upon our tables, when we see the vessels -sweat in which the viands are served, and leave marks upon the -side-board,[722] it is an indication that a dreadful storm is impending. - - -SUMMARY.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, two thousand -and sixty. - - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Massurius Sabinus,[723] Cassius Hemina,[724] -Verrius Flaccus,[725] L. Piso,[726] Cornelius Celsus,[727] Turranius -Gracilis,[728] D. Silanus,[729] M. Varro,[730] Cato the Censor,[731] -Scrofa,[732] the Sasernæ,[733] father and son, Domitius Calvinus,[734] -Hyginus,[735] Virgil,[736] Trogus,[737] Ovid,[738] Græcinus,[739] -Columella,[740] Tubero,[741] L. Tarutius,[742] who wrote in Greek -on the Stars, Cæsar[743] the Dictator, who wrote upon the Stars, -Sergius Paulus,[744] Sabinus Fabianus,[745] M. Cicero,[746] Calpurnius -Bassus,[747] Ateius Capito,[748] Mamilius Sura,[749] Attius,[750] who -wrote the Praxidica. - - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Hesiod,[751] Theophrastus,[752] Aristotle,[753] -Democritus,[754] King Hiero,[755] King Attalus Philometor,[756] King -Archelaüs,[757] Archytas,[758] Xenophon,[759] Amphilochus[760] of -Athens, Anaxipolis[761] of Thasos, Aristophanes[762] of Miletus, -Apollodorus[763] of Lemnos, Antigonus[764] of Cymæ, Agathocles[765] -of Chios, Apollonius[766] of Pergamus, Aristander[767] of Athens, -Bacchius[768] of Miletus, Bion[769] of Soli, Chæreas[770] of Athens, -Chæristus[771] of Athens, Diodorus[772] of Priene, Dion[773] -of Colophon, Epigenes[774] of Rhodes, Euagon[775] of Thasos, -Euphronius[776] of Athens, Androtiou[777] who wrote on Agriculture, -Æschrion[778] who wrote on Agriculture, Lysimachus[779] who wrote -on Agriculture, Dionysius[780] who translated Mago, Diophanes[781] -who made an Epitome from Dionysius, Thales,[782] Eudoxus,[783] -Philippus,[784] Calippus,[785] Dositheus,[786] Parmeniscus,[787] -Meton,[788] Criton,[789] Œnopides,[790] Zenon,[791] Euctemon,[792] -Harpalus,[793] Hecatæus,[794] Anaximander,[795] Sosigenes,[796] -Hipparchus,[797] Aratus,[798] Zoroaster,[799] Archibius.[800] - - - - -BOOK XIX. - -THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF FLAX, AND AN ACCOUNT OF VARIOUS GARDEN -PLANTS. - - - - -CHAP. 1.—THE NATURE OF FLAX—MARVELLOUS FACTS RELATIVE THERETO. - - -We have now imparted a knowledge[801] of the constellations and of the -seasons, in a method unattended with difficulty for the most ignorant -even, and free from every doubt; indeed, to those who understand these -matters aright, the face of the earth contributes in no less a degree -to a due appreciation of the celestial phænomena, than does the science -of astronomy to our improvement in the arts of agriculture. - -Many writers have made it their next care to treat of horticulture; -but, for my own part, it does not appear to me altogether advisable -to pass on immediately to that subject, and, indeed, I am rather -surprised to find that some among the learned, who have either sought -the pleasures of knowledge in these pursuits, or have grounded their -celebrity upon them, have omitted so many particulars in reference -thereto; for no mention do we find in their writings of numerous -vegetable productions, both wild as well as cultivated, many of which -are found, in ordinary life, to be of higher value and of more extended -use to man than the cereals even. - -To commence, then, with a production which is of an utility that is -universally recognized, and is employed not only upon dry land but upon -the seas as well, we will turn our attention to flax,[802] a plant -which is reproduced from seed, but which can neither be classed among -the cereals nor yet among the garden plants. What department is there -to be found of active life in which flax is not employed? and in what -production of the earth are there greater marvels[803] revealed to -us than in this? To think that here is a plant which brings Egypt in -close proximity to Italy!—so much so, in fact, that Galerius[804] and -Balbillus,[805] both of them prefects of Egypt, made the passage to -Alexandria from the Straits of Sicily, the one in six days, the other -in five! It was only this very last summer, that Valerius Marianus, a -senator of prætorian rank, reached Alexandria from Puteoli in eight -days, and that, too, with a very moderate breeze all the time! To think -that here is a plant which brings Gades, situate near the Pillars of -Hercules, within six days of Ostia, Nearer Spain within three, the -province of Gallia Narbonensis within two, and Africa within one!—this -last passage having been made by C. Flavius, when legatus of Vibius -Crispus, the proconsul, and that, too, with but little or no wind to -favour his passage! - -What audacity in man! What criminal perverseness! thus to sow a thing -in the ground for the purpose of catching the winds and the tempests, -it being not enough for him, forsooth, to be borne upon the waves -alone! Nay, still more than this, sails even that are bigger than the -very ships themselves will not suffice for him, and although it takes -a whole tree to make a mast to carry the cross-yards, above those -cross-yards sails upon sails must still be added, with others swelling -at the prow and at the stern as well—so many devices, in fact, to -challenge death! Only to think, in fine, that that which moves to and -fro, as it were, the various countries of the earth, should spring from -a seed so minute, and make its appearance in a stem so fine, so little -elevated above the surface of the earth! And then, besides, it is not -in all its native strength that it is employed for the purposes of a -tissue; no, it must first be rent asunder, and then tawed and beaten, -till it is reduced to the softness of wool; indeed, it is only by such -violence done to its nature, and prompted by the extreme audacity of -man, and[806] * * * that it is rendered subservient to his purposes. -The inventor of this art has been already mentioned by us on a more -appropriate occasion;[807] not satisfied that his fellow-men should -perish upon land, but anxious that they should meet their end with no -sepulchral rites to await them, there are no execrations[808] to be -found that can equal his demerits! - -It is only in the preceding Book[809] that I was warning the -agriculturist, as he values the grain that is to form our daily -sustenance, to be on his guard against the storm and the tempest; -and yet, here we have man sowing with his own hand, man racking his -invention how best to gather, an object the only aspirations of which -upon the deep are the winds of heaven! And then, too, as if to let us -understand all the better how highly favoured is this instrument of our -punishment, there is no vegetable production that grows with greater -facility;[810] and, to prove to us that it is in despite of Nature -herself that it exists, it has the property of scorching[811] the -ground where it is grown, and of deteriorating the quality of the very -soil itself. - - - - -CHAP. 2. (1.)—HOW FLAX IS SOWN: TWENTY-SEVEN PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF IT. - - -Flax is mostly sown in sandy[812] soils, and after a single ploughing -only. There is no plant that grows more rapidly[813] than this; sown -in spring,[814] it is pulled up in summer, and is, for this reason as -well, productive of considerable injury to the soil.[815] There may -be some, however, who would forgive Egypt for growing it, as it is by -its aid that she imports the merchandize of Arabia and India; but why -should the Gallic provinces base any of their reputation upon this -product?[816] Is it not enough, forsooth, for them to be separated by -mountains from the sea, and to have, upon the side on which they are -bounded by the Ocean, that void and empty space, as it is called?[817] -The Cadurci,[818] the Caleti, the Ruteni,[819] the Bituriges,[820] and -the Morini,[821] those remotest of all mankind, as it is supposed, the -whole of the Gallic provinces, in fact, are in the habit of weaving -sail-cloth; and at the present day our enemies even, who dwell beyond -the Rhenus, have learned to do the same; indeed, there is no tissue -that is more beautiful in the eyes of their females than linen. I am -here reminded of the fact, that we find it stated by M. Varro, that it -is a custom peculiar to the family of the Serrani[822] for the women -never to wear garments of linen. In Germany it is in caves[823] deep -under-ground that the linen-weavers ply their work; and the same is -the case, too, in the Alian territory, in Italy, between the rivers -Padus and Ticinus, the linen of which holds the third rank among -the kinds manufactured in Europe, that of Sætabis[824] claiming the -first, and those of Retovium[825] and of Faventia, in the vicinity -of Alia, on the Æmilian Way, the second, place in general estimation. -The linens of Faventia are preferred for whiteness to those of Alia, -which are always un-bleached: those of Retovium are remarkable for -their extreme fineness, combined with substance, and are quite equal in -whiteness to the linens of Faventia; but they have none of that fine -downy nap[826] upon them, which is so highly esteemed by some persons, -though equally disliked by others. A thread is made, too, from their -flax, of considerable strength, smoother and more even, almost, than -the spider’s web; when tested with the teeth, it emits a sharp, clear -twang; hence it is, that it sells at double the price of the other -kinds. - -But it is the province of Nearer Spain that produces a linen of the -greatest lustre, an advantage which it owes to the waters of a stream -which washes the city of Tarraco[827] there. The fineness, too, of this -linen is quite marvellous, and here it is that the first manufactories -of cambric[828] were established. From the same province, too, of -Spain, the flax of Zoëla[829] has of late years been introduced into -Italy, and has been found extremely serviceable for the manufacture -of hunting-nets. Zoëla is a city of Callæcia, in the vicinity of the -Ocean. The flax, too, of Cumæ, in Campania, has its own peculiar merits -in the manufacture of nets for fishing and fowling; it is employed, -also, for making hunting-nets. For it is from flax, in fact, that we -prepare various textures, destined to be no less insidious to the brute -creation than they are to ourselves. It is with toils made from the -flax of Cumæ that wild boars are taken, the meshes being proof against -their bristles,[830] equally with the edge of the knife: before now, -too, we have seen some of these toils of a fineness so remarkable[831] -as to allow of being passed through a man’s ring, running ropes -and all, a single individual being able to carry an amount of nets -sufficient to environ a whole forest—a thing which we know to have been -done not long ago by Julius Lupus, who died prefect of Egypt. This, -however, is nothing very surprising, but it really is quite wonderful -that each of the cords was composed of no less than one hundred and -fifty threads. Those, no doubt, will be astonished at this, who are -not aware that there is preserved in the Temple of Minerva, at Lindus, -in the Isle of Rhodes, the cuirass of a former king of Egypt, Amasis -by name, each thread employed in the texture of which is composed of -three hundred and sixty-five other threads. Mucianus, who was three -times consul, informs us that he saw this curiosity very recently, -though there was but little then remaining of it, in consequence of the -injury it had experienced at the hands of various persons who had tried -to verify the fact. Italy, too, holds the flax of the Peligni in high -esteem, though it is only employed by fullers; there is no kind known -that is whiter than this, or which bears a closer resemblance to wool. -That grown by the Cadurci[832] is held in high estimation for making -mattresses;[833] which, as well as flock,[834] are an invention for -which we are indebted to the Gauls: the ancient usage of Italy is still -kept in remembrance in the word “stramentum,”[835] the name given by us -to beds stuffed with straw. - -The flax of Egypt, though the least strong[836] of all as a tissue, -is that from which the greatest profits are derived. There are four -varieties of it, the Tanitic, the Pelusiac, the Butic, and the -Tentyritic—so called from the various districts in which they are -respectively grown. The upper part of Egypt, in the vicinity of -Arabia, produces a shrub, known by some as “gossypium,”[837] but by -most persons as “xylon;” hence the name of “xylina,” given to the -tissues that are manufactured from it. The shrub is small, and bears a -fruit, similar in appearance to a nut with a beard, and containing in -the inside a silky substance, the down of which is spun into threads. -There is no tissue known, that is superior to those made from this -thread, either for whiteness, softness, or dressing: the most esteemed -vestments worn by the priests of Egypt are made of it. There is a -fourth kind of tissue, known by the name of “othoninum,” which is made -from a kind of marsh-reed,[838] the panicule only being employed for -the purpose. In Asia, again, there is a thread made from broom,[839] -which is employed in the construction of fishing-nets, being found to -be remarkably durable; for the purpose of preparing it, the shrub is -steeped in water for ten days. The Æthiopians, also, and the people of -India, prepare a kind of thread from a fruit which resembles our apple, -and the Arabians, as already[840] mentioned, from gourds that grow upon -trees. - - - - -CHAP. 3.—THE MODE OF PREPARING FLAX. - - -In our part of the world the ripeness of flax is usually ascertained by -two signs, the swelling of the seed, and its assuming a yellowish tint. -It is then pulled up by the roots, made up into small sheaves that will -just fill the hand, and hung to dry in the sun. It is suspended with -the roots upwards the first day, and then for the five following days -the heads of the sheaves are placed, reclining one against the other, -in such a way that the seed which drops out may fall into the middle. -Linseed is employed for various medicinal[841] purposes, and it is -used by the country-people of Italy beyond the Padus in a certain kind -of food, which is remarkable for its sweetness: for this long time -past, however, it has only been in general use for sacrifices offered -to the divinities. After the wheat harvest is over, the stalks of flax -are plunged in water that has been warmed in the sun, and are then -submitted to pressure with a weight; for there is nothing known that -is more light and buoyant than this. When the outer coat is loosened, -it is a sign that the stalks have been sufficiently steeped; after -which[842] they are again turned with the heads downwards, and left to -dry as before in the sun: when thoroughly dried, they are beaten with a -tow-mallet on a stone. - -The part that lies nearest to the outer coat is known by the name of -“stuppa;” it is a flax of inferior quality, and is mostly employed for -making the wicks of lamps. This, however, requires to be combed out -with iron hatchels, until the whole of the outer skin is removed. The -inner part presents numerous varieties of flax, esteemed respectively -in proportion to their whiteness and their softness. Spinning flax is -held to be an honourable[843] employment for men even: the husks, or -outer coats, are employed for heating furnaces and ovens. There is a -certain amount of skill required in hatchelling flax and dressing it: -it is a fair proportion for fifty pounds in the sheaf to yield fifteen -pounds of flax combed out. When spun into thread, it is rendered -additionally supple by being soaked in water and then beaten out upon -a stone; and after it is woven into a tissue, it is again beaten with -heavy maces: indeed, the more roughly it is treated the better it is. - - - - -CHAP. 4.—LINEN MADE OF ASBESTOS. - - -There has been invented also a kind of linen which is incombustible by -flame. It is generally known as “live”[844] linen, and I have seen, -before now, napkins[845] that were made of it thrown into a blazing -fire, in the room where the guests were at table, and after the stains -were burnt out, come forth from the flames whiter and cleaner than -they could possibly have been rendered by the aid of water. It is from -this material that the corpse-cloths of monarchs are made, to ensure -the separation of the ashes of the body from those of the pile. This -substance grows[846] in the deserts of India,[847] scorched by the -burning rays of the sun: here, where no rain is ever known to fall, and -amid multitudes of deadly serpents, it becomes habituated to resist -the action of fire. Rarely to be found, it presents considerable -difficulties in weaving it into a tissue, in consequence of its -shortness; its colour is naturally red, and it only becomes white -through the agency of fire. By those who find it, it is sold at prices -equal to those given for the finest pearls; by the Greeks it is called -“asbestinon,”[848] a name which indicates its peculiar properties. -Anaxilaüs[849] makes a statement to the effect that if a tree is -surrounded with linen made of this substance, the noise of the blows -given by the axe will be deadened thereby, and that the tree may be cut -down without their being heard. For these qualities it is that this -linen occupies the very highest rank among all the kinds that are known. - -The next rank is accorded to the tissue known as “byssus,”[850] an -article which is held in the very highest estimation by females, and -is produced in the vicinity of Elis, in Achaia.[851] I find it stated -by some writers that a scruple of this sold formerly at four denarii, -the same rate, in fact, as gold. The downy nap of linen, and more -particularly that taken from the sails of sea-going ships, is very -extensively employed for medicinal purposes, and the ashes of it have -the same virtues as spodium.[852] Among the poppies, too,[853] there -is a variety which imparts a remarkable degree of whiteness to fabrics -made of linen. - - - - -CHAP. 5.—AT WHAT PERIOD LINEN WAS FIRST DYED. - - -Attempts, too, have even been made to dye linen, and to make it assume -the frivolous colours[854] of our cloths. This was first done in the -fleet of Alexander the Great, while sailing upon the river Indus; for, -upon one occasion, during a battle that was being fought, his generals -and captains distinguished their vessels by the various tints of their -sails, and astounded the people on the shores by giving their many -colours to the breeze, as it impelled them on. It was with sails of -purple, too, that Cleopatra accompanied M. Antonius to the battle of -Actium, and it was by their aid that she took to flight: such being the -distinguishing mark of the royal ship. - - - - -CHAP. 6.—AT WHAT PERIOD COLOURED AWNINGS WERE FIRST EMPLOYED IN THE -THEATRES. - - -In more recent[855] times linens alone have been employed for the -purpose of affording shade in our theatres; Q. Catulus having been the -first who applied them to this use, on the occasion of the dedication -by him of the Capitol. At a later period, Lentulus Spinther, it is -said, was the first to spread awnings of fine linen[856] over the -theatre, at the celebration of the Games in honour of Apollo. After -this, Cæsar, when Dictator, covered with a linen awning the whole of -the Roman Forum, as well as the Sacred Way, from his own house as far -as the ascent to the Capitol, a sight, it is said, more wonderful even -than the show of gladiators which he then exhibited. At a still later -period, and upon the occasion of no public games, Marcellus, the son of -Octavia, sister of Augustus, during his ædileship, and in the eleventh -consulship of his uncle, on the * * * day before the calends of August, -covered in the Forum with awnings, his object being to consult the -health of those assembled there for the purposes of litigation—a vast -change, indeed, from the manners prevalent in the days of Cato the -Censor, who expressed a wish that the Forum was paved with nothing else -but sharp pointed stones. - -Awnings have been lately extended, too, by the aid of ropes, over the -amphitheatres of the Emperor Nero, dyed azure, like the heavens, and -bespangled all over with stars. Those which are employed by us to -cover the inner court[857] of our houses are generally red: one reason -for employing them is to protect the moss that grows there from the -rays[858] of the sun. In other respects, white fabrics of linen have -always held the ascendancy in public estimation. Linen, too, was highly -valued as early as the Trojan war; for why else should it not have -figured as much in battles as it did in shipwrecks? Thus Homer,[859] we -find, bears witness that there were but few among the warriors of those -days who fought with cuirasses[860] on made of linen; while, as for -the rigging of the ships, of which that writer speaks, it is generally -supposed by the more learned among the commentators, that it was made -of this material; for the word “sparta,”[861] which he employs, means -nothing more than the produce of a seed. - - - - -CHAP. 7. (2.)—THE NATURE OF SPARTUM. - - -For the fact is that spartum[862] did not begin to be employed till -many ages after the time of Homer; indeed, not before the first war -that the Carthaginians waged in Spain. This, too, is a plant that grows -spontaneously,[863] and is incapable of being reproduced by sowing, -it being a species of rush, peculiar to a dry, arid soil, a morbid -production confined to a single country only; for in reality it is a -curse to the soil, as there is nothing whatever that can be sown or -grown in its vicinity. There is a kind of spartum grown in Africa,[864] -of a stunted nature, and quite useless for all practical purposes. It -is found in one portion of the province of Carthage[865] in Nearer -Spain, though not in every part of that; but wherever it is produced, -the mountains, even, are covered all over with it. - -This material is employed by the country-people there for making[866] -their beds; with it they kindle their fires also, and prepare their -torches; shoes[867] also, and garments for the shepherds, are made of -it. As a food for animals, it is highly injurious,[868] with the sole -exception of the tender tops of the shoots. When wanted for other uses, -it is pulled up by the roots, with considerable labour; the legs of -the persons so employed being protected by boots, and their hands with -gloves, the plant being twisted round levers of bone or holm-oak, to -get it up with the greater facility. At the present day it is gathered -in the winter, even; but this work is done with the least difficulty -between the ides of May[869] and those of June, that being the period -at which it is perfectly ripe. - - - - -CHAP. 8.—THE MODE OF PREPARING SPARTUM. - - -When taken up it is made into sheaves, and laid in heaps for a couple -of days, while it retains its life and freshness; on the third day -the sheaves are opened out and spread in the sun to dry, after which -it is again made up into sheaves, and placed under cover. It is then -put to soak in sea-water, this being the best of all for the purpose, -though fresh water will do in case sea-water cannot be procured: this -done, it is again dried in the sun, and then moistened afresh. If it is -wanted for immediate use, it is put in a tub and steeped in warm water, -after which it is placed in an upright position to dry: this being -universally admitted to be the most expeditious method of preparing -it. To make it ready for use, it requires to be beaten out. Articles -made of it are proof, more particularly, against the action of fresh -or sea-water; but on dry land, ropes of hemp are generally preferred. -Indeed, we find that spartum receives nutriment even from being under -water, by way of compensation, as it were, for the thirst it has had to -endure upon its native soil. - -By nature it is peculiarly well adapted for repairing, and however old -the material may be, it unites very well with new. The person, indeed, -who is desirous duly to appreciate this marvellous plant, has only to -consider the numerous uses to which, in all parts of the world, it is -applied: from it are made, the rigging of ships, various appliances -of mechanism employed in building, and numerous other articles which -supply the wants of daily life. To suffice for all these requirements, -we find it growing solely on a tract of ground which lies upon the -sea-line of the province of New Carthage, somewhat less than thirty -miles in breadth by one hundred in length. The expense precludes its -being transported to any very considerable distance. - - - - -CHAP. 9.—AT WHAT PERIOD SPARTUM WAS FIRST EMPLOYED. - - -The Greeks used formerly to employ the rush for making ropes; so, at -least, we are led to believe, from the name[870] given by them to that -plant; and at a later period they made them, it is very clear, from the -leaves of the palm, and the inner bark of the linden-tree. It seems to -me very probable, too, that it was from them that the Carthaginians -borrowed the first hint for applying spartum to a similar purpose. - - - - -CHAP. 10.—THE BULB ERIOPHORUS. - - -Theophrastus[871] informs us, that there is a kind of bulb, which -grows on the banks of rivers, and which encloses between the outer coat -and the portion that is eaten a sort of woolly substance, of which felt -socks, and other articles of dress, are made; but, in the copies, those -at least which have fallen in my way, there is no mention made of the -country in which it grows, or of any details in connection with it, -beyond the fact that the name given to it is “eriophoron.”[872] As to -spartum, he makes no[873] mention of it whatever, although he has given -the history, with the greatest exactness, of all the known plants, -three hundred and ninety years before our time—a fact to which I have -already[874] alluded on other occasions: from this it would appear that -spartum has come into use since his day. - - - - -CHAP. 11.—PLANTS WHICH SPRING UP AND GROW WITHOUT A ROOT—PLANTS WHICH -GROW, BUT CANNOT BE REPRODUCED FROM SEED. - - -As we have here made a beginning of treating of the marvels of -Nature, we shall proceed to examine them in detail; and among them -the very greatest of all, beyond a doubt, is the fact that any plant -should spring up and grow without a root. Such, for instance, is the -vegetable production known as the truffle;[875] surrounded on every -side by earth, it is connected with it by no fibres, not so much as a -single thread even, while the spot in which it grows, presents neither -protuberance nor cleft to the view. It is found, in fact, in no way -adhering to the earth, but enclosed within an outer coat; so much so, -indeed, that though we cannot exactly pronounce it to be composed of -earth, we must conclude that it is nothing else but a callous[876] -concretion of the earth. - -Truffles generally grow in dry, sandy soils, and spots that are thickly -covered with shrubs; in size they are often larger than a quince, and -are found to weigh as much[877] as a pound. There are two kinds of -them, the one full of sand, and consequently injurious to the teeth, -the other free from sand and all impurities. They are distinguished -also by their colour, which is red or black, and white within; those of -Africa[878] are the most esteemed. Whether the truffle grows gradually, -or whether this blemish of the earth—for it can be looked upon as -nothing else—at once assumes the globular form and magnitude which it -presents when found; whether, too, it is possessed of vitality or not, -are all of them questions, which, in my opinion, are not easy to be -solved. It decays and rots in a manner precisely similar to wood. - -It is known to me as a fact, that the following circumstance happened -to Lartius Licinius, a person of prætorian rank, while minister of -justice,[879] a few years ago, at Carthage in Spain; upon biting a -truffle, he found a denarius inside, which all but broke his fore -teeth—an evident proof that the truffle is nothing else but an -agglomeration of elementary earth. At all events, it is quite certain -that the truffle belongs to those vegetable productions which spring up -spontaneously, and are incapable of being reproduced from seed.[880] - - - - -CHAP. 12. (3.)—MISY; ITON; AND GERANION. - - -Of a similar nature, too, is the vegetable production known in the -province of Cyrenaica by the name of “misy,”[881] remarkable for the -sweetness of its smell and taste, but more fleshy than the truffle: the -same, too, as to the iton[882] of the Thracians, and the geranion of -the Greeks. - - - - -CHAP. 13.—PARTICULARS CONNECTED WITH THE TRUFFLE. - - -The following peculiarities we find mentioned with reference to -the truffle. When there have been showers in autumn, and frequent -thunder-storms, truffles are produced, thunder[883] contributing more -particularly to their developement; they do not, however, last beyond -a year, and are considered the most delicate eating when gathered in -spring. In some places the formation of them is attributed to water; -as at Mytilene,[884] for instance, where they are never to be found, -it is said, unless the rivers overflow, and bring down the seed from -Tiara, that being the name of a place at which they are produced in the -greatest abundance. The finest truffles of Asia are those found in the -neighbourhood of Lampsacus and Alopeconnesus; the best in Greece are -those of the vicinity of Elis. - - - - -CHAP. 14.—THE PEZICA. - - -Belonging to the mushroom genus, also, there is a species, known to the -Greeks by the name of “pezica,”[885] which grows without either root or -stalk. - - - - -CHAP. 15.—LASERPITIUM, LASER, AND MASPETUM. - - -Next to these, laserpitium[886] claims our notice, a very remarkable -plant, known to the Greeks by the name of “silphion,” and originally a -native of the province of Cyrenaica. The juice of this plant is called -“laser,” and it is greatly in vogue for medicinal as well as other -purposes, being sold at the same rate as silver. For these many years -past, however, it has not been found in Cyrenaica,[887] as the farmers -of the revenue who hold the lands there on lease, have a notion that -it is more profitable to depasture flocks of sheep upon them. Within -the memory of the present generation, a single stalk[888] is all that -has ever been found there, and that was sent as a curiosity to the -Emperor Nero. If it so happen that one of the flock, while grazing, -meets with a growing shoot[889] of it, the fact is easily ascertained -by the following signs; the sheep, after eating of it, immediately -falls asleep, while the goat is seized with a fit of sneezing.[890] -For this long time past, there has been no other laser imported into -this country, but that produced in either Persis, Media, or Armenia, -where it grows in considerable abundance, though much inferior[891] -to that of Cyrenaica; and even then it is extensively adulterated -with gum, sacopenium,[892] or pounded beans. I ought the less then -to omit the facts, that in the consulship[893] of C. Valerius and -M. Herennius, there was brought to Rome, from Cyrenæ, for the public -service, thirty pounds’ weight of laserpitium, and that the Dictator -Cæsar, at the beginning of the Civil War, took from out of the public -treasury, besides gold and silver, no less than fifteen hundred pounds -of laserpitium. - -We find it stated by the most trustworthy among the Greek writers,[894] -that this plant first made its appearance in the vicinity of the -gardens of the Hesperides and the Greater Syrtis, immediately after the -earth had been soaked on a sudden by a shower as black as pitch. This -took place seven years before the foundation of the city of Cyrenæ, and -in the year of Rome 143. The virtues of this remarkable fall of rain -extended, it is said, over no less than four thousand stadia of the -African territory; and upon this soil laserpitium began universally -to grow, a plant that is in general wild and stubborn, and which, if -attempted to be cultivated, will leave the spot where it has been sown -quite desolate and barren. The roots of it are numerous and thick, the -stalk being like that of fennel-giant, and of similar thickness. The -leaves of this plant were known as “maspetum,” and bore a considerable -resemblance to parsley; the seeds of it were foliaceous, and the plant -shed its leaves every year. They used to feed the cattle there upon it; -at first it purged them, but afterwards they would grow fat, the flesh -being improved in flavour in a most surprising degree. After the fall -of the leaf, the people themselves were in the habit of eating[895] the -stalk, either roasted or boiled: from the drastic effects of this diet -the body was purged for the first forty days, all vicious humours being -effectually removed.[896] - -The juices of this plant were collected two different ways, either from -the root or from the stalk; in consequence of which these two varieties -of the juice were known by the distinguishing names of “rhizias” and -“caulias,”[897] the last being of inferior quality to the other, and -very apt to turn putrid. Upon the root there was a black bark, which -was extensively employed for the purposes of adulteration. The juice -of the plant was received in vessels, and mixed there with a layer of -bran; after which, from time to time it was shaken, till it had reached -a proper state of maturity; indeed, if this precaution was neglected, -it was apt to turn putrid. The signs that it had come to maturity were -its colour, its dryness, and the absorption of all humidity. - -There are some authors, however, who state that the root of laserpitium -was more than a cubit in length, and that it presented a tuberosity -above the surface of the earth. An incision, they say, was made in this -tuberosity, from which a juice would flow, like milk in appearance; -above the tuberosity grew a stalk, to which they give the name of -“magydaris;”[898] the leaves that grew upon this stalk were of the -colour of gold, and, falling at the rising of the Dog-star, when the -south winds begin to prevail, they acted as seed for the purposes -of reproduction. It was from these leaves, too, they say, that -laserpitium[899] was produced, the root and the stalk attaining their -full growth in the space of one year. The same writers also state, that -it was the practice to turn up the ground about the plant, and that it -had no such effect as purging the cattle that were fed upon it; though -one result of using it as food was, that such cattle as were ailing -were either cured of their distempers, or else died immediately upon -eating of it, a thing, however, that but rarely happened. The first -description, however, is found to agree more nearly with the silphium -that comes from Persis. - - - - -CHAP. 16.—MAGYDARIS. - - -There is another[900] variety of this plant, known as “magydaris,”[901] -of a more delicate nature, less active in its effects, and destitute -of juice. It grows in the countries adjacent to Syria,[902] but is not -to be found in the regions of Cyrenaica. There grows also upon Mount -Parnassus,[903] in great abundance, a plant to which some persons -give the name of “laserpitium:” by means of all these varieties, -adulterations are effected of a production that is held in the -highest esteem for its salutary qualities and its general usefulness. -The chief proofs of its genuineness consist in its colour, which -ought to be slightly red without, and when broken quite white and -transparent within; the drops of it, too, should melt very rapidly on -the application of spittle. It is extensively employed for medicinal -purposes.[904] - - - - -CHAP. 17.—MADDER. - - -There are two other plants also, which are but little known to any but -the herd of the sordid and avaricious, and this because of the large -profits that are derived from them. The first of these is madder,[905] -the employment of which is necessary in dyeing wool and leather. The -madder of Italy is the most esteemed, and that more particularly -which is grown in the suburbs of the City; nearly all our provinces, -too, produce it in great abundance.[906] It grows spontaneously, but -is capable of reproduction by sowing, much after the same manner as -the fitch. The stem,[907] however, is prickly, and articulated, with -five leaves arranged round each joint: the seed is red. Its medicinal -properties we shall have occasion to mention in the appropriate -place.[908] - - - - -CHAP. 18.—THE RADICULA. - - -The plant known to us by the name of “radicula,”[909] is the second of -these productions. It furnishes a juice that is extensively employed -in washing wool, and it is quite wonderful how greatly it contributes -to the whiteness and softness of wool. It may be produced anywhere by -cultivation, but that which grows spontaneously in Asia and Syria,[910] -upon rugged, rocky sites, is more highly esteemed. That, however, which -is found beyond the Euphrates has the highest repute of all. The stalk -of it is ferulaceous[911] and thin, and is sought by the inhabitants -of those countries as an article of food. It is employed also for -making unguents, being boiled up with the other ingredients, whatever -they may happen to be. In leaf it strongly resembles the olive. The -Greeks have given it the name of “struthion.” It blossoms in summer, -and is agreeable to the sight, but entirely destitute of smell. It is -somewhat thorny, and has a stalk covered with down. It has an extremely -diminutive seed, and a large root, which is cut up and employed for the -purposes already mentioned. - - - - -CHAP. 19. (4.)—THE PLEASURES OF THE GARDEN. - - -Having made mention of these productions, it now remains for us to -return to the cultivation of the garden,[912] a subject recommended -by its own intrinsic merits to our notice: for we find that in remote -antiquity, even, there was nothing looked upon with a greater degree -of admiration than the gardens of the Hesperides,[913] those of the -kings Adonis[914] and Alcinoüs,[915] and the Hanging Gardens, whether -they were the work of Semiramis, or whether of Cyrus, king of Assyria, -a subject of which we shall have to speak in another work.[916] The -kings of Rome cultivated their gardens with their own hands; indeed, it -was from his garden that Tarquinius Superbus[917] sent to his son that -cruel and sanguinary message of his. In our laws of the Twelve Tables, -we find the word “villa,” or “farm,” nowhere mentioned; it is the word -“hortus” that is always used with that signification, while the term -“heredium” we find employed for “garden.” - -There are certain religious impressions, too, that have been attached -to this species of property,[918] and we find that it is in the -garden and the Forum only that statues of satyrs are consecrated, as -a protection against the evil effects[919] of spells and sorcery; -although in Plautus, we find the gardens spoken of as being under -the tutelage of Venus. At the present day, under the general name of -gardens,[920] we have pleasure-grounds situate in the very heart of the -City, as well as extensive fields and villas. - -Epicurus, that connoisseur[921] in the enjoyments of a life of ease, -was the first to lay out a garden at Athens;[922] up to his time it -had never been thought of, to dwell in the country in the middle of -the town. At Rome, on the other hand, the garden[923] constituted of -itself the poor man’s field, and it was from the garden that the lower -classes procured their daily food—an aliment how guiltlessly obtained! -But still, it is a great deal better, no doubt,[924] to dive into the -abysses of the deep, and to seek each kind of oyster at the risk -and peril of shipwreck, to go searching for birds beyond the river -Phasis[925] even, which, protected as they are by the terrors invented -by fable,[926] are only rendered all the more precious thereby—to go -searching for others, again, in Numidia,[927] and the very sepulchres -of Æthiopia,[928] or else to be battling with wild beasts, and to get -eaten one’s self while trying to take a prey which another person is to -eat! And yet, by Hercules! how little do the productions of the garden -cost us in comparison with these! How more than sufficient for every -wish and for every want!—were it not, indeed, that here, as in every -thing else, turn which way we will, we find the same grounds for our -wrath and indignation. We really might be content to allow of fruits -being grown of the most exquisite quality, remarkable, some of them for -their flavour, some for their size, some, again, for the monstrosities -of their growth, morsels all of them forbidden to the poor![929] We -might allow of wines being kept till they are mellowed with age, or -enfeebled by being passed through[930] cloth strainers, of men, too, -however prolonged their lives, never drinking any but a wine that is -still older than themselves! We might allow of luxury devising how -best to extract the very aroma, as it were, and marrow[931] only from -grain; of people, too, living upon nothing but the choicest productions -of the confectioner, and upon pastes fashioned in fantastic shapes: -of one kind of bread being prepared for the rich, and another for the -multitude; of the yearly produce of the field being classified in a -descending scale, till it reaches the humble means of the very lowest -classes—but do we not find that these refined distinctions have been -extended to the very herbs even, and that riches have contrived to -establish points of dissimilarity in articles of food which ordinarily -sell for a single copper coin?[932] - -In this department even, humble as it is, we are still destined to -find certain productions that are denied to the community at large, and -the very cabbages pampered to such an enormous extent that the poor -man’s table is not large enough to hold them. Asparagus, by Nature, -was intended to grow wild,[933] so that each might gather it where -he pleased—but, lo and behold! we find it in the highest state of -cultivation, and Ravenna produces heads that weigh as much as three -pounds[934] even! Alas for the monstrous excess of gluttony! It would -be surprising indeed, for the beasts of the field to be forbidden the -thistle for food, and yet it is a thing forbidden[935] to the lower -classes of the community! These refined distinctions, too, are extended -to the very water even, and, thanks to the mighty influence of money, -there are lines of demarcation drawn in the very elements themselves. -Some persons are for drinking ice, others for quaffing snow, and thus -is the curse of the mountain steep turned into an appetizing stimulus -for the palate![936] Cold is carefully treasured up for the summer -heats, and man’s invention is racked how best to keep snow freezing -in months that are not its own. Some again there are who first boil -the water,[937] and then bring it to the temperature of winter—indeed, -there is nothing that pleases man in the fashion in which Nature -originally made it. - -And is it the fact, then, that any herb of the garden is reared only -for the rich man’s table? It is so—but still let no one of the angered -populace think of a fresh secession to Mount Sacer or Mount Aventine; -for to a certainty, in the long run, all-powerful money will bring them -back to just the same position as they were in when it wrought the -severance. For, by Hercules![938] there was not an impost levied at -Rome more grievous than the market-dues, an impost that aroused the -indignation of the populace, who repeatedly appealed with loud clamours -to all the chief men of the state to be relieved from it. At last they -were relieved from this heavy tax upon their wares; and then it was -found that there was no tax more lucrative, more readily collected, -or less obnoxious to the caprices of chance, than the impost that was -levied in exchange for it, in the shape of a property-tax, extended to -the poorest classes: for now the very soil itself is their surety that -paid the tax will be, their means are patent to the light of day, and -the superficial extent of their possessions, whatever the weather may -chance to be, always remains the same. - -Cato,[939] we find, speaks in high praise of garden cabbages:—indeed, -it was according to their respective methods of garden cultivation -that the agriculturists of early times were appreciated, and it was -immediately concluded that it was a sign of a woman being a bad and -careless manager of her family, when the kitchen-garden—for this was -looked upon as the woman’s department more particularly—was negligently -cultivated; as in such case her only resource was, of course, the -shambles or the herb-market. But cabbages were not held in such high -esteem in those days as now: indeed, all dishes were held in disrepute -which required something else to help them down, the great object being -to economize oil as much as possible; and as to the flesh-market, so -much as a wish even to taste its wares was visited with censure and -reproach. The chief thing that made them so fond of the garden was -the fact that its produce needs no fire and ensures economy in fuel, -and that it offers resources which are always ready and at hand. -These articles of food, which from their peculiar nature we call -“vinegar-diets,”[940] were found to be easy of digestion, by no means -apt to blunt and overload the senses, and to create but little craving -for bread as an accompaniment. A portion of them which is still used by -us for seasonings, attests that our forefathers used only to look at -home for their resources, and that no Indian peppers were in request -with them, or any of those other condiments which we are in the habit -of seeking beyond the seas. In former times the lower classes of Rome, -with their mimic gardens in their windows, day after day presented -the reflex of the country to the eye, when as yet the multitudes of -atrocious burglaries, almost innumerable, had not compelled us to shut -out all such sights with bars to the passers by. - -Let the garden, then, have its due meed of honour, and let not -things, because they are common, enjoy for that the less share of our -consideration—and the more so, as we find that from it men of the very -highest rank have been content to borrow their surnames even; thus -in the Valerian family, for instance, the Lactucini have not thought -themselves disgraced by taking their name from the lettuce. Perhaps, -too, our labours and research may contribute some slight recommendation -to this our subject; although, with Virgil,[941] we are ready to admit -how difficult it is, by language however elevated, to ennoble a subject -that is so humble in itself. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—THE LAYING OUT OF GARDEN GROUND. - - -There is no doubt that the proper plan is, to have the gardens -adjoining the country-house; and they should be watered, more -particularly, by a river running in front of it, if possible; or else -with water drawn from a well by the aid of a wheel or of pumps, or by -swipes.[942] The ground should be opened just as the west winds are -beginning to prevail; fourteen days after which it should be got ready -for autumn, and then before the winter solstice it should have another -turning up. It will require eight men to dig a jugerum, manure being -mixed with the earth to a depth of three feet: the ground, too, should -be divided into plots or beds with raised and rounded edges, each of -which should have a path dug round it, by means of which access may be -afforded to the gardener and a channel formed for the water needed for -irrigation. - - - - -CHAP. 21.—PLANTS OTHER THAN GRAIN AND SHRUBS. - - -Among the garden plants there are some that recommend themselves by -their bulbs, others by the head, others by the stalk, others by the -leaf, others by both: some, again, are valued for their seed, others -for the outer coat, others for their membranous tissues, others for -their cartilaginous substance, others for the firmness of their flesh, -and others for the fleshy tunics in which they are enveloped. - - - - -CHAP. 22.—THE NATURAL HISTORY OF TWENTY DIFFERENT KINDS OF PLANTS -WHICH GROW IN GARDENS—THE PROPER METHODS TO BE FOLLOWED IN SOWING THEM -RESPECTIVELY. - - -Of some plants the fruits[943] are in the earth, of others both in -the earth and out of it, and of others, again, out of the earth -solely. Some of them increase as they lie upon the ground, gourds -and cucumbers, for instance; the same products will grow also in a -hanging position, but they are much heavier even then than any of the -fruits that grow upon trees. The cucumber, however, is composed of -cartilage and a fleshy substance, while the gourd consists of rind and -cartilage: this last is the only vegetable production the outer coat -of which becomes of a ligneous nature, when ripe. Radishes, turnips, -and rape are hidden in the earth, and so, too, are elecampane,[944] -skirrets,[945] and parsnips,[946] though in a different manner. -There are some plants, again, to which we shall give the name of -“ferulaceous,” anise[947] and mallows, for instance; indeed, we find -it stated by some writers that in Arabia[948] the mallow becomes -arborescent at the sixth month, so much so, in fact, as to admit of -its being used for walking-sticks. We have another instance, again, in -the mallow-tree of Mauretania, which is found at Lixus, a city built -upon an æstuary there; and at which spot, it is said, were formerly the -gardens of the Hesperides, at a distance of two hundred paces from the -Ocean, near the shrine of Hercules, more ancient, tradition says, than -the temple at Gades. This mallow-tree[949] is twenty feet in height, -and of such a thickness that there is not a person in existence who is -able with his arms to span its girth. - -In the class of ferulaceous plants we must include hemp[950] also. -There are some plants, again, to which we must give the appellation of -“fleshy;”[951] such as those spongy[952] productions which are found -growing in damp meadows. As to the fungus, with a hard, tough flesh, we -have already[953] made mention of it when speaking of wood and trees; -and of truffles, which form another variety, we have but very recently -given a description.[954] - - - - -CHAP. 23. (5.)—VEGETABLES OF A CARTILAGINOUS NATURE—CUCUMBERS. PEPONES. - - -The cucumber[955] belongs to the cartilaginous class of plants, and -grows above the ground. It was a wonderful favourite with the Emperor -Tiberius, and, indeed, he was never without it; for he had raised -beds made in frames upon wheels, by means of which the cucumbers were -moved and exposed to the full heat of the sun; while, in winter, they -were withdrawn, and placed under the protection of frames glazed with -mirror-stone.[956] We find it stated, also, by the ancient Greek -writers, that the cucumber ought to be propagated from seed that has -been steeped[957] a couple of days in milk and honey, this method -having the effect of rendering them all the sweeter to the taste. The -cucumber, while growing, may be trained to take any form that may be -wished: in Italy the cucumbers are green[958] and very small, while -those grown in some of the provinces are remarkably large, and of a -wax colour or black.[959] Those of Africa, which are also remarkably -prolific, are held in high esteem; the same, too, with the cucumbers of -Mœsia, which are by far the largest of all. When the cucumber acquires -a very considerable volume, it is known to us as the “pepo.”[960] -Cucumbers when eaten remain on the stomach till the following day, -and are very difficult[961] of digestion; still, for all that, in -general they are not considered very unwholesome. By nature they have -a wonderful hatred to oil, and no less affection for water, and this -after they have been cut from the stem even.[962] If water is within a -moderate distance of them, they will creep towards it, while from oil, -on the other hand, they will shrink away; if any obstacle, too, should -happen to arrest their progress, or if they are left to hang, they -will grow curved and crooked. Of these facts we may be satisfactorily -convinced in a single night even, for if a vessel filled with water is -placed at four fingers’ distance from a cucumber, it will be found to -have descended to it by the following morning; but if the same is done -with oil, it will have assumed the curved form of a hook by the next -day. If hung in a tube while in blossom, the cucumber will grow to a -most surprising length.[963] It is only of late, too, that a cucumber -of entirely new shape has been produced in Campania, it having just the -form of a quince.[964] It was quite by accident, I am told, that the -first one acquired this shape in growing, and it was from the seed of -this that all the others have been reproduced. The name given to this -variety is “melopepo.” These last do not grow hanging, but assume their -round shape as they lie on the ground. A thing that is very remarkable -in them, in addition to their shape, colour, and smell, is the fact -that, when ripe, although they do not hang from the stem, they separate -from it at the stalk. - -Columella[965] has given us a plan of his, by which we may have -cucumbers the whole year round: the largest bramble-bush that can be -procured is transplanted to a warm, sunny spot, and then cut down, -about the time of the vernal equinox, to within a couple of fingers -of the ground; a cucumber-seed is then inserted in the pith of the -bramble, and the roots are well moulded up with fine earth and manure, -to withstand the cold. According to the Greeks, there are three kinds -of cucumbers, the Laconian, the Scytalic, and the Bœotian,[966] the -Laconian being the only one among them that is fond[967] of the water. - -There are some persons who recommend steeping the seed of the cucumber -in the juice of the herb known as the “culix;”[968] the produce, they -say, will be sure to grow without seeds. - - - - -CHAP. 24.—GOURDS. - - -Gourds resemble the cucumber in nature, at least in their manner of -growing; they manifest an equal aversion to the winter, too, while -they require constant watering and manure. Both cucumbers and gourds -are sown in holes a foot and a half[969] deep, between the vernal -equinox and the summer solstice, at the time of the Parilia[970] more -particularly. Some persons, however, think it better to sow gourds -after the calends of March,[971] and cucumbers after the nones,[972] -and at the time of the Quinquatria.[973] The cucumber and the gourd -climb upwards in a precisely similar manner, their shoots creeping -along the rough surface of the walls, even to the very roof, so -great is their fondness for elevated spots. They have not sufficient -strength, however, to support themselves without the aid of stays. -Shooting upwards with the greatest rapidity, they soon cover with their -light shade the arched roofs of the houses and the trellises on which -they are trained. From this circumstance it is that we find the gourd -classified into two primary kinds, the roof-gourd,[974] and the common -gourd, which creeps upon the ground. In the first kind, from a stalk -of remarkable thinness is suspended a fruit of considerable weight and -volume, and quite immoveable by the action of the wind. The gourd, too, -as well as the cucumber, admits of being lengthened to any extent, by -the aid of osier tubes more particularly. Just after the blossom has -fallen off, the plant is introduced into these tubes, and as it grows -it can be made to assume any form that may be wished, that of a serpent -coiled up being the one that is mostly preferred; if left at liberty -to grow as it hangs, it has been known before now to attain to no less -than[975] nine feet in length. - -The cucumber flowers gradually, blossom succeeding blossom; and it -adapts itself perfectly well to a dry soil. It is covered with a white -down, which increases in quantity as the plant gains in size. - -The gourd admits of being applied to more numerous uses than the -cucumber even: the stem is used as an article of food[976] when young, -but at a later period it changes its nature, and its qualities become -totally different: of late, gourds have come to be used in baths for -jugs and pitchers, but for this long time past they have been employed -as casks[977] for keeping wine. The rind is tender while the fruit is -green, but still it is always scraped off when the gourd is used for -food. It admits of being eaten several ways, and forms a light and -wholesome aliment, and this although it is one of those fruits that -are difficult of digestion by the human stomach, and are apt to swell -out those who eat of them. The seeds which lie nearest to the neck of -the gourd produce fruit of remarkable[978] length, and so do those -which lie at the lower extremities, though not at all comparable with -the others. Those, on the other hand, which lie in the middle, produce -gourds of a round shape, and those on the sides fruit that are thick -and short. The seeds are dried by being placed in the shade, and when -wanted for sowing, are steeped in water first. The longer and thinner -the gourd is, the more agreeable it is to the palate, and hence it is -that those which have been left to grow hanging are reckoned the most -wholesome: these, too, have fewer seeds than the others, the hardness -of which is apt to render the fruit less agreeable for eating. - -Those which are intended for keeping seed, are usually not cut -before the winter sets in; they are then dried in the smoke, and are -extensively employed for preserving[979] garden seeds, and for making -other articles for domestic use. There has been a method discovered, -also, of preserving the gourd for table, and the cucumber as well, -till nearly the time when the next year’s crop is ripe; this is done -by putting them in brine. We are assured, too, that if put in a hole -dug in a place well shaded from the sun, with a layer of sand beneath, -and dry hay and earth on the top of them, they may be kept green for -a very long time. We also find wild[980] cucumbers and gourds; and, -indeed, the same is the case with pretty nearly all the garden plants. -These wild varieties, however, are only possessed of certain medicinal -properties, and for this reason we shall defer any further mention of -them till we come to the Books appropriated to that subject. - - - - -CHAP. 25.—RAPE. TURNIPS. - - -The other plants that are of a cartilaginous nature are concealed, -all of them, in the earth. In the number of these is the rape, a -subject upon which it would almost appear that we have treated[981] -at sufficient length already, were it not that we think it as well -to observe, that medical men call those which are round “male,”[982] -while those which are larger and more elongated, are known to them as -“female” rape: these last are superior in sweetness, and better for -keeping, but by successive sowings they are changed into male rape.[983] - -The same authors, too, have distinguished five different varieties of -the turnip:[984] the Corinthian, the Cleonæan, the Liothasian, the -Bœotian, and the one which they have characterized as peculiarly the -“green,” turnip. The Corinthian turnip[985] grows to a very large -size, and the root is all but out of the ground; indeed, this is the -only kind that, in growing, shoots upwards, and not as the others do, -downwards into the ground. The Liothasian is known by some persons -as the Thracian turnip;[986] it is the one that stands extreme cold -the best of all. Next to it, the Bœotian kind is the sweetest; it is -remarkable, also, for the roundness of its shape and its shortness; -while the Cleonæan turnip,[987] on the other hand, is of an elongated -form. Those, in general, which have a thin, smooth leaf, are the -sweetest; while those, again, the leaf of which is rough, angular, and -prickly, have a pungent taste. There is a kind of wild turnip,[988] -also, the leaves of which resemble those of rocket.[989] At Rome, the -highest rank is given to the turnips of Amiternum,[990] and those of -Nursia; after them, those grown in the neighbourhood of the City[991] -are held in the next degree of esteem. The other particulars connected -with the sowing of the turnip have been already mentioned[992] by us -when speaking of the rape. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—RADISHES. - - -Radishes are composed of an outer coat and a cartilaginous substance, -and in many instances the rind is found to be thicker than the bark of -some trees. This plant is remarkable for its pungency, which increases -in proportion to the thickness of the rind: in some cases, too, the -surface of it assumes a ligneous nature. Radishes are flatulent[993] -to a remarkable degree, and are productive of eructations; hence it -is that they are looked upon as an aliment only fit for low-bred -people,[994] and this more particularly if coleworts are eaten directly -after them. If, on the other hand, they are eaten with green olives, -the eructations produced are not so frequent, and less offensive. -In Egypt the radish is held in very high esteem, on account of the -abundance of oil[995] that is extracted from the seed. Indeed, the -people of that country sow this plant in preference to any other, -whenever they can get the opportunity, the profits derived from it -being larger than those obtained from the cultivation of corn, and the -imposts levied upon it considerably less: there is no grain known that -yields a larger quantity of oil. - -The Greeks have distinguished the radish[996] into three different -kinds, according to the characteristic features of the leaves, there -being the crisped leaf, the smooth leaf, and the wild radish, the leaf -of which is smooth, but shorter than that of the others; it is round -also, grows in great abundance, and spreads like a shrub. The taste -of this last variety is acrid, and it acts medicinally as a strong -purgative. In the first kind, again, there are certain differences, -determined by the seed, for in some varieties the seed is of an -inferior quality, and in others remarkably small: these defects, -however, are only found to exist in the kind that has the crisped leaf. - -Our own people, again, have found other varieties of the radish: there -is the Algidan[997] radish, long and transparent, so called from the -place of its growth: another, similar to the rape in form, is known as -the Syrian radish; it is pretty nearly the mildest and the most tender -of them all, and is well able to bear the winter. The very best of all, -however, is the one that has been brought from Syria, very recently -it would seem, as we do not find it mentioned by any of our writers: -it lasts the whole of the winter through. In addition to these kinds, -there is another, a wild variety, known by the Greeks as “agrion,”[998] -and to the people of Pontus as “armon,” while others, again, call it -“leuce,”[999] and our people “armoracia;”[1000] it has more leaves, -however, than root. - -In testing the quality of the radish, it is the stem more -particularly, that is looked at; in those which are acrid to the -taste, for instance, it is rounder and thicker than in the others, and -grooved with long channels, while the leaves are more unsightly to the -eye, being angular and covered with prickles. - -The radish requires to be sown in a loose, humid soil, has a great -aversion to manure, and is content with a dressing solely of chaff: so -fond is it of the cold, that in Germany it is known to grow as large as -an infant in size.[1001] For the spring crop, it is sown immediately -after the ides of February;[1002] and then again about the time of the -Vulcanalia,[1003] this last crop being looked upon as the best: many -persons, however, sow radishes in March, April, and September. When the -plant begins to grow to any size, it is considered a good plan to cover -up the leaves successively, and to earth up the root as well; for the -part of it which appears above ground is apt to become hard and pithy. -Aristomachus recommends the leaves to be taken off in winter, and the -roots to be well moulded up, to prevent the water from accumulating -about them; and he says, that by using these precautions, they will be -all the finer in summer. Some authors have mentioned a plan of making -a hole with a dibble, and covering it at the bottom with a layer of -chaff, six fingers in depth; upon this layer the seed is put, and then -covered over with manure and earth; the result of which is, according -to their statement, that radishes are obtained full as large as the -hole so made. It is salt, however, that conduces more particularly -to their nutriment, and hence it is that they are often watered with -brine; in Egypt, too, the growers sprinkle nitre[1004] over them, the -roots being remarkable for their mildness. The salt, too, has the -similar effect of removing all their pungency, and when thus treated, -they become very similar in their qualities to radishes that have been -boiled: for when boiled they become sweet and mild, and eat, in fact, -just like turnips. - -Medical men recommend raw radishes to be eaten fasting, with salt, for -the purpose[1005] of collecting the crude humours of the viscera; and -in this way they prepare them for the action of emetics. It is said, -too, that the juices of this plant are absolutely necessary for the -cure of certain diseases of the diaphragm; for it has been found by -experiment, in Egypt, that the phthiriasis[1006] which attaches itself -to the internal parts of the heart, cannot possibly be eradicated by -any other remedy, the kings of that country having ordered the bodies -of the dead to be opened and examined, for the purpose of enquiring -into certain diseases. - -Such, too, is the frivolity of the Greeks, that, in the temple of -Apollo at Delphi, it is said, the radish is so greatly preferred to -all other articles of diet, as to be represented there in gold, the -beet in silver, and the rape in lead.—You might be very sure that -Manius Curius was not a native of that country, the general whom, as we -find stated in our Annals, the ambassadors of the Samnites found busy -roasting rape at the fire, when they came to offer him the gold which -he so indignantly refused. Moschion, too, a Greek author, has written -a volume on the subject of the radish. These vegetables are considered -a very useful article of food during the winter, but they are at all -times very injurious to the teeth, as they are apt to wear them away; -at all events, they give a polish to ivory. There is a great antipathy -between the radish[1007] and the vine; which last will shrink from the -radish, if sown in its vicinity. - - - - -CHAP. 27.—PARSNIPS. - - -The other kinds which have been classified by us among the -cartilaginous plants, are of a more ligneous nature; and it is a -singular thing, that they have, all of them, a strong flavour. Among -these, there is one kind of wild parsnip which grows spontaneously; by -the Greeks it is known as “staphylinos.”[1008] Another kind[1009] of -parsnip is grown either from the root transplanted, or else from seed, -at the beginning of spring or in the autumn; Hyginus says that this may -be done in February, August, September, and October, the ground being -dug to a very considerable depth for the purpose. The parsnip begins -to be fit for eating at the end of a year, but it is still better -at the end of two: it is reckoned more agreeable eating in autumn, -and more particularly if cooked in the saucepan; even then, however, -it preserves its strong pungent flavour, which it is found quite -impossible to get rid of. - -The hibiscum[1010] differs from the parsnip in being more slender: -it is rejected as a food, but is found useful for its medicinal -properties. There is a fourth kind,[1011] also, which bears a similar -degree of resemblance to the parsnip; by our people it is called the -“gallica,” while the Greeks, who have distinguished four varieties of -it, give it the name of “daucus.” We shall have further occasion[1012] -to mention it among the medicinal plants. - - - - -CHAP. 28.—THE SKIRRET. - - -The skirret,[1013] too, has had its reputation established by the -Emperor Tiberius, who demanded a supply of it every year from Germany. -It is at Gelduba,[1014] a fortress situate on the banks of the Rhenus, -that the finest are grown; from which it would appear that they thrive -best in a cold climate. There is a string running through the whole -length of the skirret, and which is drawn out after it is boiled; but -still, for all this, a considerable proportion of its natural pungency -is retained; indeed, when modified by the addition of honied wine, -this is even thought to impart to dishes an additional relish. The -larger parsnip has also a similar sting inside, but only when it is a -year old. The proper time for sowing the skirret is in the months of -February, March, April, August, September, and October. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—ELECAMPANE. - - -Elecampane[1015] is not so elongated as the preceding roots, but more -substantial and more pungent; eaten by itself it is very injurious to -the stomach, but when mixed with other condiments of a sweet nature, -it is extremely wholesome. There are several methods employed for -modifying[1016] its natural acridity and rendering it agreeable to the -palate: thus, for instance, when dried it is reduced to a fine flour, -and then mixed with some sweet liquid or other, or else it is boiled in -vinegar and water, or kept in soak in it; it is also steeped in various -other ways, and then mixed with boiled[1017] grape-juice, or else -incorporated with honey or raisins, or dates with plenty of meat on -them. Other persons, again, have a method of preparing it with quinces, -or else sorbs or plums, while sometimes the flavour is varied by the -addition of pepper or thyme. - -This plant is particularly good for weakness of the stomach, and it -has acquired a high reputation from the circumstance that Julia[1018] -Augusta used to eat it daily. The seed of it is quite useless, as -the plant is reproduced, like the reed, from eyes extracted from the -root. This vegetable, as well as the skirret and the parsnip, is sown -both in spring and autumn, a considerable distance being left between -the plants; indeed, for elecampane, a space of no less than three -feet is required, as it throws out its shoots to a very considerable -distance.[1019] Skirrets, however, are best transplanted. - - - - -CHAP. 30.—BULBS, SQUILLS, AND ARUM. - - -Next in affinity to these plants are the bulbs,[1020] which Cato, -speaking in high terms of those of Megara,[1021] recommends most -particularly for cultivation. Among these bulbs, the squill,[1022] -we find, occupies the very highest rank, although by nature it is -medicinal, and is employed for imparting an additional sharpness to -vinegar:[1023] indeed, there is no bulb known that grows to a larger -size than this, or is possessed of a greater degree of pungency. -There are two varieties of it employed in medicine, the male squill, -which has white leaves, and the female squill, with black[1024] ones. -There is a third kind also, which is good to eat, and is known as -the Epimenidian[1025] squill; the leaf is narrower than in the other -kinds, and not so rough. All the squills have numerous seeds, but they -come up much more quickly if propagated from the offsets that grow on -the sides. To make them attain a still greater size, the large leaves -that grow around them are turned down and covered over with earth; by -which method all the juices are carried to the heads. Squills grow -spontaneously and in vast numbers in the Baleares and the island of -Ebusus, and in the Spanish provinces.[1026] The philosopher Pythagoras -has written a whole volume on the merits of this plant, setting forth -its various medicinal properties; of which we shall have occasion to -speak more at length in the succeeding Book.[1027] - -The other species of bulbs are distinguished by their colour, size, -and sweetness; indeed, there are some that are eaten raw even—those -found in the Tauric Chersonesus, for instance. Next to these, the -bulbs of Africa are held in the highest esteem, and after them those -of Apulia. The Greeks have distinguished the following varieties: the -bulbine,[1028] the setanion,[1029] the opition,[1030] the cyix,[1031] -the leucoion,[1032] the ægilips,[1033] and the sisyrinchion[1034]—in -the last there is this remarkable feature, that the extremities of -the roots increase in winter, but during the spring, when the violet -appears, they diminish in size and gradually contract, and then it is -that the bulb begins to increase in magnitude. - -Among the varieties of the bulb, too, there is the plant known in Egypt -by the name of “aron.”[1035] In size it is very nearly as large as -the squill, with a leaf like that of lapathum, and a straight stalk a -couple of cubits in length, and the thickness of a walking-stick: the -root of it is of a milder nature, so much so, indeed, as to admit of -being eaten raw. - -Bulbs are taken up before the spring, for if not, they are apt to spoil -very quickly. It is a sign that they are ripe when the leaves become -dry at the lower extremities. When too old they are held in disesteem; -the same, too, with the long and the smaller ones; those, on the other -hand, which are red and round are greatly preferred, as also those of -the largest size. In most of them there is a certain degree of pungency -in the upper part, but the middle is sweet. The ancients have stated -that bulbs are reproduced from seed only, but in the champaign country -of Præneste they grow spontaneously, and they grow to an unlimited -extent in the territory of the Remi.[1036] - - - - -CHAP. 31. (6.)—THE ROOTS, FLOWERS, AND LEAVES OF ALL THESE PLANTS. -GARDEN PLANTS WHICH LOSE THEIR LEAVES. - - -Nearly all[1037] the garden plants have a single[1038] root only, -radishes, beet, parsley, and mallows, for example; it is lapathum, -however, that has the longest root of them all, it attaining the length -of three cubits even. The root of the wild kind is smaller and of a -humid nature, and when up it will keep alive for a considerable period. -In some of these plants, however, the roots are fibrous, as we find the -case in parsley and mallows, for instance; in others, again, they are -of a ligneous nature, as in ocimum, for example; and in others they -are fleshy, as in beet, and in saffron even more so. In some, again, -the root is composed of rind and flesh, as in the radish and the rape; -while in others it is jointed, as in hay grass.[1039] Those plants -which have not a straight root throw out immediately a great number of -hairy fibres, orage[1040] and blite,[1041] for instance: squills again, -bulbs, onions, and garlic never have any but a vertical root. Among the -plants that grow spontaneously, there are some which have more numerous -roots than leaves, spalax,[1042] for example, pellitory,[1043] and -saffron.[1044] - -Wild thyme, southernwood, turnips, radishes, mint, and rue blossom -all[1045] at once; while others, again, shed their blossom directly -they have begun to flower. Ocimum[1046] blossoms gradually, beginning -at the lower parts, and hence it is that it is so very long in blossom: -the same is the case, too, with the plant known as heliotropium.[1047] -In some plants the flower is white, in others yellow, and in -others purple. The leaves fall first[1048] from the upper part in -wild-marjoram and elecampane, and in rue[1049] sometimes, when it has -been injured accidentally. In some plants the leaves are hollow, the -onion and the scallion,[1050] more particularly. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—VARIETIES OF THE ONION. - - -Garlic and onions[1051] are invoked by the Egyptians,[1052] when -taking an oath, in the number of their deities. The Greeks have many -varieties[1053] of the onion, the Sardian onion, the Samothracian, -the Alsidenian, the setanian, the schistan, and the Ascalonian,[1054] -so called from Ascalon,[1055] a city of Judæa. They have, all of -them, a pungent smell, which[1056] draws tears from the eyes, those -of Cyprus more particularly, and those of Cnidos the least of all. In -all of them the body is composed of a cartilage of an unctuous[1057] -nature. The variety known as the setanian is the smallest of them all, -with the exception of the Tusculan[1058] onion, but it is sweet to -the taste. The schistan[1059] and the Ascalonian kinds are used for -storing. The schistan onion is left during the winter with the leaves -on; in the spring it is stripped of them, upon which offsets make -their appearance at the same divisions as the leaves; it is to this -circumstance that this variety owes its name. Taking the hint from this -fact, it is recommended to strip the other kinds of their leaves, to -make them bulb all the better, instead of running to seed. - -The Ascalonian onion is of a peculiar nature, being barren in some -measure in the root; hence it is that the Greeks have recommended it -to be reproduced from seed, and not from roots: the transplanting, -too, they say, should be done later in the spring, at the time the -plant germinates, the result being that it bulbs with all the greater -rapidity, and hastens, as it were, to make up for lost time; great -dispatch, however, is requisite in taking it up, for when ripe it rots -with the greatest rapidity. If propagated from roots, it throws out a -long stalk, runs rapidly to seed, and dies. - -There are considerable differences, too, in the colour of the onion; -the whitest of all are those grown at Issus and Sardes. The onions, -too, of Crete are held in high esteem, but there is some doubt whether -they are not the same as the Ascalonian variety; for when grown from -seed they produce a fine bulb, but when planted they throw out a long -stalk and run to seed; in fact, they differ from the Ascalonian kind -only in the sweetness of their flavour. - -Among us there are two principal varieties known of the onion; the -scallion, employed for seasonings, is one, known to the Greeks by the -name of “gethyon,” and by us as the “pallacana;” it is sown in March, -April, and May. The other kind is the bulbed or headed[1060] onion; -it is sown just after the autumnal equinox, or else after the west -winds have begun to prevail. The varieties of this last kind, ranged -according to their relative degrees of pungency, are the African onion, -the Gallic, the Tusculan, the Ascalonian, and the Amiternian: the -roundest in shape are the best. The red onion, too, is more pungent -than the white, the stored than the fresh, the raw than the cooked, -and the dried than the preserved. The onion of Amiternum is cultivated -in cold, humid localities, and is the only one that is reproduced from -heads,[1061] like garlic, the other kinds being grown from seed. This -last kind yields no seed in the ensuing summer, but a bulb only, which -dries and keeps; but in the summer after, the contrary is the case, -for seed is produced, while the bulb very quickly spoils. Hence it is -that every year there are two separate sowings, one of seed for the -reproduction of bulbs, and one of bulbs for the growth of seed; these -onions keep best in chaff. The scallion has hardly any bulb at all, but -a long neck only—hence it is nothing but leaf, and is often cut down, -like the leek; for this reason, too, like the leek, it is grown from -seed, and not from plants. - -In addition to these particulars, it is recommended that the ground -intended for sowing onions should be turned up three times, care being -taken to remove all roots and weeds; ten pounds of seed is the proper -proportion for a jugerum. Savory too, they say, should be mixed with -them, the onions being all the finer for it; the ground, too, should -be stubbed and hoed four times at least, if not oftener. In Italy, the -Ascalonian onion is sown in the month of February. The seed of the -onion is gathered when it begins to turn black, and before it becomes -dry and shrivelled. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—THE LEEK. - - -While upon this subject, it will be as well, too, to speak of the -leek,[1062] on account of the affinity which it bears to the plants -just mentioned, and more particularly because cut-leek has recently -acquired considerable celebrity from the use made of it by the Emperor -Nero. That prince, to improve his voice,[1063] used to eat leeks and -oil every month, upon stated days, abstaining from every other kind -of food, and not touching so much as a morsel of bread even. Leeks -are reproduced from seed, sown just after the autumnal equinox; if -they are intended for cutting,[1064] the seed is sown thicker than -otherwise. The leeks in the same bed are cut repeatedly, till it is -quite exhausted, and they are always kept well manured. If they are -wanted to bulb before being cut, when they have grown to some size they -are transplanted to another bed, the extremities of the leaves being -snipped off without touching the white part, and the heads stripped of -the outer coats. The ancients were in the habit of placing a stone or -potsherd upon the leek, to make the head grow all the larger, and the -same with the bulbs as well; but at the present day it is the usual -practice to move the fibrous roots gently with the weeding-hook, so -that by being bent they may nourish the plant, and not withdraw the -juices from it. - -It is a remarkable fact, that, though the leek stands in need of -manure and a rich soil, it has a particular aversion to water; and -yet its nature depends very much upon the natural properties of the -soil. The most esteemed leeks are those grown in Egypt, and next to -them those of Ostia and Aricia.[1065] Of the leek for cutting, there -are two varieties: that with grass-green[1066] leaves and incisions -distinctly traced on them, and the leek with paler and rounder leaves, -the incisions being more lightly marked. There is a story told, -that Mela,[1067] a member of the Equestrian order, being accused of -mal-administration by order of the Emperor Tiberius, swallowed in his -despair leek-juice to the amount of three denarii in weight of silver, -and expired upon the spot without the slightest symptom of pain. It -is said, however, that a larger dose than this is productive of no -injurious effects whatever.[1068] - - - - -CHAP. 34.—GARLIC. - - -Garlic[1069] is generally supposed, in the country more particularly, -to be a good specific[1070] for numerous maladies. The external coat -consists of membranes of remarkable fineness, which are universally -discarded when the vegetable is used; the inner part being formed by -the union of several cloves, each of which has also a separate coat of -its own. The flavour of it is pungent, and the more numerous the cloves -the more pungent it is. Like the onion, it imparts an offensive smell -to the breath; but this is not the case when it is cooked. The various -species of garlic are distinguished by the periods at which they ripen: -the early kind becomes fit for use in sixty days. Another distinction, -too, is formed by the relative size of the heads. Ulpicum,[1071] also, -generally known to the Greeks as “Cyprian garlic,” belongs to this -class; by some persons it is called “antiscorodon,” and in Africa -more particularly it holds a high rank among the dishes of the rural -population; it is of a larger size than ordinary garlic. When beaten -up with oil and vinegar, it is quite surprising what a quantity of -creaming foam is produced. - -There are some persons who recommend that neither ulpicum nor garlic -should be sown on level ground, but say that they should be planted in -little mounds trenched up, at a distance of three feet apart. Between -each clove, they say, there should be a distance of four fingers left, -and as soon as ever three leaves are visible, the heads should be hoed; -the oftener they are hoed, the larger the size they will attain. When -they begin to ripen, the stalks are bent downwards, and covered over -with earth, a precaution which effectually prevents them from running -to leaf. In cold soils, it is considered better to plant them in spring -than in autumn. - -For the purpose of depriving all these plants of their strong smell, -it is recommended to set them when the moon is below the horizon, and -to take them up when she is in conjunction. Independently of these -precautions, we find Menander, one of the Greek writers, recommending -those who have been eating garlic to eat immediately afterwards a -root of beet roasted on hot coals; if this is done, he says, the -strong smell of the garlic will be effectually neutralized. Some -persons are of opinion, that the proper period for planting garlic and -ulpicum is between the festival of the Compitalia[1072] and that of -the Saturnalia.[1073] Garlic, too, can be grown from seed, but it is -very slow, in such case, in coming to maturity; for in the first year, -the head attains the size only of that of a leek, in the second, it -separates into cloves, and only in the third it arrives at maturity; -there are some, however, who think that garlic grown this way is the -best. Garlic should never be allowed to run to seed, but the stalk -should be twisted, to promote its growth, and to make the head attain a -larger size. - -If garlic or onions are wanted to keep some time, the heads should -be dipped in salt water, made luke-warm; by doing this, they will be -all the better for keeping, though quite worthless for reproduction. -Some persons content themselves with hanging them over burning coals, -and are of opinion that this is quite sufficient to prevent them from -sprouting: for it is a well-known fact, that both garlic and onions -sprout when out of the ground, and that after throwing out their thin -shoots they shrivel away to nothing. Some persons are of opinion, too, -that the best way of keeping garlic is by storing it in chaff. There is -a kind[1074] of garlic that grows spontaneously in the fields, and is -known by the name of “alum.” To preserve the seeds that are sown there -from the remorseless ravages of the birds, this plant is scattered over -the ground, being first boiled, to prevent it from shooting. As soon -as ever they have eaten of it, the birds become so stupefied as to be -taken with the hand even,[1075] and if they remain but a few moments -only on the spot, they fall fast asleep. There is a wild garlic, too, -generally known as “bear’s” garlic;[1076] it has exactly the smell of -millet, with a very small head and large leaves. - - - - -CHAP. 35. (7.)—THE NUMBER OF DAYS REQUIRED FOR THE RESPECTIVE PLANTS TO -MAKE THEIR APPEARANCE ABOVE GROUND. - - -Among the garden[1077] plants which make their appearance most speedily -above ground, are ocimum, blite, the turnip, and rocket; for they -appear above the surface the third day after they are sown. Anise, -again, comes up on the fourth day, the lettuce on the fifth, the radish -on the sixth, the cucumber and the gourd on the seventh—the cucumber -rather the first of the two—cresses and mustard on the fifth, beet on -the sixth day in summer and the tenth in winter, orage on the eighth, -onions on the nineteenth or twentieth, and scallions on the tenth or -twelfth. Coriander, again, is more stubborn in its growth, cunila and -wild marjoram do not appear till after the thirtieth day, and parsley -comes up with the greatest difficulty of all, for at the very earliest -it is forty days before it shows itself, and in most instances as much -as fifty. - -The age,[1078] too, of the seed is of some importance in this respect; -for fresh seed comes up more rapidly in the case of the leek, the -scallion, the cucumber, and the gourd, while in that of parsley, beet, -cardamum, cunila, wild marjoram, and coriander, seed that has been kept -for some time is the best. - -There is one remarkable circumstance[1079] in connection with the -seed of beet; it does not all germinate in the first year, but some -of it in the second, and some in the third even; hence it is that a -considerable quantity of seed produces only a very moderate crop. Some -plants produce only in the year in which they are set, and some, again, -for successive years, parsley, leeks, and scallions[1080] for instance; -indeed, these plants, when once sown, retain their fertility, and -produce for many years. - - - - -CHAP. 36.—THE NATURE OF THE VARIOUS SEEDS. - - -In most plants the seed is round, in some oblong; it is broad and -foliaceous in some, orage for instance, while in others it is narrow -and grooved, as in cummin. There are differences, also, in the colour -of seeds, which is either black or white; while some seeds are woody -and hard, in radishes, mustard, and rape, the seeds are enclosed in -pods. In parsley, coriander, anise, fennel, and cummin, the seed has -no covering at all, while in blite, beet, orage, and ocimum, it has -an outer coat, and in the lettuce it is covered with a fine down. -There is no seed more prolific than that of ocimum;[1081] it is -generally recommended[1082] to sow it with the utterance of curses and -imprecations, the result being that it grows all the better for it; -the earth, too, is rammed down when it is sown, and prayers offered -that the seed may never come up. The seeds which are enveloped in an -outer coat, are dried with considerable difficulty, that of ocimum more -particularly; hence it is that all these seeds are dried artificially, -their fruitfulness being greatly promoted thereby. - -Plants in general come up better when the seed is sown in heaps than -when it is scattered broad-cast: leeks, in fact, and parsley are -generally grown by sowing the seed in little bags;[1083] in the case -of parsley, too, a hole is made with the dibble, and a layer of manure -inserted. - -All garden plants grow either from seed or from slips, and some from -both seed and suckers, such as rue, wild marjoram, and ocimum,[1084] -for example—this last being usually cut when it is a palm in height. -Some kinds, again, are reproduced from both seed and root, as in the -case of onions, garlic, and bulbs, and those other plants of which, -though annuals themselves, the roots retain their vitality. In those -plants which grow from the root, it lives for a considerable time, -and throws out offsets, as in bulbs, scallions, and squills for -example.—Others, again, throw out offsets, though not from a bulbous -root, such as parsley and beet, for instance. When the stalk is cut, -with the exception[1085] of those which have not a rough stem, nearly -all these plants put forth fresh shoots, a thing that may be seen in -ocimum,[1086] the radish,[1087] and the lettuce,[1088] which are in -daily use among us; indeed, it is generally thought that the lettuce -which is grown from a fresh sprouting, is the sweetest. The radish, -too, is more pleasant eating when the leaves have been removed before -it has begun to run to stalk. The same is the case, too, with rape; -for when the leaves are taken off, and the roots well covered up with -earth, it grows all the larger for it, and keeps in good preservation -till the ensuing summer. - - - - -CHAP. 37.—PLANTS OF WHICH THERE IS BUT A SINGLE KIND. PLANTS OF WHICH -THERE ARE SEVERAL KINDS. - - -Of ocimum, lapathum, blite, cresses, rocket, orage, coriander, and -anise respectively, there is but a single kind, these plants being -the same everywhere, and no better in one place than in another. It -is the general belief that stolen[1089] rue grows the best, while, on -the other hand, bees[1090] that have been stolen will never thrive. -Wild mint, cat-mint, endive, and pennyroyal, will grow even without -any cultivation. With reference to the plants of which we have already -spoken, or shall have occasion to speak, there are numerous varieties -of many of them, parsley more particularly. - -(8.) As to the kind of parsley[1091] which grows spontaneously in moist -localities, it is known by the name of “helioselinum;”[1092] it has a -single leaf[1093] only, and is not rough at the edges. In dry places, -we find growing the kind known as “hipposelinum,”[1094] consisting -of numerous leaves, similar to helioselinum. A third variety is the -oreoselinum,[1095] with leaves like those of hemlock, and a thin, fine, -root, the seed being similar to that of anise, only somewhat smaller. - -The differences, again, that are found to exist in cultivated -parsley,[1096] consist in the comparative density of the leaves, the -crispness or smoothness of their edges, and the thinness or thickness -of the stem, as the case may be: in some kinds, again, the stem is -white, in others purple, and in others mottled. - - - - -CHAP. 38.—THE NATURE AND VARIETIES OF TWENTY-THREE GARDEN PLANTS. THE -LETTUCE; ITS DIFFERENT VARIETIES. - - -The Greeks have distinguished three varieties of the lettuce;[1097] the -first with a stalk so large, that small garden gates,[1098] it is said, -have been made of it: the leaf of this lettuce is somewhat larger than -that of the herbaceous, or green lettuce, but extremely narrow, the -nutriment seeming to be expended on the other parts of the plant. The -second kind is that with a rounded[1099] stalk; and the third is the -low, squat lettuce,[1100] generally known as the Laconian lettuce. - -Some persons[1101] have made distinctions in reference to their -respective colours, and the times for sowing them: the black lettuce -is sown in the month of January, the white in March, and the red in -April; and they are fit for transplanting, all of them, at the end of -a couple of months. Those, again, who have pursued these enquiries -even further than this, have distinguished a still greater number of -varieties of them—the purple, the crisped, the Cappadocian,[1102] and -the Greek lettuce, this last having a longer leaf than the rest, and -a broad stalk: in addition to which, there is one with a long, narrow -leaf, very similar to endive in appearance. The most inferior kind, -however, of all, is the one to which the Greeks, censuring it for its -bitterness, have given the name of “picris.”[1103] There is still -another variety, a kind of white lettuce, called “meconis,”[1104] -a name which it derives from the abundance of milk, of a narcotic -quality, which it produces; though, in fact, it is generally thought -that they are all of them of a soporific tendency. In former -times, this last was the only kind of lettuce that was held in any -esteem[1105] in Italy, the name “lactuca” having been given it on -account of the milk[1106] which it contains. - -The purple kind, with a very large root, is generally known as the -Cæcilian[1107] lettuce; while the round one, with an extremely -diminutive root and broad leaves, is known to some persons as the -“astytis,”[1108] and to others as the “eunychion,” it having the -effect, in a remarkable degree, of quenching the amorous propensities. -Indeed, they are, all of them, possessed of cooling and refreshing -properties, for which reason it is, that they are so highly esteemed -in summer; they have the effect, also, of removing from the stomach -distaste for food, and of promoting the appetite. At all events, we -find it stated, that the late Emperor Augustus, when ill, was saved on -one occasion,[1109] thanks to the skill of his physician, Musa,[1110] -by eating lettuces, a food which the excessive scruples of his former -physician, C. Æmilius, had forbidden him. At the present day, however, -lettuces have risen into such high estimation, that a method has been -discovered even of preserving them during the months in which they -are out of season, by keeping them in oxymel.[1111] It is generally -supposed, also, that lettuces have the effect of making blood. - -In addition to the above varieties, there is another kind of lettuce -known as the “goats’ lettuce,”[1112] of which we shall have occasion -to make further mention when we come to the medicinal plants: at the -moment, too, that I am writing this, a new species of cultivated -lettuce has been introduced, known as the Cilician lettuce, and held -in very considerable esteem; the leaf of it is similar to that of the -Cappadocian lettuce, except that it is crisped, and somewhat larger. - - - - -CHAP. 39.—ENDIVE. - - -Endive, though it cannot exactly be said to be of the same genus as -the lettuce, still cannot be pronounced to belong to any other.[1113] -It is a plant better able to endure the rigours of the winter than -the lettuce,[1114] and possessed of a more acrid taste, though the -flavour of the stalk[1115] is equally agreeable. Endive is sown at -the beginning of spring, and transplanted at the end of that season. -There is also a kind of spreading[1116] endive, known in Egypt as -“cichorium,”[1117] of which we shall have occasion[1118] to speak -elsewhere more at length. - -A method has been discovered of preserving all the thyrsi or leaves -of the lettuce in pots, the object being to have them fresh when -wanted for boiling. Lettuces may be sown all the year[1119] through -in a good soil, well-watered and carefully manured;[1120] two months -being allowed to intervene between sowing and transplanting, and two -more between transplanting and gathering them when ripe. The rule is, -however, to sow them just after the winter solstice, and to transplant -when the west winds begin to prevail, or else to sow at this latter -period, and to plant out at the vernal equinox. The white lettuce is -the best adapted for standing the rigours of the winter. - -All the garden plants are fond of moisture; lettuces thrive, more -particularly, when well manured, and endive even more so. Indeed, it -is found an excellent plan to plant them out with the roots covered -up in manure, and to keep up the supply, the earth being cleared away -for that purpose. Some, again, have another method of increasing their -size; they cut them[1121] down when they have reached half a foot in -height, and cover them with fresh swine’s dung. It is the general -opinion that those lettuces only will admit of being blanched which are -produced from white seed; and even then, as soon as they begin to grow, -sand from the sea-shore should be spread over them, care being taken to -tie the leaves as soon as ever they begin to come to any size. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—BEET: FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. - - -Beet[1122] is the smoothest of all the garden plants. The Greeks -distinguish two kinds of beet, according to the colour, the black and -the white. The last, which is the kind generally preferred, has but -very little seed, and is generally known as the Sicilian[1123] beet; -just as it is the white lettuce that is held in the highest degree of -esteem. Our people, also, distinguish two varieties of beet, the spring -and the autumn kinds, so called from the periods of sowing; although -sometimes we find beet sown in June even. This is a plant, too, that -is sometimes transplanted; and it thrives all the better, like the -lettuce, if the roots are well covered with manure, in a moist soil. -Beet is mostly eaten[1124] with lentils and beans; it is prepared -also in the same way as cabbage, with mustard more particularly, the -pungency of which relieves its insipidity. Medical men are of opinion -that beet is a more unwholesome[1125] vegetable than cabbage; hence it -is that I never remember seeing it served at table. Indeed, there are -some persons who scruple to taste it even, from a conviction that it is -a food suitable only for persons of a robust constitution. - -Beet is a vegetable with twofold characteristics, partaking of the -nature of the cabbage in its leaves and resembling a bulb in the -root; that which grows to the greatest breadth being the most highly -esteemed. This plant, like the lettuce, is made to grow to head by -putting a light weight upon it the moment it begins to assume its -proper colour. Indeed, there is no garden plant that grows to a larger -head than this, as it sometimes spreads to a couple of feet in breadth, -the nature of the soil contributing in a very considerable degree to -its size: those found in the territory of Circeii attain the largest -size. Some persons[1126] think that the best time for sowing beet is -when the pomegranate is in flower, and are of opinion that it ought -to be transplanted as soon as it has thrown out five leaves. There -is a singular difference—if indeed it really exists—between the two -varieties of beet, the white kind being remarkable for its purgative -qualities, and the black being equally astringent. When wine in the vat -has been deteriorated by assuming a flavour like[1127] that of cabbage, -its original flavour is restored, it is said, by plunging beet leaves -into it. - - - - -CHAP. 41—CABBAGES; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF THEM. - - -Cabbage and coleworts, which at the present day are the most highly -esteemed of all the garden vegetables, were held in little repute, I -find, among the Greeks; but Cato,[1128] on the other hand, sings the -wondrous praises of the cabbage, the medicinal properties of which we -shall duly enlarge[1129] upon when we come to treat of that subject. -Cato distinguishes three varieties of the cabbage; the first, a plant -with leaves wide open, and a large stalk; a second, with crisped -leaves, to which he gives the name of “apiaca;”[1130] and a third, -with a thin stalk, and a smooth, tender leaf, which with him ranks the -lowest of all. Cabbages may be sown the whole year through, as we find -that they are cut at all periods of the year; the best time, however, -for sowing them is at the autumnal equinox, and they are usually -transplanted as soon as five leaves are visible. In the ensuing spring -after the first cutting, the plant yields sprouts, known to us as -“cymæ.”[1131] These sprouts, in fact, are small shoots thrown out from -the main stem, of a more delicate and tender quality than the cabbage -itself. The exquisite palate, however, of Apicius[1132] rejected these -sprouts for the table, and his example was followed by the fastidious -Drusus Cæsar; who did not escape, however, the censures of his father, -Tiberius, for being so over-nice. After the cymæ have made their -appearance the cabbage throws out its summer and autumn shoots, and -then its winter ones; after which, a new crop of cymæ is produced, -there being no plant so productive as this, until, at last, it is quite -exhausted by its extreme fertility. A second time for sowing cabbages -is immediately after the vernal equinox, the plants of this growth -being transplanted at the end of spring, that they may not run up into -sprouts before coming to a top: and a third sowing takes place about -the summer solstice, the transplanting being done in summer if the soil -is moist, but, if too dry, in autumn. When moisture and manure are -supplied in small quantities, the flavour of the cabbage is all the -more agreeable, but when they are supplied in greater abundance, the -plants attain a larger size. Asses’ dung is the best adapted for its -growth. - -The cabbage, too, is one of those articles so highly esteemed by -epicures; for which reason it will not be amiss if we speak of it at -somewhat greater length. To obtain plants equally remarkable for their -size and flavour, care must be taken first of all to sow the seed in -ground that has had a couple of turnings up, and then to follow up the -shoots as they appear above ground by moulding them up, care being -taken to throw up the earth over them as they increase in luxuriance, -and to let nothing but the summit appear above the surface. This kind -is known as the Tritian[1133] cabbage: in money and labour it costs -twice as much as any of the others. - -The other varieties of the cabbage[1134] are numerous—there is the -Cumanian cabbage, with leaves that lie close to the ground, and a wide, -open head; the Aricinian[1135] cabbage, too, of no greater height, but -with more numerous leaves and thinner—this last is looked upon as the -most useful of them all, for beneath nearly all of the leaves there are -small shoots thrown out, peculiar to this variety. The cabbage, again, -of Pompeii[1136] is considerably taller, the stalk, which is thin at -the root, increasing in thickness as it rises among the leaves, which -are fewer in number and narrower; the great merit of this cabbage is -its remarkable tenderness, although it is not able to stand the cold. -The cabbage of Bruttium,[1137] on the other hand, thrives all the -better for cold; the leaves of it are remarkably large, the stalk thin, -and the flavour pungent. The leaves, again, of the Sabine[1138] cabbage -are crisped to such a degree as to excite our surprise, and their -thickness is such as to quite exhaust the stem; in sweetness, however, -it is said to surpass all the others. - -There have lately come into fashion the cabbages known as the -“Lacuturres;”[1139] they are grown in the valley of Aricia, where -there was formerly a lake, now no longer in existence, and a tower -which is still standing. The head of this cabbage is very large, and -the leaves are almost without number, some of them being round and -smooth, and others long and sinewy; indeed, there is no cabbage that -runs to a larger head than this, with the sole exception of the Tritian -variety, which has a head sometimes as much as a foot in thickness, and -throws out its cymæ the latest of all. - -In all kinds of cabbages, hoar-frost contributes very materially to -their sweetness; but it is apt to be productive of considerable injury, -if care is not taken to protect the pith by cutting them aslant. Those -plants which are intended for seed are never cut. - -There is another kind, again, that is held in peculiar esteem, and -which never exceeds the height of an herbaceous plant; it is known by -the name of “halmyridia,”[1140] from the circumstance of its growing -on the sea-shore[1141] only. It will keep green and fresh during a -long voyage even, if care is taken not to let it touch the ground -from the moment that it is cut, but to put it into oil-vessels lately -dried, and then to bung them so as to effectually exclude all air. -There are some[1142] who are of opinion, that the plant will come to -maturity all the sooner if some sea-weed is laid at the root when it -is transplanted, or else as much pounded nitre as can be taken up with -three fingers; and others, again, sprinkle the leaves with trefoil seed -and nitre pounded together.[1143] Nitre, too, preserves the greenness -of cabbage when cooked, a result which is equally ensured by the -Apician mode of boiling, or in other words, by steeping the plants in -oil and salt before they are cooked. - -There is a method of grafting vegetables by cutting the shoots and -the stalk, and then inserting in the pith the seed of another plant; -a plan which has been adopted with the wild cucumber even. There is -another kind of wild cabbage, also, the lapsana,[1144] which has become -famous since the triumphs of the late Emperor Julius, in consequence -of the songs and jokes of his soldiers more particularly; for in the -alternate lines sung by them, they used to reproach him for having made -them live on lapsana at the siege of Dyrrhachium, and to rally him upon -the parsimonious scale on which he was in the habit of recompensing -their services. The lapsana is nothing more than a wild cyma.[1145] - - - - -CHAP. 42.—WILD AND CULTIVATED ASPARAGUS. - - -Of all the garden plants, asparagus is the one that requires the most -delicate attention in its cultivation. We have already[1146] spoken -at considerable length of its origin, when treating of the wild -plants, and have mentioned that Cato[1147] recommends it to be grown -in reed-beds. There is another kind, again, of a more uncultivated -nature than the garden asparagus, but less pungent than corruda;[1148] -it grows upon the mountains in different countries, and the plains of -Upper Germany are quite full of it, so much so, indeed, that it was a -not unhappy remark of Tiberius Cæsar, that a weed grows there which -bears a remarkably strong resemblance to asparagus. That which grows -spontaneously upon the island of Nesis, off the coast of Campania, is -looked upon as being by far the best of all. - -Garden asparagus is reproduced from roots,[1149] the fibres of which -are exceedingly numerous, and penetrate to a considerable depth. When -it first puts forth its shoots, it is green; these in time lengthen out -into stalks, which afterwards throw out streaked branches from the -head: asparagus admits, also, of being grown from seed. - -Cato[1150] has treated of no subject with greater care than this, -the last Chapter of his work being devoted to it, from which we may -conclude that it was quite new to him, and a subject which had only -very recently occupied his attention. He recommends that the ground -prepared for it should be a moist or dense soil, the seed being set at -intervals of half a foot every way, to avoid treading upon the heads; -the seed, he says, should be put two or three into each hole, these -being made with the dibble as the line runs—for in his day, it should -be remembered, asparagus was only grown from seed—this being done about -the vernal equinox. It requires, he adds, to be abundantly manured, -and to be kept well hoed, due care being taken not to pull up the -young plants along with the weeds. The first year, he says, the plants -must be protected from the severity of the winter with a covering of -straw, care being taken to uncover them in the spring, and to hoe and -stub up the ground about them. In the spring of the third year, the -plants must be set fire to, and the earlier the period at which the -fire is applied, the better they will thrive. Hence it is, that as -reed-beds[1151] grow all the more rapidly after being fired, asparagus -is found to be a crop remarkably well suited for growing with them. -The same author recommends, however, that asparagus should not be hoed -before the plants have made their appearance above-ground, for fear of -disturbing the roots; and he says that in gathering the heads, they -should be cut close to the root, and not broken off at the surface, a -method which is sure to make them run to stalk and die. They should -be cut, he says, until they are left to run to seed, and after the -seed is ripe, in spring they must be fired, care being taken, as soon -as they appear again, to hoe and manure them as before. After eight -or nine years, he says, when the plants have become old, they must -be renewed, after digging and manuring the ground, by replanting the -roots at intervals of a foot, care being taken to employ sheep’s dung -more particularly for the purpose, other kinds of manure being apt to -produce weeds. - -No method of cultivating this plant that has since been tried has been -found more eligible than this, with the sole exception that the seed -is now sown about the ides of February, by laying it in heaps in -small trenches, after steeping it a considerable time in manure; the -result of which is that the roots become matted, and form into spongy -tufts, which are planted out at intervals of a foot after the autumnal -equinox, the plants continuing to be productive so long as ten years -even. There is no soil more favourable to the growth of asparagus, than -that of the gardens of Ravenna.[1152] - -We have already[1153] spoken of the corruda, by which term I mean -the wild asparagus, by the Greeks called “orminos,” or “myacanthos,” -as well as by other names. I find it stated, that if rams’ horns are -pounded, and then buried in the ground, asparagus will come up.[1154] - - - - -CHAP. 43.—THISTLES. - - -It really might have been thought that I had now given an account of -all the vegetable productions that are held in any degree of esteem, -did there not still remain one plant, the cultivation of which is -extremely profitable, and of which I am unable to speak without a -certain degree of shame. For it is a well-known fact, that some small -plots of land, planted with thistles,[1155] in the vicinity of Great -Carthage and of Corduba more particularly, produce a yearly income of -six thousand sesterces;[1156] this being the way in which we make the -monstrous productions even of the earth subservient to our gluttonous -appetites, and that, too, when the very four-footed brutes[1157] -instinctively refuse to touch them. - -Thistles are grown two different ways, from plants set in autumn, and -from seed sown before the nones of March;[1158] in which latter case -they are transplanted before the ides of November,[1159] or, where -the site is a cold one, about the time that the west winds prevail. -They are sometimes manured even, and if[1160] such is the will of -heaven, grow all the better for it. They are preserved, too, in a -mixture of honey and vinegar,[1161] with the addition of root of laser -and cummin—so that a day may not pass without our having thistles at -table.[1162] - - - - -CHAP. 44.—OTHER PLANTS THAT ARE SOWN IN THE GARDEN: OCIMUM; ROCKET; AND -NASTURTIUM. - - -For the remaining plants a brief description will suffice. The best -time for sowing ocimum,[1163] it is said, is at the festival of the -Parilia;[1164] though some say that it may be done in autumn as well, -and recommend, when it is sown in winter, to drench the seed thoroughly -with vinegar. Rocket,[1165] too, and nasturtium[1166] may be grown -with the greatest facility either in summer or winter. Rocket, more -particularly, is able to stand the cold, and its properties are quite -different from those of the lettuce, as it is a great provocative of -lust. Hence it is that we are in the habit of mixing these two plants -in our dishes, the excess of cold in the one being compensated by -the equal degree of heat in the other. Nasturtium has received that -name from[1167] the smarting sensation which its pungency causes to -the nostrils, and hence it is that a certain notion of smartness has -attached itself to the word, it having become quite a proverbial -saying, that a sluggish man should eat nasturtium, to arouse him from -his torpidity. In Arabia, it is said, this plant attains a size that is -quite marvellous. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—RUE. - - -Rue,[1168] too, is generally sown while the west winds prevail, as -well as just after the autumnal equinox. This plant has an extreme -aversion to cold, moisture, and dung; it loves dry, sunny localities, -and a soil more particularly that is rich in brick clay; it requires -to be nourished, too, with ashes, which should be mixed with the -seed as well, as a preservative against the attacks of caterpillars. -The ancients held rue in peculiar esteem; for I find that honied -wine flavoured with rue was distributed to the people, in his -consulship,[1169] by Cornelius Cethegus, the colleague of Quintus -Flamininus, after the closing of the Comitia. This plant has a great -liking[1170] for the fig-tree, and for that tree only; indeed, it never -thrives better than when grown beneath that tree. It is generally grown -from slips, the lower end of which is inserted in a perforated[1171] -bean, which holds it fast, and so nurtures the young plant with its -juices. It also reproduces itself;[1172] for the ends of the branches -bending downwards, the moment they reach the ground, they take root -again. Ocimum[1173] is of a very similar nature to rue, except that -it dries with greater difficulty. When rue has once gained strength, -there is considerable difficulty in stubbing it, as it causes itching -ulcerations on the hands, if they are not covered or previously -protected by being rubbed with oil. Its leaves, too, are preserved, -being packed in bundles for keeping. - - - - -CHAP. 46.—PARSLEY. - - -Parsley is sown immediately after the vernal equinox, the seed being -lightly beaten[1174] first in a mortar. It is thought that, by doing -this, the parsley will be all the more crisped, or else by taking -care to beat it down when sown with a roller or the feet. It is a -peculiarity of this plant, that it changes colour: it has the honour, -in Achaia, of forming the wreath of the victors in the sacred contests -of the Nemean Games. - - - - -CHAP. 47.—MINT. - - -It is at the same season, too, that mint[1175] is transplanted; or, if -it has not yet germinated, the matted tufts of the old roots are used -for the purpose. This plant, too, is no less fond of a humid soil than -parsley; it is green in summer and turns yellow in winter. There is a -wild kind of mint, known to us as “mentastrum:”[1176] it is reproduced -by layers, like the vine, or else by planting the branches upside down. -It was the sweetness of its smell that caused this plant to change -its name among the Greeks, its former name with them being “mintha,” -from which the ancient Romans derived their name[1177] for it; whereas -now, of late, it has been called by them ἡδύοσμον.[1178] The mint that -is used in the dishes at rustic entertainments pervades the tables -far and wide with its agreeable odour. When once planted, it lasts -a considerable length of time; it bears, too, a strong resemblance -to pennyroyal, a property of which is, as mentioned by us more than -once,[1179] to flower when kept in our larders. - -These other herbs, mint, I mean, and catmint, as well as pennyroyal, -are all kept for use in a similar manner; but it is cummin[1180] that -is the best suited of all the seasoning herbs to squeamish and delicate -stomachs. This plant grows on the surface of the soil, seeming hardly -to adhere to it, and raising itself aloft from the ground: it ought -to be sown in the middle of the summer, in a crumbly, warm soil, more -particularly. There is another wild kind[1181] of cummin, known by some -persons as “rustic,” by others as “Thebaic” cummin: bruised and drunk -in water, it is good for pains in the stomach. The cummin most esteemed -in our part of the world is that of Carpetania,[1182] though elsewhere -that of Africa and Æthiopia is more highly esteemed; with some, indeed, -this last is preferred to that of Egypt. - - - - -CHAP. 48.—OLUSATRUM. - - -But it is olusatrum,[1183] more particularly, that is of so singular -a nature, a plant which by the Greeks is called “hipposelinum,”[1184] -and by others “smyrnium.” This plant is reproduced from a tear-like -gum[1185] which exudes from the stem; it is also grown from the -roots as well. Those whose business it is to collect the juice of -it, say that it has just the flavour of myrrh; and, according to -Theophrastus,[1186] it is obtained by planting myrrh. The ancients -recommended that hipposelinum should be grown in uncultivated spots -covered with stones, and in the vicinity of garden walls; but at the -present day it is sown in ground that has been twice turned up, between -the prevalence of the west winds and the autumnal equinox. - -The caper,[1187] too, should be sown in dry localities more -particularly, the plot being hollowed out and surrounded with an -embankment of stones erected around it: if this precaution is not -taken, it will spread all over the adjoining land, and entail sterility -upon the soil. The caper blossoms in summer, and retains its verdure -till the setting of the Vergiliæ; it thrives the best of all in a sandy -soil. As to the bad qualities of the caper which grows in the parts -beyond the sea, we have already[1188] enlarged upon them when speaking -of the exotic shrubs. - - - - -CHAP. 49.—THE CARAWAY. - - -The caraway[1189] is an exotic plant also, which derives its name, -“careum,” from the country[1190] in which it was first grown; it is -principally employed for culinary purposes. This plant will grow in -any kind of soil, and requires to be cultivated just the same way as -olusatrum; the most esteemed, however, is that which comes from Caria, -and the next best is that of Phrygia. - - - - -CHAP. 50.—LOVAGE. - - -Lovage[1191] grows wild in the mountains of Liguria, its native -country, but at the present day it is grown everywhere. The cultivated -kind is the sweetest of the two, but is far from powerful; by some -persons it is known as “panax.” Crateuas, a Greek writer, gives this -name, however, to the plant known to us as “cunila bubula;”[1192] and -others, again, call the conyza[1193] or cunilago, cunila, while they -call cunila,[1194] properly so called, by the name of “thymbra.” With -us cunila has another appellation, being generally known as “satureia,” -and reckoned among the seasoning plants. It is usually sown in the -month of February, and for utility rivals wild marjoram. These two -plants are never used together, their properties being so extremely -similar; but it is only the wild marjoram of Egypt that is considered -superior to cunila. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—DITTANDER. - - -Dittander,[1195] too, was originally an exotic plant: it is usually -sown after the west winds have begun to prevail. As soon as it begins -to shoot, it is cut down close to the ground, after which it is hoed -and manured, a process which is repeated the succeeding year. After -this, the shoots are fit for use, if the rigour of the winter has -not injured them; for it is a plant quite unable to withstand any -inclemency[1196] of the weather. It grows to the height of a cubit, and -has a leaf like that of the laurel,[1197] but softer; it is never used -except in combination with milk. - - - - -CHAP. 52.—GITH. - - -Gith[1198] is employed by bakers, dill and anise by cooks and medical -men. Sacopenium,[1199] so extensively used for adulterating laser, is -also a garden plant, but is only employed for medicinal purposes. - - - - -CHAP. 53.—THE POPPY. - - -There are certain plants which are grown in company[1200] with others, -the poppy, for instance, sown with cabbages and purslain, and rocket -with lettuce. Of the cultivated poppy[1201] there are three kinds, the -first being the white[1202] poppy, the seed of which, parched, and -mixed with honey, used to be served up in the second course at the -tables of the ancients; at the present day, too, the country people -sprinkle it on the upper crust of their bread, making it adhere by -means of the yolk of eggs, the under crust being seasoned with parsley -and gith to heighten the flavour of the flour. The second kind is the -black[1203] poppy, from which, upon an incision being made in the -stalk, a milky juice distils; and the third is that known to the Greeks -by the name of “rhœas;”[1204] and by us as the wild poppy. This last -grows spontaneously, but in fields, more particularly, which have been -sown with barley: it bears a strong resemblance to rocket, grows to the -height of a cubit, and bears a red flower, which quickly fades; it is -to this flower that it is indebted for its Greek name.[1205] - -As to the other kinds of poppies which spring up spontaneously, we -shall have occasion to speak of them when treating of the medicinal -plants.[1206] That the poppy has always been held in esteem among -the Romans, we have a proof in the story related of Tarquinius[1207] -Superbus, who, by striking down the tallest poppies in his garden, -surreptitiously conveyed, unknown to them, his sanguinary message -through the envoys who had been sent by his son. - - - - -CHAP. 54.—OTHER PLANTS WHICH REQUIRE TO BE SOWN AT THE AUTUMNAL EQUINOX. - - -There are some other plants, again, which require to be sown together -at the time of the autumnal equinox; coriander, for instance, -anise, orage, mallows, lapathum, chervil, known to the Greeks as -“pæderos,”[1208] and mustard,[1209] which has so pungent a flavour, -that it burns like fire, though at the same time it is remarkably -wholesome for the body. This last, though it will grow without -cultivation, is considerably improved by being transplanted; though, on -the other hand, it is extremely difficult to rid the soil of it when -once sown there, the seed when it falls germinating immediately. This -seed, when cooked in the saucepan,[1210] is employed even for making -ragouts, its pungency being rendered imperceptible by boiling; the -leaves, too, are boiled just the same way as those of other vegetables. - -There are three different kinds of mustard,[1211] the first of a -thin, slender form, the second, with a leaf like that of the rape, -and the third, with that of rocket: the best seed comes from Egypt. -The Athenians have given mustard the name of “napy,”[1212] others, -“thapsi,”[1213] and others, again, “saurion.”[1214] - - - - -CHAP. 55.—WILD THYME; SISYMBRIUM. - - -Most mountains abound with wild thyme and sisymbrium, those of Thrace, -for example, where[1215] branches of these wild plants are torn up and -brought away for planting. So, too, the people of Sicyon seek for wild -thyme on their mountains, and the Athenians on the slopes of Hymettus. -Sisymbrium, too, is planted in a similar manner; it grows to the -greatest perfection upon the walls of wells, and around fish preserves -and ponds.[1216] - - - - -CHAP. 56. (9.)—FOUR KINDS OF FERULACEOUS PLANTS. HEMP. - - -The other garden plants are of the ferulaceous kind, such as fennel, -for instance, very grateful to serpents, as already stated,[1217] -and used for numerous seasonings when dried; thapsia, too, which -bears a close resemblance to fennel, and already mentioned by us when -speaking[1218] of the exotic shrubs. Then, too, there is hemp,[1219] a -plant remarkably useful for making ropes, and usually sown after the -west winds have begun to prevail: the more thickly it is sown, the -thinner are the stalks. The seed is gathered when ripe, just after the -autumnal equinox, and is dried by the agency of the sun, the wind, or -smoke.[1220] The hemp itself is plucked just after vintage-time, and is -peeled and cleaned by the labourers at night. - -The best hemp is that of Alabanda,[1221] which is used more -particularly for making hunting-nets, and of which there are three -varieties. The hemp which lies nearest the bark or the pith is the -least valuable, while that which lies in the middle, and hence has the -name of “mesa,” is the most esteemed. The hemp of Mylasa[1222] occupies -the second rank. With reference to the size to which it grows, that of -Rosea,[1223] in the Sabine territory, equals the trees in height.[1224] - -We have already mentioned two kinds of fennel-giant when speaking[1225] -of the exotic shrubs: the seed of it is used in Italy for food; the -plant, too, admits of being preserved, and, if stored in earthen pots, -will keep for a whole year. There are two parts of it that are used -for this purpose, the upper stalks and the umbels of the plant. This -kind of fennel is sometimes known by the name of “corymbia,” and the -parts preserved are called “corymbi.” - - - - -CHAP. 57. (10.)—THE MALADIES OF GARDEN PLANTS. - - -The garden plants, too, like the rest of the vegetable productions, -are subject to certain maladies. Thus, for[1226] instance, ocimum, -when old, degenerates into wild thyme, and sisymbrium[1227] into mint, -while the seed of an old cabbage produces rape, and vice versâ. Cummin, -too, if not kept well hoed, is killed by hæmodorum,[1228], a plant -with a single stalk, a root similar to a bulb in appearance, and never -found except in a thin, meagre soil. Besides this, cummin is liable -to a peculiar disease of its own, the scab:[1229] ocimum, too, turns -pale at the rising of the Dog-star. All plants, indeed, will turn of -a yellow complexion on the approach of a woman who has the menstrual -discharge[1230] upon her. - -There are various kinds of insects,[1231] too, that breed upon the -garden plants—fleas, for instance, upon turnips, and caterpillars and -maggots upon radishes, as well as lettuces and cabbages; besides which, -the last two are exposed to the attacks of slugs and snails. The leek, -too, is infested with peculiar insects of its own; which may very -easily be taken, however, by laying dung upon the plants, the insects -being in the habit of burrowing in it. Sabinus Tiro says, in his book -entitled “Cepurica,”[1232] which he dedicated to Mæcenas, that it is -not advisable to touch rue, cunila, mint, or ocimum with any implement -of iron. - - - - -CHAP. 58.—THE PROPER REMEDIES FOR THESE MALADIES. HOW ANTS ARE BEST -DESTROYED. THE BEST REMEDIES AGAINST CATERPILLARS AND FLIES. - - -The same author recommends as a remedy against ants, which are by no -means the slightest plague in a garden that is not kept well watered, -to stop up the mouths of their holes with sea-slime or ashes. But -the most efficient way of destroying them is with the aid of the -plant heliotropium;[1233] some persons, too, are of opinion that -water in which an unburnt brick has been soaked is injurious to them. -The best protection for turnips is to sow a few fitches with them, -and for cabbages chickpeas, these having the effect of keeping away -caterpillars. If, however, this precaution should have been omitted, -and the caterpillars have already made their appearance, the best -remedy is to throw upon the vegetables a decoction of wormwood,[1234] -or else of house-leek,[1235] known to some as “aïzoüm,” a kind of herb -already mentioned by us. If cabbage-seed, before it is sown, is steeped -in the juice of house-leek, the cabbages, it is said, are sure not be -attacked by any insect. - -It is said, too, that all caterpillars may be effectually exterminated, -if the skull[1236] of a beast of burden is set up upon a stake in the -garden, care being taken to employ that of a female only. There is a -story related, too, that a river crab, hung up in the middle of the -garden, is a preservative against the attacks of caterpillars. Again, -there are some persons who are in the habit of touching with slips -of blood-red cornel[1237] such plants as they wish to preserve from -caterpillars. Flies,[1238] too, infest well-watered gardens, and more -particularly so, if there happen to he any shrubs there; they may be -got rid of, however, by burning galbanum.[1239] - -(11.) With reference to the deterioration to which seed is -subject,[1240] there are some seeds which keep better than others, -such, for instance, as that of coriander, beet, leeks, cresses, -mustard, rocket, cunila, nearly all the pungent plants in fact. The -seed, on the other hand, of orage, ocimum, gourds, and cucumbers, is -not so good for keeping. All the summer seeds, too, last longer than -the winter ones; but scallion seed is the very worst for keeping of -them all. But of those, even, which keep the very longest, there is -none that will keep beyond four years—for sowing[1241] purposes, at -least; for culinary purposes, they are fit for use beyond that period. - - - - -CHAP. 59.—WHAT PLANTS ARE BENEFITTED BY SALT WATER. - - -A peculiar remedy for the maladies to which radishes, beet, rue, and -cunila are subject, is salt water, which has also the additional merit -of conducing very materially to their sweetness and fertility. Other -plants, again, are equally benefitted by being watered with fresh -water, the most desirable for the purpose being that which is the -coldest and the sweetest to drink: pond and drain-water, on the other -hand, are not so good, as they are apt to carry the seeds of weeds -along with them. It is rain,[1242] however, that forms the principal -aliment of plants; in addition to which, it kills the insects as they -develope themselves upon them. - - - - -CHAP. 60. (12.)—THE PROPER METHOD OF WATERING GARDENS. - - -The proper times[1243] for watering are the morning and the evening, -to prevent the water from being heated[1244] by the sun; with the sole -exception, however, of ocimum, which requires to be watered at midday; -indeed, this plant, it is generally thought, will grow with additional -rapidity, if it is watered with boiling water when sown. All plants, -when transplanted, grow all the better and larger for it, leeks and -turnips more particularly. Transplanting, too, is attended with certain -remedial effects, and acts as a preservative to certain plants, such -as scallions, for instance, leeks, radishes, parsley, lettuces, rape, -and cucumbers. All the wild plants[1245] are generally smaller in the -leaf and stalk than the cultivated ones, and have more acrid juices, -cunila, wild marjoram, and rue, for example. Indeed, it is only the -lapathum[1246] that is better in a wild state than cultivated: in -its cultivated state it is the same plant that is known to us as the -“rumix,” being the most vigorous[1247] by far of all the plants that -are grown; so much so, indeed, that it is said that when it has once -taken root, it will last for ever, and can never be extirpated from -the soil, more particularly if water happens to be near at hand. Its -juices, which are employed only in ptisans,[1248] as an article of -food, have the effect of imparting to them a softer and more exquisite -flavour. The wild variety[1249] is employed for many medicinal purposes. - -So true it is, that the careful research of man has omitted nothing, -that I have even met with a poem,[1250] in which I find it stated, that -if pellets of goats’ dung, the size of a bean, are hollowed out, and -the seed of leeks, rocket, lettuces, parsley, endive, and cresses is -inserted in them, and then sown, the plants will thrive in a marvellous -degree. Plants[1251] in a wild state, it is generally thought, are more -dry and acrid than when cultivated. - - - - -CHAP. 61.—THE JUICES AND FLAVOURS OF GARDEN HERBS. - - -This, too, reminds me that I ought to make some mention of the -difference between the juices and flavours of the garden herbs, -a difference which is more perceptible here than in the fruits -even.[1252] In cunila, for instance, wild marjoram, cresses, and -mustard, the flavour is acrid; in wormwood[1253] and centaury,[1254] -bitter; in cucumbers, gourds, and lettuces, watery; and in parsley, -anise, and fennel, pungent and odoriferous. The salt flavour is the -only one that is not to be found[1255] in plants, with the sole -exception, indeed, of the chicheling[1256] vetch, though even then it -is to be found on the exterior surface only of the plant, in the form -of a kind of dust which settles there. - - - - -CHAP. 62.—PIPERITIS, LIBANOTIS, AND SMYRNIUM. - - -To come to a full understanding, too, both here as elsewhere, how -unfounded are the notions which are generally entertained, I shall -take this opportunity of remarking that panax[1257] has the flavour -of pepper, and siliquastrum even more so, a circumstance to which it -owes its name of piperitis:[1258] libanotis,[1259] again, has just the -odour of frankincense, and smyrnium[1260] of myrrh. As to panax, we -have spoken of it at sufficient length already.[1261] Libanotis grows -in a thin, crumbly soil, and is generally sown in spots exposed to the -falling dews; the root, which is just like that of olusatrum,[1262] -has a smell in no way differing from that of frankincense; when a year -old, it is extremely wholesome for the stomach; some persons give it -the name of rosmarinum.[1263] Smyrnium is a garden herb that grows in -similar soils, and has a root which smells like myrrh: siliquastrum -too, is grown in a similar manner. - -Other plants, again, differ from the preceding ones, both in smell and -taste, anise[1264] for example; indeed, so great is the difference -in this respect, and in their relative virtues, that not only are -the properties of each modified by the other, but quite neutralized -even. It is in this way that our cooks correct the flavour of vinegar -in their dishes with parsley, and our butlers employ the same plant, -enclosed in sachets, for removing a bad odour in wine. - -[1265]Thus far, then, we have treated of the garden plants, viewed as -articles of food only; it remains for us now (for up to the present we -have only spoken of their various methods of cultivation, with some -succinct details relative thereto), to enlarge upon the more elaborate -operations of Nature in this respect; it being quite impossible to -come to a full understanding as to the true characteristics of each -individual plant, without a knowledge of its medicinal effects, a -sublime and truly mysterious manifestation of the wisdom of the Deity, -than which nothing can possibly be found of a nature more elevated. It -is upon principle that we have thought proper not to enlarge upon the -medicinal properties of each plant when treating of it; for it is a -quite different class of persons that is interested in knowing their -curative properties, and there is no doubt that both classes of readers -would have been inconvenienced in a very material degree, if these two -points of view had engaged our attention at the same moment. As it -is, each class will have its own portion to refer to, while those who -desire to do so, will experience no difficulty in uniting them, with -reference to any subject of which we may happen to treat. - - -SUMMARY.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, one thousand -one hundred and forty-four. - - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Maccius Plautus,[1266] M. Varro,[1267] D. -Silanus,[1268] Cato the Censor,[1269] Hyginus,[1270] Virgil,[1271] -Mucianus,[1272] Celsus,[1273] Columella,[1274] Calpurnius Bassus,[1275] -Mamilius Sura,[1276] Sabinus Tiro,[1277] Licinius Macer,[1278] Quintus -Hirtius,[1279] Vibius Rufus,[1280] Cæsennius[1281] who wrote the -Cepurica, Castritius[1282] who wrote on the same subject, Firmus[1283] -who wrote on the same subject, Petrichus[1284] who wrote on the same -subject. - - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Herodotus,[1285] Theophrastus,[1286] -Democritus,[1287] Aristomachus,[1288] Menander[1289] who wrote the -Biochresta, Anaxiläus.[1290] - - - - -BOOK XX. - -REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE GARDEN PLANTS. - - - - -CHAP. 1.—INTRODUCTION. - - -We are now about to enter upon an examination of the greatest of -all the operations of Nature—we are about to discourse to man upon -his aliments,[1291] and to compel him to admit that he is ignorant -by what means he exists. And let no one, misled by the apparent -triviality of the names which we shall have to employ, regard this -subject as one that is frivolous or contemptible: for we shall here -have to set forth the state of peace or of war which exists between -the various departments of Nature, the hatreds or friendships which -are maintained by objects dumb and destitute of sense, and all, too, -created—a wonderful subject for our contemplation!—for the sake of -man alone. To these states, known to the Greeks by the respective -appellations “sympathia” and “antipathia,” we are indebted for the -first principles[1292] of all things; for hence it is that water has -the property of extinguishing fire, that the sun absorbs water, that -the moon produces it, and that each of those heavenly bodies is from -time to time eclipsed by the other. - -Hence it is, too, descending from the contemplation of a loftier -sphere, that the loadstone[1293] possesses the property of attracting -iron, and another stone,[1294] again, that of repelling it; and that -the diamond, that pride of luxury and opulence, though infrangible -by every other object, and presenting a resistance that cannot be -overcome, is broken asunder by a he-goat’s blood[1295]—in addition -to numerous other marvels of which we shall have to speak on more -appropriate occasions, equal to this or still more wonderful even. -My only request is that pardon may be accorded me for beginning with -objects of a more humble nature, though still so greatly conducive to -our health—I mean the garden plants, of which I shall now proceed to -speak. - - - - -CHAP. 2. (1.)—THE WILD CUCUMBER; TWENTY-SIX REMEDIES. - - -We have already stated[1296] that there is a wild cucumber, -considerably smaller than the cultivated one. From this cucumber the -medicament known as “elaterium” is prepared, being the juice extracted -from the seed.[1297] To obtain this juice the fruit is cut before it is -ripe—indeed, if this precaution is not taken at an early period, the -seed is apt to spirt[1298] out and be productive of danger to the eyes. -After it is gathered, the fruit is kept whole for a night, and on the -following day an incision is made in it with a reed. The seed, too, is -generally sprinkled with ashes, with the view of retaining in it as -large a quantity of the juice as possible. When the juice is extracted, -it is received in rain water, where it falls to the bottom; after which -it is thickened in the sun, and then divided into lozenges, which are -of singular utility to mankind for healing dimness[1299] of sight, -diseases of the eyes, and ulcerations of the eyelids. It is said that -if the roots of a vine are touched with this juice, the grapes of it -will be sure never to be attacked by birds. - -The root,[1300] too, of the wild cucumber, boiled in vinegar, is -employed in fomentations for the gout, and the juice of it is used as a -remedy for tooth-ache. Dried and mixed with resin, the root is a cure -for impetigo[1301] and the skin diseases known as “psora”[1302] and -“lichen:”[1303] it is good, too, for imposthumes of the parotid glands -and inflammatory tumours,[1304] and restores the natural colour to the -skin when a cicatrix has formed.—The juice of the leaves, mixed with -vinegar, is used as an injection for the ears, in cases of deafness. - - - - -CHAP. 3.—ELATERIUM; TWENTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -The proper season for making elaterium is the autumn; and there is no -medicament known that will keep longer than this.[1305] It begins to -be fit for use when three years old; but if it is found desirable to -make use of it at an earlier period than this, the acridity of the -lozenges may be modified by putting them with vinegar upon a slow fire, -in a new earthen pot. The older it is the better, and before now, as -we learn from Theophrastus, it has been known to keep[1305] so long as -two hundred years. Even after it has been kept so long as fifty[1306] -years, it retains its property of extinguishing a light; indeed, it -is the proper way of testing the genuineness of the drug to hold it -to the flame and make it scintillate above and below, before finally -extinguishing it. The elaterium which is pale, smooth, and slightly -bitter, is superior[1307] to that which has a grass-green appearance -and is rough to the touch. - -It is generally thought that the seed of this plant will facilitate -conception if a woman carries it attached to her person, before it has -touched the ground; and that it has the effect of aiding parturition, -if it is first wrapped in ram’s wool, and then tied round the woman’s -loins, without her knowing it, care being taken to carry it out of the -house the instant she is delivered. - -Those persons who magnify the praises of the wild cucumber say that -the very best is that of Arabia, the next being that of Arcadia, and -then that of Cyrenæ: it bears a resemblance to the heliotropium,[1308] -they say, and the fruit, about the size of a walnut, grows between -the leaves and branches. The seed, it is said, is very similar in -appearance to the tail of a scorpion thrown back, but is of a whitish -hue. Indeed, there are some persons who give to this cucumber the name -of “scorpionium,” and say that its seed, as well as the elaterium, is -remarkably efficacious as a cure for the sting of the scorpion. As -a purgative, the proper dose of either is from half an obolus to an -obolus, according to the strength of the patient, a larger dose than -this being fatal.[1309] It is in the same proportions, too, that it is -taken in drink for phthiriasis[1310] and dropsy; applied externally -with honey or old olive oil, it is used for the cure of quinsy and -affections of the trachea. - - - - -CHAP. 4. (2.)—THE ANGUINE OR ERRATIC CUCUMBER: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -Many authors are of opinion that the wild cucumber is identical with -the plant known among us as the “anguine,” and by some persons as -the “erratic”[1311] cucumber. Objects sprinkled with a decoction of -this plant will never be touched by mice. The same authors[1312] say, -too, that a decoction of it in vinegar, externally applied, gives -instantaneous relief in cases of gout and diseases of the joints. As -a remedy, too, for lumbago, the seed of it is dried in the sun and -pounded, being given in doses of twenty denarii to half a sextarius of -water. Mixed with woman’s milk and applied as a liniment, it is a cure -for tumours which have suddenly formed. - -Elaterium promotes the menstrual discharge; but if taken by females -when pregnant, it is productive of abortion. It is good, also, for -asthma, and, injected into the nostrils, for the jaundice.[1313] Rubbed -upon the face in the sun, it removes freckles[1314] and spots upon the -skin. - - - - -CHAP. 5.—THE CULTIVATED CUCUMBER: NINE REMEDIES. - - -Many persons attribute all these properties to the cultivated -cucumber[1315] as well, a plant which even without them would be of -very considerable importance, in a medicinal point of view. A pinch of -the seed, for instance, in three fingers, beaten up with cummin and -taken in wine, is extremely beneficial for a cough: for phrenitis, -also, doses of it are administered in woman’s milk, and doses of one -acetabulum for dysentery. As a remedy for purulent expectorations, -it is taken with an equal quantity of cummin;[1316] and it is used -with hydromel for diseases of the liver. Taken in sweet wine, it is -a diuretic; and, in combination with cummin,[1316] it is used as an -injection for affections of the kidneys. - - - - -CHAP. 6.—PEPONES: ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -The fruit known as pepones[1317] are a cool and refreshing diet, and -are slightly relaxing to the stomach. Applications are used of the -pulpy flesh in defluxions or pains of the eyes. The root, too, of -this plant cures the hard ulcers known to us as “ceria,” from their -resemblance to a honeycomb, and it acts as an emetic.[1318] Dried and -reduced to a powder, it is given in doses of four oboli in hydromel, -the patient, immediately after taking it, being made to walk half a -mile. This powder is employed also in cosmetics[1319] for smoothing -the skin. The rind, too, has the effect[1320] of promoting vomiting, -and, when applied to the face, of clearing the skin; a result which is -equally produced by an external application of the leaves of all the -cultivated cucumbers. These leaves, mixed with honey, are employed for -the cure of the pustules known as “epinyctis;”[1321] steeped in wine, -they are good, too, for the bites of dogs and of multipedes,[1322] -insects known to the Greeks by the name of “seps,”[1323] of an -elongated form, with hairy legs, and noxious to cattle more -particularly; the sting being followed by swelling, and the wound -rapidly putrifying. - -The smell of the cucumber itself is a restorative[1324] in fainting -fits. It is a well-known fact, that if cucumbers are peeled and then -boiled in oil, vinegar, and honey, they are all the more pleasant -eating[1325] for it. - - - - -CHAP. 7. (3.)—THE GOURD: SEVENTEEN REMEDIES. THE SOMPHUS: ONE REMEDY. - - -There is found also a wild gourd, called “somphos” by the Greeks, empty -within (to which circumstance it owes its name),[1326] and long and -thick in shape, like the finger: it grows nowhere except upon stony -spots. The juice of this gourd, when chewed, is very beneficial to the -stomach.[1327] - - - - -CHAP. 8.—THE COLOCYNTHIS: TEN REMEDIES. - - -There is another variety of the wild gourd, known as the -“colocynthis:”[1328] this kind is full of seeds, but not so large as -the cultivated one. The pale colocynthis is better than those of a -grass-green colour. Employed by itself when dried, it acts as a very -powerful[1329] purgative; used as an injection, it is a remedy for all -diseases of the intestines, the kidneys, and the loins, as well as for -paralysis. The seed being first removed, it is boiled down in hydromel -to one half; after which it is used as an injection, with perfect -safety, in doses of four oboli. It is good, too, for the stomach, taken -in pills composed of the dried powder and boiled honey. In jaundice -seven seeds of it may be taken with beneficial effects, with a draught -of hydromel immediately after. - -The pulp of this fruit, taken with wormwood and salt, is a remedy for -toothache, and the juice of it, warmed with vinegar, has the effect -of strengthening loose teeth. Rubbed in with oil, it removes pains of -the spine, loins, and hips: in addition to which, really a marvellous -thing to speak of! the seeds of it, in even numbers, attached to the -body in a linen cloth, will cure, it is said, the fevers to which the -Greeks have given the name of “periodic.”[1330] The juice, too, of -the cultivated gourd[1331] shred in pieces, applied warm, is good -for ear-ache, and the flesh of the inside, used without the seed, -for corns on the feet and the suppurations known to the Greeks as -“apostemata.”[1332] When the pulp and seeds are boiled together, the -decoction is good for strengthening loose teeth, and for preventing -toothache; wine, too, boiled with this plant, is curative of defluxions -of the eyes. The leaves of it, bruised with fresh cypress-leaves, -or the leaves alone, boiled in a vessel of potters’ clay and beaten -up with goose-grease, and then applied to the part affected, are an -excellent cure for wounds. Fresh shavings of the rind are used as a -cooling application for gout, and burning pains in the head, in infants -more particularly; they are good, too, for erysipelas,[1333] whether -it is the shavings of the rind or the seeds of the plant that are -applied to the part affected. The juice of the scrapings, employed -as a liniment with rose-oil and vinegar, moderates the burning heats -of fevers; and the ashes of the dried fruit applied to burns are -efficacious in a most remarkable degree. - -Chrysippus, the physician, condemned the use of the gourd as a food: it -is generally agreed, however, that it is extremely good[1334] for the -stomach, and for ulcerations of the intestines and of the bladder. - - - - -CHAP. 9.—RAPE; NINE REMEDIES. - - -Rape, too, has its medicinal properties. Warmed, it is used as an -application for the cure of chilblains,[1335] in addition to which, it -has the effect of protecting the feet from cold. A hot decoction of -rape is employed for the cure of cold gout; and raw rape, beaten up -with salt, is good for all maladies of the feet. Rape-seed, used as a -liniment, and taken in drink, with wine, is said to have a salutary -effect[1336] against the stings of serpents, and various narcotic -poisons; and there are many persons who attribute to it the properties -of an antidote, when taken with wine and oil. - -Democritus has entirely repudiated the use of rape as an article of -food, in consequence of the flatulence[1337] which it produces; while -Diocles, on the other hand, has greatly extolled it, and has even gone -so far as to say that it acts as an aphrodisiac.[1338] Dionysius, -too, says the same of rape, and more particularly if it is seasoned -with rocket;[1339] he adds, also, that roasted, and then applied with -grease, it is excellent for pains in the joints. - - - - -CHAP. 10.—WILD RAPE: ONE REMEDY. - - -Wild rape[1340] is mostly found growing in the fields; it has a tufted -top, with a white[1341] seed, twice as large as that of the poppy. This -plant is often employed for smoothing the skin of the face and the body -generally, meal of fitches,[1342] barley, wheat, and lupines, being -mixed with it in equal proportions. - -The root of the wild rape is applied to no useful purpose whatever. - - - - -CHAP. 11. (4.)—TURNIPS; THOSE KNOWN AS BUNION AND BUNIAS: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -The Greeks distinguish two kinds of turnips,[1343] also, as employed -in medicine. The turnip with angular stalks and a flower like that of -anise, and known by them as “bunion,”[1344] is good for promoting -the menstrual discharge in females and for affections[1345] of the -bladder; it acts, also, as a diuretic. For these purposes, a decoction -of it is taken with hydromel, or else one drachma of the juice of the -plant.[1346] The seed, parched, and then beaten up, and taken in warm -water, in doses of four cyathi, is a good remedy for dysentery; it will -stop the passage of the urine, however, if linseed is not taken with it. - -The other kind of turnip is known by the name of “bunias,”[1347] and -bears a considerable resemblance to the radish and the rape united, the -seed of it enjoying the reputation of being a remedy for poisons; hence -it is that we find it employed in antidotes. - - - - -CHAP. 12.—THE WILD RADISH, OR ARMORACIA: ONE REMEDY. - - -We have already said,[1348] that there is also a wild radish.[1349] The -most esteemed is that of Arcadia, though it is also found growing in -other countries as well. It is only efficacious as a diuretic, being in -other respects of a heating nature. In Italy, it is known also by the -name of “armoracia.” - - - - -CHAP. 13.—THE CULTIVATED RADISH: FORTY-THREE REMEDIES. - - -The cultivated radish, too, in addition to what we have already -said[1350] of it, purges the stomach, attenuates the phlegm, acts as a -diuretic, and detaches the bilious secretions. A decoction of the rind -of radishes in wine, taken in the morning in doses of three cyathi, -has the effect of breaking and expelling calculi of the bladder. A -decoction, too, of this rind in vinegar and water, is employed as a -liniment for the stings of serpents. Taken fasting in the morning -with honey, radishes are good[1351] for a cough. Parched radish-seed, -as well as radishes themselves, chewed, is useful for pains in the -sides.[1352] A decoction of the leaves, taken in drink, or else the -juice of the plant taken in doses of two cyathi, is an excellent remedy -for phthiriasis. Pounded radishes, too, are employed as a liniment for -inflammations[1353] under the skin, and the rind, mixed with honey, for -bruises of recent date. Lethargic persons[1354] are recommended to eat -them as hot as possible, and the seed, parched and then pounded with -honey, will give relief to asthmatic patients. - -Radishes, too, are useful as a remedy for poisons, and are employed -to counteract the effects of the sting of the cerastes[1355] and the -scorpion: indeed, after having rubbed the hands with radishes or -radish-seed, we may handle[1356] those reptiles with impunity. If a -radish is placed upon a scorpion, it will cause its death. Radishes -are useful, too, in cases of poisoning by fungi[1357] or henbane; and -according to Nicander,[1358] they are salutary against the effects of -bullock’s blood,[1359] when drunk. The two physicians of the name of -Apollodorus, prescribe radishes to be given in cases of poisoning by -mistletoe; but whereas Apollodorus of Citium recommends radish-seed -pounded in water, Apollodorus of Tarentum speaks of the juice. Radishes -diminish the volume of the spleen, and are beneficial for maladies of -the liver and pains in the loins: taken, too, with vinegar or mustard, -they are good for dropsy and lethargy, as well as epilepsy[1360] and -melancholy.[1361] Praxagoras recommends that radishes should be given -for the iliac passion, and Plistonicus for the cœliac[1362] disease. - -Radishes are good, too, for curing ulcerations of the intestines and -suppurations of the thoracic organs,[1363] if eaten with honey. Some -persons say, however, that for this purpose they should be boiled in -earth and water; a decoction which, according to them, promotes the -menstrual discharge. Taken with vinegar or honey, radishes expel worms -from the intestines; and a decoction of them boiled down to one-third, -taken in wine, is good for intestinal hernia.[1364] Employed in this -way, too, they have the effect of drawing off the superfluous blood. -Medius recommends them to be given boiled to persons troubled with -spitting of blood, and to women who are suckling, for the purpose of -increasing the milk. Hippocrates[1365] recommends females whose hair -falls off, to rub the head with radishes, and he says that for pains of -the uterus, they should be applied to the navel. - -Radishes have the effect, too, of restoring the skin, when scarred, -to its proper colour; and the seed, steeped in water, and applied -topically, arrests the progress of ulcers known as phagedænic.[1366] -Democritus regards them, taken with the food, as an aphrodisiac; and it -is for this reason, perhaps, that some persons have spoken of them as -being injurious to the voice. The leaves, but only those of the long -radish, are said to have the effect of improving the eye-sight. - -When radishes, employed as a remedy, act too powerfully, it is -recommended that hyssop should be given immediately; there being an -antipathy[1367] between these two plants. For dulness of hearing, -too, radish-juice is injected into the ear. To promote vomiting, it is -extremely beneficial to eat radishes fasting. - - - - -CHAP. 14.—THE PARSNIP: FIVE REMEDIES. THE HIBISCUM, WILD MALLOW, OR -PLISTOLOCHIA: ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -The hibiscum, by some persons known as the wild mallow,[1368] and -by others as the “plistolochia,” bears a strong resemblance to the -parsnip;[1369] it is good for ulcerations of the cartilages, and is -employed for the cure of fractured bones. The leaves of it, taken in -water, relax the stomach; they have the effect, also, of keeping away -serpents, and, employed as a liniment, are a cure for the stings of -bees, wasps, and hornets. The root, pulled up before sunrise, and -wrapped in wool of the colour known as “native,”[1370] taken from a -sheep which has just dropped a ewe lamb, is employed as a bandage for -scrofulous swellings, even after they have suppurated. Some persons are -of opinion, that for this purpose the root should be dug up with an -implement of gold, and that care should be taken not to let it touch -the ground. - -Celsus,[1371] too, recommends this root to be boiled in wine, and -applied in cases of gout unattended with swelling. - - - - -CHAP. 15. (5.)—THE STAPHYLINOS, OR WILD PARSNIP: TWENTY-TWO REMEDIES. - - -The staphylinos, or, as some persons call it, “erratic[1372] parsnip,” -is another kind. The seed[1373] of this plant, pounded and taken in -wine, reduces swelling of the abdomen, and alleviates hysterical -suffocations and pains, to such a degree as to restore the uterus to -its natural condition. Used as a liniment, also, with raisin wine, it -is good for pains of the bowels in females; for men, too, beaten up -with an equal proportion of bread, and taken in wine, it may be found -beneficial for similar pains. It is a diuretic also, and it will -arrest the progress of phagedænic ulcers, if applied fresh with honey, -or else dried and sprinkled on them with meal. - -Dieuches recommends the root of it to be given, with hydromel, for -affections of the liver and spleen, as also the sides, loins, and -kidneys; and Cleophantus prescribes it for dysentery of long standing. -Philistio says that it should be boiled in milk, and for strangury he -prescribes four ounces of the root. Taken in water, he recommends it -for dropsy, as well as in cases of opisthotony,[1374] pleurisy, and -epilepsy. Persons, it is said, who carry this plant about them, will -never be stung by serpents, and those who have just eaten of it will -receive no hurt from them. Mixed with axle-grease,[1375] it is applied -to parts of the body stung by reptiles; and the leaves of it are eaten -as a remedy for indigestion. - -Orpheus has stated that the staphylinos acts as a philtre,[1376] -most probably because, a very-well-established fact, when employed -as a food, it is an aphrodisiac; a circumstance which has led some -persons to state that it promotes conception. In other respects the -cultivated parsnip has similar properties; though the wild kind is -more powerful in its operation, and that which grows in stony soils -more particularly. The seed, too, of the cultivated parsnip, taken in -wine, or vinegar and water,[1377] is salutary for stings inflicted by -scorpions. By rubbing the teeth with the root of this plant, tooth-ache -is removed. - - - - -CHAP. 16.—GINGIDION: ONE REMEDY. - - -The Syrians devote themselves particularly to the cultivation of the -garden, a circumstance to which we owe the Greek proverb, “There is -plenty of vegetables in Syria.”[1378] - -Among other vegetables, that country produces one very similar to the -staphylinos, and known to some persons as “gingidion,”[1379] only that -it is smaller than the staphylinos and more bitter, though it has just -the same properties. Eaten either raw or boiled, it is very beneficial -to the stomach, as it entirely absorbs all humours with which it may -happen to be surcharged. - - - - -CHAP. 17.—THE SKIRRET: ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -The wild[1380] skirret, too, is very similar to the cultivated -kind,[1381] and is productive of similar effects. It sharpens[1382] -the stomach, and, taken with vinegar flavoured with silphium, or with -pepper and hydromel, or else with garum, it promotes the appetite. -According to Opion, it is a diuretic, and acts as an aphrodisiac.[1383] -Diocles is also of the same opinion; in addition to which, he says -that it possesses cordial virtues for convalescents, and is extremely -beneficial after frequent vomitings. - -Heraclides has prescribed it against the effects of mercury,[1384] -and for occasional impotence, as also generally for patients when -convalescent. Hicesius says that skirrets would appear to be -prejudicial[1385] to the stomach, because no one is able to eat three -of them following; still, however, he looks upon them as beneficial -to patients who are just resuming the use of wine. The juice of the -cultivated skirret, taken in goats’-milk, arrests looseness of the -stomach. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—SILE, OR HARTWORT: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -As the similitude which exists between their Greek names[1386] has -caused most persons to mistake the one for the other, we have thought -it as well to give some account here of sile or hartwort,[1387] though -it is a plant which is very generally known. The best hartwort is that -of Massilia,[1388] the seed of it being broad and yellow; and the -next best is that of Æthiopia, the seed of which is of a darker hue. -The Cretan hartwort is the most odoriferous of the several kinds. The -root of this plant has a pleasant smell; the seed of it is eaten by -vultures, it is said.[1389] Hartwort is useful to man for inveterate -coughs, ruptures, and convulsions, being usually taken in white wine; -it is employed also in cases of opisthotony, and for diseases of the -liver, as well as for griping pains in the bowels and for strangury, in -doses of two or three spoonfuls at a time. - -The leaves of this plant are useful also, and have the effect of -aiding parturition—in animals even: indeed, it is generally said that -roes,[1390] when about to bring forth, are in the habit of eating these -leaves in particular. They are topically applied, also, in erysipelas; -and either the leaves or the seed, taken fasting in the morning, are -very beneficial to the digestion. Hartwort has the effect, too, of -arresting looseness in cattle, either bruised and put into their drink, -or else eaten by them after it has been chewed with salt. When oxen are -in a diseased state, it is beaten up and poured into their food. - - - - -CHAP. 19.—ELECAMPANE: ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -Elecampane,[1391] too, chewed fasting, has the effect of strengthening -the teeth, if, from the moment that it is plucked, it is not allowed to -touch the ground: a confection of it is a cure for cough. The juice of -the root boiled is an expellent of intestinal tapeworm; and dried in -the shade and reduced to powder, the root[1392] is curative in cases of -cough, convulsions, flatulency, and affections of the trachea. It is -useful too, for the bites of venomous animals; and the leaves steeped -in wine are applied topically for pains in the loins. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—ONIONS: TWENTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -There are no such things in existence as wild onions. The cultivated -onion is employed for the cure of dimness[1393] of sight, the -patient being made to smell at it till tears come into the eyes: it -is still better even if the eyes are rubbed with the juice. It is -said, too, that onions are soporific,[1394] and that they are a cure -for ulcerations of the mouth, if chewed with bread. Fresh onions in -vinegar, applied topically, or dried onions with wine and honey, are -good for the bites of dogs, care being taken not to remove the bandage -till the end of a couple of days. Applied, too, in the same way, they -are good for healing excoriations. Roasted in hot ashes, many persons -have applied them topically, with barley meal, for defluxions of the -eyes and ulcerations of the genitals. The juice, too, is employed as an -ointment for sores of the eyes, albugo,[1395] and argema.[1396] Mixed -with honey, it is used as a liniment for the stings[1397] of serpents -and all kinds of ulcerous sores. In combination with woman’s milk, it -is employed for affections of the ears; and in cases of singing in -the ears and hardness of hearing, it is injected into those organs -with goose-grease or honey. In cases where persons have been suddenly -struck dumb, it has been administered to them to drink, mixed with -water. In cases, too, of toothache, it is sometimes introduced into the -mouth as a gargle for the teeth; it is an excellent remedy also for all -kinds of wounds made by animals, scorpions more particularly. - -In cases of alopecy[1398] and itch-scab, bruised onions are rubbed on -the parts affected: they are also given boiled to persons afflicted -with dysentery or lumbago. Onion peelings, burnt to ashes and mixed -with vinegar, are employed topically for stings of serpents and -multipedes.[1399] - -In other respects, there are remarkable differences of opinion among -medical men. The more modern writers have stated that onions are good -for the thoracic organs and the digestion, but that they are productive -of flatulency and thirst. The school of Asclepiades maintains that, -used as an aliment, onions impart a florid[1400] colour to the -complexion, and that, taken fasting every day, they are promoters of -robustness and health; that as a diet, too, they are good for the -stomach by acting upon the spirits, and have the effect of relaxing the -bowels. He says, too, that, employed as a suppository, onions disperse -piles, and that the juice of them, taken in combination with juice of -fennel, is wonderfully beneficial in cases of incipient dropsy. It -is said, too, that the juice, taken with rue and honey, is good for -quinsy, and has the effect of dispelling lethargy.[1401] Varro assures -us that onions, pounded with salt and vinegar and then dried, will -never be attacked by worms.[1402] - - - - -CHAP. 21. (6.)—CUTLEEK: THIRTY-TWO REMEDIES. - - -Cutleek[1403] has the effect of stanching bleeding at the nose, the -nostrils being plugged with the plant, pounded, or else mixed with -nut-galls or mint. The juice of it, taken with woman’s milk, arrests -floodings after a miscarriage; and it is remedial in cases even of -inveterate cough, and of affections of the chest[1404] and lungs. The -leaves, applied topically, are employed for the cure of pimples, burns, -and epinyctis[1405]—this last being the name given to an ulcer, known -also as “syce,”[1406] situate in the corner of the eye, from which -there is a continual running: some persons, however, give this name -to livid pustules, which cause great restlessness in the night. Other -kinds of ulcers, too, are treated with leeks beaten up with honey: used -with vinegar, they are extensively employed also for the bites of wild -beasts, as well as of serpents and other venomous creatures. Mixed -with goats’ gall, or else honied wine in equal proportions, they are -used for affections of the ears, and, combined with woman’s milk, for -singing in the ears. In cases of head-ache, the juice is injected into -the nostrils, or else into the ear at bed-time, two spoonfuls of juice -to one of honey. - -This juice is taken too with pure wine,[1407] for the stings of -serpents and scorpions, and, mixed with a semi-sextarius of wine, -for lumbago. The juice, or the leek itself, eaten as a food, is very -beneficial to persons troubled with spitting of blood, phthisis, -or inveterate catarrhs; in cases also of jaundice or dropsy, and -for nephretic pains, it is taken in barley-water, in doses of one -acetabulum of juice. The same dose, too, mixed with honey, effectually -purges the uterus. Leeks are eaten, too, in cases of poisoning by -fungi,[1408] and are applied topically to wounds: they act also as an -aphrodisiac,[1409] allay thirst, and dispel the effects of drunkenness; -but they have the effect of weakening the sight and causing flatulency, -it is said, though, at the same time, they are not injurious to the -stomach, and act as an aperient. Leeks impart a remarkable clearness to -the voice.[1410] - - - - -CHAP. 22.—BULBED LEEK: THIRTY-NINE REMEDIES. - - -Bulbed leek[1411] produces the same effects as cut-leek,[1412] but in a -more powerful degree. To persons troubled with spitting of blood, the -juice of it is given, with powdered nut-galls[1413] or frankincense, -or else gum acacia.[1414] Hippocrates,[1415] however, prescribes it -without being mixed with anything else, and expressed himself of -opinion that it has the property of opening the uterus when contracted, -and that taken as an aliment by females, it is a great promoter of -fecundity. Beaten up and mixed with honey, it cleanses ulcerous sores. -It is good for the cure of coughs, catarrhs, and all affections of the -lungs and of the trachea, whether given in the form of a ptisan, or -eaten raw, the head excepted: it must be taken, however, without bread, -and upon alternate days, and this even if there should be purulent -expectorations. - -Taken in this form, it greatly improves the voice, and acts as an -aphrodisiac, and as a promoter of sleep. The heads, boiled in a couple -of waters, arrest looseness of the bowels, and fluxes of long standing; -and a decoction of the outer coat acts as a dye upon grey hair.[1416] - - - - -CHAP. 23.—GARLIC: SIXTY-ONE REMEDIES. - - -Garlic[1417] has very powerful[1418] properties, and is of great -utility to persons on changes of water or locality. The very smell of -it drives away serpents and scorpions, and, according to what some -persons say, it is a cure for wounds made by every kind of wild beast, -whether taken with the drink or food, or applied topically. Taken -in wine, it is a remedy for the sting of the hæmorrhoïs[1419] more -particularly, acting as an emetic. We shall not be surprised too, that -it acts as a powerful remedy for the bite of the shrew-mouse, when we -find that it has the property of neutralizing aconite, otherwise known -as “pardalianches.”[1420] It neutralizes henbane, also, and cures the -bites of dogs, when applied with honey to the wound. It is taken in -drink also for the stings of serpents; and of its leaves, mixed with -oil, a most valuable liniment is made for bruises on the body, even -when they have swelled and formed blisters. - -Hippocrates[1421] is of opinion also, that fumigations made with garlic -have the effect of bringing away the after-birth; and he used to employ -the ashes of garlic, mixed with oil, for the cure of running ulcers -of the head. Some persons have prescribed boiled garlic for asthmatic -patients; while others, again, have given it raw. Diocles prescribes -it, in combination with centaury, for dropsy, and to be taken in a -split fig, to promote the alvine evacuations: taken fresh, however, in -unmixed wine, with coriander, it is still more efficacious for that -purpose. Some persons have given it, beaten up in milk, for asthma. -Praxagoras used to prescribe garlic, mixed with wine, for jaundice, and -with oil and pottage for the iliac passion: he employed it also in a -similar form, as a liniment for scrofulous swellings of the neck. - -The ancients used to give raw garlic in cases of madness, and Diocles -administered it boiled for phrenitis. Beaten up, and taken in vinegar -and water, it is very useful as a gargle for quinsy. Three heads of -garlic, beaten up in vinegar, give relief in toothache: and a similar -result is obtained by rinsing the mouth with a decoction of garlic, -and inserting pieces of it in the hollow teeth. Juice of garlic is -sometimes injected into the ears with goose-grease,[1422] and, taken -in drink, or similarly injected, in combination with vinegar and -nitre, it arrests phthiriasis[1423] and porrigo.[1424] Boiled with -milk, or else beaten up and mixed with soft cheese, it is a cure for -catarrhs. Employed in a similar manner, and taken with pease or beans, -it is good for hoarseness, but in general it is found to be more -serviceable cooked than raw, and boiled than roasted: in this last -state, however, it is more beneficial to the voice. Boiled in oxymel, -it has the effect of expelling tape-worm and other intestinal worms; -and a pottage made of it is a cure for tenesmus. A decoction of garlic -is applied topically for pains in the temples; and first boiled and -then beaten up with honey, it is good for blisters. A decoction of -it, with stale grease, or milk, is excellent for a cough; and where -persons are troubled with spitting of blood or purulent matter, it may -be roasted in hot ashes, and taken with honey in equal proportions. -For convulsions and ruptures it is administered in combination with -salt and oil; and, mixed with grease, it is employed for the cure of -suspected tumours. - -Mixed with sulphur and resin, garlic draws out the humours from -fistulous sores, and employed with pitch, it will extract an arrow -even[1425] from the wound. In cases of leprosy, lichen, and eruptions -of the skin, it acts as a detergent, and effects a cure, in combination -with wild marjoram, or else reduced to ashes, and applied as a liniment -with oil and garum.[1426] It is employed in a similar manner, too, for -erysipelas; and, reduced to ashes, and mixed with honey, it restores -contused or livid spots on the skin to their proper colour. It is -generally believed, too, that taken in the food and drink, garlic is a -cure for epilepsy, and that a clove of it, taken in astringent wine, -with an obolus’ weight of silphium,[1427] will have the effect of -dispelling quartan fever. Garlic cures coughs also, and suppurations -of the chest, however violent they may be; to obtain which result, -another method is followed, it being boiled with broken beans, and -employed as a diet till the cure is fully effected. It is a soporific -also, and in general imparts to the body an additional ruddiness of -colour. - -Garlic acts as an aphrodisiac, beaten up with fresh coriander, and -taken in pure wine. The inconveniences which result from the use of -it, are dimness of the sight and flatulency; and if taken in too large -quantities, it does injury to the stomach, and creates thirst. In -addition to these particulars, mixed with spelt flour, and given to -poultry in their food, it preserves them from attacks of the pip.[1428] -Beasts of burden, it is said, will void their urine all the more -easily, and without any pain, if the genitals are rubbed with garlic. - - - - -CHAP. 24.—THE LETTUCE: FORTY-TWO REMEDIES. THE GOAT-LETTUCE: FOUR -REMEDIES. - - -The first kind of lettuce which grows spontaneously, is the one that -is generally known as “goat[1429]-lettuce;” thrown into the sea, this -vegetable has the property of instantaneously killing all the fish that -come into its vicinity. The milky juice of this lettuce,[1430] left to -thicken and then put into vinegar, is given in doses of two oboli, with -the addition of one cyathus of water, to patients for dropsy. The stalk -and leaves, bruised and sprinkled with salt, are used for the cure of -wounds of the sinews. Pounded with vinegar, and employed as a gargle in -the morning twice a month, they act as a preventive of tooth-ache. - - - - -CHAP. 25.—CÆSAPON: ONE REMEDY. ISATIS: ONE REMEDY. THE WILD LETTUCE: -SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -There is a second kind of wild lettuce, known by the Greeks is -“cæsapon.”[1431] The leaves of this lettuce, applied as a liniment with -polenta,[1432] are used for the cure of ulcerous sores. This plant is -found growing in the fields. A third kind, again, grows in the woods; -the name given to it is “isatis.”[1433] The leaves of this last, beaten -up and applied with polenta, are very useful for the cure of wounds. A -fourth kind is used by dyers of wool; in the leaves it would resemble -wild lapathum, were it not that they are more numerous and darker. -This lettuce has the property of stanching blood, and of healing -phagedænic sores and putrid spreading ulcers, as well as tumours -before suppuration. Both the root as well as the leaves are good, too, -for erysipelas; and a decoction of it is drunk for affections of the -spleen. Such are the properties peculiar to each of these varieties. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—HAWK-WEED: SEVENTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The properties which are common to all the wild varieties[1434] are -whiteness, a stem sometimes as much as a cubit in length, and a -roughness upon the stalk and leaves. Among these plants there is one -with round, short leaves, known to some persons as “hieracion;”[1435] -from the circumstance that the hawk tears it open and sprinkles[1436] -its eyes with the juice, and so dispels any dimness of sight of which -it is apprehensive. The juice of all these plants is white, and in -its properties resembles that of the poppy.[1437] It is collected -at harvest-time, by making incisions in the stalk, and is kept -in new earthen vessels, being renowned as a remedy for numerous -maladies.[1438] Mixed with woman’s milk, it is a cure for all diseases -of the eyes, such as argema for instance, films on the eyes, scars -and inflammations[1439] of all kinds, and dimness of the sight more -particularly. It is applied to the eyes, too, in wool, as a remedy for -defluxions of those organs. - -This juice also purges the bowels, taken in doses of two oboli in -vinegar and water. Drunk in wine it is a cure for the stings of -serpents, and the leaves and stalk of the plant are pounded and taken -in vinegar. They are employed also as a liniment for wounds, the sting -of the scorpion more particularly; combined, too, with oil and vinegar, -they are similarly applied for the bite of the phalangium.[1440] -They have the effect, also, of neutralizing other poisons, with the -exception of those which kill by suffocation or by attacking the -bladder, as also with the exception of white lead. Steeped in oxymel, -they are applied to the abdomen for the purpose of drawing out vicious -humours of the intestines. The juice is found good, also, in cases of -retention of the urine. Crateuas prescribes it to be given to dropsical -patients, in doses of two oboli, with vinegar and one cyathus of wine. - -Some persons collect the juice of the cultivated lettuce as well, -but it is not so efficacious[1441] as the other. We have already -made mention,[1442] to some extent, of the peculiar properties -of the cultivated lettuce, such as promoting sleep, allaying the -sexual passions, cooling the body when heated, purging[1443] the -stomach, and making blood. In addition to these, it possesses no few -properties besides; for it has the effect of removing flatulency, and -of dispelling eructations, while at the same time it promotes the -digestion, without ever being indigestible itself. Indeed, there is no -article of diet known that is a greater stimulant to the appetite, or -which tends in a greater degree to modify it; it being the extent, -either way, to which it is eaten that promotes these opposite results. -In the same way, too, lettuces eaten in too large quantities are -laxative, but taken in moderation they are binding. They have the -effect, also, of attenuating the tough, viscous, phlegm, and, according -to what some persons say, of sharpening the senses. They are extremely -serviceable, too, to debilitated stomachs; for which purpose * *[1444] -oboli of sour sauce[1445] is added to them, the sharpness of which -is modified by the application of sweet wine, to make it of the same -strength as vinegar-sauce.[1446] If, again, the phlegm with which the -patient is troubled is extremely tough and viscous, wine of squills or -of wormwood is employed; and if there is any cough perceptible, hyssop -wine is mixed as well. - -Lettuces are given with wild endive for cœliac affections, and -for obstructions of the thoracic organs. White lettuces, too, are -prescribed in large quantities for melancholy and affections of the -bladder. Praxagoras recommends them for dysentery. Lettuces are good, -also, for recent burns, before blisters have made their appearance: in -such cases they are applied with salt. They arrest spreading ulcers, -being applied at first with saltpetre, and afterwards with wine. -Beaten up, they are applied topically for erysipelas; and the stalks, -beaten up with polenta, and applied with cold water, are soothing for -luxations of the limbs and spasmodic contractions; used, too, with -wine and polenta, they are good for pimples and eruptions. For cholera -lettuces have been given, cooked in the saucepan, in which case it is -those with the largest stalk and bitter that are the best: some persons -administer them, also, as an injection, in milk. These stalks boiled, -are remarkably good, it is said, for the stomach: the summer lettuce, -too, more particularly, and the bitter, milky lettuce, of which we have -already[1447] made mention as the “meconis,” have a soporific effect. -This juice, in combination with woman’s milk, is said to be extremely -beneficial to the eyesight, if applied to the head in good time; it is -a remedy, too, for such maladies of the eyes as result from the action -of cold. - -I find other marvellous praises lavished upon the lettuce, such, for -instance, as that, mixed with Attic honey, it is no less beneficial -for affections of the chest than abrotonum;[1448] that the menstrual -discharge is promoted in females by using it as a diet; that the seed, -too, Of the cultivated lettuce is administered as a remedy for the -stings of scorpions, and that pounded, and taken in wine, it arrests -all libidinous dreams and imaginations during sleep; that water, too, -which affects[1449] the brain will have no injurious effects upon those -who eat lettuce. Some persons have stated, however, that if lettuces -are eaten too frequently they will prove injurious to the eyesight. - - - - -CHAP. 27. (8.)—BEET: TWENTY-FOUR REMEDIES. - - -Nor are the two varieties of the beet without their remedial -properties.[1450] The root of either white or black beet, if hung -by a string, fresh-gathered, and softened with water, is said to be -efficacious for the stings of serpents. White beet, boiled and eaten -with raw garlic, is taken for tapeworm; the root, too, of the black -kind, similarly boiled in water, removes porrigo; indeed, it is -generally stated, that the black beet is the more efficacious[1451] of -the two. The juice of black beet is good for inveterate head-aches and -vertigo, and injected into the ears, it stops singing in those organs. -It is a diuretic, also, and employed in injections is a cure for -dysentery and jaundice. - -This juice, used as a liniment, allays tooth-ache, and is good for the -stings of serpents; but due care must be taken that it is extracted -from this root only. A decoction, too, of beet-root is a remedy for -chilblains. - -A liniment of white beet-root applied to the forehead, arrests -defluxions of the eyes, and mixed with a little alum it is an excellent -remedy for erysipelas. Beaten up, and applied without oil, it is a -cure for excoriations. In the same way, too, it is good for pimples -and eruptions. Boiled, it is applied topically to spreading ulcers, -and in a raw state it is employed in cases of alopecy, and running -ulcers of the head. The juice, injected with honey into the nostrils, -has the effect of clearing the head. Beet-root is boiled with lentils -and vinegar, for the purpose of relaxing the bowels; if it is boiled, -however, some time longer, it will have the effect of arresting fluxes -of the stomach and bowels. - - - - -CHAP. 28.—LIMONION, OR NEUROIDES: THREE REMEDIES. - - -There is a wild beet, too, known by some persons as “limonion,”[1452] -and by others as “neuroides;” it has leaves much smaller and thinner -than the cultivated kind, and lying closer together. These leaves -amount often to eleven[1453] in number, the stalk resembling that of -the lily.[1454] The leaves of this plant are very useful for burns, -and have an astringent taste in the mouth: the seed, taken in doses of -one acetabulum, is good for dysentery. It is said that a decoction of -beet with the root has the property of taking stains out of cloths and -parchment. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—ENDIVE: THREE REMEDIES. - - -Endive,[1455] too, is not without its medicinal uses. The juice of -it, employed with rose oil and vinegar, has the effect of allaying -headache; and taken with wine, it is good for pains in the liver and -bladder: it is used, also, topically, for defluxions of the eyes. The -spreading endive has received from some persons among us the name of -“ambula.” In Egypt, the wild endive is known as “cichorium,”[1456] the -cultivated kind being called “seris.” This last is smaller than the -other, and the leaves of it more full of veins. - - - - -CHAP. 30.—CICHORIUM OR CHRESTON, OTHERWISE CALLED PANCRATION, OR -AMBULA: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -Wild endive or cichorium has certain refreshing qualities,[1457] used -as an aliment. Applied by way of liniment, it disperses abscesses, -and a decoction of it loosens the bowels. It is also very beneficial -to the liver, kidneys, and stomach. A decoction of it in vinegar has -the effect of dispelling the pains of strangury; and, taken in honied -wine, it is a cure for the jaundice, if unattended with fever. It -is beneficial, also, to the bladder, and a decoction of it in water -promotes the menstrual discharge to such an extent as to bring away the -dead fœtus even. - -In addition to these qualities, the magicians[1458] state that persons -who rub themselves with the juice of the entire plant, mixed with -oil, are sure to find more favour with others, and to obtain with -greater facility anything they may desire. This plant, in consequence -of its numerous salutary virtues, has been called by some persons -“chreston,”[1459] and “pancration”[1460] by others. - - - - -CHAP. 31.—HEDYPNOÏS: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -There is a sort of wild endive, too, with a broader leaf, known to some -persons as “hedypnoïs.”[1461] Boiled, it acts as an astringent upon a -relaxed stomach, and eaten raw, it is productive of constipation. It is -good, too, for dysentery, when eaten with lentils more particularly. -This variety, as well as the preceding one, is useful for ruptures and -spasmodic contractions, and relieves persons who are suffering from -spermatorrhœa. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—SERIS, THREE VARIETIES OF IT: SEVEN REMEDIES BORROWED FROM IT. - - -The vegetable, too, called “seris,”[1462] which bears a considerable -resemblance to the lettuce, consists of two kinds. The wild, which is -of a swarthy colour, and grows in summer, is the best of the two; the -winter kind, which is whiter than the other, being inferior. They are -both of them bitter, but are extremely beneficial to the stomach, when -distressed by humours more particularly. Used as food with vinegar, -they are cooling, and, employed as a liniment, they dispel other -humours besides those of the stomach. The roots of the wild variety -are eaten with polenta for the stomach: and in cardiac diseases they -are applied topically above the left breast. Boiled in vinegar, all -these vegetables are good for the gout, and for patients troubled -with spitting of blood or spermatorrhœa; the decoction being taken on -alternate days. - -Petronius Diodotus, who has written a medical Anthology,[1463] utterly -condemns seris, and employs a multitude of arguments to support his -views: this opinion of his is opposed, however, to that of all other -writers on the subject. - - - - -CHAP. 33. (9).—THE CABBAGE: EIGHTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. RECIPES MENTIONED BY -CATO. - - -It would be too lengthy a task to enumerate all the praises of the -cabbage, more particularly as the physician Chrysippus has devoted a -whole volume to the subject, in which its virtues are described in -reference to each individual part of the human body. Dieuches has done -the same, and Pythagoras too, in particular. Cato, too, has not been -more sparing in its praises than the others; and it will be only right -to examine the opinions which he expresses in relation to it, if for no -other purpose than to learn what medicines the Roman people made use of -for six hundred years. - -The most ancient Greek writers have distinguished three[1464] varieties -of the cabbage: the curly[1465] cabbage, to which they have given the -name of “selinoïdes,”[1466] from the resemblance of its leaf to that -of parsley, beneficial to the stomach, and moderately relaxing to the -bowels; the “helia,” with broad leaves running out from the stalk—a -circumstance, owing to which some persons have given it the name of -“caulodes”—of no use whatever in a medicinal point of view; and a -third, the name of which is properly “crambe,” with thinner leaves, -of simple form, and closely packed, more bitter than the others, but -extremely efficacious in medicine.[1467] - -Cato[1468] esteems the curly cabbage the most highly of all, and next -to it, the smooth cabbage with large leaves and a thick stalk. He -says that it is a good thing for headache, dimness of the sight, and -dazzling[1469] of the eyes, the spleen, stomach, and thoracic organs, -taken raw in the morning, in doses of two acetabula, with oxymel, -coriander, rue, mint, and root of silphium.[1470] He says, too, that -the virtue of it is so great that the very person even who beats up -this mixture feels himself all the stronger for it; for which reason -he recommends it to be taken mixed with these condiments, or, at all -events, dressed with a sauce compounded of them. For the gout, too, -and diseases of the joints, a liniment of it should be used, he says, -with a little rue and coriander, a sprinkling of salt, and some barley -meal: the very water even in which it has been boiled is wonderfully -efficacious, according to him, for the sinews and joints. For wounds, -either recent or of long standing, as also for carcinoma,[1471] which -is incurable by any other mode of treatment, he recommends fomentations -to be made with warm water, and, after that, an application of cabbage, -beaten up, to the parts affected, twice a-day. He says, also, that -fistulas and sprains should be treated in a similar way, as well -as all humours which it may be desirable to bring to a head and -disperse; and he states that this vegetable, boiled and eaten fasting, -in considerable quantities, with oil and salt, has the effect of -preventing dreams and wakefulness; also, that if, after one boiling, -it is boiled a second time, with the addition of oil, salt, cummin, -and polenta, it will relieve gripings[1472] in the stomach; and that, -if eaten in this way without bread, it is more beneficial still. Among -various other particulars, he says, that if taken in drink with black -wine, it has the effect of carrying off the bilious secretions; and he -recommends the urine of a person who has been living on a cabbage diet -to be preserved, as, when warmed, it is a good remedy for diseases of -the sinews. I will, however, here give the identical words in which -Cato expresses himself upon this point: “If you wash little children -with this urine,” says he, “they will never be weak and puny.” - -He recommends, also, the warm juice of cabbage to be injected into the -ears, in combination with wine, and assures us that it is a capital -remedy for deafness: and he says that the cabbage is a cure for -impetigo[1473] without the formation of ulcers. - - - - -CHAP. 34.—OPINIONS OF THE GREEKS RELATIVE THERETO. - - -As we have already given those of Cato, it will be as well to set forth -the opinions entertained by the Greek writers on this subject, only in -relation, however, to those points upon which he has omitted to touch. -They are of opinion that cabbage, not thoroughly boiled, carries off -the bile, and has the effect of loosening the bowels; while, on the -other hand, if it is boiled twice over, it will act as an astringent. -They say, too, that as there is a natural[1474] enmity between it -and the vine, it combats the effects of wine; that, if eaten before -drinking, it is sure to prevent[1475] drunkenness, being equally a -dispellent of crapulence[1476] if taken after drinking: that cabbage -is a food very beneficial to the eyesight, and that the juice of it -raw is even more so, if the corners of the eyes are only touched with -a mixture of it with Attic honey. Cabbage, too, according to the same -testimony, is extremely easy of digestion,[1477] and, as an aliment, -greatly tends to clear the senses. - -The school of Erasistratus proclaims that there is nothing more -beneficial to the stomach and the sinews than cabbage; for which -reason, he says, it ought to be given to the paralytic and nervous, -as well as to persons affected with spitting of blood. Hippocrates -prescribes it, twice boiled, and eaten with salt, for dysentery and -cœliac affections, as also for tenesmus and diseases of the kidneys; he -is of opinion, too, that, as an aliment, it increases the quantity of -the milk in women who are nursing, and that it promotes the menstrual -discharge.[1478] The stalk, too, eaten raw, is efficacious in expelling -the dead fœtus. Apollodorus prescribes the seed or else the juice of -the cabbage to be taken in cases of poisoning by fungi; and Philistion -recommends the juice for persons affected with opisthotony, in -goats’-milk, with salt and honey. - -I find, too, that persons have been cured of the gout by eating cabbage -and drinking a decoction of that plant. This decoction has been given, -also, to persons afflicted with the cardiac disease and epilepsy, with -the addition of salt; and it has been administered in white wine, for -affections of the spleen, for a period of forty days. - -According to Philistion, the juice of the raw root should be given as -a gargle to persons afflicted with icterus[1479] or phrenitis, and -for hiccup he prescribes a mixture of it, in vinegar, with coriander, -anise, honey, and pepper. Used as a liniment, cabbage, he says, is -beneficial for inflations of the stomach; and the very water, even, in -which it has been boiled, mixed with barley-meal, is a remedy for the -stings of serpents[1480] and foul ulcers of long standing; a result -which is equally effected by a mixture of cabbage-juice with vinegar -or fenugreek. It is in this manner, too, that some persons employ -it topically, for affections of the joints and for gout. Applied -topically, cabbage is a cure for epinyctis, and all kinds of spreading -eruptions on the body, as also for sudden[1481] attacks of dimness; -indeed, if eaten with vinegar, it has the effect of curing the last. -Applied by itself, it heals contusions and other livid spots; and mixed -with a ball of alum in vinegar, it is good as a liniment for leprosy -and itch-scabs: used in this way, too, it prevents the hair from -falling off. - -Epicharmus assures us that, applied topically, cabbage is extremely -beneficial for diseases of the testes and genitals, and even better -still when employed with bruised beans; he says, too, that it is a -cure for convulsions; that, in combination with rue, it is good for -the burning heats of fever and maladies of the stomach; and that, with -rue-seed, it brings away the after-birth. It is of use, also, for the -bite of the shrew-mouse. Dried cabbage-leaves, reduced to a powder, are -a cathartic both by vomit and by stool. - - - - -CHAP. 35.—CABBAGE-SPROUTS. - - -In all varieties of the cabbage, the part most agreeable to the taste -is the cyma,[1482] although no use is made of it in medicine, as it -is difficult to digest, and by no means beneficial to the kidneys. At -the same time, too, it should not be omitted, that the water in which -it has been boiled,[1483] and which is so highly praised for many -purposes, gives out a very bad smell when poured upon the ground. The -ashes of dried cabbage-stalks are generally reckoned among the caustic -substances: mixed with stale grease, they are employed for sciatica, -and, used as a liniment, in the form of a depilatory, together with -silphium[1484] and vinegar, they prevent hair that has been once -removed from growing again. These ashes, too, are taken lukewarm in -oil, or else by themselves, for convulsions, internal ruptures, and the -effects of falls with violence. - -And are we to say then that the cabbage is possessed of no evil -qualities whatever? Certainly not, for the same authors tell us, that -it is apt to make the breath smell, and that it is injurious to the -teeth and gums. In Egypt, too, it is never eaten, on account of its -extreme bitterness.[1485] - - - - -CHAP. 36.—THE WILD CABBAGE: THIRTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -Cato[1486] extols infinitely more highly the properties of wild or -erratic cabbage;[1487] so much so, indeed, as to affirm that the very -powder of it, dried and collected in a scent-box, has the property, on -merely smelling at it, of removing maladies of the nostrils and the -bad smells resulting therefrom. Some persons call this wild cabbage -“petræa:”[1488] it has an extreme antipathy to wine, so much so, -indeed, that the vine invariably[1489] avoids it, and if it cannot make -its escape, will be sure to die. This vegetable has leaves of uniform -shape, small, rounded, and smooth: bearing a strong resemblance to the -cultivated cabbage, it is whiter, and has a more downy[1490] leaf. - -According to Chrysippus, this plant is a remedy for flatulency, -melancholy, and recent wounds, if applied with honey, and not taken off -before the end of six days: beaten up in water, it is good also for -scrofula and fistula. Other writers, again, say that it is an effectual -cure for spreading sores on the body, known as “nomæ;” that it has the -property, also, of removing excrescences, and of reducing the scars -of wounds and sores; that if chewed raw with honey, it is a cure for -ulcers of the mouth and tonsils; and that a decoction of it used as a -gargle with honey, is productive of the same effect. They say, too, -that, mixed in strong vinegar with alum, in the proportion of three -parts to two of alum, and then applied as a liniment, it is a cure -for itch scabs and leprous sores of long standing. Epicharmus informs -us, that for the bite of a mad dog, it is quite sufficient to apply -it topically to the part affected, but that if used with silphium and -strong vinegar, it is better still: he says, too, that it will kill a -dog, if given to it with flesh to eat. - -The seed of this plant, parched, is remedial in cases of poisoning, by -the stings of serpents, eating fungi, and drinking bulls’ blood. The -leaves of it, either boiled and taken in the food or else eaten raw, or -applied with a liniment of sulphur and nitre, are good for affections -of the spleen, as well as hard tumours of the mamillæ. In swelling of -the uvula, if the parts affected are only touched with the ashes of the -root, a cure will be the result; and applied topically with honey, they -are equally beneficial for reducing swellings of the parotid glands, -and curing the stings of serpents. We will add only one more proof of -the virtues of the cabbage, and that a truly marvellous one—in all -vessels in which water is boiled, the incrustations which adhere with -such tenacity that it is otherwise impossible to detach them, will fall -off immediately if a cabbage is boiled therein. - - - - -CHAP. 37.—THE LAPSANA: ONE REMEDY. - - -Among the wild cabbages, we find also the lapsana,[1491] a plant which -grows a foot in height, has a hairy leaf, and strongly resembles -mustard, were it not that the blossom is whiter. It is eaten cooked, -and has the property of soothing and gently relaxing the bowels. - - - - -CHAP. 38.—THE SEA-CABBAGE: ONE REMEDY. - - -Sea-cabbage[1492] is the most strongly purgative of all these plants. -It is cooked, in consequence of its extreme pungency, with fat meat, -and is extremely detrimental to the stomach. - - - - -CHAP. 39.—THE SQUILL: TWENTY-THREE REMEDIES. - - -In medicine, we give the name of white squill to the male plant, and -of black[1493] to the female: the whiter the squill, the better it is -for medicinal[1494] purposes. The dry coats being first taken off of -it, the remaining part, or so much of it as retains life, is cut into -pieces, which are then strung and suspended on a string, at short -distances from each other. After these pieces are thoroughly dried, -they are thrown into a jar of the very strongest vinegar, suspended in -such a way, however, as not to touch any portion of the vessel. This is -done forty-eight days before the summer solstice. The mouth of the jar -is then tightly sealed with plaster; after which it is placed beneath -some tiles which receive the rays of the sun the whole day through. -At the end of forty-eight days the vessel is removed, the squills are -taken out of it, and the vinegar poured into another jar. - -This vinegar has the effect of sharpening the eyesight, and, taken -every other day, is good for pains in the stomach and sides: the -strength of it, however, is so great, that if taken in too large a -quantity, it will for some moments produce all the appearance of death. -Squills, too, if chewed by themselves even, are good for the gums and -teeth; and taken in vinegar and honey they expel tapeworm and other -intestinal worms. Put fresh beneath the tongue, they prevent persons -afflicted with dropsy from experiencing thirst. - -Squills are cooked in various ways; either in a pot with a lining of -clay or grease, which is put into an oven or furnace, or else cut into -pieces and stewed in a saucepan. They are dried also in a raw state, -and then cut into pieces and boiled with vinegar; in which case, they -are employed as a liniment for the stings of serpents. Sometimes, -again, they are roasted and then cleaned; after which, the middle of -the bulb is boiled again in water. - -When thus boiled, they are used for dropsy, as a diuretic, being -taken in doses of three oboli, with oxymel: they are employed also in -a similar manner for affections of the spleen, and of the stomach, -when it is too weak to digest the food, provided no ulcerations have -made their appearance; also for gripings of the bowels, jaundice, -and inveterate cough, accompanied with asthma. A cataplasm of squill -leaves, taken off at the end of four days, has the effect of dispersing -scrofulous swellings of the neck; and a decoction of squills in oil, -applied as a liniment, is a cure for dandriff and running ulcers of the -head. - -Squills are boiled with honey also for the table, with the view of -aiding the digestion more particularly; used in this way, too, they -act upon the inside as a purgative. Boiled with oil, and then mixed -with resin, they are a cure for chaps on the feet; and the seed, mixed -with honey, is applied topically, for the cure of lumbago. Pythagoras -says that a squill, suspended at the threshold of the door, effectually -shuts all access to evil spells and incantations.[1495] - - - - -CHAP. 40.—BULBS: THIRTY REMEDIES. - - -Bulbs,[1496] steeped in vinegar and sulphur, are good for the cure of -wounds in the face;[1497] beaten up and used alone, they are beneficial -for contractions of the sinews, mixed with wine, for porrigo, and -used with honey, for the bites of dogs; in this last case, however, -Erasistratus says that they ought to be mixed with pitch. The same -author states that, applied topically with honey, they stanch the -flowing of blood; other writers say, however, that in cases of bleeding -at the nose, coriander and meal should be employed in combination with -them. Theodorus prescribes bulbs in vinegar for the cure of lichens, -and for eruptions in the head he recommends bulbs mixed with astringent -wine, or an egg beaten up; he treats defluxions of the eyes also with -bulbs, applied topically, and uses a similar method for the cure of -ophthalmia. The red bulbs more particularly, will cause spots in the -face to disappear, if rubbed upon them with honey and nitre in the sun; -and applied with wine or boiled cucumber they will remove freckles. -Used either by themselves, or as Damion recommends, in combination with -honied wine, they are remarkably efficacious for the cure of wounds, -care being taken, however, not to remove the application till the end -of four days. The same author prescribes them, too, for the cure of -fractured ears, and collections of crude humours in the testes.[1498] - -For pains in the joints, bulbs are used with meal; boiled in wine, and -applied to the abdomen, they reduce hard swellings of the viscera. -In dysentery, they are given in wine mixed with rain water; and for -convulsions of the intestines they are employed, in combination with -silphium, in pills the size of a bean: bruised, they are employed -externally, for the purpose of checking perspirations. Bulbs are good, -too, for the sinews, for which reason it is that they are given to -paralytic patients. The red bulb, mixed with honey and salt, heals -sprains of the feet with great rapidity. The bulbs of Megara[1499] act -as a strong aphrodisiac, and garden bulbs, taken with boiled must or -raisin wine, aid delivery. - -Wild bulbs, made up into pills with silphium, effect the cure of -wounds and other affections of the intestines. The seed, too, of -the cultivated kinds is taken in wine as a cure for the bite of the -phalangium,[1500] and the bulbs themselves are applied in vinegar -for the cure of the stings of serpents. The ancients used to give -bulb-seed to persons afflicted with madness, in drink. The blossom, -beaten up, removes spots upon the legs, as well as scorches produced -by fire. Diocles is of opinion that the sight is impaired by the use -of bulbs; he adds, too, that when boiled they are not so wholesome as -roasted, and that, of whatever nature they may be, they are difficult -of digestion. - - - - -CHAP. 41.—BULBINE; ONE REMEDY. BULB EMETIC. - - -The Greeks give the name bulbine[1501] to a plant with leaves -resembling those of the leek, and a red bulbous root. This plant, it is -said, is marvellously good for wounds, but only when they are of recent -date. The bulbous plant known as the “emetic” bulb,[1502] from the -effects which it produces, has dark leaves,[1503] and longer than those -of the other kinds. - - - - -CHAP. 42. (10.)—GARDEN ASPARAGUS; WITH THE NEXT TWENTY-FOUR REMEDIES. - - -Asparagus[1504] is said to be extremely wholesome as an aliment to -the stomach. With the addition of cummin, it dispels flatulency of -the stomach and colon; it sharpens the eyesight also, acts as a mild -aperient upon the stomach, and, boiled with wine, is good for pains -in the chest and spine, and diseases of the intestines. For pains in -the loins and kidneys asparagus-seed[1505] is administered in doses of -three oboli, taken with an equal proportion of cummin-seed. It acts as -an aphrodisiac, and is an extremely useful diuretic, except that it has -a tendency to ulcerate the bladder.[1506] - -The root, also, pounded and taken in white wine, is highly extolled -by some writers, as having the effect of disengaging calculi, and -of soothing pains in the loins and kidneys; there are some persons, -too, who administer this root with sweet wine for pains in the -uterus. Boiled in vinegar the root is very beneficial in cases of -elephantiasis. It is said that if a person is rubbed with asparagus -beaten up in oil, he will never be stung by bees. - - - - -CHAP. 43.—CORRUDA, LIBYCUM, OR ORMINUM. - - -Wild asparagus is by some persons called “corruda,” by others -“libycum,” and by the people of Attica “orminus.”[1507] For all the -affections above enumerated it is more efficacious even than the -cultivated kind, that which is white[1508] more particularly. This -vegetable has the effect of dispelling the jaundice, and a decoction of -it, in doses of one hemina, is recommended as an aphrodisiac; a similar -effect is produced also by a mixture of asparagus seed and dill in -doses of three oboli respectively. A decoction of asparagus juice is -given also for the stings of serpents; and the root of it, mixed with -that of marathrum,[1509] is reckoned in the number of the most valuable -remedies we are acquainted with. - -In cases of hæmaturia, Chrysippus recommends a mixture of asparagus, -parsley, and cummin seed, to be given to the patient every five days, -in doses of three oboli, mixed with two cyathi of wine. He says, -however, that though employed this way, it is a good diuretic, it is -bad for dropsy, and acts as an antaphrodisiac; and that it is injurious -to the bladder, unless it is boiled first.[1510] He states also, that -if the water in which it is boiled is given to dogs, it will kill -them;[1511] and that the juice of the root boiled in wine, kept in the -mouth, is an effectual cure for tooth-ache. - - - - -CHAP. 44. (11.)—PARSLEY; SEVENTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Parsley[1512] is held in universal esteem; for we find sprigs of it -swimming in the draughts of milk given us to drink in country-places; -and we know that as a seasoning for sauces, it is looked upon with -peculiar favour. Applied to the eyes with honey, which must also be -fomented from time to time with a warm decoction of it, it has a most -marvellous efficacy in cases of defluxion of those organs or of other -parts of the body; as also when beaten up and applied by itself, or in -combination with bread or with polenta. Fish, too, when found to be -in an ailing state in the preserves, are greatly refreshed by giving -them green parsley. As to the opinions entertained upon it among the -learned, there is not a single production dug out of the earth in -reference to which a greater diversity exists. - -Parsley is distinguished as male and female:[1513] according to -Chrysippus, the female plant has a hard leaf and more curled than the -other, a thick stem, and an acrid, hot taste. Dionysius says, that the -female is darker than the other kind, has a shorter root, and engenders -small worms.[1514] Both of these writers, however, agree in saying -that neither kind of parsley should be admitted into the number of our -aliments; indeed, they look upon it as nothing less than sacrilege -to do so, seeing that parsley is consecrated to the funereal feasts -in honour of the dead. They say, too, that it is injurious to the -eyesight, that the stalk of the female plant engenders small worms, -for which reason it is that those who eat of it become barren—males as -well as females; and that children suckled by females who live on a -parsley diet, are sure to be epileptic. They agree, however, in stating -that the male plant is not so injurious in its effects as the female, -and that it is for this reason that it is not absolutely condemned and -classed among the forbidden plants. The leaves of it, employed as a -cataplasm, are used for dispersing hard tumours[1515] in the mamillæ; -and when boiled in water, it makes it more agreeable to drink. The -juice of the root more particularly, mixed with wine, allays the pains -of lumbago, and, injected into the ears, it diminishes hardness of -hearing. The seed of it acts as a diuretic, promotes the menstrual -discharge, and brings away the after-birth. - -Bruises and livid spots, if fomented with a decoction of parsley-seed, -will resume their natural colour. Applied topically, with the white of -egg, or boiled in water, and then drunk, it is remedial for affections -of the kidneys; and beaten up in cold water it is a cure for ulcers of -the mouth. The seed, mixed with wine, or the root, taken with old wine, -has the effect of breaking calculi in the bladder. The seed, too, is -given in white wine, to persons afflicted with the jaundice. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—APIASTRUM, OR MELISSOPHYLLUM. - - -Hyginus gave the name of “apiastrum” to melissophyllum:[1516] but that -which grows in Sardinia is poisonous, and universally condemned. I -speak here of this plant, because I feel it my duty to place before the -reader every object which has been classified, among the Greeks, under -the same name. - - - - -CHAP. 46.—OLUSATRUM OR HIPPOSELINON: ELEVEN REMEDIES. OREOSELINON; TWO -REMEDIES. HELIOSELINON; ONE REMEDY. - - -Olusatrum,[1517] usually known as hipposelinon,[1518] is particularly -repulsive to scorpions. The seed of it, taken in drink, is a cure for -gripings in the stomach and intestinal complaints, and a decoction of -the seed, drunk in honied wine, is curative in cases of dysuria.[1519] -The root of the plant, boiled in wine, expels calculi of the bladder, -and is a cure for lumbago and pains in the sides. Taken in drink and -applied topically, it is a cure for the bite of a mad dog, and the -juice of it, when drunk, is warming for persons benumbed with cold. - -Some persons make out oreoselinon[1520] to be a fourth species of -parsley: it is a shrub about a palm in height, with an elongated seed, -bearing a strong resemblance to that of cummin, and efficacious for the -urine and the catamenia. Helioselinon[1521] is possessed of peculiar -virtues against the bites of spiders: and oreoselinon is used with wine -for promoting the menstrual discharge. - - - - -CHAP. 47. (12.)—PETROSELINON; ONE REMEDY. BUSELINON; ONE REMEDY. - - -Another kind again, which grows in rocky places, is known by some -persons as “petroselinon:”[1522] it is particularly good for abscesses, -taken in doses of two spoonfuls of the juice to one cyathus of juice -of horehound, mixed with three cyathi of warm water. Some writers -have added buselinon[1523] to the list, which differs only from the -cultivated kind in the shortness of the stalk and the red colour of the -root, the medicinal properties being just the same. Taken in drink or -applied topically, it is an excellent remedy for the stings of serpents. - - - - -CHAP. 48.—OCIMUM; THIRTY-FIVE REMEDIES. - - -Chrysippus has exclaimed as strongly, too, against ocimum[1524] as he -has against parsley, declaring that it is prejudicial to the stomach -and the free discharge of the urine, and is injurious to the sight; -that it produces insanity, too, and lethargy, as well as diseases of -the liver; and that it is for this reason that goats refuse to touch -it. Hence he comes to the conclusion, that the use of it ought to be -avoided by man. Some persons go so far as to say, that if beaten up, -and then placed beneath a stone, a scorpion will breed there;[1525] -and that if chewed, and then placed in the sun, worms will breed in -it. The people of Africa maintain, too, that if a person is stung by -a scorpion the same day on which he has eaten ocimum, his life cannot -possibly be saved. Even more than this, there are some who assert, that -if a handful of ocimum is beaten up with ten sea or river crabs, all -the scorpions in the vicinity will be attracted to it. Diodotus, too, -in his Book of Recipes,[1526] says, that ocimum, used as an article of -food, breeds lice. - -Succeeding ages, again, have warmly defended this plant; it has been -maintained, for instance, that goats do eat it, that the mind of no -one who has eaten of it is at all affected, and, that mixed with wine, -with the addition of a little vinegar, it is a cure for the stings of -land scorpions, and the venom of those found in the sea. Experience -has proved, too, that the smell of this plant in vinegar is good for -fainting fits and lethargy, as well as inflammations; that employed as -a cooling liniment, with rose oil, myrtle oil, or vinegar, it is good -for head-ache; and that applied topically with wine, it is beneficial -for defluxions of the eyes. It has been found also, that it is good for -the stomach; that taken with vinegar, it dispels flatulent eructations; -that applications of it arrest fluxes of the bowels; that it acts as a -diuretic, and that in this way it is good for jaundice and dropsy, as -well as cholera and looseness of the bowels. - -Hence it is that Philistio has prescribed it even for cœliac -affections, and boiled, for dysentery. Some persons, too, though -contrary to the opinion of Plistonicus, have given it in wine for -tenesmus and spitting of blood, as also for obstructions of the -viscera. It is employed, too, as a liniment for the mamillæ, and has -the effect of arresting the secretion of the milk. It is very good -also for the ears of infants, when applied with goose-grease more -particularly. The seed of it, beaten up, and inhaled into the nostrils, -is provocative of sneezing, and applied as a liniment to the head, -of running at the nostrils: taken in the food, too, with vinegar, it -purges the uterus. Mixed with copperas[1527] it removes warts. It acts, -also, as an aphrodisiac, for which reason it is given to horses and -asses at the season for covering. - -(13.) Wild ocimum has exactly the same properties in every respect, -though in a more active degree. It is particularly good, too, for the -various affections produced by excessive vomiting, and for abscesses of -the womb. The root, mixed with wine, is extremely efficacious for bites -inflicted by wild beasts. - - - - -CHAP. 49.—ROCKET: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -The seed of rocket[1528] is remedial for the venom of the scorpion and -the shrew-mouse: it repels, too, all parasitical insects which breed -on the human body, and applied to the face, as a liniment, with honey, -removes[1529] spots upon the skin. Used with vinegar, too, it is a cure -for freckles; and mixed with ox-gall it restores the livid marks left -by wounds to their natural colour. It is said that if this plant is -taken in wine by persons who are about to undergo a flogging, it will -impart a certain degree of insensibility to the body. So agreeable -is its flavour as a savouring for food, that the Greeks have given -it the name of “euzomon.”[1530] It is generally thought that rocket, -lightly bruised, and employed as a fomentation for the eyes, will -restore the sight to its original goodness, and that it allays coughs -in young infants. The root of it, boiled in water, has the property of -extracting the splinters of broken bones. - -As to the properties of rocket as an aphrodisiac, we have mentioned -them already.[1531] Three leaves of wild rocket plucked with the left -hand, beaten up in hydromel, and then taken in drink, are productive of -a similar effect. - - - - -CHAP. 50.—NASTURTIUM: FORTY-TWO REMEDIES. - - -Nasturtium,[1532] on the other hand, is an antiaphrodisiac;[1533] it -has the effect also of sharpening the senses, as already stated.[1534] -There are two[1535] varieties of this plant: one of them is purgative, -and, taken in doses of one denarius to seven of water, carries off -the bilious secretions. Applied as a liniment to scrofulous sores, -with bean-meal, and then covered with a cabbage-leaf, it is a most -excellent remedy. The other kind, which is darker than the first, has -the effect of carrying off vicious humours of the head, and sharpening -the sight: taken in vinegar it calms the troubled spirits, and, drunk -with wine or taken in a fig, it is good for affections of the spleen; -taken in honey, too, fasting daily, it is good for a cough. The seed -of it, taken in wine, expels all kinds of intestinal worms, and with -the addition of wild mint, it acts more efficaciously still. It is -good, too, for asthma and cough, in combination with wild marjoram and -sweet wine; and a decoction of it in goats’ milk is used for pains in -the chest. Mixed with pitch it disperses tumours, and extracts thorns -from the body; and, employed as a liniment, with vinegar, it removes -spots upon the body. When used for the cure of carcinoma, white of eggs -is added to it. With vinegar it is employed also as a liniment for -affections of the spleen, and with honey it is found to be very useful -for the complaints of infants. - -Sextius adds, that the smell of burnt nasturtium drives away serpents, -neutralizes the venom of scorpions, and gives relief in head-ache; -with the addition too, of mustard, he says, it is a cure for alopecy, -and applied to the ears with a fig, it is a remedy for hardness of -hearing. The juice of it, he says, if injected into the ears, will -effect the cure of tooth-ache, and employed with goose-grease it is -a remedy for porrigo and ulcerous sores of the head. Applied with -leaven it brings boils[1536] to a head, and makes carbuncles suppurate -and break: used with honey, too, it is good for cleansing phagedænic -ulcers. Topical applications are made of it, combined with vinegar and -polenta, in cases of sciatica and lumbago: it is similarly employed, -too, for lichens and malformed[1537] nails, its qualities being -naturally caustic. The best nasturtium of all is that of Babylonia; the -wild[1538] variety possesses the same qualities as the cultivated in -every respect, but in a more powerful degree. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—RUE: EIGHTY-FOUR REMEDIES. - - -One of the most active, however, of all the medicinal plants, is -rue.[1539] The cultivated kind has broader leaves and more numerous -branches than the other. Wild rue is more violent in its effects, and -more active in every respect. The juice of it is extracted by beating -it up, and moistening it moderately with water; after which it is kept -for use in boxes of Cyprian copper. Given in large doses, this juice -has all the baneful effects of poison,[1540] and that of Macedonia more -particularly, which grows on the banks of the river Aliacmon.[1541] It -is a truly wonderful thing, but the juice of hemlock has the property -of neutralizing its effects. Thus do we find one thing acting as the -poison of another poison, for the juice of hemlock is very beneficial, -rubbed upon the hands and [face][1542] of persons employed in gathering -rue. - -In other respects, rue is one of the principal ingredients employed -in antidotes, that of Galatia more particularly. Every species of -rue, employed by itself, has the effect also of an antidote, if the -leaves are bruised and taken in wine. It is good more particularly -in cases of poisoning by wolf’sbane[1543] and mistletoe, as well as -by fungi, whether administered in the drink or the food. Employed -in a similar manner, it is good for the stings of serpents; so much -so, in fact, that weasels,[1544] when about to attack them, take the -precaution first of protecting themselves by eating rue. Rue is good, -too, for the injuries by scorpions and spiders, the stings of bees, -hornets, and wasps, the noxious effects produced by cantharides and -salamanders,[1545] and the bites of mad dogs. The juice is taken in -doses of one acetabulum, in wine; and the leaves, beaten up or else -chewed, are applied topically, with honey and salt, or boiled with -vinegar and pitch. It is said that people rubbed with the juice of rue, -or even having it on their person, are never attacked by these noxious -creatures, and that serpents are driven away by the stench of burning -rue. The most efficacious, however, of all, is the root of wild rue, -taken with wine; this too, it is said, is more beneficial still, if -drunk in the open air. - -Pythagoras has distinguished this plant also into male and female, -the former having smaller leaves than the other, and of a grass-green -colour; the female plant, he says, has leaves of a larger size and -a more vivid hue. The same author, too, has considered rue to be -injurious to the eyes; but this is an error, for engravers and painters -are in the habit of eating it with bread, or else nasturtium, for the -benefit of the sight; wild goats, too, eat it for the sight, they say. -Many persons have dispersed films on the eyes by rubbing them with a -mixture of the juice of rue with Attic honey, or the milk of a woman -just delivered of a male child: the same result has been produced also -by touching the corners of the eyes with the pure juice of the plant. -Applied topically, with polenta, rue carries off defluxions of the -eyes; and, taken with wine, or applied topically with vinegar and rose -oil, it is a cure for head-ache. If, however, the pain attacks the -whole of the head,[1546] the rue should be applied with barley-meal -and vinegar. This plant has the effect also of dispelling crudities, -flatulency, and inveterate pains of the stomach; it opens the uterus, -too, and restores it when displaced; for which purpose it is applied as -a liniment, with honey, to the whole of the abdomen and chest. Mixed -with figs, and boiled down to one half, it is administered in wine for -dropsy; and it is taken in a similar manner for pains of the chest, -sides, and loins, as well as for coughs, asthma, and affections of the -lungs, liver, and kidneys, and for shivering fits. Persons about to -indulge in wine, take a decoction of the leaves, to prevent head-ache -and surfeit. Taken in food, too, it is wholesome, whether eaten raw or -boiled, or used as a confection; boiled with hyssop, and taken with -wine, it is good for gripings of the stomach. Employed in the same way, -it arrests internal hæmorrhage, and, applied to the nostrils, bleeding -at the nose: it is beneficial also to the teeth if rinsed with it. In -cases of ear-ache, this juice is injected into the ears, care being -taken to moderate the dose, as already stated, if wild rue is employed. -For hardness of hearing, too, and singing in the ears, it is similarly -employed in combination with oil of roses, or oil of laurel, or else -cummin and honey. - -Juice of rue pounded in vinegar, is applied also to the temples and the -region of the brain in persons affected with phrenitis; some persons, -however, have added to this mixture wild thyme and laurel leaves, -rubbing the head and neck as well with the liniment. It has been given -in vinegar to lethargic patients to smell at, and a decoction of it is -administered for epilepsy, in doses of four cyathi, as also just before -the attacks in fever of intolerable chills. It is likewise given raw to -persons for shivering fits. Rue is a provocative[1547] of the urine to -bleeding even: it promotes the menstrual discharge, also, and brings -away the after-birth, as well as the dead fœtus even, according to -Hippocrates,[1548] if taken in sweet red wine. The same author, also, -recommends applications of it, as well as fumigations, for affections -of the uterus. - -For cardiac diseases, Diocles prescribes applications of rue, in -combination with vinegar, honey, and barley-meal: and for the iliac -passion, he says that it should be mixed with meal, boiled in oil, and -spread upon the wool of a sheep’s fleece. Many persons recommend, for -purulent expectorations, two drachmæ of dried rue to one and a half of -sulphur; and, for spitting of blood, a decoction of three sprigs in -wine. It is given also in dysentery, with cheese, the rue being first -beaten up in wine; and it has been prescribed, pounded with bitumen, as -a potion for habitual shortness of breath. For persons suffering from -violent falls, three ounces of the seed is recommended. A pound of oil, -in which rue leaves have been boiled, added to one sextarius of wine, -forms a liniment for parts of the body which are frost-bitten. If rue -really is a diuretic, as Hippocrates[1549] thinks, it is a singular -thing that some persons should give it, as being an anti-diuretic, for -the suppression of incontinence of urine. - -Applied topically, with honey and alum, it cures itch-scabs, and -leprous sores; and, in combination with nightshade and hogs’-lard, or -beef-suet, it is good for morphew, warts, scrofula, and maladies of a -similar nature. Used with vinegar and oil, or else white lead, it is -good for erysipelas; and, applied with vinegar, for carbuncles. Some -persons prescribe silphium also as an ingredient in the liniment; -but it is not employed by them for the cure of the pustules known -as epinyctis. Boiled rue is recommended, also, as a cataplasm for -swellings of the mamillæ, and, combined with wax, for eruptions of -pituitous matter.[1550] It is applied with tender sprigs of laurel, -in cases of defluxion of the testes; and it exercises so peculiar an -effect upon those organs, that old rue, it is said, employed in a -liniment, with axle-grease, is a cure for hernia. The seed pounded, and -applied with wax, is remedial also for broken limbs. The root of this -plant, applied topically, is a cure for effusion of blood in the eyes, -and, employed as a liniment, it removes scars or spots on all parts of -the body. - -Among the other properties which are attributed to rue, it is a -singular fact, that, though it is universally agreed that it is hot -by nature, a bunch of it, boiled in rose-oil, with the addition of an -ounce of aloes, has the effect of checking the perspiration in those -who rub themselves with it; and that, used as an aliment, it impedes -the generative functions. Hence it is, that it is so often given in -cases of spermatorrhœa, and where persons are subject to lascivious -dreams. Every precaution should be taken by pregnant women to abstain -from rue as an article of diet, for I find it stated that it is -productive of fatal results to the fœtus.[1551] - -Of all the plants that are grown, rue is the one that is most generally -employed for the maladies of cattle, whether arising from difficulty -of respiration, or from the stings of noxious creatures—in which cases -it is injected with wine into the nostrils—or whether they may happen -to have swallowed a horse-leech, under which circumstances it is -administered in vinegar. In all other maladies of cattle, the rue is -prepared just as for man in a similar case. - - - - -CHAP. 52. (14.)—WILD MINT: TWENTY REMEDIES. - - -Mentastrum, or wild mint,[1552] differs from the other kind in the -appearance of the leaves, which have the form of those of ocimum and -the colour of pennyroyal; for which reason, some persons, in fact, -give it the name of wild pennyroyal.[1553] The leaves of this plant, -chewed and applied topically, are a cure for elephantiasis; a discovery -which was accidentally made in the time of Pompeius Magnus, by a -person affected with this malady covering his face with the leaves for -the purpose of neutralizing the bad smell that arose therefrom. These -leaves are employed also as a liniment, and in drink, with a mixture -of salt, oil, and vinegar, for the stings of scorpions; and, in doses -of two drachmæ to two cyathi of wine, for those of scolopendræ and -serpents. A decoction, too, of the juice is given for the sting of the -scolopendra.[1554] Leaves of wild mint are kept, dried and reduced to -a fine powder, as a remedy for poisons of every description. Spread -on the ground or burnt, this plant has the effect of driving away -scorpions. - -Taken in drink, wild mint carries off the lochia in females after -parturition; but, if taken before, it is fatal to the fœtus, It is -extremely efficacious in cases of rupture and convulsions, and, though -in a somewhat less degree, for orthopnœa,[1555] gripings of the bowels, -and cholera: it is good, too, as a topical application for lumbago and -gout. The juice of it is injected into the ears for worms breeding -there; it is taken also for jaundice, and is employed in liniments -for scrofulous sores. It prevents[1556] the recurrence of lascivious -dreams; and taken in vinegar, it expels tape-worm.[1557] For the cure -of porrigo, it is put in vinegar, and the head is washed with the -mixture in the sun. - - - - -CHAP. 53.—MINT: FORTY-ONE REMEDIES. - - -The very smell of mint[1558] reanimates the spirits, and its flavour -gives a remarkable zest to food: hence it is that it is so generally -an ingredient in our sauces. It has the effect of preventing milk -from turning sour, or curdling and thickening; hence it is that it -is so generally put into milk used for drinking, to prevent any -danger of persons being choked[1559] by it in a curdled state. It -is administered also for this purpose in water or honied wine. It is -generally thought, too, that it is in consequence of this property -that it impedes generation, by preventing the seminal fluids from -obtaining the requisite consistency. In males as well as females -it arrests bleeding, and it has the property, with the latter, of -suspending the menstrual discharge. Taken in water, with amylum,[1560] -it prevents looseness in cœliac complaints. Syriation employed this -plant for the cure of abscesses of the uterus, and, in doses of three -oboli, with honied wine, for diseases of the liver: he prescribed it -also, in pottage, for spitting of blood. It is an admirable remedy -for ulcerations of the head in children, and has the effect equally -of drying the trachea when too moist, and of bracing it when too dry. -Taken in honied wine and water, it carries off purulent phlegm. - -The juice of mint is good for the voice when a person is about to -engage in a contest of eloquence, but only when taken just before. It -is employed also with milk as a gargle for swelling of the uvula, with -the addition of rue and coriander. With alum, too, it is good for the -tonsils of the throat, and, mixed with honey, for roughness of the -tongue. Employed by itself, it is a remedy for internal convulsions and -affections of the lungs. Taken with pomegranate juice, as Democrites -tells us, it arrests hiccup and vomiting. The juice of mint fresh -gathered, inhaled, is a remedy for affections of the nostrils. Beaten -up and taken in vinegar, mint is a cure for cholera, and for internal -fluxes of blood: applied externally, with polenta, it is remedial for -the iliac passion and tension of the mamillæ. It is applied, too, as a -liniment to the temples for head-ache; and it is taken internally, as -an antidote for the stings of scolopendræ, sea-scorpions, and serpents. -As a liniment it is applied also for defluxions of the eyes, and all -eruptions of the head, as well as maladies of the rectum. - -Mint is an effectual preventive, too, of chafing of the skin, even if -held in the hand only. In combination with honied wine, it is employed -as an injection for the ears. It is said, too, that this plant will -cure affections of the spleen, if tasted in the garden nine days -consecutively, without plucking it, the person who bites it saying -at the same moment that he does so for the benefit of the spleen: -and that, if dried, and reduced to powder, a pinch of it with three -fingers taken in water, will cure stomach-ache.[1561] Sprinkled in this -form in drink, it is said to have the effect of expelling intestinal -worms. - - - - -CHAP. 54.—PENNYROYAL: TWENTY-FIVE REMEDIES. - - -Pennyroyal[1562] partakes with mint, in a very considerable degree, the -property[1563] of restoring consciousness in fainting fits; slips of -both plants being kept for the purpose in glass bottles[1564] filled -with vinegar. It is for this reason that Varro has declared that a -wreath of pennyroyal is more worthy to grace our chambers[1565] than -a chaplet of roses: indeed, it is said that, placed upon the head, it -materially alleviates head-ache.[1566] It is generally stated, too, -that the smell of it alone will protect the head against the injurious -effects of cold or heat, and that it acts as a preventive of thirst; -also, that persons exposed to the sun, if they carry a couple of sprigs -of pennyroyal behind the ears, will never be incommoded by the heat. -For various pains, too, it is employed topically, mixed with polenta -and vinegar. - -The female[1567] plant is the more efficacious of the two; it has -a purple flower, that of the male being white. Taken in cold water -with salt and polenta it arrests nausea, as well as pains of the -chest and abdomen. Taken, too, in water, it prevents gnawing pains -of the stomach, and, with vinegar and polenta, it arrests vomiting. -In combination with salt and vinegar, and polenta, it loosens the -bowels. Taken with boiled honey and nitre, it is a cure for intestinal -complaints. Employed with wine it is a diuretic, and if the wine is -the produce of the Aminean[1568] grape, it has the additional effect -of dispersing calculi of the bladder and removing all internal pains. -Taken in conjunction with honey and vinegar, it modifies the menstrual -discharge, and brings away the after-birth, restores the uterus, when -displaced, to its natural position, and expels the dead[1569] fœtus. -The seed is given to persons to smell at, who have been suddenly struck -dumb, and is prescribed for epileptic patients in doses of one cyathus, -taken in vinegar. If water is found unwholesome for drinking, bruised -pennyroyal should be sprinkled in it; taken with wine it modifies -acridities[1570] of the body. - -Mixed with salt, it is employed as a friction for the sinews, and -with honey and vinegar, in cases of opisthotony. Decoctions of it are -prescribed as a drink for persons stung by serpents; and, beaten up in -wine, it is employed for the stings of scorpions, that which grows in a -dry soil in particular. This plant is looked upon as efficacious also -for ulcerations of the mouth, and for coughs. The blossom of it, fresh -gathered, and burnt, kills fleas[1571] by its smell. Xenocrates, among -the other remedies which he mentions, says that in tertian fevers, a -sprig of pennyroyal, wrapped in wool, should be given to the patient to -smell at, just before the fit comes on, or else it should be put under -the bed-clothes and laid by the patient’s side. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—WILD PENNYROYAL: SEVENTEEN REMEDIES. - - -For all the purposes already mentioned, wild pennyroyal[1572] has -exactly the same properties, but in a still higher degree. It bears a -strong resemblance to wild marjoram,[1573] and has a smaller leaf than -the cultivated kind: by some persons it is known as “dictamnos.”[1574] -When browsed upon by sheep and goats, it makes them bleat, for which -reason, some of the Greeks, changing a single letter in its name, have -called it “blechon,”[1575] [instead of “glechon.”] - -This plant is naturally so heating as to blister the parts of the body -to which it is applied. For a cough which results from a chill, it is -a good plan for the patient to rub himself with it before taking the -bath; it is similarly employed, too, in shivering fits, just before the -attacks come on, and for convulsions and gripings of the stomach. It is -also remarkably good for the gout. - -To persons afflicted with spasms, this plant is administered in drink, -in combination with honey and salt; and it renders expectoration easy -in affections of the lungs.[1576] Taken with salt it is beneficial for -the spleen and bladder, and is curative of asthma and flatulency. A -decoction of it is equally as good as the juice: it restores the uterus -when displaced, and is prescribed for the sting of either the land or -the sea scolopendra, as well as the scorpion. It is particularly good, -too, for bites inflicted by a human being. The root of it, newly taken -up, is extremely efficacious for corroding ulcers, and in a dried state -tends to efface the deformities produced by scars. - - - - -CHAP. 56.—NEP: NINE REMEDIES. - - -Nep[1577] has also some affinity in its effects with pennyroyal. Boiled -down in water to one third, these plants dispel sudden chills: they -promote the menstrual discharge also in females, and allay excessive -heats in summer. Nep possesses certain virtues against the stings of -serpents; at the very smoke and smell of it they will instantly take -to flight, and persons who have to sleep in places where they are -apprehensive of them, will do well to place it beneath them. Bruised, -it is employed topically for lacrymal fistulas[1578] of the eye: fresh -gathered and mixed in vinegar with one third part of bread, it is -applied as a liniment for head-ache. The juice of it, injected into -the nostrils, with the head thrown back, arrests bleeding at the nose, -and the root has a similar effect. This last is employed also, with -myrtle-seed, in warm raisin wine, as a gargle for the cure of quinsy. - - - - -CHAP. 57.—CUMMIN: FORTY-EIGHT REMEDIES. WILD CUMMIN: TWENTY-SIX -REMEDIES. - - -Wild cummin is a remarkably slender plant, consisting of four or five -leaves indented like a saw; like the cultivated[1579] kind, it is much -employed in medicine, among the stomachic remedies more particularly. -Bruised and taken with bread, or else drunk in wine and water, it -dispels phlegm and flatulency, as well as gripings of the bowels and -pains in the intestines. Both varieties have the effect, however, -of producing paleness[1580] in those who drink these mixtures; at -all events, it is generally stated that the disciples of Porcius -Latro,[1581] so celebrated among the professors of eloquence, used to -employ this drink for the purpose of imitating the paleness which had -been contracted by their master, through the intensity of his studies: -and that Julius Vindex,[1582] in more recent times, that assertor of -our liberties against Nero, adopted this method of playing upon[1583] -those who were looking out for a place in his will. Applied in the form -of lozenges, or fresh with vinegar, cummin has the effect of arresting -bleeding at the nose, and used by itself, it is good for defluxions -of the eyes. Combined with honey, it is used also for swellings of the -eyes. With children of tender age, it is sufficient to apply it to -the abdomen. In cases of jaundice, it is administered in white wine, -immediately after taking the bath. - -(15.) The cummin of Æthiopia,[1584] more particularly, is given in -vinegar and water, or else as an electuary with honey. It is thought, -too, that the cummin of Africa has the peculiar property of arresting -incontinence of urine. The cultivated plant is given, parched and -beaten up in vinegar, for affections of the liver, as also for vertigo. -Beaten up in sweet wine, it is taken in cases, also, where the urine -is too acrid; and for affections of the uterus, it is administered in -wine, the leaves of it being employed topically as well, in layers of -wool. Parched and beaten up with honey, it is used as an application -for swellings of the testes, or else with rose oil and wax. - -For all the purposes above-mentioned, wild cummin[1585] is more -efficacious than cultivated; as also, in combination with oil, for the -stings of serpents, scorpions, and scolopendræ. A pinch of it with -three fingers, taken in wine, has the effect of arresting vomiting -and nausea; it is used, too, both as a drink and a liniment for the -colic, or else it is applied hot, in dossils of lint,[1586] to the -part affected, bandages being employed to keep it in its place. Taken -in wine, it dispels hysterical affections, the proportions being three -drachmæ of cummin to three cyathi of wine. It is used as an injection, -too, for the ears, when affected with tingling and singing, being mixed -for the purpose with veal suet or honey. For contusions, it is applied -as a liniment, with honey, raisins, and vinegar, and for dark freckles -on the skin with vinegar. - - - - -CHAP. 58.—AMMI: TEN REMEDIES. - - -There is another plant, which bears a very strong resemblance to -cummin, known to the Greeks as “ammi;”[1587] some persons are of -opinion, that it is the same as the Æthiopian cummin. Hippocrates gives -it[1588] the epithet of “royal;” no doubt, because he looks upon it -as possessed of greater virtues than Egyptian cummin. Many persons, -however, consider it to be of a totally different nature from cummin, -as it is so very much thinner, and of a much whiter colour. Still, -it is employed for just the same purposes as cummin, for we find it -used at Alexandria for putting under loaves of bread, and forming -an ingredient in various sauces. It has the effect of dispelling -flatulency and gripings of the bowels, and of promoting the secretion -of the urine and the menstrual discharge. It is employed, also, for -the cure of bruises, and to assuage defluxions of the eyes. Taken -in wine with linseed, in doses of two drachmæ, it is a cure for the -stings of scorpions; and, used with an equal proportion of myrrh, it is -particularly good for the bite of the cerastes.[1589] - -Like cummin, too, it imparts paleness of complexion to those who drink -of it. Used as a fumigation, with raisins or with resin, it acts as a -purgative upon the uterus. It is said, too, that if women smell at this -plant during the sexual congress, the chances of conception will be -greatly promoted thereby. - - - - -CHAP. 59.—THE CAPPARIS OR CAPER: EIGHTEEN REMEDIES. - - -We have already spoken[1590] of the caper at sufficient length when -treating of the exotic plants. The caper which comes[1591] from beyond -sea should never be used; that of Italy[1592] is not so dangerous. It -is said, that persons who eat this plant daily, are never attacked by -paralysis or pains in the spleen. The root of it, pounded, removes -white eruptions of the skin, if rubbed with it in the sun. The -bark[1593] of the root, taken in wine, in doses of two drachmæ, is good -for affections of the spleen; the patient, however, must forego the -use of the bath. It is said, too, that in the course of thirty-five -days the whole of the spleen may be discharged under this treatment, by -urine and by stool. The caper is also taken in drink for lumbago and -paralysis; and the seed of it boiled, and beaten up in vinegar, or the -root chewed, has a soothing effect in tooth-ache. A decoction of it in -oil is employed, also, as an injection for ear-ache. - -The leaves and the root, fresh out of the ground, mixed with honey, are -a cure for the ulcers known as phagedænic. In the same way, too, the -root disperses scrofulous swellings; and a decoction of it in water -removes imposthumes of the parotid glands, and worms. Beaten up and -mixed with barley-meal, it is applied topically for pains in the liver; -it is a cure, also, for diseases of the bladder. In combination with -oxymel, it is prescribed for tapeworm, and a decoction of it in vinegar -removes ulcerations of the mouth. It is generally agreed among writers -that the caper is prejudicial to the stomach. - - - - -CHAP. 60.—LIGUSTICUM, OR LOVAGE: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -Ligusticum,[1594] by some persons known as “panax,” is good for the -stomach, and is curative of convulsions and flatulency. There are -persons who give this plant the name of “cunila bubula;” but, as we -have already[1595] stated, they are in error in so doing. - - - - -CHAP. 61. (16.)—CUNILA BUBULA: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -In addition to garden cunila,[1596] there are numerous other varieties -of it employed in medicine. That known to us as “cunila bubula,” has a -very similar seed to that of pennyroyal. This seed, chewed and applied -topically, is good for wounds: the plaster, however, must not be taken -off till the fifth day. For the stings of serpents, this plant is taken -in wine, and the leaves of it are bruised and applied to the wound; -which is also rubbed with them as a friction. The tortoise,[1597] when -about to engage in combat with the serpent, employs this plant as a -preservative against the effects of its sting; some persons, for this -reason, have given it the name of “panacea.”[1598] It has the effect -also of dispersing tumours and maladies of the male organs, the leaves -being dried for the purpose, or else beaten up fresh and applied to the -part affected. For every purpose for which it is employed it combines -remarkably well with wine. - - - - -CHAP. 62.—CUNILA GALLINACEA, OR ORIGANUM: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -There is another variety, again, known to our people as “cunila -gallinacea,”[1599] and to the Greeks as Heracleotic origanum.[1600] -Beaten up with salt, this plant is good for the eyes; and it is a -remedy for cough and affections of the liver. Mixed with meal, and -taken as a broth, with oil and vinegar, it is good for pains in the -side, and the stings of serpents in particular. - - - - -CHAP. 63.—CUNILAGO: EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -There is a third species, also, known to the Greeks as “male cunila,” -and to us as “cunilago.”[1601] This plant has a fœtid smell, a ligneous -root, and a rough leaf. Of all the varieties of cunila, this one, it -is said, is possessed of the most active properties. If a handful of -it is thrown anywhere, all the beetles in the house, they say, will be -attracted to it; and, taken in vinegar and water, it is good for the -stings of scorpions more particularly. It is stated, also, that if a -person is rubbed with three leaves of it, steeped in oil, it will have -the effect of keeping all serpents at a distance. - - - - -CHAP. 64.—SOFT CUNILA: THREE REMEDIES. LIBANOTIS: THREE REMEDIES. - - -The variety, on the other hand, known as soft[1602] cunila, has a more -velvety leaf, and branches covered with thorns; when rubbed it has just -the smell of honey, and it adheres to the fingers when touched. There -is another kind, again, known to us as “libanotis,”[1603] a name which -it owes to the resemblance of its smell to that of frankincense. Both -of these plants, taken in wine or vinegar, are antidotes for the stings -of serpents. Beaten up in water, also, and sprinkled about a place, -they kill fleas.[1604] - - - - -CHAP. 65.—CULTIVATED CUNILA; THREE REMEDIES. MOUNTAIN CUNILA; SEVEN -REMEDIES. - - -Cultivated cunila[1605] has also its medicinal uses. The juice of -it, in combination with rose oil, is good for the ears; and the -plant itself is taken in drink, to counteract the effects of violent -blows.[1606] - -A variety of this plant is the mountain cunila, similar to wild thyme -in appearance, and particularly efficacious for the stings of serpents. -This plant is diuretic, and promotes the lochial discharge: it aids -the digestion, too, in a marvellous degree. Both varieties have a -tendency to sharpen the appetite, even when persons are troubled -with indigestion, if taken fasting in drink: they are good, too, for -sprains, and, taken with barley-meal, and vinegar and water, they are -extremely useful for stings inflicted by wasps and insects of a similar -nature. - -We shall have occasion to speak of other varieties of libanotis[1607] -in their appropriate places. - - - - -CHAP. 66. (17.)—PIPERITIS, OR SILIQUASTRUM: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -Piperitis,[1608] which we have already mentioned as being called -“siliquastrum,” is taken in drink for epilepsy. Castor[1609] used to -give a description of it to the following effect: “The stalk of it -is long and red, with the knots lying close together; the leaves are -similar to those of the laurel, and the seed is white and slender, -like pepper in taste.” He described it also as being beneficial to -the gums and teeth, imparting sweetness to the breath, and dispelling -flatulency. - - - - -CHAP. 67.—ORIGANUM, ONITIS, OR PRASION: SIX REMEDIES. - - -Origanum,[1610] which, as we have already stated, rivals cunila in -flavour, includes many varieties employed in medicine. Onitis,[1611] or -prasion,[1612] is the name given to one of these, which is not unlike -hyssop in appearance: it is employed more particularly, with warm -water, for gnawing pains at the stomach, and for indigestion. Taken in -white wine it is good for the stings of spiders and scorpions; and, -applied with vinegar and oil, in wool, it is a cure for sprains and -bruises. - - - - -CHAP. 68.—TRAGORIGANUM: NINE REMEDIES. - - -Tragoriganum[1613] bears a strong resemblance to wild thyme. It -is diuretic, disperses tumours, and taken in drink is extremely -efficacious in cases of poisoning by mistletoe and stings by serpents. -It is very good for acid eructations from the stomach, and for the -thoracic organs. It is given also for a cough, with honey, as well as -for pleurisy and peripneumony. - - - - -CHAP. 69.—THREE VARIETIES OF HERACLEOTIC ORIGANUM: THIRTY REMEDIES. - - -Heraclium,[1614] again, comprehends three varieties; the first,[1615] -which is the darkest, has broader leaves than the others, and is of a -glutinous nature; the second,[1616] which has leaves of a more slender -form, and not unlike sampsuchum[1617] in appearance, is by some persons -called “prasion,” in preference: the third[1618] is of an intermediate -nature between the other two, but is less efficacious for medicinal -purposes than either. But the best kind of all is that of Crete, for it -has a particularly agreeable smell; the next best being that of Smyrna, -which has even a more powerful odour than the last. The Heracleotic -origanum, however, known by the name of “onitis,” is the one that is -the most esteemed for taking in drink. - -Origanum, in general, is employed for repelling serpents; and it is -given boiled to persons suffering from wounds. Taken in drink, it is -diuretic; and mixed with root of panax, it is given for the cure of -ruptures and convulsions. In combination with figs or hyssop, it is -prescribed for dropsical patients in doses of one acetabulum, being -reduced by boiling to one sixth. It is good also for the itch,[1619] -prurigo, and leprosy, taken just before the bath. The juice of it is -injected into the ears with milk; it being a cure, also, for affections -of the tonsils and the uvula, and for ulcers of the head. A decoction -of it, taken with the ashes in wine, neutralizes poison by opium or -gypsum.[1620] Taken in doses of one acetabulum, it relaxes the bowels. -It is applied as a liniment for bruises and for tooth-ache; and mixed -with honey and nitre, it imparts whiteness to the teeth. It has the -effect, also, of stopping bleeding at the nose. - -A decoction of this plant, with barley-meal, is employed for -imposthumes of the parotid glands; and, beaten up with nut-galls and -honey, it is used for roughness of the trachea: the leaves of it, with -honey and salt, are good, too, for the spleen. Boiled with vinegar -and salt, and taken in small doses, it attenuates the phlegm, when -very thick and black; and beaten up with oil, it is injected into the -nostrils for jaundice. When persons are affected with lassitude, the -body is well rubbed with it, care being taken not to touch the abdomen. -Used with pitch, it is a cure for epinyctis, and, applied with a -roasted fig, it brings boils to a head. Employed with oil and vinegar, -and barley-meal, it is good for scrofulous swellings; and applied -topically in a fig, it is a cure for pains in the sides. Beaten up, and -applied with vinegar, it is employed as a liniment for bloody fluxes of -the generative organs, and it accelerates the lochial discharge after -child-birth. - - - - -CHAP. 70.—DITTANDER: THREE REMEDIES. - - -Dittander[1621] is generally considered to rank among the caustic -plants. It is owing to this property that it clears the skin of the -face, not, however, without excoriating it; though, at the same time, -the excoriations are easily healed by employing wax and rose oil. -It is owing to this property, too, that it always removes, without -difficulty, leprous sores and itch-scabs, as well as the scars left -by ulcers. It is said, that in cases of tooth-ache, if this plant is -attached to the arm on the suffering side, it will have the effect of -drawing the pain to it. - - - - -CHAP. 71.—GITH, OR MELANTHION: TWENTY-THREE REMEDIES. - - -Gith[1622] is by some Greek writers called “melanthion,”[1623] and by -others “melaspermon.”[1624] That is looked upon as the best which has -the most pungent odour and is the darkest in appearance. It is employed -as a remedy for wounds made by serpents and scorpions: I find that -for this purpose it is applied topically with vinegar and honey, and -that by burning it serpents are kept at a distance.[1625] It is taken, -also, in doses of one drachma for the bites of spiders. Beaten up, and -smelt at in a piece of linen cloth, it is a cure for running at the -nostrils; and, applied as a liniment with vinegar and injected into -the nostrils, it dispels head-ache. With oil of iris it is good for -defluxions and tumours of the eyes, and a decoction of it with vinegar -is a cure for tooth-ache. Beaten up and applied topically, or else -chewed, it is used for ulcers of the mouth, and combined with vinegar, -it is good for leprous sores and freckles on the skin. Taken in drink, -with the addition of nitre, it is good for hardness of breathing, and, -employed as a liniment, for indurations, tumours of long standing, and -suppurations. Taken several days in succession, it augments the milk in -women who are nursing. - -The juice of this plant is collected[1626] in the same manner as that -of henbane; and, like it, if taken in too large doses, it acts as a -poison, a surprising fact, seeing that the seed is held in esteem as a -most agreeable seasoning for bread.[1627] The seed cleanses the eyes -also, acts as a diuretic, and promotes the menstrual discharge; and -not only this, but I find it stated also, that if thirty grains only -are attached to the body, in a linen cloth, it will have the effect of -accelerating the after-birth. It is stated, also, that beaten up in -urine, it is a cure for corns on the feet; and that when burnt it kills -gnats and flies with the smell. - - - - -CHAP. 72.—ANISE: SIXTY-ONE REMEDIES. - - -Anise,[1628] too, one of the comparatively small number of plants -that have been commended by Pythagoras, is taken in wine, either raw -or boiled, for the stings of scorpions. Both green and dried, it is -held in high repute, as an ingredient in all seasonings and sauces, -and we find it placed beneath the under-crust of bread.[1629] Put with -bitter-almonds into the cloth strainers[1630] for filtering wine, it -imparts an agreeable flavour to the wine: it has the effect, also, of -sweetening the breath, and removing all bad odours from the mouth, if -chewed in the morning with smyrnion[1631] and a little honey, the mouth -being then rinsed with wine. - -This plant imparts a youthful look[1632] to the features; and if -suspended to the pillow, so as to be smelt by a person when asleep, it -will prevent all disagreeable dreams. It has the effect of promoting -the appetite, also—for this, too, has been made by luxury one of -the objects of art, ever since labour has ceased to stimulate it. -It is for these various reasons that it has received the name of -“anicetum,”[1633] given to it by some. - - - - -CHAP. 73.—WHERE THE BEST ANISE IS FOUND: VARIOUS REMEDIES DERIVED FROM -THIS PLANT. - - -The most esteemed anise is that of Crete, and, next to it, that of -Egypt. This plant is employed in seasonings to supply the place of -lovage; and the perfume of it, when burnt and inhaled, alleviates -headache. Evenor prescribes an application of the root, pounded, for -defluxions of the eyes; and Iollas employs it in a similar manner, in -combination with saffron and wine, or else beaten up by itself and -mixed with polenta, for violent defluxions and the extraction of such -objects as have got into the eyes: applied, too, as a liniment in -water, it arrests cancer of the nose. Mixed with hyssop and oxymel, and -employed as a gargle, it is a cure for quinsy; and, in combination with -rose oil, it is used as an injection for the ears. Parched anise purges -off phlegm from the chest, and, if taken with honey, it is better still. - -For a cough, beat up fifty bitter almonds, shelled, in honey, with one -acetabulum of anise. Another very easy remedy, too, is to mix three -drachmæ of anise with two of poppies and some honey, a piece the size -of a bean being taken three times a-day. Its main excellence, however, -is as a carminative; hence it is that it is so good for flatulency of -the stomach, griping pains of the intestines, and cœliac affections. A -decoction of it, smelt at and drunk, arrests hiccup, and a decoction -of the leaves removes indigestion. A decoction of it with parsley, if -applied to the nostrils, will arrest sneezing. Taken in drink, anise -promotes sleep, disperses calculi of the bladder, arrests vomiting -and swelling of the viscera, and acts as an excellent pectoral for -affections of the chest, and of the diaphragm, where the body is -tightly laced. It is beneficial, also, to pour a decoction of it, in -oil, upon the head for head-ache. - -It is generally thought that there is nothing in existence more -beneficial to the abdomen and intestines than anise; for which reason -it is given, parched, for dysentery and tenesmus. Some persons add -opium to these ingredients, and prescribe three pills a-day, the size -of a bean, with one cyathus of wine. Dieuches has employed the juice -of this plant for lumbago, and prescribes the seed of it, pounded with -mint, for dropsy and cœliac affections: Evenor recommends the root, -also, for affections of the kidneys. Dalion, the herbalist, employed -it, with parsley, as a cataplasm for women in labour, as also for pains -of the uterus; and, for women in labour, he prescribes a decoction of -anise and dill to be taken in drink. It is used as a liniment also -in cases of phrenitis, or else applied fresh gathered and mixed with -polenta; in which form it is used also for infants attacked with -epilepsy[1634] or convulsions. Pythagoras, indeed, assures us that -persons, so long as they hold this plant in the hand, will never be -attacked with epilepsy, for which reason, as much of it as possible -should be planted near the house; he says, too, that women who inhale -the odour of it have a more easy delivery, it being his advice also, -that, immediately after they are delivered, it should be given them to -drink, with a sprinkling of polenta. - -Sosimenes employed this plant, in combination with vinegar, for all -kinds of indurations, and for lassitude he prescribes a decoction of it -in oil, with the addition of nitre. The same writer pledges his word to -all wayfarers, that, if they take aniseed in their drink, they will be -comparatively exempt from fatigue[1635] on their journey. Heraclides -prescribes a pinch of aniseed with three fingers, for inflations of -the stomach, to be taken with two oboli of castoreum[1636] in honied -wine; and he recommends a similar preparation for inflations of the -abdomen and intestines. In cases of orthopnœa, he recommends a pinch -of aniseed with three fingers, and the same quantity of henbane, to be -mixed in asses’-milk. It is the advice of many to those who are liable -to vomit,[1637] to take, at dinner, one acetabulum of aniseed and ten -laurel-leaves, the whole to be beaten up and drunk in water. - -Anise, chewed and applied warm, or else taken with castoreum in oxymel, -allays suffocations of the uterus. It also dispels vertigo after -child-birth, taken with a pinch of cucumber seed in three fingers -and the same quantity of linseed, in three cyathi of white wine. -Tlepolemus has employed a pinch of aniseed and fennel in three fingers, -mixed with vinegar and one cyathus of honey, for the cure of quartan -fever. Applied topically with bitter almonds, aniseed is beneficial -for maladies of the joints. There are some persons who look upon it -as, by nature, an antidote to the venom of the asp. It is a diuretic, -assuages thirst, and acts as an aphrodisiac. Taken in wine, it promotes -a gentle perspiration, and it has the property of protecting cloth from -the ravages of moths. The more recently it has been gathered, and the -darker its colour, the greater are its virtues: still, however, it is -injurious to the stomach, except when suffering from flatulency. - - - - -CHAP. 74. (18.)—DILL: NINE REMEDIES. - - -Dill[1638] acts also as a carminative, allays gripings of the stomach, -and arrests looseness of the bowels. The roots of this plant are -applied topically in water, or else in wine, for defluxions of the -eyes. The seed of it, if smelt at while boiling, will arrest hiccup; -and, taken in water, it dispels indigestion. The ashes of it are a -remedy for swellings of the uvula; but the plant itself weakens the -eyesight and the generative powers. - - - - -CHAP 75.—SACOPENIUM, OR SAGAPENON: THIRTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The sacopenium which grows in Italy is totally different from that -which comes from beyond sea. This last, in fact, is similar to gum -ammoniac, and is known as “sagapenon.”[1639] - -[1640]Sacopenium is good for pains of the sides and chest, for -convulsions, coughs of long standing, expectorations, and swellings of -the thoracic organs: it is a cure also for vertigo, palsy, opisthotony, -affections of the spleen and loins, and for shivering fits. For -suffocations of the uterus, this plant is given in vinegar to smell -at; in addition to which, it is sometimes administered in drink, or -employed as a friction with oil. It is a good antidote, also, for -medicaments of a noxious nature. - - - - -CHAP. 76.—THE WHITE POPPY: THREE REMEDIES. THE BLACK POPPY: EIGHT -REMEDIES. REMARKS ON SLEEP. OPIUM. REMARKS IN DISFAVOUR OF THE POTIONS -KNOWN AS “ANODYNES, FEBRIFUGES, DIGESTIVES, AND CŒLIACS.” IN WHAT WAY -THE JUICES OF THESE PLANTS ARE TO BE COLLECTED. - - -We have already[1641] stated that there are three varieties of the -cultivated poppy, and, on the same occasion, we promised to describe -the wild kinds. With reference to the cultivated varieties, the -calyx[1642] of the white[1643] poppy is pounded, and is taken in wine -as a soporific; the seed of it is a cure, also, for elephantiasis. -The black[1644] poppy acts as a soporific, by the juice which exudes -from incisions[1645] made in the stalk—at the time when the plant is -beginning to flower, Diagoras says; but when the blossom has gone off, -according to Iollas. This is done at the third[1646] hour, in a clear, -still, day, or, in other words, when the dew has thoroughly dried -upon the poppy. It is recommended to make the incision just beneath -the head and calyx of the plant; this being the only kind, in fact, -into the head of which the incision is made. This juice, like that -of any other plant, is received in wool;[1647] or else, if it is in -very minute quantities, it is scraped off with the thumb nail just -as it is from the lettuce, and so again on the following day, with -the portion that has since dried there. If obtained from the poppy -in sufficiently large quantities, this juice thickens, after which -it is kneaded out into lozenges, and dried in the shade. This juice -is possessed not only of certain soporific qualities, but, if taken -in too large quantities, is productive of sleep unto death even: the -name given to it is “opium.”[1648] It was in this way, we learn, that -the father of P. Licinius Cæcina, a man of Prætorian rank, put an end -to his life at Bavilum[1649] in Spain, an incurable malady having -rendered existence quite intolerable to him. Many other persons, -too, have ended their lives in a similar way. It is for this reason -that opium has been so strongly exclaimed against by Diagoras and -Erasistratus; for they have altogether condemned it as a deadly poison, -forbidding it to be used for infusions even, as being injurious to -the sight. Andreas says, in addition to this, that the only reason -why it does not cause instantaneous blindness, is the fact that they -adulterate it at Alexandria. In later times, however, the use of it -has not been disapproved of—witness the celebrated preparation known -as “diacodion.”[1650] Lozenges are also made of ground poppy-seed, -which are taken in milk as a soporific.[1651] The seed is employed, -too, with rose-oil for head-ache; and, in combination with that oil, -is injected into the ears for ear-ache. Mixed with woman’s milk, this -seed is used as a liniment for gout: the leaves, too, are employed in a -similar manner. Taken in vinegar, the seed is prescribed as a cure for -erysipelas and wounds. - -For my own part, however, I do not approve of opium entering into the -composition of eye-salves,[1652] and still less of the preparations -from it known as febrifuges,[1653] digestives, and cœliacs: the black -poppy, however, is very generally prescribed, in wine, for cœliac -affections. All the cultivated[1654] poppies are larger than the -others, and the form of the head is round. In the wild poppy the head -is elongated and small, but it is possessed of more active[1655] -properties than the others in every respect. This head is often boiled, -and the decoction of it taken to promote sleep, the face being fomented -also with the water. The best poppies are grown in dry localities, and -where it seldom rains. - -When the heads and leaves of the poppy are boiled together, the name -given to the decoction is “meconium;”[1656] it is much less powerful, -however, in its effects than opium. - -The principal test[1657] of the purity of opium is the smell, which, -when genuine, is so penetrating as to be quite insupportable. The next -best test is that obtained by lighting it at a lamp; upon which it -ought to burn with a clear, brilliant flame, and to give out a strong -odour when extinguished; a thing that never happens when opium has been -drugged, for, in such case, it lights with the greatest difficulty, -and the flame repeatedly goes out. There is another way of testing -its genuineness, by water; for, if it is pure, it will float like a -thin cloud upon the surface, but, if adulterated, it will unite in the -form of blisters on the water. But the most surprising thing of all is -the fact, that the sun’s heat in summer furnishes a test; for, if the -drug is pure, it will sweat and gradually melt, till it has all the -appearance of the juice when fresh gathered. - -Mnesides is of opinion that the best way of preserving opium is to mix -henbane seed with it; others, again, recommend that it should be kept -with beans. - - - - -CHAP. 77. (19.)—THE POPPY CALLED RHŒAS: TWO REMEDIES. - - -The poppy which we have[1658] spoken of under the names of “rhœas” -and the “erratic” poppy, forms an intermediate variety between the -cultivated and the wild poppy; for it grows in the fields, it is true, -but it is self-set nevertheless. Some persons eat[1659] it, calyx and -all, immediately after it is gathered. This plant is an extremely -powerful purgative: five heads of it, boiled in three semi-sextarii of -wine, and taken in drink, have the effect of producing sleep. - - - - -CHAP. 78.—THE WILD POPPY CALLED CERATITIS, GLAUCIUM, OR PARALIUM: SIX -REMEDIES. - - -There is one variety of wild poppy known as “ceratitis.”[1660] It is -of a black colour, a cubit in height, and has a thick root covered -with bark, with a head resembling a small bud, bent and pointed at -the end like a horn. The leaves of this plant are smaller and thinner -than those of the other wild poppies, and the seed, which is very -diminutive, is ripe at harvest. Taken with honied wine, in doses of -half an acetabulum, the seed acts as a purgative. The leaves, beaten up -in oil, are a cure for the white[1661] specks which form on the eyes of -beasts of burden. The root, boiled down to one half, in doses of one -acetabulum to two sextarii of water, is prescribed for maladies of the -loins and liver, and the leaves, employed with honey, are a cure for -carbuncles. - -Some persons give this kind of poppy the name of “glaucion,” and -others of “paralium,”[1662] for it grows, in fact, in spots exposed to -exhalations from the sea, or else in soils of a nitrous nature. - - - - -CHAP. 79.—THE WILD POPPY CALLED HERACLIUM, OR APHRON: FOUR REMEDIES. -DIACODION. - - -There is another kind[1663] of wild poppy, known as “heraclion” -by some persons, and as “aphron” by others. The leaves of it, when -seen from a distance, have all the appearance of sparrows;[1664] the -root lies on the surface of the ground, and the seed has exactly the -colour of foam.[1665] This plant is used for the purpose of bleaching -linen[1666] cloths in summer. It is bruised in a mortar for epilepsy, -being given in white wine, in doses of one acetabulum, and acting as an -emetic. - -This plant is extremely useful, also, for the composition of the -medicament known as “diacodion,”[1667] and “arteriace.” This -preparation is made with one hundred and twenty heads[1668] of this or -any other kind of wild poppy, steeped for two days in three sextarii of -rain water, after which they are boiled in it. You must then dry the -heads; which done, boil them down with honey to one half, at a slow -heat. More recently, there have been added to the mixture, six drachmæ -of saffron, hypocisthis,[1669] frankincense, and gum acacia, with one -sextarius of raisin wine of Crete. All this, however, is only so much -ostentation; for the virtue of this simple and ancient preparation -depends solely upon the poppy and the honey. - - - - -CHAP. 80.—THE POPPY CALLED TITHYMALON, OR PARALION: THREE REMEDIES. - - -There is a third kind, again, called “tithymalon;”[1670] some persons -give it the name of “mecon,” others of “paralion.” It has a white leaf, -resembling that of flax, and a head the size of a bean. It is gathered -when the vine is in blossom, and dried in the shade. The seed, taken in -drink, purges the bowels, the dose being half an acetabulum, in honied -wine. The head of every species of poppy, whether green or dry, used as -a fomentation, assuages defluxions[1671] of the eyes. Opium, if taken -in pure wine immediately after the sting of a scorpion, prevents any -dangerous results. Some persons, however, attribute this virtue to the -black poppy only, the head or leaves being beaten up for the purpose. - - - - -CHAP. 81. (20.)—PORCILLACA OR PURSLAIN, OTHERWISE CALLED PEPLIS: -TWENTY-FIVE REMEDIES. - - -There is a wild purslain,[1672] too, called “peplis,” not much superior -in its virtues to the cultivated[1673] kind, of which such remarkable -properties are mentioned. It neutralizes the effects, it is said, of -poisoned arrows, and the venom of the serpents known as hæmorrhois -and prester;[1674] taken with the food and applied to the wound, it -extracts the poison. The juice, too, they say, taken in raisin wine, -is an antidote for henbane. When the plant itself cannot be procured, -the seed of it is found to be equally efficacious. It is a corrective, -also, of impurities in water; and beaten up in wine and applied -topically, it is a cure for head-ache and ulcers of the head. Chewed in -combination with honey, it is curative of other kinds of sores. It is -similarly applied to the region of the brain in infants, and in cases -of umbilical hernia; as also for defluxions of the eyes, in persons of -all ages, being applied to the forehead and temples with polenta. If -employed as a liniment for the eyes, milk and honey are added, and when -used for proptosis[1675] of the eyes, the leaves are beaten up with -bean-shells. In combination with, polenta, salt, and vinegar, it is -employed as a fomentation for blisters. - -Chewed raw, purslain reduces ulcerations of the mouth and gum-boils, -and cures tooth-ache; a decoction of it is good, too, for ulcers -of the tonsils. Some persons have added a little myrrh to it, when -so employed. Chewed, it strengthens such teeth as may happen to be -loose, dispels crudities, imparts additional strength to the voice, -and allays thirst. Used with nut-galls, linseed, and honey, in equal -proportions, it assuages pains in the neck; and, combined with honey -or Cimolian[1676] chalk, it is good for diseases of the mamillæ. The -seed of it, taken with honey, is beneficial for asthma. Eaten in -salads,[1677] this plant is very strengthening to the stomach. In -burning fevers, applications of it are made with polenta; in addition -to which, if chewed, it will cool and refresh the intestines. It -arrests vomiting, also, and for dysentery and abscesses, it is eaten -with vinegar, or else taken with cummin in drink: boiled, it is good -for tenesmus. Taken either in the food or drink, it is good for -epilepsy; and, taken in doses of one acetabulum in boiled wine,[1678] -it promotes the menstrual discharge. Employed, also, as a liniment with -salt, it is used as a remedy for fits of hot gout and erysipelas. - -The juice of this plant, taken in drink, strengthens the kidneys -and bladder, and expels intestinal worms. In conjunction with oil, -it is applied, with polenta, to assuage the pain of wounds, and it -softens indurations of the sinews. Metrodorus, who wrote an Abridgment -of Botany,[1679] says that it should be given after delivery, to -accelerate the lochial discharge. It is also an antaphrodisiac, and -prevents the recurrence of lascivious dreams. One of the principal -personages of Spain, whose son has been Prætor, is in the habit of -carrying the root of it, to my knowledge, suspended by a string -from his neck, except when he is taking the bath, for an incurable -affection of the uvula; a precaution by which he has been spared all -inconvenience. - -I have found it stated, too, in some authors, that if the head is -rubbed with a liniment of this plant, there will be no defluxions -perceptible the whole year through. It is generally thought, however, -that purslain weakens the sight. - - - - -CHAP. 82.—CORIANDER: TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES. - - -There is no wild coriander[1680] to be found; the best, it is generally -agreed, is that of Egypt. Taken in drink and applied to the wound, it -is a remedy for the sting[1681] of one kind of serpent, known as the -amphisbæna:[1682] pounded, it is healing also for other wounds, as well -as for epinyctis and blisters. Employed in the same state with honey -or raisins, it disperses all tumours and gatherings, and, beaten up in -vinegar, it removes abscesses of an inflammatory nature. Some persons -recommend three grains of it to be taken for tertian fevers, just -before the fit comes on, or else in larger quantities, to be bruised -and applied to the forehead. There are others, again, who think that it -is attended with excellent results, to put coriander under the pillow -before sunrise. - -While green, it is possessed of very cooling and refreshing properties. -Combined with honey or raisins, it is an excellent remedy for spreading -ulcers, as also for diseases of the testes, burns, carbuncles, and -maladies of the ears. Applied with woman’s milk, it is good for -defluxions of the eyes; and for fluxes of the belly and intestines, -the seed is taken with water in drink; it is also taken in drink for -cholera, with rue. Coriander seed, used as a potion with pomegranate -juice and oil, expels worms in the intestines. - -Xenocrates states a very marvellous fact, if true; he says, that if a -woman takes one grain of this seed, the menstrual discharge will be -retarded one day, if two grains, two days, and so on, according to the -number of grains taken. Marcus Varro is of opinion, that if coriander -is lightly pounded, and sprinkled over it with cummin and vinegar, all -kinds of meat may be kept in summer without spoiling. - - - - -CHAP. 83.—ORAGE: FOURTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Orage,[1683] again, is found both wild and cultivated. Pythagoras has -accused this plant of producing dropsy, jaundice, and paleness of the -complexion, and he says that it is extremely difficult of digestion. -He asserts, also, to its disparagement, that every thing that grows -near it in the garden is sure to be drooping and languid. Diocles and -Dionysius have added a statement, that it gives birth to numerous -diseases, and that it should never be boiled without changing the water -repeatedly; they say, too, that it is prejudicial to the stomach, and -that it is productive of freckles and pimples on the skin. - -I am at a loss to imagine why Solo of Smyrna has stated that this plant -is cultivated in Italy with the greatest difficulty. Hippocrates[1684] -prescribes it with beet, as a pessary for affections of the uterus; -and Lycus of Neapolis recommends it to be taken in drink, in cases -of poisoning by cantharides. He is of opinion, also, that either -raw or boiled, it may be advantageously employed as a liniment for -inflammatory swellings, incipient boils, and all kinds of indurations; -and that, mixed with oxymel and nitre, it is good for erysipelas and -gout. This plant, it is said, will bring away mal-formed nails, without -producing sores. There are some persons who give orage-seed with honey -for jaundice, and rub the throat and tonsils with it, nitre being added -as well. They employ it, also, to purge the bowels, and use the seed, -boiled, as an emetic,[1685] either taken by itself, or in conjunction -with mallows or lentils. - -Wild orage is used for dyeing the hair, as well as the other purposes -above enumerated. - - - - -CHAP. 84. (21.)—THE MALLOW CALLED MALOPE: THIRTEEN REMEDIES. THE MALLOW -CALLED MALACHE: ONE REMEDY. THE MALLOW CALLED ALTHÆA, OR PLISTOLOCHIA: -FIFTY-NINE REMEDIES. - - -Both kinds of mallows,[1686] on the other hand, the cultivated and the -wild, are held in very general esteem. These kinds are subdivided, -each of them, into two varieties, according to the size of the leaf. -The cultivated mallow with large leaves is known to the Greeks by the -name of “malope,”[1687] the other being called “malache,”[1688]—from -the circumstance, it is generally thought, that it relaxes[1689] the -bowels. The wild[1690] mallow, again, with large leaves and white -roots, is called “althæa,” and by some persons, on account of its -salutary properties, “plistolochia.”[1691] Every soil in which mallows -are sown, is rendered all the richer thereby. This plant is possessed -of remarkable virtues,[1692] as a cure for all kinds of stings,[1693] -those of scorpions, wasps, and similar insects, as well as the bite of -the shrew-mouse, more particularly; nay, what is even more than this, -if a person has been rubbed with oil in which any one of the mallows -has been beaten up, or even if he carries them on his person, he will -never be stung. A leaf of mallow put upon a scorpion, will strike it -with torpor. - -The mallow is an antidote, also, against the poisonous effects of -white[1694] lead; and applied raw with saltpetre, it extracts all kinds -of pointed bodies from the flesh. A decoction of it with the root, -taken in drink, neutralizes the poison of the sea-hare,[1695] provided, -as some say, it is brought off the stomach by vomiting. - -Other marvels are also related in connection with the mallow, but the -most surprising thing of all is, that if a person takes half a cyathus -of the juice of any one of them daily, he will be exempt from all -diseases.[1696] Left to putrefy in wine, mallows are remedial for -running sores of the head, and, mixed with honey, for lichens and -ulcerations of the mouth; a decoction of the root, too, is a remedy for -dandriff[1697] of the head and looseness of the teeth. With the root of -the mallow which has a single stem,[1698] it is a good plan to prick -the parts about a tooth when it aches, until the pain has ceased. With -the addition of human saliva, the mallow cleanses scrofulous sores, -imposthumes of the parotid glands, and inflammatory tumours, without -producing a wound. The seed of it, taken in red wine, disperses phlegm -and relieves nausea; and the root, attached to the person with black -wool, is a remedy for affections of the mamillæ. Boiled in milk, and -taken as a pottage, it cures a cough within five days. - -Sextius Niger says that mallows are prejudicial to the stomach, -and Olympias, the Theban authoress, asserts that, employed with -goose-grease, they are productive of abortion. Some persons are of -opinion, that a good handful of the leaves, taken in oil and wine, -promotes the menstrual discharge. At all events, it is a well-known -fact, that if the leaves are strewed beneath a woman in labour, the -delivery will be accelerated; but they must be taken away immediately -after the birth, or prolapsus of the uterus will be the consequence. -Mallow-juice, also, is given to women in labour, a decoction of it -being taken fasting in wine, in doses of one hemina. - -Mallow seed is attached to the arms of patients suffering from -spermatorrhœa; and, so naturally adapted is this plant for the -promotion of lustfulness, that the seed of the kind with a single stem, -sprinkled upon the genitals, will increase the sexual desire in males -to an infinite degree, according to Xenocrates; who says, too, that if -three roots are attached to the person, in the vicinity of those parts, -they will be productive of a similar result. The same writer informs us -also, that injections of mallows are good for tenesmus and dysentery, -and for maladies of the rectum even, if used as a fomentation only. The -juice is given warm to patients afflicted with melancholy, in doses -of three cyathi, and to insane persons[1699] in doses of four. One -hemina of the decoction is prescribed, also, for epilepsy.[1700] A warm -decoction of the juice is employed, too, as a fomentation for calculus, -flatulency, gripings of the stomach, and opisthotony. The leaves are -boiled, and applied with oil, as a poultice for erysipelas and burns, -and raw, with bread, to arrest inflammation in wounds. A decoction of -mallows is beneficial for affections of the sinews and bladder, and -for gnawing pains of the intestines; taken, too, as an aliment, or an -injection, they are relaxing to the uterus, and the decoction, taken -with oil, facilitates the passage of the urine.[1701] - -The root of the althæa[1702] is even more efficacious for all the -purposes above enumerated, and for convulsions and ruptures more -particularly. Boiled in water, it arrests looseness of the bowels; and -taken in white wine, it is a cure for scrofulous sores, imposthumes -of the parotid glands, and inflammations of the mamillæ. A decoction -of the leaves in wine, applied as a liniment, disperses inflammatory -tumours; and the leaves, first dried, and then boiled in milk, are a -speedy cure for a cough, however inveterate. Hippocrates prescribes a -decoction of the root to be drunk by persons wounded or thirsty from -loss of blood, and the plant itself as an application to wounds, with -honey and resin. He also recommends it to be employed in a similar -manner for contusions, sprains, and tumours of the muscles, sinews, and -joints, and prescribes it to be taken in wine for asthma and dysentery. -It is a singular thing, that water in which this root has been put, -thickens when exposed in the open air, and congeals[1703] like ice. -The more recently, however, it has been taken up, the greater are the -virtues of the root.[1704] - - - - -CHAP. 85.—WILD LAPATHUM OR OXALIS, OTHERWISE CALLED LAPATHUM -CANTHERINUM, OR RUMEX: ONE REMEDY. HYDROLAPATHUM: TWO REMEDIES. -HIPPOLAPATHUM: SIX REMEDIES. OXYLAPATHUM: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -Lapathum, too, has pretty nearly the same properties. There is a -wild[1705] variety, known to some as “oxalis,” very similar in taste -to the cultivated kind, with pointed leaves, a colour like that of -white beet, and an extremely diminutive root: our people call it -“rumex,”[1706] while others, again, give it the name of “lapathum -cantherinum.”[1707] Mixed with axle-grease, this plant is very -efficacious for scrofulous sores. There is another kind, again, hardly -forming a distinct variety, known as “oxylapathon,”[1708] which -resembles the cultivated kind even more than the last, though the -leaves are more pointed and redder: it grows only in marshy spots. -Some authors are found who speak of a “hydrolapathon,”[1709] which -grows in the water, they say. There is also another variety, known as -“hippolapathon,”[1710] larger than the cultivated kind, whiter, and -more compact. - -The wild varieties of the lapathum are a cure[1711] for the stings -of scorpions, and protect those who carry the plant on their person -from being stung. A decoction of the root in vinegar, employed as a -gargle, is beneficial to the[1712] teeth, and if drunk, is a cure -for jaundice. The seed is curative of the most obstinate maladies -of the stomach.[1713] The root of hippolapathum, in particular, has -the property of bringing off malformed nails; and the seed, taken in -wine, in doses of two drachmæ, is a cure for dysentery. The seed of -oxylapathum, washed in rain-water, with the addition of a piece of -gum acacia, about the size of a lentil, is good for patients troubled -with spitting of blood.[1714] Most excellent lozenges are made of the -leaves and root of this plant, with the addition of nitre and a little -incense. When wanted for use, they are first steeped in vinegar. - - - - -CHAP. 86.—CULTIVATED LAPATHUM: TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES. BULAPATHUM: ONE -REMEDY. - - -As to garden lapathum,[1715] it is good in liniments on the forehead -for defluxions of the eyes. The root of it cures lichens and leprous -sores, and a decoction of it in wine is remedial for scrofulous -swellings, imposthumes of the parotid glands, and calculus of the -bladder. Taken in wine it is a cure for affections of the spleen, and -employed as a fomentation, it is equally good for cœliac affections, -dysentery, and tenesmus. For all these purposes, the juice of lapathum -is found to be even still more efficacious. It acts as a carminative -and diuretic, and dispels films on the eyes: put into the bath, or -else rubbed upon the body, without oil, before taking the bath, it -effectually removes all itching sensations. The root of it, chewed, -strengthens the teeth, and a decoction of it in wine arrests[1716] -looseness of the stomach: the leaves, on the other hand, relax it. - -Not to omit any particulars, Solo has added to the above varieties a -bulapathon,[1717] which differs only from the others in the length of -the root. This root, taken in wine, is very beneficial for dysentery. - - - - -CHAP. 87. (22.)—MUSTARD, THE THREE KINDS OF IT: FORTY-FOUR REMEDIES. - - -Mustard, of which we have mentioned[1718] three different kinds, when -speaking of the garden herbs, is ranked by Pythagoras among the very -first of those plants the pungency of which mounts upwards; for there -is none to be found more penetrating to the brain and nostrils. - -Pounded with vinegar, mustard is employed as a liniment for the stings -of serpents and scorpions, and it effectually neutralizes the poisonous -properties of fungi. To cure an immoderate secretion of phlegm it is -kept in the mouth till it melts, or else it is mixed with hydromel, -and employed as a gargle. Mustard is chewed for tooth-ache, and is -taken as a gargle with oxymel for affections of the uvula; it is very -beneficial, also, for all maladies of the stomach. Taken with the food, -it facilitates expectoration[1719] from the lungs: it is given, too, -for asthma and epileptic fits, in combination with cucumber seed. It -has the effect of quickening the senses, and effectually clears the -head by sneezing, relaxes the stomach, and promotes the menstrual -discharge and the urinary secretions: beaten up with figs and cummin, -in the proportion of one-third of each ingredient, it is used as an -external application for dropsy. - -Mixed with vinegar, mustard resuscitates by its powerful odour -persons who have swooned in fits of epilepsy or lethargy, as well -as females suffering from hysterical suffocations. For the cure of -lethargy tordylon is added—that being the name given to the seed of -hartwort[1720]—and if the lethargic sleep should happen to be very -profound, an application of it, with figs and vinegar, is made to the -legs, or to the head[1721] even. Used as an external application, -mustard is a cure for inveterate pains of the chest, loins, hips, -shoulders, and, in general, for all deep-seated pains in any part -of the body, raising blisters[1722] by its caustic properties. In -cases of extreme indurations of the skin, the mustard is applied, to -the part without figs; and a cloth is employed doubled, where it is -apprehended that it may burn too powerfully. It is used also, combined -with red-earth,[1723] for alopecy, itch-scabs, leprosy, phthiriasis, -tetanus, and opisthotony. They employ it also as a liniment with honey -for styes[1724] on the eyelids and films on the eyes. - -The juices of mustard are extracted in three different ways, in earthen -vessels in which it is left to dry gradually in the sun. From the thin -stem of the plant there exudes also a milky juice,[1725] which when -thus hardened is remedial for tooth-ache. The seed and root, after -they have been left to steep in must, are beaten up together in a -mortar; and a good handful of the mixture is taken to strengthen[1726] -the throat, stomach, eyes, head, and all the senses. This mixture is -extremely good, too, for fits of lassitude in females, being one of -the most wholesome medicines in existence. Taken in vinegar, mustard -disperses calculi in the bladder; and, in combination with honey and -goose-grease, or else Cyprian wax, it is employed as a liniment for -livid spots and bruises. From the seed, first steeped in olive-oil, and -then subjected to pressure, an oil is extracted, which is employed for -rigidity of the sinews, and chills and numbness in the loins and hips. - - - - -CHAP. 88.—ADARCA: FORTY-EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -It is said that adarca, of which we have already made mention[1727] -when speaking of the forest-trees, has a similar nature[1728] to that -of mustard, and is productive of the same effects: it grows upon the -outer coat of reeds, below the head. - - - - -CHAP. 89.—MARRUBIUM OR PRASION, OTHERWISE LINOSTROPHON, PHILOPAIS, OR -PHILOCHARES: TWENTY-NINE REMEDIES. - - -Most medical writers have spoken in high terms of marrubium, or -horehound, as a plant of the very greatest utility. Among the Greeks, -it is called “prasion”[1729] by some, by others “linostrophon,”[1730] -and by others, again, “philopais”[1731] or “philochares:”[1732] it is a -plant too well known to require any description.[1733] The leaves[1734] -and seed beaten up, together, are good for the stings of serpents, -pains of the chest and side, and inveterate coughs. The branches, too, -boiled in water with panic,[1735] so as to modify its acridity, are -remarkably useful for persons troubled with spitting[1736] of blood. -Horehound is applied also, with grease, to scrofulous swellings. -Some persons recommend for a cough, a pinch of the fresh seed with -two fingers, boiled with a handful of spelt[1737] and a little oil -and salt, the mixture to be taken fasting. Others, again, regard as -quite incomparable for a similar purpose an extract of the juices -of horehound and fennel. Taking three sextarii of the extract, they -boil it down to two, and then add one sextarius of honey; after which -they again boil it down to two, and administer one spoonful of the -preparation daily, in one cyathus of water. - -Beaten up with honey, horehound is particularly beneficial for -affections of the male organs; employed with vinegar, it cleanses -lichens, and is very salutary for ruptures, convulsions, spasms, and -contractions of the sinews. Taken in drink with salt and vinegar, it -relaxes the bowels, promotes the menstrual discharge, and accelerates -the after-birth. Dried, powdered, and taken with honey, it is -extremely efficacious for a dry cough, as also for gangrenes and -hang-nails.[1738] The juice, too, taken with honey, is good for the -ears and nostrils: it is a remedy also for jaundice, and diminishes the -bilious secretions. Among the few antidotes[1739] for poisons, it is -one of the very best known. - -The plant itself, taken with iris and honey, purges the stomach and -promotes expectorations: it acts, also, as a strong diuretic, though, -at the same time, care must be taken not to use it when the bladder is -ulcerated and the kidneys are affected. It is said, too, that the juice -of horehound improves the eyesight. Castor speaks of two varieties of -it, the black horehound and the white, which last he considers to be -the best. He puts the juice of it into an empty eggshell, and then -mixes the egg with it, together with honey, in equal proportions: -this preparation used warm, he says, will bring abscesses to a head, -and cleanse and heal them. Beaten up, too, with stale axle-grease and -applied topically, he says, horehound is a cure for the bite of a dog. - - - - -CHAP. 90.—WILD THYME: EIGHTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Wild thyme, it is said, borrows its name, “serpyllum,” from the -fact that it is a creeping[1740] plant, a property peculiar to the -wild kind, that which grows in rocky places more particularly. The -cultivated[1741] thyme is not a creeping plant, but grows upwards, as -much a palm in height. That which springs up spontaneously, grows the -most luxuriantly, its leaves and branches being whiter than those of -the other kinds. Thyme is efficacious as a remedy for the stings of -serpents, the cenchris[1742] more particularly; also for the sting -of the scolopendra, both sea and land, the leaves and branches being -boiled for the purpose in wine. Burnt, it puts to flight all venomous -creatures by its smell, and it is particularly beneficial as an -antidote to the venom of marine animals. - -A decoction of it in vinegar is applied for head-ache, with rose oil, -to the temples and forehead, as also for phrenitis and lethargy: it -is given, too, in doses of four drachmæ, for gripings of the stomach, -strangury, quinsy, and fits of vomiting. It is taken in water, also, -for liver complaints. The leaves are given in doses of four oboli, in -vinegar, for diseases of the spleen. Beaten up in two cyathi of oxymel, -it is used for spitting of blood. - - - - -CHAP. 91.—SISYMBRIUM OR THYMBRÆUM: TWENTY-THREE REMEDIES. - - -Wild[1743] sisymbrium, by some persons called “thymbræum,” does not -grow beyond a foot in height. The kind[1744] which grows in watery -places, is similar to nasturtium, and they[1745] are both of them -efficacious for the stings of certain insects, such as hornets and -the like. That which grows in dry localities is odoriferous, and is -employed[1746] for wreaths: the leaf of it is narrower than in the -other kind. They both of them alleviate head-ache, and defluxions -of the eyes, Philinus says. Some persons, however, employ bread in -addition; while others, again, use a decoction of the plant by itself -in wine. It is a cure, also, for epinyctis, and removes spots on the -face in females, by the end of four days; for which purpose, it is -applied at night and taken off in the day-time. It arrests vomiting, -hiccup, gripings, and fluxes of the stomach, whether taken with the -food, or the juice extracted and given in drink. - -This plant, however, should never be eaten by pregnant women, except -in cases where the fœtus is dead, for the very application of it is -sufficient to produce abortion. Taken with wine, it is diuretic, and -the wild variety expels calculi even. For persons necessitated to sit -up awake, an infusion of it in vinegar is applied as a liniment to the -head. - - - - -CHAP. 92.—LINSEED: THIRTY REMEDIES. - - -Linseed[1747] is not only used in combination with other substances, -but, employed by itself, it disperses spots on the face in women: its -juice, too, is very beneficial to the sight. Combined with incense and -water, or else with myrrh and wine, it is a cure for defluxions of the -eyes, and employed with honey, grease, or wax, for imposthumes of the -parotid glands. Prepared[1748] like polenta, it is good for fluxes of -the stomach; and a decoction of it in water and oil, applied topically -with anise, is prescribed for quinsy. It is sometimes used parched, -also, to arrest looseness of the bowels, and applications of it are -used, with vinegar, for cœliac affections and dysentery. It is eaten -with raisins, also, for pains in the liver, and excellent electuaries -are made of it for the treatment of phthisis. - -Linseed-meal, with the addition of nitre, salt, or ashes, softens -rigidities of the muscles, sinews, joints, and vertebræ, as well as of -the membranous tissues of the brain. Employed with figs, linseed-meal -ripens abscesses and brings them to a head: mixed with the root of -wild cucumber, it extracts[1749] all foreign bodies from the flesh, as -well as splinters of broken bones. A decoction of linseed-meal in wine -prevents ulcers from spreading, and mixed with honey, it is remedial -for pituitous eruptions. Used with nasturtium, in equal quantities, it -rectifies[1750] malformed nails; mixed with resin and myrrh, it cures -affections of the testes and hernia,[1751] and with water, gangrenous -sores. A decoction of linseed-meal with fenugreek, in the proportion -of one sextarius of each, in hydromel, is recommended for pains in -the stomach; and employed as an injection, with oil or honey, it is -beneficial for dangerous affections of the chest and intestines. - - - - -CHAP. 93.—BLITE: SIX REMEDIES. - - -Blite[1752] seems to be a plant of an inert nature, without flavour or -any pungency whatever; hence it is that, in Menander, we find husbands -giving this name to their wives, by way of[1753] reproach. It is[1754] -prejudicial to the stomach, and disturbs the bowels to such a degree, -as to cause cholera in some. It is stated, however, that, taken in -wine, it is good for the stings of scorpions; and that it is sometimes -used as a liniment for corns on the feet, and, with oil, for affections -of the spleen and pains in the temples. Hippocrates is of opinion, that -if taken with the food,[1755] it will arrest the menstrual discharge. - - - - -CHAP. 94. (23.)—MEUM, AND MEUM ATHAMANTICUM: SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -Meum[1756] is never cultivated in Italy except by medical men, and -by very few of those. There are two varieties of it, the finer kind -being known as “athamanticum,” because, according to some, it was -first discovered by Athamas; or else because, as others think, that -of the best quality is found upon Mount Athamas.[1757] The leaf of it -is similar to that of dill, and the stem is sometimes as much as two -cubits in length: the roots, which run obliquely, are numerous and -mostly black, though sometimes white: it is not of so red a hue as the -other kind. - -The root of this plant, pounded or boiled, and taken in water, is -diuretic, and is marvellously efficacious for dispelling flatulency of -the stomach. It is good, too, for gripings of the bowels and affections -of the bladder: applied with honey to the region of the uterus, it -acts as a diuretic; and used as a liniment with parsley, upon the lower -regions of the abdomen in infants, it has a similar effect. - - - - -CHAP. 95.—FENNEL: TWENTY-TWO REMEDIES. - - -Fennel has been rendered famous by the serpent, which tastes it, -as already[1758] stated, when it casts its old skin, and sharpens -its sight with the juice of this plant: a fact which has led to the -conclusion that this juice must be beneficial, also, in a high degree -to the human sight. Fennel-juice is gathered when the stem is swelling -with the bud; after which it is dried in the sun and applied as an -ointment with honey. This plant is to be found in all parts of the -world. The most esteemed preparation from it, is that made in Iberia, -from the tear-like drops which exude[1759] from the stalk and the seed -fresh-gathered. The juice is extracted, also, from incisions made in -the root at the first germination of the plant. - - - - -CHAP. 96.—HIPPOMARATHRON, OR MYRSINEUM: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -There is, also, a wild[1760] variety of fennel, known by some persons -as “hippomarathron,” and by others as “myrsineum;” it has a larger -leaf and a more acrid taste than the other kind. It is taller, also, -about the thickness of a walking-stick, and has a white root: it grows -in warm, but stony localities. Diocles speaks, too, of another[1761] -variety of hippomarathron, with a long narrow leaf, and a seed like -that of coriander. - -The seed of the cultivated fennel is medicinally employed in wine, -for the stings of scorpions and serpents, and the juice of it, -injected into the ears, has the effect of destroying small worms that -breed there. Fennel is employed as an ingredient in nearly all our -seasonings,[1762] vinegar[1763] sauces more particularly: it is placed -also beneath the undercrust of bread. The seed, in fevers even, acts -as an astringent upon a relaxed stomach, and beaten up with water, it -allays nausea: it is highly esteemed, also, for affections of the lungs -and liver. Taken in moderate quantities, it arrests looseness of the -bowels, and acts as a diuretic; a decoction of it is good for gripings -of the stomach, and taken in drink, it restores the milk. The root, -taken in a ptisan,[1764] purges the kidneys—an effect which is equally -produced by a decoction of the juice or of the seed; the root is good -too, boiled in wine, for dropsy and convulsions. The leaves are applied -to burning tumours, with vinegar, expel calculi of the bladder, and act -as an aphrodisiac. - -In whatever way it is taken in drink, fennel has the property of -promoting the secretion of the seminal fluids; and it is extremely -beneficial to the generative organs, whether a decoction of the root -in wine is employed as a fomentation, or whether it is used beaten up -in oil. Many persons apply fennel with wax to tumours and bruises, and -employ the root, with the juice of the plant, or else with honey, for -the bites of dogs, and with wine for the stings of multipedes. - -Hippomarathron is more efficacious, in every respect, than cultivated -fennel;[1765] it expels calculi more particularly, and, taken with -weak wine, is good for the bladder and irregularities of the menstrual -discharge. - -In this plant, the seed is more efficacious than the root; the dose of -either of them being a pinch with two fingers, beaten up, and mixed -with the usual drink. Petrichus, who wrote a work “On Serpents,”[1766] -and Micton, who wrote a treatise “On[1767] Botany,” are of opinion that -there is nothing in existence of greater efficacy against serpents than -hippomarathron: indeed, Nicander[1768] has ranked it by no means among -the lowest of antidotes. - - - - -CHAP. 97.—HEMP: NINE REMEDIES. - - -Hemp originally grew in the forests,[1769] where it is found -with a blacker and rougher leaf than in the other[1770] kinds. -Hempseed,[1771] it is said, renders men impotent: the juice of this -seed will extract worms from the ears, or any insect which may have -entered them, though at the cost of producing head-ache. The virtues -of hemp, it is said, are so great, that an infusion of it in water -will cause it to coagulate:[1772] hence it is, that if taken in water, -it will arrest looseness in beasts of burden. A decoction of the root -in water, relaxes contractions of the joints, and cures gout and -similar maladies. It is applied raw to burns, but it must be frequently -changed, so as not to let it dry. - - - - -CHAP. 98.—FENNEL-GIANT: EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -Fennel-giant[1773] has a seed similar to that of dill. That which has -a single stem, bifurcated[1774] at the top, is generally thought to be -the female plant. The stalks of it are eaten boiled;[1775] and, pickled -in brine and honey, they are recommended as particularly beneficial to -the stomach;[1776] if taken, however, in too large quantities, they -are apt to produce head-ache. The root of it in doses of one denarius -to two cyathi of wine, is used in drink for the stings of serpents, -and the root itself is applied topically for the same purpose, as also -for the cure of gripings of the stomach. Taken in oil and vinegar, it -is used as a check for excessive perspirations, in fevers even. The -inspissated juice of fennel-giant, taken in quantities the size of a -bean, acts as a purgative;[1777] and the pith[1778] of it is good for -the uterus, as well as all the maladies previously mentioned. To arrest -hæmorrhage, ten of the seeds are taken in drink, bruised in wine, or -else with the pith of the plant. There are some persons who think that -the seed should be administered for epilepsy, from the fourth to the -seventh day of the moon, in doses of one spoonful. - -Fennel-giant is naturally so inimical to the muræna, that the very -touch of it even will kill that fish. Castor was of opinion that the -juice of the root is extremely beneficial to the sight. - - - - -CHAP. 99.—THE THISTLE OR SCOLYMOS: SIX REMEDIES. - - -We have already[1779] spoken, when treating of the garden plants, of -the cultivation of the thistle; we may as well, therefore, not delay -to mention its medicinal properties. Of wild thistles there are two -varieties; one[1780] of which throws out numerous stalks immediately -it leaves the ground, the other[1781] being thicker, and having but a -single stem. They have, both of them, a few leaves only, and covered -with prickles, the head of the plant being protected by thorny points: -the last mentioned, however, puts forth in the middle of these points a -purple blossom, which turns white with great rapidity, and is carried -off by the wind; the Greeks give it the name of “scolymos.” - -This plant, gathered before it blossoms, and beaten up and subjected to -pressure, produces a juice, which, applied to the head, makes the hair -grow again when it has fallen off through alopecy. The root of either -kind, boiled in water, creates thirst, it is said, in those who drink -it. It strengthens the stomach also, and if we are to believe what is -said, has some influence upon the womb in promoting the conception of -male offspring: at all events, Glaucias, who seems to have paid the -most attention to the subject, has written to that effect. The thin -juice, like mastich, which exudes from these plants, imparts sweetness -to the breath. - - - - -CHAP. 100. (24.)—THE COMPOSITION OF THERIACA. - - -But as we are now about to leave the garden plants, we will take -this opportunity of describing a very famous preparation extracted -from them as an antidote against the stings of all kinds of venomous -animals: it is inscribed in verse[1782] upon a stone in the Temple of -Æsculapius at Cos. - -Take two denarii of wild thyme, and the same quantity of opopanax -and meum respectively; one denarius of trefoil seed; and of aniseed, -fennel-seed, ammi, and parsley, six denarii respectively, with twelve -denarii of meal of fitches. Heat up these ingredients together, and -pass them through a sieve; after which they must be kneaded with -the best wine that can be had, and then made into lozenges of one -victoriatus[1783] each: one of these is to be given to the patient, -steeped in three cyathi of wine. King Antiochus[1784] the Great, it -is said, employed this theriaca[1785] against all kinds of venomous -animals, the asp excepted. - - -SUMMARY.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, one thousand, -five hundred, and six. - - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Cato[1786] the Censor, M. Varro,[1787] Pompeius -Lenæus,[1788] C. Valgius,[1789] Hyginus,[1790] Sextius Niger[1791] who -wrote in Greek, Julius Bassus[1792] who wrote in Greek, Celsus,[1793] -Antonius Castor.[1794] - - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Democritus,[1795] Theophrastus,[1796] -Orpheus,[1797] Menander[1798] who wrote the “Biochresta,” -Pythagoras,[1799] Nicander.[1800] - - -MEDICAL AUTHORS QUOTED.—Chrysippus,[1801] Diocles,[1802] -Ophelion,[1803] Heraclides,[1804] Hicesius,[1805] Dionysius,[1806] -Apollodorus[1807] of Citium, Apollodorus[1808] of Tarentum, -Praxagoras,[1809], Plistonicus,[1810] Medius,[1811] Dieuches,[1812] -Cleophantus,[1813] Philistion,[1814] Asclepiades,[1815] Crateuas,[1816] -Petronius Diodotus,[1817] Iollas,[1818] Erasistratus,[1819] -Diagoras,[1820] Andreas,[1821] Mnesides,[1822] Epicharmus,[1823] -Damion,[1824] Dalion,[1825] Sosimenes,[1826] Tlepolemus,[1827], -Metrodorus,[1828] Solo,[1829] Lycus,[1830] Olympias[1831] of Thebes, -Philinus,[1832] Petrichus,[1833] Micton,[1834] Glaucias,[1835] -Xenocrates.[1836] - - - - -BOOK XXI. - -AN ACCOUNT OF FLOWERS, AND THOSE USED FOR CHAPLETS MORE PARTICULARLY. - - - - -CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE NATURE OF FLOWERS AND GARLANDS. - - -Cato has recommended that flowers for making chaplets should also be -cultivated in the garden; varieties remarkable for a delicacy which -it is quite impossible to express, inasmuch as no individual can find -such facilities for describing them as Nature does for bestowing on -them their numerous tints—Nature, who here in especial shows herself -in a sportive mood, and takes a delight in the prolific display of her -varied productions. The other[1837] plants she has produced for our use -and our nutriment, and to them accordingly she has granted years and -even ages of duration: but as for the flowers and their perfumes, she -has given them birth for but a day—a mighty lesson to man, we see, to -teach him that that which in its career is the most beauteous and the -most attractive to the eye, is the very first to fade and die. - -Even the limner’s art itself possesses no resources for reproducing -the colours of the flowers in all their varied tints and combinations, -whether we view them in groups alternately blending their hues, or -whether arranged in festoons, each variety by[1838] itself, now -assuming a circular form, now running obliquely, and now disposed -in a spiral pattern; or whether, as we see sometimes, one wreath is -interwoven within another. - - - - -CHAP. 2. (2.)—GARLANDS AND CHAPLETS. - -The ancients used chaplets of diminutive size, called “struppi;”[1839] -from which comes our name for a chaplet, “strophiolum.” Indeed, it was -only by very slow degrees that this last word[1840] became generalized, -as the chaplets that were used at sacrifices, or were granted as the -reward of military valour, asserted their exclusive right to the name -of “corona.” As for garlands, when they came to be made of flowers, -they received the name of “serta,” from the verb “sero,”[1841] or else -from our word “series.”[1842] The use[1843] of flowers for garlands is -not so very ancient, among the Greeks even. - - - - -CHAP. 3.—WHO INVENTED THE ART OF MAKING GARLANDS: WHEN THEY FIRST -RECEIVED THE NAME OF “COROLLÆ,” AND FOR WHAT REASON. - - -For in early times it was the usage to crown the victors in the -sacred contests with branches of trees: and it was only at a later -period, that they began to vary their tints by the combination[1844] -of flowers, to heighten the effect in turn by their colour and their -smell—an invention due to the ingenuity of the painter Pausias, at -Sicyon,[1845] and the garland-maker Glycera, a female to whom he -was greatly attached, and whose handiwork was imitated by him in -colours. Challenging him to a trial of skill, she would repeatedly -vary her designs, and thus it was in reality a contest between art -and Nature; a fact which we find attested by pictures of that artist -even still in existence, more particularly the one known as the -“Stephaneplocos,”[1846] in which he has given a likeness of Glycera -herself. This invention, therefore, is only to be traced to later than -the Hundredth[1847] Olympiad. - -Chaplets of flowers being now the fashion, it was not long before those -came into vogue which are known to us as Egyptian[1848] chaplets; and -then the winter chaplets, made for the time at which Earth refuses -her flowers, of thin laminæ of horn stained various colours. By slow -degrees, too, the name was introduced at Rome, these garlands being -known there at first as “corollæ,” a designation given them to express -the remarkable delicacy[1849] of their texture. In more recent times, -again, when the chaplets presented were made of thin plates[1850] of -copper, gilt or silvered, they assumed the name of “corollaria.” - - - - -CHAP. 4. (3.)—WHO WAS THE FIRST TO GIVE CHAPLETS WITH LEAVES OF SILVER -AND GOLD. LEMNISCI: WHO WAS THE FIRST TO EMBOSS THEM. - - -Crassus Dives[1851] was the first who gave chaplets with artificial -leaves of silver and gold, at the games celebrated by him. To embellish -these chaplets, and to confer additional honour on them, lemnisci were -added, in imitation of the Etruscan chaplets, which ought properly to -have none but lemnisci[1852] made of gold. For a long period these -lemnisci were destitute of ornament:[1853] P. Claudius Pulcher[1854] -was the first who taught us to emboss[1855] them, and added leaves of -tinsel to the laminæ[1856] of which the lemniscus was formed. - - - - -CHAP. 5.—THE GREAT HONOUR IN WHICH CHAPLETS WERE HELD BY THE ANCIENTS. - - -Chaplets, however, were always held in a high degree of estimation, -those even which were acquired at the public games. For it was the -usage of the citizens to go down in person to take part in the -contests of the Circus, and to send their slaves and horses thither -as well. Hence it is that we find it thus written in the laws of the -Twelve Tables: “If any person has gained a chaplet himself, or by -his money,[1857] let the same be given to him as the reward of his -prowess.” There is no doubt that by the words “gained by his money,” -the laws meant a chaplet which had been gained by his slaves or -horses. Well then, what was the honour acquired thereby? It was the -right secured by the victor, for himself and for his parents, after -death, to be crowned without fail, while the body was laid out in the -house,[1858] and on its being carried[1859] to the tomb. - -On other occasions, chaplets were not indiscriminately worn, not even -those which had been won in the games. - - - - -CHAP. 6.—THE SEVERITY OF THE ANCIENTS IN REFERENCE TO CHAPLETS. - - -Indeed the rules upon this point were remarkably severe. L. Fulvius, a -banker,[1860] having been accused, at the time of the Second Punic War, -of looking down from the balcony[1861] of his house upon the Forum, -with a chaplet of roses upon his head, was imprisoned by order of the -Senate, and was not liberated before the war was brought to a close. P. -Munatius, having placed upon his head a chaplet of flowers taken from -the statue of Marsyas,[1862] was condemned by the Triumviri to be put -in chains. Upon his making appeal to the tribunes of the people, they -refused to intercede in his behalf—a very different state of things to -that at Athens, where the young men,[1863] in their drunken revelry, -were in the habit, before midday, of making their way into the very -schools of the philosophers even. Among ourselves, no such instance of -a similar licentiousness is to be found, unless, indeed, in the case of -the daughter[1864] of the late Emperor Augustus, who, in her nocturnal -debaucheries, placed a chaplet on the statue[1865] of Marsyas, conduct -deeply deplored in the letters of that god.[1866] - - - - -CHAP. 7.—A CITIZEN DECKED WITH FLOWERS BY THE ROMAN PEOPLE. - - -Scipio is the only person that ever received from the Roman people -the honour of being decked with flowers. This Scipio received the -surname of Serapio,[1867] from his remarkable resemblance to a certain -person of that name who dealt in pigs. He died in his tribuneship, -greatly beloved by the people, and in every way worthy of the family -of the Africani. The property he left was not sufficient to pay the -expenses of his burial; upon which the people made a subscription and -contracted[1868] for his funeral, flowers being scattered upon the body -from every possible quarter[1869] as it was borne along. - - - - -CHAP. 8.—PLAITED CHAPLETS. NEEDLE-WORK CHAPLETS. NARD-LEAF CHAPLETS. -SILKEN CHAPLETS. - - -In those days, too, chaplets were employed in honour of the gods, -the Lares, public as well as domestic, the sepulchres,[1870] and the -Manes. The highest place, however, in public estimation, was held by -the plaited chaplet; such as we find used by the Salii in their sacred -rites, and at the solemnization of their yearly[1871] banquets. In -later times, the rose chaplet has been adopted, and luxury arose at -last to such a pitch that a chaplet was held in no esteem at all if it -did not consist entirely of leaves sown together with the needle. More -recently, again, they have been imported from India, or from nations -beyond the countries of India. - -But it is looked upon as the most refined of all, to present chaplets -made of nard leaves, or else of silk of many colours steeped in -unguents. Such is the pitch to which the luxuriousness of our women has -at last arrived! - - - - -CHAP. 9.—AUTHORS WHO HAVE WRITTEN ON FLOWERS. AN ANECDOTE RELATIVE TO -QUEEN CLEOPATRA AND CHAPLETS. - - -Among the Greeks, the physicians Mnesitheus and Callimachus have -written separate treatises on the subject of chaplets, making mention -of such flowers as are injurious to the head.[1872] For, in fact, -the health is here concerned to some extent, as it is at the moments -of carousal and gaiety in particular that penetrating odours steal -insidiously upon the brain—witness an instance in the wicked cunning -displayed upon one occasion by Cleopatra. - -At the time when preparations were making for the battle that was -eventually fought at Actium, Antonius held the queen in such extreme -distrust as to be in dread of her very attentions even, and would -not so much as touch his food, unless another person had tasted it -first. Upon this, the queen, it is said, wishing to amuse herself with -his fears, had the extremities of the flowers in a chaplet dipped -in poison, and then placed it upon her head.[1873] After a time, as -the hilarity increased apace, she challenged Antonius to swallow the -chaplets, mixed up with their drink. Who, under such circumstances -as these, could have apprehended treachery? Accordingly, the leaves -were stripped from off the chaplet, and thrown into the cup. Just as -Antonius was on the very point of drinking, she arrested his arm with -her hand.—“Behold, Marcus Antonius,” said she, “the woman against whom -you are so careful to take these new precautions of yours in employing -your tasters! And would then, if I could exist without you, either -means or opportunity of effecting my purpose be wanting to me?” Saying -this, she ordered a man to be brought from prison, and made him drink -off the potion; he did so, and fell dead[1874] upon the spot. - -Besides the two authors above-mentioned, Theophrastus,[1875] among the -Greeks, has written on the subject of flowers. Some of our own writers -also have given the title of “Anthologica” to their works, but no one, -to my knowledge at least, has treated expressly[1876] of flowers. In -fact, we ourselves have no intention here of discussing the mode of -wearing chaplets, for that would be frivolous[1877] indeed; but shall -proceed to state such particulars in relation to flowers as shall -appear to us deserving of remark. - - - - -CHAP. 10. (4.)—THE ROSE: TWELVE VARIETIES OF IT. - - -The people of our country were acquainted with but very few garland -flowers among the garden plants, and those few hardly any but the -violet and the rose. The plant which bears the rose is, properly -speaking, more of a thorn than a shrub—indeed, we sometimes find it -growing on a bramble[1878] even; the flower having, even then, a -pleasant smell, though by no means penetrating. The flower in all roses -is originally enclosed in a bud,[1879] with a grained surface within, -which gradually swells, and assumes the form of a green pointed cone, -similar to our alabaster[1880] unguent boxes in shape. Gradually -acquiring a ruddy tint, this bud opens little by little, until at -last it comes into full blow, developing the calyx, and embracing the -yellow-pointed filaments which stand erect in the centre of it. - -The employment of the rose in chaplets is, so to say, the least[1881] -use that is made of it. The flower is steeped in oil, a practice which -has prevailed from the times of the Trojan war, as Homer[1882] bears -witness; in addition to which, it now forms an ingredient in our -unguents, as mentioned on a previous occasion.[1883] It is employed -also by itself for certain medicinal purposes, and is used in plasters -and eye-salves[1884] for its penetrating qualities: it is used, also, -to perfume the delicacies of our banquets, and is never attended with -any noxious results. - -The most esteemed kinds of rose among us are those of Præneste[1885] -and Campania.[1886] Some persons have added to these varieties the rose -of Miletus,[1887] the flower of which is an extremely brilliant red, -and has never more than a dozen petals. The next to it is the rose of -Trachyn,[1888] not so red as the last, and then that of Alabanda,[1889] -with whitish petals, but not so highly esteemed. The least esteemed -of all, however, is the thorn rose,[1890] the petals of which are -numerous, but extremely small. The essential points of difference -in the rose are the number[1891] of the petals, the comparative -number[1892] of thorns on the stem, the colour, and the smell. The -number of the petals, which is never less than five, goes on increasing -in amount, till we find one variety with as many as a hundred, and -thence known as the “centifolia:”[1893] in Italy, it is to be found in -Campania, and in Greece, in the vicinity of Philippi, though this last -is not the place of its natural[1894] growth. Mount Pangæeus,[1895] in -the same vicinity, produces a rose with numerous petals of diminutive -size: the people of those parts are in the habit of transplanting it, a -method which greatly tends to improve its growth. This kind, however, -is not remarkable for its smell, nor yet is the rose which has a -very large or very broad petal: indeed, we may state in a few words, -that the best proof of the perfume of the flower is the comparative -roughness of the calyx.[1896] - -Cæpio, who lived in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, asserts -that the centifolia is never employed for chaplets, except at the -extreme[1897] points of union as it were, being remarkable neither for -its smell[1898] nor its beauty. There is another variety of rose, -too, called the “Grecian” rose by our people, and “lychnis”[1899] by -the Greeks: it grows nowhere except in humid soils, and has never -more than five petals: it does not exceed the violet in size, and is -destitute of smell. There is another kind, again, known to us as the -“Græcula”[1900] the petals of which are tightly rolled together, and -which never open except when pressed in the hand, it having always the -appearance, in fact, of being in bud: the petals of it are remarkably -large. Another kind, again, springs from a stem like that of the -mallow, the leaves being similar to those of the olive—the name given -to it is “macetum.”[1901] There is the rose of autumn, too, known to -us as the “coroniola,”[1902] which is of a middle size, between the -varieties just mentioned. All these kinds, however, are destitute of -smell, with the exception of the coroniola, and the one which grows -on the bramble:[1903] so extended is the scope for fictitious[1904] -productions! - -And, indeed, the genuine rose, for the most part, is indebted for its -qualities to the nature of the soil. That of Cyrenæ[1905] is the most -odoriferous of all, and hence it is that the unguents of that place are -so remarkably fine: at Carthage, again, in Spain, there are early[1906] -roses throughout all the winter. The temperature, too, of the climate -is not without its influence: for in some years we find the roses much -less odoriferous than in others; in addition to which, their smell -is always more powerful when grown in dry soils[1907] than in humid -ones. The rose does not admit of being planted in either a rich or an -argillaceous soil, nor yet on irrigated land; being contented with a -thin, light earth, and more particularly attached to ground on which -old building rubbish has been laid. - -The rose of Campania is early, that of Miletus late, but it is the rose -of Præneste that goes off the very latest of all. For the rose, the -ground is generally dug to a greater depth than it is for corn, but not -so deep as for the vine. It grows but very slowly[1908] from the seed, -which is found in the calyx beneath the petals of the flower, covered -with a sort of down; hence it is that the method of grafting is usually -the one preferred, or else propagation from the eyes of the root, as in -the reed.[1909] One kind is grafted, which bears a pale flower, with -thorny branches of a remarkable length; it belongs to the quinquefolia -variety, being one of the Greek roses.[1910] All roses are improved by -being pruned and cauterized; transplanting, too, makes them grow, like -the vine, all the better, and with the greatest rapidity. The slips are -cut some four fingers in length or more, and are planted immediately -after the setting of the Vergiliæ; then, while the west winds are -prevalent, they are transplanted at intervals of a foot, the earth -being frequently turned up about them. - -Persons whose object it is to grow early roses, make a hole a foot in -width about the root, and pour warm water into it, at the period when -the buds are beginning to put forth.[1911] - - - - -CHAP. 11. (5.)—THE LILY: FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. - - -The lily holds the next highest rank after the rose, and has a certain -affinity[1912] with it in respect of its unguent and the oil extracted -from it, which is known to us as “lirinon.”[1913] Blended, too, with -roses, the lily[1914] produces a remarkably fine effect; for it begins -to make its appearance, in fact, just as the rose is in the very middle -of its season. There is no flower that grows to a greater height than -the lily, sometimes, indeed, as much as three cubits; the head of it -being always drooping, as though the neck of the flower were unable -to support its weight. The whiteness of the lily is quite remarkable, -the petals being striated on the exterior; the flower is narrow at the -base, and gradually expanding in shape like a tapering[1915] cup with -the edges curving outwards, the fine pistils of the flower, and the -stamens with their antheræ of a saffron colour, standing erect in the -middle.[1916] Hence the perfume of the lily, as well as its colour, is -two-fold, there being one for the petals and another for the stamens. -The difference, however, between them is but very small, and when the -flower is employed for making lily unguents and oils, the petals are -never rejected. - -There is a flower, not unlike the lily, produced by the plant known -to us as the “convolvulus.”[1917] It grows among shrubs, is totally -destitute of smell, and has not the yellow antheræ of the lily within: -only vying with it in its whiteness, it would almost appear to be the -rough sketch[1918] made by Nature when she was learning how to make -the lily. The white lily is propagated in all the various ways which -are employed for the cultivation of the rose,[1919] as also by means -of a certain tearlike gum[1920] which belongs to it, similarly to -hipposelinum[1921] in fact: indeed, there is no plant that is more -prolific than this, a single root often giving birth to as many as -fifty bulbs.[1922] There is, also, a red lily, known by the name -of “crinon”[1923] to the Greeks, though there are some authors who -call the flower of it “cynorrodon.”[1924] The most esteemed are -those of Antiochia and Laodicea in Syria, and next to them that of -Phaselis.[1925] To the fourth rank belongs the flower that grows in -Italy. - - - - -CHAP. 12.—THE NARCISSUS: THREE VARIETIES OF IT. - - -There is a purple[1926] lily, too, which sometimes has a double stem; -it differs only from the other lilies in having a more fleshy root and -a bulb of larger size, but undivided:[1927] the name given to it is -“narcissus.”[1928] A second variety of this lily has a white flower, -with a purple corolla. There is also this difference between the -ordinary lily and the narcissus, that in the latter the leaves spring -from the root of the plant. The finest are those which grow on the -mountains of Lycia. A third variety is similar to the others in every -respect, except that the corolla of the plant is green. They are all of -them late[1929] flowers: indeed, they only bloom after the setting of -Arcturus,[1930] and at the time of the autumnal equinox. - - - - -CHAP. 13.—HOW SEED IS STAINED TO PRODUCE TINTED FLOWERS. - - -There has been invented[1931] also a method of tinting the lily, -thanks to the taste of mankind for monstrous productions. The dried -stalks[1932] of the lily are tied together in the month of July, and -hung up in the smoke: then, in the following March, when the small -knots[1933] are beginning to disclose themselves, the stalks are left -to steep in the lees of black or Greek wine, in order that they may -contract its colour, and are then planted out in small trenches, some -semi-sextarii of wine-lees being poured around them. By this method -purple lilies are obtained, it being a very remarkable thing that we -should be able to dye a plant to such a degree as to make it produce a -coloured flower. - - - - -CHAP. 14. (6.)—HOW THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF THE VIOLET ARE RESPECTIVELY -PRODUCED, GROWN, AND CULTIVATED. THE THREE DIFFERENT COLOURS OF THE -VIOLET. THE FIVE VARIETIES OF THE YELLOW VIOLET. - - -Next after the roses and the lilies, the violet is held in the highest -esteem: of this there are several varieties, the purple,[1934] the -yellow, and the white, all of them reproduced from plants, like the -cabbage. The purple violet, which springs up spontaneously in sunny -spots, with a thin, meagre soil, has larger petals than the others, -springing immediately from the root, which is of a fleshy substance. -This violet has a name, too, distinct from the other wild kinds, being -called “ion,”[1935] and from it the ianthine[1936] cloth takes its name. - -Among the cultivated kinds, the yellow[1937] violet is held in -the greatest esteem. The Tusculan violet, and that known as the -“marine”[1938] violet, have petals somewhat broader than the others, -but not so odoriferous; the Calatian[1939] violet, too, which has a -smaller leaf, is entirely destitute of smell. This last is a present to -us from the autumn, the others from the spring. - - - - -CHAP. 15.—THE CALTHA. THE SCOPA REGIA. - - -Next to it comes the caltha, the flowers of which are of similar colour -and size;[1940] in the number of its petals, however, it surpasses the -marine violet, the petals of which are never more than five in number. -The marine violet is surpassed, too, by the other in smell; that of the -caltha being very powerful. The smell, too, is no less powerful in the -plant known as the “scopa regia;”[1941] but there it is the leaves of -the plant, and not the flowers, that are odoriferous. - - - - -CHAP. 16.—THE BACCHAR. THE COMBRETUM. ASARUM. - - -The bacchar,[1942] too, by some persons known as “field nard,” is -odoriferous in the root only. In former times, it was the practice to -make unguents of this root, as we learn from the poet Aristophanes, a -writer of the Ancient Comedy; from which circumstance some persons have -erroneously given the name of “exotic”[1943] to the plant. The smell of -it strongly resembles that of cinnamomum; and the plant grows in thin -soils, which are free from all humidity. - -The name of “combretum”[1944] is given to a plant that bears a very -strong resemblance to it, the leaves of which taper to the fineness of -threads; in height, however, it is taller than the bacchar. These are -the only[1945] * * * * The error, however, ought to be corrected, on -the part of those who have bestowed upon the bacchar the name of “field -nard;” for that in reality is the surname given to another plant, known -to the Greeks as “asaron,” the description and features of which we -have already[1946] mentioned, when speaking of the different varieties -of nard. I find, too, that the name of “asaron” has been given to this -plant, from the circumstance of its never[1947] being employed in the -composition of chaplets. - - - - -CHAP. 17.—SAFFRON: IN WHAT PLACES IT GROWS BEST. WHAT FLOWERS WERE -KNOWN AT THE TIME OF THE TROJAN WAR. - - -The wild saffron[1948] is the best; indeed, in Italy it is of no use -whatever to attempt to propagate it, the produce of a whole bed of -saffron being boiled down to a single scruple; it is reproduced by -offsets from the bulb. The cultivated saffron is larger, finer, and -better looking than the other kinds, but has much less efficacy. This -plant is everywhere degenerating,[1949] and is far from prolific at -Cyrenæ even, a place where the flowers are always of the very finest -quality. The most esteemed saffron, however, is that of Cilicia, and -there of Mount Corycus in particular; next comes the saffron of Mount -Olympus, in Lycia, and then of Centuripa, in Sicily; some persons, -however, have given the second rank to the Phlegræan[1950] saffron. - -There is nothing so much adulterated[1951] as saffron: the best proof -of its goodness is when it snaps under pressure by the fingers, as -though it were friable;[1952] for when it is moist, a state which it -owes to being adulterated, it is limp, and will not snap asunder. -Another way of testing it, again, is to apply it with the hand to -the face, upon which, if good, it will be found to be slightly -caustic to the face and eyes. There is a peculiar kind, too, of -cultivated saffron, which is in general extremely mild, being only of -middling[1953] quality; the name given to it is “dialeucon.”[1954] The -saffron of Cyrenaica, again, is faulty in the opposite extreme; for it -is darker than any other kind, and is apt to spoil very quickly. The -best saffron everywhere is that which is of the most unctuous quality, -and the filaments of which are the shortest; the worst being that which -emits a musty smell. - -Mucianus informs us that in Lycia, at the end of seven or eight years, -the saffron is transplanted into a piece of ground which has been -prepared for the purpose, and that in this way it is prevented from -degenerating. It is never[1955] used for chaplets, being a plant with -an extremely narrow leaf, as fine almost as a hair; but it combines -remarkably well with wine, sweet wine in particular. Reduced to a -powder, it is used to perfume[1956] the theatres. - -Saffron blossoms about the setting of the Vergiliæ, for a few -days[1957] only, the leaf expelling the flower. It is verdant[1958] at -the time of the winter solstice, and then it is that they gather it; -it is usually dried in the shade, and if in winter, all the better. -The root of this plant is fleshy, and more long-lived[1959] than that -of the other bulbous plants. It loves to be beaten and trodden[1960] -under foot, and in fact, the worse it is treated the better it thrives: -hence it is, that it grows so vigorously by the side of foot-paths and -fountains. (7.) Saffron was already held in high esteem in the time of -the Trojan War; at all events, Homer,[1961] we find, makes mention of -these three flowers, the lotus,[1962] the saffron, and the hyacinth. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—THE NATURE OF ODOURS. - - -All the odoriferous[1963] substances, and consequently the plants, -differ from one another in their colour, smell, and juices. It is but -rarely[1964] that the taste of an odoriferous substance is not bitter; -while sweet substances, on the other hand, are but rarely odoriferous. -Thus it is, too, that wine is more odoriferous than must, and all the -wild plants more so than the cultivated ones.[1965] Some flowers have -a sweet smell at a distance, the edge of which is taken off when they -come nearer; such is the case with the violet, for instance. The rose, -when fresh gathered, has a more powerful smell at a distance, and -dried,[1966] when brought nearer. All plants have a more penetrating -odour, also, in spring[1967] and in the morning; as the hour of midday -approaches, the scent becomes gradually weakened.[1968] The flowers, -too, of young plants are less odoriferous than those of old ones; but -it is at mid-age[1969] that the odour is most penetrating in them all. - -The rose and the crocus[1970] have a more powerful smell when gathered -in fine weather, and all plants are more powerfully scented in hot -climates than in cold ones. In Egypt, however, the flowers are far -from odoriferous, owing to the dews and exhalations with which the air -is charged, in consequence of the extended surface of the river. Some -plants have an agreeable, though at the same time extremely powerful -smell; some, again, while green, have no[1971] smell at all, owing to -the excess of moisture, the buceros for example, which is the same as -fenugreek.[1972] Not all flowers which have a penetrating odour are -destitute of juices, the violet, the rose, and the crocus, for example; -those, on the other hand, which have a penetrating odour, but are -destitute of juices, have all of them a very powerful smell, as we find -the case with the two varieties[1973] of the lily. The abrotonum[1974] -and the amaracus[1975] have a pungent smell. In some plants, it is the -flower only that is sweet, the other parts being inodorous, the violet -and the rose, for example. - -Among the garden plants, the most odoriferous are the dry ones, such -as rue, mint, and parsley, as also those which grow on dry soils. Some -fruits become more odoriferous the older they are, the quince, for -example, which has also a stronger smell when gathered than while upon -the tree. Some plants, again, have no smell but when broken asunder, -or when bruised, and others only when they are stripped of their bark. -Certain vegetable substances, too, only give out a smell when subjected -to the action of fire, such as frankincense and myrrh, for example. -All flowers are more bitter to the taste when bruised than when left -untouched.[1976] Some plants preserve their smell a longer time when -dried, the melilote, for example; others, again, make the place itself -more odoriferous where they grow, the iris[1977] for instance, which -will even render the whole of a tree odoriferous, the roots of which -it may happen to have touched. The hesperis[1978] has a more powerful -odour at night, a property to which it owes its name. - -Among the animals, we find none that are odoriferous, unless, -indeed, we are inclined to put faith in what has been said about the -panther.[1979] - - - - -CHAP. 19.—THE IRIS. - - -There is still another distinction, which ought not to be omitted,—the -fact, that many of the odoriferous plants never[1980] enter into the -composition of garlands, the iris[1981] and the saliunca, for example, -although, both of them, of a most exquisite odour. In the iris, it -is the root[1982] only that is held in esteem, it being extensively -employed in perfumery and medicine. The iris of the finest quality is -that found in Illyricum,[1983] and in that country, even, not in the -maritime parts of it, but in the forests on the banks of the river -Drilon[1984] and near Narona. The next best is that of Macedonia,[1985] -the plant being extremely elongated, white, and thin. The iris of -Africa[1986] occupies the third rank, being the largest of them all, -and of an extremely bitter taste. - -The iris of Illyricum comprehends two varieties—one of which is the -raphanitis, so called from its resemblance to the radish,[1987] of -a somewhat red colour, and superior[1988] in quality to the other, -which is known as the “rhizotomus.” The best kind of iris is that -which produces sneezing[1989] when handled. The stem of this plant is -a cubit in length, and erect, the flower being of various colours, -like the rainbow, to which circumstance it is indebted for its name. -The iris, too, of Pisidia[1990] is far from being held in disesteem. -Persons[1991] who intend taking up the iris, drench the ground -about it some three months before with hydromel, as though a sort of -atonement offered to appease the earth; with the point of a sword, too, -they trace three circles round it, and the moment they gather it, they -lift it up towards the heavens. - -The iris is a plant of a caustic nature, and when handled, it causes -blisters like burns to rise. It is a point particularly recommended, -that those who gather it should be in a state of chastity. The root, -not only when dried,[1992] but while still in the ground, is very -quickly attacked by worms. In former times, it was Leucas and Elis that -supplied us with the best oil[1993] of iris, for there it has long been -cultivated; at the present day, however, the best comes from Pamphylia, -though that of Cilicia and the northern climates is held in high esteem. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—THE SALIUNCA. - - -The saliunca[1994] has a rather short leaf, which does not admit of its -being plaited for garlands, and numerous roots, by which it is held -together; being more of a herb than a flower, and so closely matted -and tangled that it would almost appear to have been pressed together -with the hand—in short, it is a turf[1995] of a peculiar nature. This -plant grows in Pannonia and the sunny regions of Noricum and the Alps, -as also the vicinity of the city of Eporedia;[1996] the smell being -so remarkably sweet that the crops of it have been of late quite as -profitable as the working of a mine. This plant is particularly valued -for the pleasant smell it imparts to clothes among which it is kept. - - - - -CHAP. 21.—THE POLIUM, OR TEUTHRION. - - -It is the same, too, with the polium,[1997] a herb employed for a -similar purpose among the Greeks, and highly extolled by Musæus and -Hesiod, who assert that it is useful for every purpose, and more -particularly for the acquisition of fame and honour;[1998] indeed, it -is a truly marvellous production, if it is the fact, as they state, -that its leaves are white in the morning, a purple at midday, and -azure[1999] at sunset. There are two varieties of it, the field polium, -which is larger, and the wild,[2000] which is more diminutive. Some -persons give it the name of “teuthrion.”[2001] The leaves resemble the -white hairs of a human being; they take their rise immediately from the -root, and never exceed a palm in height. - - - - -CHAP. 22. (8.)—FABRICS WHICH RIVAL THE COLOURS OF FLOWERS. - - -We have now said enough on the subject of the odoriferous flowers; -in relation to which, luxury not only glories in having vanquished -Nature in the composition of unguents, but has even gone so far -as to challenge, in her fabrics, those flowers which are more -particularly recommended by the beauty of their tints. I remark that -the following are the three principal[2002] colours; the red, that of -the kermes[2003] for instance, which, beginning in the tints of the -rose, reflects, when viewed[2004] sideways and held up to the light, -the shades that are found in the Tyrian purple,[2005] and the colours -of the dibapha[2006] and Laconian cloths: the amethystine colour, which -is borrowed from the violet, and to which, bordering as it does on the -purple, we have given the name of “ianthinum”[2007]—it must, however, -be remembered, that we here give a general name to a colour which is -subdivided into numerous tints[2008]—and a third, properly known as -the “conchyliated” colour, but which comprehends a variety of shades, -such, for instance, as the tints of the heliotropium, and others of a -deeper colour, the hues of the mallow, inclining to a full purple, and -the colours of the late[2009] violet; this last being the most vivid, -in fact, of all the conchyliated tints. The rival colours being now set -side by side, Nature and luxury may enter the lists, to vie for the -mastery. - -I find it stated that, in the most ancient times, yellow was held -in the highest esteem, but was reserved exclusively for the nuptial -veils[2010] of females; for which reason it is perhaps that we do not -find it included among the principal colours, those being used in -common by males and females: indeed, it is the circumstance of their -being used by both sexes in common that gives them their rank as -principal colours. - - - - -CHAP. 23.—THE AMARANTH. - - -There is no doubt that all the efforts of art are surpassed by -the amaranth,[2011] which is, to speak correctly, rather a purple -ear[2012] than a flower, and, at the same time, quite inodorous. It is -a marvellous feature in this plant, that it takes a delight in being -gathered; indeed, the more it is plucked, the better it grows. It comes -into flower in the month of August, and lasts throughout the autumn. -The finest of all is the amaranth of Alexandria, which is generally -gathered for keeping; for it is a really marvellous[2013] fact, that -when all the other flowers have gone out, the amaranth, upon being -dipped in water, comes to life again: it is used also for making -winter chaplets. The peculiar quality of the amaranth is sufficiently -indicated by its name, it having been so called from the circumstance -that it never fades.[2014] - - - - -CHAP. 24.—THE CYANOS: THE HOLOCHRYSOS. - - -The name,[2015] too, of the cyanos[2016] indicates its colour, and -so does that of the holochrysos.[2017] None of these flowers were in -use in the time of Alexander the Great, for the authors, we find, who -flourished at a period immediately after his decease, have made not the -slightest mention of them; from which circumstance it is very clear -that they only came into fashion at a later period. Still, however, -who can entertain any doubt that they were first introduced by the -Greeks, from the fact that Italy has only their Greek names by which to -designate them? - - - - -CHAP. 25.—THE PETILIUM: THE BELLIO. - - -But, by Hercules! it is Italy herself that has given its name to the -petilium,[2018] an autumnal flower, which springs up in the vicinity -of thorny brakes, and recommends itself solely by its colour, which is -that of the wild rose. The petals of it are small, and five in number; -and it is a remarkable circumstance in this plant, that the head of it -droops at first, and it is only after it becomes erect that the petals -make their appearance, forming a small corolla of various colours, -enclosing a yellow seed. - -The bellio,[2019] too, is a yellow flower, formed of[2020] fifty-five -filaments circularly arranged, in the shape of a chaplet. These are, -both of them, meadow flowers, which are mostly of no use whatever, and -consequently without names: even the flowers just mentioned are known -sometimes by one name, and sometimes by another. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—THE CHRYSOCOME, OR CHRYSITIS. - - -The chrysocome,[2021] or chrysitis, has no Latin appellation: it is a -palm in height, the flowers forming clusters of a golden colour. The -root of it is black, and it has a taste both rough and sweet: it is -found growing in stony and umbrageous spots. - - - - -CHAP. 27. (9.)—SHRUBS, THE BLOSSOMS OF WHICH ARE USED FOR CHAPLETS. - - -Having thus passed in review nearly all the best-known colours, we must -now give our attention to the chaplets which are pleasing merely on -account of the variety of their materials. Of such chaplets there are -two kinds, one composed of flowers, the other of leaves. The flowers -so employed, I may say, are those of broom[2022]—the yellow blossom -gathered from it—the rhododendron,[2023] and the jujube,[2024] also -known as the tree of Cappadocia, which bears an odoriferous flower -similar to that of the olive. Among the brambles, too, we find the -cyclaminum growing, of which we shall have to speak more at length on -a future occasion:[2025] its flower, which reflects the hues of the -purple of Colossæ,[2026] is used as an ingredient in chaplets. - - - - -CHAP. 28.—SHRUBS, THE LEAVES OF WHICH ARE USED FOR CHAPLETS. - - -The leaves, also, of smilax and ivy are employed in chaplets; indeed, -the clusters of these plants are held in the very highest esteem for -this purpose: we have already[2027] spoken of them at sufficient length -when treating of the shrubs. There are also other kinds of shrubs, -which can only be indicated by their Greek names, little attention -having been paid by the framers of our language to this branch of -nomenclature. Most of them grow in foreign countries, it is true; but -still, it is our duty to make some mention of them, as it is of Nature -in general that we are speaking, and not of Italy in particular. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—THE MELOTHRON, SPIRÆA, AND ORIGANUM. THE CNEORUM OR CASSIA; -TWO VARIETIES OF IT. THE MELISSOPHYLLUM OR MELITTÆNA. THE MELILOTE, -OTHERWISE KNOWN AS CAMPANIAN GARLAND. - - -Thus it is, that we find employed for chaplets, the leaves of the -melothron,[2028] spiræa,[2029] origanum,[2030] cneorum,[2031] by -Hyginus called “cassia,” conyza or cunilago,[2032] melissophyllon -or apiastrum,[2033] and melilote, known to us by the name of -“Campanian[2034] garland,” the best kind of melilote[2035] in Italy -being that of Campania, in Greece that of Cape Sunium, and next to -that the produce of Chalcidice and Crete: but wherever this plant -grows it is only to be found in rugged and wild localities. The name -“sertula” or “garland,” which it bears, sufficiently proves that this -plant was formerly much used in the composition of chaplets. The smell, -as well as the flower, closely resembles that of saffron, though the -stem itself is white; the shorter and more fleshy the leaves, the more -highly it is esteemed. - - - - -CHAP. 30.—THREE VARIETIES OF TREFOIL: THE MYOPHONUM. - - -The leaves of trefoil also are employed for making chaplets. There -are three varieties: the first being called by the Greeks sometimes -“minyanthes,”[2036] and sometimes “asphaltion;” the leaves of it, -which the garland-makers employ, are larger than those of the other -kinds. The second variety, known as the “oxytriphyllon,”[2037] has -a pointed leaf; and the third has the smallest leaf of them all. -Among these plants there are some which have a tough, sinewy stem, -such as marathron,[2038] for instance, hippomarathron,[2039] and the -myophonum.[2040] The umbels, too, of fennel-giant and the purple -flowers[2041] of the ivy are employed for this purpose; as also another -kind of ivy very similar to the wild rose,[2042] the colour only of -which is attractive, the flower being quite inodorous. There are also -two[2043] varieties used of the cneorum, the black and the white, this -last being odoriferous: they are both of them provided with branches, -and they blossom after the autumnal equinox.[2044] - -(10.) There are the same number of varieties, also, of origanum -employed in making chaplets, one of which is destitute of seed, the -other, which is also odoriferous, being known as the Cretan[2045] -origanum. - - - - -CHAP. 31.—TWO VARIETIES OF THYME. PLANTS PRODUCED FROM BLOSSOMS AND NOT -FROM SEED. - - -There are also as many varieties of thyme[2046] employed, the one -white, the other dark:[2047] it flowers about the summer solstice, when -the bees cull from it. From this plant a sort of augury is derived, -as to how the honey is likely to turn out: for the bee-keepers have -reason to look for a large crop when the thyme blossoms in considerable -abundance. Thyme receives great injury from showers of rain, and is -very apt to shed its blossom. The seed of thyme is so minute[2048] as -to be imperceptible, and yet that of origanum, which is also extremely -minute, does not escape the sight. But what matters it that Nature has -thus concealed it from our view? For we have reason to conclude that -it exists in the flower itself; which, when sown in the ground, gives -birth to the plant—what is there, in fact, that the industry of man has -left untried? - -The honey of Attica is generally looked upon as the best in all the -world; for which reason it is that the thyme of that country has been -transplanted, being reproduced, as already stated, with the greatest -difficulty, from the blossom. But there is also another peculiarity -in the nature of the thyme of Attica, which has greatly tended to -frustrate these attempts—it will never live except in the vicinity -of breezes from the sea. In former times, it was the general belief -that this is the case with all kinds of thyme, and that this is the -reason why it does not grow in Arcadia:[2049] at a period when it was -universally supposed, too, that the olive never grows beyond three -hundred stadia[2050] from the sea. But, at the present day, we know -for certain that in the province of Gallia Narbonensis the Stony -Plains[2051] are quite overgrown with thyme; this being, in fact, the -only source of revenue to those parts, thousands of sheep[2052] being -brought thither from distant countries to browse upon the plant. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—CONYZA. - - -There are two varieties of conyza, also, employed in making chaplets, -the male[2053] plant and the female. The difference consists in the -leaves, those of the female plant being thinner, more tapering, and -narrower, and those of the male being of an imbricated shape, the plant -having a greater number of branches. The blossom, too, of the male -plant is more vivid than that of the female: in both kinds it is late -in making its appearance, not till after the rising of Arcturus. - -The smell of the male conyza is more powerful than that of the female -plant: the latter, however, is of a more penetrating nature, for which -reason it is that the female plant is held in higher esteem for the -treatment of the bites of animals. The leaves of the female plant have -exactly the smell of honey; and the root of the male has received the -name of “libanotis” from some: we have already made mention[2054] of it -on a previous occasion. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—THE FLOWER OF JOVE. THE HEMEROCALLES. THE HELENIUM. THE -PHLOX. PLANTS IN WHICH THE BRANCHES AND ROOTS ARE ODORIFEROUS. - - -Of the following plants, too, it is only the leaves that are -employed for chaplets—the flower of Jove,[2055] the amaracus, -the hemerocalles,[2056] the abrotonum, the helenium,[2057] -sisymbrium,[2058] and wild thyme, all of them ligneous plants, growing -in a manner similar to the rose. The flower of Jove is pleasing only -for its colours, being quite inodorous; which is the case also with the -plant known by the Greek name of “phlox.”[2059] All the plants, too, -which we have just mentioned are odoriferous, both in the branches and -the leaves, with the sole exception of wild thyme.[2060] The helenium -is said to have had its origin in the tears of Helen, and hence it -is that the kind grown in the island of Helena[2061] is so highly -esteemed. It is a shrub which throws out its tiny branches along the -ground, some nine inches in length, with a leaf very similar to that of -wild thyme. - - - - -CHAP. 34.—THE ABROTONUM. THE ADONIUM: TWO VARIETIES OF IT. PLANTS WHICH -REPRODUCE THEMSELVES. THE LEUCANTHEMUM. - - -The flower of the abrotonum,[2062] which makes its appearance in -summer, has a powerful but agreeable smell; it is of a bright golden -colour. Left to range at large, it reproduces itself by layers from the -tops of the branches: but when it is propagated by the hand of man, -it is better to grow it from the seed than from the roots or slips, -though even from the seed it is not grown without considerable trouble. -The young plants are transplanted in summer, which is the case also -with the adonium.[2063] They are both of them plants of a very chilly -nature, though, at the same time, they are apt to receive injury if too -much exposed to the sun: when, however, they have gained sufficient -strength, they throw out branches like those of rue. - -The leucanthemum[2064] has a similar smell to that of the abrotonum: it -is a foliated plant, with a white flower. - - - - -CHAP. 35. (11.)—TWO VARIETIES OF THE AMARACUS. - - -Diocles, the physician, and the people of Sicily have given the name of -“amaracus” to the plant known in Egypt and Syria as sampsuchum.[2065] -It is reproduced two ways, from seed and from cuttings, being more -long-lived than the preceding plants, and possessed of a more agreeable -smell. The amaracus, like the abrotonum, has a great abundance of seed, -but while the abrotonum has a single root, which penetrates deep into -the ground, those of the other plant adhere but lightly to the surface -of the earth. Those of the other plants which love the shade, water, -and manure, are generally set at the beginning of autumn, and even, in -some localities, in spring. - - - - -CHAP. 36.—THE NYCTEGRETON, CHENOMYCHE, OR NYCTALOPS. - - -Democritus has regarded the nyctegreton[2066] as one of the most -singular of plants. According to that author, it is of a dark red -colour, has leaves like those of a thorn, and creeps upon the ground. -He says that it grows in Gedrosia[2067] more particularly, and that -it is taken up by the roots immediately after the vernal equinox, -and dried in the moonlight for thirty days; after which preparation -it emits light by night. He states also, that the Magi and the kings -of Parthia employ this plant in their ceremonies when they make a -vow to perform an undertaking; that another name given to it is -“chenomyche,”[2068] from the circumstance that, at the very sight of -it, geese will manifest the greatest alarm; and that by some persons, -again, it is known as the “nyctalops,”[2069] from the light which it -emits at a considerable distance by night. - - - - -CHAP. 37.—WHERE THE MELILOTE IS FOUND. - - -The melilote[2070] is found growing everywhere, though that of Attica -is held in the highest esteem. In all countries, however, it is -preferred when fresh gathered; that too, the colour of which is not -white, but approaches as nearly as possible to the colour of saffron. -In Italy, however, it is the white kind that is the most odoriferous. - - - - -CHAP. 38.—THE SUCCESSION IN WHICH FLOWERS BLOSSOM: THE SPRING FLOWERS. -THE VIOLET. THE CHAPLET ANEMONE. THE ŒNANTHE. THE MELANION. THE -HELICHRYSOS. THE GLADIOLUS. THE HYACINTH. - - -The first of the flowers that announce the approach of spring is the -white[2071] violet; indeed, in warm localities, it is seen peeping out -in the winter even. Next to it comes the violet known as the ion, and -the purple violet; then the flame-coloured flower, the name of which is -phlox,[2072] but only the wild one. The cyclaminum[2073] blossoms twice -a year, in spring and autumn, standing equally in awe as it does of -summer and of winter. The narcissus and the lily, in the parts beyond -sea, are a little later than the preceding plants: but in Italy, as -we have already[2074] stated, they are in blossom with the rose. In -Greece, too, the anemone[2075] blooms even later; it is the flower of -a wild bulb, and is altogether different from the one[2076] which we -shall have occasion to mention among the medicinal plants. - -Next, after these, come the œnanthe,[2077] the melanion,[2078] -and, among the wild plants, the helichrysos;[2079] then, another -kind of anemone, known as the “limonia,”[2080] and after that the -gladiolus,[2081] accompanied by the hyacinth. Last of all, among the -spring flowers, is the rose, which, with the exception indeed of the -cultivated kinds, is also the first to fade. Among the others, the -flowers which last the longest, are the hyacinth, the white violet, -and the œnanthe; but to make this last keep any time in flower, it is -necessary to gather it repeatedly, to prevent it from running to seed. -The œnanthe grows in warm localities, and has exactly the smell of the -vine when in blossom, to which circumstance it is indebted for its name. - -There are two fabulous stories attached to the hyacinth;[2082] -according to one of them, it bears the impress of the grief[2083] which -Apollo felt for the youth[2084] whom he had so tenderly loved; and we -learn from the other, that it derives its name from the blood[2085] of -Ajax, the veins being so arranged in the flower as to form the Greek -letters ΑΙ inscribed upon it. - -The helichrysos has a flower resembling gold in appearance, a small -leaf, and a fine, slender, but hard, stem. According to the Magi, the -person who crowns himself with a chaplet composed of this flower, and -takes his unguents from a box of gold, of the kind generally known -as “apyron,”[2086] will be sure to secure esteem and glory among his -fellowmen. Such are the flowers of spring. - - - - -CHAP. 39.—THE SUMMER FLOWERS—THE LYCHNIS: THE TIPHYON. TWO VARIETIES -OF THE POTHOS. TWO VARIETIES OF THE ORSINUM. THE VINCAPERVINCA OR -CHAMÆDAPHNE—A PLANT WHICH IS AN EVER-GREEN. - - -The summer flowers come next, the lychnis[2087] the flower of Jove, -and another kind of lily,[2088] as also the tiphyon[2089] and the -amaracus, surnamed that of Phrygia. Put the most remarkable flower of -all is the pothos,[2090] of which there are two varieties, one with the -flower of the hyacinth,[2091] and another with a white flower, which is -generally found growing about graves, and is better able to stand bad -weather. The iris,[2092] also, blossoms in summer. All these flowers -pass away, however, and fade; upon which others assume their places -in autumn, a third kind of lily,[2093] for instance, saffron, and two -varieties of the orsinum[2094]—one of them inodorous and the other -scented—making their appearance, all of them, as soon as the first -autumnal showers fall. - -The garland-makers employ the flowers of the thorn[2095] even for -making chaplets; the tender shoots, too, of the white thorn are -sometimes preserved as a choice morsel[2096] to tempt the palate. - -Such is the succession of the summer flowers in the parts beyond sea: -in Italy, the violet is succeeded by the rose, the lily comes on while -the rose is still in flower, the cyanus[2097] succeeds the rose, and -the amaranth the cyanus. As to the vincapervinca,[2098] it is an -evergreen, the branches from which run out like so many strings, the -leaves surrounding the stem at each of the knots: though more generally -used for the purposes of ornamental gardening, it is sometimes employed -in chaplets when there is a deficiency of other flowers. From the -Greeks this plant has received the name of “chamædaphne.” - - - - -CHAP. 40.—THE DURATION OF LIFE IN THE VARIOUS KINDS OF FLOWERS. - - -At the very utmost, the white[2099] violet never lasts longer than -three years: should it exceed that period, it is sure to degenerate. -The rose-tree will last so long as five years without being pruned or -cauterized,[2100] methods by which it is made to grow young again. -We have already stated[2101] that the nature of the soil is of the -very greatest importance; for in Egypt, we find, all these plants are -perfectly inodorous, and it is only the myrtle that has any particular -smell. In some countries, too, the germination of all the plants -precedes that in other parts of the world by so long a period as two -months even. The rose-beds should be well spaded immediately after -the west winds begin to prevail, and, a second time, at the summer -solstice: every care, however, should be paid, between these two -periods, to keeping the ground well raked and cleaned. - - - - -CHAP. 41. (12.)—PLANTS WHICH SHOULD BE SOWN AMONG FLOWERS FOR BEES. THE -CERINTHA. - - -Bees and beehives, too, are a subject extremely well suited to a -description of gardens and garland plants, while, at the same time, -where they are successfully managed, they are a source, without -any great outlay, of very considerable profit. For bees, then, the -following plants should be grown—thyme, apiastrum, the rose, the -various violets, the lily, the cytisus, the bean, the fitch, cunila, -the poppy, conyza,[2102] cassia, the melilote, melissophyllum,[2103] -and the cerintha.[2104] This last is a plant with a white leaf, bent -inwards, the stem of it being a cubit in height, with a flower at -the top presenting a concavity full of a juice like honey. Bees are -remarkably fond of the flowers of these plants, as also the blossoms -of mustard, a thing that is somewhat surprising, seeing that it is a -well-known fact that they will not so much as touch the blossoms of -the olive: for which reason, it will be as well to keep that tree at a -distance from them.[2105] - -There are other trees, again, which should be planted as near the hives -as possible, as they attract the swarm when it first wings its flight, -and so prevent the bees from wandering to any considerable distance. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—THE MALADIES OF BEES, AND THE REMEDIES FOR THEM. - - -The greatest care, too, should be taken to keep the cornel[2106] at -a distance from the hives; for if the bees once taste the blossoms -of it, they will speedily die of flux and looseness. The best remedy -in such case is to give them sorb apples beaten up with honey, or -else human urine or that of oxen, or pomegranate seeds moistened with -Aminean[2107] wine. It is a very good plan, too, to plant broom about -the hives, the bees being extremely fond of the blossoms. - - - - -CHAP. 43.—THE FOOD OF BEES. - - -In relation to the food of bees, I have ascertained a very singular -fact, and one that well deserves to be mentioned. There is a village, -called Hostilia, on the banks of the river Padus: the inhabitants of -it, when food[2108] fails the bees in their vicinity, place the hives -in boats and convey them some five miles up the river in the night. In -the morning the bees go forth to feed, and then return to the boats; -their locality being changed from day to day, until at last, as the -boats sink deeper and deeper in the water, it is ascertained that -the hives are full, upon which they are taken home, and the honey is -withdrawn. - -(13.) In Spain, too, for the same purpose, they have the hives carried -from place to place on the backs of mules. - - - - -CHAP. 44.—POISONED HONEY, AND THE REMEDIES TO BE EMPLOYED BY THOSE WHO -HAVE EATEN OF IT. - - -Indeed, the food of bees is of the very greatest importance, as -it is owing to this that we meet with poisonous[2109] honey even. -At Heraclia[2110] in Pontus, the honey is extremely pernicious in -certain years, though it is the same bees that make it at other times. -Authors, however, have not informed us from what flowers this honey is -extracted; we shall, therefore, take this opportunity of stating what -we have ascertained upon the subject. - -There is a certain plant which, from the circumstance that it proves -fatal to beasts of burden, and to goats in particular, has obtained -the name of “ægolethron,”[2111] and the blossoms of which, steeped -in the rains of a wet spring, contract most noxious properties. Hence -it is that it is not every year that these dangerous results are -experienced. The following are the signs of the honey being[2112] -poisonous: it never thickens, the colour is redder than usual, and it -emits a peculiar smell which immediately produces sneezing; while, -at the same time, it is more weighty than a similar quantity of good -honey. Persons, when they have eaten of it, throw themselves on the -ground to cool the body, which is bathed with a profuse perspiration. -There are numerous remedies, of which we shall have occasion to speak -in a more appropriate place;[2113] but as it will be as well to mention -some of them on the present occasion, by way of being provided for such -insidious accidents, I will here state that old honied wine is good, -mixed with the finest honey and rue; salt meats, also, taken repeatedly -in small quantities, and as often brought up again. - -It is a well-known fact that dogs, after tasting the excretions of -persons suffering from these attacks, have been attacked with similar -symptoms, and have experienced the same kind of pains. - -Still, however, it is equally well ascertained, that honied wine -prepared from this honey, when old, is altogether innoxious; and that -there is nothing better than this honey, mixed with costus,[2114] -for softening the skin of females, or, combined with aloes, for the -treatment of bruises. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—MADDENING HONEY. - - -In the country of the Sanni, in the same part of Pontus, there is -another kind of honey, which, from the madness it produces, has -received the name of “mænomenon.”[2115] This evil effect is generally -attributed to the flowers of the rhododendron,[2116] with which the -woods there abound; and that people, though it pays a tribute to -the Romans in wax, derives no profit whatever from its honey, in -consequence of these dangerous properties. In Persis, too, and in -Gætulia, a district of Mauritania Cæsariensis, bordering on the -country of the Massæsyli, there are poisonous honeycombs found; and -some, too, only partly so,[2117] one of the most insidious things that -possibly could happen, were it not that the livid colour of the honey -gives timely notice of its noxious qualities. What can we suppose to -have possibly been the intention of Nature in thus laying these traps -in our way, giving us honey that is poisonous in some years and good -in others, poisonous in some parts of the combs and not in others, and -that, too, the produce in all cases of the self-same bees? It was not -enough, forsooth, to have produced a substance in which poison might -be administered without the slightest difficulty, but must she herself -administer it as well in the honey, to fall in the way of so many -animated beings? What, in fact, can have been her motive, except to -render mankind a little more cautious and somewhat less greedy? - -And has she not provided the very bees, too, with pointed weapons, -and those weapons poisoned to boot? So it is, and I shall, therefore, -without delay, set forth the remedies to counteract the effects of -their stings. It will be found a very excellent plan to foment the part -stung with the juice of mallows[2118] or of ivy leaves, or else for the -person who has been stung to take these juices in drink. It is a very -astonishing thing, however, that the insects which thus carry these -poisons in their mouths and secrete them, should never die themselves -in consequence; unless it is that Nature, that mistress of all things, -has given to bees the same immunity from the effects of poison which -she has granted against the attacks of serpents to the Psylli[2119] and -the Marsi among men. - - - - -CHAP. 46. (14.)—HONEY THAT FLIES WILL NOT TOUCH. - - -Another marvellous fact, again, connected with honey in Crete. Upon -Mount Carina in that island, which is nine miles in circuit, there -is not a fly to be found, and the honey that is made there no fly -will touch.[2120] It is by this circumstance that honey said to have -come from that district is usually tested, it being highly prized for -medicinal preparations. - - - - -CHAP. 47.—BEEHIVES, AND THE ATTENTION WHICH SHOULD BE PAID TO THEM. - - -The hives ought to have an aspect due east,[2121] but never looking -towards the north-east or the west. The best hives are those made of -bark, the next best those of fennel-giant, and the next of osier: many -persons, too, have them made of mirror-stone,[2122] for the purpose of -watching[2123] the bees at work within. It is the best plan to anoint -the hives all over with cow-dung. The lid of the hive should be made -to slide from behind, so as to admit of being shut to within, in case -the hive should prove too large or their labours unproductive; for, if -this is not done, the bees are apt to become discouraged and abandon -their work. The slide may then be gradually withdrawn, the increase -of space being imperceptible to the bees as the work progresses. In -winter, too, the hives should be covered with straw, and subjected -to repeated fumigations, with burnt cow-dung more particularly. As -this is of kindred[2124] origin with the bees, the smoke produced -by it is particularly beneficial in killing all such insects as may -happen to breed there, such as spiders, for instance, moths,[2125] -and wood-worms;[2126] while, at the same time, it stimulates the bees -themselves to increased activity. In fact, there is little difficulty -in getting rid of the spiders, but to destroy the moths, which are a -much greater plague, a night must be chosen in spring, just when the -mallow is ripening, there being no moon, but a clear sky: flambeaux -are then lighted before the hives, upon which the moths precipitate -themselves in swarms into the flame. - - - - -CHAP. 48.—THAT BEES ARE SENSIBLE OF HUNGER. - - -If it is found that the bees are in want of aliment, it will be a good -plan to place at the entrance of the hive raisins or dried figs beaten -up,[2127] as also carded wool soaked in raisin wine, boiled[2128] must, -or hydromel, and sometimes even the raw[2129] flesh of poultry. In -certain summers, too, when long-continued drought has deprived them of -the nutriment which they usually derive from flowers, similar food must -be provided for them. - -When the honey is taken, the outlets of the hive should be well rubbed -with melissophyllum or broom,[2130] beaten up, or else the middle of it -should be encircled with bands of white vine, to prevent the bees from -taking to flight. It is recommended, too, that the honey-pots and combs -should be washed with water: this water, boiled, it is said, will make -an extremely wholesome vinegar.[2131] - - - - -CHAP. 49.—THE METHOD OF PREPARING WAX. THE BEST KINDS OF WAX. PUNIC WAX. - - -Wax is made[2132] from the honeycombs after the honey has been -extracted. For this purpose, they are first cleaned with water, and -then dried three days in the shade: on the fourth day they are melted -on the fire in a new earthen vessel, with sufficient water to cover -them, after which the liquor is strained off in a wicker basket.[2133] -The wax is then boiled again with the same water and in the same pot, -and poured into vessels of cold water, the interior of which has been -well rubbed with honey. The best wax is that known as Punic[2134] wax, -the next best being that of a remarkably yellow colour, with the smell -of honey. This last comes from Pontus, and, to my surprise, it is in -no way affected by the poisonous honey which it has contained.[2135] -The next in quality is the Cretan wax, which contains the largest -proportion of propolis,[2136] a substance of which we have previously -made mention when treating of bees. Next to these varieties comes the -Corsican wax, which, being the produce of the box-tree, is generally -thought to be possessed of certain medicinal properties. - -The Punic wax is prepared in the following manner: yellow wax is first -blanched in the open air, after which it is boiled in water from the -open sea, with the addition of some nitre.[2137] The flower of the wax, -or, in other words, the whitest part of it, is then skimmed off with -spoons, and poured into a vessel containing a little cold water. After -this, it is again boiled in sea-water by itself, which done, the vessel -is left to cool. When this operation has been three times repeated, the -wax is left in the open air upon a mat of rushes, to dry in the light -of the sun and moon; for while the latter adds to its whiteness, the -sun helps to dry[2138] it. In order, however, that it may not melt, -it is the practice to cover it with a linen cloth: if, when it has -been thus refined, it is boiled once more, the result is a wax of the -greatest possible whiteness. - -Punic wax is considered the best for all medicinal preparations. Wax -is made black by the addition of ashes of papyrus, and a red colour is -given to it by the admixture of alkanet; indeed, by the employment of -various pigments, it is made to assume various tints, in which state it -is used for making models,[2139] and for other purposes without number, -among which we may mention varnishing walls[2140] and armour, to -protect them from the air. We have given the other particulars relative -to bees and honey, when speaking[2141] of the nature of those insects. -We have now stated pretty nearly all that we have to say on the subject -of the pleasure garden. - - - - -CHAP. 50. (15.)—PLANTS WHICH GROW SPONTANEOUSLY: THE USE MADE OF THEM -BY VARIOUS NATIONS, THEIR NATURE, AND REMARKABLE FACTS CONNECTED WITH -THEM. THE STRAWBERRY, THE TAMNUS, AND THE BUTCHER’S BROOM. THE BATIS, -TWO VARIETIES OF IT. THE MEADOW PARSNIP. THE HOP. - - -We now come to the plants which grow spontaneously, and which are -employed as an aliment by most nations, the people of Egypt in -particular, where they abound in such vast quantities, that, extremely -prolific as that country is in corn, it is perhaps the only one that -could subsist without it: so abundant are its resources in the various -kinds of food to be obtained from plants. - -In Italy, however, we are acquainted with but very few of them; those -few being the strawberry,[2142] the tamnus,[2143] the butcher’s -broom,[2144] the sea[2145] batis, and the garden batis,[2146] known by -some persons as Gallic asparagus; in addition to which we may mention -the meadow parsnip[2147] and the hop,[2148] which may be rather termed -amusements for the botanist than articles of food. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—THE COLOCASIA. - - -But the plant of this nature that is the most famous in Egypt is the -colocasia,[2149] known as the “cyamos”[2150] to some. It is gathered -in the river Nilus, and the stalk of it, boiled, separates[2151] -into fine filaments when chewed, like those of the spider’s web. The -head,[2152] protruding from among the leaves, is very remarkable; and -the leaves, which are extremely large, even when compared with those -of trees, are very similar to those of the plant found in our rivers, -and known by the name of “personata.”[2153] So much do the people of -that country take advantage of the bounteousness displayed by their -river, that they are in the habit of plaiting[2154] the leaves of the -colocasia with such skill as to make vessels of various shapes, which -they are extremely fond of using for drinking vessels. At the present -day, however, this plant is cultivated in Italy.[2155] - - - - -CHAP. 52.—THE CICHORIUM. THE ANTHALIUM OR ANTICELLIUM, OR ANTHYLLUM. -THE ŒTUM. THE ARACHIDNA. THE ARACOS. THE CANDRYALA. THE HYPOCHŒRIS. THE -CAUCALIS. THE ANTHRISCUM. THE SCANDIX. THE TRAGOPOGON. THE PARTHENIUM -OR LEUCANTHES, AMARACUS, PERDICIUM, OR MURALIS. THE TRYCHNUM OR -STRYCHNUM, HALICACABUM, CALLIAS, DORYCNION, MANICON, PERITTON, NEURAS, -MORIO, OR MOLY. THE CORCHORUS. THE APHACE. THE ACYNOPOS. THE EPIPETRON. -PLANTS WHICH NEVER FLOWER. PLANTS WHICH ARE ALWAYS IN FLOWER. - - -In Egypt, next to the colocasia, it is the cichorium that is held in -the highest esteem, a plant which we have already spoken[2156] of -under the name of wild endive.[2157] It springs up after the rising of -the Vergiliæ, and the various portions of it blossom in succession: -the root is supple, and hence is used for making withes even. The -anthalium[2158] grows at a greater distance[2159] from the river; -the fruit of it is round,[2160] and about the size of a medlar, but -without either kernel or rind; the leaves of the plant are similar -to those of the cyperus. The people there eat the fruit of it cooked -upon the fire, as also of the œtum,[2161] a plant which has a few -leaves only, and those extremely diminutive, though the root is large -in proportion.[2162] The arachidna,[2163] again, and the aracos have -numerous branchy roots, but neither leaves nor any herbaceous parts, -nor, indeed, anything that makes its appearance above ground. - -The other plants that are commonly eaten in Egypt are the -chondrylla,[2164] the hypochœris,[2165] the caucalis,[2166] the -anthriscum,[2167] the scandix, the come, by some persons known as the -tragopogon,[2168] with leaves very similar to those of saffron, the -parthenium,[2169] the trychnum,[2170] and the corchorus;[2171] with -the aphace[2172] and acynopos,[2173] which make their appearance at -the equinox. There is a plant also, called the epipetron,[2174] which -never blossoms;[2175] while the aphace, on the other hand, as its -flowers die, from time to time puts forth fresh ones, and remains[2176] -in blossom throughout the winter and the spring, until the following -summer. - - - - -CHAP. 53.—FOUR VARIETIES OF THE CNECOS. - - -The Egyptians have many other plants also, of little note; but they -speak in the highest terms of the cnecos;[2177] a plant unknown to -Italy, and which the Egyptians hold in esteem, not as an article of -food, but for the oil it produces, and which is extracted from the -seed. The principal varieties are the wild and the cultivated kinds; -of the wild variety, again, there are two sorts, one of which is less -prickly[2178] than the other, but with a similar stem, only more -upright: hence it is that in former times females used it for distaffs, -from which circumstance it has received the name of “atractylis”[2179] -from some; the seed of it is white, large, and bitter. The other -variety[2180] is more prickly, and has a more sinewy stem, which may -be said almost to creep upon the ground; the seed is small. The cnecos -belongs to the thorny plants: indeed, it will be as well to make some -classification of them. - - - - -CHAP. 54.—PLANTS OF A PRICKLY NATURE: THE ERYNGE, THE GLYCYRRIZA, THE -TRIBULUS, THE ANONIS, THE PHEOS OR STŒBE, AND THE HIPPOPHAES. - - -For some plants, in fact, are thorny, while others, again, are -destitute of prickles: the species of thorny plants are very numerous. -The asparagus[2181] and the scorpio[2182] are essentially thorny -plants, having no leaves at all upon them. Some plants, again, that -are prickly have leaves as well, such as the thistle, for instance, the -erynge,[2183] the glycyrriza,[2184] and the nettle;[2185] all these -plants being provided with leaves that prick or sting. - -Some plants have thorns at the base of their leaves, the tribulus[2186] -and the anonis[2187] for instance; others, again, have thorns, not -on the leaves but on the stem, the pheos[2188] for example, known as -the stœbe to some. The hippophaës[2189] has thorns at the joints; the -tribulus presents the peculiarity of bearing a fruit that is thorny. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—FOUR VARIETIES OF THE NETTLE. THE LAMIUM AND THE SCORPIO. - - -But of all these plants, it is the nettle that is the best known -to us, the calyces[2190] of the blossoms of which produce a purple -down: it frequently exceeds two cubits even in height.[2191] There -are numerous varieties of this plant; the wild nettle, known also as -the female nettle, does not inflict so bad a sting as the others. -Among the several varieties of the wild nettle, the one known as the -dog[2192]-nettle, stings the worst, the stem of it even possessing -that property; the leaves of the nettle are indented at the edge. There -is one kind also, which emits a smell, known as the Herculanean[2193] -nettle. The seed of all the nettles is copious, and black. It is -a singular fact that, though possessed of no spinous points, the -down[2194] of the nettle is of a noxious nature, and that, though ever -so lightly touched, it will immediately produce an itching sensation, -and raise a blister on the flesh similar in appearance to a burn: the -well-known remedy for it is olive oil. - -The stinging property of the nettle does not belong to the plant at -the earliest period of its growth, but only developes itself under the -influence of the sun. The plant first begins to grow in the spring, at -which period it is by no means a disagreeable food;[2195] indeed, it -has become quite a religious observance to employ it as such, under -the impression that it is a preventive from diseases the whole year -through. The root, too, of the wild nettle, has the effect of rendering -all meat more tender that is boiled with it.[2196] The kind that is -innoxious and destitute of all stinging properties, is known as the -“lamium.”[2197] Of the scorpio[2198] we shall have occasion to speak -when treating of the medicinal plants. - - - - -CHAP. 56. (16).—THE CARDUUS, THE ACORNA, THE PHONOS, THE LEUCACANTHOS, -THE CHALCEOS, THE CNECOS, THE POLYACANTHOS, THE ONOPYXOS, THE HELXINE, -THE SCOLYMOS, THE CHAMÆLEON, THE TETRALIX, AND ACANTHICE MASTICHE. - - -The carduus[2199] has leaves and a stem covered with a prickly -down; the same is the case, too, with the acorna,[2200] the -leucacanthos,[2201] the chalceos,[2202] the cnecos,[2203] the -polyacanthos,[2204] the onopyxos,[2205] the helxine,[2206] and the -scolymos;[2207] the chamæleon,[2208] however, has no prickles upon the -leaves. There is, however, this difference among these plants, that -some of them have numerous stems and branches, such as the carduus, for -instance; while others, again, have a single stem and no branches, the -cnecos, for example. Some, again, such as the erynge,[2209] are prickly -at the head only; and some blossom in the summer, the tetralix and -the helxine, for instance. The scolymos blossoms late, and remains a -considerable period in flower: the acorna being distinguished only for -its red colour and its unctuous juice. The atractylis would be similar -in every respect to the last, were it not that it is somewhat whiter, -and produces a juice the colour of blood, a circumstance to which it -owes the name of “phonos,”[2210] given to it by some. The smell of -this plant is powerful, and the seed only ripens at a late period, and -never before autumn, although the same may be said of all the prickly -plants, in fact. All of them are capable, however, of being reproduced -from either seed or root. - -The scolymos, which belongs to the thistle[2211] genus, differs from -the rest of them in the circumstance that the root of it is boiled -and eaten. It is a singular fact that this genus of plants bears -blossoms, buds, and fruit the whole of the summer through, without any -interruption: when the leaf is dried, the prickles lose their pungency. -The helxine is a plant but rarely seen, and in some countries only. -It throws out leaves at the root, from the middle of which there is a -protuberance in the shape of an apple, covered with leaves of its own: -the head of it contains a thick juice of a sweet flavour, the name -given to which is “acanthice mastiche.”[2212] - - - - -CHAP. 57.—THE CACTOS; THE PTERNIX, PAPPUS, AND ASCALIAS. - - -The cactos,[2213] too, is a plant that grows only in Sicily, having -peculiar characteristics of its own: the root throws out stalks which -creep along the ground, the leaves being broad and thorny. The name -given to these stalks is “cactos,” and they are not disliked as an -article of food,[2214] even when old. The plant, however, has one stem -which grows upright, and is known by the name of “pternix;” it has the -same sweet flavour as the other parts, though it will not keep. The -seed of it is covered with a kind of down, known as “pappus:”[2215] -when this is removed, as well as the rind[2216] of the fruit, it -is tender, and like the pith of the palm: the name given to it is -“ascalias.” - - - - -CHAP. 58.—THE TRIBULUS: THE ANONIS. - - -The tribulus[2217] grows nowhere except in marshy places: though held -in abomination elsewhere,[2218] it is employed on the banks of the -Nilus and Strymon as an article of food. It always bends towards the -water, and has a leaf like that of the elm, with a long stalk. In other -parts of the world there are two varieties of this plant; the one[2219] -with leaves like those of the chicheling vetch, the other with leaves -protected by prickles. This last variety blossoms also at a later -period than the other, and is mostly found in the hedge-rows about -farm-houses. The seed of it is black, rounder than that of the other, -and enclosed in pods: that of the other variety bears a resemblance to -sand. - -Among the prickly plants there is also another kind, known as the -“anonis:”[2220] indeed, it has thorns upon the branches, to which -leaves are attached similar to those of rue, the stem being entirely -covered also with leaves, in form resembling a garland. It comes up -in land that has been newly ploughed, being highly prejudicial to the -corn, and long-lived in the extreme. - - - - -CHAP. 59.—PLANTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR STEMS: THE CORONOPUS, -THE ANCHUSA, THE ANTHEMIS, THE PHYLLANTHES, THE CREPIS, AND THE LOTUS. - - -Some, again, among the prickly plants have a stem which creeps along -the ground, that, for instance, known as the “coronopus.”[2221] On the -other hand, the anchusa,[2222] the root of which is employed for dyeing -wood and wax, has an upright stem; which is the case also with some of -the plants that are prickly in a less degree, the anthemis,[2223] for -example, the phyllanthes,[2224] the anemone, and the aphace:[2225] the -crepis,[2226] again, and the lotus,[2227] have a foliated stem. - - - - -CHAP. 60.—PLANTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR LEAVES. PLANTS WHICH -NEVER LOSE THEIR LEAVES: PLANTS WHICH BLOSSOM A LITTLE AT A TIME: THE -HELIOTROPIUM AND THE ADIANTUM, THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM WHICH WILL BE -MENTIONED IN THE FOLLOWING BOOK. - - -The leaves of plants, as well as those of trees, differ from one -another in the length of the footstalk, and in the breadth or -narrowness of the leaf, and the angles and indentations perceptible on -its edge. Other differences are also constituted in respect of their -smell and blossom. The blossom remains on longer in some of those -plants which flower only a little at a time, such as the ocimum,[2228] -the heliotropium,[2229] the aphace, and the onochilis,[2230] for -example. - -(17.) Many of these plants, the same as certain among the trees, never -lose their leaves, the heliotropium,[2231] the adiantum[2232] and the -polium,[2233] for instance. - - - - -CHAP. 61.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF EARED PLANTS: THE STANYOPS; THE -ALOPECUROS; THE STELEPHUROS, ORTYX, OR PLANTAGO; THE THRYALLIS. - - -The eared[2234] plants form another variety: among them we find the -cynops,[2235] the alopecuros,[2236] the stelephuros,[2237] also known -to some persons as the ortyx,[2238] and to others as the plantago, of -which last we shall have occasion[2239] to speak more at length among -the medicinal plants, and the thryallis.[2240] The alopecuros, among -these, has a soft ear and a thick down, not unlike a fox’s tail in -fact, to which resemblance it owes its name. The plant most like[2241] -it is the stelephuros, were it not that it blossoms only a little at -a time. In the cichorium and similar plants, the leaves are near the -ground, the buds springing from the root just after the rising of the -Vergiliæ.[2242] - - - - -CHAP. 62—THE PERDICIUM. THE ORNITHOGALE. - - -It is not in Egypt only that the perdicium[2243] is eaten; it owes its -name to the partridge,[2244] which bird is extremely fond of digging -it up. The roots of it are thick and very numerous: and so, too, with -the ornithogale,[2245] which has a tender white stalk, and a root -half a foot in thickness, bulbous, soft, and provided with three or -four other offsets attached to it. It is generally used boiled in -pottage.[2246] - - - - -CHAP. 63.—PLANTS WHICH ONLY MAKE THEIR APPEARANCE AT THE END OF A YEAR. -PLANTS WHICH BEGIN TO BLOSSOM AT THE TOP. PLANTS WHICH BEGIN TO BLOSSOM -AT THE LOWER PART. - - -It is a remarkable thing that the herb lotus[2247] and the -ægilops[2248] never make their appearance above ground till the end of -a year after the seed has been sown. The anthemis,[2249] too, offers -the singular peculiarity that it begins to blossom at the top, while in -all the other plants which flower gradually, it is at the lower part -that the blossom first makes its appearance. - - - - -CHAP. 64.—THE LAPPA, A PLANT WHICH PRODUCES WITHIN ITSELF. THE OPUNTIA, -WHICH THROWS OUT A ROOT FROM THE LEAF. - - -In the lappa,[2250] too, which clings so tenaciously, there is this -remarkable peculiarity, that within it there grows a flower, which does -not make its appearance, but remains concealed and there produces the -seed, like those among the animals which produce within themselves. In -the vicinity of Opus there grows a plant[2251] which is very pleasant -eating to man, and the leaf of which, a most singular thing, gives -birth to a root by means of which it reproduces itself. - - - - -CHAP. 65.—THE IASIONE. THE CHONDRYLLA. THE PICRIS, WHICH REMAINS IN -FLOWER THE WHOLE YEAR THROUGH. - - -The iasione[2252] has a single leaf only, but that so folded and -involved, as to have all the appearance of being several in number. -The chondrylla[2253] is bitter, and the juice of the root is of an -acrid taste. The aphace, too, is bitter, and so is the plant called -“picris,”[2254] which also remains in flower the whole year through: it -is to this bitterness that it is indebted for its name.[2255] - - - - -CHAP. 66.—PLANTS IN WHICH THE BLOSSOM MAKES ITS APPEARANCE BEFORE THE -STEM. PLANTS IN WHICH THE STEM APPEARS BEFORE THE BLOSSOM. PLANTS WHICH -BLOSSOM THREE TIMES IN THE YEAR. - - -The peculiarities also of the squill and saffron deserve remark; for -while all other plants put forth their leaves first, and then a round -stem, these show the stem before the leaf makes its appearance: in the -saffron, however, the blossom is protruded by the stem, but in the -squill it is the stem that first makes its appearance, and then the -flower emerges from it. This plant blossoms three times in the year, -indicating thereby, as previously stated,[2256] the three seasons for -ploughing. - - - - -CHAP. 67.—THE CYPIROS. THE THESION. - - -Some authors reckon among the bulbs the root of the cypiros, or -gladiolus;[2257] it is a pleasant food, and when boiled and kneaded up -with bread, makes it more agreeable to the taste, and at the same time -more weighty. Not unlike it in appearance is the plant known to us as -the “thesion,”[2258] but it is of an acrid flavour. - - - - -CHAP. 68.—THE ASPHODEL, OR ROYAL SPEAR. THE ANTHERICUS OR ALBUCUS. - - -Other plants of the bulbous kind differ in the leaf: that of the -asphodel[2259] is long and narrow, that of the squill broad and supple, -and the form of that of the gladiolus is bespoken by its name.[2260] -The asphodel is used as an article of food, the seed of it being -parched, and the bulb roasted;[2261] this last, however, should be -cooked in hot ashes, and then eaten with salt and oil. It is beaten -up also with figs, and forms, as Hesiod assures us, a very delicate -dish. It is said, too, that the asphodel, planted before the doors of a -farm-house, will act as a preservative against the effects of noxious -spells. - -Homer,[2262] too, makes mention of the asphodel. The bulbs of it are -like moderately-sized turnips, and there is no plant the root of which -has more of them, as many as eighty bulbs being often grouped together. -Theophrastus, and nearly all the Greek writers, with Pythagoras at -the head of them, have given the name of “anthericos” to its stem, -which is one cubit, and often two, in length, the leaves being very -similar to those of the wild leek; it is to the root, or in other -words, the bulbs, that they have given the name of asphodel. The people -of our country call this plant[2263] “albucus,” and they give the -name of “royal[2264] spear” to the asphodel the stem of which bears -berries,[2265] thus distinguishing two[2266] varieties of it. The -albucus has a stalk a cubit in length, large, naked, and smooth, in -reference to which, Mago recommends that it should be cut at the end -of March and the beginning of April, the period at which it blossoms, -and before the seed has begun to swell; he says, too, that the stalks -should be split, and exposed on the fourth day in the sun, after which, -when dry, they should be made up into bundles. - -The same author states, also, that the Greeks give the name of -“pistana” to the aquatic plant known to us as the “sagitta;”[2267] and -he recommends that it should be stripped of its bark, and dried in a -mild sun, between the ides of May[2268] and the end of October. He -says, too, that it is usual to cut down to the root, throughout all the -month of July, the variety of the gladiolus called “cypiros,” which is -a marsh-plant also, and at the end of three days to dry it in the sun, -until it turns white; but that care must be taken every day to carry it -under cover before sunset, the night dews being very injurious to marsh -plants when cut. - - - - -CHAP. 69. (18.)—SIX VARIETIES OF THE RUSH: FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED FROM -THE CYPIROS. - - -Mago has likewise given similar recommendations as to the rush known to -us as the “mariscus,”[2269] and which is so extensively employed for -weaving mats. He says that it should be gathered in the month of June, -up to the middle of July, and for drying it he gives the same precepts -that have been already[2270] mentioned, in the appropriate place, when -speaking of sedge. He describes a second kind, also, which I find is -generally called the “marine” rush, and is known to the Greeks as the -“oxyschœnos.”[2271] - -Generally speaking, there are three varieties of this last rush: -the pointed rush, which is barren, and by the Greeks is called the -male rush and the “oxys:”[2272] the female rush,[2273] which bears -a black seed, and is called the “melancranis,”[2274] thicker and -more bushy than the preceding one: and a third kind, called the -“holoschœnus,”[2275] which is larger still. Of these varieties, the -melancranis grows separately from the others, but the oxys and the -holoschœnus will grow upon the self-same clod. The holoschœnus is the -most useful for all kinds of basket-work, being of a particularly -supple and fleshy nature; it bears a fruit, which resembles eggs -attached to one another. The rush, again, which we have spoken of as -the male rush,[2276] is reproduced from itself, the summit of it being -bent down into the earth; the melancranis, however, is propagated from -seed. Beyond this, the roots of all the varieties of the rush die every -year. - -The rush is in general use for making kipes[2277] for sea-fishing, the -more light and elegant kinds of basket-work, and the wicks of lamps, -for which last purpose the pith is more particularly employed.[2278] -In the vicinity of the maritime Alps, the rushes grow to such a vast -size, that when split they measure nearly an inch in diameter; while in -Egypt, on the other hand, they are so extremely fine, that the people -there make sieves of them, for which, indeed, there can be nothing -better. - -Some authors, again, distinguish another kind of rush, of a triangular -shape, to which they give the name of cyperos,[2279] though many -persons make no distinction between it and the “cypiros,” in -consequence of the resemblance of the names; for our own part, however, -we shall observe the distinction. The cypiros, as we have already[2280] -stated, is identical with the gladiolus, a plant with a bulbous root, -the most esteemed being those grown in the Isle of Crete, the next best -those of Naxos, and the next those of Phœnicia. The cypiros of Crete is -white, with an odour strongly resembling that of nard; the produce of -Naxos has a more pungent smell, that of Phœnicia but little odour of -any kind, and that of Ægypt none at all; for it grows in that country -as well. - -This plant disperses hard tumours of the body—for we shall here -begin to speak of the remedies derived from the various flowers and -odoriferous plants, they being, all of them, of very considerable -utility in medicine. As to the cypiros, then, I shall follow -Apollodorus, who forbids it to be taken in drink, though at the same -time he admits that it is extremely useful for calculi of the bladder, -and recommends it in fomentations for the face. He entertains no doubt, -however, that it is productive of abortion, and he mentions, as a -remarkable fact, that the barbarians,[2281] by inhaling the fumes of -this plant at the mouth, thereby diminish the volume of the spleen. -They never go out of the house, he says, till they have inhaled these -fumes, through the agency of which they daily become stronger and -stronger, and more robust. He states, also, that the cypiros, employed -as a liniment with oil, is an undoubted remedy for chafing of the skin, -and offensive odours of the arm-pits. - - - - -CHAP. 70.—THE CYPEROS: FOURTEEN REMEDIES. THE CYPERIS. THE CYPIRA. - - -The cyperos, as we have just stated, is a rush of angular shape, white -near the ground, and black and solid at the top. The lower leaves are -more slender than those of the leek, and those at the top are small, -with the seed of the plant lying between them. The root resembles a -black olive,[2282] and when it is of an oblong shape, the plant is -known as the “cyperis,”[2283] being employed in medicine to a great -extent. The cyperos most highly esteemed is that of the vicinity of -the Temple of Jupiter Hammon, the next best being that of Rhodes, the -next that of Theræ, and the worst of all that of Egypt, a circumstance -which tends greatly to add to the misunderstanding on the subject, as -that country produces the cypiros as well: but the cypiros which grows -there is extremely hard, and has hardly any smell at all, while all the -other[2284] varieties of it have an odour strongly resembling that of -nard. - -There is also an Indian plant, called the “cypira,”[2285] of a totally -different character, and similar to ginger in appearance; when chewed, -it has exactly the flavour of saffron. - -The cyperos, employed medicinally, is possessed of certain depilatory -properties. It is used in liniments for hang-nails and ulcerous sores -of the genitals and of all parts of the body which are of a humid -nature, ulcers of the mouth, for instance. The root of it is a very -efficacious remedy for the stings of serpents and scorpions. Taken in -drink, it removes obstructions of the uterus, but if employed in too -large doses, it is liable to cause prolapsus of that organ. It acts -also as a diuretic, and expels calculi of the bladder; properties which -render it extremely useful in dropsy. It is employed topically, also, -for serpiginous ulcers, those of the throat more particularly, being -usually applied with wine or vinegar. - - - - -CHAP. 71.—THE HOLOSCHŒNUS. - - -The root of the rush, boiled down to one third in three heminæ of -water, is a cure for cough; the seed of it, parched and taken in water, -arrests looseness of the bowels and the menstrual discharge, though -at the same time it causes headache. The name given to this rush is -holoschœnus; the parts of it nearest the root are chewed, as a cure for -the bites of spiders. - -I find mention made, also, of one other kind of rush, the name of which -is “euripice;”[2286] the seed, they say, is narcotic, but the greatest -care is necessary, not to throw the patient into a lethargy. - - - - -CHAP. 72.—TEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE SWEET-SCENTED RUSH, OR -TEUCHITES. - - -We will also take this opportunity of mentioning the medicinal -properties of the sweet-scented rush, which is found in Cœle-Syria, as -already stated by us in the appropriate place.[2287] The most esteemed -kind, however, is that which grows in the country of the Nabatæi, and -is known as the “teuchites;”[2288] the next best being the produce -of Babylonia, and the very worst that of Africa, which is entirely -destitute of smell. This rush is round, and when applied to the tongue, -has a pungent, vinous flavour. The genuine kind, when rubbed, gives -out an odour like that of the rose, and when broken asunder it is -red within. It dispels flatulency, and hence it is very good for the -stomach, and for persons when vomiting the bile or blood. It arrests -hiccup also, promotes eructations, acts as a diuretic, and is curative -of affections of the bladder. A decoction of it is used for female -complaints; and in cases of opisthotony, it is applied in plasters with -dry resin, these being highly valued for their warming properties. - - - - -CHAP. 73.—REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE FLOWERS BEFORE MENTIONED: -THIRTY-TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE ROSE. - - -The rose is of an astringent and refreshing nature. For medicinal -purposes the petals, the flowers, and the heads are used. Those -portions of the petals which are quite white are known as the -unglets.[2289] In the flower there is the seed, as distinguished from -the filaments, and in the head there is the bud,[2290] as well as the -calyx. The petals are dried, or else the juice is extracted from them, -by one of the three following methods: Either the leaves are employed -whole for the purpose, the unglets not being removed—for these are the -parts, in fact, that contain the most juice—or else the unglets are -first taken off and the residue is then macerated with oil or wine, -in glass vessels placed in the sun. Some persons add salt as well, -and others alkanet,[2291] or else aspalathus or sweet-scented rush; -as it is, when thus prepared, a very valuable remedy for diseases of -the uterus and for dysentery. According to the third process, the -unglets are removed from the petals, and pounded, after which they are -subjected to pressure in a coarse linen cloth, the juice being received -in a copper vessel; it is then boiled on a slow fire, until it has -acquired the consistence of honey; for this purpose, however, the most -odoriferous of the petals should be selected. - -(19.) We have already stated,[2292] when speaking of the various kinds -of wines, how rose wine is made. Rose juice is much used in injections -for the ears, and as a gargle for ulcerations of the mouth, and for the -gums and tonsils; it is employed also for the stomach, maladies of the -uterus, diseases of the rectum, and for head-ache. In fevers, it is -used, either by itself or in combination with vinegar, as a remedy for -sleeplessness and nausea. The petals, charred, are used as a cosmetic -for the eyebrows;[2293] and the thighs, when chafed, are rubbed with -them dried; reduced to powder, too, they are soothing for defluxions of -the eyes. The flower of the rose is soporific, and taken in oxycrate it -arrests fluxes in females, the white flux in particular; also spitting -of blood, and pains in the stomach, if taken in three cyathi of wine, -in sufficient quantity to flavour it. - -As to the seed of the rose, the best is that which is of a saffron -colour, and not more than a year old; it should be dried, too, in the -shade. The black seed is worthless. In cases of tooth-ache, the seed -is employed in the form of a liniment; it acts also as a diuretic, and -is used as a topical application for the stomach, as also in cases of -erysipelas which are not inveterate: inhaled at the nostrils, it has -the effect of clearing the brain. The heads of roses, taken in drink, -arrest looseness of the bowels and hæmorrhage. The unglets of the rose -are wholesome in cases of defluxion of the eyes; but the rose is very -apt to taint all ulcerous sores of the eyes, if it is not applied at -the very beginning of the defluxion, dried, and in combination with -bread. The petals, too, taken internally, are extremely wholesome -for gnawing pains of the stomach, and for maladies of the abdomen or -intestines; as also for the thoracic organs, if applied externally -even: they are preserved, too, for eating, in a similar manner to -lapathum. Great care must be taken in drying rose-leaves, as they are -apt to turn mouldy very quickly. - -The petals, too, from which the juice has been extracted, may be put -to some use when dried: powders,[2294] for instance, may be made from -them, for the purpose of checking the perspiration. These powders are -sprinkled on the body, upon leaving the bath, and are left to dry -on it, after which they are washed off with cold water. The little -excrescences[2295] of the wild rose, mixed with bears’-grease,[2296] -are a good remedy for alopecy. - - - - -CHAP. 74.—TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE LILY. - - -The roots of the lily[2297] ennoble that flower in manifold ways by -their utility in a medicinal point of view. Taken in wine, they are -good for the stings of serpents, and in cases of poisoning by fungi. -For corns on the feet, they are applied boiled in wine, not being -taken off before the end of three days. A decoction of them with grease -or oil, has the effect of making the hair grow again upon burns. Taken -with honied wine, they carry off corrupt blood by stool; they are good, -also, for the spleen and for hernia, and act as an emmenagogue. Boiled -in wine and applied with honey, they are curative of wounds of the -sinews. They are good, too, for lichens, leprous sores, and scurf upon -the face, and they efface wrinkles of the body. - -The petals of the lily are boiled in vinegar, and applied, in -combination with polium,[2298] to wounds; if it should happen, however, -to be a wound of the testes, it is the best plan to apply the other -ingredients with henbane and wheat-meal. Lily-seed is applied in cases -of erysipelas, and the flowers and leaves are used as a cataplasm -for inveterate ulcers. The juice which is extracted from the flower -is called “honey”[2299] by some persons, and “syrium” by others; it -is employed as an emollient for the uterus, and is also used for the -purpose of promoting perspirations, and for bringing suppurations to a -head. - - - - -CHAP. 75.—SIXTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE NARCISSUS. - - -Two varieties of the narcissus are employed in medicine, the one -with a purple[2300] flower, and the herbaceous narcissus.[2301] This -last is injurious to the stomach, and hence it is that it acts both -as an emetic and as a purgative: it is prejudicial, also, to the -sinews, and produces dull, heavy pains in the head: hence it is that -it has received its name, from “narce,”[2302] and not from the youth -Narcissus, mentioned in fable. The roots of both kinds of narcissus -have a flavour resembling that of wine mixed with honey. This plant is -very useful, applied to burns with a little honey, as also to other -kinds of wounds, and sprains. Applied topically, too, with honey and -oatmeal, it is good for tumours, and it is similarly employed for the -extraction of foreign substances from the body. - -Beaten up in polenta and oil it effects the cure of contusions and -blows inflicted by stones; and, mixed with meal, it effectually -cleanses wounds, and speedily removes black morphews from the skin. Of -this flower oil of narcissus is made, good for softening indurations -of the skin, and for warming parts of the body that have been -frost-bitten. It is very beneficial, also, for the ears, but is very -apt to produce head-ache. - - - - -CHAP. 76.—SEVENTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE VIOLET. - - -There are both wild and cultivated violets.[2303] The purple violet is -of a cooling nature: for inflammations they are applied to the stomach -in the burning heats, and for pains in the head they are applied to -the forehead. Violets, in particular, are used for defluxions of the -eyes, prolapsus of the fundament and uterus, and suppurations. Worn in -chaplets upon the head, or even smelt at, they dispel the fumes of wine -and head-ache; and, taken in water, they are a cure for quinsy. The -purple violet, taken in water, is a remedy for epilepsy, in children -more particularly: violet seed is good for the stings of scorpions. - -On the other hand, the flower of the white violet opens suppurations, -and the plant itself disperses them. Both the white and the yellow -violet check the menstrual discharge, and act as diuretics. When fresh -gathered, they have less virtue, and hence it is that they are mostly -used dry, after being kept a year. The yellow violet, taken in doses -of half a cyathus to three cyathi of water, promotes the catamenia; -and the roots of it, applied with vinegar, assuage affections of the -spleen, as also the gout. Mixed with myrrh and saffron, they are good -for inflammation of the eyes. The leaves, applied with honey, cleanse -ulcerous sores of the head, and, combined with cerate,[2304] they are -good for chaps of the fundament and other moist parts of the body. -Employed with vinegar, they effect the cure of abscesses. - - - - -CHAP. 77.—SEVENTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE BACCHAR. ONE REMEDY -DERIVED FROM THE COMBRETUM. - - -The bacchar that is used in medicine is by some of our writers called -the “perpressa.” It is very useful for the stings of serpents, -head-ache and burning heats in the head, and for defluxions of the -eyes. It is applied topically for swellings of the mamillæ after -delivery, as also incipient fistulas[2305] of the eyes, and erysipelas; -the smell of it induces sleep. It is found very beneficial to -administer a decoction of the root for spasms, falls with violence, -convulsions, and asthma. For an inveterate cough, three or four roots -of this plant are boiled down to one-third; this decoction acting also -as a purgative for women after miscarriage, and removing stitch in the -side, and calculi of the bladder. Drying powders[2306] for perspiration -are prepared also from this plant; and it is laid among garments -for the smell.[2307] The combretum which we have spoken[2308] of as -resembling the bacchar, beaten up with axle-grease, is a marvellous -cure for wounds. - - - - -CHAP. 78.—EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM ASARUM. - - -It is generally stated that asarum[2309] is good for affections of the -liver, taken in doses of one ounce to a semisextarius of honied wine -mixed with water. It purges the bowels like hellebore, and is good for -dropsy and affections of the thoracic organs and uterus, as also for -jaundice. When mixed with must, it makes a wine with strongly diuretic -qualities. It is taken up as soon as it begins to put forth its leaves, -and is dried in the shade. It is apt however to turn mouldy very -speedily. - - - - -CHAP. 79. (20.)—EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM GALLIC NARD. - - -Some authors, as we have already[2310] stated, having given the name -of “field nard” to the root of the bacchar, we will here mention the -medicinal properties of Gallic nard, of which we have[2311] already -spoken, when treating of the foreign trees, deferring further notice -of it till the present occasion. In doses of two drachmæ, taken in -wine, it is good for the stings of serpents; and taken in water or -in wine it is employed for inflations of the colon, maladies of the -liver or kidneys, and suffusions of the gall. Employed by itself or in -combination with wormwood it is good for dropsy. It has the property, -also, of arresting excessive discharges of the catamenia. - - - - -CHAP. 80.—FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE PLANT CALLED “PHU.” - - -The root of the plant which we have mentioned in the same place under -the name of “phu,”[2312] is given in drink, either bruised or boiled, -in cases of hysterical suffocation, and for pains of the chest or -sides. It acts as an emmenagogue, and is generally taken in wine. - - - - -CHAP. 81.—TWENTY REMEDIES DERIVED FROM SAFFRON. - - -Saffron does not blend well with honey, or, indeed, with any sweet -substance, though very readily with wine or water: it is extremely -useful in medicine, and is generally kept in horn boxes. Applied -with egg it disperses all kinds of inflammation, those of the eyes -in particular: it is employed also for hysterical suffocations, and -for ulcerations of the stomach, chest, kidneys, liver, lungs, and -bladder. It is particularly useful also in cases of inflammation -of those parts, and for cough and pleurisy. It likewise removes -itching[2313] sensations, and acts as a diuretic. Persons who have used -the precaution of first taking saffron in drink will never experience -surfeit or head-ache, and will be proof against inebriation. Chaplets -too, made of saffron, and worn on the head, tend to dispel the fumes of -wine. The flower of it is employed topically with Cimolian[2314] chalk -for erysipelas. It is used also in the composition of numerous other -medicaments. - - - - -CHAP. 82.—SYRIAN CROCOMAGNA: TWO REMEDIES. - - -There is also an eye-salve[2315] which is indebted to this plant for -its name. The lees[2316] of the extract of saffron, employed in the -saffron unguent known as “crocomagma,” have their own peculiar utility -in cases of cataract and strangury. These lees are of a more warming -nature than saffron itself; the best kind is that which, when put into -the mouth, stains the teeth and saliva the colour of saffron. - - - - -CHAP. 83.—FORTY-ONE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE IRIS: TWO REMEDIES -DERIVED FROM THE SALIUNCA. - - -The red iris is better than the white one. It is very beneficial to -attach this plant to the bodies of infants more particularly when they -are cutting their teeth, or are suffering from cough; it is equally -good, too, to inject a few drops of it when children are suffering -from tape-worm. The other properties of it differ but very little from -those of honey. It cleanses ulcerous sores of the head, and inveterate -abscesses more particularly. Taken in doses of two drachmæ with honey, -it relaxes the bowels; and an infusion of it is good for cough, -gripings of the stomach, and flatulency: taken with vinegar, too, it -cures affections of the spleen. Mixed with oxycrate it is good for the -bites of serpents and spiders, and, in doses of two drachmæ with bread -or water, it is employed for the cure of the stings of scorpions. It -is applied also topically with oil to the bites of dogs, and to parts -that are excoriated: employed in a similar manner, too, it is good -for pains in the sinews, and in combination with resin it is used as -a liniment for lumbago and sciatica. The properties of this plant are -of a warming nature. Inhaled at the nostrils, it produces sneezing and -cleanses the brain, and in cases of head-ache it is applied topically -in combination with the quince or the strutheum.[2317] It dispels the -fumes of wine also, and difficulties of breathing[2318] and taken in -doses of two oboli it acts as an emetic: applied as a plaster with -honey, it extracts splinters of broken bones. Powdered iris is employed -also for whitlows, and, mixed with wine, for corns and warts, in which -case it is left for three days on the part affected. - -Chewed, it is a corrective of bad breath and offensive exhalations of -the arm-pits, and the juice of it softens all kinds of indurations of -the body. This plant acts as a soporific, but it wastes the seminal -fluids: it is used also for the treatment of chaps of the fundament and -condylomata, and it heals all sorts of excrescences on the body. - -Some persons give the name of “xyris”[2319] to the wild iris. This -plant disperses scrofulous sores, as well as tumours and inguinal -swellings; but it is generally recommended that when wanted for these -purposes it should be pulled up with the left hand, the party gathering -it mentioning the name of the patient and of the disease for which it -is intended to be employed. While speaking of this subject, I will -take the opportunity of disclosing the criminal practices of some -herbalists—they keep back a portion of the iris, and of some other -plants as well, the plantago for instance, and, if they think that they -have not been sufficiently well paid and wish to be employed a second -time, bury the part they have kept back in the same place; their object -being, I suppose,[2320] to revive the malady which has just been cured. - -The root of the saliunca[2321] boiled in wine, arrests vomiting and -strengthens the stomach. - - - - -CHAP. 84.—EIGHTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE POLIUM. - - -Those persons, according to Musæus and Hesiod, who are desirous -of gaining honour and glory, should rub the body all over with -polium,[2322] and handle and cultivate it as much as possible. They -say, too, that it should be kept about the person as an antidote to -poison, and that to keep serpents away it should be strewed beneath -the bed, burnt, or else carried on the person; decoctions of it in -wine, either fresh-gathered or dried, should be used too as a liniment -for the body. Medical men prescribe it in vinegar for affections of -the spleen, and in wine for the jaundice; a decoction of it in wine -is recommended also for incipient dropsy; and in this way too, it -is employed as a liniment for wounds. This plant has the effect of -bringing away the after-birth and the dead fœtus, and of dispelling -pains in various parts of the body: it empties the bladder also, and -is employed in liniments for defluxions of the eyes. Indeed, there -is no plant known that better deserves to form an ingredient in the -medicament known to us as the “alexipharmacon:”[2323] though there are -some who say that it is injurious to the stomach and is apt to stuff -the head, and that it produces abortion—assertions which[2324] others, -again, totally deny. - -There is a superstitious observance also, to the effect that, for -cataract, it ought to be attached to the neck the moment it is found, -every precaution being taken not to let it touch the ground. The same -persons state too that the leaves of it are similar to those of thyme, -except that they are softer and more white and downy. Beaten up with -wild rue in rain water, it is said to assuage the pain of the sting -of the asp; it is quite as astringent too as the flower[2325] of the -pomegranate, and as efficacious for closing wounds and preventing them -from spreading. - - - - -CHAP. 85.—THREE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HOLOCHRYSOS. SIX REMEDIES -DERIVED FROM THE CHRYSOCOME. - - -The holochrysos,[2326] taken in wine, is a cure for strangury, and it -is employed in liniments for defluxions of the eyes. Mixed with burnt -lees of wine and polenta, it is curative of lichens. - -The root of the chrysocome[2327] is warming and astringent; it is taken -in drink for affections of the liver and lungs, and a decoction of it -in hydromel is good for pains of the uterus. It acts as an emmenagogue -also, and, administered raw, draws off the water in dropsy. - - - - -CHAP. 86.—TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM MELISSOPHYLLUM. - - -If the bee-hives are rubbed all over with melissophyllum[2328] or -melittæna, the bees will never desert them; for there is no flower -in which they take greater delight. If branches[2329] of this plant -are used, the bees may be kept within bounds without any difficulty. -It is an excellent remedy, also, for the stings of bees, wasps, and -similar insects, as also for wounds made by spiders and scorpions; -it is used, too, for hysterical suffocations, in combination with -nitre, and for gripings of the bowels, with wine. The leaves of it -are employed topically for scrofulous sores, and, in combination with -salt, for maladies of the fundament. A decoction of the juice promotes -the menstrual discharge, dispels inflammations, and heals ulcerous -sores: it is good, too, for diseases of the joints and the bites of -dogs, and is beneficial in cases of inveterate dysentery, and for -cœliac affections, hardness of breathing, diseases of the spleen, -and ulcerations of the thoracic organs. For films on the eyes, it is -considered a most excellent plan to anoint them with the juice of this -plant mixed with honey. - - - - -CHAP. 87.—THIRTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED PROM THE MELILOTE. - - -The melilote,[2330] again, applied with the yolk of an egg, or else -linseed, effects the cure of diseases of the eyes. It assuages pains, -too, in the jaws and head, applied with rose oil; and, employed with -raisin wine, it is good for pains in the ears, and all kinds of -swellings or eruptions on the hands. A decoction of it in wine, or else -the plant itself beaten up raw, is good for pains in the stomach. It is -equally beneficial, too, for maladies of the uterus; and for diseases -of the testes, prolapsus of the fundament, and all other diseases of -those parts, a decoction is made of it, fresh-gathered, in water or in -raisin wine. With the addition of rose oil, it is used as a liniment -for carcinoma. Boiled in sweet wine, it is particularly useful for the -treatment of the ulcers known as “melicerides.”[2331] - - - - -CHAP. 88. (21.)—FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED PROM TREFOIL. - - -The trefoil,[2332] I know, is generally looked upon as being -particularly good for the stings of serpents and scorpions, the seed -being taken in doses of twenty grains, with either wine or oxycrate; -or else the leaves and the plant itself are boiled together, and -a decoction made of them; indeed, it is stated, that a serpent is -never to be seen among trefoil. Celebrated authors, too, I find, have -asserted that twenty-five grains of the seed of the kind of trefoil -which we have[2333] spoken of as the “minyanthes,” are a sufficient -antidote for all kinds of poisons: in addition to which, there are -numerous other remedial virtues ascribed to it. - -But these notions, in my opinion, are counterbalanced by the authority -of a writer of the very highest repute: for we find the poet Sophocles -asserting that the trefoil is a venomous plant. Simus, too, the -physician, maintains that a decoction of it, or the juice, poured upon -the human body, is productive of burning sensations similar to those -experienced by persons when they have been stung by a serpent and have -trefoil applied to the wound. It is my opinion, then, that trefoil -should never be used in any other capacity than as a counter-poison; -for it is not improbable that the venom of this plant has a natural -antipathy to all other kinds of poisons, a phænomenon which has been -observed in many other cases as well. I find it stated, also, that -the seed of the trefoil with an extremely diminutive leaf, applied -in washes to the face, is extremely beneficial for preserving the -freshness of the skin in females. - - - - -CHAP. 89.—TWENTY-EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THYME. - - -Thyme[2334] should be gathered while it is in flower, and dried in the -shade. There are two kinds of thyme: the white thyme with a ligneous -root, which grows upon declivities, and is the most esteemed of the -two, and another variety, which is of a darker colour, and bears a -swarthy flower. They are, both of them, considered to be extremely -beneficial to the sight, whether used as an article of food or as a -medicament, and to be good for inveterate coughs. Used as an electuary, -with vinegar and salt, they facilitate expectoration, and taken with -honey, they prevent the blood from coagulating. Applied externally -with mustard, they dispel chronic fluxes of the fauces, as well as -various affections of the stomach and bowels. Still, however, these -plants must be used in moderation, as they are of a heating nature, for -which reason it is that they act so astringently upon the bowels. In -cases of ulceration of the intestines, the dose should be one denarius -of thyme to one sextarius of oxymel; the same proportions, too, should -be taken for pains in the sides, between the shoulder-blades, or in the -thoracic organs. Taken with oxymel, these plants are used for the cure -of intestinal diseases, and a similar draught is administered in cases -of alienation of the senses and melancholy. - -Thyme is given also for epilepsy, when the fits come on, the smell of -it reviving the patient; it is said, too, that epileptic persons should -sleep upon soft thyme. It is good, also, for hardness of breathing, -and for asthma and obstructions of the catamenia. A decoction of thyme -in water, boiled down to one-third, brings away the dead fœtus, and -it is given to males with oxymel, as a remedy for flatulency, and in -cases of swelling of the abdomen or testes and of pains in the bladder. -Applied with wine, it removes tumours and fluxes, and, in combination -with vinegar, callosities and warts. Mixed with wine, it is used as -an external application for sciatica; and, beaten up with oil and -sprinkled upon wool, it is employed for diseases of the joints, and -for sprains. It is applied, also, to burns, mixed with hogs’ lard. -For maladies of the joints of recent date, thyme is administered in -drink, in doses of three oboli to three cyathi of oxymel. For loss of -appetite, it is given, beaten up with salt. - - - - -CHAP. 90.—FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HEMEROCALLES. - - -The hemerocalles[2335] has a soft, pale green leaf, with an -odoriferous, bulbous root. This root, applied with honey to the -abdomen, draws off the aqueous humours and all corrupt blood. The -leaves of it are applied for defluxions of the eyes, and for pains in -the mamillæ, after childbirth. - - - - -CHAP. 91.—FIVE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HELENIUM. - - -The helenium, which springs, as we have already[2336] stated, from -the tears of Helena, is generally thought to have been produced for -improving the appearance, and to maintain unimpaired the freshness of -the skin in females, both of the face and of other parts of the body. -Besides this, it is generally supposed that the use of it confers -additional graces on the person, and ensures universal attraction. -They say, too, that, taken with wine, it promotes gaiety of spirit, -having, in fact, a similar effect to the nepenthes, which has been so -much vaunted by Homer,[2337] as producing forgetfulness of all sorrow. -The juice of this plant is remarkably sweet, and the root of it, taken -fasting in water, is good for hardness of breathing; it is white -within, and sweet. An infusion of it is taken in wine for the stings of -serpents; and the plant, bruised, it is said, will kill mice. - - - - -CHAP. 92.—TWENTY-TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE ABROTONUM. - - -We find two varieties of abrotonum[2338] mentioned, the field, and -the mountain kind; this last, it is generally understood, is the -female plant, the other the male. They are both of them bitter, like -wormwood. That of Sicily is the most esteemed, and next to it, that of -Galatia. The leaves of it are sometimes employed, but it is the seed -that possesses the most warming properties; hence it is, that it is -so beneficial for maladies of the sinews,[2339] for cough, hardness -of breathing, convulsions, ruptures, lumbago, and strangury. Several -handfuls of this plant are boiled down to one-third, and the decoction -of it, in doses of four cyathi, is administered in drink. The seed is -given, pounded, in water, in doses of one drachma; it is very good for -affections of the uterus. - -Mixed with barley-meal, this plant brings tumours to a head, and boiled -with quinces, it is employed as a liniment for inflammations of the -eyes. It keeps away serpents, and for their stings it is either taken -in wine, or else employed in combination with it as a liniment. It is -extremely efficacious, also, for the stings of those noxious insects -by which shivering fits and chills are produced, such as the scorpion -and the spider called “phalangium,”[2340] for example; taken in a -potion, it is good for other kinds of poison, as also for shivering -fits, however produced, and for the extraction of foreign substances -adhering to the flesh; it has the effect, also, of expelling intestinal -worms. It is stated that a sprig of this plant, if put beneath the -pillow, will act as an aphrodisiac, and that it is of the very greatest -efficacy against all those charms and spells by which impotence is -produced. - - - - -CHAP. 93. (22.)—ONE REMEDY DERIVED FROM THE LEUCANTHEMUM. NINE REMEDIES -DERIVED FROM THE AMARACUS. - - -The leucanthemum,[2341] mixed with two-thirds of vinegar, is curative -of asthma. The sampsuchum or amaracus,[2342]—that of Cyprus being -the most highly esteemed, and possessed of the finest smell—is a -remedy for the stings of scorpions, applied to the wound with vinegar -and salt. Used as a pessary, too, it is very beneficial in cases of -menstrual derangement; but when taken in drink, its properties are -not so powerfully developed. Used with polenta, it heals defluxions -of the eyes; and the juice of it, boiled, dispels gripings of the -stomach. It is useful, too, for strangury and dropsy; and in a dry -state, it promotes sneezing. There is an oil extracted from it, known -as “sampsuchinum,” or “amaracinum,” which is very good for warming and -softening the sinews; it has a warming effect, also, upon the uterus. -The leaves are good for bruises, beaten up with honey, and, mixed with -wax, for sprains. - - - - -CHAP. 94. (23.)—TEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE ANEMONE OR PHRENION. - - -We have as yet spoken[2343] only of the anemone used for making -chaplets; we will now proceed to describe those kinds which are -employed for medicinal purposes. Some persons give the name of -“phrenion” to this plant: there are two species of it; one of which -is wild,[2344] and the other grows on cultivated[2345] spots; though -they are, both of them, attached to a sandy soil. Of the cultivated -anemone there are numerous varieties; some, and these are the most -abundant, have a scarlet flower, while others, again, have a flower -that is purple or else milk-white. The leaves of all these three kinds -bear a strong resemblance to parsley, and it is not often that they -exceed half a foot in height, the head being very similar to that of -asparagus. The flower never opens, except while the wind is blowing, -a circumstance to which it owes its name.[2346] The wild anemone is -larger than the cultivated one, and has broader leaves, with a scarlet -flower. - -Some persons erroneously take the wild anemone to be the same as the -argemone,[2347] while others, again, identify it with the poppy which -we have mentioned[2348] under the name of “rhœas:” there is, however, a -great difference between them, as these two other plants blossom later -than the anemone, nor does the anemone possess a juice or a calyx like -theirs; besides which, it terminates in a head like that of asparagus. - -The various kinds of anemone are good for pains and inflammations of -the head, diseases of the uterus, and stoppage of the milk in females; -taken, too, in a ptisan, or applied as a pessary in wool, they promote -the menstrual discharge. The root, chewed, has a tendency to bring away -the phlegm, and is a cure for tooth-ache: a decoction of it is good, -too, for defluxions of the eyes,[2349] and effaces the scars left by -wounds. The Magi have attributed many very wonderful properties to -these plants: they recommend it to be gathered at the earliest moment -in the year that it is seen, and certain words to be repeated, to the -effect that it is being gathered as a remedy for tertian and quartan -fevers; after which the flower must be wrapped up in red cloth and kept -in the shade, in order to be attached to the person when wanted. The -root of the anemone with a scarlet flower, beaten up and applied to the -body of any animated being,[2350] produces an ulcer there by the agency -of its acrid qualities; hence it is that it is so much employed as a -detergent for ulcerous sores. - - - - -CHAP. 95. (24.)—SIX REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE ŒNANTHE. - - -The œnanthe[2351] is a plant which is found growing upon rocks, has -the leaf of the parsnip, and a large root with numerous fibres. The -stalk of it and the leaves, taken with honey and black wine, facilitate -delivery and bring away the after-birth: taken with honey, also, they -are a cure for cough, and act as a powerful diuretic. The root of this -plant is curative of diseases of the bladder. - - - - -CHAP. 96. (25.)—ELEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HELICHRYSOS. - - -The helichrysos is by some persons called the “chrysanthemon.”[2352] -It has small, white branches, with leaves of a whitish colour, similar -to those of the abrotonum. The clusters, disposed around it, and -glistening like gold in the rays of the sun, are never known to fade; -hence it is that they make chaplets of it for the gods, a custom which -was most faithfully observed by Ptolemæus, the king of Egypt. This -plant grows in shrubberies: taken in wine, it acts as a diuretic and -emmenagogue, and, in combination with honey, it is employed topically -for burns. It is taken also in potions for the stings of serpents, and -for pains in the loins; and, with honied wine, it removes coagulated -blood in the abdominal regions and the bladder. The leaves of it, -beaten up and taken in doses of three oboli, in white wine, arrest the -menstrual discharge when in excess. - -The smell of this plant is far from disagreeable, and hence it is kept -with clothes, to protect them from the attacks of vermin. - - - - -CHAP. 97. (26.)—EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HYACINTH. - - -The hyacinth[2353] grows in Gaul more particularly, where it is -employed for the dye called “hysginum.”[2354] The root of it is -bulbous, and is well known among the dealers in slaves: applied to -the body, with sweet wine, it retards the signs of puberty,[2355] and -prevents them from developing themselves. It is curative, also, of -gripings of the stomach, and of the bites of spiders, and it acts as a -diuretic. The seed is administered, with abrotonum, for the stings of -serpents and scorpions, and for jaundice. - - - - -CHAP. 98.—SEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE LYCHNIS. - - -The seed of the lychnis,[2356] too, which is just the colour of fire, -is beaten up and taken in drink for the stings of serpents, scorpions, -hornets, and other insects of similar nature: the wild variety, -however, is prejudicial to the stomach. It acts as a laxative to the -bowels; and, taken in doses of two drachmæ, is remarkably efficacious -for carrying off the bile. So extremely baneful is it to scorpions, -that if they so much as see it, they are struck with torpor. The people -of Asia call the root of it “bolites,” and they say that if it is -attached to the body it will effectually disperse albugo.[2357] - - - - -CHAP. 99. (27.)—FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE VINCAPERVINCA. - - -The vincapervinca,[2358] too, or chamædaphne,[2359] is dried and -pounded, and given to dropsical patients in water, in doses of one -spoonful; a method of treatment which speedily draws off the water. A -decoction of it, in ashes, with a sprinkling of wine, has the effect of -drying tumours: the juice, too, is employed as a remedy for diseases of -the ears. Applied to the regions of the stomach, this plant is said to -be remarkably good for diarrhœa. - - - - -CHAP. 100.—THREE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM BUTCHER’S BROOM. - - -A decoction of the root of butcher’s broom[2360] is recommended to -be taken every other day for calculus in the bladder, strangury, and -bloody urine. The root, however, should be taken up one day, and boiled -the next, the proportion of it being one sextarius to two cyathi of -wine. Some persons beat up the root raw, and take it in water: it is -generally considered, too, that there is nothing in existence more -beneficial to the male organs than the young stalks of the plant, -beaten up and used with vinegar. - - - - -CHAP. 101.—TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE BATIS. - - -The batis,[2361] too, relaxes the bowels, and, beaten up raw, it is -employed topically for the gout. The people of Egypt cultivate the -acinos,[2362] too, both as an article of food and for making chaplets. -This plant would be the same thing as ocimum, were it not that the -leaves and branches of it are rougher, and that it has a powerful -smell. It promotes the catamenia, and acts as a diuretic. - - - - -CHAP. 102. (28.)—TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE COLOCASIA. - - -The colocasia,[2363] according to Glaucias, softens the acridity of -humours of the body, and is beneficial to the stomach. - - - - -CHAP. 103. (29.)—SIX REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE ANTHYLLIUM OR ANTHYLLUM. - - -The people of Egypt eat the anthalium,[2364] but I cannot find that -they make any other use of it; but there is another plant called the -“anthyllium,”[2365] or, by some persons, the “anthyllum,” of which -there are two kinds: one, similar in its leaves and branches to the -lentil, a palm in height, growing in sandy soils exposed to the -sun, and of a somewhat saltish taste; the other, bearing a strong -resemblance to the chamæpitys,[2366] but smaller and more downy, with a -purple flower, a strong smell, and growing in stony spots. - -The first kind, mixed with rose-oil and applied with milk, is extremely -good for affections of the uterus and all kinds of sores: it is taken -as a potion for strangury and gravel in the kidneys, in doses of three -drachmæ. The other kind is taken in drink, with oxymel, in doses of -four drachmæ, for indurations of the uterus, gripings of the bowels, -and epilepsy. - - - - -CHAP. 104. (30.)—EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE PARTHENIUM, -LEUCANTHES, OR AMARACUS. - - -The parthenium[2367] is by some persons called the “leucanthes,” and -by others the “amaracus.” Celsus, among the Latin writers, gives -it the names of “perdicium”[2368] and “muralis.” It grows in the -hedge-rows of gardens, and has the smell of an apple, with a bitter -taste. With the decoction of it, fomentations are made for maladies of -the fundament, and for inflammations and indurations of the uterus: -dried and applied with honey and vinegar, it carries off black bile, -for which reason it is considered good for vertigo and calculus in the -bladder. It is employed as a liniment, also, for erysipelas, and, mixed -with stale axle-grease, for scrofulous sores. For tertian fevers the -Magi recommend that it should be taken up with the left hand, it being -mentioned at the time for whom it is gathered, care being also taken -not to look back while doing so: a leaf of it should be laid beneath -the patient’s tongue, after which it must be eaten in a cyathus of -water. - - - - -CHAP. 105. (31.)—EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE TRYCHNUM OR STRYCHNUM, -HALICACABUM, CALLIAS, DORCYNION, MANICON, NEURAS, MORIO, OR MOLY. - - -The trychnon[2369] is by some called “strychnon;” I only wish that the -garland-makers of Egypt would never use this plant in making their -chaplets, being deceived as they are by the resemblance in the leaves -of both kinds to those of ivy. One of these kinds, bearing scarlet -berries with a stone, enclosed in follicules, is by some persons called -the “halicacabum,”[2370] by others the “callion,” and by the people of -our country, the “vesicaria,” from the circumstance of its being highly -beneficial to the bladder[2371] and in cases of calculus. - -The trychnon is more of a woody shrub than a herb, with large -follicules, broad and turbinated, and a large berry within, which -ripens in the month of November. A third[2372] kind, again, has a -leaf resembling that of ocimum—but it is not my intention to give an -exact description of it, as I am here speaking of remedies, and not of -poisons; for a few drops of the juice, in fact, are quite sufficient -to produce insanity. The Greek writers, however, have even turned this -property into matter for jesting; for, according to them, taken in -doses of one drachma, this plant is productive of delusive and prurient -fancies, and of vain, fantastic visions, which vividly present all the -appearance of reality: they say, too, that if the dose is doubled, it -will produce downright madness, and that any further addition to it, -will result in instant death. - -This is the same plant which the more well-meaning writers have -called in their innocence “dorycnion,”[2373] from the circumstance -that weapons used in battle are poisoned with it—for it grows -everywhere—while others, again, who have treated of it more -at length,[2374] have given it the surname of “manicon.”[2375] -Those, on the other hand, who have iniquitously concealed its real -qualities, give it the name of “erythron” or “neuras,” and others -“perisson”—details, however, which need not be entered into more fully, -except for the purpose of putting persons upon their guard. - -There is another kind, again, also called “halicacabum,” which -possesses narcotic qualities, and is productive of death even more -speedily than opium: by some persons it is called “morio,” and by -others “moly.”[2376] It has, however, been highly extolled by Diocles -and Evenor, and, indeed, Timaristus has gone so far as to sing its -praises in verse. With a wonderful obliviousness of remedies really -harmless, they tell us, forsooth, that it is an instantaneous remedy -for loose teeth to rinse them with halicacabum steeped in wine: but at -the same time they add the qualification that it must not be kept in -the mouth too long, or else delirium will be the result. This, however, -is pointing out remedies with a vengeance, the employment of which will -be attended with worse results than the malady itself. - -There is a third kind[2377] of halicacabum, that is esteemed as an -article of food; but even though the flavour of it may be preferred -to garden plants, and although Xenocrates assures us that there is no -bodily malady for which the trychnos is not highly beneficial, they are -none of them so valuable as to make me think it proper to speak more at -length upon the subject, more particularly as there are so many other -remedies, which are unattended with danger. Persons who wish to pass -themselves off for true prophets, and who know too well how to impose -upon the superstitions of others, take the root of the halicacabum -in drink. The remedy against this poison—and it is with much greater -pleasure that I state it—is to drink large quantities of honied wine -made hot. I must not omit the fact, too, that this plant is naturally -so baneful to the asp, that when the root is placed near that reptile, -the very animal which kills others by striking them with torpor, is -struck with torpor itself; hence it is, that, beaten up with oil, it -is used as a cure for the sting of the asp. - - - - -CHAP. 106.—SIX MEDICINES DERIVED FROM THE CORCHORUS. - - -The corchorus[2378] is a plant which is used at Alexandria as an -article of food: the leaves of it are rolled up, one upon the other, -like those of the mulberry, and it is wholesome, it is said, for the -viscera, and in cases of alopecy, being good also for the removal of -freckles. I find it stated also, that it cures the scab in cattle very -rapidly: and, according to Nicander,[2379] it is a remedy for the -stings of serpents, if gathered before it blossoms. - - - - -CHAP. 107.—THREE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE CNECOS. - - -There would be no necessity to speak at any length of the cnecos or -atractylis,[2380] an Egyptian plant, were it not for the fact that it -offers a most efficacious remedy for the stings of venomous animals, -as also in cases of poisoning by fungi. It is a well-known fact, that -persons, when stung by the scorpion, are not sensible of any painful -effects so long as they hold this plant in their hand. - - - - -CHAP. 108. (33.)—ONE REMEDY DERIVED FROM THE PESOLUTA. - - -The Egyptians also cultivate the pesoluta[2381] in their gardens, for -chaplets. There are two kinds of this plant, the male and the female: -either of them, it is said, placed beneath the person, when in bed, -acts as an antaphrodisiac, upon the male sex more particularly. - - - - -CHAP. 109. (34.)—AN EXPLANATION OF GREEK TERMS RELATIVE TO WEIGHTS AND -MEASURES. - - -As we have occasion to make use of Greek names very frequently when -speaking of weights and measures,[2382] I shall here subjoin, once for -all, some explanation of them. - -The Attic drachma—for it is generally the Attic reckoning that medical -men employ—is much the same in weight as the silver denarius, and is -equivalent to six oboli, the obolus being ten chalci; the cyathus is -equal in weight to ten drachmæ. When the measure of an acetabulum is -spoken of, it is the same as one fourth part of a hemina, or fifteen -drachmæ in weight. The Greek mna, or, as we more generally call it, -“mina,” equals one hundred Attic drachmæ in weight. - - -SUMMARY.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, seven hundred and -thirty. - - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Cato the Censor,[2383] M. Varro,[2384] -Antias,[2385] Cæpio,[2386] Vestinus,[2387] Vibius Rufus,[2388] -Hyginus,[2389] Pomponius Mela,[2390] Pompeius Lenæus,[2391] -Cornelius Celsus,[2392] Calpurnius Bassus,[2393] C. Valgius,[2394] -Licinius Macer,[2395] Sextius Niger[2396] who wrote in Greek, Julius -Bassus[2397] who wrote in Greek, Antonius Castor.[2398] - - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Theophrastus,[2399] Democritus,[2400] -Orpheus,[2401] Pythagoras,[2402] Mago,[2403] Menander[2404] who wrote -the Biochresta, Nicander,[2405] Homer, Hesiod,[2406] Musæus,[2407] -Sophocles,[2408] Anaxilaüs.[2409] - - -MEDICAL AUTHORS QUOTED.—Mnesitheus[2410] who wrote on Chaplets, -Callimachus[2411] who wrote on Chaplets, Phanias[2412] the physician, -Simus,[2413] Timaristus,[2414] Hippocrates,[2415] Chrysippus,[2416] -Diocles,[2417] Ophelion,[2418] Heraclides,[2419] Hicesius,[2420] -Dionysius,[2421] Apollodorus[2422] of Citium, Apollodorus[2423] -of Tarentum, Praxagoras,[2424] Plistonicus,[2425] Medius,[2426] -Dieuches,[2427] Cleophantus,[2428] Philistio,[2429] Asclepiades,[2430] -Crateuas,[2431] Petronius Diodotus,[2432] Iollas,[2433] -Erasistratus,[2434] Diagoras,[2435] Andreas,[2436] Mnesides,[2437] - - -Epicharmus,[2438] Damion,[2439] Dalion,[2440] Sosimenes,[2441] -Tlepolemus,[2442] Metrodorus,[2443] Solo,[2444] Lycus,[2445] -Olympias[2446] of Thebes, Philinus,[2447] Petrichus,[2448] -Micton,[2449] Glaucias,[2450] Xenocrates.[2451] - - - - -BOOK XXII. - -THE PROPERTIES OF PLANTS AND FRUITS. - - - - -CHAP. 1.—THE PROPERTIES OF PLANTS. - - -Nature and the earth might have well filled the measure of our -admiration, if we had nothing else to do but to consider the properties -enumerated in the preceding Book, and the numerous varieties of plants -that we find created for the wants or the enjoyment of mankind. And -yet, how much is there still left for us to describe, and how many -discoveries of a still more astonishing nature! The greater part, in -fact, of the plants there mentioned recommend themselves to us by -their taste, their fragrance, or their beauty, and so invite us to -make repeated trials of their virtues: but, on the other hand, the -properties of those which remain to be described, furnish us with -abundant proof that nothing has been created by Nature without some -purpose to fulfil, unrevealed to us though it may be. - - - - -CHAP. 2. (1.)—PLANTS USED BY NATIONS FOR THE ADORNMENT OF THE PERSON. - - -I remark, in the first place, that there are some foreign nations -which, in obedience to long-established usage, employ certain plants -for the embellishment of the person. That, among some barbarous -peoples, the females[2452] stain the face by means of various plants, -there can be little doubt, and among the Daci and the Sarmatæ we find -the men even marking[2453] their bodies. There is a plant in Gaul, -similar to the plantago in appearance, and known there by the name of -“glastum:”[2454] with it both matrons and girls[2455] among the people -of Britain are in the habit of staining the body all over, when taking -part in the performance of certain sacred rites; rivalling hereby the -swarthy hue of the Æthiopians, they go in a state of nature. - - - - -CHAP. 3. (2.)—EMPLOYMENT OF PLANTS FOR DYEING. EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS -SAGMEN, VERBENA, AND CLARIGATIO. - - -We know, too, that from plants are extracted admirable colours for -dyeing; and, not to mention the berries[2456] of Galatia,[2457] Africa, -and Lusitania, which furnish the coccus, a dye reserved for the -military costume[2458] of our generals, the people of Gaul beyond the -Alps produce the Tyrian colours, the conchyliated,[2459] and all the -other hues, by the agency of plants[2460] alone. They have not there -to seek the murex at the bottom of the sea, or to expose themselves to -be the prey of the monsters of the deep, while tearing it from their -jaws, nor have they to go searching in depths to which no anchor has -penetrated—and all this for the purpose of finding the means whereby -some mother of a family may appear more charming in the eyes of her -paramour, or the seducer may make himself more captivating to the wife -of another man. Standing on dry land, the people there gather in their -dyes just as we do our crops of corn—though one great fault in them -is, that they wash[2461] out; were it not for which, luxury would have -the means of bedecking itself with far greater magnificence, or, at all -events, at the price of far less danger. - -It is not my purpose, however, here to enter further into these -details, nor shall I make the attempt, by substituting resources -attended with fewer risks, to circumscribe luxury within the limits of -frugality; though, at the same time, I shall have to speak on another -occasion how that vegetable productions are employed for staining stone -and imparting their colours to walls.[2462] Still, however, I should -not have omitted to enlarge upon the art of dyeing, had I found that -it had ever been looked upon as forming one of our liberal[2463] arts. -Meantime, I shall be actuated by higher considerations, and shall -proceed to show in what esteem we are bound to hold the mute[2464] -plants even, or in other words, the plants of little note. For, indeed, -the authors and founders of the Roman sway have derived from these very -plants even almost boundless results; as it was these same plants, -and no others, that afforded them the “sagmen,”[2465] employed in -seasons of public calamity, and the “verbena” of our sacred rites and -embassies. These two names, no doubt, originally signified the same -thing,—a green turf torn up from the citadel with the earth attached to -it; and hence, when envoys were dispatched to the enemy for the purpose -of clarigation, or, in other words, with the object of _clearly_[2466] -demanding restitution of property that had been carried off, one of -these officers was always known as the “verbenarius.”[2467] - - - - -CHAP. 4. (3.)—THE GRASS CROWN: HOW RARELY IT HAS BEEN AWARDED. - - -Of all the crowns with which, in the days of its majesty, the -all-sovereign people, the ruler of the earth, recompensed the valour -of its citizens, there was none attended with higher glory than the -crown of grass.[2468] The crowns[2469] bedecked with gems of gold, the -vallar, mural, rostrate, civic, and triumphal crowns, were, all of -them, inferior to this: great, indeed, was the difference between them, -and far in the background were they thrown by it. As to all the rest, -a single individual could confer them, a general or commander on his -soldiers for instance, or, as on some occasions, on his colleague: the -senate, too, exempt from the cares and anxieties of war, and the people -in the enjoyment of repose, could award them, together with the honours -of a triumph. - -(4.) But as for the crown of grass, it was never conferred except at a -crisis of extreme desperation, never voted except by the acclamation -of the whole army, and never to any one but to him who had been its -preserver. Other crowns were awarded by the generals to the soldiers, -this alone by the soldiers, and to the general. This crown is known -also as the “obsidional” crown, from the circumstance of a beleaguered -army being delivered, and so preserved from fearful disaster. If we -are to regard as a glorious and a hallowed reward the civic crown, -presented for preserving the life of a single citizen, and him, -perhaps, of the very humblest rank, what, pray, ought to be thought -of a whole army being saved, and indebted for its preservation to the -valour of a single individual? - -The crown thus presented was made of green grass,[2470] gathered on the -spot where the troops so rescued had been beleaguered. Indeed, in early -times, it was the usual token of victory for the vanquished to present -to the conqueror a handful of grass; signifying thereby that they -surrendered[2471] their native soil, the land that had nurtured them, -and the very right even there to be interred—a usage which, to my own -knowledge, still exists among the nations of Germany.[2472] - - - - -CHAP. 5. (5.)—THE ONLY PERSONS THAT HAVE BEEN PRESENTED WITH THIS CROWN. - - -L. Siccius Dentatus[2473] was presented with this crown but once, -though he gained as many as fourteen civic crowns, and fought one -hundred and twenty battles, in all of which he was victorious—so rarely -is it that an army has to thank a single individual only for its -preservation! Some generals, however, have been presented with more -than one of these crowns, P. Decius Mus,[2474] the military tribune, -for example, who received one from his own army, and another from the -troops which he had rescued[2475] when surrounded. He testified by an -act of devoutness in what high esteem he held such an honour as this, -for, adorned with these insignia, he sacrificed a white ox to Mars, -together with one hundred red oxen, which had been presented to him by -the beleaguered troops as the recompense of his valour: it was this -same Decius, who afterwards, when consul, with Imperiosus[2476] for his -colleague, devoted his life to secure victory to his fellow-citizens. - -This crown was presented also by the senate and people of Rome—a -distinction than which I know of nothing in existence more glorious—to -that same Fabius[2477] who restored the fortunes of Rome by avoiding -a battle; not, however, on the occasion when he preserved the master -of the horse[2478] and his army; for then it was deemed preferable -by those who were indebted to him for their preservation to present -him with a crown under a new title, that of “father.” The crown of -grass was, however, awarded to him, with that unanimity which I have -mentioned, after Hannibal had been expelled from Italy; being the -only crown, in fact, that has hitherto been placed upon the head of -a citizen by the hands of the state itself, and, another remarkable -distinction, the only one that has ever been conferred by the whole of -Italy united. - - - - -CHAP. 6. (6.)—THE ONLY CENTURION THAT HAS BEEN THUS HONOURED. - - -In addition to the persons already mentioned, the honour of this -crown has been awarded to M. Calpurnius Flamma,[2479] then a military -tribune in Sicily; but up to the present time it has been given to a -single centurion only, Cneius Petreius Atinas, during the war with the -Cimbri. This soldier, while acting as primipilus[2480] under Catulus, -on finding all retreat for his legion cut off by the enemy, harangued -the troops, and after slaying his tribune who hesitated to cut a way -through the encampment of the enemy, brought away the legion in safety. -I find it stated also by some authors, that, in addition to this -honour, this same Petreius, clad in the prætexta, offered sacrifice -at the altar, to the sound of the pipe,[2481] in presence of the then -consuls,[2482] Marius and Catulus. - -The Dictator Sylla has also stated in his memoirs, that when legatus -in the Marsic War he was presented with this crown by the army, at -Nola; an event which he caused to be commemorated in a painting at his -Tusculan villa, which afterwards became the property of Cicero. If -there is any truth in this statement, I can only say that it renders -his memory all the more execrable, and that, by his proscriptions, -with his own hand he tore this crown from his brow, for few indeed -were the citizens whom he thus preserved, in comparison with those -he slaughtered at a later period. And let him even add to this high -honour his proud surname of “Felix,”[2483] if he will; all the glories -of this crown he surrendered to Sertorius, from the moment that he put -his proscribed fellow-citizens in a stage of siege throughout the whole -world. - -Varro, too, relates that Scipio Æmilianus was awarded the obsidional -crown in Africa, under the consul Manilius,[2484] for the preservation -of three cohorts, by bringing as many to their rescue; an event -commemorated by an inscription upon the base of the statue erected in -honour of him by the now deified Emperor Augustus, in the Forum which -bears his name. Augustus himself was also presented by the senate -with the obsidional crown, upon the ides[2485] of September, in the -consulship[2486] of M. Cicero the Younger, the civic crown being looked -upon as not commensurate with his deserts. Beyond these, I do not find -any one mentioned as having been rewarded with this honour. - - - - -CHAP. 7.—REMEDIES DERIVED FROM OTHER CHAPLET PLANTS. - - -No plant[2487] in particular was employed in the composition of this -crown, such only being used as were found growing on the spot so -imperilled; and thus did they become the means, however humble and -unnoted themselves, of conferring high honour and renown. All this, -however, is but little known among us at the present day; a fact which -I am the less surprised at, when I reflect that those plants even -are treated with the same indifference, the purpose of which it is -to preserve our health, to allay our bodily pains, and to repel the -advances of death! And who is there that would not visit with censure, -and justly visit, the manners of the present day? Luxury and effeminacy -have augmented the price at which we live, and never was life more -hankered after, or worse cared[2488] for, than it is at present. This, -however, we look upon as the business of others, forsooth; other -persons must see to it, without our troubling ourselves to request -them, and the physicians must exercise the necessary providence in our -behalves.[2489] As for ourselves, we go on enjoying our pleasures, and -are content to live—a thing that in my opinion reflects the highest -possible disgrace—by putting faith in others.[2490] - -Nay, even more than this, we ourselves are held in derision by many, -for undertaking these researches, and are charged with busying -ourselves with mere frivolities! It is some solace, however, in -the prosecution of these our boundless labours, to have Nature as -our sharer in this contempt: Nature who, as we will prove beyond a -doubt, has never failed in coming to the assistance of man, and has -implanted[2491] remedies for our use in the most despised even of the -vegetable productions, medicaments in plants which repel us with their -thorns. - -It is of these, in fact, that it remains for us now to speak, as next -in succession to those which we have mentioned in the preceding Book; -and here we cannot sufficiently admire, and, indeed, adore,[2492] -the wondrous providence displayed by Nature. She had given us, as -already[2493] shewn, plants soft to the touch, and agreeable to the -palate; in the flowers she had painted the remedies for our diseases -with her varied tints, and, while commingling the useful with the -delicious, had attracted our attention by means of the pleasures of the -eye. Here, however, she has devised another class of plants, bristling -and repulsive to the sight, and dangerous to the touch; so much so, -indeed, that we fancy we all but hear the voice of her who made them as -she reveals to us her motives for so doing. It is her wish, she says, -that no ravening cattle may browse upon them, that no wanton hand may -tear them up, that no heedless footstep may tread them down, that no -bird, perching there, may break them: and in thus fortifying them with -thorns, and arming them with weapons, it has been her grand object to -save and protect the remedies which they afford to man. Thus we see, -the very qualities even which we hold in such aversion, have been -devised by Nature for the benefit and advantage of mankind. - - - - -CHAP. 8. (7.)—THE ERYNGE OR ERYNGIUM. - - -In the first rank of the plants armed with prickles, the erynge[2494] -or eryngion stands pre-eminent, a vegetable production held in high -esteem as an antidote formed for the poison of serpents and all -venomous substances. For stings and bites of this nature, the root is -taken in wine in doses of one drachma, or if, as generally is the case, -the wound is attended with fever, in water. It is employed also, in -the form of a liniment, for wounds, and is found to be particularly -efficacious for those inflicted by water-snakes or frogs. The physician -Heraclides states it as his opinion that, boiled in goose-broth, it -is a more valuable remedy than any other known, for aconite[2495] -and other poisons.[2496] Apollodorus recommends that, in cases of -poisoning, it should be boiled with a frog, and other authorities, -in water only. It is a hardy plant, having much the appearance of a -shrub, with prickly leaves and a jointed stem; it grows a cubit or more -in height. Sometimes it is found of a whitish colour, and sometimes -black,[2497] the root of it being odoriferous. It is cultivated in -gardens, but it is frequently to be found growing[2498] spontaneously -in rugged and craggy localities. It grows, too, on the sea-shore, in -which case it is tougher and darker than usual, the leaf resembling -that of parsley.[2499] - - - - -CHAP. 9. (8.)—THE ERYNGIUM, CALLED CENTUM CAPITA: THIRTY REMEDIES. - - -The white variety of the eryngium is known in our language as the -“centum capita.”[2500] It has all the properties above-mentioned, -and the Greeks employ both the stalk and the root as an article of -food,[2501] either boiled or raw. There are some marvellous facts -related in connexion with this plant; the root[2502] of it, it is -said, bears a strong resemblance to the organs of either sex; it is but -rarely found, but if a root resembling the male organs should happen -to fall in the way of a man, it will ensure him woman’s love; hence it -is that Phaon the Lesbian was so passionately beloved[2503] by Sappho. -Upon this subject, too, there have been numerous other reveries, not -only on the part of the Magi, but of Pythagorean philosophers even as -well. - -So far as its medicinal properties are concerned, in addition to -those already mentioned, this plant, taken in hydromel, is good for -flatulency, gripings of the bowels, diseases of the heart, stomach, -liver, and thoracic organs, and, taken in oxycrate, for affections of -the spleen. Mixed with hydromel, it is recommended also for diseases of -the kidneys, strangury, opisthotony, spasms, lumbago, dropsy, epilepsy, -suppression or excess of the catamenia, and all maladies of the uterus. -Applied with honey, it extracts foreign substances from the body, and, -with salted axle-grease and cerate, it disperses scrofulous sores, -imposthumes of the parotid glands, inflamed tumours, denudations of the -bones, and fractures. Taken before drinking, it prevents the fumes of -wine from rising to the head, and it arrests looseness of the bowels. -Some of our authors have recommended that this plant should be gathered -at the period of the summer solstice, and that it should be applied, -in combination with rain water, for all kinds of maladies of the neck. -They say too, that, attached as an amulet to the person, it is a cure -for albugo.[2504] - - - - -CHAP. 10. (9.)—THE ACANOS; ONE REMEDY. - - -There are some authors, too, who make the acanos[2505] to be a -species of eryngium. It is a thorny plant, stunted, and spreading, -with prickles of a considerable size. Applied topically, they say, it -arrests hæmorrhage in a most remarkable degree. - - - - -CHAP. 11.—THE GLYCYRRHIZA OR ADIPSOS: FIFTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Other authors, again, have erroneously taken the glycyrrhiza[2506] to -be a kind of eryngium: it will, therefore, be as well to take this -opportunity of making some further mention of it. There can be no -doubt, however, that this is one of the thorny plants, the leaves of it -being covered with prickles,[2507] substantial, and viscous and gummy -to the touch: it has much the appearance of a shrub, is a couple of -cubits in height, and bears a flower like that of the hyacinth, and a -fruit the size of the little round balls[2508] of the plane. The best -kind is that grown in Cilicia, and the next best that of Pontus; the -root of it is sweet, and this is the only part that is used. It is -gathered at the setting of the Vergiliæ,[2509] the root of it being -long, like that of the vine.[2510] That which is yellow, the colour -of boxwood in fact, is superior to the darker kind, and the flexible -is better than the brittle. Boiled down to one-third, it is employed -for pessaries; but, for general purposes, a decoction is made of it of -the consistency of honey. Sometimes, also, it is used pounded, and it -is in this form that it is applied as a liniment for wounds and all -affections of the throat. The juice[2511] of it is also very good for -the voice, for which purpose it is thickened and then placed beneath -the tongue: it is good, too, for the chest and liver. - -We have already stated[2512] that this plant has the effect of -allaying hunger and thirst: hence it is that some authors have given -it the name of “adipsos,”[2513] and have prescribed it for dropsical -patients, to allay thirst. It is for this reason, too, that it is -chewed as a stomatic,[2514] and that the powder of it is often -sprinkled on ulcerous sores of the mouth and films[2515] on the eyes: -it heals, too, excrescences[2516] of the bladder, pains in the kidneys, -condylomata,[2517] and ulcerous sores of the genitals. Some persons -have given it in potions for quartan fevers, the doses being two -drachmæ, mixed with pepper in one hemina of water. Chewed, and applied -to wounds, it arrests hæmorrhage:[2518] some authors have asserted, -also, that it expels calculi of the bladder. - - - - -CHAP. 12. (10.)—TWO VARIETIES OF THE TRIBULUS; TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -Of the two[2519] kinds of tribulus, the one is a garden plant, the -other grows in rivers only. There is a juice extracted from them which -is employed for diseases of the eyes, it being of a cool and refreshing -nature, and, consequently, useful for inflammations and abscesses. Used -with honey, this juice is curative of spontaneous ulcerations, those of -the mouth in particular; it is good also for affections of the tonsils. -Taken in a potion, it breaks calculi of the bladder. - -The Thracians who dwell on the banks of the river Strymon feed their -horses[2520] on the leaves of the tribulus, and employ the kernels -as an article of food, making of them a very agreeable kind of -bread, which acts astringently[2521] upon the bowels. The root, if -gathered by persons in a state of chastity and purity,[2522] disperses -scrofulous sores: and the seed, used as an amulet, allays the pains -attendant upon varicose veins: pounded and mixed with water, it -destroys fleas. - - - - -CHAP. 13. (11.)—THE STŒBE OR PHEOS. - - -The stœbe,[2523] by some persons known as the “pheos,” boiled in wine, -is particularly good for the cure of suppurations of the ears, and for -extravasations of blood in the eyes from the effects of a blow. It is -employed also in injections for hæmorrhage and dysentery. - - - - -CHAP. 14. (12.)—TWO VARIETIES OF THE HIPPOPHAES: TWO REMEDIES. - - -The hippophaes[2524] grows in sandy soils, and on the sea-shore. It -is a plant with white thorns, and covered with clusters, like the -ivy, the berries being white, and partly red. The root of it is full -of a juice which is either used by itself, or else is made up into -lozenges with meal of fitches: taken in doses of one obolus, it carries -off bile, and it is extremely beneficial if used with honied wine. -There is another[2525] hippophaes, without either stalk or flowers, -and consisting only of diminutive leaves: the juice of this also is -wonderfully useful for dropsy. - -These plants would appear, too, to be remarkably well adapted to the -constitution of the horse, as it can be for no other reason than this -that they have received their name.[2526] For, in fact, there are -certain plants which have been created as remedies for the diseases -of animals, the Divinity being bounteously lavish of his succours and -resources; so much so, indeed, that we cannot sufficiently admire the -wisdom with which he has arranged them according to the classes of -animated beings which they are to serve, the causes which give rise to -their various maladies, and the times at which they are likely to be in -requisition: hence it is that there is no class of beings, no season, -and, so to speak, no day, that is without its remedy. - - - - -CHAP. 15. (13.)—THE NETTLE: SIXTY-ONE REMEDIES. - - -What plant can there possibly be that is more an object of our aversion -than the nettle?[2527] And yet, in addition to the oil which we have -already mentioned[2528] as being extracted from it in Egypt, it abounds -in medicinal properties. The seed of it, according to Nicander, -is an antidote to the poison of hemlock,[2529] of fungi, and of -quicksilver.[2530] Apollodorus prescribes it, too, taken in the broth -of a boiled tortoise,[2531] for the bite of the salamander,[2532] and -as an antidote for the poison of henbane, serpents, and scorpions. -The stinging pungency even of the nettle has its uses; for, by its -contact, it braces the uvula, and effects the cure of prolapsus of the -uterus, and of procidence of the anus in infants. By touching the legs -of persons in a lethargy, and the forehead more particularly, with -nettles, they are awakened.[2533] Applied with salt, the nettle is -used to heal the bites of dogs, and beaten up and applied topically, -it arrests bleeding[2534] at the nostrils, the root in particular. -Mixed with salt, also, it is employed for the cure of cancers and foul -ulcers; and, applied in a similar manner, it cures sprains and inflamed -tumours, as well as imposthumes of the parotid glands and denudations -of the bones. The seed of it, taken with boiled must, dispels -hysterical suffocations, and, applied topically, it arrests mucous -discharges of the nostrils. Taken with hydromel, after dinner, in doses -of two oboli, the seed produces a gentle vomit;[2535] and a dose of -one obolus, taken in wine, has the effect of dispelling lassitude. -The seed is prescribed also, parched, and in doses of one acetabulum, -for affections of the uterus; and, taken in boiled[2536] must, it is -a remedy for flatulency of the stomach. Taken in an electuary, with -honey, it gives relief in hardness of breathing, and clears the chest -by expectoration: applied with linseed, it is a cure for pains in -the side, with the addition of some hyssop and a little pepper. The -seed is employed also in the form of a liniment for affections of the -spleen, and, parched and taken with the food, it acts as a laxative in -constipation of the bowels. Hippocrates[2537] says that the seed, taken -in drink, acts as a purgative upon the uterus; and that taken, parched, -with sweet wine, in doses of one acetabulum, or applied externally with -juice of mallows, it alleviates pains in that organ. He states also -that, used with hydromel and salt, it expels intestinal worms, and -that a liniment made of the seed will restore the hair when falling -off. Many persons, too, employ the seed topically, with old oil, for -diseases of the joints, and for gout, or else the leaves beaten up with -bears’-grease: the root, too, pounded in vinegar, is no less useful for -the same purposes, as also for affections of the spleen. Boiled in -wine, and applied with stale axle-grease and salt, the root disperses -inflamed tumours, and, dried, it is used as a depilatory. - -Phanias, the physician, has enlarged upon the praises of the nettle, -and he assures us that, taken with the food, either boiled or -preserved, it is extremely beneficial for affections of the trachea, -cough, fluxes of the bowels, stomachic complaints, inflamed tumours, -imposthumes of the parotid glands, and chilblains; that, taken with -oil, it acts as a sudorific; and that, boiled with shell-fish, it -relaxes the bowels. He says, too, that taken with a ptisan,[2538] it -facilitates expectoration and acts as an emmenagogue, and that, applied -with salt, it prevents ulcers from spreading. The juice of the nettle -is also used: applied to the forehead, it arrests bleeding at the nose, -taken in drink it acts as a diuretic and breaks calculi in the bladder, -and, used as a gargle, it braces the uvula when relaxed. - -Nettle-seed should be gathered at harvest-time: that of Alexandria -is the most highly esteemed. For all these different purposes the -milder and more tender plants are the best, the wild nettle[2539] in -particular: this last, taken in wine, has the additional property of -removing leprous spots on the face. When animals refuse to couple, it -is recommended to rub the sexual organs with nettles.[2540] - - - - -CHAP. 16. (14.)—THE LAMIUM: SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -The variety of nettle, too, which we have already[2541] spoken of under -the name of “lamium,”[2542] the most innoxious of them all, the leaves -not having the property of stinging, is used for the cure of bruises -and contusions, with a sprinkling[2543] of salt, as also for burns and -scrofulous sores, tumours, gout, and wounds. The middle of the leaf -is white, and is used for the cure of erysipelas. Some of our authors -have distinguished the various species of this plant according to their -respective seasons; thus, for instance, the root of the autumn nettle, -they say, carried on the person as an amulet, is a cure for tertian -fevers, if due care is taken, when pulling up the root, to mention the -patient’s name, and to state who he is and who are his parents. They -say, too, that this plant is productive of similar results in quartan -fever: and they pretend that the root of the nettle, with the addition -of salt, will extract foreign substances from the body; and that the -leaves, mixed with stale axle-grease, will disperse scrofulous sores, -or if they suppurate, cauterize them and cause them to fill up with new -flesh. - - - - -CHAP. 17. (15.)—THE SCORPIO, TWO KINDS OF IT: ONE REMEDY. - - -The scorpio[2544] has received its appellation from the animal of that -name, in consequence of the resemblance of its seeds to a scorpion’s -tail. The leaves of it are few in number, and it is efficacious for -the sting[2545] of the animal from which it derives its name. There -is also another plant[2546] known by the same name, and possessed of -similar properties; it is destitute of leaves, has a stem like that of -asparagus,[2547] and a sharp point at the top, to which it owes its -appellation. - - - - -CHAP. 18. (16.)—THE LEUCACANTHA, PHYLLOS, ISCHIAS, OR POLYGONATOS: FOUR -REMEDIES. - - -The leucacantha,[2548] known also as the phyllos, ischias, or -polygonatos,[2549] has a root like that of the cypirus, which, when -chewed, has the effect of curing[2550] tooth-ache; as also pains in the -sides and loins, according to Hicesius, the seed or juice being taken -in drink, in doses of eight drachmæ.—This plant is employed also for -the cure of ruptures and convulsions. - - - - -CHAP. 19. (17).—THE HELXINE: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -The helxine[2551] is called by some, “perdicium,” from the circumstance -of its forming the principal food of partridges.[2552] Other persons, -however, give it the name of “sideritis,” and to some it is known as -“parthenium.” It has leaves, the shape of which is a mixture of those -of the plantago and the marrubium;[2553] the stalks are slight and -closely packed, and are of a light red colour. The seeds, enclosed in -heads resembling those of the lappa,[2554] adhere to the clothes, a -circumstance, it is said, to which it owes its name[2555] of “helxine.” -We have already stated in the preceding Book[2556] what are the -characteristics of the plant properly so called. - -The one of which we are now speaking is used for dyeing[2557] wool, -and is employed for the cure of erysipelas, tumours, all kinds of -abscesses, and burns. The juice of it, taken in doses of one cyathus -with white lead, is a cure for inflamed tumours, incipient swellings -of the throat, and inveterate coughs.[2558] It is good, too, for all -maladies of the humid parts of the body, the tonsillary glands, for -instance; and, in combination with rose oil, it is useful for varicose -veins. It is employed topically for the gout, with goat suet and -Cyprian wax. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—THE PERDICIUM, PARTHENIUM, URCEOLARIS, OR ASTERCUM: ELEVEN -REMEDIES. - - -The perdicium or parthenium[2559]—for[2560] the sideritis is, in -reality, a different plant—is known to the people of our country as -the herb urceolaris,[2561] and to some persons as the “astercum.” The -leaf of it is similar to that of ocimum, but darker, and it is found -growing on tiled roofs and walls. Beaten up with a sprinkling of -salt, it has all the medicinal properties of the lamium,[2562] and is -used in a similar manner. The juice of it, taken warm, is good, too, -for suppurated abscesses; but for the cure of convulsions, ruptures, -bruises, and the effects of falls from a height, or of the overturning -of vehicles, it is possessed of singular virtues. - -A slave, who was held in high esteem by Pericles,[2563] the ruler of -the Athenians, being engaged upon the buildings of a temple in the -citadel, while creeping along the top of the roof, happened to fall; -from the effects of which he was relieved, it is said, by this plant, -the virtues whereof had been disclosed to Pericles by Minerva in a -dream. Hence it is that it was first called “parthenium,”[2564] and was -consecrated to that goddess. It is this slave of whom there is a famous -statue in molten bronze, well known as the Splanchnoptes.[2565] - - - - -CHAP. 21. (18.)—THE CHAMÆLEON, IXIAS, ULOPHONON, OR CYNOZOLON; TWO -VARIETIES OF IT: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -The chamæleon[2566] is spoken of as the “ixias,” by some authors. There -are two species of this plant; the white kind has a rougher leaf than -the other, and creeps along the ground, erecting its prickles like the -quills of a hedgehog; the root of it is sweet, and the odour very -powerful. In some places it secretes, just as they say incense[2567] is -produced, a white viscous substance beneath the axils of the leaves, -about the rising of the Dog-star more particularly. To this viscous -nature it owes its name of “ixias;”[2568] females[2569] make use of it -as a substitute for mastich. As to its name of “chamæleon,”[2570] that -is given to it from the varying tints of the leaves; for it changes its -colours, in fact, just according to the soil, being black in one place, -green in another, blue in a third, yellow elsewhere, and of various -other colours as well. - -A decoction of the root of the white chamæleon is employed for the -cure[2571] of dropsy, being taken in doses of one drachma in raisin -wine. This decoction, taken in doses of one acetabulum, in astringent -wine, with some sprigs of origanum in it, has the effect of expelling -intestinal worms: it is good, too, as a diuretic. Mixed with polenta, -the juice of it will kill dogs and swine; with the addition of water -and oil, it will attract mice to it and destroy[2572] them, unless -they immediately drink water to counteract its effects. Some persons -recommend the root of it to be kept, cut in small pieces, and suspended -from the ceiling; when wanted, it must be boiled and taken with the -food, for the cure of those fluxes to which the Greeks have given the -name of “rheumatismi.”[2573] - -In reference to the dark kind, some writers say that the one which -bears a purple flower is the male, and that with a violet flower, the -female. They grow together, upon a stem, a cubit in length, and a -finger in thickness. The root of these plants, boiled with sulphur and -bitumen, is employed for the cure of lichens; and they are chewed, or -a decoction of them made in vinegar, to fasten loose teeth. The juice -of them is employed for the cure of scab in animals, and it has the -property of killing ticks upon dogs. Upon steers it takes effect like -a sort of quinsy; from which circumstance it has received the name of -“ulophonon”[2574] from some, as also that of cynozolon[2575] from its -offensive smell. These plants produce also a viscus, which is a most -excellent remedy for ulcers. The roots of all the different kinds are -an antidote to the sting of the scorpion. - - - - -CHAP. 22. (19.)—THE CORONOPUS. - - -The coronopus[2576] is an elongated plant, with fissures in the leaves. -It is sometimes cultivated, as the root, roasted in hot ashes, is found -to be an excellent remedy for cœliac complaints. - - - - -CHAP. 23. (20.)—THE ANCHUSA: FOURTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The root of the anchusa,[2577] too, is made use of, a plant a finger in -thickness. It is split into leaves like the papyrus, and when touched -it stains the hands the colour of blood; it is used for imparting rich -colours to wool. Applied with cerate it heals ulcerous sores, those of -aged people in particular: it is employed also for the cure of burns. -It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in oil, this being, in fact, -the test of its genuineness. It is administered also, in doses of one -drachma, in wine, for nephretic pains, or else, if there is fever, in a -decoction of balanus;[2578] it is employed in a similar manner, also, -for affections of the liver and spleen, and for enlarged secretions of -the bile. Applied with vinegar, it is used for the cure of leprosy and -the removal of freckles. The leaves, beaten up with honey and meal, are -applied topically for sprains; and taken in honied wine, in doses of -two drachmæ, they arrest looseness of the bowels.[2579] A decoction of -the root in water, it is said, kills fleas. - - - - -CHAP. 24.—THE PSEUDOANCHUSA, ECHIS, OR DORIS: THREE REMEDIES. - - -There is another plant, similar to the preceding one, and hence -known as the “pseudoanchusa,”[2580] though by some it is called -“echis,”[2581] or “doris,” as well as by many other names. It is more -downy than the other plant, however, and not so substantial; the -leaves, too, are thinner, and more drooping. The root of it, treated -with oil, does not give out any red juice, a sign by which it is -distinguished from the genuine anchusa. The leaves of this plant, or -the seed, taken in drink, are extremely efficacious for the stings of -serpents; the leaves, too, are applied topically to the wound; and the -powerful smell of them will keep serpents at a distance. A preparation -of this plant is taken, also, as a potion, for affections of the -vertebræ. The Magi recommend that the leaves of it should be plucked -with the left hand, it being mentioned at the same time for whom they -are being gathered: after which, they are to be worn as an amulet, -attached to the person, for the cure of tertian fevers.[2582] - - - - -CHAP. 25. (21.)—THE ONOCHILON, ARCHEBION, ONOCHELIS, RHEXIA, OR -ENCHRYSA: THIRTY REMEDIES. - - -There is another plant, too, the proper name of which is -“onochilon,”[2583] but which some people call “anchusa,” others -“archebion,” and others, again, “onochelis,” or “rhexia,” and, more -universally, “enchrysa.” This plant has a diminutive stem, a purple -flower, rough leaves and branches, and a root the colour of blood -at harvest-time, though dark and swarthy at other times. It grows -in sandy soils, and is extremely efficacious for the stings of -serpents, vipers in particular, the roots or leaves of it being taken -indifferently with the food, or in the drink. It developes its virtues -at harvest-time, more especially: the leaves of it, when bruised, have -just the smell of a cucumber. This plant is prescribed, in doses of -three cyathi, for prolapsus of the uterus, and, taken with hyssop, it -expels tape-worms. For pains in the liver or kidneys, it is taken in -hydromel, if the patient shows symptoms of fever, but if not, in wine. -With the root of it a liniment is made, for the removal of freckles -and leprous sores; and it is asserted that persons who carry this root -about them will never be attacked by serpents. - -There is another[2584] plant, again, very similar to this, with a red -flower, and somewhat smaller. It is applied to the same uses as the -other; it is asserted, too, that if it is chewed, and then spit out -upon a serpent, it will cause its instantaneous death. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—THE ANTHEMIS, LEUCANTHEMIS, LEUCANTHEMUM, CHAMÆMELUM, OR -MELANTHIUM; THREE VARIETIES OF IT: ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -The anthemis has been highly extolled by Asclepiades. Some persons -call it “leucanthemis,”[2585] some leucanthemum, others, again, -“eranthemis,”[2586] from its flowering in spring, and others -“chamæmelon,”[2587] because it has a smell like that of an apple: -sometimes, too, it is called “melanthion.”[2588] There are three -varieties of this plant, which only differ from one another in the -flower; they do not exceed a palm in height, and they bear small -blossoms like those of rue, white, yellow,[2589] or purple. - -This plant is mostly found in thin, poor soils, or growing near -foot-paths. It is usually gathered in spring, and put by for the -purpose of making chaplets. At the same season, too, medical men -pound the leaves, and make them up into lozenges, the same being done -with the flowers also, and the root. All the parts of this plant are -administered together, in doses of one drachma, for the stings of -serpents of all kinds. Taken in drink, too, they bring away the dead -fœtus, act as an emmenagogue and diuretic, and disperse calculi of the -bladder. The anthemis is employed, also, for the cure of flatulency, -affections of the liver, excessive secretions of the bile, and fistulas -of the eye; chewed, it heals running sores. Of all the different -varieties, the one that is most efficacious for the treatment of -calculi is that with the purple flower,[2590] the leaves and stem[2591] -of which are somewhat larger than those of the other kinds. Some -persons, and with strict propriety, give to this last the name of -“eranthemis.” - - - - -CHAP. 27.—THE LOTUS PLANT: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -Those who think that the lotus is nothing but a tree only, can easily -be refuted, if upon the authority of Homer[2592] only; for that poet -names the lotus first of all among the herbs which grow to administer -to the pleasures of the gods. The leaves of this plant,[2593] mixed -with honey, disperse the marks of sores, argema,[2594] and films upon -the eyes. - - - - -CHAP. 28.—THE LOTOMETRA: TWO REMEDIES. - - -The lotometra[2595] is a cultivated lotus; with the seed of it, which -resembles millet, the shepherds in Egypt make a coarse bread, which -they mostly knead with water or milk. It is said, however, that there -is nothing lighter or more wholesome than this bread, so long as it -is eaten warm; but that when it gets cold, it becomes heavy and more -difficult of digestion. It is a well-known fact, that persons who use -it as a diet are never attacked by dysentery, tenesmus, or other -affections of the bowels; hence it is, that this plant is reckoned -among the remedies for that class of diseases. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—THE HELIOTROPIUM, HELIOSCOPIUM, OR VERRUCARIA: TWELVE -REMEDIES. THE HELIOTROPIUM, TRICOCCUM, OR SCORPIURON: FOURTEEN REMEDIES. - - -We have spoken more than once[2596] of the marvels of the heliotropium, -which turns[2597] with the sun, in cloudy weather even, so great is its -sympathy with that luminary. At night, as though in regret, it closes -its blue flower. - -There are two species of heliotropium, the tricoccum[2598] and the -helioscopium,[2599] the latter being the taller of the two, though they -neither of them exceed half[2600] a foot in height. The helioscopium -throws out branches from the root, and the seed of it, enclosed in -follicules,[2601] is gathered at harvest-time. It grows nowhere -but in a rich soil, a highly-cultivated one more particularly; the -tricoccum, on the other hand, is to be found growing everywhere. -I find it stated, that the helioscopium, boiled, is considered an -agreeable food, and that taken in milk, it is gently laxative[2602] to -the bowels; while, again, a decoction of it, taken as a potion, acts -as a most effectual purgative. The juice of this plant is collected -in summer, at the sixth[2603] hour of the day; it is usually mixed -with wine, which makes[2604] it keep all the better. Combined with -rose-oil, it alleviates head-ache. The juice extracted from the leaves, -combined with salt, removes warts; from which circumstance our people -have given this plant the name of “verrucaria,”[2605] although, from -its various properties, it fully merits a better name. For, taken -in wine or hydromel, it is an antidote to the venom of serpents and -scorpions,[2606] as Apollophanes and Apollodorus state. The leaves, -too, employed topically, are a cure for the cerebral affections of -infants, known as “siriasis,”[2607] as also for convulsions, even when -they are epileptic. It is very wholesome, too, to gargle the mouth -with a decoction of this plant. Taken in drink, it expels tapeworm and -gravel, and, with the addition of cummin, it will disperse calculi. A -decoction of the plant with the root, mixed with the leaves and some -suet of a he-goat, is applied topically for the cure of gout. - -The other kind, which we have spoken[2608] of as being called the -“tricoccum,” and which also bears the name of “scorpiuron,”[2609] -has leaves that are not only smaller than those of the other kind, -but droop downwards towards the ground: the seed of it resembles a -scorpion’s tail, to which, in fact, it owes its latter appellation. It -is of great efficacy for injuries received from all kinds of venomous -insects and the spider known as the “phalangium,” but more particularly -for the stings of scorpions, if applied topically.[2610] Those who -carry it about their person are never stung by a scorpion, and it is -said that if a circle is traced on the ground around a scorpion with -a sprig of this plant, the animal will never move out of it, and that -if a scorpion is covered with it, or even sprinkled with the water -in which it has been steeped, it will die that instant. Four grains -of the seed, taken in drink, are said to be a cure for the quartan -fever, and three for the tertian; a similar effect being produced by -carrying the plant three times round the patient, and then laying it -under his head. The seed, too, acts as an aphrodisiac, and, applied -with honey, it disperses inflamed tumours. This kind of heliotropium, -as well as the other, extracts warts radically,[2611] and excrescences -of the anus. Applied topically, the seed draws off corrupt blood from -the vertebræ and loins; and a similar effect is produced by taking -a decoction of it in chicken broth, or with beet and lentils. The -husks[2612] of the seed restore the natural colour to lividities of the -skin. According to the Magi, the patient himself should make four knots -in the heliotropium for a quartan, and three for a tertian fever, at -the same time offering a prayer that he may recover to untie them, the -plant being left in the ground meanwhile. - - - - -CHAP. 30.—THE ADIANTUM, CALLITRICHOS, TRICHOMANES, POLYTRICHOS, OR -SAXIFRAGUM; TWO VARIETIES OF IT: TWENTY-EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -Equally marvellous, too, in other respects, is the adiantum;[2613] it -is green in summer, never dies in the winter, manifests an aversion -to water, and, when sprinkled with water or dipped in it, has all the -appearance of having been dried, so great is its antipathy to moisture; -a circumstance to which it owes the name of “adiantum,”[2614] given -to it by the Greeks. In other respects, it is a shrub which might be -well employed in ornamental gardening.[2615] Some persons give it the -name of “callitrichos,”[2616] and others of “polytrichos,” both of -them bearing reference to its property of imparting colour to the hair. -For this purpose, a decoction of it is made in wine with parsley-seed, -large quantities of oil being added, if it is desired to make the hair -thick and curly as well: it has also the property of preventing the -hair from coming off. - -There are two kinds of this plant, one being whiter than the other, -which last is swarthy and more stunted. It is the larger kind that is -known as the “polytrichos,” or, as some call it, the “trichomanes.” -Both plants have tiny branches of a bright black colour, and leaves -like those of fern, the lower ones being rough and tawny, and all -of them lying close together and attached to footstalks arranged on -either side of the stem: of root, so to say, there is nothing.[2617] -This plant frequents umbrageous rocks, walls sprinkled with the spray -of running water, grottoes of fountains more particularly, and crags -surrounded with streamlets, a fact that is all the more remarkable in a -plant which derives no benefit from water. - -The adiantum is of singular efficacy in expelling and breaking calculi -of the bladder, the dark kind in particular; and it is for this reason, -in my opinion, rather than because it grows upon stones, that it has -received from the people of our country its name of “saxifragum.”[2618] -It is taken in wine, the usual dose being a pinch of it in three -fingers. Both these plants are diuretics, and act as an antidote to -the venom of serpents and spiders: a decoction of them in wine arrests -looseness of the bowels. A wreath of them, worn on the head, alleviates -head-ache. For the bite of the scolopendra they are applied topically, -but they must be removed every now and then, to prevent them from -cauterizing the flesh:[2619] they are employed in a similar manner also -for alopecy.[2620] They disperse scrofulous sores, scurf on the face, -and running ulcers of the head. A decoction of them is useful also for -asthma, affections of the liver and spleen, enlarged secretions of the -gall, and dropsy. In combination with wormwood, they form a liniment -for strangury and affections of the kidneys; they have the effect also -of bringing away the after-birth, and act as an emmenagogue. Taken -with vinegar or juice of bramble-berries, they arrest hæmorrhage. -Combined with rose-oil they are employed as a liniment for excoriations -on infants, the parts affected being first fomented with wine. The -leaves, steeped in the urine of a youth who has not arrived at puberty, -and beaten up with saltpetre, compose a liniment which, it is said, -prevents wrinkles from forming on the abdomen in females. It is a -general belief that partridges and cocks are rendered more pugnacious -if this plant is mixed with their food; and it is looked upon as -particularly beneficial for cattle. - - - - -CHAP. 31. (22.)—THE PICRIS; ONE REMEDY. THE THESION; ONE REMEDY. - - -The picris[2621] derives its name from its intense bitterness, as we -have previously stated. The leaf of it is round; it is remarkably -efficacious for the removal of warts. - -The thesium,[2622] too, has a bitterness not unlike it: it is a -powerful purgative, for which purpose it is employed bruised in water. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—THE ASPHODEL; FIFTY-ONE REMEDIES. - - -The asphodel[2623] is one of the most celebrated of all the plants, -so much so, indeed, that by some persons it has been called -“heroum.”[2624] Hesiod has mentioned the fact of its growing in -rivers, and Dionysius distinguishes it into male and female.[2625] -It has been observed that the bulbs of it, boiled with a ptisan, -are remarkably good for consumption and phthisis,[2626] and that -bread in which they have been kneaded up with the meal, is extremely -wholesome. Nicander[2627] recommends also, for the stings of serpents -and scorpions, either the stalk, which we have already[2628] spoken -of under the name of “anthericus,” or else the seed or bulbs, to be -taken in wine, in doses of three drachmæ; and he says that these -should be strewed beneath the bed, if there is any apprehension of -their presence. The asphodel is prescribed also for wounds inflicted -by marine animals of a venomous nature, and the bite of the land -scolopendra. It is quite wonderful how the snails, in Campania, seek -the stalk of this plant, and dry it by extracting the inside. The -leaves, too, are applied with wine to wounds made by venomous animals, -and the bulbs are beaten up with polenta and similarly used for -affections of the sinews and joints. It is also a very good plan to rub -lichens with them chopped up and mixed with vinegar, and to apply them -in water to putrid sores, as also to inflammations of the testes or -mamillæ. Boiled in lees of wine, and applied in a linen pledget, they -are used for the cure of defluxions of the eyes. - -Whatever the malady may happen to be, it is generally in a boiled[2629] -state that the bulbs are employed; but for foul ulcers of the legs -and for chaps upon any part of the body, they are dried and reduced -to powder. The bulbs are usually gathered in autumn,[2630] a period -when their medicinal properties are most fully developed. The juice -extracted from them pounded, or else a decoction of them, is good, -mixed with honey, for pains in the body: it is employed also with -dried iris and a little salt by those who wish to impart an agreeable -odour to the person. The leaves are used for the cure of the various -maladies above mentioned, as also, boiled in wine, for scrofulous -sores, inflamed tumours, and ulcers of the face. The ashes of the root -are a remedy for alopecy and chaps on the feet; and an extract of the -root, boiled in oil, is good for burns and chilblains. It is injected -also into the ears for deafness, and, for tooth-ache, it is poured into -the ear opposite to the part affected. A moderate dose of the root, -taken in drink, acts as a diuretic and emmenagogue; it is good also -for pains in the sides, ruptures, convulsions, and coughs, in doses of -one drachma, taken in wine. Chewed, the root promotes vomiting, but the -seed, taken internally, disorders the bowels. - -Chrysermus used to employ a decoction of the root, in wine, for -imposthumes of the parotid glands; and he has prescribed it, in -combination with cachrys,[2631] in wine, for the cure of scrofulous -sores. Some persons say that if, after applying the root to the sores, -a part of it is hung up in the smoke to dry, and not taken down till -the end of four days, the sores will gradually dry up with this portion -of the root. Sophocles[2632] used to employ it both ways, boiled and -raw, for the cure of gout; and he prescribes it, boiled in oil, for -chilblains, and, in vinegar, for jaundice and dropsy. It has been -stated, also, that, used as a friction with wine and honey, or taken -in drink, it acts as an aphrodisiac. Xenocrates assures us, too, that -a decoction of the root in vinegar removes lichens, itch-scabs, and -leprous sores; and that a decoction of it, with henbane and tar, has a -similar effect, and is good also for the removal of bad odours[2633] -of the armpits and thighs: he states, also, that if the head is well -rubbed with the root, being first shaved, the hair will curl all the -better for it. Simus prescribes a decoction of it, in wine, to be -taken for calculi in the kidneys; and Hippocrates recommends the seed -for obstructions of the spleen. The root, or else a decoction of it, -applied topically, restores the hair in beasts of burden, where it has -been lost by ulcerations or scab. It has the effect, too, of driving -away rats and mice, and of exterminating them, if placed before their -holes. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—THE HALIMON: FOURTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Some authors have thought that it is the asphodel that is called -“halimon” by Hesiod, an opinion which appears to me ill-founded; -halimon[2634] being the name of a distinct plant, which has been the -occasion of no few mistakes committed by writers. According to some, -it is a tufted shrub, white, destitute of thorns, and with leaves -like those of the olive, only softer; which eaten boiled, are an -agreeable food. The root, they say, taken in doses of one drachma in -hydromel, allays gripings of the bowels, and is a cure for ruptures -and convulsions. Others, again, pronounce it to be a vegetable growing -near the sea-shore,[2635] of a salt taste—to which, in fact, it owes -its name—with leaves somewhat round but elongated, and much esteemed as -an article of food. They say, too, that there are two species of it, -the wild and the cultivated,[2636] and that, mixed with bread, they -are good, both of them, for dysentery, even if ulceration should have -supervened, and are useful for stomachic affections, in combination -with vinegar. They state, also, that this plant is applied raw to -ulcers of long standing, and that it modifies the inflammation of -recent wounds, and the pain attendant upon sprains of the feet and -affections of the bladder. The wild halimon, they tell us, has thinner -leaves than the other, but is more effectual as a medicament in all the -above cases, as also for the cure of itch, whether in man or beast. -The root, too, according to them, employed as a friction, renders the -skin more clear, and the teeth whiter; and they assert that if the seed -of it is put beneath the tongue, no thirst will be experienced. They -state, also, that this kind is eaten as well as the other, and that -they are, both of them, preserved. - -Crateuas has spoken of a third[2637] kind also, with longer leaves than -the others, and more hairy: it has the smell of the cypress, he says, -and grows beneath the ivy more particularly. He states that this plant -is extremely good for opisthotony and contractions of the sinews, taken -in doses of three oboli to one sextarius of water. - - - - -CHAP. 34.—THE ACANTHUS, PÆDEROS, OR MELAMPHYLLOS: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -The acanthus[2638] is a plant that grows in cities, and is used in -ornamental gardening. It has a broad, long leaf, and is used as -a covering for the margins of ornamental waters and of parterres -in gardens.[2639] There are two varieties of it; the one that is -thorny[2640] and crisped is the shorter of the two; the other, which -is smooth,[2641] is by some persons called “pæderos,”[2642] and by -others “melamphyllos.”[2643] The root of this last is remarkably -good for burns and sprains; and, boiled with the food, a ptisan more -particularly, it is equally good for ruptures, spasms, and patients who -are in apprehension of phthisis. The root is also beaten up and applied -warm for hot gout. - - - - -CHAP. 35.—THE BUPLEURON: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -The bupleuron[2644] is reckoned by the Greeks in the number of the -leguminous plants which grow spontaneously. The stem of it is a cubit -in height, the leaves are long and numerous, and the head resembles -that of dill. It has been extolled as an aliment by Hippocrates, and -for its medicinal properties by Glaucon and Nicander. The seed of -it is good for the stings of serpents; and the leaves, or else the -juice, applied as a liniment with wine, bring away the after-birth. -The leaves, also, in combination with salt and wine, are applied to -scrofulous sores. The root is prescribed in wine for the stings of -serpents, and as a diuretic. - - - - -CHAP. 36.—THE BUPRESTIS: ONE REMEDY. - - -With a remarkable degree of inconsistency, the Greek writers, while -praising the buprestis[2645] as an aliment, point out certain -antidotes[2646] to it, as though it were a poison. The very name, -however, proves to a certainty that it is poisonous to cattle, and it -is generally admitted that, on tasting it, they burst[2647] asunder: we -shall, therefore, say no more about it. Is there any reason, in fact, -why, when we are speaking of the materials employed in making our grass -crowns, we should describe a poison? or really ought we to enlarge upon -it only to please the libidinous fancies of those who imagine that -there is not a more powerful aphrodisiac in existence than this, when -taken in drink? - - - - -CHAP. 37.—THE ELAPHOBOSCON: NINE REMEDIES. - - -The elaphoboscon[2648] is a ferulaceous plant, articulated, and about -a finger in thickness. The seed of it is like that of dill, hanging in -umbels resembling those of hart-wort in appearance, but not bitter. -The leaves are very like those of olusatrum.[2649] This plant, too, is -highly spoken of as an article of food; in addition to which, it is -preserved and kept as a diuretic[2650] and for the purpose of assuaging -pains in the sides, curing ruptures and convulsions, and dispelling -flatulency and colic. It is used, too, for the cure of wounds -inflicted by serpents and all kinds of animals that sting; so much -so, indeed, that, as the story goes, stags, by eating of it, fortify -themselves against the attacks of serpents. The root, too, applied -topically, with the addition of nitre, is a cure for fistula, but, when -wanted for this purpose, it must be dried first, so as to retain none -of the juice; though, on the other hand, this juice does not at all -impair its efficacy as an antidote to the poison of serpents. - - - - -CHAP. 38.—THE SCANDIX: NINE REMEDIES. THE ANTHRISCUM: TWO REMEDIES. - - -The scandix,[2651] too, is reckoned by the Greeks in the number of the -wild vegetables, as we learn from Opion and Erasistratus. Boiled, it -arrests[2652] looseness of the bowels; and the seed of it, administered -with vinegar, immediately stops hiccup. It is employed topically for -burns, and acts as a diuretic; a decoction of it is good, too, for -affections of the stomach, liver, kidneys, and bladder. It is this -plant that furnished Aristophanes with his joke[2653] against the poet -Euripides, that his mother used to sell not real vegetables, but only -scandix. - -The anthriscum[2654] would be exactly the same plant as the scandix, if -its leaves were somewhat thinner and more odoriferous. Its principal -virtue is that it reinvigorates the body when exhausted by sexual -excesses, and acts as a stimulant upon the enfeebled powers of old age. -It arrests leucorrhœa in females. - - - - -CHAP. 39.—THE IASIONE: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -The iasione,[2655] which is also looked upon as a wild vegetable, is a -creeping plant, full of a milky juice: it bears a white flower, the -name given to which is “concilium.” The chief recommendation of this -plant, too, is that it acts as an aphrodisiac. Eaten with the food, -raw, in vinegar, it promotes the secretion of the milk in nursing -women. It is salutary also for patients who are apprehensive of -phthisis; and, applied to the head of infants, it makes the hair grow, -and renders the scalp more firm. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—THE CAUCALIS: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -The caucalis,[2656] too, is an edible plant. It resembles fennel in -appearance, and has a short stem with a white flower;[2657] it is -usually considered a good cordial.[2658] The juice, too, of this plant -is taken as a potion, being particularly recommended as a stomachic, -a diuretic, an expellent of calculi and gravel, and for the cure of -irritations of the bladder. It has the effect, also, of attenuating -morbid secretions[2659] of the spleen, liver, and kidneys. The seed of -it acts as an emmenagogue, and dispels the bilious secretions after -child-birth: it is prescribed also, for males, in cases of seminal -weakness. Chrysippus is of opinion that this plant promotes conception; -for which purpose it is taken by women in wine, fasting. It is employed -in the form of a liniment, for wounds inflicted by marine animals of -a venomous nature, at least we find it so stated by Petrichus in his -poem.[2660] - - - - -CHAP. 41.—THE SIUM: ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -Among these plants there is reckoned also the sium:[2661] it grows in -the water, has a leaf broader than that of parsley, thicker, and of a -more swarthy colour, bears a considerable quantity of seed, and has the -taste of nasturtium. It is an active diuretic, is very good for the -kidneys and spleen, and acts as an emmenagogue, either eaten by itself -as an aliment,[2662] or taken in the form of a decoction; the seed of -it is taken in wine, in doses of two drachmæ. It disperses calculi in -the bladder, and neutralizes the action of water which tends to their -formation. Used in the form of an injection, it is good for dysentery, -and applied topically, for the removal of freckles. It is applied by -females, at night, for the removal of spots on the face, a result which -it produces almost instantaneously. It has the effect also of assuaging -hernia, and is good for the scab in horses. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—THE SILLYBUM. - - -The sillybum[2663] resembles the white chamæleon, and is a plant quite -as prickly. In Cilicia, Syria, and Phœnicia, the countries where it -grows, it is not thought worth while to boil it, the cooking of it -being so extremely troublesome, it is said. It is of no use whatever in -medicine. - - - - -CHAP. 43.—THE SCOLYMOS OR LIMONIA: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -The scolymos,[2664] too, is used as an aliment[2665] in the East, where -it has also the name of “limonia.”[2666] This is a shrub-like plant, -which never exceeds a cubit in height, with tufted leaves and a black -root, but sweet. Eratosthenes speaks highly of it as a diet used by -the poor. It is said to possess diuretic properties in a very high -degree, and to heal lichens and leprous sores, applied with vinegar. -Taken in wine it acts as an aphrodisiac, according to the testimony -of Hesiod[2667] and Alcæus; who have stated in their writings, that -while it is in blossom, the song of the grasshopper is louder than at -other times, women more inflamed with desire, and men less inclined -to amorous intercourse; and that it is by a kind of foresight on the -part of Nature that this powerful stimulant is then in its greatest -perfection. The root, too, used without the pith, corrects the noisome -odour of the armpits, in doses of one ounce to two heminæ of Falernian -wine; the mixture being boiled down to one third, and taken fasting -after the bath, as also after meals, a cyathus at a time. It is a -remarkable thing, but Xenocrates assures us that he has ascertained it -experimentally, that these bad odours are carried off by the urine. - - - - -CHAP. 44.—THE SONCHOS; TWO VARIETIES: FIFTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The sonchos,[2668] too, is edible—at least, it was this that, according -to Callimachus, Hecale[2669] set before Theseus. There are two kinds, -the white[2670] and the black:[2671] they are, both of them, similar -to the lettuce, except that they are prickly, with a stem a cubit in -height, angular, and hollow within; when broken, the stem gives out -an abundance of milky juice. The white kind, which derives its colour -from the milk it contains, is good for hardness of breathing, if eaten -dressed with seasoning like the lettuce. Erasistratus says that it -carries off calculi by the urine, and that, chewed, it is a corrective -of bad breath. The juice of it, taken warm in doses of three cyathi, -with white wine and oil, facilitates delivery, but the patient must be -careful to walk about immediately after drinking it: it is also given -in broth. - -A decoction of the stalk renders the milk more abundant in nursing -women, and improves the complexion of the infants suckled by them; it -is also remarkably beneficial for females when the milk coagulates. The -juice of it is used as an injection for the ears, and is taken warm in -doses of one cyathus, for strangury, as also for gnawing pains of the -stomach, with cucumber seed and pine nuts. It is employed topically -for abscesses of the rectum, and is taken in drink for the stings of -serpents and scorpions, the root also being applied to the wounds. The -root, boiled in oil, with the rind of a pomegranate, is a remedy for -diseases of the ears—all these remedies, however, be it remembered, are -derived from the white kind. - -As to the black sonchos, Cleemporus forbids it to be eaten, as being -productive of diseases, but at the same time he approves of the use -of the white. Agathocles, however, goes so far as to assert that the -juice of the black kind is an antidote for poisoning by bulls’ blood; -and, indeed, it is generally agreed that the black sonchos has certain -refreshing properties; for which reason cataplasms of it may be -advantageously applied with polenta. Zeno recommends the root of the -white kind for strangury. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—THE CONDRION OR CHONDRYLLA: SIX REMEDIES. - - -The condrion,[2672] or chondrylla, has leaves, eaten away, as it were, -at the edges, and similar to those of endive, a stalk less than a foot -in length and full of a bitter juice, and a root resembling that of the -bean, and occasionally very ramified. It produces, near the surface -of the earth, a sort of mastich,[2673] in a tubercular form, the size -of a bean; this mastich, it is said, employed as a pessary, promotes -the menstrual discharge. This plant, pounded whole with the roots, is -divided into lozenges, which are employed for the stings of serpents, -and probably with good effect; for field mice, it is said, when injured -by those reptiles, are in the habit of eating this plant. A decoction -of it in wine arrests looseness of the bowels, and makes a most -excellent substitute for gum, as a bandoline for the eye-lashes,[2674] -even when the hairs are most stubborn. Dorotheus says, in his poems, -that it is extremely good for the stomach and the digestive organs. -Some persons, however, have been of opinion that it is unwholesome for -females, bad for the eyesight, and productive of impotence in the male -sex. - - - - -CHAP. 46.—MUSHROOMS: PECULIARITIES OF THEIR GROWTH. - - -Among those vegetable productions which are eaten with risk, I shall, -with good reason, include mushrooms;[2675] a very dainty food, it -is true, but deservedly held in disesteem since the notorious crime -committed by Agrippina, who, through their agency, poisoned her -husband, the Emperor Claudius, and at the same moment, in the person of -his son Nero, inflicted another poisonous curse upon the whole world, -herself[2676] in particular. - -Some of the poisonous mushrooms are easily known, being of a rank, -unwholesome look, light red without and livid within, with the -clefts[2677] considerably enlarged, and a pale, sickly margin to the -head.[2678] These characteristics, however, are not presented by others -of the poisonous kinds; but being dry to all appearance and strongly -resembling the genuine ones, they present white spots upon the head, -on the surface of the outer coat. The earth, in fact, first produces -the uterus[2679] or receptacle for the mushroom, and then the mushroom -within, like the yolk in the egg. Nor is this envelope less conducive -to the nutrition of the young mushroom [than is the albumen of the -egg to that of the chicken.] Bursting forth from the envelope at the -moment of its first appearance, as it gradually increases it becomes -transformed into a substantial stalk; it is but very rarely, too, that -we find two growing from a single foot-stalk. The generative[2680] -principle of the mushroom is in the slime and the fermenting juices -of the damp earth, or of the roots of most of the glandiferous trees. -It appears at first in the shape of a sort of viscous foam, and then -assumes a more substantial but membranous form, after which, as already -stated, the young mushroom appears. - -In general, these plants are of a pernicious nature, and the use -of them should be altogether rejected; for if by chance they should -happen to grow near a hob-nail,[2681] a piece of rusty iron, or a -bit of rotten cloth, they will immediately imbibe all these foreign -emanations and flavours, and transform them into poison. Who, in fact, -is able to distinguish them, except those who dwell in the country, or -the persons[2682] that are in the habit of gathering them? There are -other circumstances, too, which render them noxious; if they grow near -the hole of a serpent,[2683] for instance, or if they should happen to -have been breathed upon by one when just beginning to open; being all -the more disposed to imbibe the venom from their natural affinity to -poisonous substances. - -It will therefore be as well to be on our guard during the season at -which the serpents have not as yet retired to their holes for the -winter. The best sign to know this by is a multitude of herbs, of -trees, and of shrubs, which remain green from the time that these -reptiles leave their holes till their return; indeed, the ash alone -will be quite sufficient for the purpose, the leaves of it never coming -out after the serpents have made their appearance, or beginning to -fall before they have retired to their holes. The entire existence of -the mushroom, from its birth to its death, is never more than seven -days.[2684] - - - - -CHAP. 47. (23.)—FUNGI; SIGNS BY WHICH THE VENOMOUS KINDS MAY BE -RECOGNIZED: NINE REMEDIES. - - -Fungi are of a more humid nature than the last, and are divided into -numerous kinds, all of which are derived solely from the pituitous -humours[2685] of trees. The safest are those, the flesh of which is -red,[2686] the colour being more pronounced than that of the mushroom. -The next best are the white[2687] ones, the stems of which have a head -very similar to the apex[2688] worn by the Flamens; and a third kind -are the suilli,[2689] very conveniently adapted for poisoning. Indeed, -it is but very recently that they have carried off whole families, and -all the guests at a banquet; Annæus Serenus,[2690] for instance, the -prefect of Nero’s guard, together with all the tribunes and centurions. -What great pleasure, then, can there be in partaking of a dish of so -doubtful[2691] a character as this? Some persons have classified these -fungi according to the trees to which they are indebted for their -formation, the fig, for instance, the fennel-giant, and the gummiferous -trees; those belonging to the beech, the robur, and the cypress, not -being edible, as already mentioned.[2692] But who is there to give us a -guarantee when they come to market, that these distinctions have been -observed? - -All the poisonous fungi are of a livid colour; and the degree of -similarity borne by the sap of the tree itself to that of the fig will -afford an additional indication whether they are venomous or not. We -have already mentioned[2693] various remedies for the poison of fungi, -and shall have occasion to make mention of others; but in the mean -time, it will be as well to observe that they themselves also have some -medicinal[2694] uses. Glaucias is of opinion that mushrooms are good -for the stomach. The suilli are dried and strung upon a rush, as we see -done with those brought from Bithynia. They are employed as a remedy -for the fluxes known as “rheumatismi,”[2695] and for excrescences of -the fundament, which they diminish and gradually consume. They are -used, also, for freckles and spots on women’s faces. A wash, too, is -made of them, as is done with lead,[2696] for maladies of the eyes. -Steeped in water, they are applied topically to foul ulcers, eruptions -of the head, and bites inflicted by dogs. - -I would here also give some general directions for the cooking of -mushrooms, as this is the only article of food that the voluptuaries -of the present day are in the habit of dressing with their own -hands, and so feeding upon it in anticipation, being provided with -amber-handled[2697] knives and silver plates and dishes for the -purpose. Those fungi may be looked upon as bad which become hard in -cooking; while those, on the other hand, are comparatively innoxious, -which admit of being thoroughly boiled, with the addition of some -nitre. They will be all the safer if they are boiled with some meat or -the stalks of pears: it is a very good plan, too, to eat pears directly -after them. Vinegar, too, being of a nature diametrically opposed to -them, neutralizes[2698] their dangerous qualities. - - - - -CHAP. 48.—SILPHIUM: SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -All these productions owe their origin to rain,[2699] and by rain is -silphium produced. It originally came from Cyrenæ, as already[2700] -stated: at the present day, it is mostly imported from Syria, the -produce of which country, though better than that of Media, is inferior -to the Parthian kind. As already observed,[2701] the silphium of Cyrenæ -no longer exists. It is of considerable use in medicine, the leaves -of it being employed to purge the uterus, and as an expellent of the -dead fœtus; for which purposes a decoction of them is made in white -aromatic wine, and taken in doses of one acetabulum, immediately after -the bath. The root of it is good for irritations of the trachea, and -is employed topically for extravasated blood; but, used as an aliment, -it is difficult of digestion, being productive of flatulency and -eructations: it is injurious, also, to the urinary secretions. Combined -with wine and oil, it is extremely good for bruises, and, with wax, for -the cure of scrofulous sores. Repeated fumigations with the root cause -excrescences of the anus to subside. - - - - -CHAP. 49.—LASER: THIRTY-NINE REMEDIES. - - -Laser, a juice which distils from silphium, as we have already[2702] -stated, and reckoned among the most precious gifts presented to us by -Nature, is made use of in numerous medicinal preparations. Employed by -itself, it warms and revives persons benumbed with cold, and, taken -in drink, it alleviates affections of the sinews. It is given to -females in wine, and is used with soft wool as a pessary to promote -the menstrual discharge. Mixed with wax, it extracts corns on the -feet, after they have been first loosened with the knife: a piece of -it, the size of a chick-pea, melted in water, acts as a diuretic. -Andreas assures us that, taken in considerable doses even, it is never -productive of flatulency, and that it greatly promotes the digestion, -both in aged people and females; he says, too, that it is better used -in winter than in summer, and that even then, it is best suited for -those whose beverage is water: but due care must be taken that there is -no internal ulceration. Taken with the food, it is very refreshing for -patients just recovering from an illness; indeed, if it is used at the -proper time, it has all the virtues of a desiccatory,[2703] though it -is more wholesome for persons who are in the habit of using it than for -those who do not ordinarily employ it. - -As to external maladies, the undoubted virtues of this medicament are -universally acknowledged: taken in drink, it has the effect, also, -of neutralizing the venom of serpents and of poisoned weapons, and, -applied with water, it is in general use for the cure of wounds. In -combination with oil, it is only used as a liniment for the stings -of scorpions, and with barley-meal or dried figs, for the cure of -ulcers that have not come to a head. It is applied topically, also, to -carbuncles, with rue or honey, or else by itself, with some viscous -substance to make it adhere; for the bites of dogs, also, it is -similarly employed. A decoction of it in vinegar, with pomegranate -rind, is used for excrescences[2704] of the fundament, and, mixed with -nitre, for the corns commonly known as “morticini.”[2705] In cases of -alopecy which have been first treated with nitre, it makes the hair -grow again, applied with wine and saffron, or else pepper or mouse-dung -and vinegar. For chilblains, fomentations are made of it with wine, -or liniments with oil; as also for callosities and indurations. For -corns on the feet, if pared first, it is particularly useful, as also -as a preservative against the effects of bad water, and of unhealthy -climates or weather. It is prescribed for cough, too, affections of -the uvula, jaundice of long standing, dropsy, and hoarseness, having -the effect of instantly clearing the throat and restoring the voice. -Diluted in oxycrate, and applied with a sponge, it assuages the pains -in gout. - -It is given also in broth[2706] to patients suffering from pleurisy, -when about to take wine; and it is prescribed for convulsions and -opisthotony, in pills about as large as a chick-pea, coated with wax. -For quinsy, it is used as a gargle, and to patients troubled with -asthma or inveterate cough, it is given with leeks in vinegar; it is -prescribed, also, with vinegar, after drinking butter-milk.[2707] It -is recommended with wine for consumptive affections of the viscera -and epilepsy, and with hydromel for paralysis of the tongue; with a -decoction of honey, it forms a liniment for sciatica and lumbago. - -For my own part, I should not recommend,[2708] what some authors -advise, to insert a pill of laser, covered with wax, in a hollow tooth, -for tooth-ache; being warned to the contrary by a remarkable case of -a man, who, after doing so, threw himself headlong from the top of a -house. Besides, it is a well-known fact, that if it is rubbed on the -muzzle of a bull, it irritates him to an extraordinary degree; and -that if it is mixed with wine, it will cause serpents to burst—those -reptiles being extremely fond of wine. In addition to this, I should -not advise any one to rub the gums with Attic honey, although that -practice is recommended by some. - -It would be an endless task to enumerate all the uses to which laser is -put, in combination with other substances; and the more so, as it is -only our object to treat of simple remedies, it being these in which -Nature displays her resources. In the compound remedies, too, we often -find our judgment deceived, and quite at fault, from our comparative -inattention to the sympathy or antipathy which naturally exists between -the ingredients employed—on this subject, however, we shall have to -enlarge on a future occasion.[2709] - - - - -CHAP. 50. (24.)—PROPOLIS: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -Honey would be held in no less esteem than laser, were it not for -the fact that nearly every country produces it.[2710] Laser is the -production of Nature herself; but, for the formation of honey, she -has created an insect, as already described.[2711] The uses to which -honey is put are quite innumerable, if we only consider the vast number -of compositions in which it forms an ingredient. First of all, there -is the propolis,[2712] which we find in the hives, as already[2713] -mentioned. This substance has the property of extracting stings and -all foreign bodies from the flesh, dispersing tumours, ripening -indurations, allaying pains of the sinews, and cicatrizing ulcers of -the most obstinate nature. - -As to honey itself, it is of so peculiar a nature, that it prevents -putrefaction[2714] from supervening, by reason of its sweetness -solely, and not any inherent acridity, its natural properties being -altogether different from those of salt. It is employed with the -greatest success for affections[2715] of the throat and tonsils, for -quinsy and all ailments of the mouth, as also in fever, when the -tongue is parched. Decoctions of it are used also for peripneumony -and pleurisy, for wounds inflicted by serpents, and for the poison of -fungi. For paralysis, it is prescribed in honied wine, though that -liquor also has its own peculiar virtues. Honey is used with rose-oil, -as an injection for the ears; it has the effect also of exterminating -nits and foul vermin of the head. It is the best plan always to skim it -before using it. - -Still, however, honey has a tendency to inflate[2716] the stomach; it -increases the bilious secretions also, produces qualmishness, and, -according to some, if employed by itself, is injurious[2717] to the -sight: though, on the other hand, there are persons who recommend -ulcerations at the corners of the eyes to be touched with honey. - -As to the elementary principles of honey, the different varieties of -it, the countries where it is found, and its characteristic features, -we have enlarged upon them on previous occasions: first,[2718] when -treating of the nature of bees, and secondly, when speaking[2719] -of that of flowers; the plan of this work compelling us to separate -subjects which ought properly to be united, if we would arrive at a -thorough knowledge of the operations of Nature. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—THE VARIOUS INFLUENCES OF DIFFERENT ALIMENTS UPON THE -DISPOSITION. - - -While speaking of the uses of honey, we ought also to treat of the -properties of hydromel.[2720] There are two kinds of hydromel, one -of which is prepared at the moment, and taken while fresh,[2721] the -other being kept to ripen. The first, which is made of skimmed honey, -is an extremely wholesome beverage for invalids who take nothing but -a light diet, such as strained alica for instance: it reinvigorates -the body, is soothing to the mouth and stomach, and by its refreshing -properties allays feverish heats. I find it stated,[2722] too, by some -authors, that to relax the bowels it should be taken cold, and that it -is particularly well-suited for persons of a chilly temperament, or of -a weak and pusillanimous[2723] constitution, such as the Greeks, for -instance, call “micropsychi.” - -For there is a theory,[2724] remarkable for its extreme ingenuity, -first established by Plato, according to which the primary atoms of -bodies, as they happen to be smooth or rough, angular or round, are -more or less adapted to the various temperaments of individuals: and -hence it is, that the same substances are not universally sweet or -bitter to all. So, when affected with lassitude or thirst, we are more -prone to anger than at other times.[2725] These asperities, however, of -the disposition, or rather I should say of the mind,[2726] are capable -of being modified by the sweeter beverages; as they tend to lubricate -the passages for the respiration, and to mollify the channels, the work -of inhalation and exhalation being thereby unimpeded by any rigidities. -Every person must be sensible of this experimentally, in his own -case: there is no one in whom anger, affliction, sadness, and all the -emotions of the mind may not, in some degree, be modified by diet. -It will therefore be worth our while to observe what aliments they -are which exercise a physical effect, not only upon the body, but the -disposition as well. - - - - -CHAP. 52.—HYDROMEL: EIGHTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Hydromel is recommended, too, as very good for a cough: taken warm, -it promotes vomiting. With the addition of oil it counteracts the -poison of white lead;[2727] of henbane, also, and of the halicacabum, -as already stated,[2728] if taken in milk, asses’ milk in particular. -It is used as an injection for diseases of the ears, and in cases of -fistula of the generative organs. With crumb of bread it is applied as -a poultice to the uterus, as also to tumours suddenly formed, sprains, -and all affections which require soothing applications. The more recent -writers have condemned the use of fermented hydromel, as being not so -harmless as water, and less strengthening than wine. After it has been -kept a considerable time, it becomes transformed into a wine,[2729] -which, it is universally agreed, is extremely prejudicial to the -stomach, and injurious to the nerves.[2730] - - - - -CHAP. 53.—HONIED WINE: SIX REMEDIES. - - -As to honied[2731] wine, that is always the best which has been made -with old wine: honey, too, incorporates with it very readily, which is -never the case with sweet[2732] wine. When made with astringent wine, -it does not clog the stomach, nor has it that effect when the honey -has been boiled: in this last case, too, it causes less flatulency, -an inconvenience generally incidental to this beverage. It acts as -a stimulant also upon a failing appetite; taken cold it relaxes the -bowels, but used warm it acts astringently, in most cases, at least. -It has a tendency also to make flesh. Many persons have attained an -extreme old age, by taking bread soaked in honied wine, and no other -diet—the famous instance of Pollio Romilius, for example. This man was -more than one hundred years old when the late Emperor Augustus, who -was then his host,[2733] asked him by what means in particular he had -retained such remarkable vigour of mind and body.—“Honied wine within, -oil without,”[2734] was his answer. According to Varro, the jaundice -has the name of “royal disease”[2735] given to it, because its cure is -effected with honied wine.[2736] - - - - -CHAP. 54.—MELITITES: THREE REMEDIES. - - -We have already described how melitites[2737] is prepared, of must and -honey, when speaking on the subject of wines. It is, I think, some -ages, however, since this kind of beverage was made, so extremely -productive as it was found to be of flatulency. It used, however, to -be given in fever, to relieve inveterate costiveness of the bowels, as -also for gout and affections of the sinews. It was prescribed also for -females who were not in the habit of taking wine. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—WAX: EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -To an account of honey, that of wax is naturally appended, of the -origin, qualities, and different kinds of which, we have previously -made mention[2738] on the appropriate occasions. Every kind of wax is -emollient and warming, and tends to the formation of new flesh; fresh -wax is, however, the best. It is given in broth to persons troubled -with dysentery, and the combs themselves are sometimes used in a -pottage made of parched alica. Wax counteracts the bad effects[2739] of -milk; and ten pills of wax, the size of a grain of millet, will prevent -milk from coagulating in the stomach. For swellings in the groin, it is -found beneficial to apply a plaster of white wax to the pubes. - - - - -CHAP. 56.—REMARKS IN DISPARAGEMENT OF MEDICINAL COMPOSITIONS. - - -As to the different uses to which wax is applied, in combination with -other substances in medicine, we could no more make an enumeration of -them than we could of all the other ingredients which form part of our -medicinal compositions. These preparations, as we have already[2740] -observed, are the results of human invention. Cerates, poultices,[2741] -plasters, eye-salves, antidotes,—none of these have been formed by -Nature, that parent and divine framer of the universe; they are merely -the inventions of the laboratory, or rather, to say the truth, of human -avarice.[2742] The works of Nature are brought into existence complete -and perfect in every respect, her ingredients being but few in number, -selected as they are from a due appreciation of cause and effect, -and not from mere guesswork; thus, for instance, if a dry substance -is wanted to assume a liquefied form, a liquid, of course, must be -employed as a vehicle, while liquids, on the other hand, must be united -with a dry substance to render them consistent. But as for man, when he -pretends, with balance in[2743] hand, to unite and combine the various -elementary substances, he employs himself not merely upon guesswork, -but proves himself guilty of downright impudence. - -It is not my intention to touch upon the medicaments afforded by -the drugs of India, or Arabia and other foreign climates: I have no -liking for drugs that come from so great a distance;[2744] they are -not produced for us, no, nor yet for the natives of those countries, -or else they would not be so ready to sell them to us. Let people -buy them if they please, as ingredients in perfumes, unguents, and -other appliances of luxury; let them buy them as adjuncts to their -superstitions even, if incense and costus we must have to propitiate -the gods; but as to health, we can enjoy that blessing without their -assistance, as we can easily prove—the greater reason then has luxury -to blush at its excesses. - - - - -CHAP. 57.—REMEDIES DERIVED FROM GRAIN. SILIGO: ONE REMEDY. WHEAT: ONE -REMEDY. CHAFF: TWO REMEDIES. SPELT: ONE REMEDY. BRAN: ONE REMEDY. -OLYRA, OR ARINCA: TWO REMEDIES. - - -Having now described the remedies derived from flowers, both those -which enter into the composition of garlands, and the ordinary garden -ones, as well as from the vegetable productions, how could we possibly -omit those which are derived from the cereals? - -(25.) It will be only proper then, to make some mention of these as -well. In the first place, however, let us remark that it is a fact -universally acknowledged, that it is the most intelligent of the -animated beings that derive their subsistence from grain. The grain of -siligo[2745] highly roasted and pounded in Aminean[2746] wine, applied -to the eyes, heals defluxions of those organs;[2747] and the grain -of wheat, parched on a plate of iron, is an instantaneous remedy for -frost-bite in various parts of the body. Wheat-meal, boiled in vinegar, -is good for contractions of the sinews, and bran,[2748] mixed with -rose-oil, dried figs, and myxa[2749] plums boiled down together, forms -an excellent gargle[2750] for the tonsillary glands and throat. - -Sextus Pomponius, who had a son prætor, and who was himself the first -citizen of Nearer Spain, was on one occasion attacked with gout, -while superintending the winnowing in his granaries; upon which, he -immediately thrust his legs, to above the knees, in a heap of wheat. -He found himself relieved, the swelling in the legs subsided in a -most surprising degree, and from that time he always employed this -remedy: indeed, the action of grain in masses is so extremely powerful -as to cause the entire evaporation of the liquor in a cask. Men of -experience in these matters recommend warm chaff of wheat or barley, -as an application for hernia, and fomentations with the water in -which it has been boiled. In the grain known[2751] as spelt, there is -a small worm found, similar in appearance to the teredo:[2752] if this -is put with wax into the hollow of carious teeth, they will come out, -it is said, or, indeed, if the teeth are only rubbed with it. Another -name given to olyra, as already[2753] mentioned, is “arinca:” with a -decoction of it a medicament is made, known in Egypt as “athera,” and -extremely good for infants. For adult persons it is employed in the -form of a liniment. - - - - -CHAP. 58.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF MEAL: TWENTY-EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -Barley[2754]-meal, raw or boiled, disperses, softens, or ripens -gatherings and inflammatory tumours; and for other purposes a decoction -of it is made in hydromel, or with dried figs. If required for pains -in the liver, it must be boiled with oxycrate in wine. When it is a -matter of doubt whether an abscess should be made to suppurate or be -dispersed, it is a better plan to boil the meal in vinegar, or lees of -vinegar, or else with a decoction of quinces or pears. For the bite -of the millepede,[2755] it is employed with honey, and for the stings -of serpents, and to prevent suppurations, with vinegar. To promote -suppuration, it should be used with oxycrate, with the addition of -Gallic resin. For gatherings, also, that have come to a head, and -ulcers of long standing, it must be employed in combination with resin, -and for indurations, with pigeons’ dung, dried figs, or ashes. For -inflammation of the tendons, or of the intestines and sides, or for -pains in the male organs and denudations of the bones, it is used with -poppies, or melilote; and for scrofulous sores, it is used with pitch -and oil, mixed with the urine of a youth who has not reached the years -of puberty. It is employed also with fenugreek for tumours of the -thoracic organs, and in fevers, with honey, or stale grease. - -For suppurations, however, wheat-meal is much more soothing;[2756] it -is applied topically also for affections of the sinews, mixed with the -juice of henbane, and for the cure of freckles, with vinegar and honey. -The meal of zea,[2757] from which, as already[2758] stated, an alica -is made, appears to be more efficacious than that of barley even; but -that of the three month[2759] kind is the most emollient. It is applied -warm, in red wine, to the stings of scorpions, as also for affections -of the trachea, and spitting of blood: for coughs, it is employed in -combination with goat suet or butter. - -The meal of fenugreek,[2760] however, is the most soothing of them -all: boiled with wine and nitre, it heals running ulcers, eruptions on -the body, and diseases of the feet and mamillæ. The meal of æra[2761] -is more detergent than the other kinds, for inveterate ulcers and -gangrenes: in combination with radishes, salt, and vinegar, it heals -lichens, and with virgin sulphur, leprosy: for head-ache, it is applied -to the forehead with goose-grease. Boiled in wine, with pigeons’ dung -and linseed, it ripens inflamed tumours and scrofulous sores. - - - - -CHAP. 59.—POLENTA: EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -Of the various kinds of polenta we have already treated -sufficiently[2762] at length, when speaking of the places where it is -made. It differs from barley meal, in being parched, a process which -renders it more wholesome for the stomach. It arrests looseness of -the bowels, and heals inflammatory eruptions; and it is employed as -a liniment for the eyes, and for head-ache, combined with mint or -some other refreshing herb. It is used in a similar manner also for -chilblains and wounds inflicted by serpents; and with wine, for burns. -It has the effect also of checking pustular eruptions. - - - - -CHAP. 60.—FINE FLOUR: FIVE REMEDIES. PULS: ONE REMEDY. MEAL USED FOR -PASTING PAPYRUS: ONE REMEDY. - - -The flour[2763] of bolted meal, kneaded into a paste, has the property -of drawing[2764] out the humours of the body: hence it is applied to -bruises gorged with blood, to extract the corrupt matter, even to -soaking the bandages[2765] employed: used with boiled must, it is still -more efficacious. It is used as an application also for callosities -of the feet and corns; boiled with old oil and pitch, and applied as -hot as possible, it cures condylomata and all other maladies of the -fundament in a most surprising manner. Puls[2766] is a very feeding -diet. The meal[2767] used for pasting the sheets of papyrus is given -warm to patients for spitting of blood, and is found to be an effectual -cure. - - - - -CHAP. 61.—ALICA: SIX REMEDIES. - - -Alica is quite a Roman invention, and not a very ancient one: for -otherwise[2768] the Greeks would never have written in such high terms -of the praises of ptisan in preference. I do not think that it was -yet in use in the days of Pompeius Magnus, a circumstance which will -explain why hardly any mention has been made of it in the works of the -school of Asclepiades. That it is a most excellent preparation no one -can have a doubt, whether it is used strained in hydromel, or whether -it is boiled and taken in the form of broth or puls. To arrest flux -of the bowels, it is first parched and then boiled with honeycomb, as -already mentioned:[2769] but it is more particularly useful when there -is a tendency to phthisis after a long illness, the proper proportions -being three cyathi of it to one sextarius of water. This mixture is -boiled till all the water has gone off by evaporation, after which one -sextarius of sheep’ or goats’ milk is added: it is then taken by the -patient daily, and after a time some honey is added. By this kind of -nutriment a deep decline may be cured. - - - - -CHAP. 62.—MILLET: SIX REMEDIES. - - -Millet[2770] arrests looseness of the bowels and dispels gripings of -the stomach, for which purposes it is first parched. For pains in the -sinews, and of various other descriptions, it is applied hot, in a bag, -to the part affected. Indeed, there is no better topical application -known, as it is extremely light and emollient, and retains heat for -a very long time: hence it is that it is so much employed in all -those cases in which the application of heat is necessary. The meal -of it, mixed with tar, is applied to wounds inflicted by serpents and -millepedes. - - - - -CHAP. 63.—PANIC: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -Diocles, the physician, has given to panic[2771] the name of “honey of -corn.”[2772] It has the same properties as millet, and, taken in wine, -it is good for dysentery. In a similar manner, too, it is applied to -such parts of the body as require to be treated with heat. Boiled in -goats’-milk, and taken twice a-day, it arrests looseness of the bowels; -and, used in a similar manner, it is very good for gripings of the -stomach. - - - - -CHAP. 64.—SESAME: SEVEN REMEDIES. SESAMOIDES: THREE REMEDIES. -ANTICYRICUM: THREE REMEDIES. - - -Sesame,[2773] pounded and taken in wine, arrests vomiting: it is -applied also topically to inflammations of the ears, and burns. It -has a similar effect even while in the blade; and in that state, a -decoction of it in wine is used as a liniment for the eyes. As an -aliment it is injurious to the stomach, and imparts a bad odour to the -breath. It is an antidote to the bite of the spotted lizard, and heals -the cancerous sore known as “cacoethes.”[2774] The oil made from it, as -already[2775] mentioned, is good for the ears. - -Sesamoïdes[2776] owes its name to its resemblance to sesame; the -grain[2777] of it, however, is bitter, and the leaf more diminutive: -it is found growing in sandy soils. Taken in water, it carries off -bile, and, with the seed, a liniment is made for erysipelas: it -disperses inflamed swellings also. Besides this, there is another[2778] -sesamoïdes, which grows at Anticyra, and, for that reason, is known by -some as “anticyricon.” In other respects, it is similar to the plant -erigeron, of which we shall have to speak[2779] on a future occasion; -but the seed of it is like that of sesame. It is given in sweet wine -as an evacuant, in doses of a pinch in three fingers, mixed with an -obolus and a half of white hellebore; this preparation being employed -principally as a purgative, in cases of insanity, melancholy, epilepsy, -and gout. Taken alone, in doses of one drachma, it purges by stool. - - - - -CHAP. 65.—BARLEY: NINE REMEDIES. MOUSE-BARLEY, BY THE GREEKS CALLED -PHŒNICE: ONE REMEDY. - - -The whitest barley is the best. Boiled[2780] in rain-water, the pulp -of it is divided into lozenges, which are used in injections for -ulcerations of the intestines and the uterus. The ashes of barley are -applied to burns, to bones denuded of the flesh, to purulent eruptions, -and to the bite of the shrew-mouse: sprinkled with salt and honey they -impart whiteness to the teeth, and sweetness to the breath. It is -alleged that persons who are in the habit of eating barley-bread are -never troubled with gout in the feet: they say, too, that if a person -takes nine grains of barley, and traces three times round a boil, with -each of them in the left hand, and then throws them all into the fire, -he will experience an immediate cure. There is another plant, too, -known as “phœnice” by the Greeks, and as “mouse-barley”[2781] by us: -pounded and taken in wine, it acts remarkably well as an emmenagogue. - - - - -CHAP. 66.—PTISAN: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -To ptisan,[2782] which is a preparation of barley, Hippocrates[2783] -has devoted a whole treatise; praises, however, which at the present -day are all transferred to “alica,” being, as it is, a much more -wholesome preparation. Hippocrates, however, recommends it as a -pottage, for the comparative ease with which, from its lubricous -nature, it is swallowed; as also, because it allays thirst, never -swells in the stomach, passes easily through the intestines, and is -the only food that admits of being given twice a-day in fever, at -least to patients who are in the habit of taking two meals—so opposed -is his method to that of those physicians who are for famishing their -patients. He forbids it to be given, however, without being first -strained; for no part, he says, of the ptisan, except the water,[2784] -should be used. He says, too, that it must never be taken while the -feet are cold, and, indeed, that no drink of any kind should be taken -then. With wheat a more viscous kind of ptisan is made, which is found -to be still more efficacious for ulcerations of the trachea. - - - - -CHAP. 67.—AMYLUM: EIGHT REMEDIES. OATS: ONE REMEDY. - - -Amylum[2785] weakens the eyesight,[2786] and is bad for the throat, -whatever opinions may be held to the contrary. It has the effect -also of arresting looseness of the bowels, and curing defluxions and -ulcerations of the eyes, as also pustules and congestions of the -blood. It mollifies indurations of the eyelids, and is given with -egg to persons when they vomit blood. For pains of the bladder, half -an ounce of it is prescribed with an egg, and as much raisin wine as -three egg-shells will hold, the mixture to be made lukewarm and taken -immediately after the bath. Oatmeal, boiled in vinegar, removes moles. - - - - -CHAP. 68.—BREAD: TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES. - - -Bread,[2787] too, which forms our ordinary nutriment, possesses -medicinal properties, almost without number. Applied with water and -oil, or else rose-oil, it softens abscesses; and, with hydromel, it -is remarkably soothing for indurations. It is prescribed with wine -to produce delitescence, or when a defluxion requires to be checked; -or, if additional activity is required, with vinegar. It is employed -also for the morbid defluxions of rheum, known to the Greeks as -“rheumatismi,” and for bruises and sprains. For all these purposes, -however, bread made with leaven, and known as “autopyrus,”[2788] is the -best. - -It is applied also to whitlows, in vinegar, and to callosities of the -feet. Stale bread, or sailors’-bread,[2789] beaten up and baked again, -arrests looseness of the bowels. For persons who wish to improve the -voice, dry bread is very good, taken fasting; it is useful also as -a preservative against catarrhs. The bread called “sitanius,” and -which is made of three-month[2790] wheat, applied with honey, is a -very efficient cure for contusions of the face and scaly eruptions. -White bread, steeped in hot or cold water, furnishes a very light -and wholesome aliment for patients. Soaked in wine, it is applied as -a poultice for swellings of the eyes, and used in a similar manner, -or with the addition of dried myrtle, it is good for pustules on the -head. Persons troubled with palsy are recommended to take bread soaked -in water, fasting, immediately after the bath. Burnt bread modifies -the close smell of bedrooms, and, used in the strainers,[2791] it -neutralizes bad odours in wine. - - - - -CHAP. 69.—BEANS: SIXTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Beans,[2792] too, furnish us with some remedies. Parched whole, and -thrown hot into strong vinegar, they are a cure for gripings of the -bowels. Bruised, and boiled with garlic, they are taken with the daily -food for inveterate coughs, and for suppurations of the chest. Chewed -by a person fasting, they are applied topically to ripen boils, or to -disperse them; and, boiled in wine, they are employed for swellings of -the testes and diseases of the genitals. Bean-meal, boiled in vinegar, -ripens tumours and breaks them, and heals contusions and burns. M. -Varro assures us that beans are very good for the voice. The ashes of -bean stalks and shells, with stale hogs’-lard, are good for sciatica -and inveterate pains of the sinews. The husks, too, boiled down, by -themselves, to one-third, arrest looseness of the bowels. - - - - -CHAP. 70.—LENTILS: SEVENTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Those lentils[2793] are the best which boil the most easily, and -those in particular which absorb the most water. They injure the -eye-sight,[2794] no doubt, and inflate the stomach; but taken with the -food, they act astringently upon the bowels, more particularly if they -are thoroughly boiled in rain-water: if, on the other hand, they are -lightly boiled, they are laxative.[2795] They break purulent ulcers, -and they cleanse and cicatrize ulcerations of the mouth. Applied -topically, they allay all kinds of abscesses, when ulcerated and -chapped more particularly; with melilote or quinces they are applied to -defluxions of the eyes, and with polenta they are employed topically -for suppurations. A decoction of them is used for ulcerations of the -mouth and genitals, and, with rose-oil or quinces, for diseases of the -fundament. For affections which demand a more active remedy, they are -used with pomegranate rind, and the addition of a little honey; to -prevent the composition from drying too quickly, beet leaves are added. -They are applied topically, also, to scrofulous sores, and to tumours, -whether ripe or only coming to a head, being thoroughly boiled first in -vinegar. Mixed with hydromel they are employed for the cure of chaps, -and with pomegranate rind for gangrenes. With polenta they are used for -gout, for diseases of the uterus and kidneys, for chilblains, and for -ulcerations which cicatrize with difficulty. For a disordered stomach, -thirty grains should be eaten. - -For cholera,[2796] however, and dysentery, it is the best plan to -boil the lentils in three waters, in which case they should always -be parched first, and then pounded as fine as possible, either by -themselves, or else with quinces, pears, myrtle, wild endive, black -beet, or plantago. Lentils are bad for the lungs, head-ache, all -nervous affections, and bile, and are very apt to cause restlessness -at night. They are useful, however, for pustules, erysipelas, and -affections of the mamillæ, boiled in sea-water; and, applied with -vinegar, they disperse indurations and scrofulous sores. As a -stomachic, they are mixed, like polenta, with the drink given to -patients. Parboiled in water, and then pounded and bolted through -a sieve to disengage the bran, they are good for burns, care being -taken to add a little honey as they heal: they are boiled, also, with -oxycrate for diseases of the throat.[2797] - -There is a marsh-lentil[2798] also, which grows spontaneously in -stagnant waters. It is of a cooling nature, for which reason it is -employed topically for abscesses, and for gout in particular, either -by itself or with polenta. Its glutinous properties render it a good -medicine for intestinal hernia. - - - - -CHAP. 71.—THE ELELISPHACOS, SPHACOS, OR SALVIA: THIRTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The plant called by the Greeks “elelisphacos,”[2799] or “sphacos,” is -a species of wild lentil, lighter than the cultivated one, and with a -leaf, smaller, drier, and more odoriferous. There is also another[2800] -kind of it, of a wilder nature, and possessed of a powerful smell, -the other one being milder. It[2801] has leaves the shape of a quince, -but white and smaller: they are generally boiled with the branches. -This plant acts as an emmenagogue and a diuretic: and it affords a -remedy for wounds inflicted by the sting-ray,[2802] having the property -of benumbing the part affected. It is taken in drink with wormwood -for dysentery: employed with wine it accelerates the catamenia when -retarded, a decoction of it having the effect of arresting them when in -excess: the plant, applied by itself, stanches the blood of wounds. It -is a cure, too, for the stings of serpents, and a decoction of it in -wine allays prurigo of the testes. - -Our herbalists of the present day take for the “elelisphacos” of the -Greeks the “salvia”[2803] of the Latins, a plant similar in appearance -to mint, white and aromatic. Applied externally, it expels the dead -fœtus, as also worms which breed in ulcers and in the ears. - - - - -CHAP. 72.—THE CHICKPEA AND THE CHICHELING VETCH: TWENTY-THREE REMEDIES. - - -There is a wild chickpea also, which resembles in its leaf the -cultivated kind,[2804] and has a powerful smell. Taken in considerable -quantities, it relaxes the bowels, and produces griping pains and -flatulency; parched, however, it is looked upon as more wholesome. -The chicheling vetch,[2805] again, acts more beneficially upon the -bowels. The meal of both kinds heals running sores of the head—that of -the wild sort being the more efficacious of the two—as also epilepsy, -swellings of the liver, and stings inflicted by serpents. It acts as -an emmenagogue and a diuretic, used in the grain more particularly, -and it is a cure for lichens, inflammations of the testes, jaundice, -and dropsy. All these kinds, however, exercise an injurious effect -upon ulcerations of the bladder and kidneys: but in combination with -honey they are very good for gangrenous sores, and the cancer known as -“cacoethes.” The following is a method adopted for the cure of all -kinds of warts: on the first day of the moon, each wart must be touched -with a single chickpea, after which, the party must tie up the pease in -a linen cloth, and throw it behind him; by adopting this plan, it is -thought, the warts will be made to disappear. - -Our authors recommend the plant known as the “arietinum”[2806] to -be boiled in water with salt, and two cyathi of the decoction to be -taken for strangury. Employed in a similar manner, it expels calculi, -and cures jaundice. The water in which the leaves and stalks of this -plant have been boiled, applied as a fomentation as hot as possible, -allays gout in the feet, an effect equally produced by the plant -itself, beaten up and applied warm. A decoction of the columbine[2807] -chickpea, it is thought, moderates the shivering fits in tertian or -quartan fevers; and the black kind, beaten up with half a nut-gall, and -applied with raisin wine, is a cure for ulcers of the eyes. - - - - -CHAP. 73.—THE FITCH: TWENTY REMEDIES. - - -In speaking of the fitch,[2808] we have mentioned certain properties -belonging to it; and, indeed, the ancients have attributed to it -no fewer virtues than they have to the cabbage. For the stings of -serpents, it is employed with vinegar; as also for bites inflicted by -crocodiles and human beings. If a person eats of it, fasting, every -day, according to authors of the very highest authority, the spleen -will gradually diminish. The meal of it removes spots on the face and -other parts of the body. It prevents ulcers from spreading also, and is -extremely efficacious for affections of the mamillæ: mixed with wine, -it makes carbuncles break. Parched, and taken with a piece of honey the -size of a hazel nut, it cures dysuria, flatulency, affections of the -liver, tenesmus, and that state of the body in which no nourishment -is derived from the food, generally known as “atrophy.” For cutaneous -eruptions, plasters are made of it boiled with honey, being left to -remain four days on the part affected. Applied with honey, it prevents -inflamed tumours from suppurating. A decoction of it, employed as a -fomentation, cures chilblains and prurigo; and it is thought by some, -that if it is taken daily, fasting, it will improve the complexion of -all parts of the body. - -Used as an aliment, this pulse is far from wholesome,[2809] being -apt to produce vomiting, disorder the bowels, and stuff the head and -stomach. It weakens the knees also; but the effects of it may be -modified by keeping it in soak for several days, in which case it is -remarkably beneficial for oxen and beasts of burden. The pods of it, -beaten up green with the stalks and leaves, before they harden, stain -the hair black. - - - - -CHAP. 74.—LUPINES: THIRTY-FIVE REMEDIES. - - -There are wild lupines,[2810] also, inferior in every respect to the -cultivated kinds, except in their bitterness. Of all the alimentary -substances, there are none which are less heavy or more useful[2811] -than dried lupines. Their bitterness is considerably modified by -cooking them on hot ashes, or steeping them in hot water. Employed -frequently as an article of food, they impart freshness to the colour; -the bitter lupine, too, is good for the sting of the asp. Dried -lupines, stripped of the husk and pounded, are applied in a linen cloth -to black ulcers, in which they make new flesh: boiled in vinegar, -they disperse scrofulous sores and imposthumes of the parotid glands. -A decoction of them, with rue and pepper, is given in fever even, -as an expellent of intestinal worms,[2812] to patients under thirty -years of age. For children, also, they are applied to the stomach as -a vermifuge, the patient fasting in the meantime: and, according to -another mode of treatment, they are parched and taken in boiled must or -in honey. - -Lupines have the effect of stimulating the appetite, and of dispelling -nausea. The meal of them, kneaded up with vinegar, and applied in -the bath, removes pimples and prurigo; employed alone, it dries up -ulcerous sores. It cures bruises also, and, used with polenta, allays -inflammations. The wild lupine is found to be the most efficacious -for debility of the hips and loins. A decoction of them, used as a -fomentation, removes freckles and improves the skin; and lupines, -either wild or cultivated, boiled down to the consistency of honey, are -a cure for black eruptions and leprosy. An application of cultivated -lupines causes carbuncles to break, and reduces inflamed tumours and -scrofulous sores, or else brings them to a head: boiled in vinegar, -they restore the flesh when cicatrized to its proper colour. Thoroughly -boiled in rain-water, the decoction of them furnishes a detersive -medicine, of which fomentations are made for gangrenes, purulent -eruptions, and running ulcers. This decoction is very good, taken in -drink, for affections of the spleen, and with honey, for retardations -of the catamenia. Beaten up raw, with dried figs, lupines are applied -externally to the spleen. A decoction of the root acts as a diuretic. - -The herb chamæleon,[2813] also, is boiled with lupines, and the water -of it strained off, to be used as a potion for cattle. Lupines boiled -in amurca,[2814] or a decoction of them mixed with amurca, heals the -itch in beasts. The smoke of lupines kills[2815] gnats. - - - - -CHAP. 75.—IRIO, OR ERYSIMUM, BY THE GAULS CALLED VELA: FIFTEEN REMEDIES. - - -When treating of the cereals, we have already stated[2816] that the -irio, which strongly resembles sesame, is also called “erysimon” by the -Greeks: the Gauls give it the name of “vela.” It is a branchy plant, -with leaves like those of rocket, but a little narrower, and a seed -similar to that of nasturtium. With honey, it is extremely good for -cough and purulent expectorations: it is given, also, for jaundice and -affections of the loins, pleurisy, gripings of the bowels, and cœliac -affections, and is used in liniments for imposthumes of the parotid -glands and carcinomatous affections. Employed with water, or with -honey, it is useful for inflammations of the testes, and is extremely -beneficial for the diseases of infants. Mixed with honey and figs, it -is good for affections of the fundament and diseases of the joints; -and taken in drink, it is an excellent antidote to poisons. It is used, -also, for asthma,[2817] and with stale axle-grease for fistulas; but it -must not be allowed to touch the interior of them. - - - - -CHAP. 76.—HORMINUM: SIX REMEDIES. - - -Horminum resembles cummin, as already stated,[2818] in its seed; but in -other respects, it is like the leek.[2819] It grows to some nine inches -in height, and there are two varieties of it. In one of these the seed -is oblong, and darker than that of the other, and the plant itself is -in request as an aphrodisiac, and for the cure of argema and albugo in -the eyes: of the other kind the seed is whiter, and of a rounder form. -Both kinds, pounded and applied with water, are used for the extraction -of thorns from the body. The leaves, steeped in vinegar, disperse -tumours, either used by themselves, or in combination with honey; they -are employed, also, to disperse boils, before they have come to a head, -and other collections of acrid humours. - - - - -CHAP. 77.—DARNEL: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -Even more than this—the very plants which are the bane of the -corn-field are not without their medicinal uses. Darnel[2820] has -received from Virgil[2821] the epithet of “unhappy;” and yet, ground -and boiled with vinegar, it is used as an application for the cure -of impetigo, which is the more speedily effected the oftener the -application is renewed. It is employed, also, with oxymel, for the -cure of gout and other painful diseases. The following is the mode -of treatment: for one sextarius of vinegar, two ounces of honey is -the right proportion; three sextarii having been thus prepared, two -sextarii of darnel meal are boiled down in it to a proper consistency, -the mixture being applied warm to the part affected. This meal, too, is -used for the extraction of splinters of broken bones. - - - - -CHAP. 78.—THE PLANT MILIARIA: ONE REMEDY. - - -“Miliaria”[2822] is the name given to a plant which kills millet: this -plant, it is said, is a cure for gout in beasts of burden, beaten up -and administered in wine, with the aid of a horn. - - - - -CHAP. 79.—BROMOS: ONE REMEDY. - - -Bromos[2823] is the seed also of a plant which bears an ear. It is -a kind of oat which grows among corn, to which it is injurious; the -leaves and stalk of it resemble those of wheat, and at the extremity -it bears seeds, hanging down, something like small locusts[2824] in -appearance. The seed of this plant is useful for plasters, like barley -and other grain of a similar nature. A decoction of it is good for -coughs. - - - - -CHAP. 80.—OROBANCHE, OR CYNOMORION: ONE REMEDY. - - -We have mentioned[2825] orobanche as the name of a plant which kills -the fitch and other leguminous plants. Some persons have called it -“cynomorion,” from the resemblance which it bears to the genitals of -a dog. The stem of it is leafless, thick, and red. It is eaten either -raw, or boiled in the saucepan, while young and tender. - - - - -CHAP. 81.—REMEDIES FOR INJURIES INFLICTED BY INSECTS WHICH BREED AMONG -LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. - - -There are some venomous insects also, of the solipuga[2826] kind, -which breed upon leguminous plants, and which, by stinging the hands, -endanger life. For these stings all those remedies are efficacious -which have been mentioned for the bite of the spider and the -phalangium.[2827] Such, then, are the medicinal properties for which -the cereals are employed. - - - - -CHAP. 82.—THE USE MADE OF THE YEAST OF ZYTHUM. - - -Different beverages, too, are made from the cereals, zythum in Egypt, -cælia and cerea in Spain, cervesia[2828] and numerous liquors in Gaul -and other provinces. The yeast[2829] of all of these is used by women -as a cosmetic for the face.—But as we are now speaking of beverages, -it will be the best plan to pass on to the various uses of wine, and -to make a beginning with the vine of our account of the medicinal -properties of the trees. - - -SUMMARY.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and six. - - -AUTHORS QUOTED.—All those mentioned in the preceding Book; and, -in addition to them, Chrysermus,[2830] Eratosthenes,[2831] and -Alcæus.[2832] - - - - -BOOK XXIII. - -THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE CULTIVATED TREES. - - - - -CHAP. 1. (1.)—INTRODUCTION. - - -We have now set forth the various properties, medicinal or otherwise, -as well of the cereals as of the other productions which lie upon[2833] -the surface of the earth, for the purpose either of serving us for -food, or for the gratification of our senses with their flowers or -perfumes. In the trees, however, Pomona has entered the lists with -them, and has imparted certain medicinal properties to the fruits as -they hang. Not content with protecting and nourishing, under the shadow -of the trees, the various plants which we have[2834] already described, -she would even appear to be indignant, as it were, at the thought that -we should derive more succour from those productions which are further -removed from the canopy of heaven, and which have only come into use in -times comparatively recent. For she bids man bear in mind that it was -the fruits of the trees which formed his first nourishment, and that it -was these which first led him to look upwards towards the heavens: and -not only this, but she reminds him, too, that even still it is quite -possible for him to derive his aliment from the trees, without being -indebted to grain for his subsistence. - - - - -CHAP. 2.—THE VINE. - - -But, by Hercules! it is the vine more particularly to which she has -accorded these medicinal properties, as though she were not contented -with her generosity in providing it with such delicious flavours, -and perfumes, and essences, in its omphacium, its œnanthe, and its -massaris, preparations upon which we have already[2835] enlarged. -“It is to me,” she says, “that man is indebted for the greater part -of his enjoyments, it is I that produce for him the flowing wine -and the trickling oil, it is I that ripen the date and other fruits -in numbers so varied; and all this, not insisting, like the earth, -on their purchase at the cost of fatigues and labours. No necessity -do I create for ploughing with the aid of oxen, for beating out upon -the threshing-floor, or for bruising under the millstone, and all in -order that man may earn his food at some indefinite time by this vast -expenditure of toil. As for me, all my gifts are presented to him -ready prepared: for no anxieties or fatigues do they call, but, on the -contrary, they offer themselves spontaneously, and even fall to the -ground, if man should be too indolent to reach them as they hang.” -Vying even with herself, Pomona has done still more for our practical -advantage than for the mere gratification of our pleasures and caprices. - - - - -CHAP. 3.—THE LEAVES AND SHOOTS OF THE VINE: SEVEN REMEDIES. - -[2836] The leaves and shoots of the vine, employed with polenta, allay -head-ache and reduce inflammations:[2837] the leaves, too, applied by -themselves with cold water, are good for burning pains in the stomach; -and, used with barley-meal, are excellent applications for diseases -of the joints. The shoots, beaten up and applied, have the property -of drying up all kinds of running tumours, and the juice extracted -from them is used as an injection for the cure of dysentery. The -tears of the vine, which would appear to be a sort of gum, will heal -leprous sores, lichens, and itch-scabs, if treated first with nitre: -used with oil, and applied frequently to superfluous hairs, they act -as a depilatory, those more particularly which exude from the vine -when burnt in a green state: this last liquid has the effect, too, of -removing warts. An infusion of the shoots in water, taken in drink, is -good for persons troubled with spitting of blood, and for the fainting -fits which sometimes ensue upon conception. - -The bark of the vine and the dried leaves arrest the flowing of blood -from wounds, and make the sores cicatrize more rapidly. The juice -of the white vine,[2838] extracted from it while green, effectually -removes cutaneous[2839] eruptions. The ashes[2840] of the cuttings -of vines, and of the husks of the grapes, applied with vinegar, are -curative of condylomata and diseases of the fundament; as also of -sprains, burns, and swellings of the spleen, applied with rose-oil, -rue, and vinegar. Used with wine, but without oil, they make a -fomentation for erysipelas and parts of the body which are chafed; they -act as a depilatory also.[2841] For affections of the spleen the ashes -of vine-cuttings, moistened with vinegar, are administered in drink, -being taken in doses of two cyathi in warm water; after which the -patient must take due care to lie upon the side in which the spleen is -situate. - -The tendrils, too, which the vine throws out as it climbs, beaten up -in water and drunk, have the effect of arresting habitual vomiting. -The ashes of the vine, used with stale axle-grease, are good for -tumours, act as a detergent upon fistulas, and speedily effect a -radical cure; the same, too, with pains and contractions of the sinews, -occasioned by cold. Applied with oil, they are useful for contusions, -and with vinegar and nitre, for fleshy excrescences upon the bones: -in combination with oil, they are good, too, for wounds inflicted by -scorpions and dogs. The ashes of the bark, employed by themselves, -restore the hair to such parts of the body as have suffered from the -action of fire. - - - - -CHAP. 4.—OMPHACIUM EXTRACTED FROM THE VINE: FOURTEEN REMEDIES. - - -We have already[2842] mentioned, when speaking of the composition -of unguents, how omphacium is made from the grape, when it is just -beginning to form: we shall now proceed to speak of its medicinal -properties. Omphacium heals ulcerations of the humid parts of the -body, such as the mouth, tonsillary glands, and generative organs, -for example; it is very good, too, for the sight, for rough spots upon -the eyelids, ulcers at the corners of the eyes, films upon the eyes, -running sores on all parts of the body, cicatrizations[2843] slow in -forming, and purulent discharges from the ears. The powerful action of -omphacium is modified by the admixture of honey or raisin wine. It is -very useful, too, for dysentery, spitting of blood, and quinsy. - - - - -CHAP. 5.—ŒNANTHE: TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES. - - -Next to omphacium comes œnanthe, a product of the wild vine, described -by us already[2844] when treating of the unguents. The most esteemed -kind is that of Syria, the produce of the white vine[2845] in the -vicinity of the mountains of Antiochia and Laodicea in particular. -Being of a cooling, astringent nature, it is used for sprinkling upon -sores, and is employed as a topical application for diseases of the -stomach. It acts also as a diuretic, and is good for maladies of the -liver, head-ache, dysentery, cœliac affections, and attacks of cholera: -for nausea, it is taken in doses of one obolus in vinegar. It acts as -a desiccative upon running eruptions of the head, and is extremely -efficacious for maladies of the humid parts of the body; hence it -is that it is employed, with honey and saffron, for ulcers of the -mouth, and for diseases of the generative organs and the fundament. It -arrests looseness of the bowels, and heals eruptions of the eyelids and -runnings at the eyes: taken with wine, it cures derangements of the -stomach, and with cold water, spitting of blood. - -The ashes of œnanthe are highly esteemed as an ingredient -in eye-salves, and as a detergent for ulcers, whitlows, and -hang-nails;[2846] to obtain these ashes, it is put into an oven, and -left there till the bread is thoroughly baked. - -As to massaris,[2847] it is used as a perfume only. The renown attached -to all these preparations is due solely to the innate greediness of -mankind, which has racked its invention to gather the productions of -the earth before they have arrived at maturity. - - - - -CHAP. 6.—GRAPES, FRESH GATHERED. - - -As to grapes when allowed to gain maturity, the black ones have more -marked properties[2848] than the others; and hence it is, that the wine -made from them is not so agreeable. The white grapes, on the other -hand, are sweeter, for, being transparent, the air penetrates them with -greater facility. - -Grapes fresh gathered are productive of flatulency, and disturb the -stomach and bowels; hence it is that they are avoided in fevers, in -large quantities more particularly. Indeed, they are very apt to -produce oppression of the head, and to bring on the malady known as -lethargy.[2849] Grapes which have been gathered, and left to hang for -some time, are much less[2850] injurious, the exposure to the air -rendering them beneficial even to the stomach, and refreshing to the -patient, as they are slightly cooling, and tend to remove nausea and -qualmishness. - - - - -CHAP. 7.—VARIOUS KINDS OF PRESERVED GRAPES: ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -Grapes which have been preserved in wine or in must are trying to the -head. Next to the grapes which have been left to hang in the air, are -those which have been kept in chaff; but as to those which have been -preserved among grape husks, they are injurious[2851] to the head, -the bladder, and the stomach, though at the same time they arrest -looseness of the bowels, and are extremely good for patients troubled -with spitting of blood. When preserved in must, they are worse even -in their effects than when kept among husks; boiled[2852] must, too, -renders them injurious to the stomach. It is the opinion of medical -writers, that grapes kept[2853] in rain-water are the most wholesome of -all, even though they are by no means agreeable eating; for the benefit -of them is particularly experienced in burning pains of the stomach, -biliousness arising from a disordered liver, vomiting of bile, and -attacks of cholera, as also dropsy and burning fevers. - -Grapes kept in earthen pots sharpen the taste, the stomach, and the -appetite; it is thought, however, that they are rendered a little -heavy[2854] by the exhalations from the husks with which they are -covered.[2855] If vine-blossoms are given to poultry, mixed with their -food, they will never touch the grapes.[2856] - - - - -CHAP. 8.—CUTTINGS OF THE VINE: ONE REMEDY. - - -Such cuttings of the vine as have borne grapes, have an astringent -effect, when they are preserved in earthen[2857] pots, more -particularly. - - - - -CHAP. 9.—GRAPE-STONES: SIX REMEDIES. - - -Grape-stones, also, have a similar[2858] property; it is through them -that wine is so apt to produce head-ache. Parched and then pounded, -they are beneficial for the stomach; and this powder is sprinkled, like -polenta, in the beverage of patients suffering from dysentery, cœliac -affections, and derangements of the stomach. A decoction of them is -useful, also, as a fomentation for itch-scabs and prurigo. - - - - -CHAP. 10.—GRAPE-HUSKS: EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -Grape-husks, used by themselves, are less injurious to the head and -bladder than grape-stones are: beaten up with salt, they form an -excellent liniment for inflammations of the mamillæ. A decoction -of them, taken in drink, or employed as a fomentation, is good for -inveterate dysentery, and cœliac affections. - - - - -CHAP. 11.—THE GRAPES OF THE THERIACA: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -The grape of the theriaca, of which we have already made mention[2859] -on the appropriate occasion, is eaten by way of antidote to the stings -of serpents. It is recommended, too, to eat the young shoots of this -tree, and to apply them topically. The wine and vinegar made from these -grapes are productive of a similar salutary effect.[2860] - - - - -CHAP. 12.—RAISINS, OR ASTAPHIS: FOURTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Raisins, the name given to which is “astaphis,” would be injurious -to the stomach, abdomen, and intestines, were it not for the stones -within them, which act as a corrective.[2861] When the stones are -removed, raisins, it is thought, are beneficial to the bladder, and -good for cough:[2862] in the last case, the raisin of the white grape -is considered the best. Raisins are good also for the trachea and -the kidneys, and the wine made from them is particularly efficacious -for the sting of the serpent called hæmorrhoïs.[2863] In combination -with meal of cummin or coriander, they are employed topically for -inflammations of the testes. For carbuncles and diseases of the joints, -the stones are removed, and the raisins are pounded with rue; if used -for ulcers, the sores must be first fomented with wine. - -Used with the stones, raisins are a cure for epinyctis, honeycomb -ulcers,[2864] and dysentery; and for gangrenes they are applied -topically with radish rind and honey, being first boiled in oil. They -are used with panax,[2865] for gout and loose nails; and they are -sometimes eaten by themselves, in combination with pepper, for the -purpose of cleansing the mouth and clearing the brain. - - - - -CHAP. 13.—THE ASTAPHISAGRIA, OTHERWISE CALLED STAPHIS OR TAMINIA: -TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -The wild astaphis, otherwise called staphis,[2866] is by some persons -erroneously called “uva taminia;”[2867] for it is altogether a distinct -plant from the other. It has a black, upright stem, with leaves -resembling those of the labrusca,[2868] and bears what we may call -a pod,[2869] rather than a grape, green, similar to a chick-pea in -appearance, and enclosing a kernel of triangular form. The fruit of -it ripens with the vintage and turns black, while the berries of the -taminia,[2870] as is well known, are red; this last, too, as we are -aware, grows only in shaded spots, while the wild astaphis, on the -other hand, loves a site that is exposed to the sun. - -I would not recommend any one to use the kernels[2871] of the wild -astaphis as a purgative, as it is very doubtful whether they might -not choke the patient; nor would I advise them to be employed for the -purpose of attenuating the phlegm, as they are extremely irritating -to the throat. Beaten up, however, and applied topically, they -kill vermin[2872] in the head and other parts of the body, more -particularly if they are used with sandarach; they are very useful, -too, for itch-scabs and prurigo. A decoction of the kernels is made -with vinegar, for the cure of tooth-ache, diseases of the ears, -cicatrices[2873] that are slow in healing, and running sores. - -The blossoms of the plant are beaten up and taken in wine for -stings[2874] inflicted by serpents; but, as to the seed, I would -strongly recommend its rejection, on account of its extremely -pungent properties. Some persons give to this plant the name of -“pituitaria,”[2875] and use it as a common application for stings -inflicted by serpents. - - - - -CHAP. 14.—THE LABRUSCA, OR WILD VINE: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -The labrusca, too, produces an œnanthe, which has been described at -sufficient length already:[2876] by the Greeks the labrusca is known -as the wild vine.[2877] The leaves of it are thick and of a whitish -colour, the stem is jointed, and the bark full of fissures: it bears -grapes of a scarlet[2878] hue, like the coccus, which are made use of -by females for the purpose of improving the complexion, and removing -spots upon the face. Pounded with the leaves and the juice extracted -from the tree, these grapes are usefully employed for the treatment of -lumbago and sciatica. A decoction of the root[2879] in water, taken -in two cyathi of Coan wine, promotes an alvine evacuation of aqueous -secretions; for which reason it is prescribed for dropsy. - -I am inclined to think that this is the plant that is commonly known -as the “uva taminia;”[2880] it is in great request as an amulet, and -is employed, though as a gargle only, in cases of spitting blood; for -which purpose, salt, thyme, and oxymel are added to it, care being -taken not to swallow any of the mixture. It is generally looked upon as -unsafe to employ it as a purgative. - - - - -CHAP. 15.—THE SALICASTRUM: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -There is another plant,[2881] similar to the labrusca, but found -growing in willow-beds; for which reason it is known by a distinct -name, though the uses to which it is applied are just the same. The -name given to it is “salicastrum;” beaten up with oxymel, it displays -marvellous efficacy in the removal of itch-scab and prurigo in men and -cattle. - - - - -CHAP. 16.—THE WHITE VINE, OTHERWISE CALLED AMPELOLEUCE, STAPHYLE, -MELOTHRON, PSILOTRUM, ARCHEZOSTIS, CEDROSTIS, OR MADON: THIRTY-ONE -REMEDIES. - - -The white vine[2882] is known to the Greeks by the various names of -ampeloleuce, staphyle, melothron, psilotrum, archezostis, cedrostis, -and madon. The twigs of this tree are jointed, thin, and climbing, -with considerable interstices between the knots.[2883] The leaves, -attached to the numerous shoots, and about the size of an ivy leaf, -are jagged at the edges, like that of the vine. The root of it is -large and white, and very like a radish[2884] at first; from it issue -several stems, similar to asparagus in appearance. These stems, eaten -boiled, are both purgative and diuretic. The leaves, too, as well as -the stems, are possessed of caustic[2885] properties; for which reason -they are employed topically with salt, for phagedænic sores, gangrenes, -and putrid ulcers of the legs. The fruit of the tree is in the form -of grapes thinly scattered, the juice of which is red at first, and -afterwards of a saffron colour. This fruit[2886] is well known to -curriers, who are in the habit of using it in preparing leather. It -is employed also in the form of a liniment for itch-scabs and leprous -spots; and a decoction of it with wheat, taken in drink, increases the -milk in women when nursing. The root of this tree, so renowned for -the numerous medicinal purposes to which it is applied, is pounded -and taken in wine, in doses of two drachmæ, for the cure of stings -inflicted by serpents:[2887] it has the effect, also, of removing -spots upon the face, moles and freckles, as well as scars and bruises: -a decoction of it in oil is productive of a similar effect. A decoction -of it is given to drink for epilepsy,[2888] and to persons troubled -with a disordered mind or suffering from vertigo, the dose being one -drachma daily, for a whole year: taken in larger quantities, it is apt -sometimes to disorder[2889] the senses. It is possessed, also, of one -very remarkable property, applied with water in the same manner as -bryonia, of extracting splintered bones, for which reason it is known -to some persons by the name of white bryonia: the other kind, however, -which is black, is found to answer the purpose better, in combination -with honey and frankincense. - -The white vine disperses incipient suppurations, ripens them when -they are inveterate, and acts as a detergent: it operates also as an -emmenagogue and diuretic. An electuary is prepared from it for asthma -and pains in the sides, as also for convulsions and ruptures. Taken -in drink for thirty days together, in doses of three oboli, it has -the effect of reducing the spleen; and it is used, in combination -with figs, for the cure of hangnails[2890] on the fingers. Applied -with wine, it brings away the after-birth, and, taken in hydromel, in -doses of one drachma, it carries off phlegm. The juice of the root -should be extracted before the fruit ripens; applied either by itself -or with meal of fitches, it imparts an improved complexion and a -certain degree of suppleness to the skin: it has the effect also of -repelling serpents. The root itself, too, beaten up with a pulpy fig, -will remove wrinkles on the body, if the person using it takes care to -walk a couple of stadia immediately after the application; otherwise -it would leave marks upon the skin, unless, indeed, it were washed off -immediately with cold water. The black vine, too, is better for this -purpose than the white one, as the latter is very apt to be productive -of itching. - - - - -CHAP. 17.—THE BLACK VINE, OTHERWISE CALLED BRYONA, CHIRONIA, -GYNÆCANTHE, OR APRONIA: THIRTY-FIVE REMEDIES. - - -For there is also a black vine, properly known as the “bryonia,”[2891] -though by some persons it is called the “chironia,” and by others the -“gynæcanthe,” or “apronia.” It differs only from the one previously -mentioned in its colour, which, as already stated,[2892] is black. -The shoots of this tree, which resemble asparagus in appearance, -are preferred by Diocles for eating to real asparagus,[2893] as a -diuretic and for its property of reducing the spleen. It is found -growing in shrubberies or reed-beds more particularly. The root of -it, which is black outside, and of the colour of box within, is even -more efficacious for the extraction of splintered bones than the plant -last mentioned; in addition to which, it has the property of being -a specific for excoriations of the neck in cattle. It is said, too, -that if a person plants it around a farm, it will be sure to keep -hawks away, and to preserve the poultry-yard[2894] in perfect safety. -Attached to the ankles, it tends to disperse the blood, congested or -otherwise, which may have settled in those parts of the body, whether -in human beings or in beasts of burden. - -Thus much with reference to the various species of vines. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—MUST: FIFTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The various kinds of must[2895] have different properties; some of them -being black, some white, and others of intermediate shades of colour. -There is a difference, too, between the kinds of must from which wine -is made, and those from which raisin wine is prepared. The various -degrees of care and attention on the part of the maker, render the -differences that already exist, quite innumerable; we shall therefore -content ourselves with taking a general view only of their medicinal -uses. - -Every kind of must is unwholesome to the stomach, but of a soothing -nature to the venous system. Taken off at a draught, immediately -after the bath, must is fatal[2896] in its effects. It acts as an -antidote[2897] to cantharides and stings inflicted by serpents, -those of the hæmorrhois and the salamandra[2898] in particular. It -is productive of head-ache, and is prejudicial to the throat, but it -is good for the kidneys, liver, and inner coat of the bladder, by -reason of its lubricating properties. It is particularly effectual -also in cases of injuries inflicted by the insect known as the -“buprestis.”[2899] - -Taken with oil as a vomit, it neutralizes the bad effects of -opium,[2900] milk that has curdled upon the stomach, hemlock, -dorycnium,[2901] and other poisons.[2902] For all these purposes, -however, white must is not so efficacious, while must prepared from -raisins of the sun has a more pleasant flavour, and is productive of a -less degree of oppression to the head. - - - - -CHAP. 19.—PARTICULARS RELATIVE TO WINE. - - -We have already[2903] described the various kinds of wine, the -numerous differences which exist between them, and most of the -properties which each kind possesses. There is no subject that presents -greater difficulties than this, or, indeed, a more varied field for -discussion, it being extremely difficult to pronounce whether wine is -more generally injurious in its effects, or beneficial. And then, in -addition to this, how very uncertain is it, whether, the moment we have -drunk it, it will be productive of salutary results, or turn out no -better than so much poison! However, it is only with reference to its -medicinal properties, that we are now about to speak of it. - -Asclepiades has composed a whole treatise (which has thence received -its name[2904]) on the proper methods of administering wine; and -the number of commentators who have since written on this treatise, -is almost innumerable. For my own part, with all that gravity which -becomes a Roman, and one zealous for the furtherance of liberal -pursuits, I shall enter into a careful examination of this subject, -not, indeed, in the character of a physician, but as a careful -investigator of the effects which wine is likely to produce upon the -health of mankind. To treat, however, of the medicinal properties -of each individual kind, would be a labour without end, and quite -inexhaustible; the more so, as the opinions of medical men are so -entirely at variance upon the subject. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—THE SURRENTINE WINES: THREE REMEDIES. THE ALBAN WINES: TWO -REMEDIES. THE FALERNIAN WINES: SIX REMEDIES. - - -Our ancestors set the highest value upon the wines of Surrentum;[2905] -but at a later period the preference was given to the Alban, or the -Falernian wines. More recently, again, other varieties of wine have -come into fashion, quite in accordance with that most unreasonable -mode of proceeding, according to which, each person, as he finds a -wine most to his taste, extols it as superior to all others. Suppose, -now, that all persons were quite agreed as to the superiority of some -particular kind of wine, how small a proportion of mankind would be -enabled to make use of it! As it is, even the rich never drink it in an -unsophisticated state; the morals of the age being such, that it is the -name only of a vintage that is sold, the wines being adulterated the -very moment they enter the vat. Hence it is, by Hercules!—a thing truly -astounding—that, in reality, a wine is more innoxious in its effects, -in proportion as it enjoys a less extended renown. The three kinds, -however, of which we have made mention, appear to have maintained, with -the least diminution, their ancient repute. - -The Falernian wine, if a person should be desirous to know the marked -characteristics of wines according to age, is injurious to the health, -either too new or too old; at fifteen years it begins to be of medium -age. Falernian wine of this age, taken cold, is good for the stomach, -but not when taken warm. For an inveterate cough and for quartan -fevers, it is a good plan to drink it neat, fasting. There is no wine -that quickens the action of the venous system so much as this; it acts -astringently upon the bowels, and is feeding to the body. It has been -thought, however, that this wine is productive of injury to the sight, -and that it is far from beneficial to the nerves[2906] and the bladder. - -The Alban wines are more salutary to the nervous system, but the sweet -kinds are not so beneficial to the stomach. The rough wines of Alba -are even better than those of Falernum, but they do not promote the -digestion so well, and have a slight tendency to overload the stomach. - -As to the Surrentine wines, they have no such effect upon the stomach, -nor are they at all trying to the head; they have the property also of -arresting defluxions of the stomach and intestines. The Cæcuban wines -are no longer grown. - - - - -CHAP. 21.—THE SETINE WINES; ONE OBSERVATION UPON THEM. THE STATAN -WINES; ONE OBSERVATION UPON THEM. THE SIGNIAN WINES; ONE REMEDY. - - -Among the wines, however, which still exist, those of Setia[2907] -promote the digestion, having more strength than the Surrentine wines, -and more roughness than those of Alba. The wines of Falernum are not -so powerful. Those of Stata are but very little inferior in quality to -the wines already mentioned. It is universally agreed that the wines of -Signia are extremely beneficial in cases of derangement of the bowels. - - - - -CHAP. 22.—OTHER WINES: SIXTY-FOUR REMEDIES. - - -As to the other wines, they may be spoken of in general terms. By the -use of wine, the human vigour, blood, and complexion are improved. It -is wine that makes up for all the difference between the middle or -temperate zone, and those which lie on either side of it, the juice of -the vine conferring as much vigour and robustness upon the inhabitants -of our part of the earth as the rigorousness[2908] of the climate does -upon the people there. Milk, used as a beverage, strengthens, the -bones, liquids extracted from the cereals nourish the sinews, and water -imparts nutriment to the flesh: hence it is that persons who confine -themselves to these several liquids as a beverage, are of a less ruddy -complexion than the wine-drinker, less robust, and less able to endure -fatigue. By the use of wine in moderation the sinews are strengthened, -but taken in excess it proves injurious to them; the same, too, with -the eyes. Wine refreshes the stomach, sharpens the appetite, takes -off the keen edge of sorrows and anxieties, warms the body, acts -beneficially as a diuretic, and invites sleep. In addition to these -properties, it arrests vomiting, and we find that pledgets of wool, -soaked in wine, and applied to abscesses, are extremely beneficial. -According to Asclepiades, the virtues possessed by wine are hardly -equalled by the majestic attributes of the gods themselves. - -Old wine bears admixture with a larger quantity of water, and acts more -powerfully as a diuretic, though at the same time it is less effectual -for quenching thirst. Sweet wine, again, is less inebriating, but stays -longer on the stomach, while rough wine is more easy of digestion. The -wine that becomes mellow with the greatest rapidity is the lightest, -and that which becomes sweeter the older it is, is not so injurious to -the nerves. Wines that are rich and black,[2909] are not so beneficial -to the stomach; but, at the same time, they are more feeding to -the body. Thin-bodied rough wines are not so feeding, but are more -wholesome to the stomach, and pass off more speedily by urine, though -they are all the more liable to fly to the head; a remark which will -apply, once for all, to liquids of every kind. - -Wine that has been mellowed by the agency of smoke is extremely -unwholesome—a fraudulent method of preparation that has been invented -in the wine-lofts[2910] of the retail dealers. At the present day, -however, this plan is adopted in private families even, when it is -wished to give the appearance of maturity to wines that have become -carious.[2911] Indeed, this term carious has been used very appositely -by the ancients with reference to wines; for we find that in the case -of wood even, smoke exercises a caustic effect upon the carious parts, -and eats them away; and yet we, on the other hand, persuade ourselves -that an adventitious age may be imparted to wines by the bitter twang -derived from smoke![2912] - -Those wines which are extremely pale, become more wholesome the older -they are. The more generous[2913] a wine is, the thicker it becomes -with age; while, at the same time, it contracts a bitter flavour, -which is far from exercising a beneficial effect upon the health. To -season another wine, that is not so old, with this, is nothing less -than to make an unwholesome preparation. The more of its own natural -flavour[2914] a wine possesses, the more wholesome it is; and the best -age for a wine is that which naturally belongs to it, a medium age -being the one that is the most generally esteemed. - - - - -CHAP. 23.—SIXTY-ONE OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO WINE. - - -Persons whose wish it is to make flesh, or to keep the bowels relaxed, -will do well to drink while taking their food. Those, on the other -hand, who wish to reduce themselves, or prevent the bowels from being -relaxed, should abstain from drinking while taking their meals, and -drink but a very little only when they have done eating. To drink -wine fasting is a fashion of recent introduction[2915] only, and an -extremely bad one for persons engaged in matters of importance, and -requiring a continued application of the mental faculties. Wine, -no doubt, was taken fasting in ancient times, but then it was as a -preparative for sleep and repose from worldly cares; and it is for this -reason that, in Homer,[2916] we find Helen presenting it to the guests -before the repast. It is upon this fact, too, that the common proverb -is founded, which says that “wisdom is obscured by wine.”[2917] It is -to wine that we men are indebted for being the only animated beings -that drink without being thirsty. When drinking wine, it is a very good -plan to take a draught of water every now and then; and to take one -long draught of it at the last, cold water taken internally having the -effect of instantaneously dispelling inebriation. - -It is strongly recommended by Hesiod[2918] to drink undiluted -wine[2919] for twenty days before the rising of the Dog-star, and -as many after. Pure wine, too, acts as an antidote to hemlock, -coriander,[2920] henbane, mistletoe, opium, mercury, as also to stings -inflicted by bees, wasps, hornets, the phalangium, serpents, and -scorpions; all kinds of poison, in fact, which are of a cold nature, -the venom of the hæmorrhois and the prester,[2921] in particular, and -the noxious effects of fungi. Undiluted wine is good, too, in cases of -flatulency, gnawing pains in the thoracic organs, excessive vomitings -at the stomach, fluxes of the bowels and intestines, dysentery, -excessive perspirations after prolonged fits of coughing, and -defluxions of various kinds. In the cardiac[2922] disease, it is a good -plan to apply a sponge soaked in neat wine to the left breast: in all -these cases, however, old white wine is the best. A fomentation of hot -wine applied to the genitals of beasts of burden is found to be very -beneficial; and, introduced into the mouth, with the aid of a horn, -it has the effect of removing all sensations of fatigue.[2923] It is -asserted that in apes, and other quadrupeds with toes, the growth will -be impeded if they are accustomed to drink undiluted wine.[2924] - - - - -CHAP. 24.—IN WHAT MALADIES WINE SHOULD BE ADMINISTERED; HOW IT SHOULD -BE ADMINISTERED, AND AT WHAT TIMES. - - -We shall now proceed to speak of wine in relation to its medicinal -uses. The wines of Campania[2925] which have the least body, are the -most wholesome beverage for persons of rank and station; and for the -lower classes[2926] the best kind of wine is that which is the most -pleasant to the person who drinks it, provided he is in robust health. -For persons of all ranks, however, the most serviceable wine is that -the strength of which has been reduced by the strainer;[2927] for we -must bear in mind that wine is nothing else but juice of grapes which -has acquired strength by the process of fermentation. A mixture of -numerous kinds of wine is universally bad, and the most wholesome wine -of all is that to which no ingredient has been added when in a state -of must; indeed, it is still better if the vessels even in which it is -kept have never been pitched.[2928] As to wines which have been treated -with marble, gypsum, or lime,[2929] where is the man, however robust he -may be, that has not stood in dread of them? - -Wines which have been prepared with sea-water[2930] are particularly -injurious to the stomach, nerves, and bladder. Those which have been -seasoned with resin are generally looked upon as beneficial to a cold -stomach, but are considered unsuitable where there is a tendency -to vomit: the same, too, with must, boiled grape-juice,[2931] and -raisin wine. New wines seasoned with resin are good for no one, being -productive of vertigo and head-ache: hence it is that the name of -“crapula”[2932] has been given equally to new resined wines, and to the -surfeit and head-ache which they produce. - -The wines above mentioned[2933] by name, are good for cough and -catarrh, as also for cœliac affections, dysentery, and the catamenia. -Those wines of this sort which are red[2934] or black,[2935] are -more astringent and more heating than the others. Wines which have -been seasoned with pitch only, are not so injurious; but at the same -time we must bear in mind that pitch is neither more nor less than -resin liquefied[2936] by the action of fire. These pitched wines are -of a heating nature, promote the digestion, and act as a purgative; -they are good, also, for the chest and the bowels, for pains in -the uterus, if there are no signs of fever, for inveterate fluxes, -ulcerations, ruptures, spasms, suppurated abscesses, debility of the -sinews, flatulency, cough, asthma, and sprains, in which last case -they are applied in uncleansed wool. For all these purposes the wine -is preferred which has naturally the flavour of pitch,[2937] and is -thence known as “picatum:” it is generally agreed, however, that the -produce of the vine called “helvennaca,”[2938] if taken in too large a -quantity, is trying to the head. - -In reference to the treatment of fever, it is well known that wine -should never be given, unless the patient is an aged person, or the -symptoms are beginning to abate. In cases of acute fever, wine must -never be given, under any circumstance, except when there is an evident -remission of the attack, and more particularly if this takes place -in the night, for then the danger is diminished by one half, there -being the probability of the patient sleeping off the effects of the -wine. It is equally forbidden, also, to females just after delivery -or a miscarriage, and to patients suffering from over-indulgence of -the sexual passions; nor should it be given in cases of head-ache, -of maladies in which the attacks are attended with chills at the -extremities, of fever accompanied with cough, of tremulousness[2939] in -the sinews, of pains in the fauces, or where the disease is found to -concentrate itself in the iliac regions. Wine is strictly forbidden, -too, in cases of induration of the thoracic organs, violent throbbings -of the veins, opisthotony, tetanus, asthma, and hardness of breathing -attended with fever. - -Wine is far from beneficial for a patient, when the eyes are fixed -and rigid, and when the eyelids are immoveable, or else relaxed and -heavy; in cases, too, where, with an incessant nictation, the eyes are -more than usually brilliant, or where the eyelids refuse to close—the -same, too, if that symptom should occur in sleep—or where the eyes are -suffused with blood, or congealed matter makes its appearance in the -corners of those organs. The same rule should be observed, also, when -the tongue is heavy and swollen, or when there is an impediment from -time to time in the speech, when the urine is passed with difficulty, -or when a person has been seized with a sudden fright, with spasms, -or recurrent fits of torpor, or experiences seminal discharges during -sleep. - - - - -CHAP. 25.—NINETY-ONE OBSERVATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO WINE. - - -It is a well-ascertained fact, that in the cardiac[2940] disease the -only resource is wine. According to some authorities, however, wine -should only be given when the attacks come on, while others, again, are -of opinion, that it must only be administered between the attacks; it -being the object with the former to arrest the profuse perspirations, -while the latter base their practice on an impression that it may be -given with more safety at a moment when the malady has diminished in -intensity; and this I find is the opinion entertained by most people. -In all cases, wine must only be administered just after taking food, -never after sleep, and under no circumstances after any other kind of -drink, or in other words, only when the patient is thirsty; in no case -whatever should it be given, except at the very last extremity. Wine is -better suited to males than to females, to aged people than to youths, -to youths than to children, and to persons who are used to it than to -those who are not in the habit of taking it; winter, too, is a better -time for using it than summer. As to the quantity to be prescribed, and -the proportion of water to be mixed with it, that depends entirely upon -the strength of the wine; it is generally thought, however, that the -best proportions are one cyathus of wine and two of water. If, however, -there is a derangement of the stomach, and if the food does not pass -downward, the wine must be given in a larger proportion. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—ARTIFICIAL WINES. - - -Among the artificial wines, the preparation of which we have[2941] -described, [there are some which],[2942] I think, are no longer made; -in addition to which, it would be a mere loss of time to enlarge -upon their medicinal effects, having expatiated elsewhere upon the -properties of the various elements of which they are composed. And -then, besides, the conceits of the medical men in relation to these -wines have really passed all bounds; they pretend, for instance, that a -wine extracted from turnips[2943] is good for recruiting the exhausted -strength, after exercises in arms or on horseback; and, not to speak -of other preparations, they attribute a similar effect to wine of -juniper.[2944] Who is there, too, that would think of looking, upon -wormwood wine[2945] as superior in its effects to wormwood itself? - -I shall pass in silence the rest of these preparations, and among them -palm wine,[2946] which is injurious to the head, and is beneficial only -as a laxative to the bowels, and as a cure for spitting of blood. We -cannot, however, look upon the liquor which we have spoken of[2947] -under the name of “bion,” as being an artificial wine; for the whole -art of making it consists merely in the employment of grapes before -they have arrived at maturity. This preparation is extremely good for -a deranged stomach or an imperfect digestion, as also for pregnancy, -fainting fits, paralysis, fits of trembling, vertigo, gripings of the -bowels, and sciatica. It is said, too, that in times of pestilence, -and for persons on a long journey, this liquid forms a beverage of -remarkable efficacy. - - - - -CHAP. 27.—VINEGAR: TWENTY-EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -Wine, even when it has lost its vinous properties, still retains some -medicinal virtues. Vinegar possesses cooling properties in the very -highest degree, and is no less efficacious as a resolvent; it has the -property, too, of effervescing,[2948] when poured upon the ground. We -have frequently had occasion, and shall again have occasion, to mention -the various medicinal compositions in which it forms an ingredient. -Taken by itself, it dispels nausea and arrests hiccup, and if smelt at, -it will prevent sneezing: retained in the mouth, it prevents a person -from being inconvenienced by the heat[2949] of the bath. It is used -as a beverage also, in combination with water,[2950] and employed as -a gargle, it is found by many to be very wholesome to the stomach, -particularly convalescents and persons suffering from sun-stroke; used -as a fomentation, too, this mixture is extremely beneficial to the -eyes. Vinegar is used remedially when a leech has been swallowed;[2951] -and it has the property of healing leprous sores,[2952] scorbutic -eruptions, running ulcers, wounds inflicted by dogs, scorpions, and -scolopendræ, and the bite of the shrew-mouse. It is good, too, as a -preventive of the itching sensations produced by the venom of all -stinging animals, and as an antidote to the bite of the millepede. - -Applied warm in a sponge, in the proportion of three sextarii to -two ounces of sulphur or a bunch of hyssop, vinegar is a remedy for -maladies of the fundament. To arrest the hæmorrhage which ensues upon -the operation[2953] of lithotomy, and, indeed, all other operations -of a similar nature, it is usual to apply vinegar in a sponge, and at -the same time to administer it internally in doses of two cyathi, the -very strongest possible being employed. Vinegar has the effect also of -dissolving coagulated blood; for the cure of lichens, it is used both -internally and externally. Used as an injection, it arrests looseness -of the bowels and fluxes of the intestines; it is similarly employed, -too, for procidence of the rectum and uterus. - -Vinegar acts as a cure for inveterate coughs, defluxions of the -throat, hardness of breathing, and looseness of the teeth: but it acts -injuriously upon the bladder and the sinews, when relaxed. Medical men -were for a long time in ignorance how beneficial vinegar is for the -sting of the asp; for it was only recently that a man, while carrying -a bladder[2954] of vinegar, happening to be stung by an asp upon which -he trod, found to his surprise that whenever he put down the bladder he -felt the sting, but that when he took it up again, he seemed as though -he had never been hurt; a circumstance which at once suggested to him -the remedial properties of the vinegar, upon drinking some of which -he experienced a cure. It is with vinegar, too, and nothing else, -that persons rinse the mouth after sucking the poison from a wound. -This liquid, in fact, exercises a predominance not only upon various -articles of food, but upon many other substances as well. Poured upon -rocks in considerable quantities, it has the effect of splitting[2955] -them, when the action of fire alone has been unable to produce any -effect thereon. As a seasoning, too, there is no kind that is more -agreeable than vinegar, or that has a greater tendency to heighten the -flavour of food. When it is employed for this purpose, its extreme -tartness is modified with burnt bread or wine, or else it is heightened -by the addition of pepper, and of laser;[2956] in all cases, too, salt -modifies its strength. - -While speaking of vinegar, we must not omit to mention a very -remarkable case in connexion with it: in the latter years of his -life, M. Agrippa was dreadfully afflicted with gout, so much so, in -fact, that he was quite unable to endure the torments to which he -was subjected. Upon this, guided by the ominous advice of one of his -medical attendants, though unknown to Augustus, at the moment of an -extremely severe attack he plunged his legs into hot vinegar, content -to purchase exemption from such cruel torments as he suffered, if even -at the price of all use and sensation in those limbs, * * * * *.[2957] - - - - -CHAP. 28. (2.)—SQUILL VINEGAR: SEVENTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Squill vinegar is the more esteemed, the older it is. In addition to -the properties which we have already[2958] mentioned, it is useful -in cases where the food turns sour upon the stomach, a mere taste of -it being sufficient to act as a corrective. It is good, too, when -persons are seized with vomiting, while fasting, having the effect of -indurating the passages of the throat and stomach. It is a corrective, -also, of bad breath, strengthens the teeth and gums, and improves the -complexion. - -Used as a gargle, squill vinegar remedies hardness of hearing, and -opens the passages of the ears, while at the same time it tends to -improve the sight. It is very good, too, for epilepsy, melancholy, -vertigo, hysterical suffocations, blows, falls with violence, and -extravasations of blood in consequence, as also for debility of the -sinews, and diseases of the kidneys. In cases of internal ulceration, -however, the use of it must be avoided. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—OXYMELI: SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -The following, as we learn from Dieuches, was the manner in which -oxymeli[2959] was prepared by the ancients. In a cauldron they used -to put ten minæ of honey, five heminæ of old vinegar, a pound and a -quarter of sea-salt, and five sextarii of rain-water; the mixture -was then boiled together till it had simmered some ten times, after -which it was poured off, and put by for keeping. Asclepiades, however, -condemned this preparation, and put an end to the use of it, though -before his time it used to be given in fevers even. Still, however, -it is generally admitted that it was useful for the cure of stings -inflicted by the serpent known as the “seps”[2960] and that it acted -as an antidote to opium[2961] and mistletoe. It was usefully employed -also, warm, as a gargle for quinsy and maladies of the ears, and for -affections of the mouth and throat; for all these purposes, however, -at the present day, oxalme is employed, the best kind of which is made -with salt and fresh vinegar. - - - - -CHAP. 30.—SAPA: SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -Sapa[2962] has a close affinity with wine, being nothing else but -must boiled down to one third: that which is prepared from white must -is the best. It is used medicinally in cases of injuries inflicted -by cantharides, the buprestis,[2963] the pine caterpillars known as -pityocampæ,[2964] salamanders, and all venomous bites and stings. Taken -with onions it has the effect of bringing away the dead fœtus and the -after-birth. According to Fabianus, it acts as a poison, if taken by a -person fasting, immediately after the bath.[2965] - - - - -CHAP. 31.—LEES OF WINE: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -Next in the natural order come the lees of these several liquids. -The lees of[2966] wine are so extremely powerful as to prove fatal -to persons on descending into the vats.[2967] The proper precaution -for preventing this, is to let down a light first, which so long -as it refuses to burn, is significant of danger. Wine-lees, in -an unrinsed[2968] state, form an ingredient in several medicinal -preparations: with an equal proportion of iris,[2969] a liniment -is prepared from them for purulent eruptions; and, either moist or -dried, they are used for stings inflicted by the phalangium, and for -inflammations[2970] of the testes, mamillæ, or other parts of the -body. A decoction of wine-lees is prepared, too, with barley-meal -and powdered frankincense; after which it is first parched and then -dried. The test of its being properly boiled, is its imparting, when -cold, a burning sensation to the tongue. When left exposed to the air, -wine-lees very rapidly lose their virtues; which, on the other hand, -are greatly heightened by the action of fire. - -Wine-lees are very useful, too, boiled with figs, for the cure of -lichens and cutaneous eruptions; they are applied also in a similar -manner to leprous sores and running ulcers. Taken in drink, they act -as an antidote to the poison of fungi, and more particularly if they -are undiluted; boiled and then rinsed, they are used in preparations -for the eyes. They are employed also topically for diseases of the -testes and generative organs, and are taken in wine for strangury. When -wine-lees have lost their strength, they are still useful for cleansing -the body and scouring clothes, in which case they act as a substitute -for gum acacia.[2971] - - - - -CHAP. 32.—LEES OF VINEGAR: SEVENTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The lees of vinegar,[2972] as a matter of course, considering the -material from which they are derived, are much more acrid than those -of wine, and more caustic in their effects. This substance prevents -the increase of suppuration, and, employed topically, is good for -the stomach, intestines, and regions of the abdomen. It has the -property also of arresting fluxes of those parts, and the catamenia -when in excess; it disperses inflamed tumours which have not come to -a head, and is a cure for quinsy. Applied with wax, it is curative -of erysipelas. It reduces swellings of the mamillæ when gorged with -milk, and removes malformed nails. Employed with polenta, it is very -efficacious for the cure of stings inflicted by the serpent called -cerastes;[2973] and in combination with melanthium,[2974] it heals -bites inflicted by crocodiles and dogs. - -Vinegar lees, too, by being subjected to the action of fire, acquire -additional strength.[2975] Mixed in this state with oil of mastich, and -applied to the hair, they turn[2976] it red in a single night. Applied -with water in linen, as a pessary, they act as a detergent upon the -uterus. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—LEES OF SAPA: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -The lees[2977] of sapa are used for the cure of burns, it being the -best plan to employ with them the down that grows on the reed; a -decoction too, of these lees, is good for the cure of an inveterate -cough. They are boiled also in a saucepan with salt and grease as an -ointment for tumours of the jaws and neck. - - - - -CHAP. 34. (3.)—THE LEAVES OF THE OLIVE: TWENTY-THREE REMEDIES. - - -The next rank, after the vine, clearly belongs to the olive. The -leaves of the olive-tree are astringent,[2978] detergent, and binding -in the highest degree. Chewed and applied to sores, they are of a -healing nature; and applied topically with oil, they are good for -head-ache. A decoction of them with honey makes a good liniment for -such parts of the body as have been subjected to cauterization, as -also for inflammations of the gums, whitlows, and foul and putrid -ulcers: combined with honey, they arrest discharges of blood from -the nervous[2979] parts of the a body. The juice of olive leaves is -efficacious for carbuncular ulcers and pustules about the eyes, and for -procidence of the pupil; hence it is much employed in the composition -of eye-salves, having the additional property of healing inveterate -runnings of the eyes, and ulcerations of the eyelids. - -This juice is extracted by pouring wine and rain-water upon the leaves, -and then pounding them; after which the pulp is dried and divided -into lozenges. Used with wool, as a pessary, this preparation arrests -menstruation when in excess, and is very useful for the treatment -of purulent sores, condylomata, erysipelas, spreading ulcers, and -epinyctis. - - - - -CHAP. 35.—THE BLOSSOM OF THE OLIVE: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -The blossom,[2980] too, of the olive-tree possesses similar -properties. The young branches are burnt when just beginning to -blossom, and of the ashes a substitute for spodium[2981] is made, upon -which wine is poured, and it is then burnt afresh. To suppurations and -inflamed tumours these ashes are applied, or else the leaves, beaten up -with honey; for the eyes, they are used with polenta. The juice which -exudes[2982] from the wood, when burnt in a green state, heals lichens, -scaly eruptions, and running ulcers. - -As to the juice[2983] which exudes naturally from the olive-tree, and -more particularly that of Æthiopia, we cannot be sufficiently surprised -that authors should have been found to recommend it as an application -for tooth-ache, and to tell us at the same time that it is a poison, -and even that we must have recourse to the wild olive for it. The bark -of the roots of the olive, as young and tender a tree as possible -being selected, scraped and taken every now and then in honey, is -good[2984] for patients suffering from spitting of blood and purulent -expectorations. The ashes of the tree itself, mixed with axle-grease, -are useful for the cure of tumours, and heal fistulas by the extraction -of the vicious humours which they contain. - - - - -CHAP. 36.—WHITE OLIVES: FOUR REMEDIES. BLACK OLIVES: THREE REMEDIES. - - -White olives are wholesome for the upper regions of the stomach, but -not so good for the bowels. Eaten by themselves, habitually as a -diet, quite fresh and before they are preserved, they are remarkably -serviceable, having the effect of curing gravel,[2985] and of -strengthening the teeth when worn or loosened by the use of meat. - -Black olives, on the other hand, are not so wholesome for the upper -regions of the stomach, but are better for the bowels; they are not -good, however, for the head or for the eyes. Both kinds, pounded and -applied topically, are good for the cure of burns, but the black olive -is sometimes chewed first, and instantly applied to the sore, for the -purpose of preventing blisters from forming. Colymbades[2986] act as a -detergent for foul ulcers, but they are bad for persons suffering from -strangury. - - - - -CHAP. 37.—AMURCA OF OLIVES: TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES. - - -As to the amurca of olives, we might appear to have said enough on the -subject already,[2987] taking Cato as our guide; it remains, however, -to speak of the medicinal uses of this substance. It is extremely -serviceable as a strengthener of the gums,[2988] and for the cure of -ulcers of the mouth; it has the effect, also, of strengthening loose -teeth in the sockets, and an application of it is good for erysipelas -and spreading ulcers. For chilblains, the amurca of the black olive is -the best, as also as a fomentation for infants; that of the white olive -is used, with wool, as a pessary for affections of the uterus. Of both -kinds, however, the amurca is much more serviceable when boiled; this -being done in a vessel of Cyprian copper, to the consistency of honey. -Thus prepared, it is used, according to the necessities of the case, -with either vinegar, old wine, or honied wine, for the treatment of -maladies of the mouth, teeth, and ears, and for running ulcers,[2989] -diseases of the generative organs, and chaps on various parts of the -body. It is employed topically, for the cure of wounds, in a linen -pledget, and for sprains, in wool: as a medicament, it is of great -utility, more particularly when old, as in such case it effects the -cure of fistula.[2990] - -It is used as an injection for ulcerations of the fundament, the -generative organs, and the uterus, and is employed topically for -incipient gout and diseases of the joints. Boiled down again, with -omphacium,[2991] to the consistency of honey, it extracts decayed -teeth; and, in combination with a decoction of lupines and the plant -chamæleon,[2992] it is a marvellous cure for itch in beasts of -burden.[2993] Fomentations of amurca in a raw state[2994] are extremely -good for gout. - - - - -CHAP. 38. (4.)—THE LEAVES OF THE WILD OLIVE: SIXTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The leaves of the wild olive are possessed of similar properties. -The spodium[2995] that is made by burning the young branches is of -remarkable efficacy for arresting fluxes; it allays inflammations of -the eyes also, acts as a detergent upon ulcerous sores, makes the -flesh grow on wounds from which it has been removed, and acts gently -as a caustic upon fleshy excrescences, drying them up and making them -cicatrize. The rest of its properties are similar to those of the -cultivated olive. There is, however, one peculiarity in it; the leaves, -boiled with honey, are given in doses of a spoonful for spitting -of blood.[2996] The oil, too, of the wild olive is more acrid, and -possesses greater energy than that of the cultivated olive; hence it -is that it is usual to rinse the mouth with it for the purpose of -strengthening the teeth.[2997] - -The leaves, too, are applied topically, with wine, to whitlows, -carbuncles, and all kinds of gatherings; and, with honey, to sores -which require a detergent. Both a decoction of the leaves and the -natural juices of the wild olive form ingredients in medicaments for -the eyes; and the latter are found useful as an injection for the -ears, in the case of purulent discharges even. From the blossom of the -wild olive a liniment is prepared for condylomata and epinyctis: it -is applied also to the abdomen, with barley-meal, for fluxes, and to -the head, with oil, for head-ache. In cases where the scalp becomes -detached from the cranium, the young branches, boiled and applied -with honey, have a healing effect. These branches, too, when arrived -at maturity, taken with the food, arrest diarrhœa: parched and beaten -up with honey, they act as a detergent upon corroding sores, and bring -carbuncles to a head and dispers them. - - - - -CHAP. 39.—OMPHACIUM: THREE REMEDIES. - - -As to olive oil, we have abundantly treated of its nature and elements -already.[2998] It now remains to speak of the medicinal properties of -the various kinds of oil. The most useful of all is omphacium,[2999] -and next to that, green oil;[3000] in addition to which, we may remark -that oil ought to be as fresh as possible, except in cases where old -oil is absolutely required. For medicinal purposes, too, oil should be -extremely fluid, have an agreeable smell, and be free from[3001] all -taste, just the converse, in fact, of the property which we look for in -food. Omphacium is good for the gums, and if kept from time to time in -the mouth, there is nothing better as a preservative of the whiteness -of the teeth. It checks profuse perspirations. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—OIL OF ŒNANTHE: TWENTY-EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -Oil of œnanthe[3002] has just the same properties as oil of roses. -Like oil in general, it makes the body supple, and imparts to it -strength and vigour; it is injurious to the stomach, promotes the -increase of ulcers, irritates the fauces, and deadens the effect of all -poisons, white-lead and gypsum in particular, if taken in hydromel or -a decoction of dried figs. Taken with water, it is good as an antidote -to the effects of opium, and to injuries inflicted by cantharides, -the buprestis, the salamandra, and the pine caterpillar.[3003] Taken -pure as an emetic, it is highly esteemed as an antidote in all the -before-mentioned cases. It is also a refreshing remedy for extreme -lassitude, and for fits of shivering from cold. Taken warm, in doses -of six cyathi, and more particularly when boiled with rue,[3004] it -relieves gripings of the stomach and expels intestinal worms, Taken -in doses of one hemina with wine and warm water, or else with barley -water,[3005] it acts as a purgative upon the bowels. It is useful, -also, in the composition of plasters for wounds, and it cleanses the -complexion of the face. Injected into the nostrils of oxen, till it -produces eructation, it cures attacks of flatulency. - -When old it is of a more warming nature than when new, and acts more -energetically as a sudorific, and as a resolvent for indurations. It -is very efficacious[3006] in cases of lethargy, and more particularly -in the decline of the disease. Mixed with an equal proportion of honey -which has not been smoked,[3007] it contributes in some degree to the -improvement of the sight. It is a remedy, also for head-ache; and, in -combination with water, for the burning attacks in fevers. If old oil -should happen not to be at hand, the new oil is boiled to act as a -substitute for it. - - - - -CHAP. 41.—CASTOR OIL: SIXTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Castor[3008] oil, taken with an equal quantity of warm water, acts -as a purgative[3009] upon the bowels. It is said, too, that as a -purgative this oil acts more particularly upon the regions of the -diaphragm.[3010] It is very useful for diseases of the joints, all -kinds of indurations, affections of the uterus and ears, and for burns: -employed with the ashes of the murex,[3011] it heals itch-scabs and -inflammations of the fundament. It improves the complexion also, and by -its fertilizing tendencies promotes the growth of the hair. The cicus, -or seed from which this oil is made, no animal will touch; and from -these grape-like seeds[3012] wicks are made,[3013] which burn with a -peculiar brilliancy; the light, however, that is produced by the oil -is very dim, in consequence of its extreme thickness. The leaves are -applied topically with vinegar for erysipelas, and fresh-gathered, they -are used by themselves for diseases of the mamillæ and defluxions; -a decoction of them in wine, with polenta and saffron, is good for -inflammations of various kinds. Boiled by themselves, and applied to -the face for three successive days, they improve the complexion. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—OIL OF ALMONDS: SIXTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Oil of almonds is of a purgative and emollient nature; it effaces -wrinkles on the skin, improves the complexion, and, in combination with -honey, removes spots on the face. A decoction of it with oil of roses, -honey, and pomegranate rind, is good for the ears, and exterminates the -small worms that breed there; it has the effect also, of dispelling -hardness of hearing, recurrent tinglings and singing in the ears, and -is curative of head-ache and pains in the eyes. Used with wax, it cures -boils, and scorches by exposure to the sun;[3014] in combination with -wine it heals running ulcers and scaly eruptions, and with melilote, -condylomatous swellings. Applied by itself to the head, it invites -sleep.[3015] - - - - -CHAP. 43.—OIL OF LAUREL: NINE REMEDIES. - - -As to oil of laurel,[3016] the fresher and greener it is, the more -valuable are its properties. It is of a heating nature, and is -consequently applied, warm, in a pomegranate rind, for paralysis, -spasms, sciatica, bruises, head-ache, catarrhs of long standing, and -diseases of the ears. - - - - -CHAP. 44.—OIL OF MYRTLE: TWENTY REMEDIES. - - -Oil of myrtle has similar properties.[3017] It is of an astringent and -indurative nature; mixed with the scoria of copper, and wax, it cures -diseases of the gums, tooth-ache, dysentery, ulcerations of the uterus, -affections of the bladder, inveterate or running ulcers, eruptions, -and burns. It exercises a healing effect also, upon excoriations, -scaly eruptions, chaps, condylomata, and sprains, and it neutralizes -offensive odours of the body. This oil is an antidote[3018] to -cantharides, the buprestis, and other dangerous poisons of a corrosive -nature. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—OIL OF CHAMÆMYRSINE OR OXYMYRSINE; OIL OF CYPRESS; OIL OF -CITRUS; OIL OF WALNUTS; OIL OF CNIDIUM; OIL OF MASTICH; OIL OF BALANUS; -VARIOUS REMEDIES. - - -Oil of chamæmyrsine, or oxymyrsine,[3019] possesses similar properties. -Oil of cypress[3020] also, produces the same effects as oil of myrtle, -and the same as to oil of citrus.[3021] Oil of walnuts, which we -have previously mentioned[3022] as being called “caryinon,” is good -for alopecy, and is injected into the ears for the cure of hardness -of hearing. Used as a liniment, it relieves head-ache; but in other -respects it is of an inert nature and disagreeable taste; indeed, if -part only of one of the kernels should happen to be decayed, the whole -making is spoilt. The oil extracted from the grain of Cnidos[3023] -has similar properties to castor[3024] oil. Oil of mastich[3025] is -very useful as an ingredient in the medicinal preparation known as -“acopum;”[3026] indeed it would be fully as efficacious as oil of -roses, were it not found to be somewhat too styptic in its effects. It -is employed in cases of too profuse perspiration, and for the cure of -pimples produced thereby. It is extremely efficacious also for itch -in beasts of burden. Oil of balanus[3027] removes spots on the skin, -boils, freckles, and maladies of the gums.[3028] - - - - -CHAP. 46.—THE CYPRUS, AND THE OIL EXTRACTED FROM IT; SIXTEEN REMEDIES. -GLEUCINUM: ONE REMEDY. - - -We have already enlarged[3029] upon the nature of the cyprus, and the -method of preparing oil of cyprus. This oil is naturally warming, and -relaxes the sinews. The leaves of the tree are used as an application -to the stomach,[3030] and the juice of them is applied in a pessary -for irritations of the uterus. Fresh gathered and chewed, the leaves -are applied to running ulcers of the head, ulcerations of the mouth, -gatherings, and condylomatous sores. A decoction of the leaves is very -useful also for burns and sprains. Beaten up and applied with the juice -of the strutheum,[3031] they turn the hair red. The blossoms, applied -to the head with vinegar, relieve head-ache, and the ashes of them, -burnt in a pot of raw earth, are curative of corrosive sores and putrid -ulcers, either employed by themselves, or in combination with honey. -The odour[3032] exhaled by these blossoms induces sleep. - -The oil called “gleucinum”[3033] has certain astringent and refreshing -properties similar to those of oil of œnanthe. - - - - -CHAP. 47.—OIL OF BALSAMUM: FIFTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The oil of balsamum is by far the most valuable of them all, as already -stated[3034] by us, when treating of the unguents. It is extremely -efficacious for the venom of all kinds of serpents, is very beneficial -to the eyesight, disperses films upon the eyes, assuages hardness -of breathing, and acts emolliently upon all kinds of gatherings and -indurations. It has the effect, also, of preventing the blood from -coagulating, acts as a detergent upon ulcers, and is remarkably -beneficial for diseases of the ears, head-ache, trembling,[3035] -spasms, and ruptures. Taken in milk, it is an antidote to the poison -of aconite, and used as a liniment upon the access of the shivering -fits in fevers, it modifies their violence. Still, however, it should -be used but sparingly, as it is of a very caustic nature, and, if not -employed in moderation, is apt to augment the malady. - - - - -CHAP. 48.—MALOBATHRUM: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -We have already[3036] spoken, also, of the nature of malobathrum, -and the various kinds of it. It acts as a diuretic, and, sprinkled -in wine upon the eyes, it is used very advantageously for defluxions -of those organs. It is applied also to the forehead, for the purpose -of promoting sleep; but it acts with still greater efficacy, if the -nostrils are rubbed with it, or if it is taken in water. The leaves, -placed beneath the tongue, impart a sweetness to the mouth and breath, -and put among clothes, they produce a similar effect. - - - - -CHAP. 49.—OIL OF HENBANE: TWO REMEDIES. OIL OF LUPINES: ONE REMEDY. -OIL OF NARCISSUS: ONE REMEDY. OIL OF RADISHES: FIVE REMEDIES. OIL OF -SESAME: THREE REMEDIES. OIL OF LILIES: THREE REMEDIES. OIL OF SELGA: -ONE REMEDY. OIL OF IGUVIUM: ONE REMEDY. - - -Oil of henbane[3037] is of an emollient nature, but it is bad for -the nerves; taken in drink, it disturbs the brain. Therminum,[3038] -or oil of lupines, is emollient, and very similar to oil of roses in -its effects. As to oil of narcissus, we have already[3039] spoken -of it when describing that flower. Oil of radishes,[3040] cures -phthiriasis[3041] contracted in a long illness, and removes roughness -of the skin upon the face. Oil of sesame is curative of pains in the -ears, spreading ulcers, and the cancer[3042] known as “cacoethes.” Oil -of lilies, which we have previously[3043] mentioned as being called oil -of Phaselis and oil of Syria, is extremely good for the kidneys and for -promoting perspiration, as also as an emollient for the uterus, and as -tending to bring internal tumours to a head. As to oil of Selga, we -have already[3044] spoken of it as being strengthening to the tendons; -which is the case, also, with the herbaceous[3045] oil which the people -of Iguvium[3046] sell, on the Flaminian Way. - - - - -CHAP. 50.—ELÆOMELI: TWO REMEDIES. OIL OF PITCH: TWO REMEDIES. - - -Elæomeli, which, as we have already[3047] stated, exudes from the -olive-trees of Syria, has a flavour like that of honey, but not without -a certain nauseous taste. It relaxes the bowels, and carries off the -bilious secretions more particularly, if taken in doses of two cyathi, -in a semisextarius of water. After drinking it, the patient falls into -a torpor, and requires to be aroused every now and then. Persons, when -about to drink for a wager, are in the habit of taking[3048] a cyathus -of it, by way of prelude. Oil of pitch[3049] is employed for the cure -of cough, and of itch in cattle. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—THE PALM: NINE REMEDIES. - - -Next in rank after the vine and the olive comes the palm. Dates -fresh-gathered have an inebriating[3050] effect, and are productive -of head-ache; when dried, they are not so injurious. It would appear, -too, that they are not wholesome to the stomach; they have an -irritating[3051] effect on coughs, but are very nourishing to the -body. The ancients used to give a decoction of them to patients, as a -substitute for hydromel, with the view of recruiting the strength and -allaying thirst, the Thebaïc date being held in preference for the -purpose. Dates are very useful, too, for persons troubled with spitting -of blood, when taken in the food more particularly. The dates called -caryotæ,[3052] in combination with quinces, wax, and saffron, are -applied topically for affections of the stomach, bladder, abdomen, and -intestines: they are good for bruises also. Date-stones,[3053] burnt in -a new earthen vessel, produce an ash which, when rinsed, is employed -as a substitute for spodium,[3054] and is used as an ingredient -in eye-salves, and, with the addition of nard, in washes for the -eye-brows.[3055] - - - - -CHAP. 52. (5.)—THE PALM WHICH PRODUCES MYROBALANUM: THREE REMEDIES. - - -Of the palm which produces myrobalanum,[3056] the most esteemed kind -is that grown in Egypt;[3057] the dates of which, unlike those of -the other kinds, are without stones. Used with astringent wine, they -arrest[3058] diarrhœa and the catamenia, and promote the cicatrization -of wounds. - - - - -CHAP. 53.—THE PALM CALLED ELATE: SIXTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The palm called “elate,”[3059] or “spathe,” furnishes its buds, leaves, -and bark for medicinal purposes. The leaves are applied to the thoracic -regions, stomach, and liver, and to spreading ulcers, but they are -adverse to cicatrization. The bark[3060] of the tree, while tender, -mixed with wax and resin, heals itch-scab in the course of twenty days: -a decoction, also, is made of it for diseases of the testes. Used as -a fumigation, it turns the hair black, and brings away the fœtus. It -is given in drink, also, for diseases of the kidneys, bladder, and -thoracic organs; but it acts injuriously upon the head and nerves. The -decoction of this bark has the effect, also, of arresting fluxes of the -uterus and the bowels: the ashes of it are used with white wine for -griping pains in the stomach, and form a very efficacious remedy for -affections of the uterus. - - - - -CHAP. 54. (6.)—REMEDIES DERIVED PROM THE BLOSSOMS, LEAVES, FRUIT, -BRANCHES, BARK, JUICES, WOOD, ROOTS, AND ASHES OF VARIOUS KINDS OF -TREES. SIX OBSERVATIONS UPON APPLES. TWENTY-TWO OBSERVATIONS UPON -QUINCES. ONE OBSERVATION UPON STRUTHEA. - - -We next come to the medicinal properties of the various kinds -of apples. The spring fruits, of this nature are sour and -unwholesome[3061] to the stomach, disturb the bowels, contract the -bladder, and act injuriously upon the nerves; when cooked, however, -they are of a more harmless nature. Quinces are more pleasant eating -when cooked; still however, eaten raw, provided they are ripe, they are -very useful[3062] for spitting of blood, dysentery, cholera, and cœliac -affections; indeed, they are not of the same efficacy when cooked, as -they then lose the astringent properties which belong to their juice. -They are applied also to the breast in the burning attacks of fever, -and, in spite of what has been stated above, they are occasionally -boiled in rain-water for the various purposes before-mentioned. For -pains in the stomach they are applied[3063] like a cerate, either raw -or boiled. The down upon them heals[3064] carbuncles. - -Boiled in wine, and applied with wax, they restore the hair, when it -has been lost by alopecy. A conserve of raw quinces in honey relaxes -the bowels: and they add very materially to the sweetness of the -honey, and render it more wholesome to the stomach. Boiled quinces -preserved in honey are beaten up with a decoction of rose-leaves, and -are taken as food by some for the cure of affections of the stomach. -The juice of raw quinces is very good, also, for the spleen, hardness -of breathing, dropsy, affections of the mamillæ, condylomata, and -varicose veins. The blossoms, either fresh or dried, are useful for -inflammations of the eyes, spitting of blood, and irregularities of -the catamenia. By beating them up with sweet wine, a soothing sirop is -prepared, which is very beneficial for cœliac affections and diseases -of the liver: with a decoction of them a fomentation is made for -procidence of the uterus and intestines. - -From quinces an oil is also extracted, which we have spoken of under -the name of “melinum:”[3065] in order to make it, the fruit must not -have been grown in a damp soil; hence it is that the quinces which come -from Sicily are so highly esteemed for the purpose; while, on the other -hand, the strutheum,[3066] though of a kindred kind, is not so good. - -A circle[3067] is traced round the root of this tree, and the root -itself is then pulled up with the left hand, care being taken by the -person who does so to state at the same moment the object for which it -is so pulled up, and for whom. Worn as an amulet, this root is a cure -for scrofula. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—THE SWEET APPLES CALLED MELIMELA: SIX OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. -SOUR APPLES: FOUR OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. - - -The apples known as “melimela,”[3068] and the other sweet apples, relax -the stomach and bowels, but are productive of heat and thirst,[3069] -though they do not act injuriously upon the nervous system. The -orbiculata[3070] arrest diarrhœa and vomiting, and act as a diuretic. -Wild apples resemble the sour apples of spring, and act astringently -upon the bowels: indeed, for this purpose they should always be used -before they are ripe. - - - - -CHAP. 56.—CITRONS: FIVE OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. - - -Citrons,[3071] either the pulp of them or the pips, are taken in -wine as an antidote to poisons. A decoction of citrons, or the juice -extracted from them, is used as a gargle to impart sweetness to the -breath.[3072] The pips of this fruit are recommended for pregnant women -to chew when affected with qualmishness. Citrons are good, also, for a -weak stomach, but it is not easy to eat them except with vinegar.[3073] - - - - -CHAP. 57.—PUNIC APPLES OR POMEGRANATES: TWENTY-SIX REMEDIES. - - -It would be a mere loss of time to recapitulate the nine[3074] -different varieties of the pomegranate. The sweet pomegranates, or, in -other words, those known by the name of “apyrena,”[3075] are generally -considered to be injurious to the stomach; they are productive, also, -of flatulency, and are bad for the teeth and gums. The kind which -closely resembles the last in flavour, and which we have spoken of as -the “vinous” pomegranate, has very diminutive pips, and is thought to -be somewhat more wholesome than the others. They have an astringent -effect upon the stomach and bowels, provided they are taken in -moderation, and not to satiety; but even these, or, indeed, any other -kind, should never be given in fevers, as neither the substance nor -the juice of the fruit acts otherwise than injuriously under those -circumstances. They should, also, be equally[3076] abstained from in -cases of vomiting and bilious evacuations. - -In this fruit Nature has revealed to us a grape, and, so to say, not -must, but a wine ready made, both grape and wine being enclosed in -a tougher skin.[3077] The rind of the sour pomegranate is employed -for many purposes. It is in very common use with curriers for -tanning[3078] leather, from which circumstance it has received the name -of “malicorium.”[3079] Medical men assure us that the rind is diuretic, -and that, boiled with nut-galls in vinegar, it strengthens loose -teeth in the sockets. It is prescribed also for pregnant women when -suffering from qualmishness, the flavour of it quickening the fœtus. A -pomegranate is cut, and left to soak in rain-water for some three days; -after which the infusion is given cold to persons suffering from cœliac -affections and spitting of blood. - - - - -CHAP. 58.—THE COMPOSITION CALLED STOMATICE: FOURTEEN REMEDIES. - - -With the sour pomegranate a medicament is made, which is known as -“stomatice,” and is extremely good for affections of the mouth, -nostrils, and ears, dimness of sight, films upon the eyes,[3080] -diseases of the generative organs, corrosive sores called “nomæ,” and -fleshy excrescences in ulcers; it is useful, also, as an antidote -to the venom of the sea-hare.[3081] The following is the method of -making it: the rind is taken off the fruit, and the pips are pounded, -after which the juice is boiled down to one-third, and then mixed with -saffron, split alum,[3082] myrrh, and Attic honey, the proportions -being half a pound of each. - -Some persons have another way of making it: a number of sour -pomegranates are pounded, after which the juice is boiled down in a -new cauldron to the consistency of honey. This composition is used for -various affections of the generative organs and fundament, and, indeed, -all those diseases which are treated with lycium.[3083] It is employed, -also, for the cure of purulent discharges from the ears, incipient -defluxions of the eyes, and red spots upon the hands. Branches of the -pomegranate have the effect of repelling the attacks of serpents.[3084] -Pomegranate rind, boiled in wine and applied, is a cure for chilblains. -A pomegranate, boiled down to one-third in three heminæ of wine, is -a cure for griping pains in the bowels and for tape-worm.[3085] A -pomegranate, put in a new earthen pot tightly covered and burnt in a -furnace, and then pounded and taken in wine, arrests looseness of the -bowels, and dispels griping pains in the stomach. - - - - -CHAP. 59.—CYTINUS: EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -The Greeks have given the name of cytinus[3086] to the first germs -of this tree when it is just beginning to blossom. These germs have -a singular property, which has been remarked by many. If a person, -after taking off everything that is fastened upon the body, his -girdle, for instance, shoes, and even his ring, plucks one of them -with two fingers of the left hand, the thumb, namely, and the fourth -finger, and, after rubbing it gently round his eyes, puts it into -his mouth and swallows[3087] it without letting it touch his teeth, -he will experience, it is said, no malady of the eyes throughout all -the year. These germs, dried and pounded, check the growth of fleshy -excrescences; they are good also for the gums and teeth; and if the -teeth are loose a decoction of the germs will strengthen them. - -The young pomegranates[3088] themselves are beaten up and applied -as a liniment to spreading or putrid sores; they are used also for -inflammations of the eyes and intestines, and nearly all the purposes -for which pomegranate-rind is used. They are remedial also for the -stings of scorpions. - - - - -CHAP. 60.—BALAUSTIUM: TWELVE REMEDIES. - - -We cannot sufficiently admire the care and diligence displayed by the -ancients, who, in their enquiries into every subject, have left nothing -untried. Within the cytinus, before the pomegranate itself makes its -appearance, there are diminutive flowers, the name given to which, as -already[3089] stated, is “balaustium.”[3090] These blossoms, even, -have not escaped their enquiries; it having been ascertained by them -that they are an excellent remedy for stings inflicted by the scorpion. -Taken in drink, they arrest the catamenia, and are curative of ulcers -of the mouth, tonsillary glands, and uvula, as also of spitting -of blood, derangement of the stomach and bowels, diseases of the -generative organs, and running sores in all parts of the body. - -The ancients also dried these blossoms, to try their efficacy in that -state, and made the discovery that, pulverized, they cure patients -suffering from dysentery when at the very point of death even, and that -they arrest looseness of the bowels. They have not disdained, too, to -make trial of the pips of the pomegranate: parched and then pounded, -these pips are good for the stomach, sprinkled in the food or drink. -To arrest looseness of the bowels, they are taken in rain-water. A -decoction of the juices of the root, in doses of one victoriatus,[3091] -exterminates tape-worm;[3092] and the root itself, boiled down in -water to a thick consistency, is employed for the same purposes as -lycium.[3093] - - - - -CHAP. 61.—THE WILD POMEGRANATE. - - -There is a tree, also, which is called the wild pomegranate,[3094] -on account of its strong resemblance to the cultivated pomegranate. -The roots of it have a red bark, which taken in wine in doses of one -denarius, promotes sleep. The seed of it taken in drink is curative of -dropsy. Gnats are kept at a distance by the smoke of burnt pomegranate -rind. - - - - -CHAP. 62. (7.)—PEARS: TWELVE OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. - - -All kinds of pears, as an aliment, are indigestible,[3095] to persons -in robust health, even; but to invalids they are forbidden as rigidly -as wine. Boiled, however, they are remarkably agreeable and wholesome, -those of Crustumium[3096] in particular. All kinds of pears, too, -boiled with honey, are wholesome to the stomach. Cataplasms of a -resolvent nature are made with pears, and a decoction of them is used -to disperse indurations. They are efficacious, also, in cases of -poisoning[3097] by mushrooms and fungi, as much by reason of their -heaviness, as by the neutralizing effects of their juice. - -The wild pear ripens but very slowly. Cut in slices and hung in the air -to dry, it arrests looseness of the bowels, an effect which is equally -produced by a decoction of it taken in drink; in which case the leaves -also are boiled up together with the fruit. The ashes of pear-tree wood -are even more efficacious[3098] as an antidote to the poison of fungi. - -A load of apples or pears, however small, is singularly fatiguing[3099] -to beasts of burden; the best plan to counteract this, they say, is to -give the animals some to eat, or at least to shew them the fruit before -starting. - - - - -CHAP. 63.—FIGS: ONE HUNDRED AND ELEVEN OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. - - -The milky juice of the fig-tree possesses kindred properties with -vinegar;[3100] hence it is, that, like rennet, it curdles milk. This -juice is collected before the fruit ripens, and dried in the shade; -being used with yolk of egg as a liniment, or else in drink, with -amylum,[3101] to bring ulcers to a head and break them, and for the -purposes of an emmenagogue. With meal of fenugreek and vinegar, it is -applied topically for gout; it acts also as a depilatory,[3102] heals -eruptions of the eyelids, lichens and itch-scabs, and relaxes the -bowels. The milk of the fig-tree is naturally curative of the stings -of hornets, wasps, and similar insects, and is remarkably useful for -wounds inflicted by scorpions. Mixed with axle-grease it removes -warts. With the leaves and figs still green an application is made for -scrofulous[3103] and other sores of a nature which requires emollients -or resolvents. The leaves, too, used by themselves, are productive of -a similar effect. In addition to this, they are employed for other -purposes, as a friction for lichens, for example, for alopecy, and -other diseases which require caustic applications. The young shoots of -the branches are used as an application to the skin in cases of bites -inflicted by dogs. With honey they are applied to the ulcers known as -honeycomb ulcers;[3104] mixed with the leaves of wild poppies they -extract[3105] splinters of bones; and the leaves beaten up in vinegar -are a cure for bites inflicted by dogs. The young white shoots of the -black[3106] fig are applied topically, with wax, to boils, and bites -inflicted by the shrew-mouse: and the ashes of their leaves are used -for the cure of gangrenes and the reduction of fleshy excrescences. - -Ripe figs are diuretic and laxative; they promote the perspiration, and -bring out pimples; hence it is that they are unwholesome in autumn, the -perspirations which they excite being always attended with shivering. -They are injurious also to the stomach, though for a short time only; -and it is generally thought that they spoil the voice. The figs which -are the last to ripen are more wholesome than the first, but those -which are drugged[3107] for the purpose of ripening them are never -wholesome. This fruit invigorates the young, and improves the health of -the aged and retards the formation of wrinkles; it allays thirst, and -is of a cooling nature, for which reason it should never be declined -in those fevers of an astringent tendency which are known as “stegnæ.” - -Dried figs are injurious to the stomach,[3108] but are beneficial in -a marvellous degree to the throat and fauces. They are of a warming -nature, are productive of thirst, and relax the bowels, but are -unwholesome in stomachic complaints and fluxes of the bowels. In all -cases they are beneficial for the bladder, hardness of breathing, and -asthma, as also for diseases of the liver, kidneys, and spleen. They -are nourishing and invigorating, for which reason, the athletes in -former times used them as food: Pythagoras, the gymnast, being the -first who introduced among them a flesh diet.[3109] Figs are extremely -useful for patients recovering from a long illness, and for persons -suffering from epilepsy or dropsy. They are applied topically also in -all cases where sores require to be brought to a head, or dispersed; -and they are still more efficacious when mixed with lime or nitre. -Boiled with hyssop they act as a purgative on the pectoral organs, -carry off the phlegm, and cure inveterate coughs: boiled with wine they -heal maladies of the fundament, and tumours of the jaws. A decoction -of them is applied also to boils, inflamed tumours, and imposthumes -of the parotid glands. This decoction, too, is found very useful as a -fomentation for disorders incident to females. - -Boiled with fenugreek,[3110] figs are very useful in cases of pleurisy -and peripneumony. A decoction of them with rue is good for griping -pains in the bowels; in combination with verdigris,[3111] they are -used for ulcers of the legs and imposthumes of the parotid glands; -with pomegranates, for hang-nails;[3112] and with wax, for burns and -chilblains. Boiled in wine, with wormwood and barley-meal, they are -employed for dropsy. Eaten with nitre, they relax the bowels; and -beaten up with salt they are applied to stings inflicted by scorpions. -Boiled in wine, and applied topically, they bring carbuncles to a head. -In cases of carcinoma, unattended with ulceration, it is a singularly -good plan to apply to the part the pulpiest fig that can be procured; -the same, too, with phagedænic sores. - -As to the ashes of the fig, those of no tree known are of a more -acrid character,[3113] being of a detergent and astringent nature, -and tending to make new flesh and to promote the cicatrization of -wounds. They are also taken in drink, for the purpose of dissolving -coagulated blood, as also for bruises, falls with violence, ruptures, -convulsions * * * * in one cyathus respectively of water and oil. They -are administered also for tetanus and spasms, and are used either in -a potion, or as an injection for cœliac affections and dysentery. -Employed as a liniment with oil, they have a warming effect; and -kneaded into a paste with wax and rose-oil, they heal burns, leaving -the slightest scar only. Applied in oil, as a liniment, they are a cure -for weakness of sight, and are used as a dentifrice in diseases of the -teeth. - -It is said, too, that if a patient draws downward a branch of a -fig-tree, and turns up his head and bites off some knot or other of -it, without being seen by any one, and then wears it in a leather -bag suspended by a string from his neck, it is a certain cure for -scrofulous sores and imposthumes of the parotid glands. The bark of -this tree, beaten up with oil, cures ulcerations of the abdomen. Green -figs, applied raw, with the addition of nitre and meal, remove warts -and wens.[3114] - -The ashes of the suckers which spring from the roots are used as a -substitute for spodium.[3115] Burnt over a second time and incorporated -with white lead, they are divided into cakes which are used for the -cure of ulcerations of the eyes and eruptions. - - - - -CHAP. 64.—THE WILD FIG: FORTY-TWO OBSERVATIONS UPON IT. - - -The wild fig, again, is even more efficacious in its properties than -the cultivated one. It has not so large a proportion of milky juice as -the other: a slip of it put into milk has the effect of curdling it and -turning it into cheese. This juice, collected and indurated by being -subjected to pressure, imparts a fine flavor[3116] to meat, being -steeped in vinegar for the purpose, and then rubbed upon it. It is used -also as an ingredient in blisters, and taken internally it relaxes the -bowels. Used with amylum,[3117] it opens the passages of the uterus, -and combined with the yolk of an egg it acts as an emmenagogue. Mixed -with meal of fenugreek it is applied topically for gout, and is used -for the dispersion of leprous sores, itch-scabs, lichens, and freckles: -it is an antidote also to the stings of venomous animals, and to the -bites of dogs. Applied to the teeth in wool, or introduced into the -cavity of a carious tooth, this juice cures tooth-ache.[3118] The young -shoots and the leaves, mixed with meal of fitches, act as an antidote -to the poison of marine animals, wine being added to the preparation. -In boiling beef a great saving of fire-wood may be effected, by putting -some of these shoots in the pot.[3119] - -The figs in a green state, applied topically, soften and disperse -scrofulous sores and all kinds of gatherings, and the leaves, to a -certain extent, have a similar effect. The softer leaves are applied -with vinegar for the cure of running ulcers, epinyctis, and scaly -eruptions. With the leaves, mixed with honey, honeycomb ulcers[3120] -are treated, and wounds inflicted by dogs; the leaves are applied, -too, fresh, with wine, to phagedænic sores. In combination with -poppy-leaves, they extract splintered bones. Wild figs, in a green -state, employed as a fumigation, dispel flatulency; and an infusion of -them, used as a potion, combats the deleterious effects of bullocks’ -blood, white-lead, and coagulated milk, taken internally. Boiled in -water, and employed as a cataplasm, they cure imposthumes of the -parotid glands. The shoots, or the green figs, gathered as young as -possible, are taken in wine for stings inflicted by scorpions. The -milky juice is also poured into the wound, and the leaves are applied -to it: the bite of the shrew-mouse is treated in a similar manner. The -ashes of the young branches are curative of relaxations of the uvula; -and the ashes of the tree itself, mixed with honey, have the effect of -healing chaps. A decoction of the root, boiled in wine, is good for -tooth-ache. The winter wild fig, boiled in vinegar and pounded, is a -cure for impetigo: the branches are first barked for the purpose and -then scraped; these scrapings, which are as fine as sawdust, being -applied topically to the parts affected. - -There is also one medicinal property of a marvellous nature attributed -to the wild fig: if a youth who has not arrived at puberty breaks off -a branch, and then with his teeth tears off the bark swelling with the -sap, the pith of this branch, we are assured, attached as an amulet to -the person before sunrise, will prevent the formation of scrofulous -sores. A branch of this tree, attached to the neck of a bull, however -furious, exercises such a marvellous effect upon him as to restrain his -ferocity,[3121] and render him quite immoveable. - - - - -CHAP. 65.—THE HERB ERINEON: THREE REMEDIES. - - -It will be as well to speak here, in consequence of the similarity of -name,[3122] of the herb which is known to the Greeks as the “erineon.” -This plant[3123] is a palm in height, and has mostly five small stems: -in appearance it resembles ocimum, and bears a white flower, with -a small, black, seed. Beaten up with Attic honey, it is a cure for -defluxions of the eyes. In whatever way it is gathered, it yields a -considerable abundance of sweet, milky, juice. With the addition of a -little nitre, this plant is extremely useful for pains in the ears. The -leaves of it have the property of neutralizing poisons. - - - - -CHAP. 66.—PLUMS: FOUR OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. - - -The leaves[3124] of the plum, boiled in wine, are useful for the -tonsillary glands, the gums, and the uvula, the mouth being rinsed -with the decoction every now and then. As for the fruit itself, it is -relaxing[3125] to the bowels; but it is not very wholesome to the -stomach, though its bad effects are little more than momentary. - - - - -CHAP. 67.—PEACHES: TWO REMEDIES. - - -Peaches, again, are more wholesome than plums; and the same is the case -with the juice of the fruit, extracted, and taken in either wine or -vinegar. Indeed, what known fruit is there that is more wholesome as -an aliment than this? There is none, in fact, that has a less powerful -smell,[3126] or a greater abundance of juice, though it has a tendency -to create thirst.[3127] The leaves of it, beaten up and applied -topically, arrest hæmorrhage: the kernels, mixed with oil and vinegar, -are used as a liniment for head-ache.[3128] - - - - -CHAP. 68.—WILD PLUMS: TWO REMEDIES. - - -The fruit of the wild plum, or the bark of the root,[3129] boiled down -to one-third in one hemina of astringent wine, arrests looseness of -the bowels and griping pains in the stomach: the proper dose of the -decoction is one cyathus. - - - - -CHAP. 69.—THE LICHEN ON PLUM-TREES: TWO REMEDIES. - - -Upon the bark of the wild and cultivated plums we find an -excrescence[3130] growing, known to the Greeks by the name of “lichen:” -it is remarkably good for chaps and condylomatous swellings. - - - - -CHAP. 70.—MULBERRIES: THIRTY-NINE REMEDIES. - - -In Egypt and in the Isle of Cyprus there are, as already stated,[3131] -mulberry-trees of a peculiar kind, being of a nature that is truly -marvellous; for, if the outer bark is peeled off, they emit a great -abundance of juice; but if a deeper incision is made, they are found to -be quite dry.[3132] This juice is an antidote to the venom of serpents, -is good for dysentery, disperses inflamed tumours and all kinds of -gatherings, heals wounds, and allays both head-ache and ear-ache: it is -taken in drink for affections of the spleen, and is used as a liniment -for the same purpose, as also for fits of shivering. This juice, -however, very soon breeds worms. - -Among ourselves, too, the juice which exudes from the mulberry-tree is -employed for an equal number of purposes: taken in wine, it neutralizes -the noxious effects of aconite[3133] and the venom of spiders, relaxes -the bowels, and expels tapeworm and other animals which breed in the -intestines;[3134] the bark of the tree, pounded, has also a similar -effect. The leaves, boiled in rain-water with the bark of the black fig -and the vine, are used for dyeing the hair. - -The juice of the fruit has a laxative effect immediately upon the -bowels, though the fruit itself, for the moment, acts beneficially upon -the stomach, being of a refreshing nature, but productive of thirst. If -no other food is taken upon them, mulberries[3135] are of a swelling -tendency. The juice of unripe mulberries acts astringently upon the -bowels. The marvels which are presented by this tree, and of which we -have made some mention[3136] when describing it, would almost appear to -belong to a creature gifted with animation. - - - - -CHAP. 71.—THE MEDICAMENT CALLED STOMATICE, ARTERIACE, OR PANCHRESTOS: -FOUR REMEDIES. - - -From the fruit of the mulberry a medicament is prepared, called -“panchrestos,”[3137] “stomatice,” or “arteriace:” the following is the -method employed. Three sextarii of the juice are reduced, at a slow -heat, to the consistency of honey; two denarii of dried omphacium[3138] -or one of myrrh, with one denarius of saffron, are then added, the -whole being beaten up together and mixed with the decoction. There is -no medicament known that is more soothing than this, for affections -of the mouth, the trachea, the uvula, and the stomach. There is also -another mode of preparing it: two sextarii of mulberry juice and one of -Attic honey are boiled down in the manner above stated. - -There are some other marvellous properties, also, which are mentioned -in reference to this tree. When the tree is in bud, and before the -appearance of the leaves, the germs of the fruit must be gathered with -the left hand—the Greeks give them the name of “ricini.”[3139] These -germs, worn as an amulet before they have touched the ground, have the -effect of arresting hæmorrhage, whether proceeding from a wound, from -the mouth, from the nostrils, or from piles; for which purposes they -are, accordingly, put away and kept. Similar virtues are attributed to -a branch just beginning to bear, broken off at full moon, provided also -it has not touched the ground: this branch, it is said, attached to the -arm, is peculiarly efficacious for the suppression of the catamenia -when in excess. The same effect is produced, it is said, when the woman -herself pulls it off, whatever time it may happen to be, care being -taken not to let it touch the ground, and to wear it attached to the -body. The leaves of the mulberry-tree beaten up fresh, or a decoction -of them dried, are applied topically for stings inflicted by serpents: -an infusion of them, taken in drink, is equally efficacious for that -purpose. The juice extracted from the bark of the root, taken in wine -or oxycrate, counteracts the venom of the scorpion. - -We must also give some account of the method of preparing this -medicament employed by the ancients: extracting the juice from the -fruit, both ripe and unripe, they mixed it together, and then boiled it -down in a copper vessel to the consistency of honey. Some persons were -in the habit of adding myrrh and cypress, and then left it to harden -in the sun, mixing it with a spatula three times a-day. Such was their -receipt for the stomatice, which was also employed by them to promote -the cicatrization of wounds. There was another method, also, of dealing -with the juice of this fruit: extracting the juice, they used the dried -fruit with various articles of food,[3140] as tending to heighten the -flavour; and they were in the habit of employing it medicinally[3141] -for corroding ulcers, pituitous expectorations, and all cases in which -astringents were required for the viscera. They used it also for the -purpose of cleaning[3142] the teeth. A third mode of employing the -juices of this tree is to boil down the leaves and root, the decoction -being used, with oil,[3143] as a liniment for the cure of burns. The -leaves are also applied by themselves for the same purpose. - -An incision made in the root at harvest-time, supplies a juice that is -extremely useful for tooth-ache, gatherings, and suppurations; it acts, -also, as a purgative upon the bowels. Mulberry-leaves, macerated in -urine, remove the hair from hides. - - - - -CHAP. 72.—CHERRIES: FIVE OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. - - -Cherries are relaxing to the bowels and unwholesome[3144] to -the stomach; in a dried state, however, they are astringent and -diuretic.[3145] I find it stated by some authors, that if cherries are -taken early in the morning covered with dew, the kernels being eaten -with them, the bowels will be so strongly acted upon as to effect a -cure for gout in the feet. - - - - -CHAP. 73.—MEDLARS: TWO REMEDIES. SORBS: TWO REMEDIES. - - -Medlars, the setania[3146] excepted, which has pretty nearly the -same properties as the apple, act astringently upon the stomach and -arrest looseness of the bowels. The same is the case, too, with dried -sorbs;[3147] but when eaten fresh, they are beneficial to the stomach, -and are good for fluxes of the bowels. - - - - -CHAP. 74. (8.)—PINE-NUTS: THIRTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Pine-nuts,[3148] with the resin in them, are slightly bruised, and then -boiled down in water to one-half, the proportion of water being one -sextarius to each nut. This decoction, taken in doses of two cyathi, is -used for the cure of spitting of blood. The bark of the tree, boiled -in wine, is given for griping pains in the bowels. The kernels of the -pine-nut allay thirst, and assuage acridities and gnawing pains in the -stomach; they tend also to neutralize vicious humours in that region, -recruit the strength, and are salutary to the kidneys and the bladder. -They would seem, however, to exercise an irritating effect[3149] upon -the fauces, and to increase cough. Taken in water, wine, raisin wine, -or a decoction of dates, they carry off bile. For gnawing pains in the -stomach of extreme violence, they are mixed with cucumber-seed and -juice of purslain; they are employed, too, in a similar manner for -ulcerations of the bladder and kidneys,[3150] having a diuretic effect. - - - - -CHAP. 75.—ALMONDS: TWENTY-NINE REMEDIES. - - -A decoction of the root of the bitter almond[3151] clears the -complexion, and gives the face a brighter colour.[3152] Bitter almonds -are provocative of sleep,[3153] and sharpen the appetite; they act, -also, as a diuretic and as an emmenagogue. They are used topically -for head-ache, when there is fever more particularly. Should the -head-ache proceed from inebriation,[3154] they are applied with -vinegar, rose-oil, and one sextarius of water. Used in combination with -amylum[3155] and mint, they arrest hæmorrhage. They are useful, also, -for lethargy and epilepsy, and the head is anointed with them for the -cure of epinyctis. In combination with wine, they heal putrid ulcers of -an inveterate nature, and, with honey, bites inflicted by dogs.[3156] -They are employed, also, for the cure of scaly eruptions of the face, -the parts affected being fomented first. - -Taken in water, or, as is often done, in an electuary, with resin -of terebinth,[3157] they remove pains in the liver and kidneys; -used with raisin wine, they are good for calculus and strangury. -Bruised in hydromel, they are useful for cleansing the skin; and -taken in an electuary with the addition of a small proportion of -elelisphacus,[3158] they are good for diseases of the liver, cough, -and colic, a piece about the size of a hazel-nut being taken in honey. -It is said that if five bitter almonds are taken by a person before -sitting down to drink, he will be proof against inebriation;[3159] -and that foxes, if they eat bitter almonds,[3160] will be sure to die -immediately, if they cannot find water to lap. - -As to sweet almonds, their remedial properties are not[3161] so -extensive; still, however, they are of a purgative nature, and are -diuretic. Eaten fresh, they are difficult[3162] of digestion. - - - - -CHAP. 76.—GREEK NUTS: ONE REMEDY. - - -Greek nuts,[3163] taken in vinegar with wormwood seed, are said to be -a cure for jaundice. Used alone, they are employed topically for the -treatment of diseases of the fundament, and condylomata in particular, -as also cough and spitting of blood. - - - - -CHAP. 77.—WALNUTS: TWENTY-FOUR REMEDIES. THE MITHRIDATIC ANTIDOTE. - - -Walnuts[3164] have received their name in Greek from being -oppressive[3165] to the head; for, in fact, the emanations[3166] from -the tree itself and the leaves penetrate to the brain. The kernels, -also, have a similar effect when eaten, though not in so marked a -degree. When fresh gathered, they are most agreeable eating; for when -dry, they are more oleaginous, unwholesome to the stomach, difficult -of digestion, productive of head-ache, and bad for cough,[3167] or -for a person when about to take an emetic fasting: they are good in -cases of tenesmus only, as they carry off the pituitous humours of -the body. Eaten beforehand, they deaden the effects of poison, and, -employed with rue and oil, they are a cure for quinsy. They act as a -corrective, also, to onions, and modify their flavour. They are applied -to inflammations of the ears, with a little honey, and with rue they -are used for affections of the mamillæ, and for sprains. With onions, -salt, and honey, they are applied to bites inflicted by dogs or human -beings. Walnut-shells are used for cauterizing[3168] carious teeth; and -with these shells, burnt and then beaten up in oil or wine, the heads -of infants are anointed, they having a tendency to make the hair grow; -hence they are used in a similar manner for alopecy also. These nuts, -eaten in considerable numbers, act as an expellent upon tapeworm.[3169] -Walnuts, when very old, are[3170] curative of gangrenous sores and -carbuncles, of bruises also. Green walnut-shells[3171] are employed -for the cure of lichens and dysentery, and the leaves are beaten up -with vinegar as an application for ear-ache.[3172] - -After the defeat of that mighty monarch, Mithridates, Cneius Pompeius -found in his private cabinet a recipe for an antidote in his own -hand-writing; it was to the following effect:[3173]—Take two dried -walnuts, two figs, and twenty leaves of rue; pound them all together, -with the addition of a grain of salt; if a person takes this mixture -fasting, he will be proof against all poisons for that day.[3174] -Walnut kernels, chewed by a man fasting, and applied to the wound, -effect an instantaneous cure, it is said, of bites inflicted by a mad -dog. - - - - -CHAP. 78.—HAZEL-NUTS: THREE OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. PISTACHIO-NUTS: -EIGHT OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. CHESNUTS: FIVE OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. - - -Hazel-nuts[3175] are productive of head-ache, and flatulency of the -stomach; they contribute, however, to the increase of flesh more than -would be imagined. Parched, they are remedial for catarrhs, and beaten -up and taken with hydromel,[3176] they are good for an inveterate -cough. Some persons add grains of pepper,[3177] and others take them in -raisin wine. - -Pistachio-nuts[3178] have the same properties, and are productive of -the same effects, as pine-nuts; in addition to which, they are used as -an antidote to the venom[3179] of serpents, eaten or taken in drink. - -Chesnuts[3180] have a powerful effect in arresting fluxes of the -stomach and intestines, are relaxing to the bowels, are beneficial in -cases of spitting of blood, and have a tendency to make flesh.[3181] - - - - -CHAP. 79.—CAROBS: FIVE OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. THE CORNEL; ONE REMEDY. -THE FRUIT OF THE ARBUTUS. - - -Fresh carobs[3182] are unwholesome to the stomach, and relaxing to -the bowels;[3183] in a dried state, however, they are astringent, and -are much more beneficial to the stomach; they are diuretic also. For -pains in the stomach, persons boil three Syrian carobs[3184] with one -sextarius of water, down to one-half, and drink the decoction. - -The juices which exude from the branches of the cornel[3185] are -received on a plate of red-hot iron[3186] without it touching the wood; -the rust of which is applied for the cure of incipient lichens. The -arbutus or unedo[3187] bears a fruit that is difficult of digestion, -and injurious to the stomach. - - - - -CHAP. 80.—THE LAUREL; SIXTY-NINE OBSERVATIONS UPON IT. - - -All parts of the laurel, both the leaves, bark, and berries, are -of a warming[3188] nature; and a decoction of them, the leaves -in particular, is very useful for affections of the bladder and -uterus.[3189] The leaves, applied topically, neutralize the poison of -wasps, bees, and hornets, as also that of serpents, the seps,[3190] -dipsas,[3191] and viper, in particular. Boiled in oil, they -promote the catamenia; and the more tender of the leaves beaten up -with polenta, are used for inflammations of the eyes, with rue for -inflammations of the testes, and with rose-oil, or oil of iris,[3192] -for head-ache. Three leaves, chewed and swallowed for three days in -succession, are a cure for cough, and beaten up with honey, for asthma. -The bark of the root is dangerous to pregnant women; the root itself -disperses calculi, and taken in doses of three oboli in aromatic wine, -it acts beneficially on the liver. The leaves, taken in drink, act as -an emetic;[3193] and the berries, pounded and applied as a pessary, -or else taken in drink, promote menstruation. Two of the berries with -the skin removed, taken in wine, are a cure for inveterate cough and -hardness of breathing; if, however, this is accompanied with fever, -they are given in water, or else in an electuary with raisin wine, or -boiled in hydromel. Employed in a similar manner, they are good for -phthisis, and for all defluxions of the chest, as they have the effect -of detaching the phlegm and bringing it off. - -For stings inflicted by scorpions, four laurel-berries are taken in -wine. Applied with oil, they are a cure for epinyctis, freckles, -running sores, ulcers of the mouth, and scaly eruptions. The juice of -the berries is curative of porrigo and phthiriasis; and for pains in -the ears, or hardness of hearing, it is injected into those organs with -old wine and oil of roses. All venomous creatures fly at the approach -of persons who have been anointed with this juice: taken in drink, the -juice of the small-leaved[3194] laurel in particular, it is good for -stings inflicted by them. The berries,[3195] used with wine, neutralize -the venom of serpents, scorpions, and spiders; they are applied -also, topically, with oil and vinegar, in diseases of the spleen and -liver, and with honey to gangrenous sores. In cases of lassitude and -shivering fits, it is a very good plan to rub the body with juice of -laurel-berries mixed with nitre. Some persons are of opinion that -delivery is accelerated by taking laurel-root to the amount of one -acetabulum, in water, and that, used fresh, it is better than dried. -It is recommended by some authorities, to take ten of the berries in -drink, for the sting of the scorpion; and in cases of relaxation of the -uvula, to boil a quarter of a pound of the berries, or leaves, in three -sextarii of water, down to one third, the decoction being used warm, as -a gargle. For head-ache, also, it is recommended to bruise an uneven -number of the berries in oil, the mixture being warmed for use. - -The leaves of the Delphic laurel[3196] bruised and applied to the -nostrils from time to time, are a preservative[3197] against contagion -in pestilence, and more particularly if they are burnt. The oil of -the[3198] Delphic laurel is employed in the preparation of cerates and -the medicinal composition known as “acopum,”[3199] and is used for fits -of shivering occasioned by cold, for the relaxation of the sinews, and -for the cure of pains in the side and the cold attacks in fevers.[3200] -Warmed in the rind of a pomegranate, it is applied topically for the -cure of ear-ache. A decoction of the leaves boiled down in water to one -third, used as a gargle, braces the uvula, and taken in drink allays -pains in the bowels and intestines. The more tender leaves, bruised in -wine and applied at night, are a cure for pimples and prurigo. - -The other varieties of the laurel possess properties which are nearly -analogous. The root of the laurel of Alexandria,[3201] or of Mount -Ida,[3202] accelerates delivery, being administered in doses of three -denarii to three cyathi of sweet wine; it acts also as an emmenagogue, -and brings away the after-birth. Taken in drink in a similar manner, -the wild laurel, known as “daphnoides” and by the other names which -we have mentioned,[3203] is productive of beneficial effects. The -leaves of it, either fresh or dried, taken in doses of three drachmæ, -in hydromel with salt, act as a purgative[3204] upon the bowels. The -wood, chewed, brings off phlegm, and the leaves act as an “emetic;” -they are unwholesome, however, to the stomach. The berries, too, are -sometimes taken, fifteen in number, as a purgative. - - - - -CHAP. 81.—MYRTLE; SIXTY OBSERVATIONS UPON IT. - - -The white[3205] cultivated myrtle is employed for fewer medicinal -purposes than the black one.[3206] The berries[3207] of it are good -for spitting of blood, and taken in wine, they neutralize the poison -of fungi. They impart an agreeable smell[3208] to the breath, even -when eaten the day before; thus, for instance, in Menander we find the -Synaristosæ[3209] eating them. They are taken also for dysentery,[3210] -in doses of one denarius, in wine: and they are employed lukewarm, in -wine, for the cure of obstinate ulcers on the extremities. Mixed with -polenta, they are employed topically in ophthalmia, and for the cardiac -disease[3211] they are applied to the left breast. For stings inflicted -by scorpions, diseases of the bladder, head-ache, and fistulas of the -eye before suppuration, they are similarly employed; and for tumours -and pituitous eruptions, the kernels are first removed and the berries -are then pounded in old wine. The juice of the berries[3212] acts -astringently upon the bowels, and is diuretic: mixed with cerate it -is applied topically to blisters, pituitous eruptions, and wounds -inflicted by the phalangium; it imparts a black tint,[3213] also, to -the hair. - -The oil of this myrtle is of a more soothing nature than the juice, -and the wine[3214] which is extracted from it, and which possesses the -property of never inebriating, is even more so. This wine, used when -old, acts astringently upon the stomach and bowels, cures griping pains -in those regions, and dispels nausea. - -The dried leaves, powdered and sprinkled upon the body, check -profuse perspirations, in fever even; they are good, too, used as a -fomentation, for cœliac affections, procidence of the uterus, diseases -of the fundament, running ulcers, erysipelas, loss of the hair, scaly -and other eruptions, and burns. This powder is used as an ingredient, -also, in the plasters known as “liparæ;”[3215] and for the same reason -the oil of the leaves is used for a similar purpose, being extremely -efficacious as an application to the humid parts of the body, the mouth -and the uterus, for example. - -The leaves themselves, beaten up with wine, neutralize[3216] the bad -effects of fungi; and they are employed, in combination with wax, for -diseases of the joints, and gatherings. A decoction of them, in wine, -is taken for dysentery and dropsy. Dried and reduced to powder, they -are sprinkled upon ulcers and hæmorrhages. They are useful, also, -for the removal of freckles, and for the cure of hang-nails,[3217] -whitlows, condylomata, affections of the testes, and sordid ulcers. In -combination with cerate, they are used for burns. - -For purulent discharges from the ears, the ashes of the leaves are -employed, as well as the juice and the decoction: the ashes are also -used in the composition of antidotes. For a similar purpose the -blossoms are stripped from off the young branches, which are burnt in -a furnace, and then pounded in wine. The ashes of the leaves, too, -are used for the cure of burns. To prevent ulcerations from causing -swellings in the inguinal glands, it will suffice for the patient to -carry[3218] a sprig of myrtle about him which has never touched the -ground or any implement of iron. - - - - -CHAP. 82.—MYRTIDANUM: THIRTEEN REMEDIES. - - -We have already described the manner in which myrtidanum[3219] is made. -Applied in a pessary, or as a fomentation or liniment, it is good for -affections of the uterus, being much more efficacious than the bark of -the tree, or the leaves and seed. There is a juice also extracted from -the more tender leaves, which are pounded in a mortar for the purpose, -astringent wine, or, according to one method, rain-water, being poured -upon them a little at a time. This extract is used for the cure of -ulcers of the mouth, the fundament, the uterus, and the abdomen. It -is employed, also, for dyeing the hair black, the suppression of -exudations at the arm-pits,[3220] the removal of freckles, and other -purposes in which astringents are required. - - - - -CHAP. 83.—THE WILD MYRTLE, OTHERWISE CALLED OXYMYRSINE, OR -CHAMÆMYRSINE, AND THE RUSCUS: SIX REMEDIES. - - -The wild myrtle, oxymyrsine,[3221] or chamæmyrsine, differs from the -cultivated myrtle in the redness of its berries and its diminutive -height. The root of it is held in high esteem; a decoction of it, -in wine, is taken for pains in the kidneys and strangury, more -particularly when the urine is thick and fetid. Pounded in wine, it -is employed for the cure of jaundice, and as a purgative for the -uterus. The same method is adopted, also, with the young shoots, which -are sometimes roasted in hot ashes and eaten as a substitute for -asparagus.[3222] - -The berries, taken with wine, or oil and vinegar, break calculi[3223] -of the bladder: beaten up with rose-oil and vinegar, they allay -head-ache. Taken in drink, they are curative of jaundice. Castor calls -the wild myrtle with prickly leaves, or oxymyrsine, from which brooms -are made, by the name of “ruscus”[3224]—the medicinal properties of it -are just the same. - -Thus much, then, with reference to the medicinal properties of the -cultivated trees; let us now pass on to the wild ones. - - -SUMMARY.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and -eighteen. - - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—C. Valgius,[3225] Pompeius Lenæus,[3226] Sextius -Niger[3227] who wrote in Greek, Julius Bassus[3228] who wrote in -Greek, Antonius Castor,[3229] M. Varro,[3230] Cornelius Celsus,[3231] -Fabianus.[3232] - - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Theophrastus,[3233] Democritus,[3234] -Orpheus,[3235] Pythagoras,[3236] Mago,[3237] Menander[3238] who wrote -the “Biochresta,” Nicander,[3239] Homer, Hesiod,[3240] Musæus,[3241] -Sophocles,[3242] Anaxilaüs.[3243] - - -MEDICAL AUTHORS QUOTED.—Mnesitheus,[3244] Callimachus,[3245] -Phanias[3246] the physician, Timaristus,[3247] Simus,[3248] -Hippocrates,[3249] Chrysippus,[3250] Diocles,[3251] Ophelion,[3252] -Heraclides,[3253] Hicesius,[3254] Dionysius,[3255] Apollodorus[3256] -of Citium, Apollodorus[3257] of Tarentum, Plistonicus,[3258] -Medius,[3259] Dieuches,[3260] Cleophantus,[3261] Philistion,[3262] -Asclepiades,[3263] Crateuas,[3264] Petronius Diodotus,[3265] -Iollas,[3266] Erasistratus,[3267] Diagoras,[3268] Andreas,[3269] -Mnesides,[3270] Epicharmus,[3271] Damion,[3272] Dalion,[3273] -Sosimenes,[3274] Tlepolemus,[3275] Metrodorus,[3276] Solo,[3277] -Lycus,[3278] Olympias[3279] of Thebes, Philinus,[3280] Petrichus,[3281] -Micton,[3282] Glaucias,[3283] Xenocrates.[3284] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] In B. ii. c. 63. - -[2] Of course this is only mere declamation; it is not probable that -the animals have any notion at all of _sharpening_ the weapons that -nature has given; in addition to which, this mode of sharpening them -against hard substances would only wear away the enamel, and ultimately -destroy them. The acts of animals in a moment of rage or frenzy have -evidently been mistaken here for the dictates of instinct, or even a -superior intelligence. - -[3] See B. xxv. c. 25, and B. xxvii. c. 76. - -[4] In B. viii. c. 36. 41, 42. The works of the ancients, Fée remarks, -are full of these puerilities. - -[5] This sentiment is not at all akin to the melancholy view which our -author takes of mankind at the beginning of B. vii. and in other parts -of this work. It is not improbable that his censures here are levelled -against some who had endeavoured to impede him in the progress of his -work. - -[6] “Arvorum sacerdotes,” the priests of the fields. - -[7] Or foster-mother. It has been suggested that the Rogations of -the Roman church may have possibly originated in the Ambarvalia, or -ceremonial presided over by the Arval priesthood. - -[8] Made of salt and the meal or flour of spelt. Salt was the emblem of -wisdom, friendship, and other virtues. - -[9] This, Fée observes, is not the case with any kind of wheat; with -manioc, which has an acrid principle, the process may be necessary, in -order to make it fit for food. - -[10] Or Feast of the Furnace or Oven. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. ii. l. 5-25. - -[11] Called the Terminalia. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. ii. l. 641, _et seq._ - -[12] Tertullian, De Spect. i. 16, calls this goddess by the name of -Sessia. - -[13] Cœlius Rhodiginus, Turnebus, and Vossius, conjecture that the name -of this goddess, who might only be named in the field, was Tutelina. -Hardouin thinks that it was Segesta, here mentioned. - -[14] Four Roman feet in width, and 120 in length. - -[15] Quartarius. - -[16] “Faba,” a bean; “Lens,” a lentil; and “Cicer,” a chick-pea. - -[17] A “bubus,” from “oxen.” Caius Junius Bubulcus was twice Consul, -and once Master of the Horse. - -[18] “Farreum” was a form of marriage, in which certain words were -used, in presence of ten witnesses, and were accompanied by a certain -religious ceremony, in which “panis farreus” was employed; hence this -form of marriage was called “confarreatio.” - -[19] Farreum. - -[20] De Re Rust. Preface. - -[21] See B. xxxiii. c. 13. - -[22] St. Augustin, De Civ. Dei., mentions a goddess, Bubona, the -tutelar divinity of oxen. Nothing seems to be known of these games. - -[23] See B. xxxiii. c. 13. Macrobius says that it was Janus. - -[24] Table vii. s. 2. - -[25] On the “Nundinæ,” or ninth-day holiday: similar to our -market-days. According to _our_ mode of reckoning, it was every -_eighth_ day. - -[26] From “ador,” the old name for “spelt:” because corn was the chief -reward given to the conqueror, and his temples were graced with a -wreath of corn. - -[27] In the first place, it is difficult to see what there is in this -passage to admire, or “wonder at,” if that is the meaning of “admiror;” -and then, besides, it has no connection with the context. The text is -probably in a defective state. - -[28] See c. 69 of this Book. - -[29] “Vagina.” The meaning of this word here has not been exactly -ascertained. It has been suggested that the first period alludes to the -appearance of the stalk from its sheath of leaves, and the second to -the formation of the ear. - -[30] A.U.C. 298. - -[31] See B. xxxiv. c. 11. A.U.C. 317. - -[32] Nundinis. - -[33] On the road to Ostia. It was said to have received its name from -the Horatii and Curiatii. - -[34] A.U.C. 345. - -[35] A.U.C. 550. He alludes to the introduction of Cybele, from -Pessinus in Galatia, in the Second Punic war. - -[36] A.U.C. 604. See B. viii. c. 6. - -[37] Manius Curius Dentatus, Consul A.U.C. 464. - -[38] A.U.C. 497. - -[39] From “sero,” to sow. See the Æneid, B. vi. l. 844, where this -circumstance is alluded to. - -[40] “Prata Quintia.” Hardouin says that in his time this spot was -still called _I Prati_: it lay beyond the Tiber, between the vineyard -of the Medici and the castle of Sant Angelo. - -[41] He alludes to the twofold meaning of the word “coli,” “to be -tilled,” or “to receive homage from.” - -[42] “Ergastulorum.” The “Ergastula” were places of punishment -attached to the country houses of the wealthy, for the chastisement of -refractory slaves, who were usually made to work in chains. - -[43] In the First Book, as originally written. This list of writers is -appended in the present Translation to each respective Book. - -[44] This is probably written in humble imitation of the splendid -exordium of the Georgics of Virgil. - -[45] De Re Rust. Preface. - -[46] Fée remarks, that we still recruit our armies mostly from the -agricultural class. - -[47] De Re Rust. c. 1. - -[48] Quoted by Columella, De Re Rust. B. i. 4. The sad fate of Regulus -is known to all readers of Roman history. - -[49] From Columella, B. i. c. 3. - -[50] De Re Rust. c. 1. - -[51] It is still thought so in France, Fée says, and nothing has tended -more than this notion to the depreciation of the prices of wine. - -[52] Hence the usual Latin name, “prata.” - -[53] “Si sat bene.” Cicero, De Officiis, B. ii. n. 88, gives this -anecdote somewhat more at length. - -[54] De Re Rust. c. 2. - -[55] “Alienâ insaniâ frui.” We have a saying to a similar effect: -“Fools build houses, and wise men buy them.” - -[56] “Frons domini plus prodest quam occipitium.” See Cato, De Re Rust. -c. 4; also Phædrus, B. iv. Fab. 19. - -[57] Cato, c. 3. Varro and Columella give the same advice. - -[58] See B. iii. c. 9. - -[59] Sylla the Fortunate, the implacable enemy of Marius. - -[60] Because, though the last comer, he had obtained the best site in -the locality. - -[61] Od. v. 469. If the river has a bed of sand and high banks, it is -really advantageous than otherwise. - -[62] In B. xvii. c. 3. - -[63] Not to be found in his works which have come down to us. - -[64] Prunus spinosa of Linnæus. - -[65] See B. xix. c. 30; probably one of the genus Allium sphærocephalum -of Linnæus. - -[66] “Herba pratensis.” It is not known with certainty to what plant -he alludes. Fée suggests that it may be the Poa pratensis, or else a -phleum, alopecurus, or dactylis. All the plants here mentioned by Pliny -will thrive in a calcareous soil, and their presence, as Fée remarks, -is of bad augury. - -[67] He alludes to the famous maxim in the Georgics, B. ii. l. 412:— - -——Laudato ingentia rura, Exiguum colito—— - -“Praise a large farm, cultivate a small one.” - -[68] By introducing slovenly cultivation. - -[69] That small part of it known to the Romans. Hardouin says that the -province of Zeugitana is alluded to, mentioned in B. v. c. 3. - -[70] And reside on the farm. - -[71] Villicus. - -[72] De Re Rust. c. 5. - -[73] A.U.C. 737. - -[74] Probably because it entailed too great an expense. It may have -been deeply mortgaged: otherwise it is not clear why the heir refused -to take it, as he might have sold a part. - -[75] He means to say that it is so much labour lost, as it will take -care of itself; but this is hardly in accordance with his numerous -directions given in B. xv. Virgil, Geor. B. ii. 421, _et seq._, speaks -of the olive as requiring no attention when it has once taken root. - -[76] See B. xvii. c. 3. - -[77] In throwing away money and labour upon land that does not require -it. - -[78] Virgil, Georg. I. 268, _et seq._, speaks of the work that might -be done on feast days—making hedges, for instance, irrigating land, -catching birds, washing sheep, and burning weeds. - -[79] “Ne familiæ male sit.” - -[80] In B. xvii. c. 3. - -[81] The Pteris aquilina, or female fern. No such juices drop from it -as here mentioned by Pliny, Fée says. - -[82] A superstition quite unworthy of our author; and the same with -respect to that mentioned in the next line. - -[83] Sub-soil drainage is now universally employed, with the agency of -draining-tiles, made for the purpose. - -[84] The flower of the lupine could not possibly produce any such -effect; and the juice of cicuta, or hemlock, in only a very trifling -degree. - -[85] This word answers to the Latin “frumenta,” which indicates all -those kinds of corn from which bread was prepared by the ancients. - -[86] See c. 59 of this Book. - -[87] Triticum hibernum of Linnæus, similar to the “siligo” mentioned in -the sequel. Winter wheat was greatly cultivated in Apulia. - -[88] “Far.” This name is often used in the classics, to signify corn in -general; but in the more restricted sense in which it is here employed, -it is “Triticum dicoccum,” the “Zea” of the Greeks. It consists of two -varieties, the single grained, the Triticum monococcum of Linnæus, and -the double-grained, the Triticum spelta of Linnæus, which is still -called “farra” in Friuli. - -[89] Hordeum sativum of Linnæus. - -[90] See c. 66 of this Book. - -[91] Panicum Italicum of Linnæus. - -[92] Panicum miliaceum of Linnæus. This was probably one of the first -grains from which bread was made. - -[93] The Sesamum orientale of Linnæus. It is no longer cultivated in -Europe, though formerly it was much used in Greece. - -[94] It is very doubtful if this is the same as clary, the Salvia -horminum of Linnæus, as that is one of the Labiatæ, whereas here, most -probably, a leguminous plant is spoken of. - -[95] It has been asserted that this is identical with the Sisymbrium -polyceratium of Linnæus, rock-gentle, rock-gallant, or winter-cress. -Fée, however, is strongly of opinion that it can only be looked for in -the Sisymbrium irio of Linnæus. - -[96] Ervum lens of Linnæus. - -[97] The Cicer arietinum of naturalists, the Garbanzo of the Spaniards. -It abounds in the south of Europe and in India. - -[98] A variety of spelt was called by this name; but it was more -generally applied to a kind of flummery, pottage or gruel. - -[99] Hence our word “forage.” - -[100] Lupinus hirsutus and pilosus of Linnæus. - -[101] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 2. - -[102] All this, of course, depends upon numerous circumstances. - -[103] This is certainly the fact, as Fée says, but it is the same with -all the graminea. - -[104] A characteristic of the Panicum miliaceum in particular. - -[105] Or porridge; “puls.” - -[106] It has been suggested that this was maize, but that is indigenous -to South America. Fée has little doubt that it is the Holcus sorgho of -Linnæus, the “Indian millet,” that is meant. - -[107] From the Greek φόβη. The stalk and husk of the sorgho is covered -with a fine down. The reading “cornis” has been adopted. - -[108] This is considered by Fée to be very improbable. - -[109] In reality these vary, according to the rapidity of the growth. - -[110] Strictly speaking, spelt has seven. - -[111]This depends upon the time when it is sown, and numerous other -circumstances. - -[112] Strictly speaking, he is right; but still there is a swelling in -the stalk, to be perceived at the points where the leaves take their -rise. - -[113] This is incorrect; they all of them throw out leaves from the -root. - -[114] The same as the “Ervum” probably, the fitch, orobus, or bitter -vetch. - -[115] Not so with the pea, as known to us. - -[116] This is only true at the end of the season, and when the plant is -dying. - -[117] These annuals lose their leaves only that have articulations on -the stem; otherwise they die outright at the fall of the leaf. - -[118] If by “tunica” he means the husk of chaff, which surrounds the -grain, the assertion is contrary to the fact, in relation to barley and -the oat. - -[119] Only another name, Fée thinks, for the Triticum hibernum, or -winter-wheat. Spelt or zea has been suggested, as also the white barley -of the south of Europe; see c. 20. - -[120] Egyptian wheat, or rather what is called mummy-wheat, is bearded -equally to barley. - -[121] Siligo. - -[122] Before grinding. - -[123] Oats and rye excepted. - -[124] Here the word “far” means “a meal,” or “flour,” a substitute for -that of “far,” or “spelt.” - -[125] Triticum monococcum, according to some. Fée identifies it with -the Triticum spelta of Linnæus. - -[126] A variety, probably, of the Triticum hibernum of Linnæus, with -white grains; the white-wheat of the French, from which the ancient -Gauls made their malt; hence the French word “brasser,” to “brew.” - -[127] From Theophrastus, De Causis, B. iv. - -[128] That of the Ukraine and its vicinity, which is still held in high -esteem. - -[129] Panis militaris. - -[130] To the modius of wheat. - -[131] He alludes to beer, or sweet-wort. See B. xiv. c. 29. - -[132] He alludes to yeast. See B. xxii, c. 82. - -[133] This assertion, from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 4, -is not based on truth. It is possible that he may allude in reality to -some other gramineous plant. - -[134] Trimestre. - -[135] Bimestre. - -[136] Columella (B. ii. c. 6) does _not_ state to this effect; on the -contrary, he speaks of the existence of a three months’ wheat; but he -asserts, and with justice, that wheat sown in the autumn is better than -that sown in March. - -[137] If he alludes here to what Theophrastus says, his assertion is -simply that, in Bactria, the grains are as large as an olive-stone. - -[138] There is no wild barley in India at the present day. - -[139] Porridge, or fermenty. - -[140] Oryza sativa of Linnæus. - -[141] Like our rice-milk, probably. See B. xxii. c. 26. - -[142] They are not carnose or fleshy, but thin, and similar to those of -the reed. - -[143] On the contrary, it is tough and fibrous. - -[144] The barley was, originally, the prize given to the victor in the -Eleusinian games. - -[145] Or “barley-fed.” - -[146] The ἀλφίτον of the Greeks. - -[147] This, as Fée observes, would tend to give it a very disagreeable -flavour. - -[148] “Acetabulum.” - -[149] Similar to our pearl barley, probably. - -[150] “Anguli.” Dalechamps interprets this as two rows of grain; -but Fée thinks that it signifies angles, and points. The Polygonum -fagopyrum of Linnæus, he says, buck-wheat, or black-wheat, has an -angular grain, but he doubts whether that can possibly be the grain -here alluded to. - -[151] There is no barley without a beard; it is clearly a variety of -wheat that is alluded to. - -[152] Triticum spelta of Linnæus. - -[153] “Semen,” the same as zea, or spelt. - -[154] Siligo. - -[155] Ἄμυλον. - -[156] De Re Rust. c. 87. This “amylum” seems somewhat to resemble our -starch. - -[157] The Hordeum distichum of Linnæus. - -[158] Hordeum hexastichum of Linnæus. The Hordeum vulgare, or common -barley, has but four rows. - -[159] These varieties are not known at the present day, and Fée -questions if they ever existed. There is a black barley found in -Germany, the Hordeum nigrum of Willdenow. - -[160] A calcareous soil is the best adapted for barley. - -[161] Nova Carthago, or New Carthage. - -[162] This fallacious opinion is shared with Galen, De Facult. Anim. B. -vi. c. 11. - -[163] Siligo. - -[164] Triticum. - -[165] The Triticum dicoccum, or spelt. - -[166] Probably rye. See the next Chapter. - -[167] Semen. - -[168] In c. 20, also in c. 29. This grain, which was in reality a -kind of spelt, received its name probably from having been the first -cultivated. - -[169] Il. ii. c. 548: “the land that produces zea.” - -[170] Not ἀπὸ τοῦ ζῆν, from “living.” - -[171] Merely, as Fée says, from the faulty method employed in its -preparation, as starch has, in all cases, the same physical appearance. - -[172] In c. 17 of this Book. - -[173] In c. 3 of this Book. - -[174] “Puls,” like our porridge. - -[175] Any food that was originally eaten with “puls,” and afterwards -with bread, was so called, such as meat, vegetables, &c. - -[176] “Offam.” This word, which in the later writers signifies a -“cake,” originally meant a hardened lump of porridge. - -[177] Pulte fritillâ. - -[178] “Siligo.” There are numerous contradictions in Pliny with -reference to this plant, but it is now pretty generally agreed that it -is the Triticum hibernum of Linnæus: the “froment tousselle” of the -French. It was formerly the more general opinion that it was identical -with spelt; but that cannot be the case, as spelt is red, and siligo is -described as white. - -[179] “Sine virtute.” It is doubtful what is the meaning of this. - -[180] Sine pondere. - -[181] In other places he says, most unaccountably, that wheat -“degenerates into siligo.” - -[182] As to this practice, see c. 29. - -[183] “Quam vocant castratam.” - -[184] From this account, it would appear that there were twenty-four -sextarii to the modius; but the account in general is very -contradictory. - -[185] Salt water is rarely used for this purpose in modern times. See -this passage discussed in Beckmann on Inventions, _Bohn’s Ed._ vol. i. -p. 164. - -[186] “Artopticio.” See c. 27 of this Book. - -[187] Without tin, probably; or the tin bread may have been baked -before the fire, similar to the method adopted at the present day with -the American ovens. - -[188] “Similago.” Founders still use meal occasionally for making -moulds; it is also employed in making paper. - -[189] The mention of “hundreds” here is evidently faulty, unless the -other part of the passage is corrupt. Fée suggests twenty-two and -twenty-seven. - -[190] But above we find him stating that “secundarius,” “seconds” -flour, and “cibarius,” or “coarse,” meal, are the same thing. His -contradictions cannot apparently be reconciled. - -[191] The whole of this passage, as Brotier remarks, is evidently -corrupt. - -[192] Fée has no doubt that this was siligo, or winter-wheat, in a very -high state of cultivation. - -[193] Il. v. l. 195. - -[194] There are still some varieties both of winter-wheat and spelt -that have the beard. - -[195] It is generally thought that this is the oat, the Avena sativa of -Linnæus, while some have suggested rice. Fée thinks that by the name, -some exotic gramineous plant is meant. - -[196] Probably a variety of spelt, as Sprengel conjectures, from Galen -and other writers. See c. 16 of this Book. - -[197] Fée thinks that it is the grain of the Festuca fluitans of -Linnæus that is here alluded to, and identifies it with the “ulva -palustris” of Virgil, Geor. iii. 174. - -[198] The Latin word “degener” cannot here mean “degenerate,” in our -sense of the word, but must merely imply a change of nature in the -plant. - -[199] See B. xvii. c. 3. - -[200] We know of no such fruitfulness as this in the wheat of Europe. -Fifteen-fold, as Fée remarks, is the utmost amount of produce that can -be anticipated. - -[201] Fée mentions instances of 150, 92, and 63 stalks arising from -a single grain; but all these fall far short of the marvels here -mentioned by Pliny. - -[202] The Triticum compositum of Linnæus; supposed to have originally -come from Egypt or Barbary. - -[203] “Centigranium.” Probably the same as the last. - -[204] In c. 10 of this Book. - -[205] See c. 10. - -[206] Pinguius. - -[207] Already mentioned in c. 10. - -[208] See B. xix. c. 47; and B. xx. c. 57. - -[209] This would rather _grate_ the grain than _pound_ it, as Beckmann -observes. See his Hist. Inv., vol. i. pp. 147 and 164, _Bohn’s Ed._, -where the meaning of this passage has been commented upon. Gesner, -also, in his Lexicon Rusticum, has endeavoured to explain it. - -[210] Ruido. - -[211] It is surprising to find the Romans, not only kneading their -bread with sea-water, but putting in it pounded bricks, chalk, and sand! - -[212] Beard chaff; so called, probably, from the sharpness of the -points, like needles (acus). - -[213] See B. xxxiii. c. 3; where he says, that a fire lighted with this -chaff, fuses gold more speedily than one made with maple wood. - -[214] The Tartars still employ millet as one of their principal -articles of food. They also extract a kind of wine from it. - -[215] Virgil alludes to this, Georg. iii. 463. - -[216] Panic is still employed more than any other grain in the south of -France. - -[217] Or grape-juice. This must have tended to affect the taste of the -bread. - -[218] Ervum. - -[219] “Cicercula.” See B. xxii. c. 72. - -[220] This remark is founded upon just notions. - -[221] Ostrearius. - -[222] From ἄρτος, and λάγανον, bread and cake. - -[223] From σπεύδω, to hasten. A sort of crumpet, probably. - -[224] Furnaceus. - -[225] Artopticeus. - -[226] “Clibanis.” The clibanus was a portable oven or mould, broader at -the bottom than the top. - -[227] Aquaticus. - -[228] See cc. 10 and 29 of this Book. - -[229] It would appear to be somewhat similar to our rusks. - -[230] Which ended A.U.C. 586. - -[231] A. ii. s. 9, l. 4. “Ego hinc artoptam ex proxumo utendam peto.” -It is thought by some commentators, that the word used by Pliny here -was, in reality, “Artoptasia,” a female baker; and that he alludes to a -passage in the Aulularia, which has now perished. - -[232] Which in Pliny’s time signified “baker.” - -[233] The Stipa tenacissima of Linnæus, Fée says; or else the Lygeum -spartum of Linnæus. - -[234] As to the cereal so called, see c. 10 of this Book. - -[235] Or perfumed oils. - -[236] See B. iii. c. 9. A volcanic district. - -[237] In c. 20 of this Book. - -[238] Grain from which the husk is removed. - -[239] A sub-carbonate of lime; it is still known in those parts of -Campania, and is called “lumera.” - -[240] Teneritatem. - -[241] From the Greek, meaning “white earth.” - -[242] Fée enquires, and with good reason, how the African mixture -accommodated itself to the stomachs of those who ate it. - -[243] Residue. - -[244] Seconds. - -[245] Sieve flour. - -[246] A porridge or pap, made of ground grain. It is mentioned by Cato, -c. 86. - -[247] The Faba vulgaris of the modern naturalists. It is supposed to -have originally come from Persia. - -[248] It is said that this mixture is still employed in the Valais and -in Savoy. - -[249] Fabata. - -[250] Beans were used in ancient times, in place of balls or pebbles, -in voting by ballot. Hence it has been suggested that Pythagoras, in -recommending his disciples to abstain from beans, meant to advise them -to have nothing to do with politics. - -[251] The sacrifices offered to the Manes or spirits of deceased -relations. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. ii. l. 565. - -[252] “Brought home.” The bean was offered up, to ensure good luck. - -[253] Didymus, in the Geoponica, B. ii. c. 33, repeats this absurdity. - -[254] Georg. i. 215. - -[255] This notion still prevails, and the bean, while in blossom, is -dug into the ground to manure it, both in England and France. - -[256] It does not appear, however, that this was done with the view of -digging in the beans. - -[257] Or Bean Islands. See B. iv. c. 27. - -[258] The Nymphæa nelumbo of Linnæus is alluded to, but it is no -longer to be found in Egypt. Pliny is supposed to derive this from -Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. iv. c. 10, but his translation is not -exactly correct. - -[259] Pisum sativum of Linnæus. - -[260] Meaning a wart or pimple on the face. - -[261] Cicer arietinum of the botanists. - -[262] “Gigni cum salsilagine.” It abounds in India, and while -blossoming, it distils a corrosive acid, which corrodes the shoes of -those who tread upon it. - -[263] There are still the red and the white kinds, the large and the -small. - -[264] Cicercula: the Lathyrus sativus of Linnæus. It is difficult to -cook and hard of digestion. See c. 26. - -[265] This must be said in reference to some of the pease when in a -dried state. - -[266] A variety of the Phaseolus vulgaris of Linnæus: the “haricot” -of the French. The French bean and the scarlet-runner are cooked in a -similar manner among us. - -[267] 15th of October. - -[268] 1st of November. - -[269] The Napo-brassica of Linnæus. The turnip cabbage, or -rape-colewort. - -[270] This taste, it is most probable, is nowhere in existence at the -present day. - -[271] This is not by any means an exaggeration. - -[272] Acrimonia. - -[273] These coloured varieties, Fée says, belong rather to the Brassica -oleracea, than to the Brassica rapa. It is not improbable, from the -structure of this passage, that Pliny means to say that the colours are -artificially produced. - -[274] In reality, belonging to the Crucifera, the rape is -hermaphroditical. - -[275] Wild horse-radish, which is divided into two varieties, the -Raphanus raphanistrum of Linnæus, and the Cochlearia Armoracia, may -possibly be meant, but their roots bear no resemblance to the radish. - -[276] An enormous price, apparently. - -[277] The Brassica napus of Linnæus. - -[278] 1st of March. - -[279] The Neptunalia and the Vulcanalia; 23rd of July and 23rd of -August. - -[280] In consequence of the brittleness of the pod. - -[281] This is an exaggeration of certain phænomena observed in the -leaves of all leguminous plants. - -[282] In B. xvii. c. 6. - -[283] “Ex areâ.” This reading is favoured by the text of Columella. B. -ii. c. 10, who says the same. But “ex arvo,” from the field, _i. e._ -the “moment it is gathered”—seems preferable, as being more consistent -with the context, - -[284] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 1. 11, &c. - -[285] It is still thought that the lupine enriches the soil in which it -grows. - -[286] Marcellus Empiricus says, that boiled lupine meal, spread as a -plaster, and laid on the abdomen, will destroy intestinal worms. - -[287] Vicia sativa of Linnæus. - -[288] Or orobus, the Ervum ervilia of Linnæus. - -[289] It is thought by many that the ervum is unwholesome, being -productive of muscular weakness. The blade of it is said to act as a -poison on pigs. However, we find the farina, or meal, extolled by some -persons for its medicinal qualities; and if we are to trust to the -advertisements in the newspapers, it is rising rapidly in esteem. See -B. xxii. c. 73. - -[290] From Columella, B. ii. c. 11. - -[291] Trigonella fœnum Græcum of Linnæus. - -[292] “Scarificatio.” - -[293] Probably the Secale cereale of Linnæus, cultivated rye. - -[294] It is now held in high esteem in many parts of Europe. - -[295] Rye has no bitterness, and this assertion has led some to doubt -if it is identical with the “secale” of Pliny. - -[296] Perhaps identical with the Vicia cracca of Linnæus. - -[297] In c. 54 and 60, and elsewhere. See B. xvii. c. 35. - -[298] Probably, fitches. - -[299] Fée suggests that this may be the Avena sterilis, or else the -Avena fatua of Linnæus. - -[300] De Re Rust. B. i. c. 31. - -[301] “Medica,” in Latin, a kind of clover, the Medicago sativa of -Linnæus. - -[302] Fée is inclined to doubt this. - -[303] Pliny exaggerates here: Columella, B. ii. c. 11, says, only -“ten:” a field, however, sown with it will last, with a fresh sowing, -as long as twenty years. - -[304] See B. xiii. c. 47. - -[305] Columella, B. ii. c. 11, says April. - -[306] By the aid of careful watering, as many as eight to fourteen -cuttings are obtained in the year, in Italy and Spain. In the north of -Europe there is but one crop. - -[307] In B. xiii. c. 47. - -[308] He borrows this notion of the oat being wheat in a diseased -state, from Theophrastus. Singularly enough, it was adopted by the -learned Buffon. - -[309] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 10. - -[310] This but rarely happens in our climates, as Fée remarks. - -[311] The grains are sometimes, though rarely, found devoured on the -stalk, by a kind of larvæ. - -[312] Some coleopterous insect, probably, now unknown, and not the -Cantharis vesicatoria, or “Spanish fly,” as some have imagined. -Dioscorides and Athenæus state to the same effect as Pliny. - -[313] The proper influence of the humidity of the earth would naturally -be impeded by a coating of these substances. - -[314] This plant has not been identified; but none of the gramineous -plants are noxious to cattle, with the exception of the seed of darnel. - -[315] Lolium temulentum of Linnæus. - -[316] See B. xxi. c. 58. - -[317] “Carduus.” A general term, probably including the genera -Centaurea (the prickly kinds), Serratula, Carduus, and Cnicus. The -Centaurea solstitialis is the thistle most commonly found in the south -of Europe. - -[318] Gallium Aparine of Linnæus. - -[319] Barley, wheat, oats, and millet have, each its own “rubigo” or -mildew, known to modern botany as uredo. - -[320] The Erineum vitis of botanists. - -[321] This rarely happens except through the violence of wind or rain. - -[322] See c. 32 of this Book. - -[323] The Cuscuta Europæa, probably, of Linnæus; one of the Convolvuli. - -[324] “Æra.” It is generally considered to be the same with darnel, -though Pliny probably looked upon them as different. - -[325] The Ægilops ovata, probably, of Linnæus. Dalechamps and Hardouin -identify it with the barren oat, the Avena sterilis of Linnæus. - -[326] To the Greek πελέκυς, or battle-axe. It is probably the Biserrula -pelecina of Linnæus, though the Astragalus hamosus and the Coronilla -securidaca of Linnæus have been suggested. - -[327] Pliny has here committed a singular error in translating from -Theophrastus, de Causis, B. iv. c. 14, who only says that a cold wind -in the vicinity of Philippi makes the beans difficult to cook or boil, -ἀτεράμονες. From this word he has coined two imaginary plants, the -“ateramon,” and the “teramon.” Hardouin defends Pliny, by suggesting -that he has borrowed the passage from another source, while Fée doubts -if he really understood the Greek language. - -[328] More probably one of the Coleoptera. He borrows from -Theophrastus, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 10. - -[329] This will only prevent the young plants from becoming a prey to -snails and slugs. - -[330] This plan is attended with no good results. - -[331] Georg. i. 193. It is generally said that if seed is steeped in -a solution of nitre, and more particularly hydrochloric acid, it will -germinate with accelerated rapidity; the produce, however, is no finer -than at other times. - -[332] “Fractæ.” Perhaps, more properly “crushed” - -[333] The odour of cypress, or savin, Fée thinks, might possibly keep -away noxious insects. - -[334] The “always living,” or perennial plant, our “house-leek,” the -Sedum acre of Linnæus. See B. xxv. c. 102. - -[335] “Little finger,” from the shape of the leaves. - -[336] He must have allowed himself to be imposed upon in this case. - -[337] Fée thinks that this may possibly be efficacious against the -attacks of rats, as the author of the Geoponica, B. x., states. - -[338] Virgil, Georg, i. 111, recommends the same plan, and it is still -followed by agriculturists. It is not without its inconveniences, -however. - -[339] This is not consistent with truth, for no fresh ear will assume -its place. - -[340] De Re Rust. c. 6. - -[341] De Re Rust. c. 34. - -[342] “Ador.” See c. 10 of this Book. - -[343] From Varro; De Re Rust. i. 23. - -[344] A.U.C. 553. - -[345] There is nothing wonderful in a few grains of corn germinating in -the cleft of a tree. - -[346] In B. v. c. 10. - -[347] First of April. - -[348] _I. e._ Egypt Proper, the Delta, or Lower Egypt, Thebais being in -Upper Egypt. - -[349] The overflow of these rivers is by no means to be compared with -that of the Nile. - -[350] Fée remarks, that the plough here described differs but little -from that used in some provinces of France. - -[351] Resupinus. - -[352] Gallia Togata. Rhætia is the modern country of the Grisons. - -[353] According to Goropius Becanus, from _plograt_, the ancient Gallic -for a plough-wheel. Hardouin thinks that it is from the Latin “plaustra -rati;” and Poinsinet derives it from the Belgic _ploum_, a plough, and -_rat_, or _radt_, a wheel. - -[354] “Crates;” probably made of hurdles; see Virgil, Georg. i. 95. - -[355] De Re Rust. c. 61. - -[356] These rules are borrowed mostly from Varro, B. i. c. 19, and -Columella, B. ii. c. 4. - -[357] “Vere actum” “worked in spring.” - -[358] Virgil says the same, Georg. i. 9. - -[359] Crosswise, or horizontally. - -[360] Zig-zag, apparently. - -[361] A rude foreshadowing of the spade husbandry so highly spoken of -at the present day. - -[362] “Prevaricare,” “to make a balk,” as we call it, to make a -tortuous furrow, diverging from the straight line. - -[363] He probably means the heavy “rastrum,” or rake, mentioned by -Virgil, Georg. i. 164. It is impossible to say what was the shape of -this heavy rake, or how it was used. Light, or hand rakes were in -common use as well. - -[364] “A gong crooked;” hence its meaning of, folly, dotage, or madness. - -[365] Georg. i. 47. Servius seems to understand it that the furrow -should be untouched for two days and two nights before it is gone over -again. - -[366] Fée declines to give credit to this story. - -[367] A.U.C. 830. - -[368] “Semen,” “seed-wheat,” a variety only of spelt. - -[369] In c. 65 of this Book. - -[370] Runcatio. - -[371] Crates. - -[372] Georg. i. 71. - -[373] In B. xvii. c. 7. - -[374] See B. v. c. 3, and B. xvi. c. 50. It is also mentioned by -Ptolemy and Procopius. It was situate evidently in an oasis. - -[375] Or arm’s length from the elbow. - -[376] He surely does not mention this as an extravagant price, more -especially when he has so recently spoken (in c. 34) of rape selling at -a sesterce per pound. - -[377] How was this ascertained? Fée seems to think that it is the -Festuca fluitans of Linnæus that is alluded to, it being eagerly sought -by cattle. - -[378] In B. xvii. c. 3. - -[379] Tenerum. - -[380] Adoreum. - -[381] “Tertio” may possibly mean the “third time,” _i. e._ for every -third crop. - -[382] In B. xvii. c. 6. - -[383] “Ares” seems to be a preferable reading to “arescat,” “before it -dries.” - -[384] Schneider, upon Columella, B. ii. c. 15, would reject these -words, and they certainly appear out of place. - -[385] Poinsinet would supply here “tricenis diebus,” “in thirty days,” -from Columella, B. ii. c. 15. - -[386] “Sterile.” This is not necessarily the case, as we know with -reference to what is called mummy wheat, the seed of which has been -recovered at different times from the Egyptian tombs. - -[387] The threshing floor was made with an elevation in the middle, -and the sides on an incline, to the bottom of which the largest grains -would be the most likely to fall. - -[388] “Far” or spelt is of a red hue in the exterior. - -[389] This appearance is no longer to be observed, if, indeed, Pliny is -correct: all kinds of corn are white in the interior of the grain. - -[390] Hand-sowing is called by the French, “semer à la volée.” - -[391] This occult or mysterious method of which Pliny speaks, consists -solely of what we should call a “happy knack,” which some men have of -sowing more evenly than others. - -[392] Sors genialis atque fecunda est. - -[393] This Chapter is mostly from Columella, B. ii. c. 9. - -[394] In c. 19 of this Book. - -[395] Probably the mixture called “farrago” in c. 10 and c. 41. - -[396] Upon this point the modern agriculturists are by no means agreed. - -[397] From Cato, De Re Rust. c. 5. - -[398] “Segetem ne defrudes.” The former editions mostly read -“defruges,” in which case the meaning would be, “don’t exhaust the -land.” - -[399] This passage of Attius is lost, but Hermann supposes his words to -have run thus:— - - ——serere, cum est - Luna in Ariete, Geminis, Leone, Libra, Aquario. - -[400] In c. 8 of this Book. - -[401] Georg. i. 208. - -[402] Georg. i. 227. - -[403] See c. 74 of this Book. - -[404] Columella, B. ii. c. 8. - -[405] Favonius. See B. ii. c. 47. - -[406] The five days’ festival in honour of Minerva. It begins on the -fourteenth before the calends of April, or on the nineteenth of March. -Virgil, Georg. i. 208, says that flax and the poppy should be sown in -autumn. - -[407] Fifteenth of October. - -[408] First of November. - -[409] Georg. i. 204. - -[410] “To be an early winter.” - -[411] “To be a long winter.” - -[412] Confectum sidus. - -[413] In B. xvii. c. 2. - -[414] Georg. i. 335. - -[415] A.U.C. 830. - -[416] Twenty-seventh of January. - -[417] Ad solis cursum. - -[418] Soon after the corrections made by order of Julius Cæsar, the -Pontifices mistook the proper method of intercalation, by making it -every third year instead of the fourth; the consequence of which was, -that Augustus was obliged to correct the results of their error by -omitting the intercalary day for twelve years. - -[419] He most probably refers to the list of writers originally -appended to the First Book; but which in the present Translation is -distributed at the end of each Book. For the list of astronomical -writers here referred to, see the end of the present Book. - -[420] Or Ἀστρικὴ βίβλος. It is now lost. - -[421] In his work mentioned at the end of this Book. It is now lost. - -[422] _I. e._ Asia Minor. - -[423] _I. e._ the north-west parts of Africa. - -[424] See c. 39 of that Book. - -[425] “Ratione solis.” This theory of the succession of changes every -four years, was promulgated by Eudoxus. See B. ii. c. 48. - -[426] See c. 69, as to Arcturus and Aquila. - -[427] He speaks of Equinoctial hours, these being in all cases of the -same length, in contradistinction to the Temporal, or Unequal hours, -which with the Romans were a twelfth part of the Natural day, from -sunrise to sunset, and of course were continually varying. - -[428] Twenty-fifth of December. - -[429] Fere. - -[430] In this Translation, the names of the Constellations are given -in English, except in the case of the signs of the Zodiac, which are -universally known by their Latin appellations. - -[431] He begins in c. 64, at the winter solstice, and omits the period -between the eleventh of November and the winter solstice altogether, so -far as the mention of individual days. - -[432] “Cum sidus vehemens Orionis iisdem diebus longo decedat spatio.” -This passage is apparently unintelligible, if considered, as Sillig -reads it, as dependent on the preceding one. - -[433] In his Œconomica. - -[434] In B. ii. c. 47. - -[435] “Vestis institor est.” This passage is probably imperfect. - -[436] “Lacernarum.” - -[437] “Puleium.” See B. ii. c. 41. - -[438] De Re Rust. i. 34. - -[439] The setting of the Vergiliæ. - -[440] De Divinat. B. i. c. 15. They are a translation from Aratus. - -[441] De Re Rust. c. 38. Pliny has said above, that flax and the poppy -should be sown in the spring. - -[442] The Papaver Rhœas of Linnæus is still used for affections of the -throat. - -[443] For the grape and the olive. - -[444] First of November. - -[445] In the more northern climates this is never done till the spring. - -[446] This is merely imaginary. - -[447] Or king-fisher. It was a general belief that this bird incubated -on the surface of the ocean. - -[448] Hence the expression, “Halcyon days.” - -[449] Vadimonia. - -[450] In B. xvi. c. 74. - -[451] “Ridicas.” - -[452] “Palos.” - -[453] Thirtieth of December. According to the Roman reckoning, the -_third_ day would be the day but one before. - -[454] Fourth of January. - -[455] Eighth of January. - -[456] Seventeenth of January. - -[457] Twenty-fifth of January. - -[458] “Regia Stella.” - -[459] Fourth of February. - -[460] Or wine-vats; by the use of the word “laminas,” he seems to be -speaking not of the ordinary earthen dolia, but the wooden ones used in -Gaul and the north of Italy. - -[461] Sixteenth of February. - -[462] Twenty-second of February. - -[463] Fifth of March. - -[464] On the fifth of March, Ovid says, Fasti, iii. l. 407. Columella -makes it rise on the sixth of the nones, or the second of March. - -[465] Eighth of March. - -[466] Or, more literally, the “Northern Fish.” - -[467] Fifteenth of March, the day on which he was assassinated, in -accordance, it is said, with the prophecy of a diviner, who had warned -him to beware of the ides of March. - -[468] Eighteenth of March. - -[469] Twenty-first of March. - -[470] In c. 46 and c. 47. - -[471] Seventh of February. - -[472] In B. xvii. c. 35. - -[473] Fée approves of this method of weeding before the corn is in ear. - -[474] In a day, probably. - -[475] Georg. i. 63. - -[476] De Re Rust. 40. - -[477] See B. xvii. c. 8. - -[478] Alluding to his quotation from Cicero in c. 61. - -[479] Or mastich. - -[480] See c. 7 of this Book. - -[481] It is not known whence he derived this unfounded notion. - -[482] Twenty-fifth of March. - -[483] First of April. - -[484] This passage is omitted in the original, but was probably left -out by inadvertence. - -[485] Third of April. - -[486] Fifth of April. - -[487] Eighth of April. - -[488] Eighteenth of April. - -[489] Sixteenth of April. - -[490] Twentieth of April. - -[491] Twenty-first of April. See B. xix. c. 24. - -[492] From ὕειν, to rain. - -[493] “Sus,” a pig. - -[494] Twenty-fourth of April. - -[495] Twenty-fifth of April. - -[496] Twenty-sixth of April. - -[497] Twenty-seventh of April. - -[498] Twenty-eighth of April. - -[499] Second of May. - -[500] Eighth of May. - -[501] Tenth of May. - -[502] “Cuculus.” Sec B. x. c. 11. - -[503] “Petulantiæ vales.” Perhaps “indecent,” or “wanton jokes:” at -least, Hardouin thinks so. - -[504] By causing quarrels, probably. - -[505] See B. xi. c. 34. - -[506] A quotation from some unknown poet, Sillig thinks. - -[507] See B. xvi. c. 41. - -[508] See Virgil, Ecl. iii. l. 111. - -[509] Eleventh of May. - -[510] Thirteenth of May. - -[511] Twenty-first of May. - -[512] Twenty-second of May. - -[513] Second of June. - -[514] Seventh of June. - -[515] Tenth of June. - -[516] Fifteenth of June. - -[517] Twenty-first of June. - -[518] Twenty-fourth of June. - -[519] First of June. - -[520] Columella, B. ii. c. 18. - -[521] The varieties now known as Trifolium pratense, Trifolium rubens -and Trifolium repens. - -[522] “Gramen.” Under this head, as Fée says, he probably includes the -gramineous plants, known as Alopecurus, Phleum, Poa, Festuca, &c. - -[523] Probably the Lysimachia nummularia of Linnæus, which has a -tendency to corrode the lips of the sheep that pasture on it. - -[524] Known to us as “horse-tail;” varieties of which are the Equisetum -fluviatile and the Equisetum palustre of Linnæus. - -[525] De Re Rust. c. 53. - -[526] See Virgil’s Georg. i. 289. - -[527] As to whetstones, for further information, see B. xxvi. c. 47. - -[528] The word “falx,” “sickle” or “scythe,” is used here as denoting -an implement for mowing, and not reaping. - -[529] Similar in shape to our sickle, or reaping hook, no doubt. - -[530] “Majoris compendii.” Similar to our reaping-hook, also. Fée -thinks that the former was similar to the “faux faucille,” or false -sickle, the latter to the common sickle of the French. - -[531] Fée says that this is the case in some parts of France. - -[532] In c. 59 of this Book. - -[533] Twenty-fourth of June. See the last Chapter. - -[534] On this subject see B. xvi. c. 36. See also Varro, De Re Rust. B. -i. c. 46, and Aulus Gellius, B. ix. c. 7. - -[535] “Tenes Sidus.” - -[536] Twenty-sixth of June. - -[537] Fourth of July. - -[538] There is some confusion, apparently, here. Canicula, Syrius, or -the Dog-star, belongs to the Constellation Canis Major; while Canis -Minor a Constellation which contains the star Procyon, (“the forerunner -of the Dog,”) precedes it. - -[539] Fourth of July. - -[540] Fourteenth of July. - -[541] Seventeenth of July. - -[542] B. ii. c. 40, and B. xix. c. 25. - -[543] Twentieth of July. - -[544] Twenty-third of July. - -[545] Thirtieth of July. - -[546] Sixth of August. - -[547] Eleventh of August. - -[548] Eighth of August. - -[549] See B. xvii. c. 37. - -[550] Carbunculus. - -[551] Cicero. De Div., B. ii. 201, Aristotle, Polit. B. i. c. 7, and -Diogenes Laertius tell this story of Thales the philosopher; Pliny -being the only one that applies it to Democritus. - -[552] In the last Chapter. This passage is corrupt. - -[553] Mentioned by Seneca, Ep. 59. - -[554] It was reserved for the latter part of the last century to -discover that mildew operated on vegetation through the medium of -minute, parasitical fungi. It is mostly attributed to defects in the -light or the atmosphere, or else humidity in excess. See c. 44 of this -Book. - -[555] In B. ii. c. 6, for instance. - -[556] An onomatic prejudice, as Fée says, solely founded on the -peculiarity of the name. - -[557] In the preceding Chapter. - -[558] In the preceding Chapter. - -[559] In B. xvi. c. 42. - -[560] Twentieth of December. - -[561] Or festival in honour of Robigo, the Goddess of mildew, on the -twenty-fifth of April. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. iv. l. 907, _et seq._ - -[562] Robigo. - -[563] “Nineteen” is the proper number. - -[564] “Et cui præoccidere caniculam necesse est.” The real meaning of -this passage would seem to be,—“Before which, as a matter of course, -Canicula must set.” But if so, Pliny is in error, for Canicula, or -Procyon, sets heliacally _after_ the Dog-star, though it rises before -it. Hardouin observes, that it is abundantly proved from the ancient -writers that it was the custom to sacrifice a puppy to Sirius, or the -Dog-star, at the Robigalia. As Littré justly remarks, it would almost -appear that Pliny intended, by his ambiguous language, to lead his -readers into error. - -[565] Twenty-eighth of April. The festival of Flora. - -[566] Twenty-third of April. This was the first, or Urban Vinalia: the -second, or Rustic Vinalia, were held on the nineteenth of August. - -[567] The same as the Greek Πιθοίγια, or “opening of the Casks.” - -[568] Tenth of May. - -[569] In B. xvi. c. 42, and in c. 66 of this Book. - -[570] Second of June. - -[571] Twenty-fourth of June. - -[572] Fourth of July. - -[573] Seventeenth of July. - -[574] Twentieth of July. - -[575] Twenty-third of July. - -[576] Nineteenth of August. - -[577] Eighth of August. - -[578] See B. x. c. 45, and c. 50. The popinjay, lapwing, and tit-mouse -have been suggested. - -[579] Virio. See B. x. c. 45. - -[580] Columella, De Arborib. c. 13, gives similar advice. - -[581] This absurd practice is mentioned in the Geoponica, B. v. c. 31. - -[582] As to this fish, see B. ix. c. 17. - -[583] “Uva picta.” This absurdity does not seem to be found in any of -Varro’s works that have come down to us. - -[584] Nothing whatever is known of him or his works; and, as Fée says, -apparently the loss is little to be regretted. - -[585] Rubeta rana. - -[586] De Re Rust. 129. Cato, however, does not mention chalk, but -Virgil (Georg. i. 178) does. Poinsinet thinks that this is a “lapsus -memoriæ” in Pliny, but Fée suggests that there may have been an -omission by the copyists. - -[587] See the last Note. He recommends that it should be turned up with -the hand, rammed down with “tenacious chalk,” and levelled with a large -roller. - -[588] Both cow-dung and marc of olives are still employed in some parts -of France, in preparing the threshing floor. - -[589] Palladius gives a long description of this contrivance, which -seems to have been pushed forward by the ox; the teeth, which were -sharp at the edge and fine at the point, catching the ears and -tearing them off. But, as Fée says, the use of it must have been very -disadvantageous, in consequence of the unequal height of the stalks. -The straw, too, was sacrificed by the employment of it. - -[590] In contrarium juncto. - -[591] “Merges.” Supposed to be the same as the “batillum” of Varro. -Its form is unknown, and, indeed, the manner in which it was used. It -is not improbable that it was a fork, sharp at the edge, and similar -to an open pair of scissars, with which the heads of corn were driven -off, as it were; this, however, is only a mere conjecture. By the use -of “atque,” it would almost appear that the “merges” was employed after -the sickle had been used; but it is more probable that he refers to two -different methods of gathering the ears of corn. - -[592] The roots and the stubble are, in reality, as good as a manure to -the land. - -[593] Called “tribulum;” a threshing-machine moved by oxen. Varro, De -Re Rust. i. 52, gives a description of it. Fée says that it is still -used in some parts of Europe. - -[594] On the contrary, Fée says, the risk is greater from the -depredations of birds, and the chance of the grain falling out in -cutting, and gathering in. Spelt and rye may be left much longer than -wheat or oats. - -[595] Columella, B. ii. c. i., gives the same advice. - -[596] “Palea” seems here to mean “chaff;” though Fée understands it as -meaning straw. - -[597] The chaff of millet, and not the straw, must evidently be -intended here, for he says above that the straw—“culmus”—of millet is -generally burnt. - -[598] Muria dura. - -[599] Georg. i. 84, _et seq._ Fée says that Virgil has good reason for -his commendations, as it is a most excellent plan. - -[600] Palladius, i. 19, says _two_ feet. - -[601] On account of the damp. Columella, however, recommends a mixture -of sand, lime, and marc of olives for the floor; B. i. c. 6. - -[602] In B. xv. c. 8. - -[603] This is still done in the Valais, and has the great merit of -preserving the corn from house and field-mice. - -[604] “Ventilare.” On the contrary, the weevil penetrates deep, and -does not keep near the surface. - -[605] De Re Rust. ii. 21. - -[606] See B. ii. c. 48. - -[607] Those keep the best, Fée says, which have a farinaceous -perisperm. Millet has but one coat. - -[608] This, in reality, would tend to make them turn rancid all the -sooner. - -[609] And so repel the attacks of insects. - -[610] This would not only spoil the flavour, but absolutely injure the -corn as well. - -[611] This also, if practised to any extent, would infallibly spoil the -grain. - -[612] De Re Rust. i. 57. - -[613] See B. xix. c. 15: also Columella, De Re Rust. B. ii. c. 10. - -[614] Twelfth of August. - -[615] Twenty-second of August. - -[616] Twenty-eighth of August. - -[617] Fifth of September. - -[618] Ninth of September. - -[619] Twelfth of September. - -[620] See the Rudens of Plautus, Prol. l. 69. - -[621] Sixteenth of September. - -[622] Eighteenth of September. - -[623] Twenty-first of September. - -[624] Commissura. - -[625] Twenty-fourth of September. - -[626] Mentioned by Virgil, Eccl. iii. l. 38, and by Propertius, Eleg. -iv. 1. - -[627] Twenty-eighth of September. - -[628] Twenty-ninth of September. - -[629] Second of October. - -[630] Third of October. - -[631] Fourth of October. - -[632] Eighth of October. - -[633] Tenth of October. - -[634] Fifteenth of October. - -[635] Sixteenth of October. - -[636] Or Hyades, see c. 66. - -[637] Second of November. - -[638] Ninth of November. - -[639] Eleventh of November. - -[640] In c. 35 of this Book. - -[641] “Frondarias fiscinas.” These must have been baskets of a very -large size. The leaves were used for fodder. - -[642] This, Fée says, is diametrically opposite to the modern practice. - -[643] The “culeus,” it is supposed, was of the same measure of -capacity as the “dolium,” and held twenty amphoræ. The “pressura,” or -“pressing,” was probably the utmost quantity that the pressing vat -would hold at one time. - -[644] “Lacus.” - -[645] “Mali rugis per cocleas bullantibus.” The whole of this passage -is full of difficulties. - -[646] “Tympana:” literally, “drums.” - -[647] Grape juice boiled down to one half; see B. xiv. c. 9. - -[648] Virgil mentions this in the Georgics, B. i. 295. Of course, it is -nothing but an absurd superstition. - -[649] First of January. - -[650] Piscinis. - -[651] _I. e._ before getting in the next year’s crop. Of course, -he alludes only to wines of an inferior class, used for domestic -consumption. - -[652] In B. xiv. - -[653] In B. xv. c. 3. - -[654] Georg. i. 276. - -[655] In contradistinction to the two periods of full moon, and change -of the moon, the only epochs in reference to it noticed by Pliny. - -[656] In Chapters 6, 7, 8 and 11. - -[657] Or “between moons.” The “change of the moon,” as we call it. - -[658] 51-1/4 minutes. - -[659] Many of his statements are drawn from Aristotle’s Treatise, “De -Mundo.” - -[660] Our mid-day. - -[661] From due north to due south. - -[662] Cardo. - -[663] “Arbusta.” The trees on which the vines were trained. - -[664] _I. e._ the north-west of Africa; the Roman province so called. - -[665] In the next Chapter. - -[666] Ventus Auster. - -[667] In B. ii. c. 46. - -[668] Incendia. - -[669] See B. xvii. c. 2. - -[670] See B. viii. c. 75. - -[671] He seems to be in error here, as he has nowhere made mention of -this. - -[672] Aristotle, on the other hand, and Columella, B. vii. c. 3, -say “males.” See also B. viii. c. 72, where males are mentioned in -connection with the north-wind. Also the next Chapter in this Book. - -[673] In the last Chapter. - -[674] Very similar to our compass, but describing only eight points of -the wind, instead of thirty-two. - -[675] “Tympanum,” a drum, similar in shape to our tambourines or else -kettle-drums. - -[676] See B. ii. c. 46. - -[677] Or the “summer” wind. - -[678] Africus, or south-west. - -[679] Or, according to our mode of expression, the “second,” or “next -but one.” - -[680] Or, as we say, the “third.” - -[681] Georg. i. 313, _et seq._ - - “Sæpe ego, quum flavis messorem induceret arvis - Agricola, et fragili jam stringeret hordea culmo, - omnia ventorum concurrere prœlia vidi.” - -[682] See the Treatise of Theophrastus on the Prognostics of the -Weather. - -[683] This, Fée observes, is confirmed by experience. Aratus, as -translated by Avienus, states to a similar effect. - -[684] So Virgil, Georg. i. 427. - -[685] Coronam. - -[686] See B. ii. c. 6 and c. 36. - -[687] In c. 59 of this Book. - -[688] “Densum.” Fée says that this is in general confirmed by -experience. - -[689] This results, Fée says, from the presence of thin, aqueous -vapours, which portend a change in the atmosphere. - -[690] Fée attributes this phænomenon to hydrosulphuric gas, ignited in -the air by an electric spark. The notion that these meteors are stars, -was prevalent to a very recent period. - -[691] To which they proceed. - -[692] This, Fée says, is confirmed by experience. - -[693] Or “Little Asses.” - -[694] Præsepia. - -[695] This, as Fée remarks, is consistent with experience. - -[696] This, Fée remarks, appears to be consistent with general -experience. - -[697] Theophrastus states to a similar effect, and it is confirmed by -the experience of those who live in mountainous countries. - -[698] We still hear of the “white squalls” of the Mediterranean. - -[699] “‘Behold, there ariseth a little cloud out of the sea, like a -man’s hand.’——And it came to pass in the meanwhile, that the heaven -was black with clouds and wind, and there was a great rain.”—1 Kings, -xviii. 44, 45. - -[700] The truth of this, Fée says, he has personally experienced in the -vallies of the Alps. - -[701] Terreni ignes. - -[702] This, and the other phænomena here mentioned, result, as Fée -says, from the hygrometric state of the air. Virgil mentions this -appearance on the wick of the lamp, Georg. i. 392. - -[703] Fée thinks that this indicates fine weather rather than rain, as -showing a pure state of the atmosphere. - -[704] Sea “lungs.” See B. ix. c. 71. - -[705] Ludentia. - -[706] Virgil mentions these indications, Georg. i. 368-9. - -[707] “Suus fragor.” The winds, Fée remarks, however violent they may -be, make no noise unless they meet with an obstacle which arrests their -onward progress. - -[708] Theophrastus, Cicero, and Plutarch state to a similar effect; and -it is corroborated by the experience of most mariners. - -[709] The ink-fish; Sepia loligo of Linnæus. See B. ix. c. 21. - -[710] Virgil says the same, Georg. i. 378. - -[711] “Fulicæ.” See B. x. c. 61, and B. xi. c. 44. - -[712] Virgil says the same of the diver, or didapper, Georg. i. 361; -and Lucan Pharsalia, v. 553. - -[713] Both Theophrastus and Ælian mention this. - -[714] It is not known what bird is here alluded to, but Fée is probably -right in suggesting a sort of sea-mew, or gull. - -[715] This is still considered a prognostic of rain. Fée says that the -swallow descends thus near to the surface to catch the insects on the -wing which are now disabled from rising by the hygrometric state of the -atmosphere. - -[716] This is confirmed by experience. - -[717] On the contrary, Lucan says (Pharsalia, B. v. l. 549), that on -the approach of rain, the heron soars in the upper regions of the air; -and Virgil says the same, Georg. i. 364. - -[718] Indecorâ lasciviâ. - -[719] Fée suggests that they probably do this to diminish the electric -fluid with which the air is charged. - -[720] Alienos sibi manipulos. - -[721] This is confirmed by common experience. - -[722] “Repositoriis.” See B. xix. c. 13, and B. xxx. c. 49. - -[723] See end of B. vii. - -[724] See end of B. xii. - -[725] See end of B. iii. - -[726] See end of B. ii. - -[727] See end of B. vii. - -[728] See end of B. iii. - -[729] See end of B. xiv. - -[730] See end of B. ii. - -[731] See end of B. iii. - -[732] See end of B. xi. - -[733] See end of B. x. - -[734] See end of B. xi. - -[735] See end of B. iii. - -[736] See end of B. vii. - -[737] See end of B. vii. - -[738] A native of Sulmo, in the country of the Peligni, and one of -the greatest poets of the Augustan age. It is most probable that his -“Fasti” was extensively consulted by Pliny in the compilation of the -present Book. Six Books of the Fasti have come down to us, but the -remaining six have perished, if, indeed, they were ever written, which -has been doubted by many of the learned. - -[739] See end of B. xiv. - -[740] See end of B. viii. - -[741] See end of B. ii. It is supposed that there were several writers -of this name, but it is impossible to say with certainty which of them -is the one here referred to. It is probable, however, that it is either -L. Ælius Tubero, the friend of Cicero, or else Q. Ælius Tubero, his -son, that is alluded to. - -[742] L. Tarutius Firmianus, a mathematician and astronomer, and a -friend and contemporary of Cicero and M. Varro. At the request of the -latter, he took the horoscope of Romulus. It is generally supposed that -he was of Etruscan descent. - -[743] The founder of the imperial dignity at Rome. His Commentaries are -the only work written by him that has come down to us. His treatise -on the Stars, which Pliny frequently quotes throughout this Book, was -probably written under the inspection of the astronomer, Sosigenes. - -[744] See end of B. ii. - -[745] Nothing is known of this writer. It has been suggested, however, -that he may have been the same person as Papirius Fabianus, mentioned -at the end of B. ii. - -[746] See end of B. vii. - -[747] See end of B. xvi. - -[748] See end of B. iii. - -[749] See end of B x. - -[750] L. Accius, or Attius, an early Roman tragic poet, and the son of -a freedman, born about B.C. 170. His tragedies were chiefly imitations -from the Greek. He is highly praised by Cicero. The “Praxidica” here -mentioned, is probably the same as the “Pragmatica” spoken of by Aulus -Gellius, B. xx. c. 3. Only some fragments of his Tragedies are left. - -[751] See end of B. vii. - -[752] See end of B. iii. - -[753] See end of B. ii. - -[754] See end of B. ii. - -[755] See end of B. viii. - -[756] See end of B. viii. - -[757] See end of B. viii. - -[758] See end of B. viii. - -[759] See end of B. iv. - -[760] Sec end of B. viii. - -[761] See end of B. ix. - -[762] See end of B. viii. - -[763] See end of B. viii. - -[764] See end of B. viii. - -[765] See end of B. viii. - -[766] See end of B. viii. - -[767] See end of B. viii. - -[768] See end of B. viii. - -[769] See end of B. vi. - -[770] See end of B. viii. - -[771] See end of B. xiv. - -[772] See end of B. xv. - -[773] See end of B. viii. - -[774] See end of B. ii. - -[775] See end of B. x. - -[776] See end of B. viii. - -[777] See end of B. viii. - -[778] See end of B. viii. - -[779] See end of B. viii. - -[780] See end of B. xii. - -[781] See end of B. viii. - -[782] Of Miletus, the most ancient of the Greek philosophers, and the -founder of the Ionian school of Philosophy. He is said to have written -upon the Solstice and the Equinox, and a work on Astronomy, in verse, -was also attributed to him. It is, however, more generally believed, -that he left no written works behind him, and that those attributed to -him were forgeries. - -[783] See end of B. ii. - -[784] An astronomer of Medama, or Medma, in Magna Græcia, and a -disciple of Plato. He is said to have written a treatise on the winds, -and Plutarch states that he demonstrated the figure of the moon. - -[785] An astronomer of Cyzicus, and a friend of Aristotle, whom he -assisted in completing the discoveries of Eudoxus. He invented the -cycle of seventy-six years, called after him the Calippic. - -[786] Of Colonus, a geometrician, to whom Archimedes dedicated his -works on the sphere and cylinder, and on spirals. - -[787] A grammarian, who is supposed to have written a commentary -on Aratus. Varro, De Ling. Lat. x. 10, speaks of him as making the -distinctive characteristics of words to be eight in number. - -[788] A famous astronomer of Athens, to whom the discovery of the cycle -of nineteen years has been attributed. - -[789] There were several learned men of this name, but it appears -impossible to say which of them is the one here alluded to; probably -it is either the Pythagorean philosopher of Ægæ, who wrote on -Predestination, or else the historian, a native of Pieria in Macedonia. -There was also an astronomer of this name, a native of Naxos, and a -friend of Eudoxus of Cnidos. - -[790] A famous astronomer, a native of Chios. He is said to have -claimed the discovery of the obliquity of the Ecliptic. - -[791] Probably Zenon of Elea, one of the most famous philosophers of -antiquity. All of his works had perished at a very early period. - -[792] An Athenian astronomer, the friend and assistant of Meton, about -430 B.C. - -[793] An astronomer mentioned by Censorinus, as having corrected the -intercalation of Cleostratus. Nothing further appears to be known of -him. - -[794] For Hecatæus of Miletus, see B. iv. For Hecatæus of Abdera, see -B. vi. - -[795] See end of B. iv. - -[796] See end of B. ii. - -[797] See end of B. ii. - -[798] A native of Soli, or else Tarsus, in Cilicia. He was the author -of two Greek astronomical poems which have come down to us. He -flourished about B.C. 270. - -[799] Nothing can be said of him with any degree of historical -certainty. By the Persians he was called Zerdusht, and was said to have -been the founder of the Magian religion. There were several works in -Greek bearing his name, but which, no doubt, were forgeries of a later -age than that usually assigned to him. - -[800] He is mentioned in c. 70 of this Book, as writing a letter to -Antiochus, king of Syria; but nothing further seems to be known of him. - -[801] More particularly in B. xvii. cc. 2 and 3, and B. xviii. cc. -57-75. - -[802] The Linum usitatissimum of Linnæus. - -[803] What would he have said to the application of the powers of -steam, and the electric telegraph? - -[804] Possibly Galerius Trachalus, Consul A.D. 68, a relation of -Galeria Fundana, the wife of the Emperor Vitellius. - -[805] Governor of Egypt in the reign of Nero, A.D. 55. He is mentioned -by Seneca, Quæst. Nat. B. iv. c. 2, and is supposed to have written a -work on Egypt and his journeys in that country. - -[806] Or, as Sillig suggests, “after ill treatment such as this, that -it arrives at the sea.” The passage is evidently defective. - -[807] In B. vii. c. 57. He alludes to Dædalus. - -[808] He probably has in view here the imprecation uttered by Horace:— - - “Illi robur, et æs triplex - Circa pectus erat, qui fragilem truci - Commisit pelago ratem.”—_Odes_, i. 3. - -At the present day hemp forms a material part in the manufacture of -sails. In addition to flax, the ancients employed broom, rushes, -leather, and various skins of animals for the purpose. - -[809] In c. 76. - -[810] On the contrary, as Fée observes, the cultivation of flax is -attended with the greatest difficulties. - -[811] See B. xvii. c. 7. Virgil says, Georg. i. 77, “Urit enim lini -campum seges”—but in the sense, as Fée remarks, of _exhausting_, not -_scorching_ the soil. - -[812] A light soil, and well manured, is usually employed for the -purpose. Columella, B. ii. c. 10, recommends a rich, moist soil. It is -sown in March or April, and is gathered, according to the season, from -June to September. - -[813] Though rapid in its growth, there are many vegetable productions -that grow more rapidly. - -[814] This was the time for sowing it with the Romans, though in some -countries, at the present day, it is sown so late as the autumn. - -[815] In B. xviii. c. 72, he has spoken of this method of gathering -vegetable productions as injurious to the soil, by withdrawing its -natural juices. - -[816] “Censentur hoc reditu?” There is little doubt that the Gauls, -like their German neighbours, cultivated flax for the purposes of -female dress, and not mainly for the manufacture of sails. - -[817] “Quod vocant inane.” He implies that the boundless space of -ocean on the Western coasts of Gaul was useless for any purposes of -navigation. - -[818] See B. iv. c. 33. - -[819] See B. iv. c. 33. - -[820] See B. xxxiv. c. 48. - -[821] See B. iv. c. 31. - -[822] A family of the Atilia gens. - -[823] It was, and is still to some extent, a prevalent opinion, that -the humidity of caves under-ground is favourable to the manufacture of -tissues of hemp and flax. - -[824] In Spain. Sec B. i. c. 1, and B. iii. c. 4. - -[825] Cluvier takes this place to be the same with Litubium in Liguria, -mentioned by Livy, B. xxxii. - -[826] “Lanugo.” This is not generally looked upon as a merit in linen, -at the present day. - -[827] Now Tarragona. See B. iii. c. 4. - -[828] “Carbasus.” This was probably the Spanish name originally for -fine flax, and hence came to signify the cambrics, or fine linen -tissues made of it. It seems, however, to have afterwards been extended -to all kinds of linen tissues, as we find the name given indifferently -to linen garments, sail-cloth, and awnings for the theatres. - -[829] See B. iii. c. 4. - -[830] “Sætas ceu per ferri aciem vincunt.” This passage is probably in -a mutilated state. - -[831] There must either be some corruption in the text, or else Pliny -must have been mistaken. Nets such as these could have been of no -possible use in taking a wild boar. - -[832] See B. iv. c. 33. Now Querci, the chief town of which is Cahors. - -[833] “Culcitæ.” - -[834] “Tomenta.” - -[835] Exactly corresponding to our “paillasse,” a “bed of straw.” - -[836] This is doubtful, though at the same time it is a well-known fact -that the Egyptian flax grows to the greatest size. Hasselquist speaks -of it attaining a height of fifteen feet. - -[837] Our cotton, the Gossypium arboreum of Linnæus. See B. xii. c. -21. The terms _xylon_, _byssus_, and _gossypium_, must be regarded as -synonymous, being applied sometimes to the plant, sometimes to the raw -cotton, and sometimes to the tissues made from it. _Gossypium_ was -probably the barbarous name of the cotton tree, and _byssus_ perhaps a -corruption of its Hebrew name. - -[838] Probably the Arundo donax of modern botanists. See B. xvi. c. 66. - -[839] Fée says, that the people of Pisa, at the present day, soak the -stalks of broom, and extract therefrom a thread, of which cords and -coarse stuffs are made. - -[840] In B. xii. c. 21. He seems there to speak of the cotton-tree, -though Fée suggests that he may possibly allude to the “Bombax -pentandrum” of Linnæus. - -[841] It is the mucilage of the perisperm that is so useful in -medicine. As an article of food, the farina of linseed is held in no -esteem whatever. In times of scarcity, attempts have been made to mix -it with flour or meal, but the result has been found to be heavy and -indigestible, and has caused, it is said, the death even of those who -have eaten of it in considerable quantities. - -[842] There are various other methods employed of dressing flax at the -present day; but they are all of them long and tedious. - -[843] And not feminine or servile. - -[844] “Vivum.” - -[845] He evidently considers asbestus, or amianthus, to be a vegetable, -and not a mineral production. It is, in reality, a mineral, with long -flexible filaments, of a silky appearance, and is composed of silica, -magnesia, and lime. The wicks of the inextinguishable lamps of the -middle ages, the existence of which was an article of general belief, -were said to be made of asbestus. Paper and lace, even, have been made -of it in modern times. - -[846] “Nascitur.” In the year 1702 there was found near the Nævian -Gate, at Rome, a funereal urn, in which there was a skull, calcined -bones, and other ashes, enclosed in a cloth of asbestus, of a -marvellous length. It is still preserved in the Vatican. - -[847] On the contrary, it is found in the Higher Alps in the vicinity -of the Glaciers, in Scotland, and in Siberia, even. - -[848] Signifying “inextinguishable,” from ἀ, “not,” and σβέννυμι, “to -extinguish.” See B. xxxvii. c. 54. - -[849] See end of this Book. - -[850] He evidently alludes to cotton fabrics under this name. See Note -[837] to c. 2 of this Book. - -[851] Pausanias, in his Eliaca, goes so far as to say, that byssus -was found only in Elis, and nowhere else. Judging from the variable -temperature of the climate, it is very doubtful, Fée says, if cotton -was grown there _at all_. Arrian, Apollonius, and Philostratus say that -the tree which produced the _byssus_ had the leaves of the willow, and -the shape of the poplar, characteristics which certainly do not apply -to the cotton-tree. - -[852] Impure oxide of metals, collected from the chimneys of -smelting-houses. Fée says that Pliny on this occasion is right. - -[853] In B. xx. c. 79, he speaks of the “heraclion” poppy, supposed by -some of the commentators to be identical with the one mentioned here. - -[854] “Vestium insaniam.” - -[855] “Postea.” Sillig would reject this word, as being a corruption, -and not consistent with fact, Catulus having lived before the time of -Cleopatra. He suggests that the reading should be “Populo Romano ea in -theatris spectanti umbram fecere.” “Linen, too, has provided a shade -for the Roman people, when viewing the spectacles of the theatre.” -Lucretius, B. iv. l. 73, _et seq._, speaks of these awnings as being -red, yellow, and iron grey. - -[856] “Carbasina.” Cambric. - -[857] The cavædium is generally supposed to have been the same as the -“atrium,” the large inner apartment, roofed over, with the exception -of an opening in the middle, which was called the “compluvium,” or -“impluvium,” over which the awning here mentioned was stretched. Here -the master of the house received his visitors and clients. - -[858] White would be much preferable to red for this purpose. - -[859] Il. ii. ll. 529 and 830. - -[860] Il. viii. l. 63. - -[861] Il. ii. l. 135. See B. xxiv. c. 40. - -[862] The Stipa tenacissima of Linnæus; a kind of broom, called -“Esparto” by the Spaniards. - -[863] Although, as Fée says, this is still the fact, it is a plant -which would readily admit of cultivation. Varro, however, De Re Rust. -B. i. c. 23, speaks of it in conjunction with hemp, flax, and rushes, -as being sown. - -[864] This kind, Fée thinks, may possibly have been identical with the -Spartum Lygeum of Linnæus, false esparto, or alvarde. - -[865] At the present day it is only in the provinces on the -Mediterranean that spartum is found; the other provinces producing -nothing but alvarde. - -[866] It is still used in the southern parts of Spain for the same -purposes. - -[867] The shoes now made of it are known as “espartenas” and -“alpargatas.” - -[868] It is not dangerous in itself, but is too tough to be a favourite -article of food with cattle. - -[869] Fifteenth of May and thirteenth of June. - -[870] The same word, σχοῖνος, signifying both a “rush” and a “rope.” - -[871] Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 13. Athenæus, B. ii., mentions it also. - -[872] Fée is at a loss to identify this plant, but considers it quite -clear that it is not the same with the Eriophorum augustifolium of -Linnæus, a cyperaceous plant, of which the characteristics are totally -different. Dodonæus, however, was inclined to consider them identical. - -[873] On the contrary, Theophrastus _does_ mention it, in the Hist. -Plant. B. i. c. 8, and speaks of it as having a bark composed of -several tunics or membranes. - -[874] In B. xiii. c. 13, and B. xv. c. 1. - -[875] “Tuber.” The Tuber cibarium of Linnæus, the black truffle; and -probably the grey truffle, the Tuber griseum. - -[876] This callous secretion of the earth, or corticle, is, as Fée -says, a sort of hymenium, formed of vesicles, which, as they develope -themselves, are found to contain diminutive truffles. Pliny is wrong in -saying that the truffle forms neither cleft nor protuberance, as the -exact contrary is the fact. - -[877] Haller speaks of truffles weighing as much as fourteen pounds. -Valmont de Bomare speaks of a truffle commonly found in Savoy, which -attains the weight of a pound. - -[878] Those of Africa are in general similar to those found in Europe, -but there is one peculiar to that country, possibly the same that is -mentioned in the following Chapter under the name of “misy.” - -[879] “Jura reddenti.” - -[880] It is really propagated by spores, included in sinuous chambers -in the interior; but, notwithstanding the attempts that have been made, -it has never yet been cultivated with any degree of success. In c. -13, Pliny seems to recognize the possibility of its multiplication by -germs, where he says that its formation is attributed by some to water. - -[881] Fée takes this to be the Tuber niveum of Desfontaines, the -snow-white truffle. It is globular and somewhat piriform, grows to the -size of a walnut, and sometimes of an orange, and is said to be most -delicate eating. - -[882] These truffles or morels do not appear to have been identified. - -[883] Juvenal alludes to this absurd notion, Sat. v. l. 116. “The long -wished-for thunder will provide a more ample repast.” - -[884] Theophrastus, as quoted by Athenæus, B. ii. speaks of this. - -[885] “Peziza” was a name given by the ancients to a kind of cupuliform -mushroom; in which, however, we cannot recognize the “pezica” of -Pliny. Some writers think that this was the same as the lycoperdon and -geastrum of botanists, our puff-ball: while others take it to be the -morel, the Morchella esculenta, Sprengel in the number. Fée is inclined -to be of opinion that an edible mushroom is meant, but is quite at a -loss to identify it. - -[886] Possibly the Ferula asafœtida of Linnæus; or, according to some, -the Thapsia silphium of Viviani, _Flor. Lib._ It was a plant common, -according to ancient writers, to Syria, Armenia, Media, and Libya; but -it was the produce of this last country, probably, that afforded the -juice or gum resin here mentioned as “laser,” and so highly esteemed -by the ancients, as forming a component part of their perfumes. Fée is -inclined to think that the Laserpitium here spoken of was the Thapsia -silphium, and to reject the more general opinion that it is identical -with the Ferula asafœtida. Pliny has probably caused some confusion -by blending the description of other writers with that given by -Theophrastus, each having in view a different plant. Indeed, whatever -the Laserpitium or Silphium of other countries may have been, it is not -improbable that the odoriferous plant of Cyrenaica was not identical -with the Ferula asafœtida of Linnæus. The foliage of the Thapsia -silphium is exactly similar to that of the Laserpitium as depicted on -medals of Cyrenaica, still extant. We learn from Littré, that Dr. Guyon -showed, in 1842, to the Académie des Sciences, a plant which the Arabs -of Algeria employ as a purgative, and which they call _bonnefa_. It is -the Thapsia Garganica of Desfontaines, and is considered by Guyon to be -identical with the Silphium of the ancients. - -[887] See B. xxii. c. 48. In the “Rudens” of Plautus, the scene of -which is near Cyrene, frequent allusion is made to the growth of -laserpitium there, and the preparation and export of the resin, as -forming the staple article of commerce. - -[888] Scribonius Largus, who lived in the time of Tiberius, speaks of -using in a prescription laser of Cyrenaica, “if it can be met with;” -“si poterit inveniri.” - -[889] “In spem nascentis.” - -[890] Fée remarks that Pliny has not found this absurd story in any -of the works from which he has compiled his account, but that it is -entirely his own. - -[891] This was probably the Ferula asafœtida of Linnæus. - -[892] See B. xx. c. 75. - -[893] A.U.C. 661. - -[894] Fée remarks, that if Pliny here alludes to Theophrastus, Hist. -Plant. B. vi. c. 3, he has mistaken his meaning. - -[895] This, as Fée says, could hardly apply to the Ferula asafœtida of -Linnæus, the stalk of it being extremely acrid, and the juice fetid in -the highest degree. - -[896] “Vitia his omnibus.” The reading here is probably corrupt. - -[897] “Root-juice,” and “stalk-juice.” - -[898] Poinsinet fancies that this name means “staff of the Magi.” - -[899] Or “laser,” these names being indifferently applied to the -gum-resin. - -[900] The whole of this paragraph has been borrowed from Theophrastus, -Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. iii. - -[901] Sprengel takes this to be the Laserpitium ferulaceum of Linnæus, -but Fée thinks it is more than doubtful if the identity can be -established. - -[902] From Theophrastus. Dioscorides says, on the other hand, that it -grows in Libya. - -[903] From Littré we learn that M. Fraas has suggested that the -Magydaris and Laserpitium are possibly the Ferula Tingitana, and the -Ptychotis verticillata of Decandolle, which last he has found upon -high mountains in the lower region of pines, on Mount Parnassus, among -others. - -[904] See B. xxii. cc. 48, 49. - -[905] The Rubia tinctorum of Linnæus. - -[906] Dioscorides speaks of the madder of Ravenna as being the most -esteemed. It is much cultivated at the present day in the South of -France, Holland, and the Levant. That of Lille enjoys a high reputation. - -[907] It is covered with bristly hairs, or rather, fine, hooked teeth. -There is, however, no resemblance whatever between it and ervilia or -orobus, the fitch. - -[908] B. xxiv. c. 56. - -[909] Or “little root;” though, in reality, as Pliny says, it had a -large root. Some writers have supposed, that by this name is meant -the Reseda luteola of Linnæus, the “dyer’s weed” of the moderns; but -neither Pliny nor any of the Greek writers mention the Radicula as -being used for dyeing. Some, again, identify it with the Gypsophila -struthium of Linnæus, without sufficient warranty, however, as Fée -thinks. - -[910] The Gypsophila struthium grows in Spain, and possibly, Fée -says, in other countries. Linnæus has “pretended,” he says, that the -Spaniards still employ the root and stalk of the Gypsophila for the -same purposes as the ancients did the same parts of the Radicula. He -himself, however, though long resident in Spain, had never observed -such to be the fact. - -[911] This description, Fée says, does not correspond with that of -the Gypsophila struthium, the stalk of which does not at all resemble -that of the ferulaceous plants, and the leaf is quite different in -appearance from that of the olive. - -[912] As Fée observes, by the word “hortus” the Romans understood -solely the “vegetable” or “kitchen-garden;” the pleasure garden being -generally denominated “horti.” - -[913] See B. v. c. 1. - -[914] A fabulous king of Phœnicia, probably, whose story was afterwards -transferred, with considerable embellishments, to the Grecian -mythology. Adonis is supposed to have been identical with the Thammuz -of Scripture, mentioned by Ezekiel, viii. 14, where he speaks of the -“women weeping for Thammuz.” Hardouin considers him to have been a -Syrian deity, identical with the Moon. - -[915] Celebrated by Homer, Od. B. vi. and xiii. - -[916] “Alio volumine.” As no further mention is made by Pliny of the -Hanging Gardens of Babylon, it is most probable that he contemplated -giving a description of them in another work, an intention which he did -not live to realize. - -[917] See further on this subject, c. 53 of the present Book. - -[918] The reading, “quam rem,” seems preferable to “quam ob rem,” -adopted by Sillig. - -[919] “Effascinationes.” The effects of the evil eye. - -[920] “Hortorum.” “Pleasure-gardens.” - -[921] “Otii magister.” - -[922] For the purpose of teaching philosophy there. - -[923] “Hortus.” The “kitchen-garden.” - -[924] Ironically said. - -[925] He alludes to the pheasant. See B. x. c. 67. - -[926] He alludes to Colchis, the country of Medea, the scene of the -exploits of Jason and the Argonauts, and the land of prodigies and -fable. - -[927] See B. x. cc. 38 and 67. He alludes to “meleagrides,” or -Guinea-fowls. - -[928] See B. x. c. 37. He alludes to the birds called “Memnonides.” - -[929] See B. xvii. c. 1. - -[930] See B. xiv. c. 28. - -[931] He alludes to the finest and most delicate kinds of wheaten -flour. See B. xviii. c. 29. - -[932] “Uno asse.” - -[933] As “corruda,” or “wild asparagus.” The Brassica capitata alba -of C. Bauhin, or white cabbage, sometimes attains a weight of ten or -twelve pounds. - -[934] This is an exaggeration, probably. - -[935] He alludes to the artichoke, or Cinara cardunculus of the -botanists, which bears some resemblance to the common thistle. - -[936] Martial and Aulus Gellius speak of ice and snow drinks. The -latter must have been very injurious to the stomach. - -[937] See B. xxxi. c. 23. - -[938] In this corrupt and otherwise unintelligible passage, we have -adopted the proposed emendations of Sillig, who is of opinion that it -bears reference to the abolition of the market-dues, or “portorium,” by -Augustus Cæsar, and the substitution of a property tax of one twentieth -of the land, a method of taxation which inflicted greater hardships -than the former one, as it was assessed according to the _superficies_, -not the _produce_ of the land. His proposed emendations of the text -are as follows: “mox enim certe æquabit _eos pecunia_ quos pecunia -separaverit. Itaque——ac minore fortunæ jure, _quam_ cum _hereditate -datur_ pensio ea pauperum; _his_ in solo sponsor est,” &c. - -[939] De Re Rust. cc. 156, 157. He speaks of it as being eaten either -boiled or raw, but in the latter case with vinegar. Fée thinks that -even then it would make a very acrid and indigestible diet. - -[940] “Acetaria.” Salads. - -[941] He alludes, no doubt, to the words of Virgil, in Georg. iv. l. 6. - - “In tenui labor, at tenuis non Gloria——” - -though in that instance the poet is speaking of bees. - -[942] “Tollenonum haustu.” These would be used in the case of -well-water; they are still to be seen occasionally in this country, and -are very common on the continent. The wheel is also used for drawing -well-water, and is frequently employed in Barbary and Spain. - -[943] By the word “fructus” he no doubt means the edible parts solely, -the leaf, stalk, or root, as the case may be. - -[944] Fée is surprised to find elecampane figuring among the garden -vegetables. It has a powerful odour, is bitter, and promotes -expectoration. Though not used as a vegetable it is still used as a -preserve, or sweetmeat, mixed with sugar. See further on it in c. 29 of -this Book. - -[945] See c. 28 of this Book. - -[946] See c. 27 of this Book. - -[947] Fée remarks that this juxtaposition of anise and mallows betokens -the most complete ignorance of botany on the part of our author; there -being few plants which differ more essentially. The field-mallow, or -Malva silvestris of Linnæus, or perhaps several varieties of it, are -here referred to. The anise will be further mentioned in c. 74 of this -Book. - -[948] Fée suggests that the plant here mentioned may have been an -annual, probably the Lavatorea arborea of botanists, or some kindred -species. In a few months it is known to attain a height of ten feet or -more. - -[949] In Fée’s opinion this tree cannot have belonged to the family -of Malvaceæ; the Adansonia and some other exotics of the family, with -which Pliny undoubtedly was not acquainted, being the only ones that -attain these gigantic proportions. - -[950] There is no resemblance between mallows and hemp, any more than -there is between mallows and anise. - -[951] “Carnosa.” - -[952] Hardouin thinks that he alludes to the Conferva, or river sponge, -again mentioned in B. xxvii. c. 45. Fée, however, dissents from that -opinion. - -[953] In B. xvi. cc. 11 and 13, and in cc. 12 and 14 of the present -Book. - -[954] In c. 11 of the present Book. - -[955] The Cucumis sativus of Linnæus. - -[956] “Lapis specularis.” See B. xxxvi. c. 45. Columella, De Re Rust. -B. xi. c. 3, speaks of this mode of ripening cucumber, and the fondness -of the Emperor Tiberius for them. - -[957] Theophrastus and Columella say the same of the cucumber, and -Palladius of the melon, but there is no ground, probably, for the -belief. In very recent times, however, Fée says, it was the usage to -steep the seeds of the melon in milk. This liquid, in common with any -other, would have the effect of softening the exterior integuments, and -thereby facilitating the germination, but no more. - -[958] Still known as the “green” or “gherkin” cucumber, and much used, -when young, for pickling. - -[959] Probably in the sense of a very dark green, for _black_ cucumbers -are a thing unheard of. - -[960] He is evidently speaking of the pompion, or pumpkin, the -Cucurbita pepo of Linnæus: quite distinct from the cucumber. - -[961] Cucumbers are not difficult of digestion to the extent that Pliny -would have us to believe. - -[962] As Fée says, it is a loss of time to combat such absurd -prejudices as these. - -[963] This is conformable with modern experience. - -[964] Fée says that this is the melon, the Cucumis melo of Linnæus. - -[965] B. xi. c. 3. Columella professes to borrow it from the people of -Mendes in Egypt. - -[966] Theophrastus enumerates these varieties, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. -4. - -[967] Theophrastus only says that the Laconian cucumber thrives better -with watering than the others. - -[968] It is impossible to identify this plant, as no ancient writer -has given any description of it: it has been suggested, however, that -it may have been the Plantago Psyllium, or else the Inula pulicaria -of Linnæus. Of course there is no truth in the story here told of the -effects of its juice upon the cucumber. - -[969] This depth would probably have the effect of retarding, or else -utterly impeding, the growth of the plant. - -[970] See c. 44 of this Book. The Parilia was a festival celebrated on -the nineteenth of April, the anniversary of the foundation of Rome. - -[971] First of March. - -[972] Seventh of March. - -[973] See B. xviii. c. 56. - -[974] The “camerarium,” and the “plebeium.” The former, Fée thinks, is -the Cucurbita longior of Dodonæus and J. Bauhin, the long gourd, and -other varieties probably of the calabash gourd, the Cucurbita leucantha -of Duchesne. The latter is probably the Cucurbita pepo and its -varieties. Fée thinks that the name “cucurbita,” as employed by Pliny, -extends not only to the gourd, but the citrul or small pumpkin as well. - -[975] As Fée says, he must be speaking of the fruit here, and not the -plant, which attains a far greater length than nine feet. - -[976] The young shoots of the gourd, Fée says, would afford an insipid -food, with but little nutriment. - -[977] The varieties thus employed, Fée says, must have been the -Cucurbita lagenaria of Linnæus, and the Cucurbita latior of Dodonæus. - -[978] This is not the fact. The seed produces fruit similar to that -from which it was taken, and no more. - -[979] The trumpet gourd, the Cucurbita longior of Dodonæeus, is still -employed, Fée says, by gardeners for this purpose. - -[980] See B. xx. c. 2. - -[981] In B. xviii. c. 34. - -[982] Though borrowed from Theophrastus and the Greek school, this -distinction is absurd and unfounded. - -[983] It is not the fact that the seed of the round kind, after -repeated sowings, will produce long roots. Pliny, however, has probably -miscopied Theophrastus, who says, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 4, that this -transformation takes place when the seed is sown very thick. This -assertion, however, is no more founded on truth than that of Pliny. - -[984] Also from Theophrastus, B. vii. c. 4, though that author is -speaking of radishes, ῥαφανίδες, and not turnips. - -[985] Properly _radish_. - -[986] Properly _radish_. - -[987] Radish. - -[988] Properly _radish_. - -[989] See B. xx. c. 49. Fée queries whether this radish may not be the -Raphanus raphanistrum of botanists. See B. xviii. c. 34. - -[990] See B. xviii. c. 35. - -[991] “Nostratibus.” Poinsinet would render this, “Those of my native -country,” _i. e._ the parts beyond the Padus. As Pliny resided at Rome -during the latter part of his life, there can be little doubt but that -he alludes to the vicinity of Rome. - -[992] See B. xviii. c. 34. - -[993] This property extends to most of the Cruciferæ. - -[994] “Cibus illiberalis.” - -[995] The variety Oleifera of the Raphanus sativus is still cultivated -extensively in Egypt and Nubia for the extraction of the oil. The -variety Oleifera of the Brassica napus is also greatly cultivated in -Egypt. Fée suggests that Pliny may possibly confound these two plants -under the one name of “raphanus.” It is worthy of remark, too, that the -Colza oil, so much used in France and Belgium for burning in lamps, is -expressed from the seed of the Brassica oleracea, a species of cabbage. - -[996] The Raphanus sativus of Linnæus. This passage, however, down to -“crisped leaf,” properly applies to the cabbage, and not the radish, -Pliny having copied the Greek, and taken the word ῥάφανος, properly -“cabbage,” to mean “radish;” which in the later Greek writers it -sometimes does, though not in this instance. - -[997] Mount Algidus was near Tusculum, fifteen miles from Rome. Its -coldness contributed greatly to the goodness of its radishes. - -[998] Or “wild.” Fée suggests that this is the Raphanus rusticanus of -Lobellius, the Cochlearia Armoracia of Linnæus, the wild radish, or -horse-radish. - -[999] Or “white.” From the extreme whiteness of the roots. - -[1000] Probably meaning, “radish of Armorica.” - -[1001] Fée suggests that he is here speaking of the beet-root, in -reality a native of the north of Europe. - -[1002] Thirteenth of February. - -[1003] The festival of Vulcan, beginning on the twenty-third of August, -and lasting eight days. - -[1004] A natural production, the carbonate of sodium of the chemists, -known from time immemorial by the name of “natron.” See B. xxx. c. 46; -from which passage it would appear that it was generally employed for -watering the leguminous plants. - -[1005] Dioscorides recommends these puerilities with the cabbage, and -not the radish; though Celsus gives similar instructions with reference -to the radish. - -[1006] It was a general belief with the ancients that the phthiriasis, -or morbus pediculosus, has its seat in the heart. It was supposed -also that the juice of the radish was able, by reason of its supposed -subtlety, to penetrate the coats of that organ. - -[1007] This is said by other ancient authors, in reference to the -_cabbage_ and the vine. See B. xxiv. c. i. - -[1008] There is some doubt as to the identity of this plant, but Fée, -after examining the question, comes to the conclusion that it is the -Daucus Carota, or else Mauritanicus of Linnæus, the common carrot, or -that of Mauritania. Sprengel takes it to be either this last or the -Daucus guttatus, a plant commonly found in Greece. - -[1009] The Pastinaca sativa of Linnæus, or common parsnip. - -[1010] The marsh-mallow, probably, the Althæa officinalis of Linnæus. - -[1011] The carrot. The Daucus Carota of Linnæus. - -[1012] In B. xxv. c. 64. - -[1013] “Siser.” The Sium sisarum of Linnæus. See also B. xx. c. 17. It -is said to have been originally a native of China. - -[1014] It is supposed that this is the same with Gelb, near Neuss, in -Germany, mentioned by Tacitus, Hist. B. iv. cc. 26, 32. - -[1015] The Inula Helenium of Linnæus. Its English name is derived from -Inula campana, that under which it is so highly recommended in the -precepts of the School of Health at Salerno. See also B. xx. c. 19. At -the present day it is universally rejected as an article of food in any -shape. - -[1016] The School of Salerno says that it may be preserved by being -pickled in brine, or else in the juice of rue, which, as Fée remarks, -would produce neither more nor less than a veritable poison. The modern -Pharmacopœias give the receipt of a conserve of elecampane, which, -however, is no longer used. - -[1017] “Defrutum.” Must, boiled down to one half. - -[1018] The daughter of Augustus Cæsar. - -[1019] The same account nearly is given in Columella, De Re Rust. B. -xi. c. 3. - -[1020] Under this general name were included, probably, garlic, -scallions, chives, and some kinds of onions; but it is quite impossible -to identify the ancient “bulbus” more closely than this. - -[1021] It has been suggested that this was probably the onion, the -Allium cepa of Linnæus. - -[1022] The Scilla maritima of Linnæus, the sea-squill. - -[1023] See B. xx. c. 39. He might have added that it renders vinegar -both an emetic, and a violent purgative. - -[1024] The leaves are in all cases green, and no other colour; but in -one kind the squamæ, or bracted leaves, are white, and in another, red. - -[1025] Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 11, gives it this name. As -none of the sea-squills can be eaten with impunity, Fée is inclined to -doubt if this really was a squill. - -[1026] They still abound in those places. The Spanish coasts on the -Mediterranean, Fée says, as well as the vicinity of Gibraltar, are -covered with them. - -[1027] In c. 39. - -[1028] Fée thinks that this may be the Muscaria botryoïdes of Miller, -_Dict. No. I._ See also B. xx. c. 41. - -[1029] A variety, probably, of the common onion, the Allium cepa of -Linnæus. - -[1030] Some variety of the genus Allium, Fée thinks. - -[1031] Fée queries whether this may not be some cyperaceous plant with -a bulbous root. - -[1032] A white bulb, if we may judge from the name. The whole of this -passage is from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 11. - -[1033] This has not been identified. The old reading was “ægilops,” a -name now given to a kind of grass. - -[1034] The Iris sisyrinchium of Linnæus. - -[1035] The Arum colocasia of Linnæus, held in great esteem by the -ancient Egyptians as a vegetable. The root is not a bulb, but -tubercular, and the leaf bears no resemblance to that of the Lapathum, -dock or sorrel. It was sometimes known by the name of “lotus.” - -[1036] In Gaul. See B. iv. c. 31. - -[1037] This passage, and indeed nearly the whole of the Chapter, is -borrowed from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. i. c. 9. - -[1038] Fée thinks that by the expression μονόῤῥιζα, Theophrastus means -a root that strikes vertically, instead of spreading. - -[1039] Gramen. See B. xviii. c. 67, and B. xxiv. c. 118. - -[1040] Atriplex. See B. xx. c. 83. - -[1041] See B. xx. c. 93. - -[1042] Poinsinet suggests that this may mean the “mole-plant,” ἀσπάλαξ -being the Greek for “mole.” - -[1043] “Perdicium.” See B. xxii. cc. 19, 20. - -[1044] “Crocus.” See B. xxi. c. 17, _et seq._ - -[1045] This is not the fact. All these assertions are from -Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 3. - -[1046] Fée thinks that the ocimum of Pliny is not the basil of the -moderns, the Ocimum basilicum of the naturalists. The account, however, -here given would very well apply to basil. - -[1047] The Heliotropium Europæum of botany. See B. xxii. c. 19. - -[1048] These assertions, Fée says, are not consistent with modern -experience. - -[1049] See c. 45 of this Book. - -[1050] “Gethyum.” The Allium schœnoprasum, probably, of botany, the -ciboul or scallion. - -[1051] The Allium cepa of Linnæus. - -[1052] The inhabitants of Pelusium, more particularly, were devoted to -the worship of the onion. They held it, in common with garlic, in great -aversion as an article of food. At Pelusium there was a temple also in -which the sea-squill was worshipped. - -[1053] With some little variation, from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. -vii. c. 4. - -[1054] Supposed to be identical with the Allium Ascalonicum of Linnæus, -the chalotte. Pliny is the only writer who mentions the Alsidenian -onion. - -[1055] To the Ascalonian onion, the scallion, or ciboul, owes its -English name. - -[1056] Owing to the acetic acid which the bulb contains, and which acts -on the membranes of the eye. - -[1057] “Pinguitudinis.” - -[1058] Fée queries whether the early white onion of Florence, the -smallest now known among the cultivated kinds, may not possibly be -identical with the setanian, or else the Tusculan, variety. - -[1059] From σχίζω, to “divide” or “tear off.” - -[1060] “Capitata.” - -[1061] For this reason, Fée is inclined to regard it as a variety -either of garlic, Allium sativum, or of the chalotte, Allium -Ascalonicum of Linnæus. - -[1062] The Allium porrum of Linnæus. - -[1063] This prejudice in favour of the leek, as Fée remarks, still -exists. It is doubtful, however, whether its mucilage has any -beneficial effect upon the voice. See B. xx. c. 21. - -[1064] Fée says, that it is a practice with many gardeners, more -harmful than beneficial, to cut the leaves of the leek as it grows, -their object being to increase the size of the stalk. - -[1065] Martial, B. xiii. Epig. 19, mentions the leeks of Aricia. - -[1066] Fée thinks that this may be the wild leek, which is commonly -found as a weed in Spain. - -[1067] M. Annæus Mela, the brother of L. Seneca the philosopher, and -the father of the poet Lucan. - -[1068] Though Pliny would seem inclined, as Fée says, to credit this -story, the juice of the leek is in reality quite harmless. - -[1069] The Allium sativum of Linnæus. It was much eaten by the Roman -soldiers and sailors, and by the field labourers. It is in reference to -this vegetable, “more noxious than hemlock,” that Horace exclaims— - - “O dura messorum ilia!” - -[1070] It was thought to have the property of neutralizing the venom of -serpents; and though persons who had just eaten of it were not allowed -to enter the Temple of the Mother of the Gods, it was prescribed to -those who wished to be purified and absolved from crimes. It is still -held in considerable esteem in the south of Europe, where, by the lower -classes, great medicinal virtues are ascribed to it. - -[1071] Theophrastus says, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 4, that this is the -largest of all the varieties of garlic. - -[1072] Second of May. - -[1073] Seventeenth of December. - -[1074] The Allium oleraceum of Linnæus. - -[1075] Fée refuses credence to this story. - -[1076] “Ursinum.” The Allium ursinum of Linnæus. Instead, however, of -having the comparatively mild smell of millet, its odour is powerful; -so much so, as to impart a strong flavour to the milk of the cows that -eat of it. It is very common, Fée says, in nearly every part of France. - -[1077] The whole nearly of this Chapter is borrowed from Theophrastus, -Hist. Plant. B. vii. cc. 1 and 2. It must be borne in mind that what -the Romans called the “third” day would with us be the “second,” and so -on; as in reckoning, they included the day reckoned _from_, as well as -the day reckoned _to_. - -[1078] Fée remarks, that most of the observations made in this Chapter -are well founded. - -[1079] This statement, Fée remarks, is entirely a fiction, it being -impossible for seed to acquire, the second year, a faculty of -germinating which it has not had in the first. - -[1080] This is true, but, as Fée observes, the instances might be -greatly extended. - -[1081] Fée says that basil, the Ocimum basilicum of Linnæus, is not -meant here, nor yet the leguminous plant that was known to the Romans -by that name. - -[1082] A singular superstition truly! Theophrastus says the same in -relation to cummin seed. - -[1083] This is not done at the present day. - -[1084] This can hardly be our basil, the Ocimum basilicum, for that -plant is an annual. - -[1085] Fée suggests that Pliny may have intended here to except the -Monocotyledons, for otherwise his assertion would be false. - -[1086] This, Fée says, cannot be basil, for when cut it will not shoot -again. - -[1087] The radish is not mentioned in the parallel passage by -Theophrastus. - -[1088] The lettuce, as Fée remarks, will not shoot again when cut down. - -[1089] This puerility, Fée observes, runs counter to the more moral -adage, that “stolen goods never prosper.” - -[1090] See B. xi. c. 15. - -[1091] This variety, Fée says, is the Apium graveolens of Linnæus. - -[1092] Or marsh-parsley. - -[1093] Pliny has mistranslated, or rather misread, the passage of -Theophrastus, who says, B. vii. c. 6, that this kind of parsley is -μανόφυλλον, “thinly covered with leaves,” and not μονόφυλλον, “having -a single leaf.” Palladius (_In Aprili._) translates it, “molli folio,” -“with a soft leaf;” but, though Fée commends this version, it is not -correct. - -[1094] Or “horse-parsley.” Hardouin takes this to be Macedonian -parsley, the Bubon Macedonicum of Linnæus. Fée, following C. Bauhin -and Sprengel, is inclined to identify it with Macerona, the Smyrnium -olusatrum of Linnæus. - -[1095] Or “mountain-parsley.” Probably the Athamanta oreoselinum of -Linnæus. Some commentators, however, take it to be the Laserpitium -formosum of Wilidenow. Sprengel identifies it with the Selinum -oreoselinum of Linnæus. - -[1096] The Apium petroselinum, probably, of Linnæus. - -[1097] The Lactuca sativa of Linnæus. This account of the Greek -varieties is from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 4. - -[1098] This, no doubt, is fabulous, and on a par with the Greek -tradition that Adonis concealed himself under the leaves of a lettuce, -when he was attacked and killed by the wild boar. The Coss, or Roman, -lettuce, as Fée remarks, is the largest of all, and that never exceeds -fifteen to twenty inches in height, leaves, stalk and all. - -[1099] This would seem not to be a distinct variety, as the rounded -stalk is a characteristic of them all. - -[1100] “Sessile.” A cabbage-lettuce, probably; though Hardouin dissents -from that opinion. - -[1101] Columella more particularly. There are still varieties known -respectively as the black, brown, white, purple, red, and blood-red -lettuce. - -[1102] Martial, B. v. Epig. 79, gives to this lettuce the epithet of -“vile.” - -[1103] It has been suggested that this may have been wild endive, the -Cichoreum intubus of botanists. - -[1104] Or “poppy-lettuce.” See B. xx. c. 26. The Lactuca virosa, -probably, of modern botany, the milky juice of which strongly resembles -opium in its effects. - -[1105] For its medicinal qualities, most probably. - -[1106] “Lac.” - -[1107] So called, Columella informs us, from Cæcilius Metellus, Consul -A.U.C. 503. - -[1108] Meaning “antaphrodisiac.” The other name has a kindred meaning. - -[1109] A.U.C. 731. - -[1110] Antonius Musa. For this service he received a large sum of -money, and the permission to wear a gold ring, and a statue was erected -by public subscription in honour of him, near that of Æsculapius. He is -supposed to be the person described by Virgil in the Æneid, B, xii. l. -390, _et seq._, under the name of Iapis. See B. xxix. c. 5 of this work. - -[1111] Vinegar and honey; a mixture very ill-adapted, as Fée observes, -to preserve either the medicinal or alimentary properties of the -lettuce. - -[1112] “Caprina lactuca.” See B. xx. c. 24. - -[1113] Endive, in fact, belongs to the same family as the lettuce. - -[1114] This is not the case; unless, indeed, under the name “lactuca,” -Pliny would include several plants, that in reality are not lettuces. - -[1115] The stalk, in fact, is more intensely bitter than the leaves. - -[1116] “Erraticum.” Wild endive. - -[1117] From which comes the French “chicorée,” and our “chicory,” or -“succory.” - -[1118] In B. xx. c. 29, and B. xxi. c. 52. - -[1119] The usual times for sowing the lettuce are before winter and -after February. - -[1120] An excess of manure is injurious to the lettuce. - -[1121] As already stated in a previous Note (p. 179), lettuces when cut -down will not grow again, with the exception of a few worthless lateral -branches. - -[1122] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 4. - -[1123] Not the Beta sicla of modern botany, Fée thinks. The black beet -of the ancients would be one of the dark purple kinds. - -[1124] It was only the leaf of beet, and not the root, that was eaten -by the ancients. From Martial, B. xiii. Epig. 10, we learn that the -leaves were preserved in a mixture of wine and pepper. - -[1125] Though not positively unwholesome, the leaves would form an -insipid dish, that would not agree with all stomachs. Galen says that -it cannot be eaten in great quantities with impunity, but Diphilus the -physician, as quoted by Athenæus, B. ix. c. 3, says the reverse. Some -MSS. read here “innocentiorem,” “more harmless.” - -[1126] Columella says the same, De Re Rust. B. xi. c. 3. - -[1127] Fée would seem to render this, “when wine has been spoiled by -cabbage leaves being mixed with it.” - -[1128] De Re Rust. cc. 156, 157. - -[1129] In B. xx. c. 33. - -[1130] Or “parsley” cabbage, so called from its crisped leaves: the -curled colewort, or Brassica viridis crispa of C. Bauhin. - -[1131] The same as our Brussels sprouts. Columella, however, B. xi. c. -3, and B. xii. c. 7, speaks of the Brassica cyma as a distinct variety -of cabbage. - -[1132] See B. viii. c. 77. - -[1133] The Brassica oleracea capitata of Lamarck, and its varieties. - -[1134] The ordinary cabbage, or Brassica oleracea of Linnæus. - -[1135] A variety, Fée thinks, of the Lacuturrian cabbage. - -[1136] The Brassica oleracea botrytis of Linnæus, the cauliflower. - -[1137] Or Calabrian cabbage: it has not been identified. - -[1138] The Brassica oleracea Sabellica of Linnæus, or fringed cabbage. - -[1139] Or “Lake-towers.” The turnip-cabbage or rape-colewort, the -Brassica oleracea gongyloides of Linnæus. - -[1140] Generally thought to be the Crambe maritima of botanists, -sea-cabbage, or sea-kale. Some, however, take it to be the Convolvulus -soldanella of Linnæus. See B. xx. c. 38. - -[1141] From ἅλς, the “sea.” - -[1142] He alludes to the statement made by Columella, probably, De Re -Rust. B. xi. c. 3. - -[1143] Fée remarks, that probably we here find the first germs of the -practice which resulted in the making of sour-krout (sauer-kraut). -Dalechamps censures Pliny for the mention of trefoil here, the passage -which he has translated speaking not of that plant, but of the trefoil -or three-leaved cabbage. - -[1144] The same as the “chara,” probably, mentioned by Cæsar, Bell. -Civ. B. iii. Hardouin thinks that it is the common parsnip, while -Clusius and Cuvier would identify it with the Crambe Tatarica -of Hungary, the roots of which are eaten in time of scarcity at -the present day. Fée suggests that it may belong to the Brassica -napo-brassica of Linnæus, the rape-colewort. See B. xx. c. 37. - -[1145] Or cabbage-sprout. - -[1146] In B. xvi. c. 67. The Asparagus officinalis of Linnæus. - -[1147] De Re Rust. c. 161. - -[1148] Or wild sperage. See B. xvi. c. 67; also B. xx. c. 43. - -[1149] “Spongiis.” Fée is at a loss to know why the name “spongia” -should have been given to the roots of asparagus. Probably, as -Facciolati says, from their growing close and matted together. See the -end of this Chapter. - -[1150] De Re Rust. c. 161. - -[1151] See B. xvii. c. 47. - -[1152] On the contrary, Martial says that the asparagus of Ravenna was -no better than so much wild asparagus. - -[1153] In B. xvi. c. 67. See also c. 19 of this Book. - -[1154] Dioscorides mentions this absurdity, but refuses to credit it. - -[1155] Probably the artichoke, the Cinara scolymus of Linnæus. See -further on this subject, B. xx. c. 99. - -[1156] About £24 sterling. “Sestertia” has been suggested, which would -make the sum a thousand times as much. - -[1157] The ass, of course, excepted, which is fond of thistles. - -[1158] Seventh of March. - -[1159] Thirteenth of November. - -[1160] “Si Dîs placet.” - -[1161] Oxymel. - -[1162] This is evidently said contemptuously. - -[1163] See further as to the identity of this plant, B. xx. c. 48. - -[1164] Twenty-second of April. - -[1165] Brassica eruca of Linnæus. See B. xx. c. 49. - -[1166] Cresses, or nosesmart, the Lepidium sativum of Linnæus. See B. -xx. c. 50. - -[1167] “Quod nasum torqueat.” - -[1168] The Ruta graveolens of Linnæus. See B. xx. c. 51. This offensive -herb, though looked upon by the Romans as a vegetable, is now only -regarded as an active medicament of almost poisonous qualities. - -[1169] A.U.C. 421. - -[1170] It so happens that it thrives best on the same soil as the -fig-tree. - -[1171] This practice has no beneficial effect whatever. - -[1172] This is not the fact; for its branches never come in contact -with the ground. - -[1173] Pliny has derived the greater part of this Chapter from -Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 5, and Columella, B. xi. c. 3. - -[1174] For the purpose of separating the seeds, which are slightly -joined together; and of disengaging a portion of the perisperm. At the -present day this is not done, for fear of bursting the kernel of the -seed. - -[1175] See B. xx. c. 53. - -[1176] Called by the Greeks καλαμίνθη, according to Apuleius. - -[1177] Or “Mentha.” - -[1178] “Sweet-smelling.” - -[1179] “Sæpius.” See B. xviii. c. 60. - -[1180] The Cuminum cyminum of botanists. See B. xx. c. 57. - -[1181] See B. xx. c. 57. - -[1182] In Hispania Tarraconensis. See B. iii. c. 4. - -[1183] Or “black-herb:” the herb Alexander, the Smyrnium olusatrum of -Linnæus. See B. xx. c. 46. - -[1184] “Horse-parsley.” - -[1185] See B. xvii. c. 14, and B. xxi. c. 14. - -[1186] Hist. Plant. B. ix. c. 1. This story originated, no doubt, in -the fancied resemblance of its smell to that of myrrh. - -[1187] The Capparis spinosa of Linnæus. See B. xiii. c. 44, also B. xx. -c. 59. - -[1188] In B. xiii. c. 44. - -[1189] The Carum carvi of Linnæus. - -[1190] Caria, in Asia Minor. - -[1191] The Ligusticum levisticum of Linnæus. - -[1192] “Ox cunila.” One of the Labiatæ, probably; but whether one of -the Satureia or of the Thymbra is not known. See B. xx. cc. 60, 61. - -[1193] See B. xxi. c. 32. - -[1194] Scribonius Largus gives this name to savory, the Satureia -hortensis of Linnæus. The whole of this passage is very confused, and -its meaning is by no means clear. - -[1195] The Lepidium sativum of Linnæus. See B. xx. c. 70. - -[1196] It is an annual, in fact. - -[1197] Its leaf has no resemblance whatever to that of the laurel. - -[1198] The Nigella sativa of Linnæus. See B. xx. c. 71. - -[1199] Or sagapenum. See B. xx. c. 75. It is mentioned also in B. xii. -c. 56, as being used for adulterating galbanum. As to laser, see c. 15 -of the present Book. - -[1200] This practice, as Fée remarks, is not followed; and indeed, -unless it is intended to transplant them, it would be attended with -injurious results to the young plants. - -[1201] As to the poppy, for further particulars see B. xx. c. 76 and -the Note. - -[1202] The variety Album of the Papaver somniferum of modern botanists. - -[1203] The variety Nigrum of the Papaver somniferum. The white poppy -has also a milky juice. - -[1204] The Papaver rhœas of modern botanists, the corn-poppy, or wild -poppy. The seed of the poppy does not partake of the qualities of its -capsular envelope, and at the present day it is extensively employed in -the South of Europe for sprinkling over pastry. - -[1205] “Rhœas,” the “crimson,” or “pomegranate” poppy. - -[1206] See B. xx. cc. 76-79. - -[1207] See c. 17 of this Book, also Ovid’s Fasti, B. ii. l. 703, _et -seq._ - -[1208] “Lad’s love.” - -[1209] Black mustard, Fée thinks. - -[1210] He can hardly mean a pottage made of boiled mustard-seed alone, -as Fée seems to think. If so, however, Fée no doubt is right in -thinking that it would be intolerable to a modern palate. - -[1211] See B. xx. c. 87. - -[1212] Perhaps a corruption of its Greek name, σίνηπι. - -[1213] Hardouin suggests “thlaspi.” - -[1214] Its bite being as sharp as the venom of the “saurus,” or lizard. - -[1215] Hardouin, from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 7, suggests -a reading, “whence the streams bring down branches of them torn off, -and so plant them.” - -[1216] The plants. Fée says, that we find in these localities, are -nearly always ferns, or else Marchantia, or mosses of the genus Hypnum. -Fée queries whether one of these may not have been the sisymbrium of -Pliny. Water-cresses, again, have been suggested. - -[1217] In B. viii. c. 41. The Anæthum fœniculum of Linnæus. - -[1218] In B. xiii. c. 42. - -[1219] The Cannabis sativa of Linnæus. See B. xx. c. 97. - -[1220] Hemp-seed is never smoke-dried now. - -[1221] See B. v. c. 29. The same hemp is mentioned as being used for -making hunting-nets, by Gratius, in the Cynegeticon. - -[1222] See B. v. c. 29. - -[1223] See B. iii. c. 17, and B. xvii. c. 3. - -[1224] This, as Fée says, is no doubt erroneous. It is seldom known to -attain a couple of inches in circumference. - -[1225] In B. xiii. c. 42. - -[1226] These absurd notions are borrowed from Theophrastus, De Causis, -c. 8. - -[1227] See B. xx. c. 91. - -[1228] Or, according to some readings, “limodorum,” a parasitical -plant, probably the Lathræa phelypea of Sprengel. Fée suggests that -this plant may be the Polygonum convolvulus of Linnæus, or else one of -the Cuscutæ, or a variety of Orobanche. - -[1229] “Scabies.” A fungous excrescence, Fée thinks, now known as -“puccinia,” or “uredo.” - -[1230] See B. xvii. c. 47. Fée says that he has met with persons, in -their sound senses, who obstinately defend the notion here mentioned by -Pliny. - -[1231] See Theophrastus. Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 5. Many of these -insects, however, do not breed upon the plants, but are only attracted -to them. - -[1232] “Book on Gardening.” - -[1233] The Heliotropium Europæum of botanists. See B. xxii. c. 29. - -[1234] This may possibly, Fée says, be efficacious against some insects. - -[1235] See B. xviii. c. 45. - -[1236] A mere puerility, of course, though it is very possible that the -insects may collect in it, and so be more easily taken. Garden-pots, on -sticks, are still employed for this purpose. - -[1237] See B. xvi. c. 30. - -[1238] “Culices,” including both flies and gnats, probably. - -[1239] See B. xii. c. 56. - -[1240] An almost literal translation of Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. -vii. c. 6. - -[1241] This is certainly not true with reference to the leguminous and -gramineous plants. It is pretty generally known as a fact, that wheat -has germinated after being buried in the earth two thousand years: -mummy-wheat, at the present day, is almost universally known. - -[1242] Rain-water, if collected in cisterns, and exposed to the heat -of the sun, is the most beneficial of all; rain has the effect also of -killing numerous insects which have bred in the previous drought. - -[1243] From Theophrastus, B. vii. c. 5. Evening is generally preferred -to morning for this purpose; the evaporation not being so quick, and -the plant profiting more from the water. - -[1244] It should, however, be of a middling temperature, and warmed to -some extent by the rays of the sun. - -[1245] These statements are consistent with modern experience. - -[1246] See B. xx. c. 85. - -[1247] He says this probably in reference partly to the large leaves -which characterize the varieties of dock. - -[1248] Dishes made of rice or barley. See B. xviii. c. 13. - -[1249] See B. xx. c. 85. - -[1250] He does not give the name of the poet, but, as Fée says, we do -not experience any great loss thereby. - -[1251] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 6. - -[1252] See B. xv. c. 32. - -[1253] “Absinthium.” See B. xxvii. c. 28. - -[1254] See B. xxv. c. 30. - -[1255] Fée remarks, that though rarely to be met with, the salt flavour -is still to be found in the vegetable kingdom. - -[1256] The “cicercula,” or Lathyrus sativus of Linnæus. See B. xviii. -c. 32. - -[1257] See B. xii. c. 57. - -[1258] Or pepper-wort. See B. xx. c. 66. - -[1259] See B. xx. c. 54. - -[1260] The same, probably, as olusatrum. See cc. 37 and 48 of this -Book, and B. xx. c. 46: also B. xxvii. c. 109. - -[1261] In B. xii. c. 57. - -[1262] See c. 48 of this Book. - -[1263] Rosemary, or “sea-dew.” - -[1264] See B. xx. c. 74. - -[1265] Fée suggests, though apparently without any good reason, that -this paragraph, to the end of the Book, is an interpolation of the -copyists. - -[1266] See end of B. xiv. - -[1267] See end of B. ii. - -[1268] See end of B. xiv. - -[1269] See end of B. iii. - -[1270] See end of B. iii. - -[1271] See end of B. vii. - -[1272] See end of B. ii. - -[1273] See end of B. vii. - -[1274] See end of B. viii. - -[1275] See end of B. xvi. - -[1276] See end of B. x. - -[1277] Beyond the mention made of this writer in c. 57, nothing -whatever is known of him. - -[1278] C. Licinius Macer, a Roman annalist and orator, born about B.C. -110. Upon being impeached by Cicero, he committed suicide. He wrote a -History or Annals of Rome, which are frequently referred to by Livy and -Dionysius of Halicarnassus. - -[1279] Nothing whatever appears to be known of this writer. - -[1280] See end of B. xiv. - -[1281] Nothing whatever is known relative to this writer on -Horticulture. - -[1282] Nothing certain is known of him; but it has been suggested that -he may have been the father of the rhetorician Castritius, so often -mentioned by Aulus Gellius, and who lived in the time of the Emperor -Adrian. - -[1283] Nothing whatever is known relative to this writer. - -[1284] The author of a Greek poem on venomous serpents, mentioned in B. -xx. c. 96, and B. xxii. c. 40, and by the Scholiast on the Theriaca of -Nicander. - -[1285] See end of B. ii. - -[1286] See end of B. iii. - -[1287] See end of B. ii. - -[1288] See end of B. xi. - -[1289] Nothing whatever is known of him. His Book seems to have been a -compendium of “Things useful to life.” - -[1290] A physician and Pythagorean philosopher, born at one of the -cities called Larissa, but which, is now unknown. He was banished by -the Emperor Augustus, B.C. 28, on the charge of practising magic, a -charge probably based on his superior skill in natural philosophy. He -is frequently mentioned by Pliny in the course of this work. - -[1291] Fée remarks, that the commencement of this exordium is contrary -to truth, and that Pliny appears to forget that in the Eighteenth Book -he has treated, at very considerable length, of the various cereals, -the art of preparing bread, pottages, ptisans, &c. He suggests, that -the author may have originally intended to place the Eighteenth Book -_after_ the present one, and that on changing his plan he may have -neglected to alter the present passage. From his mention, however, -of man’s “ignorance by what means lie exists,” it is not improbable -that he may have considered that the nutritive qualities of plants -are really based upon their medicinal virtues, a point of view little -regarded by the majority of mankind in his time, but considered by -Pliny to be the true key to a just appreciation of their utility. - -[1292] “Quibus cuncta constant.” See B. xxiv. c. 1. - -[1293] See B. xxxiv. c. 42. - -[1294] The “theamedes.” See B. xxxvi. c. 25. - -[1295] Pliny is the only author who makes mention of this singularly -absurd notion. - -[1296] In B. xix. c. 24: so, too, Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 154. The wild -cucumber of Pliny, as Fée observes, is in reality not a cucumber, but a -totally different plant, the Cucumis silvestris asininus of C. Bauhin, -the Momordica elaterium of Linnæus, or squirting cucumber. - -[1297] Elaterium, Fée says, is not extracted from the seed, but is the -juice of the fruit itself, as Pliny, contradicting himself, elsewhere -informs us. Theophrastus commits the same error, which Dioscorides does -not; and it is not improbable that Pliny has copied from two sources -the method of making it. - -[1298] Meaning the juice and seed combined, probably. Fée thinks that -it is to this the medicament owes its name, from ἐλαύνω, to “drive” -or “impel.” It is much more probable, however, that the medicine was -so called from its strong purgative powers; for, as Galen tells us, -ἐλατήριον was a name given to purgative medicines in general. - -[1299] Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 154, states to this effect. Fée remarks -that, singularly enough, most of the antiophthalmics used by the -ancients, were composed of acrid and almost corrosive medicaments, -quite in opposition to the sounder notions entertained on the subject -by the moderns. - -[1300] Dioscorides says the same; and much the same statements are made -by Celsus, Apuleius, Marcellus Empiricus, and Plinius Valerianus. The -different parts of the plant, dried, have but very feeble properties, -Fée says. - -[1301] A sort of tetter or ring-worm. Celsus enumerates four varieties. - -[1302] Itch-scab, probably. - -[1303] A disease of the skin, in which the scab assumes the form almost -of a lichen or moss. - -[1304] “Panos.” “Panus” was the name given to a wide-spreading, but -not deeply-seated, tumour, the surface of which presented a blistered -appearance. - -[1305] Fée says that this is not the fact, as it speedily deteriorates -by keeping. - -[1306] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. ix. c. 10. - -[1307] Fée acknowledges the truth of this observation, that of a green -colour containing feculent matter, and showing that the juice is not -pure. - -[1308] In reality there is no such resemblance whatever. See B. xxii. -c. 29. - -[1309] Fée says that this is an exaggerated account of the properties -of the wild cucumber, as it would require a very considerable dose to -cause death. - -[1310] The Morbus pedicularis, or “lousy disease.” - -[1311] This has been identified by some writers, Fée says, with the -Cucumis flexuosus of Linnæus; but, as he observes, that plant comes -originally from India, and it is more than probable that it was not -known by the ancients; in addition to which, it is possessed of no -medicinal properties whatever. He looks upon it as an indigenous plant -not identified. - -[1312] So Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 154. - -[1313] “Morbus regius;” literally, the “royal disease.” - -[1314] “Lentigo.” - -[1315] See B. xix. c. 23. It is but little appreciated for its -medicinal properties by the moderns. Emulsions are sometimes made of -the seeds, which are of an oily nature. Fée says that the French ladies -esteem pommade of cucumber as an excellent cosmetic; which is, however, -an erroneous notion. - -[1316] The combination of cummin with cucumber seed is in opposition, -Fée remarks, with their medicinal properties, the one being soothing, -and the other moderately exciting. - -[1317] As to the several varieties of the pumpkin or gourd, known under -this name, see B. xix. c. 24. - -[1318] Dioscorides states to the same effect, and, as Fée thinks, with -a probability of being correct. - -[1319] “Smegmata.” - -[1320] This assertion, Fée says, is utterly untrue. - -[1321] From ἐπί, “upon,” and νὺξ, “night.” These are red or whitish -pustules, accompanied with sharp pains, which appear on the skin at -night, and disappear in the day-time. See c. 21. - -[1322] Or “many-legs.” See B. xxix. c. 39. Probably one of our -millepedes or centipedes: though Fée suggests that it may have been a -large caterpillar. - -[1323] From σηπεῖν, “to rot.” - -[1324] This, Fée says, is untrue: but it is hard to say on what grounds -he himself asserts that the smell of the cucumber is faint, and almost -nauseous. - -[1325] This, probably, is not conformable to modern notions on the -subject. - -[1326] From the Greek σομφὸς, porous, spongy, or hollow. - -[1327] It is supposed by some naturalists that this gourd is the -variety Pyxidaris of the Cucurbita pepo of Linnæus, the Colocynthis -amara of C. Bauhin. Fée remarks, however, that this designation is -arbitrary; as this plant never grows wild in Europe, and its pulp is -so bitter, that instead of proving beneficial to the stomach, it would -cause vomiting. From the fact of its comparison to the human finger, he -doubts if it really was one of the Cucurbitæ at all. - -[1328] The Cucumis colocynthus of Linnæus, or Coloquintida, so -remarkable for its bitterness. - -[1329] It is an extremely drastic, and indeed violent purgative. - -[1330] Recurring at stated times. The absurdity of this statement does -not require discussion. - -[1331] The cultivated cucumber, Fée says. - -[1332] Or “aposthumes,” a kind of abscess, probably. - -[1333] “Ignis sacer,” literally “sacred fire.” It is sometimes called -“St. Anthony’s fire.” Celsus, in describing it, distinguishes it, -however, from erysipelas, and divides it into two kinds. - -[1334] On the contrary, Fée says, the pulp of the gourd is tough and -leathery, extremely insipid, and destitute of any salutary qualities. - -[1335] A decoction of rape or turnips is still recommended for -chilblains at the present day. Fée remarks that ground mustard is much -preferable. - -[1336] This, as Fée remarks, he says of nearly all the vegetable -productions known. - -[1337] It is only suited as an aliment to a strong stomach, and it is -owing to the property here mentioned that the School of Salerno says,— - -Ventum sæpe capis, si tu vis vivere rapis. - -and - -Rapa juvat stomachum, novit producere ventum. - - -[1338] Dioscorides and Galen say the same, but this property is not -recognized in modern times. - -[1339] “Eruca:” a plant itself of a very stimulating nature. - -[1340] The Brassica napus, var. α of Linnæus, the Brassica asperifolia, -var. α of Decandolles, the “navette” of the French. An oil is extracted -from the seed, very similar to the Colza oil, extracted from the -Brassica oleracea. - -[1341] It is in reality of a blackish hue without, and white within. - -[1342] See B. xxii. c. 73. Dioscorides speaks of the use of the wild -rape for this purpose, B. ii. c. 135. - -[1343] See B. xviii. c. 35, and B. xix. c. 25. - -[1344] Dalechamps remarks that Pliny here confounds the bunion with the -bunias; the first of which, as Fée says, is an umbellifera, either the -Bunium bulbocastanum of Linnæus, or the Peucedanum silaus of Linnæus, -and the second is the Brassica napo-brassica of Linnæus. Dioscorides -says that the stalks of the bunion are quadrangular. M. Fraas thinks -that the bunion is the Bunium pumilum of modern Botany, and says -that the Bunium bulbocastanum, usually supposed to be the bunion of -Dioscorides, is a stranger to Greece. - -[1345] These properties, Fée says, are not to be found in the Bunium -bulbocastanum of modern botanists. - -[1346] Sillig is of opinion that there is an hiatus here in the text, -and that the meaning is that a drachma of the juice is taken with -something else: honey possibly, he suggests. - -[1347] The Brassica napo-brassica of Linnæus. - -[1348] See B. xix. c. 26. - -[1349] The Cochlearia Armoracia of Linnæus. - -[1350] In B. xix. c. 26. - -[1351] Fée says that the medicinal properties recognized by the moderns -in the several varieties of the Raphanus sativus are, that their action -is slightly stimulating when eaten raw, and that boiled and eaten with -sugar they are soothing, and act as a pectoral. - -[1352] “Lagonoponon.” Nearly all these asserted virtues of the radish, -Fée says, are illusory. - -[1353] “Phlegmoni.” Stagnation of the blood, with heat, redness, -swelling, and pain. - -[1354] “Veternosi.” Fée says that, rigorously speaking, “veternus” was -that state of somnolency which is the prelude to apoplexy. - -[1355] The Coluber cerastes of Linnæus. See B. viii. c. 35. - -[1356] Poinsinet warns us not to place too implicit faith in this -assertion. - -[1357] Dioscorides says the same, but the assertion is quite destitute -of truth. - -[1358] Nicander, in his “Alexipharmaca,” ll. 430 and 527, says that the -cabbage, _not_ the radish, is good for poisoning by fungi and henbane; -and in l. 300 he states that the cabbage is similarly beneficial -against the effects of bullock’s blood. Pliny has probably fallen into -the error by confounding ῥάφανος, the “cabbage,” with ῥαφανίς, the -“radish.” - -[1359] Themistocles is said to have killed himself by taking hot -bullock’s blood. It is, however, very doubtful. - -[1360] “Morbus comitialis”—literally the “comitial disease.” Epilepsy -it is said, was so called because, if any person was seized with it -at the “Comitia” or public assemblies of the Roman people, it was the -custom to adjourn the meeting to another day. - -[1361] From μέλας, “black,” and χολή, “bile.” Melancholy, or -bad spirits, was so called from a notion that it was owing to a -predominance of an imaginary secretion called by the ancients “black -bile.” - -[1362] The cœliac flux, Fée says, is symptomatic of chronic enteritis; -and is a species of diarrhœa, in which the chyme is voided without -undergoing any change in passing through the intestines. - -[1363] “Præcordiorum.” - -[1364] “Enterocele.” - -[1365] De Morb. Mulier. B. ii. c. 67. - -[1366] Eating or corroding ulcers. - -[1367] Hippocrates, De Diætâ, B. ii. cc. 25, 26, says that radishes are -of a cold, and hyssop of a warm, nature. - -[1368] “Moloche agria.” - -[1369] See B. xix. c. 27. - -[1370] See B. viii. c. 73. - -[1371] De Remed. B. iv. c. 24. The parsnip is a stimulating plant, and -it is not without reason, Fée says, that Celsus recommends it for this -purpose. - -[1372] Or “wild.” See B. xix. c. 27. - -[1373] This seed, Fée says, is an energetic excitant, and certainly -would not be found suitable for any of the purposes here mentioned by -Pliny; though equally recommended for them by Galen, Dioscorides, and -in Athenæus. - -[1374] Tetanus, or contraction of the muscles, in which the head is -twisted round or stretched backwards. - -[1375] “Axungia;” properly swine’s grease, with which the axle-trees of -chariots were rubbed. See B. xxviii. c. 9. - -[1376] Diphilus of Siphnos, as quoted in Athenæus, B. ix. c. 3, states -that the ancients employed this plant as a philtre, for which reason it -was called by some persons φίλτρον. - -[1377] “Posca.” This was the ordinary drink of the lower classes at -Rome, as also the soldiers when on service, and the slaves. “Oxycrate” -is the scientific name sometimes given to vinegar and water. - -[1378] Πολλὰ Σύρων λάχανα. Similar to our proverb, probably, “There is -more corn in Egypt.” - -[1379] The Daucus visnaga of Linnæus, the Daucus gingidium of Sprengel, -the Visnagha, or Bisnagha of other botanists. It is also known as the -“wild carrot,” or “French carrot.” - -[1380] Or “erratic.” - -[1381] See B. xix. c. 28. - -[1382] The root and seed, Fée observes, really are stimulants: there is -no perceptible difference between the wild and cultivated plants. For -silphium, see B. xix. c. 15. - -[1383] Fée thinks that it may be so in a slight degree. - -[1384] Pliny often speaks of persons having swallowed quicksilver, but -never lets us know under what circumstances. As Fée remarks, it could -not be accidentally; nor yet, on the other hand, could it have been -done purposely, with the object of committing suicide, it not being an -active poison. He concludes that it must have been taken medicinally, -and that part of it becoming absorbed in the system, other remedies -were resorted to, to counteract its noxious effects. - -[1385] “Inutile,” and not “utile,” is evidently the correct reading -here. - -[1386] Σισάρον the “skirret,” and Σέσελι, Σέλι, or Σίλι, “hart-wort.” - -[1387] The Seseli tortuosum of Linnæus. - -[1388] Or Marseilles: the Seseli tortuosum. Fée says that there is -great confusion relative to the supposed varieties of this plant. -The Bupleurum fruticosum, or Seseli of Æthiopia, has leaves smaller -than those of ivy, and resembling the leaves of honeysuckle. That of -Peloponnesus, the Ligusticum austriacum, has a leaf similar to that of -hemlock, but larger and thicker; and the Seseli of Crete, some species -of the genus Tordylium, is a small plant which throws out shoots in -large quantities. All these, he says, are so far different plants, that -it is quite impossible to unite them with any degree of certainty under -one concordance. Indeed, he thinks it very possible that they do not -all belong to the genus Seseli of modern botanists. - -[1389] It is clear that Pliny hesitates to believe this story, and it -is hardly necessary to remark how utterly foreign this is to the habits -of carnivorous birds. - -[1390] See B. viii. c. 50. An absurd story. - -[1391] The Inula Helenium of botanists. See B. xix. c. 29. - -[1392] Modern notions, Fée says, do not agree with those of the -ancients on the subject of elecampane. The root owes the energy of its -action to the camphor which it contains. - -[1393] This notion of the virtues of the onion is quite erroneous, -though it still prevails to a considerable degree. Hippocrates, -however, Dioscorides, and Galen, like Pliny, attribute this property to -the onion. - -[1394] This, Fée says, is not the fact. - -[1395] A disease of the eye, by which the cornea contracts a whiteness. - -[1396] A white speck within the black of the eye. - -[1397] It is of no use whatever for such a purpose. - -[1398] Fox evil, or scurf, or scaldhead: a disease which causes the -hair to fall off the body. It derives its name from the Greek ἀλώπηξ, a -“fox,” from the circumstance that they were supposed to be peculiarly -affected with a similar disease. - -[1399] Or millepedes. See c. 6 of this Book. - -[1400] So the school of Salerno says— - -Non modicum sanas Asclepius asserit illas, Præsertim stomacho, -pulchrumque creare colorem. - - -[1401] This is not the case. - -[1402] “Vermiculis.” Small worms or maggots. - -[1403] “Porrum sectivum.” See B. xix. c. 33. - -[1404] Fée thinks that boiled leeks may possibly, with some justice, be -ranked among the pectorals. - -[1405] This, as Pliny himself here remarks, is a different disease from -that previously mentioned in c. 6 of this Book. - -[1406] From the Greek συκὴ, “a fig.” - -[1407] “Merum.” - -[1408] They would be of no utility whatever. - -[1409] This is an unfounded statement, Fée says. - -[1410] See B. xix. c. 33. Aristotle, Sotion, and Dioscorides state to -the same effect. - -[1411] “Porrum capitatum.” - -[1412] There is no difference now recognized between these two kinds of -leeks, so far as their medicinal effects are concerned. - -[1413] See B. xvi. c. 9. - -[1414] _I. e._ gum arabic. For an account of the Acacia Nilotica, see -B. xiii. c. 19. - -[1415] De Morb. Mul. B. ii. c. 89, and De Steril. c. 13. - -[1416] This is not the fact. - -[1417] See B. xix. c. 34. - -[1418] Fée says that the action of garlic is so powerful, that it is -one of the most energetic vermifuges known; but at the same time it is -so strong an excitant, that it is very liable to cause worse evils than -the presence even of worms. - -[1419] This serpent is described by Lucan, in the “Pharsalia,” B. ix. -l. 708, _et seq._, where a fearful account is given of the effects of -its sting. Nicander, in his “Theriaca,” informs us that those bitten -by the hæmorrhoïs die with the blood flowing from the nose and ears, -whence its name. - -[1420] Pard or panther-strangle. See B. xxvii. c. 2. The juice of -garlic has no such effect as here stated. - -[1421] De Morb. Mul. B. i. c. 74. - -[1422] See B. xxix. c. 39. - -[1423] The Morbus pedicularis. From the frequent mention of it, Fée -says, it would seem to have been very prevalent in ancient times; -whereas now, it is but rarely known. - -[1424] A disease of the skin; supposed by some to be the same as -ringworm. The word is employed in modern medicine to signify skin -diseases in general, such as itch, lichen, scaldhead, ringworm, &c. - -[1425] Pintianus suggests “hirudines,” “leeches,” and not “arundines,” -arrows. The latter reading is supported, however, by Plinius Valerianus -and M. Empiricus. - -[1426] An expensive kind of fish-sauce: for some further account of it -see B. ix. c. 30. - -[1427] See B. xix. c. 15. - -[1428] See B. x. c. 78. - -[1429] “Caprina.” See B. xxvi. c. 39. - -[1430] Fée is of opinion that this in reality is not a lettuce, but -that Pliny has been led, by the milky juice which it contains, to that -conclusion. In B. xxvi. c. 39, he calls it “tithymalum.” Hardouin -conjectures it to have been the spurge, or Euphorbia lathyris of -Linnæus, the juice of which is a violent drastic; and Fée is of opinion -that it must have been one of the Euphorbiaceæ. At the same time, he -says, powerful as their properties are, we cannot believe that they -exercise the destructive effects on fish here stated. - -[1431] Fée thinks that this plant may be looked for among the varieties -of the Sonchus or the Hieracium, which belong to the same family as the -lettuce. - -[1432] See B. xviii. c. 14. - -[1433] Fée thinks that this is the Isatis tinctoria of Linnæus in a -wild state, and Littré suggests that the one next mentioned is the same -plant, cultivated. Fée says, however, that this plant, employed in -dyeing wool, does not contain any milky juice, a fact which should have -cautioned Pliny against classing it among the Lactucæ. - -[1434] Of the lettuce, evidently. Fée says, who would recognise a -lettuce, with its green leaves, and smooth stalk and leaves, under this -description? Still, it is by no means an inaccurate description of the -wild lettuce. - -[1435] “Hawk-weed,” from the Greek ἱέραξ, “a hawk.” Under this name are -included, Fée thinks, the varieties of the genus Crepis. - -[1436] Apuleius, Metam. c. 30, says this of the eagle, when preparing -to soar aloft. - -[1437] This is in some degree true of the juices of the wild lettuces, -in a medicinal point of view; but it must be remembered that he has -enumerated the Isatis among them, which in reality has no milky juice -at all. - -[1438] “Lactucarium,” or the inspissated milky juice of the garden -lettuce, is still used occasionally as a substitute for opium, having -slightly anodyne properties, but, as Fée remarks, all that Pliny says -here of its effects is erroneous. - -[1439] “Adustiones;” “burns,” perhaps. - -[1440] A kind of spider. See B. xi. cc. 24, 28, 29. - -[1441] This is consistent with modern experience, as to the medicinal -effects of the cultivated plants in general. - -[1442] In B. xix. c. 38. - -[1443] The lettuce is not a purgative, nor has it the property here -ascribed to it, of making blood. - -[1444] Sillig is probably correct in his belief that there is a lacuna -here. - -[1445] “Oxypori.” - -[1446] “Ad intinctum aceti.” - -[1447] In B. xix. c. 38; the “opium” or “poppy lettuce,” the Lactuca -silvestris of modern botany, the soporific properties of which are -superior to those of the cultivated kinds. - -[1448] Or southern-wood. See B. xxi. c. 34. - -[1449] See B. xxxi. cc. 11 and 12. - -[1450] There are few plants, Fée says, which are so utterly destitute -of all remedial properties as the beet. See B. xix. c. 40. - -[1451] Fée says that the leaves of beet are not at all efficacious -except as applications for inflammations of the body. - -[1452] Dioscorides merely says that the leaves of the limonion are -similar to those of beet, but he does not state that it _is_ a kind of -wild beet. - -[1453] Dioscorides says “ten or more.” - -[1454] Fée is inclined to identify the “limonium,” or “meadow-plant,” -with the Statice limonium of Linnæus; but looks upon its identification -as very doubtful. Fuchs, Tragus, and Lonicerus, have identified it with -the Pyrola rotundifolia; but that is not a meadow plant, it growing -only in the woods. Others, again, have suggested the Senecio doria, or -“water trefoil.” - -[1455] Divided by naturalists into wild chicory or endive, the -Cichorium intybus of Linnæus, and cultivated endive, the Cichorium -endivia of Linnæus. The name “endive” comes from the Arabian “hindeb;” -but whether that was derived from the Latin “intubum,” or vice versâ, -is uncertain. The two kinds above mentioned, are subdivided, Fée says, -into two varieties, the cultivated and the wild. See B. xix. c. 39. - -[1456] The foundation of the Greek name, κιχώριον, and the Arabic -“Schikhrieh.” - -[1457] The medicinal properties of endive vary, according as it is -employed wild or cultivated, and according to the part employed. The -leaves are more bitter than the stalk, but not so much so as the root. -The juice of all the varieties is very similar, probably, to that of -the lettuce; but, as Fée says, little use has been made of it in modern -times. - -[1458] Or else, “Magi.” - -[1459] The “useful.” - -[1460] “The all-powerful.” - -[1461] The Cichorium luteum of C. Bauhin, the Leontodon palustre of -Linnæus: known to us as the “dandelion,” or by a coarser name. - -[1462] The kind known as garden endive, the Cichorium endivia of -Linnæus. - -[1463] “Anthologumena.” - -[1464] See B. xix. c. 41. - -[1465] “Crispam.” - -[1466] “Parsley-like.” - -[1467] The only use now made of the cabbage, in a medicinal point -of view, is the extraction from the red cabbage, which is rich in -saccharine matter, of a pectoral, and the employment of the round -cabbage, in the form of sour-krout, as an antiscorbutic. The great -majority of the statements as to the virtues of the cabbage, though -supported by Cato, and in a great measure by Hippocrates, are utterly -fallacious. - -[1468] De Re Rust. 157. - -[1469] “Scintillationibus.” - -[1470] See B. xix. c. 15. - -[1471] Or cancer. - -[1472] Cato, De Re Rust., 156, 157. - -[1473] See Note [1301] to c. 2 of this Book. - -[1474] This absurd notion of antipathy is carried so far by the author -of the Geoponica, B. v. c. 11, that he states that if wine is thrown on -cabbage while on the fire, it will never be thoroughly boiled. - -[1475] Fée remarks, that this fact would surely have engaged the -attention of the moderns, if there had been any truth in the statement. - -[1476] “Crapulam discuti.” “Crapula” was that state, after drinking, -colloquially known at the present day as “seediness.” - -[1477] The contrary is in reality the case, it being a diet only -suitable to strong stomachs. - -[1478] De Morb. Mulier. B. i. cc. 73 and 74. De Nat. Mulier. 29 and 31. - -[1479] The jaundice. - -[1480] Fée is inclined to account for the numerous antidotes and -remedies mentioned for the stings of serpents, by supposing that the -stings themselves of many of them were not really venomous, but only -_supposed_ to be so. - -[1481] “Repuntinas caligines.” - -[1482] “Sprout,” or “Brussels sprout.” See B. xix. c. 41. - -[1483] He is probably speaking of cabbage-water in general. - -[1484] See B. xix. c. 15. - -[1485] This bitter or pungent cabbage, Fée suggests, did not, probably, -belong to the genus Brassica. - -[1486] De Re Rust. c. 157. - -[1487] Fée is of opinion that Pliny has here confused the description -of two different plants; and that, intending to describe the Brassica -arvensis of modern botany, he has superadded a description of the -“Crambe agria,” mentioned by Dioscorides, which appears to be identical -with the Crambe maritima, or Brassica marina, the “sea-cabbage” of the -ancients (see c. 38.), the Convolvulus soldanella of modern botany. - -[1488] Or “rock-cabbage,” a name given more properly to the Convolvulus -soldanella. - -[1489] See c. 34, and B. xxiv. c. 1. - -[1490] A description, really, of the Convolvulus soldanella. - -[1491] See B. xix. c. 41. - -[1492] The Convolvulus soldanella of Linnæus, Fée thinks: not one of -the Cruciferæ, but belonging to the Convolvulaceæ. - -[1493] See B. xix. c. 30. - -[1494] The squill is still regarded in medicine as one of the most -energetic of all the vegetable productions, as a diuretic, an -expectorant, and, in large doses, an emetic. Squill vinegar is still -the form in which it is usually administered. Columella gives a -somewhat different account of the mode of preparing it. - -[1495] Theocritus says that the squill effectually protects statues and -tombs from outrages being committed upon them; and it was so customary -to plant them about the graves, that it became a proverbial saying, “He -is frantic enough to pluck squills from a grave.” Theophrastus states -that squills were employed in certain expiatory ceremonials. - -[1496] As to the identification of the “bulbs,” see B. xix. c. 30. The -wild bulbs, Fée is of opinion, are probably the Nigrum allium or Moly -of modern Botany; and the Allium schœnoprasum belongs, in his opinion, -to the cultivated bulbs. - -[1497] Supposing, Fée says, that the Bulbi of the ancients belonged to -the genus Allium or garlic of modern Botany, we may conclude that in -a medicinal point of view, they were of an exciting nature, powerful -vermifuges, and slightly blistering when applied topically. The -other statements here made, as to their medicinal qualities, are not -consistent with modern experience. - -[1498] Testium pituitas. - -[1499] See B. xix. c. 30. Athenæus, B. ii. c. 26, attributes a similar -property to the bulbs of Megara. - -[1500] See B. xi. cc. 24, 28. - -[1501] The Hyacinthus botryoides of Linnæus, most probably. - -[1502] “Bulbus vomitorius.” The Narcissus jonquilla of Linnæus, the -“emetic jonquil.” The bulb of the Spanish jonquil acts as a strong -emetic. - -[1503] Dioscorides says, more correctly, a black outer coat or peeling. - -[1504] Asparagus is recognized in modern times, as exercising a strong -action on the kidneys. Fée says, that according to Dr. Broussais, it -is a sedative to palpitations of the heart, an assertion, the truth -of which, he says, his own experience has confirmed. The root is also -looked upon as diuretic. - -[1505] Asparagus seed is not used in modern pharmacy, and it is very -doubtful if it possesses any virtues at all. - -[1506] Fée says that there is no truth in this assertion. - -[1507] See B. xix. c. 42: the Asparagus tenuifolius of Linnæus, the -wild asparagus, or Corruda of the South of France. - -[1508] Fée says that in the South of Europe there is a kind, known to -botanists as white asparagus, with a prickly stem: he suggests that it -may possibly be the same as that here spoken of. - -[1509] Or fennel. Fée says that, till very recently, the roots of -asparagus and of fennel were combined in medicine, forming part of the -five “major aperitive” roots. The sirop of the five aperitive roots is -still used, he says, in medicine. - -[1510] Chrysippus and Dioscorides were of opinion, that a decoction of -asparagus root causes sterility in women; a false notion, which, as Fée -remarks, prevailed very generally in Greece. - -[1511] This is not consistent with fact. - -[1512] See B. xix. c. 37. Parsley, though possessed of marked -properties, is but little employed in medicine. What Pliny here states -respecting it, Fée says, is a tissue of fables: but it is still used -for the cure of sores, and even as an ophthalmic. - -[1513] This distinction, Fée says, cannot be admitted. - -[1514] Or maggots. - -[1515] This belief in its efficacy, Fée says, still exists. - -[1516] See B. xxi. c. 86: this is the Melissa officinalis of Linnæus, -or balm-gentle, from which the bees gather honey, quite a different -plant to apiastrum or wild parsley. The Sardinian plant here mentioned, -is probably the same as the Ranunculus, mentioned in B. xxv. c. 109, -where its identification will be further discussed. - -[1517] See B. xix. c. 48. - -[1518] Or “horse parsley.” - -[1519] Or strangury. No medicinal use is made of this plant in modern -times. - -[1520] Or “mountain parsley,” see B. xix. c. 48. - -[1521] Or “marsh-parsley,” see B. xix. c. 37. It is possessed of certain -energetic properties, more appreciated by the ancient physicians than -in modern pharmacy. - -[1522] “Rock-parsley:” from this name comes our word “parsley.” It is -not clearly known to what variety of parsley he refers under this name. - -[1523] Or “ox-parsley.” C. Bauhin identifies this with the Petroselinum -Creticum or Agriopastinaca of Crete; but, as Fée remarks, it is not -clear to which of the Umbelliferæ he refers under that name. - -[1524] The Ocimum basilicum of Linnæus, according to most commentators: -though Fée is not of that opinion, it being originally from India, and -never found in a wild state. From what Varro says, De Re Rust. B. i. c. -31, he thinks that it must be sought among the leguminous plants, the -genus Hedysarum, Lathyrus, or Medicago. He remarks also, that Pliny is -the more to be censured for the absurdities contained in this Chapter, -as the preceding writers had only mentioned them to ridicule them. - -[1525] See B. ix. c. 51. - -[1526] “In Empericis.” - -[1527] “Atramento sutorio.” - -[1528] The Brassica eruca of Linnæus. - -[1529] None of the numerous remedies mentioned by Pliny for removing -spots on the skin, are at all efficacious, in Fée’s opinion. - -[1530] “Good for sauces.” - -[1531] In B. xix. c. 44. - -[1532] The Lepidium sativum of Linnæus, cresses or nose-smart. - -[1533] This opinion is corroborated by Dioscorides, B. ii. c. 185, and -confirmed by the author of the Geoponica, B. xii. c. 27. Fée inclines -to the opinion of Dioscorides, and states that is highly antiscorbutic. - -[1534] In B. xix. c. 44. - -[1535] The two varieties, the white and the black, are no longer -distinguished. The only variety now recognized, Fée says, is that with -crisped leaves. - -[1536] “Furunculos.” Gangrenous sores, probably. - -[1537] “Unguibus scabris,” _i. e._ for the removal of malformed nails, -with the view to the improvement of their appearance. - -[1538] The Lepidium Iberis of Linnæus, Fée thinks. - -[1539] The Ruta graveolens of Linnæus. The Romans, singularly enough, -valued this offensive plant as a condiment for their dishes, and a -seasoning for their wines.—See B. xiv. c. 19: and at the present -day even, it is admired for its smell, Fée says, by the ladies of -Naples. The Italians use it also for their salads. Its smell is -thought to prevent infection, for which reason it is still used, in -country-places, at funerals, and is placed before prisoners when tried -criminally, for the prevention, it is said, of gaol fever. - -[1540] It is not the rue that has this effect, so much as the salts of -copper which are formed. - -[1541] Fée thinks it not likely that the rue grown here was at all -superior to that of other localities. - -[1542] This word, omitted in the text, is supplied from Dioscorides. - -[1543] Or aconite. There is no truth whatever in these assertions, that -rue has the effect of neutralizing the effects of hemlock, henbane, or -poisonous fungi. Boerrhave says that he employed rue successfully in -cases of hysteria and epilepsy; and it is an opinion which originated -with Hippocrates, and is still pretty generally entertained, that it -promotes the catamenia. - -[1544] See B. viii. c. 40. - -[1545] See B. x. c. 86. - -[1546] “Si vero sit cephalæa.” - -[1547] Dioscorides says however, B. iii. c. 52, that it arrests -incontinence of the urine. See below. - -[1548] De Morb. Mul. B. i. c. 128. - -[1549] De Diæta, B. ii. c. 26. - -[1550] “Pituitæ eruptionibus.” - -[1551] This prejudice, Fée says, still survives. - -[1552] The Menta silvestris of Linnæus; though Clusius was of opinion -that it is the Nepeta tuberosa of Linnæus. - -[1553] “Silvestre puleium.” - -[1554] Galen and Dioscorides say the same; but it is not the fact; the -leaves being of no utility whatever. - -[1555] Difficulty of breathing, unless the neck is kept in a straight -position. - -[1556] Fée is inclined to think exactly the contrary. - -[1557] Its properties as a vermifuge are contested. - -[1558] According to ancient fable, Mintha, the daughter of Cocytus, -and beloved by Pluto, was changed by Proserpine into this plant: it -was generally employed also in the mysteries of the Greeks. It is the -Mentha sativa of Linnæus. - -[1559] Fée says that this passage alone would prove pretty clearly that -Pliny had no idea of the existence of the gastric juices. - -[1560] See B. xviii. c. 17, and B. xxii. c. 67. - -[1561] It is only in this case and the next, Fée says, that modern -experience agrees with our author as to the efficacy of mint. - -[1562] The Menta pulegium of Linnæus. - -[1563] Its medicinal properties are similar to those of mint; which -is a good stomachic, and is useful for hysterical and hypochondriac -affections, as well as head-ache. We may therefore know how far to -appreciate the medicinal virtues ascribed by Pliny to these plants. - -[1564] “Ampullas.” - -[1565] “Cubiculis:” “sleeping-chambers.” It was very generally the -practice among the ancients to keep odoriferous plants in their -bed-rooms; a dangerous practice, now held in pretty general disesteem. - -[1566] Strong odours, as Fée remarks, are not generally beneficial for -head-ache. - -[1567] Dioscorides makes no such distinction, and botanically speaking, -as Fée observes, this distinction is faulty. - -[1568] See B. xiv. c. 5. - -[1569] “Defunctos partus” is certainly a better reading than “defunctis -partus” though the latter is the one adopted by Sillig. - -[1570] “Salsitudines.” Hardouin is probably right in his conjecture, -that the correct reading is “lassitudines,” “lassitude.” - -[1571] “Pulices.” It is to this belief, no doubt, that it owes its -Latin name “pulegium,” and its English appellation, “flea-bane.” - -[1572] It differs in no respect whatever from the cultivated kind, -except that the leaves of the latter are somewhat larger. - -[1573] Or origanum. - -[1574] Whence our name “dittany.” - -[1575] The “bleating plant;” from βληχάομαι, “to bleat.” Dioscorides, -B. ii. c. 36, says the same of cultivated pennyroyal. - -[1576] “Pulmonum vitia exscreabilia facit.” - -[1577] Or “catmint;” the variety “longifolia,” Fée thinks, of the Menta -silvestris of Linnæus; or else the Melissa altissima of Sibthorp. -Sprengel identifies it with the Thymus Barrelieri, the Melissa Cretica -of Linnæus. Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 42, identifies the “Calamintha” of -the Greeks with the Nepeta of the Romans. The medicinal properties of -Nep, or catmint, are the same as those of the other mints. - -[1578] “Ægilopiis.” - -[1579] Cummin is the Cuminum cyminum of Linnæus. The seed only is used, -and that but rarely, for medicinal purposes, being a strong excitant -and a carminative. In Germany, and Turkey, and other parts of the East, -cummin-seed is esteemed as a condiment. - -[1580] Horace, B. i. Epist. 19, says the same; but in reality cummin -produces no such effect. - -[1581] M. Porcius Latro, a celebrated rhetorician of the reign of -Augustus, a Spaniard by birth, and a friend and contemporary of the -elder Seneca. His school was one of the most frequented at Rome, and he -numbered among his scholars the poet Ovid. He died B.C. 4. - -[1582] The son of a Roman senator, but descended from a noble family in -Aquitanian Gaul. When proprætor of Gallia Celtica, he headed a revolt -against Nero; but being opposed by Virginius Rufus, he slew himself at -the town of Vesontio, now Besançon. - -[1583] “Captationi” is suggested by Sillig as a preferable reading to -“captatione,” which last would imply that it was Vindex himself who -sought a place by this artifice, in the wills of others. - -[1584] There would be but little difference, Fée observes, between this -and the cummin of other countries, as it is a plant in which little -change is effected by cultivation. Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 79, says -that the cummin of Æthiopia (by Hippocrates called “royal cummin”) has -a sweeter smell than the other kinds. - -[1585] Fée is inclined to identify wild cummin, from the description of -it given by Dioscorides, with the Delphinium consolida of Linnæus; but -at the same time, he says, it is impossible to speak positively on the -subject. - -[1586] “Penicillis.” - -[1587] The Ammi Copticum of modern botany. - -[1588] The Æthiopian cummin, namely, which Pliny himself seems inclined -to confound with ammi. - -[1589] Or “horned” serpent. See B. viii. c. 35, and B. xi. c. 45. - -[1590] In B. xiii. c. 44. - -[1591] It is not improbable that under this name he alludes to the -carpels of some kind of Euphorbiacea, which bear a resemblance to the -fruit of the caper. Indeed, there is one variety of the Euphorbia with -an acrid juice, known in this country by the name of the “caper-plant.” - -[1592] The Capparis spinosa, probably, on which the capers used in our -sauces are grown. - -[1593] Until recently, the bark was employed in the Materia Medica, as -a diuretic: it is now no longer used. - -[1594] Or Lovage. See B. xix. c. 50. - -[1595] In B. xix. c. 50, where he states that Crateuas has given to the -wild Ligusticum the name of Cunila bubula, or “ox cunila.” - -[1596] See B. xix. c. 50. - -[1597] See B. viii. cc. 41 and 44. - -[1598] Universal remedy, or “all-heal.” - -[1599] Or “Poultry cunila:” the Origanum Heracleoticum of Linnæus. - -[1600] See B. xxv. c. 12. - -[1601] An Umbellifera, Fée says, of the modern genus Conyza. See B. -xxi. c. 32. - -[1602] Fée is of opinion that Pliny has here confounded “cunila” with -“conyza,” and that he means the κόνυζα μικρά of Dioscorides, B. iii. -c. 136, the κόνυζα θῆλυς of Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 2, -supposed to be the Inula pulicaria of Linnæus. See B. xxi. c. 32. - -[1603] A variety of Conyza. See B. xxi. c. 32. - -[1604] Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 136, says the same of the κόνυζα μικρά, -or “small conyza.” - -[1605] The Satureia thymbra of Linnæus. See B. xix. c. 50. - -[1606] “Ictus,” possibly “stings.” - -[1607] See the preceding Chapter: also B. xix. c. 62, and B. xxi. c. 32. - -[1608] Perhaps Indian pepper, the Capsicum annuum of Botany. See B. -xix. c. 62. - -[1609] For some account of Castor, the botanist, see the end of this -Book. - -[1610] Or Wild Marjoram. See B. xix. c. 50. - -[1611] So called, Nicander says, from being sought with avidity by the -ass, ὄνος. It is the Origanum onites of Linnæus. - -[1612] The Prasion, or “green plant,” mentioned by Hippocrates and -Theophrastus, is _not_ identical, Fée says, with the Origanum onitis, -it being the Marrubium Creticum, or peregrinum of modern botanists. -To add to the confusion of these names, we find Pliny stating, in c. -69, that the name of “prasion” was given also by the Greeks to his -second species of Heraclium, and that of “onitis” to the Heraclium -Heracleoticum. - -[1613] Or “Goat’s origanum:” the Thymus tragoriganum of Linnæus. -Dioscorides mentions two kinds of tragoriganum, one of which has been -supposed by Clusius to be the Thymus mastichina of Linnæus, and the -other the Stachys glutinosa of Linnæus; Zanoni being the first author -who promulgated this opinion; from which Fée, however, dissents. - -[1614] Or Heracleotic origanum: see c. 62 of this Book. Pliny here -confounds several distinct plants, and, as Fée observes, the whole -account is in hopeless confusion. - -[1615] Probably the Origanum Heracleoticum of Linnæus, mentioned in c. -62. - -[1616] The Marrubium Creticum, or peregrinum, probably, a variety of -horehound. See c. 67. - -[1617] See B. xiii. c. 2, and B. xv. c. 7. - -[1618] The Origanum onites of Linnæus, probably. See c. 67. - -[1619] Fée says that a strong infusion of pepperwort has been used in -France for the itch, with successful results. - -[1620] Sulphate of lime, which, as Fée remarks, though insoluble, -does not act as a poison, but causes a derangement of the digestive -functions. The wines of the Romans were extensively treated with -this substance, and we have seen in B. xviii. that it was used as an -ingredient in their bread. - -[1621] Dittander, or pepperwort: the Lepidium latifolium of Linnæus. - -[1622] Or fennel-flower: the Nigella sativa of Linnæus. Fée suggests -that its name, “gith,” is from the ancient Egyptian. - -[1623] “Black flower.” - -[1624] “Black seed.” - -[1625] It is no longer used in medicine, but it is esteemed as a -seasoning in the East. All that Pliny states as to its medicinal -properties, Fée considers to be erroneous. The action of the seed is -irritating, and reduced to powder, it causes sneezing. - -[1626] See B. xxv. c. 17. - -[1627] See B. xix. c. 52. - -[1628] The Pimpinella anisum of Linnæus. - -[1629] It is still used in some countries as a seasoning with which -bread and pastry are powdered. - -[1630] See B. xiv. c. 28. - -[1631] See B. xix. cc. 48 and 62: also B. xxvii. c. 97. - -[1632] This and the next statement are utterly fabulous. - -[1633] “Unconquerable,” from the Greek ἀ, “not,” and νικάω, “to -conquer.” Fée thinks that the word is a diminutive of “anisum,” which, -according to some persons, is a derivative from “_anysun_,” the Arabic -name of the plant. Dioscorides gives the name “anicetum” to dill, and -not to anise. - -[1634] A mere fable, as Fée remarks. - -[1635] A fiction, without any foundation in truth. - -[1636] See B. viii. c. 47, and B. xxxii. cc. 13, 23, 24, and 28. - -[1637] Fée evidently mistakes the meaning of this passage, and censures -Pliny for speaking of anise as an emetic. On the contrary, he here -prescribes it to counteract vomiting, and he has previously stated, in -this Chapter, that it _arrests_ vomiting. - -[1638] The Anethum graveolens of Linnæus: originally a native of the -hot climates. Its properties are very similar to those of anise. - -[1639] Or Sagapenum. This is a fetid gum-resin, imported from Persia -and Alexandria, and supposed, though without sufficient proof, Fée -says, to be the produce of the Ferula Persica. It is occasionally -used in medicine as a stimulating expectorant. In odour it somewhat -resembles assafœtida, only it is much weaker. Galen speaks of it as the -produce of a Ferula. It acts also as a purgative and a vermifuge. - -[1640] See B. xii. c. 56, and B. xix. c. 52. Some writers have -supposed, but apparently without any sufficient authority, that this -is the Ferula communis of Linnæus. Fée is of opinion that one of the -Umbelliferæ is meant. - -[1641] In B. xix. c. 53. - -[1642] It is probable, Fée says, that Pliny does not intend here -to speak of the _calyx_ as understood by modern botanists, but the -_corolla_ of the plant. The calyx disappears immediately after the -plant has blossomed; and is never employed by medical men at the -present day, who confine themselves to the heads or capsules. - -[1643] The variety Album of the Papaver somniferum. See B. xix. c. 53. - -[1644] The variety A. nigrum of the Papaver somniferum of Decandolle. - -[1645] The incisions are made in the capsules, and towards the upper -part of the peduncle. The account given by Pliny, Fée remarks, differs -but little from that by Kæmpfer, in the early part of last century. - -[1646] Nine in the morning. - -[1647] This plan, Fée thinks, would not be attended with advantage. - -[1648] A name, probably, of Eastern origin, and now universally -employed. - -[1649] “Bilbilis” has been suggested. - -[1650] Syrop of white poppies was, till recently, known as sirop -of diacodium. Opium is now universally regarded as one of the most -important ingredients of the Materia Medica. - -[1651] Poppy-seed, in reality, is not possessed of any soporific -qualities whatever. This discovery, however, was only made in the -latter part of the last century, by the French chemist, Rosier. - -[1652] “Collyriis.” - -[1653] “Lexipyretos,” “pepticas,” and “cœliacas”—Greek appellations. - -[1654] The type of the cultivated poppy is the Papaver somniferum of -Linnæus. - -[1655] This, Fée says, is a matter of doubt. - -[1656] From μήκων, a “poppy.” Tournefort has described this kind of -opium obtained by decoction; it is held in little esteem. - -[1657] Fée remarks, that this account of the tests of opium is correct -in the extreme. - -[1658] In B. xix. c. 53. The Papaver rhœas of Linnæus: the field poppy, -corn poppy, or corn rose. - -[1659] Theophrastus says that it has just the taste of wild endive. Fée -remarks that the peasants of Treves eat the leaves of this poppy while -young. - -[1660] The Glaucium Corniculatum of Persoon; the horned poppy, or -glaucium. This, Fée remarks, is not a poppy in reality, but a species -of the genus Chelidonium. The juice is an irritating poison, and the -seed is said to act as an emetic. - -[1661] “Argema.” - -[1662] “By the sea-shore.” - -[1663] Not a poppy, but the Euphorbia esula of Linnæus, a spurge. The -milky juice found in the stalk and leaves have caused it to be classed -among the poppies, as other varieties of Euphorbiaceæ appear to have -been, among the wild lettuces. - -[1664] Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. ix. c. 31, compares this plant -with the Struthium—(see B. xix. c. 18). Pliny, or his scribes, have -supposed him to be speaking of the στρούθος, or “sparrow”—hence the -present mistake. The Struthium itself has received that name from the -resemblance which its flower bears to a bird with the wings expanded. - -[1665] Hence its name, “aphron.” - -[1666] See B. xix. c. 4. Pliny has here mistaken a passage of -Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. ix. c. 31; where he attributes this -quality to the Struthium, and not the Heraclium. - -[1667] See c. 76 of this Book. It is difficult to conjecture how one of -the Euphorbiaceæ, a powerful drastic, could enter into the composition -of a soothing preparation, such as the diacodion is said to have been. - -[1668] “Capitibus.” As Fée remarks, the capsules of Euphorbia bear no -resemblance whatever to the heads of the poppy. Dioscorides, B. iv. c. -67, similarly confounds these two plants. - -[1669] See B. xxvi. c. 31. - -[1670] See B. xxvi. c. 41. Probably the Euphorbia paralias of Linnæus, -or Sea euphorbia. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of the -Euphorbia esula above mentioned. - -[1671] The fructiferous heads of the Euphorbiaceæ, thus employed, -would, as Fée remarks, be productive of most disastrous results. - -[1672] The Euphorbia peplis of Linnæus. - -[1673] See B. xiii. c. 40. By Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 165, all these -virtues are attributed exclusively to the cultivated purslain. Indeed, -there is no analogy between the properties of the two plants; though -neither of them is possessed of the wonderful virtues as antidotes here -mentioned, and they would only increase the sufferings of asthmatic -patients. - -[1674] As to this serpent, see Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. ix. l. 722, _et -seq._ - -[1675] A kind of spreading tumour, which, according to Scribonius -Largus, would appear as if about to force the eye out of the socket. -Fée remarks, that this malady is no longer known. - -[1676] See B. xxxv. c. 57. - -[1677] “Acetariis.” - -[1678] “Sapa.” Grape-juice, boiled down to one third. - -[1679] Ἐπιτομὴν ῥιζοτουμένων. - -[1680] The Coriandrum sativum of Linnæus. At the present day, wild -coriander is commonly found in Italy, on uncultivated soils. It may -have been naturalized, however, Fée thinks, since the time of Pliny. - -[1681] Nicander says also, that it is a cure for the stings of serpents -and scorpions, but there is no truth in the assertion. - -[1682] See B. viii. c. 35. - -[1683] The Atriplex hortensis of Linnæus. Fée thinks that the wild -atriplex of Pliny is some kind of Chenopodium, which it is now -impossible to identify. Orage is more of an aliment than a medicament. -Applied externally, it is soothing and emollient. - -[1684] De Morb. Mulier. B. ii. c. 57. - -[1685] It would not have this effect. The statements here given -relative to the virtues of orage are, in general, considered to be -correct. - -[1686] See B. xix. c. 22. - -[1687] The Malva silvestris of Linnæus, or wild mallow. - -[1688] The Malva rotundifolia of Linnæus, or round-leaved mallow. - -[1689] From μαλάσσω, to “soften,” or “relax.” - -[1690] These wild varieties are the same in every respect as the -cultivated kinds; their essential characteristics not being changed -by cultivation. See further as to the Althæa or marsh mallow, at the -latter end of this Chapter. - -[1691] The meaning of this name appears to be unknown. “Pistolochia” is -a not uncommon reading. - -[1692] Mallows were commonly used as a vegetable by the ancients; -and are so in China and the south of France, at the present day. The -mucilaginous principle which they contain renders them emollient and -pectoral; they are also slightly laxative. - -[1693] The only benefit resulting from the application of mallows would -be the reduction of the inflammation; the plant having no efficacy -whatever in neutralizing the venom. - -[1694] Sub-carbonate of lead. The mallow would have little or no effect -in such a case. - -[1695] See B. ix. c. 72, and B. xxxii. c. 3. - -[1696] The same was said in the middle ages, of the virtues of sage, -and in more recent times of the Panax quinquefolium, the Ginseng of the -Chinese. - -[1697] Q. Serenus Sammonicus speaks of the accumulation of dandriff in -the hair to such a degree as to form a noxious malady. He also mentions -the present remedy for it. - -[1698] Some commentators have supposed this to be the Alcea rosa of -Linnæus; but Fée considers this opinion to be quite unfounded. - -[1699] It would be of no use whatever in such cases, Fée says. - -[1700] Without any good results, Fée says. - -[1701] “Permeatus suaves facit.” We can only make a vague guess at the -meaning; as the passage is, most probably, corrupt. - -[1702] The Althæa officinalis of Linnæus, or marsh-mallow. The -medicinal properties are similar to those of the other varieties of the -mallow. - -[1703] It is the fact, that water, in which mallows are steeped, owing -to the mucilage of the root, assumes the appearance of milk. - -[1704] Fée says that this milky appearance of the water does not depend -on the freshness of the root; as it is only the aqueous particles that -are dried up, the mucilage preserving its chemical properties in their -original integrity. - -[1705] The Rumex acetosella of Linnæus, or small sorrel. - -[1706] See B. xix. c. 60. - -[1707] “Horse Lapathum.” - -[1708] Or “Lapathum with pointed leaves;” the Rumex acutus of Linnæus. - -[1709] Or “water lapathum;” the Rumex aquaticus of Linnæus. - -[1710] Or “horse lapathum;” the Rumex patientia of Linnæus: or dock, as -Fée thinks: though, according to Sprengel, the cultivated lapathum was -identical with that plant. - -[1711] The medicinal properties of the lapathum vary according to the -parts of the plant employed. The leaves and stalks of the acid kinds of -Rumex are refreshing, and slightly diuretic and laxative. The action of -those which are not acid is sudorific, antiherpetic, and depurative. - -[1712] Fée says that it would be of no benefit whatever for tooth-ache. - -[1713] It is not possessed of any stomachic properties, Fée remarks. - -[1714] It would be of no utility in such a case, Fée says. - -[1715] Supposed by Fée to be the same as the wild lapathum of the last -Chapter, the Rumex acetosella of Linnæus; small sorrel. - -[1716] Fée remarks that no part of lapathum is naturally astringent. - -[1717] Or “ox lapathum.” Fée considers this to be identical with the -“hippolapathon” of the last Chapter. - -[1718] In B. xix. c. 54. Fée identifies these three varieties of -mustard as follows; the slender-stemmed mustard of Pliny he identifies -with the Sinapis alba of Linnæus, mustard with white seeds. The mustard -mentioned as having the leaves of rape he considers to be the same as -the Sinapis nigra of Linnæus, mustard with black seed; and that with -the leaf of the rocket he identifies with the Sinapis erucoïdes of -Linnæus, the Eruca silvestris of Gessner, or rocket-leaved mustard. - -[1719] In reality, mustard is injurious for all affections of the chest -and throat. - -[1720] “Seseli.” - -[1721] A sinapism applied to the head, Fée remarks, in cases of -cerebral congestion, would very soon cause death. - -[1722] Mustard poultices are used extensively at the present day for -blisters on the chest. - -[1723] “Rubrica.” - -[1724] “Scabras genas.” - -[1725] This is not the fact; no juice flows from the stem which is -capable of becoming concrete. - -[1726] As a tonic, mustard-seed is commonly taken whole at the present -day. - -[1727] In B. xvi. c. 66. In B. xxxii. c. 52, we shall find Pliny -speaking of this substance under the name of “Calamochnus.” -Dioscorides, B. v. c. 137, speaks of adarca as growing in Cappadocia, -and as being a salt substance which adheres to reeds in time of drought. - -[1728] This, Fée says, cannot possibly be the fact, whatever adarca may -really have been. - -[1729] The “grass-green” plant. - -[1730] The “twisted flax” plant. - -[1731] “Lad’s-love.” - -[1732] “Love and grace,” apparently. - -[1733] There are two kinds of prasion mentioned by Dioscorides, and by -Pliny at the end of the present Chapter, one of which Fée is inclined -to identify with the Ballota nigra of Linnæus, the fetid ballota; and -the other with the Marrubium vulgare of Linnæus, the white horehound. -Bochart conjectures that the word “marrubium” had a Punic origin, -but Linnæus thinks that it comes from “Maria urbs,” the “City of the -Marshes,” situate on Lake Fucinus, in Italy. - -[1734] Though much used in ancient times, horehound is but little -employed in medicine at the present day: though its medicinal value, -Fée thinks, is very considerable. Candied horehound is employed to some -extent in this country, as a pectoral. - -[1735] See B. xviii. c. 25. - -[1736] Its medicinal properties, as recognized in modern times, are in -most respects dissimilar to those mentioned by Pliny. - -[1737] “Far.” - -[1738] “Pterygia.” “Pterygium” is also a peculiar disease of the eye. - -[1739] “Inter pauca.” He has mentioned, however, a _vast number_ of -so-called antidotes or remedies. It is just possible that he may mean, -“There are few antidotes like it for efficacy.” - -[1740] “A serpendo:” the Thymus serpyllum of Linnæus. - -[1741] The Thymus zygis of Linnæus: the Serpyllum folio thymi of C. -Bauhin. Dioscorides says that it is the _cultivated_ thyme that is a -creeping plant. - -[1742] See Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. ix. l. 712, _et seq._ - -[1743] The Sisymbrion menta of Gerard; the Menta hirsuta of Decandolle, -prickly mint. Sprengel, however, takes it to be the Menta silvestris of -modern Botany. - -[1744] The Sisymbrion nasturtium of Linnæus. - -[1745] Apparently the Sisymbrium just mentioned, and the Nasturtium. - -[1746] Ovid, Fasti, B. iv. l. 869, speaks of Sisymbrium as being -esteemed by the Roman ladies for its agreeable smell. - -[1747] See B. xix. c. 1. The rich mucilage of linseed makes it -extremely valuable, in a medicinal point of view, for poultices. This -mucilage is found in the perisperm more particularly; the kernel -containing a fixed oil, which is extremely valuable for numerous -purposes. The account given by Pliny and the other ancient writers of -the medicinal uses of linseed, is, in general, correct. - -[1748] “Inspersum,” sprinkled with boiling water; like oatmeal for -porridge, probably. - -[1749] It would be of no use whatever for such a purpose, Fée says. - -[1750] “Emendat.” By bringing them off, probably. - -[1751] It would be of no utility for hernia, Fée says, or for the cure -of gangrenous sores. - -[1752] The Blitum capitatum of Linnæus. - -[1753] Hence, too, the Latin word “bliteus,” meaning “insipid,” -“senseless,” or “worthless.” - -[1754] This is not the case, it being as innocuous as it is insipid. -Applied topically, the leaves are emollient. - -[1755] There is no foundation, Fée says, for this opinion. - -[1756] The Æthusa meum of Linnæus; our Spignel, or Baldmoney, the -Athamanta Matthioli of Wulf. By some authorities it is called Feniculum -Alpinum perenne. It is possessed of exciting properties, and is no -longer used in medicine. - -[1757] See B. iv. c. 8. - -[1758] See B. viii. c. 41. This plant is the Anethum feniculum -of Linnæus. The seed and roots are still used in medicine, being -sudorific, diuretic, and aperitive. - -[1759] This resinous juice of fennel is no longer employed, or indeed -known, Fée says, to the curious. - -[1760] “Horse marathrum:” the Cachrys Libanotis of Linnæus, probably. - -[1761] The Seseli tortuosum of Linnæus, probably. - -[1762] It is sometimes used at the present day for condiments, as a -substitute for anise. Pliny’s account of its medicinal virtues, Fée -says, is replete with errors. - -[1763] “Oxyporis:” perhaps “salad-dressings.” - -[1764] See B. xviii. c. 13. - -[1765] Their properties, Fée says, are very similar. - -[1766] “Ophiaca.” - -[1767] “Rhizotomumena.” - -[1768] Theriaca, l. 596. _et seq._ - -[1769] The wild hemp of Pliny is the Althæa cannabina of Linnæus: the -hemp marsh-mallow. - -[1770] The cultivated hemp is the Cannabis sativa of Linnæus. - -[1771] He is speaking of the hemp marsh-mallow here, and not the real -hemp; though at the same time he mingles with his statement several -facts which are stated by Dioscorides with reference to the genuine -hemp. See B. xix. c. 56. - -[1772] This is evidently stated in reference to the hemp-mallow. - -[1773] For an account of the Ferula, see B. xiii. c. 42. - -[1774] An accidental circumstance, Fée says, and no distinctive mark of -sex or species. - -[1775] Fée thinks that Pliny’s meaning is, that it is eaten as a -confection, similar to those of angelica and parsley stalks at the -present day. That, however, would hardly appear to be the sense of the -passage. In B. xix. c. 56, he speaks of it being dried and used as a -seasoning. - -[1776] Fennel-giant is considered to be a good stomachic. - -[1777] This, Fée thinks, is probably the fact. - -[1778] The pith, in reality, of the Umbelliferæ, is insipid and inert. - -[1779] In B. xix. c. 43. - -[1780] This, Fée considers to be the Cinara carduncellus of Linnæus, -artichoke thistle, or Cardonette of Provence. - -[1781] The Cinara scolymus of Linnæus probably, our artichoke, which -the ancients do not appear to have eaten. Both the thistle and the -artichoke are now no longer employed in medicine. - -[1782] Galen gives these lines, sixteen in number, in his work De -Antidot. B. ii. c. 14; the proportions, however, differ from those -given by Pliny. - -[1783] Half a denarius; the weight being so called from the coin which -was stamped with the image of the Goddess of Victory. See B. xxxiii. c. -13. - -[1784] Antiochus II., the father of Antiochus Epiphanes. - -[1785] Or “antidote.” In this term has originated our word “treacle,” -in the Elizabethan age spelt “triacle.” The medicinal virtues of this -composition were believed in, Fée remarks, so recently as the latter -half of the last century. The most celebrated, however, of all the -“theriacæ” of the ancients, was the “Theriaca Andromachi,” invented by -Andromachus, the physician of the Emperor Nero, and very similar to -that composed by Mithridates, king of Pontus, and by means of which -he was rendered proof, it is said, against all poisons. See a very -learned and interesting account of the Theriacæ of the ancients, by Dr. -Greenhill, in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. His -articles “Pharmaceutica,” and “Therapeutica,” will also be found well -worth attention by the reader of Pliny. - -[1786] See end of B. iii. - -[1787] See end of B. ii. - -[1788] See end of B. xiv. - -[1789] He is also mentioned in B. xxv. c. 2, as having commenced a -treatise on Medicinal Plants, which he did not live to complete. It is -not improbable that he is the same Valgius that is mentioned in high -terms by Horace, B. i. Sat. 10. - -[1790] See end of B. iii. - -[1791] See end of B. xii. - -[1792] Supposed by some to be the same with the Bassus Tullius -mentioned by ancient writers as the friend of Niger, possibly the -Sextius Niger here mentioned. - -[1793] See end of B. vii. - -[1794] He lived at Rome, in the first century of the Christian era, and -possessed a botanical garden, probably the earliest mentioned. He lived -more than a hundred years, in perfect health both of body and mind. See -B. xxv. c. 5. - -[1795] See end of B. ii. - -[1796] See end of B. iii. - -[1797] A mystic personage of the early Grecian Mythology, under whose -name many spurious works were circulated. Pliny says. B. xxv. c. 2, -that he was the first who wrote with any degree of attention on the -subject of Plants. - -[1798] See end of B. xix. - -[1799] See end of B. ii. - -[1800] See end of B. viii. - -[1801] Probably Chrysippus of Cnidos, a pupil of Eudoxus and -Philistion, father of Chrysippus, the physician to Ptolemy Soter, -and tutor to Erasistratus. Others, again, think that the work “on -the Cabbage,” mentioned by Pliny in c. 33, was written by another -Chrysippus, a pupil of Erasistratus, in the third century B.C. - -[1802] A native of Carystus, in Eubœa, who lived in the fourth century -B.C. He belonged to the medical sect of the Dogmatici, and wrote -several medical works, of which the titles only and a few fragments -remain. - -[1803] Of this writer nothing whatever is known. - -[1804] For Heraclides of Heraclea, see end of B. xii.; for Heraclides -of Pontus, see end of B. iv.; and for Heraclides of Tarentum, see end -of B. xii. They were all physicians. - -[1805] See end of B. xv. - -[1806] See end of B. xii. - -[1807] It was probably this personage, or the one next mentioned, who -wrote to Ptolemy, one of the kings of Egypt, giving him directions as -to what wines he should drink. See B. xiv. c. 9. A person of this name -wrote a work on Ointments and Chaplets, quoted by Athenæus, and another -on Venomous Animals, quoted by the same author. This last is probably -the work referred to by Pliny, B. xxi. cc. 15, 29, &c. It has been -suggested also, that the proper reading here is “Apollonius” of Citium, -a pupil of Zopyrus, a physician of Alexandria. - -[1808] See the preceding Note. - -[1809] A celebrated physician, a native of the island of Cos. He -belonged to the medical sect of the Dogmatici, and flourished probably -in the fourth century B.C. He was more particularly celebrated for his -comparatively accurate knowledge of anatomy. The titles only and a few -fragments of his works survive. - -[1810] A pupil of Praxagoras. He appears to have written a work on -Anatomy, quoted more than once by Galen. - -[1811] A pupil of Chrysippus of Cnidos, and who lived probably in the -fourth and third centuries B.C. Galen speaks of him as being held in -great repute among the Greeks. - -[1812] He flourished in the fourth century B.C., and belonged to the -medical sect of the Dogmatici. He wrote some medical works, of which -nothing but a few fragments remain. - -[1813] He lived probably about the beginning of the third century B.C., -as he was the tutor of Antigenes and Mnemon. He seems to have been -famous for his medicinal prescriptions of wine, and the quantities of -cold water which he gave to his patients. - -[1814] Born either in Sicily or at Locri Epizephyrii, in Italy. He -is supposed to have lived in the fourth century B.C. By some persons -he was thought to have been one of the founders of the sect of the -Empirici. He wrote works on Materia Medica and Cookery, and is several -times quoted by Pliny and Galen. - -[1815] See end of B. vii. - -[1816] A Greek herbalist, who lived about the beginning of the first -century B.C. He is mentioned by Galen as one of the most eminent -writers on Materia Medica. Another physician of the same name is -supposed to have lived in the time of Hippocrates. - -[1817] A Greek physician, supposed to have lived in or before the first -century B.C. Dioscorides and Saint Epiphanius speak of Petronius _and_ -Diodotus, making them different persons; and it is not improbable that -the true reading in c. 32 of this Book, is “Petronius _et_ Diodotus.” - -[1818] See end of B. xii. - -[1819] See end of B. xi. - -[1820] See end of B. xii. - -[1821] It is probable that there were several Greek physicians of -this name; but the only one of whom anything certain is known is the -physician to Ptolemy Philopater, king of Egypt, in whose tent he was -killed by Theodotus, the Ætolian, B.C. 217. He was probably the first -writer on hydrophobia. Eratosthenes is said to have accused him of -plagiarism. - -[1822] See end of B. xii. - -[1823] It is doubtful if the person of this name to whom Pliny -attributes a work on the Cabbage, in cc. 34 and 36 of this Book, was -the same individual as Epicharmus of Cos, the Comic poet, born B.C. -540. It has been suggested that the botanical writer was a different -personage, the brother of the Comic poet Demologus. - -[1824] Possibly the same person as the Damon mentioned at the end of B. -vii. He is mentioned in c. 40 of this Book, and in B. xxiv. c. 120, and -wrote a work on the Onion. - -[1825] See end of B. vi. - -[1826] Beyond the mention made of him in c. 73 of this Book, nothing -whatever is known relative to this writer. - -[1827] Beyond the mention made of him in c. 73, nothing is known of -him. Some read “Theopolemus.” - -[1828] Probably Metrodorus of Chïos, a philosopher, who flourished -about B.C. 330, and professed the doctrine of the Sceptics. Cicero, -Acad. ii. 23, § 73, gives a translation of the first sentence of his -work “On Nature.” - -[1829] A physician of Smyrna. He is called Solon the Dietetic, by -Galen; but nothing further seems to be known of his history. - -[1830] See end of B. xii. - -[1831] A Theban authoress, who wrote on Medicine; mentioned also by -Plinius Valerianus, the physician, and Pollux. - -[1832] A Greek physician, a native of Cos, the reputed founder of the -sect of the Empirici. He probably lived in the third century B.C. From -Athenæus we learn that he wrote a work on Botany. A parallel has been -drawn between Philinus and the late Dr. Hahnemann, by F. F. Brisken, -Berlin, 1834. - -[1833] See end of B. xix. - -[1834] The Scholiast on Nicander mentions a treatise on Botany written -by a person of this name: and a work of his on Medicine is mentioned by -Labbe as existing in manuscript in the Library at Florence. - -[1835] A Greek physician of this name belonging to the sect of the -Empirici, lived probably in the third or second century B.C. Galen -mentions him as one of the earliest commentators on the works of -Hippocrates. It is uncertain, however, whether he is the person so -often quoted by Pliny. - -[1836] A physician of Aphrodisias, in Cilicia, who lived in the reign -of Tiberius. He wrote some pharmaceutical works, and is censured -by Galen for his disgusting remedies, such as human brains, flesh, -urine, liver, excrements, &c. There is a short essay by him still in -existence, on the Aliments derived from the Aquatic Animals. - -[1837] See B. xxii. c. 1. - -[1838] “Sive privatis generum funiculis in orbem, in obliquum, in -ambitum; quædam coronæ per coronas currunt.” As we know but little -of the forms of the garlands and chaplets of the ancients, the exact -translation of this passage is very doubtful. - -[1839] According to Boettiger, the word “struppus” means a string -arranged as a fillet or diadem. - -[1840] Fée makes the word “vocabulum” apply to “corona,” and not to -“struppus;” but the passage will hardly admit of that rendering. - -[1841] “To bind” or “join together.” - -[1842] A “connected line,” from the verb “sero.” - -[1843] By “quod,” Hardouin takes Pliny to mean, the use of the word -σπαρτὸν, among the Greeks, corresponding with the Latin word “sertum.” - -[1844] These chaplets, we learn from Festus, were called “pancarpiæ.” -The olive, oak, laurel, and myrtle, were the trees first used for -chaplets. - -[1845] See B. xxxv. c. 40. - -[1846] The “Chaplet-weaver.” See B. xxxv. c. 40. - -[1847] B.C. 380. - -[1848] From Athenæus, B. xv. c. 2, _et seq._, we learn that the -Egyptian chaplets were made of ivy, narcissus, pomegranate blossoms, &c. - -[1849] “Corolla,” being the diminutive of “corona.” - -[1850] Or tinsel. - -[1851] The “Rich.” - -[1852] Ribbons or streamers. - -[1853] “Puri.” - -[1854] Consul, A.U.C. 570. - -[1855] Or “engrave,” “cælare.” He is probably speaking here of golden -lemnisci. - -[1856] “Philyræ.” This was properly the inner bark of the linden-tree; -but it is not improbable that thin plates of metal were also so called, -from the resemblance. The passage, however, admits of various modes of -explanation. - -[1857] “Pecuniâ.” Fée compares this usage with the employment of -jockies at horse-races in England and France. - -[1858] “Intus positus esset.” - -[1859] “Foris ferretur.” - -[1860] Or “money-changer,” “argentarius.” - -[1861] “E pergulâ suâ.” Scaliger thinks that the “pergula” was a part -of a house built out into the street, while, according to Ernesti, it -was a little room in the upper part of a house. In B. xxxv. c. 36, it -clearly means a room on the ground-floor. - -[1862] In the Fora of ancient cities there was frequently a statue of -this mythological personage, with one hand erect, in token, Servius -says (on B. iv. l. 58 of the Æneid), of the freedom of the state, -Marsyas having been the minister of Bacchus, the god of liberty. -His statue in the Forum of Rome was the place of assembly for the -courtesans of that city, who used to crown it with chaplets of flowers. -See also Horace i. Sat. 6. l. 120; Juvenal, Sat. 9. l. 1 and 2; and -Martial, ii. Ep. 64. l. 7. - -[1863] Cujacius thinks that Pliny has in view here Polemon of Athens, -who when a young man, in his drunken revelry, burst into the school of -Xenocrates, the philosopher, with his fellow-revellers, wearing his -festive garland on his head. Being arrested, however, by the discourse, -he stopped to listen, and at length, tearing off the garland, -determined to enter on a more abstemious course of life. Becoming an -ardent disciple of Xenocrates, he ultimately succeeded him at the head -of the school. The passage as given in the text, from its apparent -incompleteness, would appear to be in a mutilated state. - -[1864] Julia. See B. vii. c. 46. - -[1865] Thus acknowledging herself to be no better than a common -courtesan. - -[1866] “Illius dei.” - -[1867] See B. vii. c. 10. - -[1868] “Funus elocavit.” - -[1869] “E prospectu omni.” “From every look-out:” _i. e._ from the -roofs, doors, and windows. - -[1870] This usage is still observed in the _immortelles_, laid on the -tombs of departed friends, in Catholic countries on the continent. -Tibullus alludes to it, B. ii. El. 4: - - “Atque aliquis senior veteres veneratus amores, - Annua constructo serta dabit tumulo.” - -[1871] At the conclusion of the festival of Mars on the 1st of March, -and for several successive days. These entertainments were celebrated -in the Temple of that god, and were proverbial for their excellence. - -[1872] It is a well-known fact, as Fée remarks, that the smell of -flowers is productive, in some persons, of head-ache, nausea, and -vertigo. He states also that persons have been known to meet their -death from sleeping all night in the midst of odoriferous flowers. - -[1873] “Ipsaque capiti imposita.” Holland and Ajasson render this as -though Cleopatra placed the garland on Antony’s head, and not her own. -Littré agrees with the translation here adopted. - -[1874] Fée remarks that we know of no poisons, hydrocyanic or prussic -acid excepted, so instantaneous in their effects as this; and that it -is very doubtful if they were acquainted with that poison. - -[1875] Hist. Plant. B. vi. cc. 6, 7. - -[1876] “Persecutus est.” - -[1877] A characteristic, it would appear, of the greater part of the -information already given in this Book. - -[1878] He alludes to the wild rose or eglantine. See B. xvi. c. 71. - -[1879] “Granoso cortice.” - -[1880] Boxes of a pyramidal shape. See B. ix. c. 56. - -[1881] Still, even for that purpose the rose was very extensively used. -One ancient author states that, even in the middle of winter, the more -luxurious Romans were not satisfied without roses swimming in their -Falernian wine; and we find Horace repeatedly alluding to the chaplets -of roses worn by the guests at banquets. Hence probably arose the -expression, “Under the rose.” Fée is evidently mistaken in thinking -that Pliny implies here, that it was but rarely used in chaplets. - -[1882] Il. xxiii. l. 186. - -[1883] B. xiii. c. 2. - -[1884] “Collyriis.” - -[1885] Clusius was of opinion that this was the Provence rose, the Rosa -Gallica of Linnæus. - -[1886] The same rose, probably, of which Virgil says, Georg. B. iv. l. -119, “Biferique rosaria Pæsti”—“And the rose-beds of Pæstum, that bear -twice in the year.” It has been suggested that it is identical with the -Rosa alba vulgaris major of Bauhin, the Rosa alba of Decandolle: but, -as Fée says, it is very questionable if this is correct, this white -rose blossoming but once a year. - -[1887] A simple variety of the Rosa Gallica of Linnæus, Fée thinks. - -[1888] See B. iv. c. 14. According to J. Bauhin, this is the pale, -flesh-coloured rose, called the “rose of France,”—the “Rosa rubello -flore, majore, pleno, incarnata vulgo.” Others, again, take it to be -the Damascus rose. - -[1889] See B. v. c. 29. A variety of the white rose, Fée thinks, the -determination of which must be sought among the Eglantines. - -[1890] “Spiniola.” A variety belonging to or approaching the Eglantine -in all probability. Fée makes mention here of a kind called the Rosa -myriacantha by Decandolle (the “thousand-thorn rose”), which is found -in great abundance in the south of Europe, and other parts of it. - -[1891] Fée remarks on this passage, that the beauty of the flower and -the number of the petals are always in an inverse proportion to the -number of thorns, which disappear successively the more carefully the -plant is cultivated. - -[1892] This is most probably the meaning of “Asperitate, levore.” - -[1893] Still known as the “Rosa centifolia.” Its petals sometimes -exceed _three_ hundred in number; and it is the most esteemed of all -for its fragrant smell. - -[1894] “Non suæ terræ proventu.” - -[1895] This rose is mentioned also by Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. -c. 6. From the description that Pliny gives of it, Fée is inclined to -think that it is some variety of the Rosa rubrifolia, which is often -found in mountainous localities. - -[1896] This assertion is borrowed from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. -c. 6. Fée remarks that there is no truth in it. It is not improbable, -however, that the word “cortex” here may mean, not the calyx, but the -bark of the stem, in reference to its exemption from thorns. The τραχὺ -τὸ κάτω of Theophrastus would seem to admit of that rendering. See Note -[1891] above. - -[1897] “Extremas velut ad cardines.” - -[1898] This is not the case with the Rosa centifolia of modern botany. -See Note [1893] above. It is not improbable, however, that the reading -is “probabilis,” and that this passage belongs to the next sentence. - -[1899] The Lychnis, Fée remarks, is erroneously classed by Pliny among -the roses. It is generally agreed among naturalists that it is the -garden flower, the Agrostemma coronaria of Linnæus; which, however, -does not grow in humid soils, but in steep, rocky places. - -[1900] Or “small Greek” rose. Some commentators have identified it with -the Rosa silvestris, odorata, flore albo of C. Bauhin, a wild white -rose. - -[1901] Sillig thinks that this may mean the “Macedonian” rose. Another -reading is “moscheuton.” Fée says that it is not a rose at all, but one -of the Malvaceæ belonging to the genus Alcæa; one variety of which is -called the Alcæa rosa. - -[1902] Or “little chaplet.” Possibly a variety of the Eglantine, the -Rosa canina or dog-rose, Fée suggests. - -[1903] The Eglantine. - -[1904] This seems to be the meaning of “tot modis adulteratur:” the -roses without smell appearing to him to be not _genuine_ roses. - -[1905] The Rosa Damascena of Miller, Fée thinks, our Damascus rose. - -[1906] The earliest rose in France and Spain, Fée says, is the -“pompon,” the variety Pomponæa of the Rosa centifolia. - -[1907] This is consistent with modern experience. - -[1908] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 6. The rose is but -very rarely reproduced from seed. - -[1909] See B. xvi. c. 67, and B. xvii. c. 33. - -[1910] Previously mentioned in this Chapter. The meaning of this -passage, however, is extremely doubtful. “Unum genus inseritur pallidæ, -spinosæ, longissimis virgis, quinquifoliæ, quæ Græcis altera est.” - -[1911] If the water was only lukewarm, Fée says, it would be of no use, -and if hotter, the speedy death of the tree would be the result. - -[1912] “Quâdam cognatione.” He alludes to a maceration of the petals of -the rose and lily in oil. The aroma of the lily, Fée says, has not been -fixed by any method yet found. - -[1913] See B. xiii. c. 2. - -[1914] The Lilium candidum of Linnæus. Fée remarks that the “Lilium” of -the Romans and the λείριον of the Greeks is evidently derived from the -_laleh_ of the Persians. - -[1915] “Calathi.” The “calathus” was a work-basket of tapering shape; -it was also used for carrying fruits and flowers, Ovid, Art. Am. ii. -264. Cups, too, for wine were called by this name, Virg. Ecl. v. 71. - -[1916] As this passage has been somewhat amplified in the translation, -it will perhaps be as well to insert it: “Resupinis per ambitum labris, -tenuique pilo et staminum stantibus in medio crocis.” - -[1917] The Convolvulus sæpium of modern botany; the only resemblance in -which to the lily is in the colour, it being totally different in every -other respect. - -[1918] “Rudimentum.” She must have set to work in a very roundabout -way, Fée thinks, and one in which it would be quite impossible for a -naturalist to follow her. - -[1919] The white lily is reproduced from the offsets of the bulbs; -and, as Fée justly remarks, it is highly absurd to compare the mode of -cultivation with that of the rose, which is propagated from slips. - -[1920] This absurd notion is derived from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. -ii. c. 2, and B. vi. c. 6. - -[1921] See B. xix. c. 48. - -[1922] The root really consists of certain fine fibres, to which the -bulbs, or rather cloves or offsets, are attached. - -[1923] Judging from what Theocritus says, in his 35th Idyl, the -“crinon” would appear to have been a white lily. Sprengel, however, -takes the red lily of Pliny to be the scarlet lily, the Lilium -Chalcedonicum of Linnæus. - -[1924] Or “dog-rose:” name now given to one of the wild roses. - -[1925] See B. xiii. c. 9. - -[1926] Fée remarks, that it is singular that Pliny, as also Virgil, -Ecl. v. l. 38, should have given the epithet “purpureus” to the -Narcissus. It is owing, Fée says, to the red nectary of the flower, -which is also bordered with a very bright red. - -[1927] Into cloves or offsets. - -[1928] The Narcissus poeticus of Linnæus. Pliny gives the origin of its -name in c. 75 of this Book. - -[1929] Though supported by Theophrastus, this assertion is quite -erroneous. In France, even, Fée says, the Narcissus poeticus blossoms -at the end of April, and sooner, probably, in the climates of Greece -and Italy. - -[1930] See B. xviii. c. 76. It is just possible that Pliny and -Theophrastus may be speaking of the Narcissus scrotinus of Linnæus, -which is found in great abundance in the southern provinces of Naples, -and is undoubtedly the flower alluded to by Virgil in the words, “Nec -sera comantem Narcissum,” Georg. iv. ll. 122, 123. - -[1931] Fée remarks, that the extravagant proceeding here described by -Pliny with a seriousness that is perfectly ridiculous, does not merit -any discussion. - -[1932] When detached from the bulb, the stem of the lily will -infallibly die. - -[1933] “Nudantibus se nodulis.” There are no such knots in the lily, as -Fée remarks. - -[1934] The Viola odorata of Linnæus. - -[1935] The Greek name. - -[1936] “Ianthina vestis,” violet-coloured. - -[1937] Desfontaines identifies this with the Cheiranthus Cheiri; but -Fée says that there is little doubt that it belongs to the Viola -tricolor herbensis (pansy, or heart’s-ease), in the petals of which -the yellow predominates, and the type of which is the field violet, or -Viola arvensis, the flowers of which are extremely small, and entirely -yellow. - -[1938] This has been identified with the Cheiranthus incanus, the -Cheiranthus tricuspidatus of the shores of the Mediterranean, the -Hesperis maritima of Linnæus; also, by some commentators, with the -Campanula Medium of Linnæus. - -[1939] So called, according to Pintianus and Salmasius, from Calatia, a -town of Italy. Fée adopts the reading “Calathiana,” and considers it to -have received that name from its resemblance to the Caltha mentioned in -the next Chapter. Dalechamps identifies it with the Digitalis purpurea; -Gessner, Dodonæus, and Thalius, with the Gentiana pneumonanthe, others -with the Gentiana ciliata and Pannonica, and Sprengel with the Gentiana -verna of Linnæus. Fée admits himself totally at a loss on the subject. - -[1940] “Concolori amplitudine.” Gronovius, with considerable justice, -expresses himself at a loss as to the exact meaning of these words. -If Sprengel and Salmasius are right in their conjectures that the -Caltha of Pliny and Virgil is the marigold, our Calendula officinalis, -the passage cannot mean that the flower of it is of the same size -and colour with any variety of the violet mentioned in the preceding -Chapter. From the description given of it by Dioscorides, it is more -than probable that the Caltha of the ancients is not the marigold, and -Hardouin is probably right in his conjecture that Pliny intends to -describe a variety of the violet under the name. Fée is at a loss as to -its identification. - -[1941] Or “royal broom.” Sprengel thinks that this is the Chenopodium -scoparia, a plant common in Greece and Italy; and Fée is inclined to -coincide with that opinion, though, as he says, there are numerous -other plants with odoriferous leaves and pliant shoots, as its name, -broom, would seem to imply. Other writers would identify it with a -Sideritis, and others, again, with an Achillæa. - -[1942] See B. xii. c. 26. Fée is inclined to coincide with Ruellius, -and to identify this with the Digitalis purpurea, clown’s spikenard, -or our Lady’s gloves. The only strong objection to this is the fact -that the root of the digitalis has a very faint but disagreeable smell, -and not at all like that of cinnamon. But then, as Fée says, we have -no positive proof that the “cinnamomum” of the ancients is identical -with our cinnamon. See Vol. iii. p. 138. Sprengel takes the “bacchar” -of Virgil to be the Valeriana Celtica, and the “baccharis” of the -Greeks to be the Gnaphalium sanguineum, a plant of Egypt and Palestine. -The bacchar has been also identified with the Asperula odorata of -Linnæus, the Geum urbanum of Linnæus (the root of which has the smell -of cloves), the Inula Vaillantii, the Salvia Sclarea, and many other -plants. - -[1943] “Barbaricam.” Everything that was not indigenous to the -territory of Rome, was “barbarum,” or “barbaricum.” - -[1944] Cæsalpinus says that this is a rushy plant, called, in Tuscany, -Herba luziola; but Fée is quite at a loss for its identification. - -[1945] Sillig is most probably right in his surmise that there is an -hiatus here. - -[1946] In B. xii. c. 27. Asarum Europæum, or foal-foot. - -[1947] Probably meaning that it comes from ἀ, “not,” and σαίρω, “to -adorn.” - -[1948] Or Crocus, the Crocus sativus of Linnæus, from the prepared -stigmata of which the saffron of commerce is made. It is still found -growing wild on the mountains in the vicinity of Athens, and is -extensively cultivated in many parts of Europe. - -[1949] “Degenerans ubique.” Judging from what he states below, he may -possibly mean, if grown repeatedly on the same soil. - -[1950] He may allude either to the city of Phlegra of Macedonia, or -to the Phlegræan Plains in Campania, which were remarkable for their -fertility. Virgil speaks of the saffron of Mount Tmolus in Cilicia. - -[1951] It is very extensively adulterated with the petals of the -marigold, as also the Carthamus tinctorius, safflower, or bastard -saffron. - -[1952] This is the case; for when it is brittle it shows that it has -not been adulterated with water, to add to its weight. - -[1953] Perhaps the reading here, “Cum sit in medio candidum,” is -preferable; “because it is white in the middle.” - -[1954] “White throughout.” - -[1955] He contradicts himself here; for in c. 79 of this Book, he says -that chaplets of saffron are good for dispelling the fumes of wine. - -[1956] “Ad theatra replenda.” It was the custom to discharge -saffron-water over the theatres with pipes, and sometimes the saffron -was mixed with wine for the purpose. It was discharged through pipes -of very minute bore, so that it fell upon the spectators in the form -of the finest dust. See Lucretius, B. ii. l. 416; Lucan, Phars. ix. l. -808-810; and Seneca, Epist. 92. - -[1957] It flowers so rapidly, in fact, that it is difficult to avoid -the loss of a part of the harvest. - -[1958] The whole of this passage is from Theophrastus, De Odorib. - -[1959] This statement, though borrowed from Theophrastus, is not -consistent with fact. The root of saffron is not more long-lived than -any other bulbs of the Liliaceæ. - -[1960] Because, Dalechamps says, all the juices are thereby thrown back -into the root, which consequently bears a stronger flower the next year. - -[1961] Il. xiv. l. 348. - -[1962] see B. xiii. c. 32. - -[1963] All these statements as to the odours of various substances, are -from Theophrastus, De Causis, B. vi. c. 22. - -[1964] He does _not_ say, however, that it is but rarely that a bitter -substance is not odoriferous; a sense in which Fée seems to have -understood him, as he says, “This assertion is not true in general, -and there are numerous exceptions; for instance, quassia wood, which -is inodorous and yet intensely bitter.” The essential oil, he remarks, -elaborated in the tissue of the corolla, is the ordinary source of the -emanations of the flower. - -[1965] Fée remarks that cultivation gives to plants a softer and -more aqueous consistency, which is consequently injurious to the -developement of the essential oil. - -[1966] Theophrastus, from whom this is borrowed, might have said with -more justice, Fée remarks, that certain roses have more odour when -dried than when fresh gathered. Such is the case, he says, with the -Provence rose. Fresh roses, however, have a more pronounced smell, the -nearer they are to the olfactory organs. - -[1967] This is by no means invariably the case: in fact, the smell of -most odoriferous plants is most powerful in summer. - -[1968] Because the essential oils evaporate more rapidly. - -[1969] With Littré, we adopt the reading “ætate,” “mid-age,” and -not “æstate,” “midsummer,” for although the assertion would be in -general correct, Pliny would contradict the statement just made, that -all plants have a more penetrating odour in spring. This reading is -supported also by the text of Theophrastus. - -[1970] Or saffron. - -[1971] This is a just observation, but the instances might be greatly -extended, as Fée says. - -[1972] See B. xviii. c. 39. - -[1973] The white lily and the red lily. See c. 11 of this Book. - -[1974] As to the Abrotonum, see B. xiii. c. 2, and c. 34 of this Book. - -[1975] See c. 35 of this Book. - -[1976] Or in other words, the interior of the petals has a more bitter -flavour than that of the exterior surface. - -[1977] Pliny makes a mistake here, in copying from Theophrastus. De -Causis, B. vi. c. 25. That author is speaking not of the flower, but of -the rainbow, under the name of “iris.” Pliny has himself made a similar -statement as to the rainbow, in B. xii. c. 52, which he would appear -here to have forgotten. - -[1978] The Cheiranthus tristis of Linnæus, or sad gilliflower, Fée -thinks. - -[1979] See B. viii. c. 23. Pliny did not know of the existence of the -musk-deer, the Muschus moschiferus of Eastern Asia: and he seems not to -have thought of the civet, (if, indeed, it was known to him) the fox, -the weasel, and the polecat, the exhalations from which have a peculiar -smell. The same, too, with the urine of the panther and other animals -of the genus Felis. - -[1980] For some superstitious reason, in all probability. Pliny -mentions below, the formalities with which this plant ought to be -gathered. - -[1981] See B. xiii. c. 2. The ancient type of this plant, our iris, -sword-lily, or flower-de-luce, was probably the Iris Florentina or -Florentine iris of modern botany. - -[1982] At the present day, too, it is the root of the plant that is the -most important part of it. - -[1983] The Iris Florentina, probably, of Linnæus. - -[1984] Mentioned by Nicander, Theriaca, l. 43. - -[1985] Probably a variety only of the preceding kind. - -[1986] The most common varieties in Africa are the Iris alata of -Lamarck, I. Mauritanica of Clusius, I. juncea, and I. stylosa of -Desfontaines. - -[1987] “Raphanus.” C. Bauhin identifies the Rhaphanitis with the Iris -biflora, and the Rhizotomus with the Iris angustifolia prunum redolens. - -[1988] See c. 38 of this Book. - -[1989] No kind of iris, Fée says, fresh or dried, whole or powdered, is -productive of this effect. - -[1990] Very similar, probably, to that of Illyria. - -[1991] All these superstitions are from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. -ix. c. 9. - -[1992] This, Fée says, is quite consistent with modern experience. - -[1993] “Irinum.” See B. xiii. c. 2. - -[1994] Probably the Valeriana Celtica of Linnæus. See B. xii. c. 27, -where it is mentioned as Gallic nard. - -[1995] “Cæspes.” - -[1996] See B. iii. c. 21. - -[1997] Probably the Teucrium polium of Linnæus; the herb poley, or -poley-mountain. - -[1998] By those who carry it on their person. - -[1999] This marvel is related by Dioscorides in reference to the -Tripolium, and not the Polium. - -[2000] The Teucrium montanum, probably, of Linnæus. - -[2001] This name belongs, properly, to the wild or mountain Polium. - -[2002] “Principales.” The meaning of this term is explained at the end -of this Chapter. Red, yellow, and blue—or else, red, green, and violet, -are probably the _primary_ colours of light. - -[2003] See B. ix. c. 65, and B. xvi. c. 12. He alludes to the Coccus -ilicis of Linnæus. - -[2004] See B. xxxvii. c. 40, as to the meaning of the word “Suspectus.” -This passage, however, as Sillig remarks, is hopelessly corrupt. - -[2005] See B. ix. cc. 60, 63. - -[2006] “Doubly-dyed,” or “twice dipped,” in purple. See B. ix. c. 63. -Littré remarks here that, according to Doctor Bizio, it was the Murex -brandaris that produced the Tyrian purple, and the Murex trunculus the -amethystine purple. - -[2007] Or “violet-colour.” See B. xxxvii. c. 40. - -[2008] For further information on these tints, see B. ix. cc. 64, 65. - -[2009] Belonging, probably, Fée thinks, to the Cruciferæ of the genera -Hesperis and Cheiranthus. - -[2010] “Flammeis” The “flammeum,” or flame-coloured veil of the bride, -was of a bright yellow, or rather orange-colour, perhaps. - -[2011] The Celosia cristata of Linnæus. - -[2012] “Spica.” The moderns have been enabled to equal the velvety -appearance of the amaranth in the tints imparted by them to their -velvets. The Italians call it the “velvet-flower.” - -[2013] The real fact is, that the amaranth, being naturally a dry -flower, and having little humidity to lose, keeps better than most -others. - -[2014] From the Greek ἀ, “not,” and [μαραίνεσθαι], “to -fade.” - -[2015] Being the Greek for “blue” or “azure.” - -[2016] The Centaurea cyanus of Linnæus; our blue-bell. - -[2017] Meaning “all gold.” It has been identified with the Gnaphalium -stœchas of Linnæus, the _immortelle_ of the French, which forms the -ingredient for their funereal chaplets. - -[2018] Sprengel says that this is the Geum rivale of Linnæus; but then -the Geum is a spring, and not an autumn flower, its blossoms bear no -resemblance to those of the eglantine, and its seeds are not yellow. - -[2019] Generally supposed to be the Chrysanthemum segetum, or golden -daisy. - -[2020] “Pastillicantibus quinquagenis quinis barbulis coronatur.” Pliny -is unusually verbose here. - -[2021] “Golden locks,” or “gold plant;” probably the Chrysocoma -linosyris of Linnæus; though the name appears to have been given to -numerous plants. - -[2022] See B. xvi. c. 69, B. xviii. c. 65, B. xix. c. 2, B. xxiv. c. -40; also c. 42 of the present Book. - -[2023] The Nerium oleander of Linnæus. See B. xvi. c. 33, and B. xxiv. -cc. 47, 49. - -[2024] As to the Zizyphum, or jujube, see B. xv. c. 14. The flower, as -Pliny says, is not unlike that of the olive; but Fée remarks, that it -may at the present day as justly be called the tree of Provence or of -Italy, as in ancient times “the tree of Cappadocia.” - -[2025] B. xxv. c. 67. - -[2026] See B. v. c. 41. - -[2027] See B. xvi. cc. 62 and 63, and B. xxiv. cc. 47 and 49. - -[2028] Or Vitis alba, “white vine,” the Bryonia dioica of modern -botany. See B. xxiii. c. 16. - -[2029] The Spiræa salicifolia of Linnæus, or meadowsweet. - -[2030] See B. xx. c. 67, and c. 30 of this Book. - -[2031] The Daphne Cnidium of Linnæus. See B. xxiii. c. 35; also B. xii. -c. 43. It is altogether different from the Laurus cassia, or genuine -cassia. - -[2032] See B. xx. c. 63. - -[2033] See B. xx. c. 45. - -[2034] “Sertula Camapana.” - -[2035] Most probably, Fée thinks, the Trifolium Melilotus officinalis, -a clover, or trefoil. - -[2036] The Psoranthea bituminosa of Linnæus. It is found on declivities -near the sea-coast, in the south of Europe. - -[2037] “Pointed trefoil.” Pliny has probably committed an error here, -as Dioscorides makes oxyphyllum, minyanthes, and asphaltium to be -different names of the same variety. Sprengel, however, identifies this -pointed trefoil with the Trifolium Italicum of Linnæus. - -[2038] The Anethum fæniculum of Linnæus. See B. viii. c. 41, B. xx. c. -95, and B. xxx. c. 9. - -[2039] See B. xx. c. 96. - -[2040] The “mouse-killer.” Probably the Aconitum napellus of Linnæus. -See B. xxvii. c. 2. - -[2041] See B. xvi. c. 62. - -[2042] Fée remarks, that there is no such ivy in existence; he agrees -with Dalechamps in the opinion that Pliny has confounded κίσσος, “ivy,” -with κίστος, the “rock-rose.” See B. xvi. c. 62. - -[2043] The Daphne Cnidium and the Daphne Cneorum of Linnæus. See B. -xxiii. c. 35, and B. xv. c. 7. - -[2044] In reality, they blossom in April and May, and mostly a second -time in autumn as well, the Daphne Cneorum in particular. - -[2045] See B. xx. c. 69. - -[2046] Under the head “Thymus,” Fée thinks that both the Satureia -capitata of Linnæus, headed savory, and the Thymus vulgaris, and Thymus -zygis of Linnæus (varieties of thyme), should be included. - -[2047] Fée thinks that in the expression “nigricans,” he may allude to -the deep red of the stalk of some kinds of thyme, more particularly at -the end of summer. It is the Thymus zigis that has a white, downy stem. - -[2048] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 2, and De Causis, -B. i. c. 5. Fée suggests, that the seed, lying at the bottom of the -calyx, may have escaped notice, and that in reality, when the ancients -imagined they were sowing the blossoms, they were putting the seed in -the earth. That, in fact, seems to agree with the view which Pliny -takes of the matter. - -[2049] Which lies in the interior of the Peloponnesus. - -[2050] See B. xv. c. 1. - -[2051] “Lapidei Campi.” See B. iii. c. 5. - -[2052] Similar to our practice of depasturing sheep on Dartmoor and -other favourite moors and downs. - -[2053] Fée takes this to be the Inula viscosa of Desfontaines, and -identifies the other kind with the Inula pulicaria of Linnæus. See B. -xx. cc. 63, 64. - -[2054] B. xx. c. 64. - -[2055] Supposed to be the same as the Agrostemma coronaria of Linnæus. - -[2056] Sprengel identifies it with the Pancratium maritimum of Linnæus. -As described by Dioscorides, however, Fée takes it to be the Lilium -Martagon, or Turk’s-cap lily. See c. 90 of this Book. - -[2057] This is different from the Helenium of the Greeks, the Inula -Helenium of Linnæus, mentioned in B. xv. c. 7. Sprengel identifies it -with the Teucrium Creticum of Linnæus, the Cretan germander. - -[2058] See B. xx. c. 91. - -[2059] “Flame.” Sprengel identifies it with the Agrostemma coronaria of -Linnæus, making the flower of Jove to be the Agrostemma flos Jovis. - -[2060] Fée remarks, that if this is our Thymus serpyllum, this -exception is inexact. - -[2061] For two islands of this name, see B. iv. c. 20, and c. 23. - -[2062] The female Abrotonum is identified with the Santolina -chamæcyparissus of Linnæus: the little-cypress Santoline. The male is -the Artemisia abrotonum of Linnæus, our southern-wood. - -[2063] Pliny has probably committed an error here in transcribing -from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 7, who, when speaking of -the abrotonum, says, “It is transplanted in earthen pots, in the way -employed for the gardens of Adonis,” these gardens being moveable -parterres, laid out in pots or vases. We cannot agree with Hardouin, -who looks upon the Adonium as a variety of the Abrotonum, and censures -Salmasius for accusing Pliny of committing an error here. - -[2064] The “White flower.” See B. xxii. c. 26. - -[2065] See B. xiii. c. 2. The sampsuchum, or amaracus, is generally -thought to be the sweet marjoram, or Origanum marjorana of Linnæus. -But Fée identifies it with the Origanum majoranoides of Willdenow, our -organy, wild or false marjoram. - -[2066] The “night-watcher.” According to Sprengel, this is the -Cæsalpina pulcherrima of Linnæus. But, as Fée says, that is entirely -an Indian plant, and has only been introduced but very recently into -Europe. Hardouin identifies it with a plant called “lunaria” by the -naturalists of his day, which shines, he says, with the moon at night. - -[2067] The Cæsalpina pulcherrima is not to be found in or near Gedrosia -(in ancient Persia), but solely on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. - -[2068] From χῆνες “geese” and μύχος a “corner;” because geese run into -a corner on seeing it. - -[2069] As to the meaning of this word, see B. xxviii. c. 47. - -[2070] See c. 29 of this Book. - -[2071] This has been thought to be the Cheiranthus incanus, Cheiranthus -annus, and Leucoium vernum of modern botany; but Fée is of opinion that -it is next to impossible to identify it. See c. 14 of this Book. - -[2072] See c. 33 of this Book. - -[2073] See B. xxv. c. 67. - -[2074] In c. 11 of this Book. There is no late variety of the lily -known at the present day. - -[2075] Or “wind flower:” the Anemone coronaria of Linnæus. - -[2076] A ranunculus. See c. 94 of this Book. - -[2077] Or “vine-blossom.” See c. 95 of this Book. - -[2078] Or “black violet,” mentioned by Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. -vi. c. 7. Pliny may probably mean the purple violet, mentioned by him -in c. 14 of this Book. “Melanthium” is another reading. - -[2079] Not improbably the same as the “holochrysos,” mentioned in c. 24 -of this Book. - -[2080] “Meadow” anemone. - -[2081] “The little sword.” See c. 67 of this Book. - -[2082] There have been conflicting opinions as to the identification -of the hyacinth of the ancients. Linnæus identifies it with the -Delphinium Ajacis: Sprengel and Salmasius with the Gladiolus communis: -Sibthorp with the Gladiolus communis triphyllos: Dodonæus and Porta the -Lilium bulbiferum: and Martyn and Fée the Lilium Martagon of Linnæus, -the Turk’s-cap lily. From what Pliny says in cc. 39 and 97 of this -Book, and in B. xxv. c. 80, it is pretty clear that under the name of -hyacinth he has confused the characteristics of two different plants. -The hyacinth, too, of Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 5, is a different plant, -Fée remarks, being the Hyacinthus comosus of modern botanists. - -[2083] The Greek ΑΙ, “Alas!” which the ancients fancied they saw -impressed on the leaves. - -[2084] See Ovid’s Met. B. x. l. 162-220. - -[2085] See Ovid’s Met. B. xiii. l. 397, _et seq._ - -[2086] “Unsullied by fire.” - -[2087] Or “light” flower: the Agrostemma coronaria of Linnæus. - -[2088] Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 7, mentions the “cerinthus” -next after the flower of Jove: Pliny seems to have taken it for a kind -of lily. This flower has not been identified. - -[2089] Sprengel takes this to be the Lavandula spica, or Lavender. - -[2090] Hardouin identifies this with the Lychnis Chalcedonica, or Cross -of Jerusalem, with which opinion Fée seems inclined to coincide. Other -commentators incline to the opinion that it is the Jasminum fruticans, -a plant in which, beyond its smell, there is nothing at all remarkable. -The exotic monocotyledon, known as the “Pothos,” has no connection with -the plant here mentioned. - -[2091] This, according to some, is the Lychnis Chalcedonica, the next -being the Jasminum fruticans. - -[2092] As known to us, all the varieties of the iris blossom in spring. - -[2093] The purple lily, Fée thinks. - -[2094] If this is the correct reading, which is very doubtful, this -plant is unknown. M. Jan has suggested that Pliny, in copying from -Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 7, has read ὀρσινὸς by mistake for -ὀρεινός, “mountainous,” the original meaning being, “Two varieties of -saffron, one of them growing on the mountains, the other cultivated;” -and this last word being rendered by Pliny “hebes,” translated above as -meaning “inodorous.” - -[2095] The Acanthus, probably. See B. xxii. c. 34, and B. xxiv. c. 66. - -[2096] Forskhal speaks of an acanthus in Arabia, the leaves of which -are eaten raw. Fée thinks, that these shoots might be eaten without any -inconvenience, but doubts if they would make such a tempting morsel as -Pliny describes. - -[2097] Or blue-bell. - -[2098] Linnæus and other authorities identify this with the Clematis -of Dioscorides, the Vinca major and minor of modern botany, our -periwinkle. Fée, however, is inclined to identify it with the -Chamædaphne, or ground-laurel of B. xv. c. 39, the Ruscus racemosus of -Linnæus. - -[2099] See c. 38 of this Book. - -[2100] This method of cultivation, also mentioned by Theophrastus, is -never employed in modern horticulture. - -[2101] In c. 10 of this Book. - -[2102] See B. xix. c. 50. - -[2103] “Honey-leaf.” The Melissa officinalis of Linnæus: our -balm-gentle. It is the same as the “apiastrum,” though Pliny has -erroneously made them distinct plants. - -[2104] “Wax-flower.” The Cerinthe major of Linnæus: the greater -honeywort. - -[2105] See B. xi. c. 8. On the contrary, Virgil says, Georg. iv. l. 20, -that a wild olive-tree should be planted near the hives, to protect -them with its shade. Varro says also, De Re Rust. iii. 16, that the bee -extracts honey from the olive-tree; but according to Aristotle, Hist. -Anim. B. ix. c. 64, it is from the leaf, and not the flower of that -tree that the honey is extracted. - -[2106] See B. xv. c. 31. Fée is inclined to doubt the correctness of -the assertion here made by Pliny. - -[2107] See B. xiv. c. 5. The remedies for the diseases of bees in -modern times are of a very similar nature, but attention is equally -paid to the proper ventilation of the hives. - -[2108] This plan is still adopted on the river Po, the ancient Padus, -as also at Beauce, in the south of France, where the hives are carried -from place to place upon carts. In the north of England it is the -practice to carry the hives to the moors in autumn. - -[2109] This has been doubted by Spielmann, but it is nevertheless the -truth; the nature of the sugar secreted by the glands of the nectary, -being analogous to that of the plant which furnishes it. The honey -gathered from aconite in Switzerland has been known to produce vertigo -and even delirium. Dr. Barton also gives a similar account of the -effects of the poisonous honey collected from the Kalmia latifolia in -Pennsylvania; and Geoffroi Saint Hilaire says that, having eaten in -Brazil some honey prepared by a wasp called “lecheguana,” his life was -put in very considerable danger thereby. Xenophon also speaks of the -effects of the intoxicating or maddening honey upon some of the Ten -Thousand in their retreat. - -[2110] The rhododendrons and rose laurels, Fée says, which are so -numerous in these parts, render the fact here stated extremely probable. - -[2111] “Goats’ death.” Fée says that this is the Rhododendron Ponticum -of Linnæus. Desfontaines identifies it with the Azalea Pontica of -modern botany. - -[2112] In reality, there are no visible signs by which to detect that -the honey is poisonous. - -[2113] B. xxix. c. 31. - -[2114] See B. xii. c. 25. - -[2115] Μαινόμενον, “maddening.” - -[2116] The ægolethron of the preceding Chapter, Fée thinks. If so, -the word rhododendron, he says, would apply to two plants, the Nerion -oleander or rose laurel (see B. xvi. c. 33), and the Rhododendron -Ponticum. - -[2117] Fée refuses to credit this: but still such a thing might -accidentally happen. - -[2118] These asserted remedies would be of no use whatever, Fée says. - -[2119] See B. vii. c. 2. - -[2120] Fée seems to take it for granted that Pliny is speaking here of -honey made by other insects than bees; but such does not appear to be -the case. - -[2121] Fée remarks here that Pliny is right, and that Columella and -Palladius are wrong, who would have the hives to look due north. - -[2122] Lapis specularis: a sort of talc, probably. See B. iii. c. 4. B. -ix. c. 56. B. xv. c. 1. B. xix. c. 23, and B. xxxvi. c. 45. - -[2123] In B. ix. c. 16, he mentions hives made of horn for this -purpose. Glass hives are now made for the purpose, but the moisture -which adheres to the interior of the glass prevents the operations of -the bees from being watched with any degree of nicety. - -[2124] “Cognatum hoc.” He probably alludes to the notion entertained by -the ancients that bees might be reproduced from the putrefied entrails -of an ox, as wasps from those of a horse. See the story of Aristæus in -B. iv. of Virgil’s Georgics. - -[2125] Or butterflies—“papiliones.” - -[2126] “Teredines.” - -[2127] Honeycombs and rough wax are placed in the hive, when the bees -are in want of aliment; also honey and sugar-sirop. - -[2128] “Defrutum:” grape-juice boiled down to one-half. - -[2129] Fée is at a loss to know how this could be of any service as an -aliment to bees. - -[2130] A mere puerility, Fée says. - -[2131] But extremely weak, no doubt; for after boiling, the hydromel -must be subjected, first to vinous, and then to acetous, fermentation. - -[2132] The method here described differs but little from that employed -at the present day. - -[2133] “Sporta.” - -[2134] Or Carthaginian. - -[2135] In reality, the wax has properties totally different from those -of the honey, and it is not always gathered from the same plants. - -[2136] A kind of bee-glue. See B. xi. c. 6. - -[2137] Neither the nitre nor the salt, Fée says, would be of the -slightest utility. - -[2138] By causing the aqueous particles that may remain in it, to -evaporate. - -[2139] Or “likenesses”—“similitudines.” Waxen profiles seem to have -been the favourite likenesses with the Romans: See the Asinaria of -Plautus, A. iv. sc. i. l. 19, in which one of these portraits is -clearly alluded to. Also Ovid, Heroid. xiii. l. 152, and Remed. Amor. -l. 723. The “imagines” also, or busts of their ancestors, which were -kept in their “atria,” were made of wax. - -[2140] To protect the paintings, probably, with which the walls were -decorated. - -[2141] In B. xi. - -[2142] See B. xv. c. 28. - -[2143] See B. xxiii. c. 17. According to some authorities, it is -supposed to be the Delphinium staphis agria of Linnæus; but Fée and -Desfontaines identify it with the Tamus communis of Linnæus, Our Lady’s -seal. - -[2144] The Ruscus aculeatus of Linnæus. See B. xxiii. c. 83. - -[2145] In B. xxii. c. 33, this plant is called “halimon.” Some authors -identify it with the Atriplex halymus, and others, again, with the -Crithmum maritimum of Linnæus. See also B. xxvi. c. 50. - -[2146] Identified by some commentators with the Portulaca sativa or -Portulaca oleracea of Linnæus. - -[2147] “Pastinaca pratensis.” Fée and Desfontaines are undecided -whether this is the Daucus carota of Linnæus, the common carrot, or the -Pastinaca sativa, the cultivated parsnip. - -[2148] “Lupus salictarius,” the “willow wolf,” literally; the Humulus -lupulus of Linnæus. It probably took its Latin name from the tenacity -with which it clung to willows and osiers. - -[2149] The Arum colocasia of Linnæus. - -[2150] The “bean.” Not, however, the Egyptian bean, which is the -Nymphæa nelumbo of Linnæus, the Nelumbum speciosum of Willdenow. - -[2151] These filaments are mentioned also by Martial, Epig., B. viii. -Ep. 33, and B. xiii. Ep. 57. But according to Desfontaines, this -description applies to the stalks of the Nymphæa lotos, and not of the -Arum colocasia. - -[2152] “Thyrsus.” - -[2153] Desfontaines has identified this with the Arctium lappa of -botanists; but that is a land plant, and this, Pliny says, grows in the -rivers, if the reading here is correct, it cannot be the plant of the -same name mentioned in B. xxv. c. 58. - -[2154] This applies, Desfontaines says, to the Nymphæa nelumbo. - -[2155] Here he returns, according to Desfontaines, to the Arum -colocasia. - -[2156] See B. xx. c. 29. - -[2157] “Intubum erraticum.” - -[2158] The Cyperus Esculentus of Linnæus. - -[2159] Theophrastus, B. iv. c. 10, says that it grows in the sandy soil -in the vicinity of the river. - -[2160] It is similar in appearance to the papyrus, and its tubercles -are oblong, or round and fleshy, with an agreeable flavour. - -[2161] The Arachis hypogæa of Linnæus, the earth pistachio. - -[2162] The root is not large; but the fruit is so close to the earth -that Pliny may have confounded it with the real root of the plant. - -[2163] Sprengel identifies this with the Lathyrus amphicarpos, and the -aracos with the Lathyrus tuberosus, varieties of the chicheling vetch. -Columna thinks that this last was the arachidna. Fée says that the data -are altogether insufficient to enable us to form an opinion. - -[2164] The Chondrylla juncea of Linnæus, according to Fée; but -Desfontaines identifies it with the Lactuca perennis. - -[2165] Desfontaines identifies it with the Hyoseris lucida. Fée says -that the opinion is equally as difficult to combat as to support. - -[2166] Fée identifies it with the Caucalis grandiflora of Linnæus, a -native of Greece. Desfontaines mentions the Caucalis Orientalis, an -Eastern plant. - -[2167] For this and the Scandix, see B. xxii. c. 38. - -[2168] A chicoraceous plant: the Tragopogon crocifolius of Linnæus. - -[2169] See c. 104 of this Book. - -[2170] See cc. 35 and 105 of this Book. - -[2171] The Corchorus olitorius of Linnæus: still cultivated in Egypt. - -[2172] Identified by some, but it is doubtful if with any good reason, -with the Leontodon taraxacum of Linnæus: our dandelion. - -[2173] The reading is doubtful, and it does not appear to have been -identified. - -[2174] Or “stone-plant:” identified with the Sedum anacampseros of -Linnæus: a variety of house-leek. - -[2175] On the contrary, it has a purple flower. - -[2176] It is this, probably, that has caused it to be identified with -the Leontodon taraxacum. - -[2177] The Carthamus tinctorius of Linnæus, or bastard saffron. The -seed of it is a powerful purgative to man, but has no effect on -birds: it is much used for feeding parrots, hence one of its names, -“parrot-seed.” - -[2178] Identified by Fée with the Atractylis of Dioscorides, the -Carthamus mitissimus of Linnæus; the Carduncellus mitissimus of -Decandolle. - -[2179] From ἄτρακτος, “a distaff.” - -[2180] The Centaurea lanata of Decandolle, the Centaurea benedicta of -Linnæus. - -[2181] The Asparagus aphylla of Linnæus: the leafless asparagus. - -[2182] The Spartium scorpius of Linnæus: scorpion-grass, or -scorpion-wort. - -[2183] See B. xxii. c. 8. - -[2184] See B. xxii. c. 11. The “sweet-root;” our liquorice. The -Glycyrrhiza echinata of Linnæus bears a prickly fruit; it is of this, -Fée thinks, that Pliny speaks here. - -[2185] Fée remarks, that though the leaf of the nettle is furnished -with numerous stings, or rather prickly hairs, it is quite wrong to -look upon them as thorns, which Pliny, in the present instance, (though -not in the next Chapter) appears to do. Genuine thorns, he remarks, are -abortive branches, which, of course, cannot be said of the fine hairs -springing from the nerves of the leaf. See B. xxii. c. 15. - -[2186] Supposed to be the Tribulus terrestris of Linnæeus, a species -of thistle: the leaves of this plant, however, are not provided, Fée -remarks, with thorns at their base, the fruit alone being spinous. See -c. 58 of this Book. - -[2187] See c. 58 of this Book. - -[2188] The Poterium spinosum of botanists. See B. xxii. c. 13. - -[2189] See B. xxii. c. 13. Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 5, -identifies this plant with the Stœbe just mentioned. - -[2190] “Acetabulis.” Fée complains of the use of this term (meaning a -“small cup”) in relation to the calyces of the nettle; such not being -in reality their form. - -[2191] Probably in allusion to the Urtica dioica, which grows to a -greater height than the Urtica urens. See B. xxii. c. 15. - -[2192] “Canina.” A variety, probably, of the Urtica urens, the nettle, -with the exception of the Urtica pilifera, which has the most stinging -properties of all those found in Europe, and the leaves of which are -the most deeply indented. - -[2193] This has not been identified. They are all of them either -inodorous, or else possessed of a faint, disagreeable smell. - -[2194] This “lanugo,” or down, as he calls it, consists of a fine -elongated tube of cellular tissue, seated upon a gland of similar -tissue. In this gland a poisonous fluid is secreted, and when any -pressure is made upon the gland, the fluid passes upwards in the tube. -The nettle of the East, known as the Devil’s Leaf, is of so poisonous a -quality as to produce death. - -[2195] In some parts of the north of England and of Scotland the young -plant of the Urtica dioica is eaten as greens, and is far from a -disagreeable dish, strongly resembling spinach. It is also reckoned a -very wholesome diet, and is taken habitually in the spring, under the -impression that it purifies the blood. This notion, we see from the -context, is as old as the time of the Romans. - -[2196] Dalechamps speaks of it as the custom in his time to wrap up -fish and game in nettles, under the impression that they would keep the -longer for it. - -[2197] The dead nettle, or blind nettle. See B. xxii. c. 16. - -[2198] See B. xxii. c. 17. - -[2199] He probably means the thistle, but possibly the artichoke, under -this name. See B. xix. cc. 19 and 43, and B. xx. c. 99. - -[2200] This is probably the same with the second variety of the -“Cnecos,” mentioned above in c. 53, the Centaurea lanata, or benedicta. - -[2201] Probably the Carduus leucographus of Linnæus. - -[2202] According to Dalechamps, this is the Echinops ritro of modern -botany. - -[2203] See c. 93 of this Book. - -[2204] “Many thorns.” According to Dalechamps, this is the Carduus -spinosissimus angustifolius vulgaris of C. Bauhin, the Cirsium -spinosissimum of Linnæus. - -[2205] Identified by Dalechamps with the Onopordon Illyricum, or -Acanthium of modern botany. - -[2206] The Acarna gummifera of modern botanists, the flowers of which -yield a kind of gum with an agreeable smell. It is quite a different -plant from Wall pellitory, mentioned in B. xxii. c. 19, under this name. - -[2207] See B. xx. c. 99, and B. xxii. c. 43. - -[2208] The black chamæleon is identified by Fée with the Brotera -corymbosa of Willdenow: the white variety, mentioned in B. xxii. c. 21, -with the Acarna gummifera of Willdenow, the Helxine above mentioned. -Desfontaines identifies it with the Carlina acaulis. - -[2209] See B. xxii. c. 8. - -[2210] The Greek for “blood” or “slaughter.” - -[2211] “Carduus.” - -[2212] “Thorn mastich,” or “resin.” - -[2213] This is not the Cactus of modern botany, a plant mentioned -in the sequel under the name of “Opuntia,” but probably the Cinara -carduncellus. See B. xx. c. 99. - -[2214] Theophrastus says, that when peeled they have a somewhat bitter -flavour, and are kept pickled in brine. - -[2215] This name is now given by naturalists to the calyx of Compositæ, -which exists in the rudimentary condition of a membranous coronet, or -of downy hairs, like silk. - -[2216] “Cortex.” - -[2217] The Trapa natans of Linnæus, or water chesnut, a prickly marsh -plant of Europe and Asia. Hence our word “caltrop.” - -[2218] “Dira res alibi.” - -[2219] These two plants have no affinity whatever with the one just -mentioned. The first of these so-called varieties is the Tribulus -terrestris of Linnæus; and the second is identified by Fée, though with -some doubt, with the Fagonia Cretica of Linnæus. - -[2220] The Ononis antiquorum of Linnæus, the Cammock, or rest-harrow. - -[2221] The Cochlearia coronopus. See B. xxii. c. 22. - -[2222] The Anchusa tinctoria, probably, or dyers’ alkanet. See B. xxii. -c. 23. - -[2223] See B. xxii. c. 26. - -[2224] It has not been identified with any degree of certainty: the -Centaurea nigra and the Campanula rapunculus have been named. - -[2225] See B. xxvii. c. 21: also c. 52 of this Book. The name appears -to have been given to both the Leontodon taraxacum and the Lathyras -aphaca of modern botany. - -[2226] Theophrastus has Picris in the parallel passage, Hist. Plant. -B. vii. c. 9, the Helminthia echioides of Linnæus. If “Crepis” is the -correct reading, that plant has not been identified. - -[2227] The herbaceous kinds are no doubt those alluded to. - -[2228] See B. xix. cc. 31, 36, and 44; and B. xx. c. 48. The ocimum of -the Greeks has been identified by some with the Ocimum basilicum of -Linnæus, our basil. That of the Romans seems to have been a name given -to one or more varieties of leguminous plants of the vetch kind. - -[2229] The Heliotropium Europæum. See B. xxii. c. 29. - -[2230] This plant has not been identified, but Fée is inclined, from -what Dioscorides says, B. iv. c. 24, to identify it with either the -Lithospermum fruticosum, or else the Anchusa Italica of Linnæus. - -[2231] This is not the case, if this plant is identical with the -Heliotropium Europæum, that being an annual. - -[2232] The Adiantum Capillus Veneris of Linnæus, or the Asplenium -trichomanes of Linnæus. “Venus hair, or coriander maiden hair; others -name it to be well fern.”—T. Cooper. The leaves of these plants last -the whole of their lives. - -[2233] The Teuerium polium of Linnæeus, our poley; the leaves of which -are remarkably long-lived. - -[2234] “Spicatæ.” - -[2235] Fée is in doubt whether to identify it with the Plantago cynops -of the south of Europe, and the banks of the Rhine. - -[2236] “Foxtail.” According to Dalechamps, it is the Saccharum -cylindricum, the Lagurus of Linnæus; but Fée expresses his doubts as to -their identity. - -[2237] Fée inclines to think that it may be the Secale villosum of -Linnæus; though the more recent commentators identify it with the -Plantago angustifolia. The Saccharum Ravennæ has been suggested. - -[2238] Or “quail.” - -[2239] In B. xxv. c. 39. - -[2240] Hardouin takes this to be our pimpernel, the Sanguisorba -officinalis of Linnæeus. Sprengel inclines to the Verbascum lychnitis -of Linnæus. - -[2241] “Proxuma.” - -[2242] See B. xviii. c. 66. - -[2243] Supposed by most commentators to be the Parietaria officinalis -of Linnæus; Wall pellitory or parietary. Some, however, have suggested -the Polygonum maritimum, or the Polygonum divaricatum of Linnæus. Fée -expresses doubts as to its identity, but remarks that the modern Greek -name of pellitory is “perdikaki.” See c. 104 of this Book, and B. xxii. -c. 20. - -[2244] “Perdix,” the Greek name. - -[2245] Probably the Ornithogalum umbellatum of Linnæus. Sprengel -identifies it with the Ornithogalum natans: but that variety is not -found in Greece, while the other is. - -[2246] “Puls” - -[2247] Probably the Melilotus cœrulea of Linnæus, Fée says. -Desfontaines mentions the Melilotus Cretica or Italica. - -[2248] The Avena fatua or sterilis; the barren oat. See B. xviii. c. 44. - -[2249] See B. xxii. c. 26. - -[2250] The Gallium aparine of Linnæus. See B. xviii. c. 44. - -[2251] The Opuntia. The Cactus Opuntia of Linnæus; the cactus, or -Indian fig. - -[2252] Perhaps the Convolvulus sepium of Linnæus; though Fée dissents -from that opinion. See B. xxii. c. 39. - -[2253] See c. 52 of this Book. - -[2254] See B. xxii. c. 31. - -[2255] From the Greek πικρὸς. - -[2256] In B. xviii. c. 65. - -[2257] “Little sword:” the Gladiolus communis of Linnæus. See the -remarks on the hyacinthus of the ancients in the Notes to c. 38 of this -Book. - -[2258] Sprengel says that it is the Thesium linophyllum of modern -botany; an opinion at which Fée expresses his surprise. See B. xxii. c. -31. - -[2259] The Asphodelus ramosus of Linnæus. - -[2260] “Little sword.” - -[2261] It is no longer employed as an article of food. - -[2262] Od. xi. 539, and xxiv. 13. - -[2263] It is difficult to say to what “illud” refers, if, indeed, it is -the correct reading. - -[2264] “Hastula regia.” - -[2265] “Caulis acinosi.” - -[2266] See B. xxii. c. 32. - -[2267] “Arrow.” The Sagittaria sagittifolia of Linnæus; our arrow-head, -or adder’s tongue. - -[2268] 15th of May. - -[2269] The Schœnus mariscus of Linnæus. - -[2270] Pliny is guilty of a lapsus memoriæ here, for he has nowhere -given any such advice on the subject. Hardouin refers to B. xviii. c. -67, but erroneously, for there he is speaking of hay, not “ulva” or -sedge. - -[2271] The “sharp rush.” The Juncus acutus of Linnæus; the pointed -bulrush. - -[2272] The “pointed” rush. The Schœnus mucronatus of Linnæus. - -[2273] A variety, Fée says, of the Schœnus nigricans of Linnæus, the -black bulrush. - -[2274] The “black head.” - -[2275] The Scirpus holoschœnus of Linnæus, Fée thinks. - -[2276] None of the rushes, Fée remarks, are barren; and when the head -is inserted in the ground, it is neither more nor less than a sowing of -the seed. Hardouin remarks, however, that by the word “cacumine,” the -bulbous root of the rush is meant, and not the point of the stem. - -[2277] “Nassæ.” Baskets with a narrow mouth. - -[2278] It has descended in our time to the more humble rushlight; and -even that is fast “going out.” - -[2279] Fée identifies it with the Cyperus longus and Cyperus rotundus -of Linnæus, the odoriferous or round souchet. - -[2280] In c. 67 of this Book. The bulb, however, of the gladiolus is -inodorous; for which reason Fée is inclined to think that Pliny, with -all his care, is describing a cyperus, perhaps the Cyperus esculentus. - -[2281] It would be curious to know who these barbarians were, who -thus _smoked_ cypirus as we do tobacco. Fée queries whether they were -Germans or Gauls, people of Asia or of Africa. - -[2282] This applies more particularly, Fée thinks, to the Cyperus -rotundus of Linnæus. - -[2283] The Cyperus longus of Linnæus, Fée thinks. - -[2284] Sillig finds a difficulty here which does not seem to exist. It -is pretty clear that “cæteris” refers to the other varieties of the -cypiros, mentioned in the preceding Chapter. - -[2285] It has not been identified. - -[2286] Mentioned also by Dioscorides. It has not been identified. - -[2287] B. xii. c. 48. - -[2288] Dioscorides says that it grows in Babylonia. It is a variety, no -doubt, of the Andropogon schœnanthus. - -[2289] “Ungues,” “nails;” in allusion to the white part of the -finger-nails. - -[2290] “Cortex.” - -[2291] “Anchusam.” - -[2292] In B. xiv. c. 19. - -[2293] “In calliblepharum.” - -[2294] “Diapasmata.” - -[2295] “Pilulæ.” He alludes to the galls produced by an insect of the -Cynips kind, and known as “bedeguar.” They are astringent, but no -longer employed in medicine. - -[2296] The efficacy of bears’-grease for promoting the growth of the -hair was believed in, we find, so early as Pliny’s time. - -[2297] See c. 11 of this Book. The bulbs of the lily contain a -mucilage, and roasted or boiled they are sometimes employed, Fée says, -to bring inflammations to a head. Employed internally, he thinks -that they would be of no use whatever, and there is nothing in their -composition, he says which would induce one to think that they might be -employed to advantage in most of the cases mentioned by Pliny. - -[2298] Or “Poley.” See c. 21 of this Book. - -[2299] “Mel.” - -[2300] See c. 12 of this Book. - -[2301] The Narcissus pseudo-narcissus of Linnæus, the meadow narcissus, -or daffodil. The epithet “herbaceous,” Fée says, applies, not to the -flower, but to the leaves, which are larger and greener than in the -other kinds. - -[2302] “Torpor,” or “lethargy.” - -[2303] See c. 14 of this Book. - -[2304] An ointment made of wax and oil. - -[2305] “Ægilopiis.” - -[2306] “Diapasmata.” - -[2307] This, as Fée remarks, can hardly apply to the Digitalis purpurea -of Linnæus, with which he has identified it, the smell of which is -disagreeable rather than otherwise. - -[2308] In c. 16 of this Book. - -[2309] The Asarum Europæum of Linnæus; our foalfoot. See B. xii. c. 27. - -[2310] In c. 16 of this Book. - -[2311] In B. xii. c. 26. - -[2312] B. xii. c. 26. Either the Valeriana Italica, Fée says, or the -Valeriana Dioscoridis of Sibthorpe. The Valeriana phu and the Valeriana -officinalis of Linnæus have been suggested by some commentators. - -[2313] Or “prurigo.” - -[2314] See B. xxxv. cc. 18 and 57. - -[2315] “Collyrium.” Saffron is still the base of certain eye-salves. - -[2316] Formed, most probably, of all the insoluble substances contained -in the oil employed in making the “unguentum crocinum.” - -[2317] A small kind of quince. See B. xv. cc. 10 and 14. - -[2318] “Orthopnœa.” - -[2319] The Iris fœtidissima of Linnæus. It grows near Constantinople, -and the smell of it is so like that of roast meat, that it is commonly -called, Fée says, the “leg of mutton iris.” - -[2320] “Credo.” It does not exactly appear that Pliny puts faith in -this superstition, as Fée and Desfontaines seem to think; but he merely -hazards a supposition as to what are the intentions of these avaricious -herbalists. - -[2321] See c. 20 of this Book. - -[2322] See c. 21 of this Book. Fée remarks, that in reality it -possesses none of the qualities that are attributed to it. - -[2323] The “protection against poisons.” - -[2324] We have adopted Sillig’s emendation of this passage; the words -“aiunt, quod alii” being evidently required by the context. - -[2325] “Cytinus” appears to be a preferable reading here to “cyanus,” -the “blue-bell.” - -[2326] See c. 24 of this Book. Its medicinal properties, Fée says, are -next to nothing. - -[2327] See c. 26 of this Book. If it is the Chrysocoma linosyris, it -has no peculiar medicinal properties, Fée says. All these statements -are found in Dioscorides. - -[2328] Sec B. xx. c. 45, and c. 41 of this Book. It is a plant of -somewhat stimulating properties, and may possibly be useful, Fée -thinks, for nervous affections. - -[2329] “Scopis.” He may possibly mean small brooms made of the sprigs -of the plant. - -[2330] See c. 29 of this Book. The melilote is possessed of no peculiar -energy, but decoctions of it are sometimes employed as a lotion. - -[2331] Sores “resembling a honey-comb.” - -[2332] See c. 30 of this Book. - -[2333] In c. 30 of this Book. - -[2334] See c. 31 of this Book. Thyme yields an essential oil, possessed -of stimulating properties. Most of the assertions here made as to its -virtues are quite unfounded. - -[2335] See c. 33 of this Book. The Pancratium maritimum, if that plant -is identical with it, is but little used, but has a marked action, Fée -says, upon the human frame. - -[2336] In c. 33 of this Book. - -[2337] Od. iv. l. 221. This has been supposed by many commentators -to have been opium. The origin of the word is νή, “not,” and πένθος, -“grief;” and, as Fée says, it would seem to indicate rather a -composition than a plant. Saffron, mandragore, nightshade, and even -tea and coffee, have been suggested by the active imaginations of -various writers. Fée is of opinion that it is impossible to come to -any satisfactory conclusion, but inclines to the belief that either -the poppy or a preparation from it, is meant. In confirmation of this -opinion, it is a singular fact, that, as Dr. Paris remarks (in his -Pharmacologia), the Nepenthes of Homer was obtained from Thebes in -Egypt, and that tincture of opium, or laudanum, has received the name -of “Thebaic tincture.” Gorræus, in his “Definitiones Medicæ,” thinks -that the herb alluded to is the Inula Campania, or Elecampane, which -was also said to have derived its name of “Helenium” from Helen. Dr. -Greenhill, in Smith’s Dictionary of Antiquities, inclines to the -opinion that it was opium. See the article “Pharmaceutica.” - -[2338] See c. 34 of this Book. Both of the plants mentioned share -the medicinal properties of wormwood, being stimulants, tonics, -anthelmintics, and febrifuges. It would be dangerous, however, Fée -says, to administer them in most of the cases mentioned by Pliny, nor -would they be good for strangury, or affections of the chest. - -[2339] “Nervis.” Pliny had no knowledge, probably, of the nervous -system; but Fée seems to think that such is his meaning here. See B. -xi. c. 88. - -[2340] See B. xi. cc. 24, 28, and 29. - -[2341] See c. 34 of this Book; also B. xxii. c. 26. - -[2342] See c. 35 of this Book. - -[2343] In c. 38 of this Book. - -[2344] The Anemone coronaria of Linnæus, Fée thinks. - -[2345] Probably the Adonis æstivalis of Linnæus, a ranunculus. These -plants are of an acrid, irritating nature, and rank at the present day -among the vegetable poisons. - -[2346] The “wind-flower,” from the Greek ἄνεμος, “wind.” - -[2347] See B. xxv. c. 26. - -[2348] In B. xix. c. 53. - -[2349] As Fée remarks, it would be very dangerous to use it. - -[2350] “Cuique animalium.” - -[2351] The Œnanthe pimpinellifolia of Linnæus. If taken internally, Fée -says, it would tend to aggravate the disease so treated, in a very high -degree. - -[2352] See c. 38. Also B. xxvi. c. 55. - -[2353] See c. 38 of this Book; also B. xvi. c. 31. - -[2354] From the herb “hysge,” used for dyeing a deep red. See B. ix. c. -65, and B. xxi. c. 36. No such colour, Fée says, can be obtained from -the petals of either the Lilium Martagon or the Gladiolus communis, -with which it has been identified. - -[2355] It has no such effect; and the slave-dealers certainly lost -their pains in cosmetizing their slaves with it, their object being -to make them look younger than they really were, and not older, as -Hardouin seems to think. - -[2356] See c. 10 of this Book. - -[2357] White specks in the pupil of the eye, or whiteness of the cornea. - -[2358] See c. 39 of this Book. - -[2359] “Ground-laurel.” - -[2360] See c. 50, and B. xxiii. c. 83. The medicinal properties of this -plant are not developed to any great extent; but it was thought till -lately, Fée says, to be an excellent diuretic. - -[2361] See c. 49 and B. xxvi. c. 50. - -[2362] The Thymus acinos of Linnæus. - -[2363] See c. 51 of this Book. It is an alimentary plant, but eaten -raw, it is possessed of some acridity. - -[2364] The Cyperus esculentus of Linnæus, the esculent souchet. - -[2365] The two varieties are identified with the Cressa Cretica and the -Teucrium iva of Linnæus. The latter plant is said to be a sudorific. - -[2366] See B. xxvi. c. 53. - -[2367] The Matricaria parthenium of Linnæus. See c. 52. - -[2368] De Re Med. ii. 33. It must not be confounded with the plant of -that name mentioned in c. 62 of this Book. - -[2369] The Solanum nigrum of Linnæus, or black night-shade. See B. -xxi. c. 108. - -[2370] The Physalis alkekengi of Linnæus; red night-shade, alkekengi, -or winter cherry. Fée remarks, that the varieties of this plant in -Egypt are very numerous, and that in many places, till very recently, -it was employed as an article of food. - -[2371] “Vesica.” - -[2372] The Solanum villosum of Lamarck. - -[2373] From δορὺ, a “spear.” - -[2374] “Apertius,” as suggested by Sillig, is a preferable reading to -“parcius.” - -[2375] From μάνια, “madness.” - -[2376] The Physalis somnifera of Linnæus, the somniferous nightshade. - -[2377] The Solanum melongena of Linnæus. - -[2378] The Corchorus olitorius of Linnæus. See B. xxv. c. 92. - -[2379] Theriaca, p. 44. - -[2380] See c. 53 of this Book. - -[2381] It has not been identified. Dalechamps, without any proof, -identifies it with the Tussilago petasites of modern botany. - -[2382] See the Introduction to Vol. III. - -[2383] See end of B. iii. - -[2384] See end of B. ii. - -[2385] See end of B. ii. - -[2386] A writer on flowers and chaplets, in the time of Tiberius. -Nothing whatever beyond this seems to be known of him. - -[2387] C. Julius Atticus Vestinus, or, according to some authorities, -M. Atticus Vestinus. He was consul A.D. 65; and, though innocent, -was put to death by Nero’s order, for alleged participation in the -conspiracy of Piso. - -[2388] See end of B. xiv. - -[2389] See end of B. iii. - -[2390] See end of B. iii. - -[2391] See end of B. xiv. - -[2392] See end of B. vii. - -[2393] See end of B. xvi. - -[2394] See end of B. xx. - -[2395] See end of B. xix. - -[2396] See end of B. xii. - -[2397] See end of B. xx. - -[2398] See end of B. xx. See also B. xxv. c. 5. - -[2399] See end of B. iii. - -[2400] See end of B. ii. - -[2401] See end of B. xx. - -[2402] See end of B. ii. - -[2403] See end of B. viii. - -[2404] See end of B. xix. - -[2405] See end of B. viii. - -[2406] See end of B. vii. - -[2407] An alleged disciple of Orpheus, and probably as fabulous a -personage. Many works, now lost, passed under his name. - -[2408] One of the most celebrated of the Greek tragic writers; born -B.C. 495. Of his 127 tragedies, only seven have come down to us. - -[2409] A Pythagorean philosopher, a native of one of the cities called -Larissa. Being accused of magical practices, he was banished from -the city of Rome by the Emperor Augustus. The explanation of these -charges is, that he probably possessed a superior knowledge of natural -philosophy. See B. xxv. c. 95. B. xxviii. c. 49. B. xxxii. c. 52, and -B. xxxv. c. 50. - -[2410] A physician, a native of Athens in the fourth century B.C. He is -supposed to have belonged to the sect of the Dogmatici, and was greatly -celebrated for his classification of diseases. He wrote on diet and -drink, among other subjects. - -[2411] Probably the same writer that is mentioned at the end of B. -iv.; or, possibly, a physician of that name, who was a disciple of -Herophilus, and lived about the second century B.C. - -[2412] A distinguished Peripatetic philosopher of Eresos in Lesbos, a -disciple of Aristotle, and a contemporary of Theophrastus. - -[2413] Of this writer, nothing whatever is known, beyond the mention -made of him in c. 88 of this Book, and in B. xxii. c. 32. - -[2414] Nothing whatever is known relative to this writer. - -[2415] See end of B. vii. - -[2416] See end of B. xx. - -[2417] See end of B. xx. - -[2418] See end of B. xx. - -[2419] For Heraclides of Pontus, see end of B. iv. For Heraclides of -Tarentum, see end of B. xii. - -[2420] See end of B. xv. - -[2421] See end of B. xii. - -[2422] See end of B. xx. - -[2423] See end of B. xx. - -[2424] See end of B. xx. - -[2425] See end of B. xx. - -[2426] See end of B. xx. - -[2427] See end of B. xx. - -[2428] See end of B. xx. - -[2429] See end of B. xx. - -[2430] See end of B. vii. - -[2431] See end of B. xx. - -[2432] See end of B. xx. - -[2433] See end of B. xii. - -[2434] See end of B. xi. - -[2435] See end of B. xii. - -[2436] See end of B. xx. - -[2437] See end of B. xii. - -[2438] See end of B. xx. - -[2439] See end of B. xx. - -[2440] See end of B. vi. - -[2441] See end of B. xx. - -[2442] See end of B. xx. - -[2443] See end of B. xx. - -[2444] See end of B. xx. - -[2445] See end of B. xii. - -[2446] See end of B. xx. - -[2447] See end of B. xx. - -[2448] See end of B. xix. - -[2449] See end of B. xx. - -[2450] See end of B. xx. - -[2451] See end of B. xx. - -[2452] Fée remarks, that at the present day, in all savage nations in -which tatooing is practised, the men display more taste and care in the -operation than is shewn by the females. There is little doubt that it -is the art of tatooing the body, or in other words, first puncturing it -and then rubbing in various colours, that is here spoken of by Pliny. - -[2453] “Inscribunt.” “Writing upon,” or “tatooing,” evidently. - -[2454] Our “woad,” the Isatis tinctoria of Linnæus, which imparts a -blue colour. The root of this Celtic woad is probably “glas,” “blue,” -whence also our word “glass;” and it is not improbable that the name of -glass was given to it from the blue tints which it presented. Julius -Cæsar and Pomponius Mela translate this word “glastum,” by the Latin -“vitrum,” “glass.” - -[2455] “Conjuges nurusque.” Cæsar says that _all_ the people in Britain -were in the habit of staining the body with woad, to add to the horror -of their appearance in battle. Pomponius Mela expresses himself as -uncertain for what purpose it was done, whether it was to add to their -beauty, or for some other reasons to him unknown. - -[2456] “Granis.” What the ancients took to be a vegetable substance, is -now known to be an insect, the kermes of the Quercus coccifera. - -[2457] See B. ix. c. 63. - -[2458] “Paludamentis.” The “paludamentum” was the cloak worn by a -Roman general when in command, his principal officers, and personal -attendants. It was open in front, reached to the knees or thereabout, -and hung over the shoulders, being fastened across the chest by a -clasp. It was commonly white or purple. - -[2459] For an account of all these colours see B. ix. cc. 60-65. - -[2460] The vaccinium for instance. See B. xvi. c. 31. - -[2461] Fée thinks that the art of dyeing with alkanet and madder may be -here alluded to. - -[2462] See B. xxxv. c. 1. - -[2463] The “good,” “ingenuous,” or “liberal” arts were those which -might be practised by free men without loss of dignity. Pliny is -somewhat inconsistent here, for he makes no scruple at enlarging upon -the art of medicine, which among the Romans was properly not a liberal, -but a servile, art. - -[2464] “Surdis.” - -[2465] Festus says the “verbenæ,” or _pure_ herbs, were called -“sagmina,” because they were taken from a sacred (sacer) place. It is -more generally supposed that “sagmen” comes from “sancio,” “to render -inviolable,” the person of the bearer being looked upon as inviolable. - -[2466] “Clare.” - -[2467] Or bearer of the “verbena.” See further on this subject in B. -xxv. c. 59. - -[2468] “Corona graminea.” - -[2469] For a description of these various crowns, see B. xvi. c. 3. - -[2470] Sometimes also, weeds, or wild flowers. - -[2471] See Servius on the Æneid, B. viii. l. 128. - -[2472] No doubt, the old English custom of delivering seisin by -presenting a turf, originated in this. - -[2473] See B. vii. c. 29. - -[2474] See B. xvi. c. 5. - -[2475] In the Samnite war. He died B.C. 340. - -[2476] Titus Manlius Torquatus Imperiosus, consul A.U.C. 414. It was he -who put his own son to death for engaging the enemy against orders. - -[2477] Q. Fabius Maximus, surnamed Cunctator, for his skill in avoiding -an engagement with Hannibal, and so wearing out the Carthaginian troops. - -[2478] Q. Minutius, the Magister Equitum. - -[2479] See Livy, B. xxii. - -[2480] The primipilus was the first centurion of the first maniple of -the triarii; also called “primus centurionum.” - -[2481] “Ad tibicinem.” - -[2482] A.U.C. 652. - -[2483] The “Fortunate.” - -[2484] A.U.C. 605. - -[2485] 13th of September. - -[2486] A.U.C. 723. - -[2487] Hence we may conclude that the word “gramen” signified not only -“grass,” but any plant in general. - -[2488] By reason of the luxury and sensuality universally prevalent. - -[2489] This is said in bitter irony. - -[2490] Trusting to the good faith and research of the physician. - -[2491] “Inseruisse.” - -[2492] “Amplecti.” - -[2493] In the Twentieth Book. - -[2494] It has been thought by some that this is the Scolymus maculatus -of Linnæus; the spotted yellow thistle. But the more general opinion is -that it is the eringo, or Eryngium campestre of Linnæus. It derives its -name from the Greek ἐρεύγειν, from its asserted property of dispelling -flatulent eructations. It is possessed in reality of few medicinal -properties, and is only used occasionally, at the present day, as a -diuretic. See B. xxi. c. 56. - -[2495] See B. xxvii. c. 2. - -[2496] By the word “toxica,” Poinsinet would understand, not poisons -in general, but the venom of the toad, which was called, he says, in -the Celtic and Celto-Scythic languages, _toussac_ and _tossa_. Fée -ridicules the notion. - -[2497] Or rather, Fée says, deep blue. He identifies this with the -Eryngium cyaneum of Linnæus, the eringo, with a blue flower. - -[2498] This, as well as the next, is identical, probably, with the -Eryngium maritimum of Linnæus; our sea-holly. The species found in -Greece, in addition to the above, are the Eryngium tricuspidatum, -multifidum, and parviflorum. - -[2499] Pliny probably makes a mistake here, and reads σελίνον, -“parsley,” for σκόλυμος, a “thistle.” Dalechamps is of this opinion, -from an examination of the leaf; and Brotier adopts it. - -[2500] Or “hundred heads,” the ordinary Eryngium campestre of Linnæus. -It is still called panicaut a cent têtes, by the French. - -[2501] It is no longer used for this purpose; but Fée is of opinion -that it owes its French name of “panicaut,” from having been used in -former times as a substitute for bread—_pain_. - -[2502] It is not improbable that this plant is the same as the mandrake -of _Genesis_, c. xxx. 14; which is said to have borne some resemblance -to the human figure, and is spoken of by the commentators as male and -female. - -[2503] The root contains a small quantity of essential oil, with -stimulating properties; and this fact, Fée thinks, would, to a certain -extent, explain this story of Sappho. It is not improbable that it was -for these properties that it was valued by the rival wives of Jacob. - -[2504] White specks in the eye. - -[2505] Sprengel identifies this with the Onopordum acanthium; but Fée -thinks that if it belongs to the Onopordum at all, it is more likely to -be the Onopordum acaulton, or the O. Græcum. - -[2506] Or “sweet-root,” our liquorice; the Glycyrrhiza glabra of -Linnæus. In reality, Fée remarks, there is no resemblance whatever -between it and the Eryngium, no kind of liquorice being prickly. - -[2507] “Echinatis;” literally, “like a hedge-hog.” Pliny, it is -supposed, read here erroneously in the Greek text, (from which -Dioscorides has also borrowed) ἐοικότα ἐχίνῳ “like a hedge-hog,” for -ἐοικότα σχίνῳ “like those of the lentisk.” - -[2508] “Pilularum.” - -[2509] Or Pleiades. - -[2510] Dioscorides compares the root, with less exactness, -with that of gentian. - -[2511] The same preparation that is known to us as Spanish liquorice or -Spanish juice. - -[2512] In B. xi. c. 119. It certainly has the effect of palling the -appetite, but in many people it has the effect of creating thirst -instead of allaying it. Fée thinks that from the fecula and sugar that -it contains, it may possibly be nourishing, and he states that it is -the basis of a favourite liquor in the great cities of France. Spanish -liquorice water is used in England, but only by school-boys, as a -matter of taste, and by patients as a matter of necessity. - -[2513] The Greek for “without thirst.” - -[2514] Or “mouth medicine.” Beyond being a bechic, or cough-medicine, -it has no medicinal properties whatever. - -[2515] “Pterygiis.” The word “pterygia” has been previously used as -meaning a sort of hang-nail, or, perhaps, whitlow. - -[2516] “Scabiem.” - -[2517] Swellings of the anus more particularly. - -[2518] It has in reality no such effect. - -[2519] Probably the Fagonia Cretica and the Trapa natans of Linnæus. -See B. xxi. c. 58. The first, Fée remarks, is a native of Candia, the -ancient Crete, and a stranger to the climates of Greece and Italy. This -may account for Pliny calling it a garden plant. - -[2520] This is said. Fée remarks, in reference to the Trapa natans, the -seed of which is rich in fecula, and very nutritious. - -[2521] “Contrahat ventrem.” It would not act, Fée says, as an -astringent, but would have the effect of imparting nutriment in a very -high degree, without overloading the stomach. - -[2522] A harmless, or, perhaps, beneficial, superstition. - -[2523] The synonym of this plant is probably unknown. Dalechamps -identifies it with the Sagittaria sagittifolia, C. Bauhin with the -Centaurea calcitrapa, and Clusius, Belli, and Sprengel, with the -Poterium spinosum. None of these plants, however, are prickly and -aquatic, characteristics, according to Theophrastus, of the Stœbe: -Hist. Plant. B. iv. c. 11. Fée considers its identification next to -impossible. - -[2524] Probably the Hippophaës rhamnoides of Linnæus. This, however, -Fée says, has no milky juice, but a dry, tough, ligneous root. Sprengel -identifies it with the Euphorbia spinosa of Linnæus, on account of its -milky juice; but that plant, as Fée remarks, does not bear berries, -properly so called, and the fruit is yellow and prickly. - -[2525] See B. xxvii. c. 66. It is identified by Fée with the Carduus -stellatus or Centaurea calcitrapa of Linnæus, the common star-thistle. - -[2526] As compounds of ἵππος, a “horse.” Hardouin, however, thinks that -the names ἱπποφαὲς and ἱππόφαιστον have another origin, and that they -are compounds of φάος, “lustre,”—from the brilliancy which they were -said to impart to cloths—and ἵππος, in an augmentative sense, meaning -“great lustre.” - -[2527] See B. xxi. c. 55. Only two species of the nettle, Fée remarks, -were known to the ancients, the Urtica urens and the U. dioica; and -these have been confounded by Pliny and other writers. - -[2528] In B. xv. c. 7. The Urtica urens has no oleaginous principles, -and the oil of nettles, as Fée says, must have been a medicinal -composition, the properties of which are more than hypothetical. The -plant boiled, he remarks, can have no medicinal properties whatever, -and it is with justice excluded from the modern Materia Medica. It -is, however, still employed by some few practitioners, and the leaves -are used, in some cases, to restore the vital action, by means of -urtication. - -[2529] “Cicutæ.” - -[2530] Mercury, as already mentioned in a previous Note, is not -poisonous. - -[2531] “Testudinis.” He may, possibly, mean a turtle. - -[2532] See B. x. c. 86. - -[2533] The process of “urtication,” alluded to in Note [2528]. - -[2534] Fée considers this extremely doubtful. - -[2535] An abominable refinement (if we may use the term) in gluttony, -which would appear to have been practised among the Romans; though -Fée thinks it possible that such a practice may have been considered -advisable in the medical treatment of certain maladies. Be this as -it may, the system of using vomits has prevailed to some extent in -this country, and during the present century, too, among persons in -the fashionable world, when expected to play their part at several -entertainments in one evening. - -[2536] “Sapa.” Grape-juice boiled down to one-third. - -[2537] De Morb. Mul. text. 47. - -[2538] See B. xviii. c. 13. - -[2539] See B. xxi. c. 55. - -[2540] See Hippocrates, Hippiatr. - -[2541] In B. xxi. c. 55. - -[2542] The Lamium maculatum of Linnæus: dead nettle, or archangel. The -same as the Leuce, mentioned in B. xxvii. c. 77. - -[2543] “Cum micâ salis.” - -[2544] The Spartium scorpius of Linnæus, or the Scorpiurus sulcata of -Linnæus: scorpion-grass, or scorpion-wort. - -[2545] Its properties are entirely inert, and it has no such virtues as -those here mentioned. As Fée remarks, we might be quite sure, however, -from the form of the seeds, that this property would be ascribed to it -in the Materia Medica of the ancients. - -[2546] Supposed to be the Salsola tragus of Linnæus, kali, or -glass-wort. - -[2547] Not the Asparagus officinalis, Fée says, but the Asparagus -acutifolius, the stem of which is somewhat prickly. - -[2548] See B. xxi. cc. 56 and 104, in which last Chapter it is called -“leucanthes.” Desfontaines suggests that it may be either the Carduus -leucographus, or the Cnicum Casabonæ. - -[2549] Literally, “many-cornered.” “Leucacantha” means “whitethorn,” -and “Leucanthes” “white-flowered.” - -[2550] Fée thinks this very improbable. - -[2551] It must not be confounded, Fée says, with the Helxine, a -tuberous root, mentioned in B. xxi. c. 56. He thinks also that Pliny -is in error in giving it the name of “Perdicium,” which may possibly -have been a synonym of the other Helxine. Fée comes to the conclusion -that the Perdicium of B. xxi. c. 62, if not the same as the Helxine -of c. 56, cannot be identified; that the Helxine of B. xxi. c. 56, is -the Acarna gummifera; and that the Helxine here mentioned is identical -with the Perdicium of this and the next Chapter, being the Parietaria -officinalis of Linnæus, parietary or wall pellitory. The confusion has -probably arisen from the similarity of the name of the ἰξίνη, the plant -mentioned in B. xxi. c. 56, and the ἑλξίνη, the Helxine of the present -Chapter. - -[2552] “Perdices.” As stated in the last Note, the name has probably -been given in error to the Helxine or pellitory. - -[2553] Or horehound. - -[2554] See B. xxi. c. 64. - -[2555] From ἕλκω, to “drag.” - -[2556] In c. 56. Properly the “Ixine.” See Note [2551] above. - -[2557] Pellitory possesses no colouring properties whatever. - -[2558] It has no medicinal virtues beyond acting, possibly, in some -degree, as a diuretic. - -[2559] The Parthenium of Celsus, mentioned by Pliny in B. xxi. 104, is -not identical with this Perdicium (though there also he gives it that -name), but is the Matricaria Parthenium of Linnæus, a different plant. -See Notes to c. 19. B. xxii - -[2560] In reference to what was said at the beginning of the preceding -Chapter. - -[2561] Or “pitcher plant.” - -[2562] See c. 16 of this Book. - -[2563] Plutarch, in his life of Pericles, tells the same story about -the slave, but does not speak of the appearance of Minerva. He relates -a story, however, of her appearance to Sylla, pointing out a spot near -the Acropolis, where the Parthenium grew. - -[2564] Or “Virgin” plant, Minerva being called “Parthenos,” the -“virgin.” - -[2565] One who “cooks entrails.” See B. xxxiv. cc. 19 and 31. - -[2566] See B. xxi. c. 56. The white is identified with the Acarna -gummifera of Linnæus, the dark or black with the Brotera corymbosa of -Linnæus. - -[2567] See B. xii. c. 33. - -[2568] Viscus. - -[2569] Olivier states (_Voyage dans l’Empire Ottoman_, i. 312) that -the women in the isles of Naxos and Scio still chew this glutinous -substance, in the same manner that mastich is used in other places. - -[2570] Fée is inclined to doubt this, and thinks that, as it is a -creeping plant, the name may have been derived from χαμαί, “on the -ground.” - -[2571] Theophrastus, Galen, and Dioscorides state to the same effect, -and Fée thinks it possible it may possess a certain degree of activity. - -[2572] Fée says that it possesses no such poisonous properties. - -[2573] Rheum, or catarrhs. - -[2574] From οὖλον φόνον, “dreadful death,” a name which, Fée observes, -it does not merit, its properties not being poisonous. - -[2575] From κυνὸς ὄζη “smell of a dog.” This is a more justifiable -appellation, as the smell of it is very disagreeable. - -[2576] The Cochlearia coronopus of Linnæus, crow’s-foot, or buck’s-horn -plantain. - -[2577] The Anchusa tinctoria of Linnæus, alkanet, orcanet, or dyers’ -bugloss. - -[2578] See B. xii. c. 46. - -[2579] This plant is no longer used for medicinal purposes; but Fée -thinks that, as the leaves in all probability contain nitrate of -potash, they may have diuretic properties. - -[2580] The Anchusa Italica of Linnæus, according to Fée, false alkanet, -or wild bugloss. Though resembling the genuine plant in its external -features, it has no colouring properties. Sprengel identifies it with -the Lithospermum fruticosum of Linnæus, a plant, as Fée remarks, very -different in its appearance from the genuine alkanet. - -[2581] In erroneously giving it this name, Fée remarks that Pliny has -confounded the pseudoanchusa with the ἔχιον of the Greeks, the Echium -rubrum of Linnæus, and has attributed to it the characteristics of the -latter plant. - -[2582] Fée remarks, that all that Pliny says of the medicinal -properties of this plant does not merit the honour of a discussion. - -[2583] Fée identifies it with the Echium Creticum of Linnæus. -Desfontaines takes it to be the Anchusa tinctoria of Linnæus. Fée is of -opinion that the name really given to this plant was “enchrysa,” and -not “anchusa.” - -[2584] The Lithospermum fruticosum of Linnæus; cromill, or stone-crap. - -[2585] Fée, adopting the opinion of Sibthorpe, thinks that under these -names Pliny is speaking of _several_ varieties of the Anthemis, or -camomile, and he identifies them as follows: the Leucanthemis, or white -camomile, he considers to be the same as the Anthemis Chia of Linnæus; -the Eranthemis to be the Anthemis rosea of Sibthorpe; the Melanthion -to be the Anthemis tinctoria, or dyers’ camomile of Sibthorpe: and -the Chamæmelon to be the Matricaria chamomilla of Linnæus, the common -camomile. Sprengel differs from these opinions as to the identification -of the several varieties. - -[2586] “Spring flower.” - -[2587] “Ground apple.” - -[2588] “Black flower.” - -[2589] “Malinis,” apple-colour. - -[2590] See Note [2585]. - -[2591] “Fruticis.” The camomile is still extensively used in medicine -for fomentations, and the decoction of it is highly esteemed, taken -fasting, as a tonic. - -[2592] Il. xiv. 347. - -[2593] The Melilotus officinalis of Linnæus. See B. xiii. c. 32, and -the Notes. - -[2594] White specks in the black of the eye, with a red tinge. - -[2595] Or “Mother of the Lotus;” the Nymphæa lotus of Linnæus. See B. -xiii. c. 32. “Ex loto sata” may probably mean that it springs from the -seed of the lotus, in which case, as Fée remarks, it must be identified -with the Lotus. - -[2596] B. xviii. c. 67, and B. xix. c. 58. - -[2597] This apparent marvel is owing to the necessity of light to -certain flowers for the purposes of fecundation, while those which open -at night require more moisture than light for their reproduction. - -[2598] Or “three-grained,” probably, Fée says, from the three cells in -the capsule. He identifies this plant with the Croton tinctorium of -Linnæus, the turnsole, or sun-flower. - -[2599] Fée identifies it with the Heliotropium Europæum of Linnæus, -the heliotrope, or verrucaria. The Heliotropium of Ovid and other -poets, with a violet or blue flower, is, no doubt, a different plant, -and is identified by Sprengel, Desfontaines, and Fée with the Hesperis -matronalis of Linnæus, rocket or julian, or, as we not inaptly call it, -from its pleasant smell, cherry-pie. Pliny speaks of his Heliotropium -as having a “blue flower,” cœruleum. This is probably an error on his -part, and it is supposed by commentators that he read in the Greek text -ὑποπόρφυρον, “somewhat purple,” by mistake for ὑπόπυῤῥον, “somewhat -red,” as we find it. - -[2600] As known at the present day, they grow to a much greater height -than this. - -[2601] This, Fée remarks, cannot apply to either the Heliotropium -Europæum or the Croton tinctorium. He thinks it not improbable that -Pliny may have named one plant, and given a description of another. - -[2602] The Heliotropium Europæum, Fée says, has no medicinal properties. - -[2603] Midday, namely. - -[2604] “Sic firmior.” - -[2605] The “wart plant;” from “verruca,” a “wart.” - -[2606] This notion arose probably, Fée thinks, from the clusters of its -flowers resembling the tail of a scorpion in appearance. - -[2607] Probably an inflammation of the membranes of the brain. - -[2608] At the beginning of this Chapter. - -[2609] “Scorpion’s tail.” Dioscorides gives this name to the -Helioscopium, or great Heliotropium. - -[2610] Fée is surprised that no mention is made of its colouring -properties, it being extremely rich in the colouring principle, and -having been much used in former times for dyeing purposes. - -[2611] This notion, Fée says, was long attached to the Heliotropium -Europæum, and to it, it is indebted for its present name of -“verrucaria.” - -[2612] “Cortex seminis.” - -[2613] Fée identifies it with the Asplenium trichomanes of Linnæus, -spleen-wort, or ceterach. The Adiantum of Hippocrates and other Greek -writers, he takes to be the Adiantum capillus Veneris of Linnæus, -Venus’ hair, or maiden hair. Though Pliny would seem not to have been -acquainted with the latter plant, he ascribes to the first one many of -its properties and characteristics, deriving his information, probably, -from a writer who was acquainted with both. See B. xxi. c. 60. - -[2614] From ἀ, “not,” and διαίνω, “to wet.” This is owing, Fée remarks, -to the coat of waxen enamel or varnish with which the leaves are -provided. The same is the case also with the leaf of the cabbage and -other plants. - -[2615] The Asplenium trichomanes, Fée says, would not admit of being -clipped for ornamental gardening. - -[2616] “Fine hair,” and “thick hair.” These names originated more -probably in the appearance of the plant than in any effects it may have -produced as a dye for the hair. - -[2617] On the contrary, Fée says, the root is composed of numerous -fibres. - -[2618] “Stone-breaking.” - -[2619] Fée is of opinion that they possess no such property. - -[2620] Loss of the hair. - -[2621] See B. xxi. c. 65. The Picris asplenioides of Linnæus, Fée -thinks, though Sprengel identifies it with the Helminthia echioides of -Linnæus; but the leaves of that plant are not round. - -[2622] See B. xxi. c. 67. - -[2623] See B. xxi. c. 68. - -[2624] “Plant of the heroes.” - -[2625] Mere varieties of the plant, so called with reference, probably, -to the relative energy of their properties. - -[2626] Regarded in a medicinal point of view the bulb of the asphodel -possesses some emollient properties, and nothing more. As an -application to sores and abscesses it may reduce the inflammation, and -being rich in mucilage, the pulp may form a nourishing food. All the -other statements as to its medicinal properties are, as Fée remarks, -quite fabulous. - -[2627] Theriaca, p. 39. - -[2628] In B. xxi. c. 68. - -[2629] This practice, as Fée remarks, was based on sound principles, -the acrid properties of the bulbs being removed by boiling. - -[2630] Most medicinal roots are gathered at this period, their -properties being, as Pliny says, most fully developed in the autumn. - -[2631] See B. xvi. c. 11. - -[2632] Other readings are Diocles, Socles, and Socrates. If “Sophocles” -is the correct reading, all memorials of this physician have perished, -beyond the mention made of him by Cælius Aurelianus, Chron. c. i. - -[2633] “Vitia.” - -[2634] The Atriplex halimus of Linnæus, sea orach. Belon says that it -is found in great abundance in Candia, the ancient Crete, where it is -known as “halimatia,” and the tops of the stalks are used as food. - -[2635] Hence its name, ἅλιμον, from ἅλς, the “sea,” and not, as Pliny -says, from its salt taste. - -[2636] “Mitius.” Fée says that if this word means “cultivated,” the -plant mentioned cannot be the Atriplex halimus; in which case he is -inclined to identify it with the Atriplex portulacoides of Linnæus; -the leaves and young stalks of which, preserved in vinegar, have an -agreeable taste. - -[2637] Some other plant, probably, Fée thinks. - -[2638] As to the Acanthus or thorn, in a more general sense, see B. -xxiv. c. 66, and the Notes. - -[2639] Pliny the Younger speaks of the Acanthus being used for a -similar purpose, Epist. B. v. Ep. 6. - -[2640] The Acanthus spinosus of Linnæus. - -[2641] The Acanthus mollis of Linnæus; the brankursine. - -[2642] “Lad’s love.” - -[2643] “Black-leafed.” Fée thinks it probable that this name may have -been given to the variety “niger,” of Miller, which grows in great -abundance in Sicily and Italy. - -[2644] “Bull’s side,” apparently. Fée says that the identification of -this plant is quite uncertain; the Buplevrum rigidum of Linnæus, the -Buplevrum Baldense of Willdenow, and the Ammi majus of Linnæus, having -been suggested. The first, he thinks, could never have been used as a -vegetable, and the second is only found on Mount Baldo in Carniola, -and in Croatia. Though the Ammi majus is more than a cubit in height, -and could never have been used as a vegetable, he looks upon it as -the most likely of the three. The seeds of it were formerly used as a -carminative. - -[2645] Sprengel and Desfontaines consider it to be the Buplevrum -rotundifolium: but Fée is of a contrary opinion, and thinks that it is -impossible to identify it. - -[2646] Though Hardouin attempts to defend him, it is more than -probable that it is Pliny himself who is in error here; and that he -has confounded the plant Buprestis with the insect of that name, which -belongs to the class of Cantharides, and received its name (burn-cow) -from its fatal effects when eaten by cattle. - -[2647] See B. xxx. c. 10. - -[2648] “Stag’s food.” Fée adopts the opinion of Sprengel and Sibthorpe, -that this is the Pastinaca sativa of Linnæus, the cultivated parsnip. -Desfontaines identifies it with the Sium sisarum; but, as Fée says, -that plant is but rarely found in Greece. - -[2649] See B. xx. c. 18. For the olusatrum, see B. xx. c. 46. - -[2650] The parsnip is no longer employed for its medicinal properties; -but for a long time, the seed was looked upon as a diuretic and -febrifuge. The root contains a considerable quantity of saccharine -matter. - -[2651] Sprengel identifies it with the Chærophyllum sativum of Linnæus, -the scandix cerifolium, our common chervil; but Fée considers it to -be the same as the Scandix pecten Veneris of Linnæus, the Venus’ comb -chervil. Pliny has mentioned a “scandix” also in B. xxi. c. 52, but -erroneously, Fée thinks. - -[2652] It is not used for any medicinal purposes at the present day. - -[2653] Acharn. A. ii. sc. 4: “Get some scandix from your mother, and -give it me.” The same joke also appears in the “Equites;” and A. -Gellius, B. xv. c. 20, says that Theopompus speaks of the mother of -Euripides as having been a greengrocer. - -[2654] Fée identifies it with the Anthriscus odoratus of Linnæus, the -cultivated chervil. See B. xxi. c. 52. - -[2655] See B. xxi. c. 65. - -[2656] See B. xxi. c. 52. - -[2657] This is the Caucalis grandiflora of Linnæus, Fée thinks. - -[2658] “Medicine for the heart.” All these statements as to its -medicinal properties, are quite erroneous, Fée says. - -[2659] “Pituitas.” - -[2660] On Antidotes for the stings of serpents. See end of B. xix. - -[2661] The Sium angustifolium has been named, but Fée prefers -identifying it with the Sium latifolium of Linnæus, water-parsley. - -[2662] Fée says that at the present day it is held in suspicion as an -article of food, and that it is said to produce madness in ruminating -animals. He thinks it not improbable that Pliny here attributes to it -some of the properties which in reality belong to cresses. - -[2663] See B. xxvi. c. 25. Sprengel identifies it with the Carduus -marianus of Linnæus. Fée inclines, however, to the belief that it is -the Sonchus palustris of Linnæus; the marsh sow-thistle. - -[2664] Sprengel identifies it with the Scolymus maculatus of Linnæus, -but Fée prefers the Scolymus Hispanicus of Linnæus, the Spanish thistle. - -[2665] Fée says that the Scolymus grandiflorus is still eaten in -Barbary. - -[2666] The “meadow-plant.” - -[2667] Works and Days, l. 582. - -[2668] The Sonchus oleraceus of Linnæus, the common sow-thistle. - -[2669] A poor old woman, who hospitably entertained Theseus when on his -expedition for the purpose of slaying the Marathonian bull. Theseus -instituted a sacrifice at Athens in honour of her. See Ovid, Remed. Am. -l. 747, and Callim. Fragm. 40. - -[2670] The Sonchus arvensis of Linnæus, the field sow-thistle. - -[2671] The Sonchus oleraceus asper of Linnæus, the prickly-leafed -sow-thistle. These plants are eaten as a salad in some countries. They -possess but little energy in a medicinal point of view, but they are -cooling and slightly laxative. The marvels here related by Pliny, Fée -says, are entirely fabulous. - -[2672] Sibthorpe thinks that this is the Chondrilla ramosissima of -Linnæus; but Fée identifies it with the Chondrilla juncea of Linnæus. -The Lactuca perennis has also been suggested. See B. xxi. cc. 52 and 65. - -[2673] In the Isle of Lemnos, at the present day, a milky juice is -extracted from the root of the Chondrilla juncea. - -[2674] To keep the hairs in their proper place. - -[2675] “Boleti.” - -[2676] She having been put to death by him. - -[2677] “Rimosa stria.” - -[2678] This description would apply to many of the fungi known as -toadstools at the present day. - -[2679] A true description, Fée says, of the agaric oronge, or the -laseras mushroom. - -[2680] The true origin of fungi has not been discovered till a -comparatively recent period, since the days of Linnæus even. It is now -known that they are propagated by microscopic granules which are lodged -in particular receptacles, or else by a dissolution and dispersion of -their filamentous tissues. - -[2681] “Clavus caligaris.” A nail of a caliga, or military boot. See B. -vii. c. 44, and B. ix. c. 33. - -[2682] The peasants, Fée says, who are in the habit of gathering them, -may probably be better trusted than the most learned authors that -have written on the subject. He thinks it the best plan, however, to -avoid all risks, by confining ourselves to the use of the common field -mushroom, the morel, and one or two other well-known kinds. - -[2683] A prejudice entirely without foundation, Fée remarks. - -[2684] Fée says that from this it is evident that Pliny understands -only the stalk mushrooms under the name of “boleti;” the fungi which -adhere to trees living more years, many of them, than Pliny mentions -days. - -[2685] “Ex pituita.” Fée thinks that under the name of “boleti,” Pliny -means exclusively agaries or mushrooms of the division Amanites, which -contains both the best and the most noxious kinds—the oronge for -instance, and the false oronge. - -[2686] The Agaricus campestris of Linnæus, Fée thinks, our common field -mushroom, or, possibly, the Agaricus deliciosus of Linnæus. - -[2687] The Agaricus procerus of Schœfer, probably, the tall columelle, -Fée thinks. - -[2688] A cap worn by the Flamen; or chief-priest, of a somewhat conical -shape; very similar in form to the Russian helmet of the present day. - -[2689] “Swine mushrooms.” Fée suggests that this may be the Boletus -edulis of Bulliard. - -[2690] A valued friend of the philosopher Seneca, as we learn from -Tacitus, and Seneca’s Epistles, Ep. 63. - -[2691] See Martial’s Epigrams, B. i. Ep. 21. - -[2692] In B. xvi. c. 11. In that passage, however, the pine is -mentioned, and not the beech. - -[2693] In B. xx. c. 13, _et passim_. - -[2694] Fée says that the fungi are but little used in modern medicine: -the white bolet, he says, or larch bolet, is sometimes employed as a -purgative, and some German writers have spoken in praise of the Boletus -suaveolens of Bulliard as a remedy for pulmonary phthisis. The agaric -known as amadue, or German tinder, is also employed in surgery. Fée -remarks that all that Pliny says as to the medicinal properties of -mushrooms and fungi is more or less hazardous. - -[2695] Rheums, or catarrhs. - -[2696] See B. xxxiv. c. 50. - -[2697] “Sucinis novaculis.” This may possibly mean “knives of amber;” -and it is not improbable that the use of amber may have been thought a -means of detecting the poisonous qualities of fungi. - -[2698] This, as Fée remarks, is the case. All kinds of fungi, too, it -is said, may be eaten with impunity, if first boiled in salt water. - -[2699] In reality, rain only facilitates their developement. - -[2700] In B. xix. c. 15. - -[2701] In B. xix. c. 15. - -[2702] In B. xix. c. 15. Asafœtida, Fée says, if it bears any relation -to the laser of the ancients, had till very recently the reputation -of being an emmenagogue, a hydragogue, a vermifuge, and a purgative. -Applied topically, too, it is emollient, and is used for the cure of -corns and tumours. Whatever Laser may have been, there is little doubt -that much that is here stated by Pliny is either fabulous or erroneous. - -[2703] “Cauterium.” - -[2704] What Pliny here says of Laser, Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 94, says -of the root of Silphium. - -[2705] “Dead” corns. - -[2706] Or pottage—“In sorbitione.” - -[2707] Probably to prevent it turning sour on the stomach. - -[2708] Dioscorides, however, gives this advice, B. iii. c. 94. - -[2709] In c. 56 of this Book. - -[2710] It is this, in fact, combined with its utility, that ought to -cause it to be so highly esteemed. - -[2711] In B. xi. c. 4, _et seq._ - -[2712] Bee-bread, or bee-glue. - -[2713] In B. xi. c. 6. It is a vegetable substance, Fée says, not -elaborated by the bees. It is still employed in medicine, he says, for -resolutive fumigations. - -[2714] The Babylonians employed it for the purpose of embalming. - -[2715] It is of an emollient nature, and is preferred to sugar for -sweetening liquids, in a multitude of instances. - -[2716] Fée denies this; but there is no doubt that honey has this -tendency with some persons. - -[2717] Fée says that this is not the case. - -[2718] In B. xi. c. 13. - -[2719] In B. xxi. c. 44. - -[2720] “Aqua mulsa.” See B. xiv. c. 20, where it is described as -Hydromeli, or Melicraton. - -[2721] Fée says that this must have been a wholesome beverage, but -that it would cease to be so after undergoing fermentation. In the -description of its uses there are some errors, Fée says, combined with -some rational observations. - -[2722] See B. xviii. c. 29; also c. 61 of this Book. - -[2723] This seems to be the meaning of “præparci” here, though it -generally signifies “niggardly,” or “sordid.” - -[2724] Fée combats this theory at considerable length; but there can -be little doubt that the same substance has not the same taste to all -individuals. - -[2725] Seneca makes a similar observation, De Irâ, B. iii. c. 10. - -[2726] “Animi seu potius animæ.” - -[2727] It is the oil, Fée says, and not the hydromel, that combats the -effects of the white lead, a subcarbonate of lead. - -[2728] In B. xxi. c. 105. - -[2729] Mead, or metheglin. - -[2730] This is, perhaps, the meaning of “nervis” here, but it is very -doubtful. See Note [312], in p. 77 of Vol. III. - -[2731] “Mulsum.” - -[2732] “Dulci.” Fée thinks, but erroneously, that by this word he means -“must,” or grape-juice, and combats the assertion. Honied wine, he -says, is used at the present day (in France, of course,) as a popular -cure for recent wounds and inveterate ulcers. As a beverage, it was -very highly esteemed by the ancients. See B. vii. c. 54. - -[2733] “Hospes.” It may possibly mean his “guest,” but the other is -more probable. - -[2734] “Intus mulso, foris oleo.” The people of Corsica were famous for -being long-lived, which was attributed to their extensive use of honey. - -[2735] “Regius morbus.” - -[2736] Honied wine being considered so noble a beverage, Celsus says, -that “during its cure, the patient must be kept to his chamber, and the -mind must be kept cheerful, with gaiety and pastimes, for which reason -it is called the ‘royal disease,’” B. iii. c. 24. In the text Pliny -calls it “arquatorum morbus,” the “disease of the bow-like,” if we may -be allowed the term. The origin of this term, according to Scribonius -Largus, is the word “arcus,” the rainbow, from a fancied resemblance of -the colour of the skin, when affected with jaundice, to the green tints -of the rainbow. - -[2737] In B. xiv. c. 11. - -[2738] In B. xi. c. 8, and B. xxi. c. 49. - -[2739] When it curdles on the stomach. - -[2740] In c. 49 of this Book. - -[2741] “Malagmata.” - -[2742] Fée, at some length, and with considerable justice, combats -this assertion; though at the same time he remarks that Pliny is right -in calling the attention of the medical world to the use of simple -substances. - -[2743] “Scripulatim”—“By scruples.” - -[2744] He forgets that many of them could only be produced by the -agency of an Eastern sun. - -[2745] See B. xviii. c. 20. - -[2746] See B. xiv. c. 5. - -[2747] Fée says that it can have no such effect. - -[2748] The bran of wheat, Fée says, is of a soothing nature, and that -of barley slightly astringent. - -[2749] See B. xv. c. 12, and B. xvii. c. 14. - -[2750] The only truth in this statement, Fée says, is, that wheat bran -makes a good gargle. - -[2751] See B. xviii. c. 19. - -[2752] See B. xvi. c. 80. This insect, or weevil, Fée says, is the -Calandra granaria. It strongly resembles the worm or maggot found in -nuts. It can be of no efficacy whatever for the removal of carious -teeth. - -[2753] In B. xviii. c. 20. - -[2754] See B. xviii. c. 13. - -[2755] Or multipede. For these purposes, as Fée says, it is of no use -whatever. - -[2756] It is no better, Fée says, than rye or barley-meal. - -[2757] See B. xviii. cc. 19, 29. - -[2758] In B. xviii. c. 29. - -[2759] “Trimestris.” See B. xviii. c. 12. - -[2760] Fée remarks, that this meal is still valued for its maturative -properties. - -[2761] Hair-grass, probably, or darnel. See B. xviii. c. 44. - -[2762] In B. xviii. c. 14. Injections of meal are still employed, Fée -says, for diarrhœa. - -[2763] The flour of the grain called “far,” Fée thinks. See B. xviii. -c. 10. - -[2764] This statement is probably founded upon the notion that corn has -the property of attracting liquids, even when enclosed in vessels. - -[2765] A paste of this kind, if applied to a recent wound, would have -the effect of preventing cicatrization, and giving free access to the -flow of blood. - -[2766] See B. xviii. c. 19. - -[2767] Or “flour.” See B. xiii. c. 26. - -[2768] Fée remarks, that the Greeks _were_ acquainted with alica, to -which they gave the name of χόνδρος; indeed, Galen expressly states -that it was well known in the days of Hippocrates, who says that it is -more nourishing than ptisan. Festus says that alica is so called, “quod -alit,” because it nourishes the body.—See B. xviii. c. 29. - -[2769] In c. 55 of this Book. - -[2770] See B. xviii. c. 24. - -[2771] See B. xviii. c. 25. - -[2772] “Mel frugum.” - -[2773] See B. xviii. c. 22. It is still used in medicine in Egypt, and -as a cosmetic. - -[2774] Or “bad habit.” - -[2775] In B. xv. c. 7. See also B. xxiii. c. 49. Fée thinks it not -unlikely that oil of sesame might have this effect. The people of Egypt -still look upon this grain as an antophthalmic, but, as Fée says, -without any good reason. - -[2776] “Like sesame.” - -[2777] Sprengel has identified this plant, the “smaller” Sesamoides -of Dioscorides, with the Astragalus sesameus of Linnæus, or else with -the Reseda canescens. Other naturalists have mentioned the Catananche -cærulea of Linnæus, the Passerina hirsuta of Linnæus, and the Passerina -polygalæofolia of Lapeyrouse. Fée is of opinion that it has not been -identified. - -[2778] Altogether a different plant; Sprengel identifies it with -the Reseda Mediterranea, but Fée dissents from that opinion, and is -inclined to agree with the opinion of Dalechamps, that it is the Daphne -Tartonraira of Linnæus, which is a strong purgative. - -[2779] In B. xxv c. 106. - -[2780] Fée remarks that this Chapter includes a number of gross -prejudices which it is not worth while to examine or contradict. - -[2781] “Hordeum murinum.” Anguillara, Matthioli, and Sprengel identify -it with the Lolium perenne of Linnæus; but, as Fée says, it is clear -that Pliny had in view the modern Hordeum murinum, mouse-barley. - -[2782] See B. xviii. c. 15. - -[2783] At the present day, as Fée says, oatmeal is preferred to -barley-meal. - -[2784] Being our “barley-water,” in fact. - -[2785] Our “starch” probably. See B. xviii. c. 17. - -[2786] A prejudice, Fée says, which is totally without foundation. - -[2787] Bread, as made at the present day, is but little used in -modern medicine, beyond being the basis of many kinds of poultices. A -decoction of bread with laudanum, is known in medicine, Fée says, as -the “white decoction.” - -[2788] “Unseparated from the bran.” - -[2789] Probably like the military bread, made of the coarsest meal, and -unfermented. - -[2790] See B. xviii. c. 12. - -[2791] “Saccos.” See B. xiv. c. 28. - -[2792] See B. xviii. c. 30. Bean meal is but little used in modern -medicine, but most that Pliny here says is probably well founded; with -the exception, however, of his statement as to its employment for -diseases of the chest. - -[2793] Most of the properties here ascribed to the lentil, Fée says, -are quite illusory. - -[2794] This, Fée remarks, is not the fact. - -[2795] This statement, Fée thinks, is probably conformable with truth. - -[2796] Fée remarks, that we must not confound the cholera of the -ancients with the Indian cholera, our cholera morbus. Celsus describes -the cholera with great exactness, B. iv. c. 11. - -[2797] They would be of no benefit, Fée thinks, in such a case. - -[2798] It bears no relation whatever to the lentil, not being a -leguminous plant. Fée would include under this head the Lemna minor, -the Lemna gibba, and the Lemna polyrrhiza of modern botany, all being -found together in the same stagnant water. - -[2799] Fée remarks, that Pliny is clearly speaking of two essentially -different plants under this name; the first, he thinks, may very -probably be the Ervum tetraspermum of Linnæus. - -[2800] This, Fée thinks, is the Salvia officinalis of Linnæus, our -common sage, which has no affinity whatever with the lentil. - -[2801] Sprengel thinks that he is speaking here of the Salvia triloba -of Linnæus. - -[2802] The Trygon pastinaca of Linnæus. - -[2803] “Sage,” the plant, no doubt, that he has been describing. - -[2804] See B. xviii. c. 32. Fée thinks that the wild cicer is identical -with our cultivated one, the Cicer rietinum. - -[2805] See B. xviii. cc. 26 and 32. - -[2806] Or “ram’s head” cicer; from its fancied resemblance to it: the -name is still given to the cultivated plant. - -[2807] Or “pigeon” cicer. See B. xviii. c. 32. Fée thinks it probable -that this plant may be a variety of the Ervum. - -[2808] In B. xviii. c. 38. The Ervum ervilia of Linnæus; it is no -longer employed in medicine. - -[2809] Fée says that this is the case, and that the use of it is said -to produce a marked debility. - -[2810] See B. xviii. c. 10. - -[2811] Fée remarks that it is surprising to find the ancients setting -so much value on the lupine, a plant that is bitter and almost -nauseous, difficult to boil, and bad of digestion. - -[2812] It must be the rue, Fée says, that acts as the vermifuge. - -[2813] See c. 24 of this Book. - -[2814] Lees of olive oil. - -[2815] This is not the fact. - -[2816] In B. xviii. c. 22. Racine, in his letters to Boileau, speaks of -a chorister of Notre Dame, who recovered his voice by the aid of this -plant. - -[2817] It is still used, Fée says, for coughs. - -[2818] In B. xviii. c. 22. - -[2819] Dioscorides says, horehound. The Horminum, apparently, has not -been identified. - -[2820] See B. xviii. c. 44. Darnel acts upon the brain to such an -extent as to produce symptoms like those of drunkenness; to which -property it is indebted for its French name of _ivraie_. It is no -longer used in medicine. - -[2821] Georg. i. 153; “Infelix lolium, et steriles dominantur avenæ.” - -[2822] Fée identifies this plant with the Cuscuta Europæa of Linnæus. -Sprengel takes it to be the Panicum verticillatum of Linnæus. - -[2823] The Avena sativa of Linnæus; the cultivated oat, and not the -Greek oat of B. xviii. c. 42. - -[2824] The term “locusta” has been borrowed by botanists to -characterize the fructification of gramineous plants. - -[2825] In B. xviii. c. 44. The present, Fée thinks, is a different -plant from the Cuscuta Europæa, and he identifies it with the Orobanche -caryophyllacea of Smith, or else the Orobanche ramosa of Linnæus. The -Orobanche is so called from its choking (ἄγχει) the orobus or ervum. It -is also found to be injurious to beans, trefoil, and hemp. In Italy, -the stalks are eaten as a substitute for asparagus. - -[2826] See B. viii. c. 43. - -[2827] See B. x. c. 95, and B. xi. cc. 24, 28. - -[2828] As to the beers of the ancients, see B. xiv. c. 29. Very few -particulars are known of them; but we learn from the Talmud, where -it is called _zeitham_, that zythum was an Egyptian beverage made of -barley, wild saffron, and salt, in equal parts. In the Mishna, the Jews -are enjoined not to use it during the Passover. - -[2829] “Spuma;” literally, “foam.” - -[2830] A physician who lived, probably, at the end of the second or the -beginning of the first century B.C., as he was one of the tutors of -Heraclides of Erythræ. His definition of the pulse has been preserved -by Galen, De Differ. Puls. B. iv. c. 10, and an anecdote of him is -mentioned by Sextus Empiricus. - -[2831] See end of B. ii. - -[2832] A native of Mytilene, in the island of Lesbos, the earliest of -the Æolian lyric poets. He flourished at the latter end of the seventh -century B.C. Of his Odes only a few fragments, with some Epigrams, have -come down to us. - -[2833] In contradistinction to the fruits which hang from trees. - -[2834] See B. xvii. c. 18. - -[2835] In B. xii. cc. 60 and 61. - -[2836] All this passage is found in Dioscorides, B. v. c. 1, who -probably borrowed it from the same sources as our author. - -[2837] Fée remarks, that all the statements here made as to the -medicinal properties of the vine are entirely unfounded, except that -with reference to the bark of the vine: as it contains a small quantity -of tannin, it might possibly, in certain cases, arrest hæmorrhage. - -[2838] This cannot be the bryony, Fée says, but simply a variety of the -grape vine with white fruit. See further in c. 5 of this Book. - -[2839] “Impetigines.” - -[2840] Alkaline ashes, which would differ but very little, Fée says, -from those of other vegetable productions. - -[2841] This statement as to the caustic properties of the ashes is -based upon truth. - -[2842] In B. xii. c. 60. - -[2843] Saracenus, upon Dioscorides, B. v. c. 6, thinks that Pliny, in -copying from the Greek, has made a mistake here, and that he has taken -οὖλον, the “gums,” for οὐλὴ, a “cicatrix;” the corresponding passage in -Dioscorides being οὖλα πλαδαρὰ, “flaccidity,” or “humidity of the gums.” - -[2844] In B. xii. c. 61. See also B. xiii. c. 2, B. xiv. c. 18, and -B. xv. c. 7. Œnanthe, or vine-blossom, possesses no active medicinal -properties, and the statements made here by Pliny are in all -probability unfounded. - -[2845] Not the white vine, or Bryonia alba of modern botany, but -probably some variety of the cultivated vine with white fruit. The -flower of the bryony is inodorous, and would be of no utility in the -composition of perfumes. - -[2846] “Pterygia.” - -[2847] See B. xii. c. 61. It was prepared from vine-blossoms gathered -in Africa. - -[2848] This remark is founded, in a great measure, upon fact. The skin -of the black grape contains a colouring principle in considerable -abundance, and a small proportion of tannin; that of the white grape -possesses no colouring principle, but a considerable quantity of -tannin. The white grape contains more saccharine matter than the black -one, and they are both of them of a laxative nature. - -[2849] Littré remarks, that under the name of “lethargus,” a febrile -malady is probably meant, which belongs probably to the class of -pseudo-continuous fevers. - -[2850] Fée thinks that in reality there can be little or no difference -in their effects, but that, being eaten in larger quantities at the -vintage than afterwards, it stands to reason that the result will be -different. - -[2851] The fermentation, producing a certain amount of alcohol, would -naturally produce this result. - -[2852] “Sapa:” must boiled down to one-third. - -[2853] This, as Fée remarks, is quite impossible; grapes put in -rain-water would spoil immediately, and become totally unfit to eat. - -[2854] By the transformation, namely, of the juices into alcohol. - -[2855] See B. xiv. c. 3. - -[2856] A notion quite unfounded, as Fée remarks. See B. xiv. c. 18. - -[2857] A prejudice equally destitute of foundation. - -[2858] Grape-stones have an astringent effect, and Fée states that in -modern times an oil is extracted from them of an agreeable flavour, -and applicable to many economical purposes. They are no longer used in -medicine. - -[2859] In B. xiv. c. 22. - -[2860] Hence the name “theriaca,” from θὴρ, a “wild animal,” and -ἀκέομαι, “to cure.” - -[2861] By reason, probably, of their astringent properties. - -[2862] Though no longer used medicinally, they are still considered to -be good pectorals. - -[2863] See B. xx. cc. 23 and 81. - -[2864] “Ceria;” known in modern medicine as “favus.” - -[2865] The Pastinaca opopanax of Linnæus. See B. xii. c. 57. - -[2866] Identified with the Delphinium staphis agria of Linnæus. - -[2867] “Taminian grape.” - -[2868] Or wild vine. - -[2869] The fruit is formed of three oblong capsules, containing a -triangular seed of black brown colour, about the size of a kidney bean. - -[2870] This is not the white vine or bryony, mentioned in c. 16 of this -Book, but the Tamus communis of Linnæus. - -[2871] The seeds, which are remarkably pungent and powerful in their -effects, are only used, at the present day, in medicinal preparations -for cattle. - -[2872] This is still done at the present day; to which it is indebted -for its French name _l’herbe pediculaire_, or louse-plant. - -[2873] Pliny seems again to have fallen into the error of mistaking -οὖλον, the “gums” for οὐλὴ, a “cicatrix;” the corresponding passage in -Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 156, being “defluxions of the gums.” - -[2874] They would be of no use whatever, Fée says, for such a purpose. - -[2875] As tending to carry off “pituita,” or phlegm. - -[2876] In B. xii. c. 61. - -[2877] “Ampelos agria.” Fée observes, that this Chapter is full of -errors, Pliny beginning by speaking of the wild vine, the variety -Labrusca of the Vitis vinifera of Linnæus, and then proceeding to -describe what is really the Bryonia dioica of modern botany, and -applying its characteristics to the wild vine, or labrusca. - -[2878] This is not the case with the wild vine. - -[2879] The root of the wild vine is not of a purgative nature. - -[2880] As already stated, this is not identical with the wild vine, but -is the Tamus communis of Linnæus. - -[2881] The Solanum dulcamara of modern botany has been suggested; -though there is but little resemblance between the leaves of that -variety of nightshade and those of the wild vine. - -[2882] The Bryonia alba of Linnæus; the bryony, white vine, or white -jalap. - -[2883] This description, Fée says, is pretty correct, and the account -of its properties sufficiently exact. It is a violent poison, and is no -longer used in medicine. - -[2884] It is still called by the French _navet du diable_, or devil’s -turnip. - -[2885] “Exulcerant corpus.” Our author, Fée says, may here be taxed -with some exaggeration. - -[2886] The fruit is no longer used for this purpose. - -[2887] It is a matter of extreme doubt if there is any foundation for -this statement. - -[2888] It would be productive of no good effect in such case, nor, -indeed, in most of the cases here mentioned. - -[2889] “Purgat” is the reading given by Sillig; but, judging from -the corresponding passage in Dioscorides, ὑποταράττει, “turbat,” or -“conturbat,” is the proper reading. - -[2890] “Pterygiis.” - -[2891] This is in reality not the modern bryony, or white vine, but the -Tamus communis of Linnæus, the black vine, or _taminier_ of the French, -the uva taminia, probably, of Chapter 13. - -[2892] In the last Chapter. - -[2893] The shoots of the Tamus communis are still eaten in Tuscany as -a substitute for asparagus, to which, however, they are inferior in -quality. It is there known by the name of _tamaro_. - -[2894] An absurdity, as Fée remarks, not worthy of discussion. The -same, too, as to the next assertion. - -[2895] Of course there are as many varieties of must, or grape-juice, -as there are of wines. Must is of a purgative and emollient nature, but -is no longer employed in medicine. - -[2896] See c. 30 of this Book. Of course there is little or no truth in -this assertion. - -[2897] In reality it has no such effect. - -[2898] See B. x. c. 86. - -[2899] See B. xxii. c. 36, and B. xxx. c. 10. - -[2900] In cases of poisoning by opium or hemlock, the use of it, Fée -says, would be prejudicial. - -[2901] See B. xxi. c. 105. - -[2902] “Toxica.” - -[2903] In B. xiv. cc. 8, 9, 10. It is impossible, with any degree of -accuracy, to discuss the properties of these various wines, as they no -longer exist. - -[2904] “Cognominatum” appears to be a better reading than -“cognominatus,” which Sillig has adopted; as it is much more probable -that the work received its name from the subject than that the writer -did. - -[2905] All these wines are described in B. xiv. - -[2906] “Nervis.” As to the meaning of this word, see B. xi. c. 88. - -[2907] These wines also are described in B. xiv. - -[2908] “Feritas.” - -[2909] The colour of our Port. - -[2910] “Apothecis.” - -[2911] “Cariem trahunt.” - -[2912] While the ancients thought that the cariousness or results of -old age were removed by the agency of smoke. - -[2913] See B. xiv. c. 6. - -[2914] “Saliva.” - -[2915] In the time of the Emperor Tiberius. See B. xiv. c. 28. - -[2916] Odyssey, B. iv. l. 219, _et seq._ - -[2917] “Sapientiam vino obumbrari.” - -[2918] Works and Days, l. 594. - -[2919] “Merum.” - -[2920] It is surprising, as Fée says, to find coriander enumerated -among the poisons. Mistletoe, too, and mercury are neither of them -poisons. As to hemlock, see B. xiv. c. 7. - -[2921] See Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. ix. ll. 722, 791. - -[2922] See B. xi. c. 71. - -[2923] This method is still employed with race-horses. See B. xiv. c. -28. - -[2924] It is still a very prevalent notion that the growth of dogs is -stunted by giving them raw spirits. - -[2925] The wines of Surrentum and Stata were Campanian wines. - -[2926] “Volgo.” - -[2927] “Sacco.” A strainer of linen cloth. See B. xiv. c. 28, and -B. xix. c. 19. While it diminished the strength, however, it was -considered to injure the flavour. - -[2928] In that case, Fée says, they would differ but little from the -wines of the present day. See B. xiv. c. 25. - -[2929] See B. xiv. c. 24. - -[2930] See B. xiv. cc. 9, 10. - -[2931] “Sapa.” - -[2932] See B. xiv. c. 25. - -[2933] Surrentine, Alban, Falernian, &c. - -[2934] The colour of Tent and Burgundy. - -[2935] The colour of Port. - -[2936] See B. xiv. c. 25. - -[2937] See B. xiv. cc. 3, 4. - -[2938] See B. xiv. c. 4: Vol. III. p. 227. - -[2939] “Tremore nervorum;” perhaps “nervousness.” - -[2940] See B. xi. c. 71. There is little doubt that generous wine -promotes the rapid circulation of the blood. - -[2941] In B. xiv. cc. 18, 19, 20. - -[2942] In accordance with the suggestion of Sillig, we insert “sunt -quæ,” otherwise the passage is defective. - -[2943] This would be a vigorous liquor, Fée thinks, and a good tonic; -similar, in fact, to the modern antiscorbutic wines. - -[2944] Fée queries whether this was made from the fermented berries, or -from an infusion of them in wine. In the former case it would bear some -slight resemblance to our gin. - -[2945] “Apsinthites.” See B. xiv. c. 19. - -[2946] See B. xiii. c. 9. - -[2947] In B. xiv. c. 10. - -[2948] The vinegar of the present day does not appear to have any such -property. - -[2949] Celsus says the same thing, B. i. c. 3. - -[2950] “Posca,” or vinegar and water, sometimes mixed with eggs, was -the common drink of the lower classes at Rome, and of the soldiers when -on service. - -[2951] There is little doubt that it would be advantageous to employ -vinegar in such a case; the animal would be compelled to withdraw its -hold, and vomiting would be facilitated. Strong salt and water, Fée -thinks, would be still more efficacious. - -[2952] It would be of no use whatever, Fée thinks, in any of these -cases. - -[2953] An operation which, though known to the Greeks and Romans, -appears to have been completely lost sight of in the middle ages. - -[2954] Or leather bag, “utrem.” - -[2955] See B. xxx. c. 21. From Livy and Plutarch we learn that Hannibal -employed this method of splitting the rocks when making his way across -the Alps. Fée, at considerable length, disputes the credibility of this -account, and thinks it only a wonderful story invented by the Romans to -account for their defeat by Hannibal. - -[2956] See B. xix. c. 5. - -[2957] Sillig has little doubt that this passage is incomplete, and -that the end of it should be to the effect, “the result of which was, -that he was effectually cured.” A very similar story is related of -Servius Clodius, a Roman knight, in B. xxv. c. 7. - -[2958] In B. xx. c. 39. It is still employed in medicine; but the -statements here made, as Fée says, do not merit a serious discussion. - -[2959] See B. xiv. c. 21. The modern oxymel, as Fée remarks, consists -of honey dissolved in white vinegar, and bears no resemblance to the -monstrous composition here described, and which no stomach, he says, -could possibly support. - -[2960] See Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. ix. ll. 723, 776. - -[2961] Fée thinks that there may be some foundation for this statement, -as vinegar acts efficaciously as a remedy to the effects of narcotic -poisons. Mistletoe, as already stated, is not a poison. - -[2962] Grape-juice boiled down to one-third. See B. xiv. c. 11. - -[2963] See c. 18 of this Book. The account here given of the medicinal -properties of sapa is altogether unfounded. - -[2964] A worm that grows in the pine-tree, the Phalæna bombyx -pityocampa of Linnæus. - -[2965] A mere absurdity, of course. See c. 18 of this Book. - -[2966] The lees of wine are charged with sub-tartarate of potash, a -quantity of colouring matter more or less, and a small proportion of -wine. They are no longer used in medicine. Under the term “fæx vini,” -Pliny includes the pulp or husks of grapes after the must has been -expressed. - -[2967] In consequence of the carbonic gas disengaged before the -fermentation is finished, asphyxia being the result. - -[2968] By the use of this term he evidently means grape husks. - -[2969] Or flower-de-luce. See B. xxi. cc. 19, 83. - -[2970] Wine-lees would only have the effect of increasing the -inflammation. - -[2971] See B. xxiv. c. 67. - -[2972] Their properties are similar to those of wine-lees, but they are -no longer used in medicine. The statements here made by our author, Fée -remarks, are entirely fabulous. - -[2973] Or horned serpent. See B. xi. c. 45. - -[2974] See B. xx. c. 71. - -[2975] This, as Fée observes, is probably the case. - -[2976] It must be remembered that red hair was greatly admired by the -Romans. - -[2977] The thicker parts of boiled grape-juice. These lees have no -affinity with those of wine or vinegar. - -[2978] They are rich in tannin and gallic acid, and Fée states that -they have been proposed as a substitute for quinine. The statements -here made by Pliny, he says, in reference to their properties, are -hypothetical. - -[2979] “Nervosis.” - -[2980] No medicinal use is now made of it, but its properties would be -very similar to those of the leaves. - -[2981] Impure metallic oxide. See B. xix. c. 4, and B. xxxiv. c. 52. -The ashes of the branches would be an impure sub-carbonate of potass, -which would act, Fée says, as a powerful irritant. - -[2982] A sort of pyroligneous acid, which would have the noxious effect -of throwing inward the eruptions. - -[2983] This juice or tear (lacrima) Fée thinks to be the same with the -Enhæmon, mentioned in B. xii. c. 38; the properties of which are quite -inactive, though Dioscorides, B. i. c. 139, speaks of it as a poison. - -[2984] Probably in consequence of the tannin and gallic acid, which it -contains in great abundance. - -[2985] Fée says that all these statements as to the medicinal -properties of olives are false. - -[2986] Or preserved olives. See B. xv. c. 4. - -[2987] B. xv. c. 8. - -[2988] Fée thinks that it would exercise quite a contrary effect. Marc -of olives is no longer used in medicine. - -[2989] It would produce no good effect in the treatment of ulcers. - -[2990] Fée remarks that it would have no such effect. - -[2991] See B. xii. c. 60. - -[2992] See B. xxii. c. 21. - -[2993] Fée thinks that it might prove useful in this case. - -[2994] Unboiled. - -[2995] See c. 35. There is no analogy, Fée says, between marc of olives -and the leaves of the wild olive. - -[2996] This is hardly a peculiarity, for he has said already that the -cultivated olive is employed with honey to arrest the flow of blood. - -[2997] The tannin which it contains in great abundance may possibly -have this effect. - -[2998] In B. xv. c. 2. - -[2999] See B. xii. c. 60. - -[3000] See B. xii. c. 60. An inferior kind of omphacium. - -[3001] “Non mordeat.” Probably in the sense of “have no pungency.” - -[3002] Or “Œnanthinum.” See B. xii. c. 61, and B. xv. c. 7. - -[3003] See c. 30 of this Book. - -[3004] Fée remarks, that a modern physician would dread to administer -such a dose, rue being a very dangerous plant in its effects. He also -remarks that it is doubtful whether Pliny is speaking throughout this -Chapter of olive oil or of oil of œnanthe; and such is the fact, though -most probably the latter is intended to be spoken of. - -[3005] “Ptisanæ succo.” - -[3006] Fée thinks that it can have no such efficacy, whether it be -olive oil or oil of œnanthe that is the subject of discussion. - -[3007] “Acapni.” See B. xi. c. 15. - -[3008] “Oleum cicinum.” See B. xv. c. 7. - -[3009] It is still used in medicine for the same purpose. - -[3010] “Præcordia;” either the diaphragm, or the parts above it, such -as the heart and chest. - -[3011] See B. ix. c. 52. - -[3012] See B. xv. c. 7. - -[3013] Fée is at a loss to know how these wicks could have been made: -most probably, however, the seeds were beaten up into a pulp for the -purpose. The oil is still used for lamps in some countries, though, as -Pliny says, in consequence of its extreme thickness, the light it gives -is not good. - -[3014] “A sole ustis.” Not _coup de soleil_, or “sun-stroke,” as Littré -renders it. Oil of almonds is still a favourite ingredient in cosmetics. - -[3015] There is no truth, Fée says, in this assertion. - -[3016] Fixed oil of laurel contains a certain proportion of volatile -oil, to which it is indebted for the excellence of its smell. It is -still used as a liniment for rheumatic pains and other affections. - -[3017] As prepared by the ancients, it has no analogous properties with -oil of laurel. Myrtle oil is no longer used in medicine. - -[3018] Such is not the case. - -[3019] The wild myrtle, or little holly. See B. xv. c. 7. The oil would -be inodorous, and not possessed, as Pliny says, of properties similar -to those of oil of myrtle. - -[3020] See B. xv. c. 7. Fée thinks that it may have possibly been -prepared from a decoction of leaves of cypress. - -[3021] See B. xiii. cc. 1. 29, and B. xv. c. 7. - -[3022] See B. xv. c. 7. Oil of walnuts is used but little in medicine -at the present day, but it is employed for numerous other purposes. - -[3023] “Granum Cnidium.” See B. xv. c. 7. - -[3024] It would only resemble castor oil in its drastic properties; the -latter is a fixed natural oil, the former an artificial one. - -[3025] See B. xv. c. 7. An oil is still extracted in Italy from the -fruit of the Pistacia lentiscus; but it is no longer used in medicine. - -[3026] From the Greek ἄκοπος, “relieving weariness.” - -[3027] Or “ben.” See B. xii c. 46, and B. xv. c. 7. Oil of ben is still -made, but it has no such effects as those mentioned by our author. - -[3028] Pliny appears to have made the same error here in compiling from -the Greek, as he has done in Chapters 4 and 13, in mistaking the Greek -word signifying “scars,” for that meaning “gums.” - -[3029] In B. xii. c. 51, and B. xv. c. 7. - -[3030] The cyprus, or henna, is but little known in Europe: but it -is employed for many purposes in the East. The leaves, which have a -powerful smell, are used for the purpose of dyeing and staining various -parts of the body. - -[3031] Pliny has most probably committed an error here in mentioning -the “strutheum,” or sparrow-quince; for the corresponding passage in -Dioscorides, B. i. c. 124, speaks of the “struthion,” the Gypsophila -struthium of Linnæus, or possibly, as Littré thinks, the Saponaria -officinalis. See B. xix. c. 18. - -[3032] This, Fée thinks, may probably be the case. - -[3033] See B. xv. c. 7. - -[3034] In B. xii. c. 54. Balm of Mecca, Fée says, possesses properties -little different from the turpentines extracted from the Coniferæ. - -[3035] “Tremulis.” - -[3036] In B. xii. c. 59. Whatever malobathrum may have been, this was -an artificial oil, no doubt. - -[3037] “Hyoscyaminum.” A fixed oil with narcotic properties, and most -probably, highly dangerous in its effects. - -[3038] From the Greek θέρμος, a lupine. - -[3039] In B. xxi. c. 75. - -[3040] A fixed oil, charged with a small proportion of essential oil. - -[3041] Fée is of opinion that applied to the body it would exterminate -vermin. - -[3042] Malignant cancer. - -[3043] In B. xxi. c. 11. - -[3044] In B. xv. c. 7. - -[3045] Similar, probably, to the narcotic oil, or _baume tranquille_ of -the French. - -[3046] See B. xv. c. 7. - -[3047] In B. xv. c. 7. - -[3048] Probably because its oleaginous properties would tend to prevent -imbibition and absorption, while its narcotic qualities would in some -degree neutralize the strength of the wine. Almonds have a somewhat -similar effect. - -[3049] “Pissinum.” See B. xv. c. 7. - -[3050] This is not the fact. - -[3051] On the contrary, they are used at the present day as a pectoral; -and many so-called pectoral sirops are prepared from them. - -[3052] See B. vi. c. 37, and B. xiii. c. 9. - -[3053] They have no properties, when burnt, to distinguish them from -the ashes of other vegetables. - -[3054] Impure metallic oxide. - -[3055] “Calliblephara.” - -[3056] See B. xii. cc. 46, 47. - -[3057] Fée is of opinion that this is not the “myrobalanum” of B. xii. -c. 46, the behen or ben nut, but the phœnicobalanus of c. 47 in that -Book; and, indeed, there can be little doubt that Pliny has committed -an error here in substituting one for the other. - -[3058] “Ciet,” “promote,” is the reading adopted by Sillig, but -“sistit” is supported by the parallel passage in Dioscorides. - -[3059] See B. xii. c. 62, and the Note, in reference to the mistake -which Pliny appears to have committed in reference to this term. - -[3060] In reality, it is quite inert. - -[3061] In consequence of the malic and tartaric acid which they contain. - -[3062] Quinces are of an astringent nature; and an astringent sirop, -Fée says, is still prepared from them. - -[3063] They are no longer used for this purpose. - -[3064] Fée observes that it has no such effect. - -[3065] B. xiii. c. 2. - -[3066] Or “sparrow-quince.” See B. xv. c. 10. - -[3067] He states this so gravely, that he would almost appear to -believe it. - -[3068] “Honey apples.” See B. xv. c. 15, where this apple is also -called the “musteum.” - -[3069] A purgative sirop of apples, causing thirst, was made by the -ancients, the receipt for which was attributed to King Sapor. - -[3070] Or “round” apples. See B. xv. c. 15. - -[3071] See B. xii. c. 7. - -[3072] See B. xi. c. 15, and B. xii. c. 7. - -[3073] As Fée says, this observation is quite unaccountable. He queries -whether a sweet fruit may not possibly be meant, the sweet lime, for -instance, the flavour of which is very sickly, and would require to be -heightened by the assistance of an acid. - -[3074] See B. xiii. c. 34; where, however, he has only distinguished -them according to their flavour, sweet, vinous, &c. - -[3075] “Without pips.” See B. xiii. c. 34. - -[3076] This and the previous precaution given, Fée considers to be mere -puerilities. - -[3077] Than that of the ordinary grape, probably. - -[3078] See B. xiii. c. 34. - -[3079] The “leather apple,” apparently. It is more probable, as -Hardouin says, that it was so called from the toughness of the rind. - -[3080] “Pterygiis.” - -[3081] See B. ix. c. 72, and B. xxxii. c. 3. - -[3082] “Alumen scissum.” See B. xxxi. c. 39, and B. xxxv. c. 52. - -[3083] See B. xii. c. 15, and B. xxiv. c. 77. - -[3084] An absurd notion, without any apparent foundation. - -[3085] All vegetable productions rich in tannin are thought to possess -the property of acting as a vermifuge. - -[3086] The calyx of the blossom of the pomegranate. Its properties are -remarkably astringent. - -[3087] This would be nearly an impossibility, as the calyx is hard and -coriaceous, and of considerable size. Nothing, however, is allowed to -stand in the way of superstition. - -[3088] “Ipsa corpuscula.” The _exact_ meaning of this expression is -somewhat doubtful: Hardouin takes it to be the lower part of the -cytinus. - -[3089] In B. xiii. c. 34. - -[3090] The corolla of the flower. Dioscorides, B. i. c. 152, makes -the “balaustium” to be the blossom of the wild pomegranate, and the -“cytinus” to be that of the cultivated fruit. Theophrastus, however, -and Galen, give the same account of the cytinus as Pliny. Holland has -this quaint marginal Note on the passage: “Here is Pliny out of the -way;” not improbably in reference to the statement of Dioscorides. - -[3091] Or Quinarius. See Introduction to Vol. III. - -[3092] These statements, Fée says, are quite unfounded. - -[3093] See B. xii. c. 15, and B. xxiv. c. 77. - -[3094] Fée thinks that there is no doubt that this was really the -pomegranate, left to grow wild. Dalechamps and Fée suggest that, misled -by the resemblance of the Greek names, Pliny has here attributed to the -wild pomegranate the properties attributed to the red poppy, or corn -poppy. Hardouin, however, is not of that opinion, and thinks that the -mention of the _roots_ of the plant proves that Pliny has not committed -any error here; as in B. xx. c. 77, he has attributed the narcotic -effects of the poppy to the head only. - -[3095] This depends considerably, as Fée says, upon the kind of pear. - -[3096] See B. xv. c. 16. - -[3097] There is no truth whatever in this statement. - -[3098] They are equally inefficacious for the purpose, - -[3099] See B. xxiv. c. 1. An absurdity, upon which Fée has uselessly -expended a dozen lines of indignation. - -[3100] In reality it has no affinity with vinegar or any other acid, -and the fact that it curdles milk is no proof whatever that such is the -case. - -[3101] See B. xviii. c. 17. - -[3102] Being of a caustic nature, it might have this effect, Fée -thinks. It is, however, no longer employed in medicine. He is also of -opinion that the juice of the fig-tree might be useful in making cheese. - -[3103] Here, also, the caustic nature of their juices might render them -useful. - -[3104] “Ceria:” now known in surgery as “favus.” - -[3105] This and the next statement are equally untrue. - -[3106] See B. xv. c. 19. - -[3107] “Medicatæ.” See B. xvi. c. 51. - -[3108] They produce heart-burn and flatulency. - -[3109] “Ad carnes eos transtulit.” Dalechamps takes this to mean -“showed them that the flesh was increased by eating figs.” This -Pythagoras was probably the Samian pugilist who gained a victory in Ol. -48. - -[3110] This herb is rich in mucilage, and of a soothing nature. - -[3111] “Æris flore.” - -[3112] “Pterygiis.” - -[3113] This is the case, as they are remarkably rich in alkaline salts. -The assertion, however, as to their properties, is, as Fée says, -hypothetical. - -[3114] “Thymos.” - -[3115] Metallic ashes, or dross. See B. xxxiv. c. 52. - -[3116] “Suavitatem.” Fée is justly at a loss to understand how this -could be. It is doubtful whether Pliny does not mean that by the use of -this substance meat was _kept fresh_. - -[3117] See B. xviii. c. 17. - -[3118] Fée thinks that, owing to its acridity, it may possibly have -this effect. - -[3119] There is probably no foundation for this statement. - -[3120] Favus. - -[3121] Plutarch, Sympos. ii. 7, tells the same absurd story. - -[3122] To “erineon,” the Greek for wild fig. - -[3123] Supposed to be the Campanula rapunculus of Linnæus, the rampion; -though Fée expresses some doubts. Guilandin has suggested the Hieracium -Sabaudum of Linnæus, an opinion which Fée thinks not altogether -destitute of probability. - -[3124] The leaves of this tree contain a large proportion of tannin, to -which they owe their astringent properties. - -[3125] Prunes, the produce of the plum-tree, called the plum of Saint -Julien, are still used as a purgative. - -[3126] A most singular assertion, as Fée says, and one that universal -experience proves to be unfounded. - -[3127] On the contrary, it quenches thirst. - -[3128] Fée thinks that, owing to the hydro-cyanic acid which the -kernels contain, there may possibly be some foundation for this -statement of their curative effects. - -[3129] Both the root and the fruit are of an astringent nature. From -this fruit an extract is prepared, Fée says, rich in tannin, and called -in France Acacia nostras, from its resemblance to the juice of the -Egyptian Acacia. - -[3130] “Limus.” Fée thinks that this may possibly be the Evernia -prunastri of modern botany. It has been suggested, however, that Pliny -has committed an error here, and that in copying from the Greek source -he has mistaken the author’s mention of the cure of lichens by the gum -of the plum-tree, for an account of a lichen which grows on the tree. -Such, in fact, is the statement of Dioscorides in B. i. c. 174, though -he does not mention chaps and condylomata. - -[3131] In B. xiii. cc, 14, 15, where he calls it a fig-tree. He alludes -to the sycamore. - -[3132] See B. xvi. c. 72. - -[3133] This statement is entirely unfounded. - -[3134] Considering that the leaves and bark are rich in tannin and -gallic acid, it might be worth while to ascertain if there is any truth -in this assertion. - -[3135] But Horace says, Sat. B. ii. s. 4, l. 22, that mulberries are -remarkably wholesome as a dessert. - -[3136] In B. xvi. c. 41. - -[3137] “All-healing,” “mouth-medicine,” and “medicine for the trachea.” - -[3138] See B. xii. c. 60. A rob, or sirop of mulberries is prepared for -much the same purposes at the present day, but without the omphacium, -myrrh, or saffron. An “arteriace” is also mentioned in B. xx. c. 79. - -[3139] Hermolaüs Barbarus is possibly right in suggesting “cytini,” -which name has been previously mentioned in connection with the calyx -of the pomegranate. - -[3140] From the account given by Dioscorides, B. i. c. 181, this -appears to he the meaning of the passage, which is very elliptically -expressed, if, indeed, it is not imperfect. - -[3141] In a powdered state, probably, as mentioned by Dioscorides. - -[3142] The use of the word “conluebant” would almost make it appear -that he is speaking of a liquid. - -[3143] The juice (if, indeed, Pliny intends to specify it as an -ingredient) will not, as Fée remarks, combine with oil. Dioscorides -says, B. i. c. 180, that the _leaves_ are bruised and applied with oil -to burns. - -[3144] Black cherries, Fée says, bigaroons, and others, with a firm -flesh, are the most unwholesome. See B. xv. c. 30. - -[3145] This property. Fée says, is attributed by some, in modern times, -not to the flesh, or pericarpus of the cherry, but to the stalks of the -fruit. - -[3146] See B. xv. c. 22. - -[3147] See B. xv. c. 23. - -[3148] They are no longer used in medicine, Fée says, but the buds of -the pine and fir, the properties of which are analogous, are still -used, though not in cases of hæmoptysis. - -[3149] In a rancid state particularly, they would have this effect. - -[3150] Fée thinks that the mixture might be useful in these cases. - -[3151] See B. xv. c. 24. - -[3152] “Hilariorem.” At the present day it is not a decoction of the -root, but the fixed oil of the kernels, that is used as a cosmetic; for -which purpose it is used with oil of sweet almonds and wax. - -[3153] Their narcotic effect is owing to the prussic, or hydro-cyanic, -acid which they contain. - -[3154] Almonds were a favourite food with the monks in the middle ages; -not improbably because they tended to dispel the fumes of wine. Almond -milk, similar to our custard, was a standing dish at their “charities” -and anniversaries. - -[3155] See B. xviii. c. 17. - -[3156] They would be of no use whatever in these cases. - -[3157] Otherwise turpentine. - -[3158] See B. xxii. c. 71. - -[3159] See Note [3154] above. Plutarch tells us that Drusus, the -brother of Tiberius, one of the greatest drinkers of his time, used -almonds for this purpose. Fée will not believe that they have any such -preventive effect. - -[3160] Almonds will kill small animals, birds, for instance. - -[3161] They are much more used in modern medicine than bitter almonds. - -[3162] There is some ground, Fée says, for this assertion. - -[3163] See B. xv. c. 24, where Pliny expresses himself at a loss as to -their identification. - -[3164] See B. xv. c. 24. - -[3165] Κάρυα, from κάρος, “heaviness,” or κάρη, the “head.” See Vol. -III. p. 316. - -[3166] A mere prejudice, no doubt. - -[3167] The rancidity of the oil which they contain, renders them -irritating to the throat and stomach. - -[3168] Fée remarks, that it is difficult to see how this could be done. - -[3169] This statement, as Fée remarks, is quite unfounded. - -[3170] This assertion is also entirely imaginary. - -[3171] “Cortex juglandium.” Fée says that by this term is meant, not -the green outer shell, husk, or pericarpus of the walnut, but the bark -of the tree. - -[3172] This asserted use of them has not been verified by modern -experience. - -[3173] The various receipts for the preparation of this Mithridate -or antidote differ very widely; and, indeed, the probability is, as -Dr. Heberden says, that Mithridates was as much a stranger to his own -antidote, as modern physicians have since been to the medicines daily -advertised under their names. Mithridates is said to have so fortified -himself against all noxious drugs and poisons, that none would produce -any effect when he attempted to destroy himself—a mere fable, no doubt. - -[3174] This, we are told by Galen, was regularly done by the Emperor -Marcus Aurelius, De Antid. B. i. c. i. - -[3175] See B. xv. c. 24. - -[3176] An emulsion of them fresh, with honey, might be useful, Fée -thinks, in such a case. - -[3177] Either of these additions would certainly neutralize the good -effects of the emulsion. The addition of raisin wine, however, is -recommended by Dioscorides. - -[3178] See B. xiii. c. 10. - -[3179] They are of no efficacy whatever for such a purpose. - -[3180] See B. xv. c. 25. They are no longer used in medicine, and, -as Fée says, it is extremely doubtful if they possess any of the -properties here attributed to them. - -[3181] They are still looked upon as very nourishing, as, indeed, is -the case with all the feculent fruits. - -[3182] See B. xv. c. 26. - -[3183] They are productive of colic and diarrhœa. - -[3184] See B. xiii. c. 16. - -[3185] See B. xv. c. 31. - -[3186] The juice of the sap would, to all appearance, produce an -acetate or oxide of iron. - -[3187] See B. xv. c. 28. - -[3188] All parts of the laurel, the berries in particular, are -impregnated with an essential oil with a powerful odour and of an -exciting nature. Upon this volatile principle, and nothing else, the -whole of its medicinal properties are based. - -[3189] This assertion, Fée says, is no better than fabulous. - -[3190] See Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. ix. ll. 723, 776. - -[3191] See the Pharsalia, B. ix. l. 719. - -[3192] “Irino.” See B. xiii. c. 2. - -[3193] This assertion, Fée says, is untrue. - -[3194] See B. xv. c. 39. - -[3195] All these statements as to the properties of the berries, Fée -says, are hypothetical and more than doubtful. - -[3196] The Laurus nobilis of modern botany. - -[3197] A statement, Fée says, that is altogether illusory. - -[3198] Of the berries, Fée thinks. - -[3199] See c. 45 of this Book; also B. xxvii. c. 13. - -[3200] Fée thinks that this oil, in conjunction with adipose -substances, might be useful for the treatment of rheumatic affections. - -[3201] The Ruscus hypophyllum of Linnæus. It is quite inodorous, Fée -says, and has no analogous properties whatever with the next-mentioned -plant. - -[3202] See B. xv. c. 39. - -[3203] In B. xv. c. 39. - -[3204] The peasantry of France, Fée says, still use as a purgative the -berries of the Daphne mezereum, and of the Daphne laureola; and in -Aragon and Catalonia, the leaves of the Thymelea are used for a similar -purpose. The employment of them, however, is not unattended with danger. - -[3205] A variety with white berries, but which variety it appears -impossible to say. - -[3206] See B. xv. c. 37. - -[3207] The leaves and berries are bitter, and rich in volatile oil. - -[3208] This is consistent with fact. - -[3209] A work of some kind, (perhaps a play, if the comic writer, -Menander, is the person alluded to) the title of which means “the Women -Dining together.” Hardouin, with justice, ridicules the notion of -Ortelius that this is the name of some place or town. - -[3210] The astringency communicated by the tannin which they contain -would probably make them useful for dysentery; if at the same time, as -Fée says, they are not too exciting, by reason of their essential oil. - -[3211] See B. xi. c. 71. - -[3212] “Succus seminis.” Sillig has “succus feminis,” apparently a -misprint—the only one that has been met with thus far in his elaborate -edition. - -[3213] It might change the colour of the hair, but for a short time -only. - -[3214] See B. xv. c. 37. - -[3215] Cerates, or adipose or oleaginous plasters. - -[3216] In reality they have no such effect. - -[3217] “Pterygia.” - -[3218] Fée says here—“Pliny terminates, by a credulity quite unworthy -of him, a Chapter, full of false or exaggerated assertions, relative to -the properties of the myrtle.” - -[3219] Or “myrtle-wine.” See B. xiv. c. 19; also B. xv. c. 35. - -[3220] “Alarum perfusiones.” - -[3221] See B. xv. cc. 7, 37: the Ruscus aculeatus of Linnæus, or little -holly of the French, belonging to the Asparagea, and not the myrtles. - -[3222] Being of the same family, of course there is a great resemblance. - -[3223] In reality they have no such lithotriptic nature, Fée says. - -[3224] A kindred plant with the one already mentioned by our author: it -is still used for making brooms in some parts of Europe. - -[3225] See end of B. xx. - -[3226] See end of B. xiv. - -[3227] See end of B. xii. - -[3228] See end of B. xx. - -[3229] See end of B. xx. - -[3230] See end of B. ii. - -[3231] See end of B. vii. - -[3232] For Fabianus Papirius, see end of B. ii; for Fabianus Sabinus, -see end of B. xviii. - -[3233] See end of B. iii. - -[3234] See end of B. ii. - -[3235] See end of B. xx. - -[3236] See end of B. ii. - -[3237] See end of B. viii. - -[3238] See end of B. xix. - -[3239] See end of B. viii. - -[3240] See end of B. vii. - -[3241] See end of B. xxi. - -[3242] See end of B. xxi. - -[3243] See end of B. xxi. - -[3244] See end of B. xxi. - -[3245] See end of B. iv. - -[3246] See end of B. xxi. - -[3247] See end of B. xxi. - -[3248] See end of B. xxi. - -[3249] See end of B. vii. - -[3250] See end of B. xx. - -[3251] See end of B. xx. - -[3252] See end of B. xx. - -[3253] See end of B. xii. - -[3254] See end of B. xv. - -[3255] See end of B. xii. - -[3256] See end of B. xx. - -[3257] See end of B. xx. - -[3258] See end of B. xx. - -[3259] See end of B. xx. - -[3260] See end of B. xx. - -[3261] See end of B. xx. - -[3262] See end of B. xx. - -[3263] See end of B. vii. - -[3264] See end of B. xx. - -[3265] See end of B. xx. - -[3266] See end of B. xii. - -[3267] See end of B. xi. - -[3268] See end of B. xii. - -[3269] See end of B. xx. - -[3270] See end of B. xii. - -[3271] See end of B. xx. - -[3272] See end of B. xx. - -[3273] See end of B. vi. - -[3274] See end of B. xx. - -[3275] See end of B. xx. - -[3276] See end of B. xx. - -[3277] See end of B. xx. - -[3278] See end of B. xii. - -[3279] See end of B. xx. - -[3280] See end of B. xx. - -[3281] See end of B. xix. - -[3282] See end of B. xx. - -[3283] See end of B. xx. - -[3284] See end of B. xx. - - END OF VOL. IV. - - J. BILLING, PRINTER AND STEREOTYPER, WOKING, SURREY. - - -Transcriber’s Notes:— - -The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the -original, except for apparent typographical errors which have been -silently corrected. - -The footnotes for each of the six volumes have been renumbered, the -references to notes in other volumes have been changed accordingly. - -Footnote [2369] in the original incorrectly reads:— - The Solanum nigrum of Linnæus, or black night-shade. See B. xxiii. c. - 108. -This has been changed to:— - The Solanum nigrum of Linnæus, or black night-shade. See B. xxi. c. - 108. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Natural History of Pliny, volume 4 -(of 6), by Pliny, the Elder - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF PLINY *** - -***** This file should be named 61113-0.txt or 61113-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/1/1/61113/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Stephen Rowland, Tony Browne, -Brian Wilcox and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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