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diff --git a/old/60989-0.txt b/old/60989-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7389f44..0000000 --- a/old/60989-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1370 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of D.A.R. State Park, Mt. Philo -State Forest Park, Sand Bar State Park, by Harry W. Dodge, Jr. - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Geology of D.A.R. State Park, Mt. Philo State Forest Park, Sand Bar State Park - -Author: Harry W. Dodge, Jr. - -Release Date: December 22, 2019 [EBook #60989] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGY OF D.A.R. STATE PARK *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Lisa Corcoran and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - THE GEOLOGY OF - D.A.R. STATE PARK - - - [Illustration: Shoreline at D.A.R. State Park looking south.] - - - - - MT. PHILO STATE FOREST PARK - - - [Illustration: Panoramic view from west overlook on Mt. Philo. - Adirondack Mountains in background. Lake Champlain and Champlain - Lowlands in foreground.] - - - - - SAND BAR STATE PARK - - - [Illustration: Sand Bar State Park on flat surface of Lamoille River - delta. A part of extensive picnic area looking northwest.] - - - - - THE GEOLOGY OF - D.A.R. STATE PARK - MT. PHILO STATE FOREST PARK - SAND BAR STATE PARK - - - _By_ - HARRY W. DODGE, JR. - - - VERMONT GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - CHARLES G. DOLL, _State Geologist_ - - DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND PARKS - ROBERT B. WILLIAMS, _Commissioner_ - - DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES - Montpelier, Vermont - - - 1969 - - [Illustration: Fig. 1. Index Map.] - - SANDBAR STATE PARK - MT. PHILO STATE PARK - BUTTON BAY STATE PARK - D.A.R. STATE PARK - LAKE CHAMPLAIN - Milton - Burlington - Shelburne Falls - Hinesburg - Vergennes - Bristol - Port Henry - Champlain Bridge - Middlebury - Crown Point - Shoreham - INDEX MAP - - [Illustration: Fig. 1a. Surface of marine terrace at D.A.R. State - Park. Immediately to the left of shelter the land rises to a second - terrace.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 2. View northwest along park beach. Illustrates - dip of rocks toward northwest; strike, northeast.] - - - - - THE GEOLOGY OF D.A.R. STATE PARK - - -INTRODUCTION - -D.A.R. State Park is located in western Vermont on State Highway 17, -approximately 1 mile north of Lake Champlain (toll) Bridge (see map, -Fig. 1). The park, which fronts on Lake Champlain, contains undeveloped -acres on the east side of the Highway. Tenting, leanto camping, -picnicking and swimming are adequately provided for during the summer -months. - -This park, more than most others, not only awakens the visitor’s -curiosity about the past history of the Earth, but satisfies it. The -story of an ancient sea and the life which existed in it can be read -from the rocks exposed in D.A.R. State Park. You can read this story for -yourselves. This Pamphlet is designed as an aid to a more complete -understanding of the observations which you make. “Reading the rock -record” is not difficult, but the geologist does have the advantage of -possessing a certain trained scientific approach to these problems. This -method of approach, the “tools of the trade,” will now be passed on to -you. - - -THE GEOLOGY OF THE PARK - -The park beach is the ideal place to study the rocks of the park, for -here the rocks are best exposed and can be easily examined at close -range. The attitude of the rock layers can be seen on a walk down the -ramp. By attitude is meant their relationship to an imaginary horizontal -plane, which for our purposes is the level of the lake. Are the rock -layers parallel to the surface of Lake Champlain or do they slant or dip -into it? If the layers were parallel to the surface they would not -“dip.” The dip of the park strata (layers) is seen in Figure 2. Dip is -expressed in the number of degrees _down_ from the horizontal and here -the dip is toward the west and is measured to be between 8 and 11 -degrees. The dip is always measured perpendicular to an imaginary -horizontal line on a rock layer called a “strike line.” The average -“strike,” or compass direction of the “strike line” is 22 degrees east -of _north_.[1] - -_Sedimentary rocks_[2] crop out on the park beach. These were originally -lime mud resting on the sea bottom. Under continued pressure from the -overlying sediments resulting from continued deposition and burial, the -muds were slowly compacted and cemented into the hard limestones and -limy shales which we see today. The many layers of rock were then -tilted. Tilted layers tell the geologist of giant earth movements which -took place since their formation. The story of these movements will be -developed later in this pamphlet. - -As you look at the tilted rock layers from the ramp, can you tell which -layers are the oldest, that is, those first deposited as lime muds on -the sea bottom? A basic geologic law, the Law of Superposition, states -that if a series of sedimentary layers have _not_ been overturned, the -oldest is on the bottom and the youngest on top. Assuming that the -layers which you are looking at have not been overturned, those on your -left (south) are the oldest and those on your right (north) the -youngest. Looking at Figure 2, taken from the ramp-bottom toward the -north, the layers in the foreground are older than those in the -distance. Let us take a close look at the individual layers of rock and -delve deeper into the story that they have to tell. - - [Illustration: Fig. 3. Block diagram illustrating _dip_ and - _strike_.] - - STRIKE DIRECTION - ROCK LAYER - SURFACE (PLANE) LAKE LEVEL - HORIZONTAL - DIP - ROCK LAYER - -Search the top of a few layers and you will notice many shell and other -animal impressions. Do they represent animals which lived hundreds of -millions of years ago or were they washed onto these rocks from -present-day Lake Champlain? If you try to make a collection of the shell -impressions you will see that they are a part of the rock and therefore -must represent remains of animals that were buried in the ancient lime -muds. These preserved _remains_[3] are called fossils. The geologist who -specializes in the study of fossils is called a _paleontologist_. You -may ask, “What can fossils tell me about the past?” In the first place, -fossils tell us at what time in the past the sediments in which they are -found were deposited. In this way, the _relative age_[4] of the rock -layers found in the Park can be learned. Secondly, the environment or -surroundings in which these ancient sediments were deposited can be -reconstructed from the types of fossils contained within them. Certain -animals living today are quite similar to those in the Park rocks and -their environment in today’s sea can be used to reconstruct the -environment of animals which lived in the past. The characteristics of -the rocks and their relation to adjacent rocks are considered in any -reconstruction of past environment. In the third place, the study of -fossils is a mainstay of the theory of evolution. That is to say, -changes in fossil forms collected from groups of successively younger -rock layers document the theory that life has evolved little by little -since its first appearance on Earth. Finally, it should be mentioned -that some animals found as fossils are not living today and have not -lived, to the best of our knowledge, for millions of years. Why did -these forms of life die out? What set of circumstances led to their -extinction? The answers to these questions are not easy to find and they -are highly speculative. - - [Illustration: Fig. 4. Standard Geologic Time Scale.] - - GEOLOGIC TIME - ERA YEARS AGO PERIODS EVENTS - - CENOZOIC 70,000,000 CENOZOIC MAN (1½ MILLION) - MESOZOIC 125,000,000 CRETACEOUS END OF DINOSAURS - 165,000,000 JURASSIC FIRST BIRD - 200,000,000 TRIASSIC FIRST DINOSAUR - PALEOZOIC 230,000,000 PERMIAN END OF TRILOBITES - 260,000,000 PENNSYLVANIAN - 290,000,000 MISSISSIPPIAN - 330,000,000 DEVONIAN - 360,000,000 SILURIAN - 420,000,000 ORDOVICIAN ROCKS OF D.A.R. STATE - PARK - 500,000,000 CAMBRIAN - BEGINNING OF FOSSIL RECORD - 1 BILLION - 2 BILLION - 3 BILLION - 4 BILLION - PRECAMBRIAN - - -THE FOSSILS - -Many groups of invertebrates are represented in the fossils of D.A.R. -State Park. Plate 1 will help you to identify these fossils. The name, -phylum (major group) and age of each fossil are provided in the -explanation of the plate. The following paragraphs describe each phylum -represented in the Park rocks. - - [Illustration: Plate 1. Typical fossils found in the Glens Falls - Limestone.] - -_Arthropods._ D.A.R. State Park rocks contain trilobites with the -following imposing names: _Cryptolithus tesselatus_ (crip-toe-LITH-us -tessell-AH-tus[5]), _Isotelus gigas_ (ice-so-TELL-us GIG-us) and -_Flexicalymene senaria_ (flex-eye-cal-ah-Mean-ee sen-AREA). These -fossils are figured on Plate 1, 1-A, B, C, D; 2; 3. Within the Park -_Cryptolithus tesselatus_ is very common wherever fossils occur. -Generally only the cephalon or head portion of this trilobite is -preserved. The cephalon is easily recognized by three concentric rows of -pits arranged around the brim. _Cryptolithus_ is an excellent _index -fossil_[6] for the Park rocks. The arthropod phylum is characterized by -animals with jointed legs, segmented bodies and a jointed outer armour -of _chitin_.[7] For examples, the crabs, lobsters, spiders, scorpions -and insects are arthropods. Trilobites appear early in the fossil record -but they did not survive beyond the Paleozoic Era. - - - - - _Explanation for Plate 1_ - (_all drawings are X1 unless otherwise indicated_) - -1-A. _Cryptolithus tesselatus_, Arthropod (Trilobite), Middle Ordovician - (Trenton Stage). Front view of the Cephalon or head. (X2) - -1-B. _Cryptolithus tesselatus_, Arthropod (Trilobite), Middle Ordovician - (Trenton Stage). Oblique front-lateral view of the Cephalon. (X2) - -1-C. _Cryptolithus tesselatus_, Arthropod (Trilobite), Middle Ordovician - (Trenton Stage). Top view of the Cephalon. (X2) - -1-D. _Cryptolithus tesselatus_, Arthropod (Trilobite), Middle Ordovician - (Trenton Stage). Side view of the Cephalon. (X2) - -2. _Isotelus gigas_, Arthropod (Trilobite), Middle Ordovician. Top view - of specimen. - -3. _Flexicalymene_, Arthropod (Trilobite), Ordovician to Silurian. Top - view of an enrolled specimen. - -4-A. _Dinorthis pectinella_, Brachiopod, Middle Ordovician (Trenton - Stage). Exterior view of the brachial valve. - -4-B. _Dinorthis pectinella_, Brachiopod, Middle Ordovician (Trenton - Stage). Exterior view of the pedicle valve. - -5. _Reuschella edsoni_, Brachiopod, Middle Ordovician. Exterior view of - the pedicle valve. - -6. _Lingula_, Brachiopod, Ordovician to Recent. - -7-A. _Prasopora_, Bryozoan, Ordovician. Top view. (X0.5) - -7-B. _Prasopora_, Bryozoan, Ordovician. Side view. (X0.5) - -7-C. _Prasopora_, Bryozoan, Ordovician. Vertical thin section showing - the nature and growth of part of a bryozoan colony. (X18) - -8. Bryozoan, “twig-like” type, Ordovician to Devonian. - -9. _Sowerbyella_, Brachiopod, Middle and Upper Ordovician. Exterior view - of brachial valve. (X2) - -10. _Rafinesquina_, Brachiopod, Middle and Upper Ordovician. Exterior - view of the pedicle valve. - -11. _Platystrophia trentonensis_, Brachiopod, Middle Ordovician (Trenton - Stage). Anterior or front view. - -12. _Hesperorthis tricenaria_, Brachiopod, Middle Ordovician (Black - River and Trenton Stage). Interior view of the pedicle valve. - - [Illustration: Fig. 5. The surface of a layer or bed of Glens Falls - Limestone. Pen points to a colonial Bryozoan _Prasopora_ “head.” - These “heads” are very common just south or to your left if walking - down the ramp.] - -_Brachiopods._ Brachiopods are abundant in the Park rocks (see Plate 1, -4A, B; 5; 6; 9; 10; 11; 12). These invertebrates are small marine -animals which generally live in waters no deeper than 600 feet. The two -valves of their shell are joined at the back (posterior) end of the body -along a hingeline of interlocking teeth and sockets. The shell of the -brachiopod is opened or shut by muscles attached to the inside of each -valve. Brachiopods are found in the oldest rocks containing definite and -abundant fossils. Brachiopods are still living today. - -_Bryozoans._ Bryozoans or “moss animals” are very small marine animals -which live in colonies. The bryozoans construct their mutual home or -colony of lime which is commonly preserved for the fossil record. Large -colonies of the fossil Prasopora (prah-sop-OR-ah) are commonly seen on -the weathered surfaces of many of the rock layers in the Park (see Plate -1; 7A, B, C; 8 and Figure 5). Individuals of one genus common here, can -be recognized by their chocolate drop shapes. Bryozoans first appear in -lower Paleozoic rocks and are still living today in clear -well-circulated shallow to deep marine water. Considering all of the -fossils found in the Park rocks, the past environment is thought to have -been a relatively shallow and warm sea. - - [Illustration: Fig. 6. This photograph shows the typical thickness - of the Glens Falls Limestone beds in the Park area. Note the massive - nature of the limestone bed. The 5-inch pen in the center of the - picture is for scale.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 7. Sections illustrating the geologic history of - D.A.R. State Park.] - - -THE ROCKS AND THEIR HISTORY - -Approximately 75 vertical feet of the Glens Falls Limestone occur along -the Park beach. The rocks are _black_[8] or blue-black on a fresh -surface, gray or grayish-white on a surface which has been exposed to -the weather. Most of the individual beds or layers are 5 to 7 inches -thick (see Fig. 6) with the thickest being just under 5 feet. The beds -are separated by thin “partings” of rock, many of which contain abundant -fossils. The beds consist of massive limestone, shaly limestone or limy -shale; the partings are generally limy shale or shaly limestone. - - - - - _Explanation for Figure 7_ - -1. Glens Falls and younger sediments were deposited on the Ordovician -sea floor. - -2. Sediments hardened into Glens Falls Limestone and younger rocks. - -3. Rocks were tilted during the late Ordovician Taconic Disturbance and -the younger rocks and part of the Glens Falls Limestone were removed by -erosion. Erosion continued for some 350 million years. - -4. During the Pleistocene Epoch, which started some 1 million years ago, -glacial ice overrode the beveled layers of the Glens Falls Limestone. -Hard rocks frozen to the underside of the glacial ice produced scratches -or striations in the exposed layers of the Glens Falls Limestone. - -5. Glacial lakes Vermont form as the glaciers retreat northward. In -between the glacial lakes Vermont and present Lake Champlain, marine -waters flooded the valley and formed an arm of the Atlantic Ocean. Clay, -silt, sand and gravel were deposited on glaciated Glens Falls Limestone -(Fig. 1a). - -6. Present-day Lake Champlain formed when relatively greater uplift in -the north dammed the Champlain valley. - -The rock types found in the Park lead to certain conclusions regarding -the environment which existed during their formation. Most of the rocks -are composed of lime (limestone) or a mixture of lime, fine sand and mud -(limy shale or shaly limestone). The mineral pyrite (FeS₂) is present in -many of the rocks. Most of the rocks contain abundant amounts of organic -matter. The sediments which make up these rocks were carried to the -Ordovician sea by streams flowing primarily from the east. As these -streams entered the quiet sea waters the larger followed by the smaller -particles began to settle to the bottom. Lime was slowly precipitated -from the warm sea water and pyrite formed under stagnant bottom -conditions. Organic material accumulated on the bottom and intermixed -with the sediments. The poor life-sustaining qualities of much of the -bottom waters prevented rapid or complete bacterial action on the -accumulated debris and the sediments remained “organic black” in color. -Slowly, as the weight of overlying sediments increased, the lower layers -were compacted and cemented into the hard limestone and shale which we -see today. - -The tilt or dip of the Park rocks resulted from subsequent earth -movements. When were these rocks tilted? From the evidence presented in -the Park all that can be said is that they were tilted sometime after -hardening and before the Pleistocene glaciers overrode the region during -quite recent times (at least 10,000 years ago). Thus, there are some 350 -million years of rock record missing in the Park. Can we tell what -happened during these “missing” years through a study of only the Park -rocks? The answer to this question is partially “yes,” but we must look -to the work done in adjacent areas for a more complete story. - -The mere fact that there are no rocks representing these millions of -years tells us that the sea had withdrawn from the area and that the -previously deposited rocks were undergoing erosion during most or all of -the missing rock gap (the time not represented by rocks). Information -from adjacent areas, however, tells us that the Park rocks were tilted -during the Taconic Disturbance which occurred during the final stages of -the Ordovician Period. East of the Park, Taconic earth movements are -more dramatically exhibited. The rocks are tilted even more than in the -Park and are broken by faults or cracks in the earth’s crust. Some of -these faults, known as thrust faults, positioned giant slabs of rock far -from their original locations and placed older on top of younger rocks. - -Following these earth movements there occurred a long period of erosion. -Many of the rock layers were stripped off and carried piece by piece by -rivers to other regions. Hundreds of millions of years passed and then, -less than one million years ago the great glacial ice sheets slowly -advanced southward over the Park area. Pieces of hard rock frozen to the -underside of the ice sheets scratched and scraped the rock surfaces -leaving these scratches or striations for us to see today (near the -northern end of the Park beach these striations are common on the -outcropping rock). The retreating glaciers created a series of lakes in -which clay, silt, sand and gravel were deposited. Today these sediments -are found resting on the beveled edges of the Park rocks. - -Present-day Lake Champlain owes its existence to a general uplift of the -earth’s surface, greater in the north than in the south, perhaps due to -the removal of the heavy glacial ice sheet from the area. The greater -uplift in the north dammed the Champlain valley which slowly filled with -water. For a diagrammatic picture of the geologic history of D.A.R. -State Park, see Figure 7. - - - - - SUGGESTED READING - - -Beerbower, J. R., 1960, _Search for the Past_, Prentice-Hall, Englewood - Cliffs, N.J. - -Collinson, C. C., 1959, _Guide for beginning fossil hunters_, - Educational Series 4, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana, - Ill. - -Dunbar, C. O., 1959, _Historical geology_, John Wiley and Sons, New - York. - -Fenton, C. L., 1937, _Life long ago_, The John Day Co., New York. - -Goldring, Winifred, 1931, _Handbook of paleontology for beginners and - amateurs_, part 2, Handbook 9, New York State Museum, Albany, New - York. - -—— ——, 1950, _Handbook of paleontology for beginners and amateurs_, part - 1, Handbook 9, 2nd Edition, New York State Museum, Albany, New - York. - -Moore, R. C., 1958, _Introduction to historical geology_, 2nd Edition, - McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. - -Shimer, H. W., 1933, _Introduction to study of fossils_, The Macmillan - Co., New York. - -Simpson, G. G., 1953, _Life of the past_, Yale University Press, New - Haven, Conn. - -Stokes, W. L., 1960, _Essentials of earth history_, Prentice-Hall, Inc., - Englewood Cliffs, N.J. - -Welby, C. W., 1961, _Bedrock geology of the Central Champlain Valley of - Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey Bull. 14. - -—— ——, 1962, _Paleontology of the Champlain Basin in Vermont_, Vermont - Geological Survey Special Publication 1. - - [Illustration: Fig. 7a. View south from Mt. Philo Overlook. - Shellhouse and Buck mountains in the distance.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 8. View looking north at western Overlook in the - summit area of Mt. Philo. Note Monkton Quartzite layers which are - dipping toward the northeast.] - - - - - THE GEOLOGY OF MT. PHILO STATE FOREST PARK - - -INTRODUCTION - -Mt. Philo State Forest Park, consisting of some 160 acres, is located -about 15 miles south of Burlington and 1 mile east of U.S. Route 7 (see -map, Fig. 1). This park is noted for its scenic views, especially of the -broad Champlain Valley and the rugged Adirondack Mountains beyond (see -cover picture and Fig. 7a). From a 46-foot high observation tower a -panoramic view is easily gained. Picnic facilities, including stone -fireplaces, fuel wood, piped spring water and sanitary facilities are -available. A large rustic lodge with porch and portico provides -protection from sudden showers. Tenting on the top of Mt. Philo is not -allowed. - - -THE GEOLOGY OF THE PARK - - - _The Rocks_ - -The rocks of the Park which will probably first attract your attention -are those exposed at the main western Overlook which is located in the -summit area. This Overlook is found just northwest of the Park lodge -(see Fig. 8). These rocks are light to dark red or purplish in color, -are primarily _quartzite with minor dolostone_[9] dipping approximately -35 degrees to the northeast (for an explanation of dip, see Fig. 3 and -text of D.A.R. State Park, page 6) and striking toward the northwest -(for an explanation of strike, see immediately preceding reference). - -A closer look at this Monkton Quartzite outcrop shows that it is made up -of several layers of rock (see Fig. 8). These layers, strata, or beds -are not all of the same thickness, but are generally from 1 inch to 1 -foot thick. If an individual layer is traced over the extent of the -outcrop, it is found that its thickness remains about the same -throughout. It is therefore said to be regularly bedded. Thin -laminations of dark red shale are abundant and commonly define -individual layers. A magnified look at a specimen of this quartzite, -under a hand lens, shows that it is composed of fine to coarse fragments -of quartz. Some of these fragments have rounded edges, but others are -quite angular. The spaces between the fragments are filled with silica -(quartz). Therefore, the rock is said to possess a silica cement. - -In many places where this Monkton Quartzite has been studied, features -attesting to a shallow water origin have been found. Among these -features are mud cracks, which form under alternating wet and dry -conditions; ripple marks, which are usually found only on shallow water -bottoms; and cross-bedding, which commonly forms in shallow water areas. - -The Monkton Quartzite underlies approximately a third of the Park (see -Geologic map, Fig. 9). This quartzite is between 250 and 300 feet thick -on Mt. Philo; however, the lower 50 feet or so consist predominantly of -white quartzite interbedded with dolostone. The age of the Monkton -Quartzite is considered to be Lower Cambrian (see Standard Geologic Time -Scale, Fig. 4). - - [Illustration: Fig. 9. Geologic Map of Mt. Philo State Forest Park - (after C. W. Welby. 1961). Because Ogf and Oib were not definitely - identified by the author of this pamphlet and for the sake of - simplicity, these rock units have not been discussed in the text of - the pamphlet. Some dip and strike symbols have been added to Welby’s - original map.] - - LEGEND - UPPER MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN - Oib Iberville shale - Osp Stony Point shale - Ogf Glens Falls limestone - LOWER CAMBRIAN - Cm Monkton quartzite - Park roads - Other roads - Contour line - Approximate park boundary - Dip and strike symbol. Layers dip 21° toward N.E. - Approximate contact of rock units. - Surface trace of thrust (low-angle) fault, carat on upthrown side - Inferred trace of thrust (low-angle) fault, carat on upthrown side - Surface trace of high-angle fault - Dip and strike of cleavage - Observation tower - -A second type of rock is exposed in the south bank of the exit road -approximately 0.7 miles from the summit area. This is the _black_[10] to -bluish-black Stony Point Shale (see Fig. 10), which underlies the -Monkton quartzite. This shale, or hardened limy mud, is thinbedded and -shows abundant _cleavage_[11] parallel to the layers or beds. At this -outcrop the layers strike to the northeast and dip 20 to 40 degrees -toward the southeast. The dip and strike of the Monkton Quartzite (see -above) is not similar to the dip and strike of the underlying Stony -Point Shale. It follows, that the layers of the Monkton Quartzite are -not parallel to those of the Stony Point Shale. - - [Illustration: Fig. 10. View looking south of cut-bank, south side - of exit road, about 0.7 miles down from the summit parking area. - Here the layers dip 20 to 40 degrees toward the southeast and strike - in a northeast direction. Note that the shale is thin-bedded and - contains numerous cleavage planes parallel to the layering. The - handle of the geologic pick is about 1 foot long.] - -The fact that these two units are not parallel could mean that the Stony -Point Shale was deposited, hardened into rock, uplifted, folded and -eroded, all prior to the deposition of the Monkton Quartzite. But, -first, what is the age of the underlying Stony Point Shale? If the story -is as listed above, the Stony Point Shale _must be older_[12] than the -overlying Monkton Quartzite. From the fossil animal remains found in the -Stony Point Shale, geologists have dated the Stony Point Shale as upper -middle Ordovician (see Standard Geologic Time Scale, Fig. 4). And so, -here we have older rocks (Lower Cambrian) resting on younger (upper -middle Ordovician). - - [Illustration: Fig. 11. View of Mt. Philo, looking toward the - northeast. The black line approximates the position of the thrust - fault. The Monkton Quartzite, which is above the line, was thrust - westward over the Stony Point Shale (note the arrow). Line A-B, Fig. - 9, approximates the section.] - - - _Structural Geology_ - -How can we explain this inverted order of rock units? The geologic -evidence presented in the Park does not indicate that folding of the -rocks was responsible. From the surface distribution of the two rock -types (see Geologic map, Fig. 9) and the nature of their contact with -each other, a fault relation is envisioned, in which older rocks were -thrust westward over the younger and thus to rest upon them (see Fig. 11 -). - -We know the ages of both rock units involved in this thrust fault but -what is the geologic age of the actual thrust movement? Both the Stony -Point Shale and the Monkton Quartzite were hard rock when this thrusting -took place, therefore, the thrusting would have occurred later than -upper middle Ordovician time, but before late Silurian time. Two other -fault systems are recognized in or near the Park (see Geologic map, Fig. -9). They are _high angle_[13] faults which formed later than the thrust -fault, but still preceding late Silurian time. - -The Iberville Shale (this is not described in the section on “The -Rocks,” but is seen on the Geologic map, Fig. 9), which is questionably -exposed on the south side of Mt. Philo, would be the youngest rock found -in the Park. This shale is about 390 million years old. The most recent -faulting took place no later than about 340 million years ago. There are -no rocks in the Park which give us any positive geological clues to the -Park’s history from the last episode of faulting to the Pleistocene -glaciers less than 1 million years ago. However, the fact that rocks -representing this interval of time are not present does indicate that -the area was above water during most of these 339 million years (this -number of years is very approximate). If any rocks were deposited during -this “rock-gap” period, they have since been washed away. - - - _The Pleistocene Deposits_ - -Beginning between 60,000 and 70,000 years ago two glacial advances and -retreats took place in the Champlain Valley. This was during the most -recent or the Wisconsin Stage of the Pleistocene Epoch. Scratches or -striations were cut into the overridden rock by rock debris carried -along at the base of the ice as it advanced (note the arrow in (“br”) -area at overlook in Fig. 12; this shows striation orientation, -therefore, the direction in which the glacier advanced). The glacial -sediments found on Mt. Philo were deposited during the final retreat of -glacial ice, which took place from 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. Most of -the Park is covered with these glacial deposits and by more recent -soils. - -Most of the glacial deposits found on Mt. Philo are classified as -glacial _till_[14] (see Map of Glacial Deposits, Fig. 12), but other -glacial deposits are also mapped. A _kame_[15] (designated “K” in Fig. -12) is a glacial feature found in the southern part of the Park. - - [Illustration: Fig. 12. Map of the Pleistocene deposits of Mt. Philo - State Forest Park (after D. P. Stewart, 1961).] - - LEGEND - bc Boulder strewn lake sediments - bgm Marine beach gravel - bg Beach gravel - ps Pebbly sand - ls Lake sand - t Till - k Kame - br Bedrock - Park roads - Other roads - -With the slow retreat of the glacial ice front from the Mt. Philo -region, deposits were left which indicate that a series of lakes formed -in front of the wasting ice mass. There is also evidence just west of -Mt. Philo (see “bgm” in Fig. 12) which indicates that just prior to the -formation of present-day Lake Champlain, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean -reached into the Champlain Valley from the St. Lawrence River region. -Lake-beach gravels (designated “bg” in Fig. 12) are found on both the -east and west slopes of Mt. Philo. The interesting fact about these -beach gravels is that they occur almost 500 feet above the present-day -level of Lake Champlain. Lake sand (designated “ls” in Fig. 12) is found -some 450 feet above Lake Champlain. This means that during a good -portion of its recent geologic history, Mt. Philo was an island -surrounded by lake water. From the distribution of marine beach gravel -(designated “bgm” in Fig. 12), it appears that the invasion of sea water -from the St. Lawrence region did not isolate Mt. Philo as an island. - -The complete story of the lake series is still not known, but, for the -most up-to-date treatment of this subject see D. P. Stewart’s paper -entitled “The glacial geology of Vermont”: Vermont Geological Survey -Bulletin 19 (1961). Suggested also is C. H. Chapman’s article entitled -“Late glacial and postglacial history of the Champlain valley” in the -American Journal of Science, 5th series, volume 34, pages 89-124 (1937). -Looking out over the Champlain lowlands from the summit of Mt. Philo -leaves little doubt in the visitor’s mind as to the prior existence of -lakes which surrounded Mt. Philo in the not too distant past (see Cover -picture). - - - _Summary of the Geologic History_ - -During lower Cambrian time, the Monkton Quartzite and dolostone followed -by the Winooski Dolostone (not seen in the Park) were deposited east of -Mt. Philo State Forest Park. During late Cambrian and early Ordovician, -thick dolostones were deposited from the sea water which covered the Mt. -Philo area (not seen at the surface in the Park). - -During middle Ordovician time, a series of shale, calcareous shale and -limestone was deposited from the sea water. Then, sometime between the -beginning of late Ordovician and late Silurian time, the eastern lower -Cambrian sequence was thrust westward over the middle Ordovician rocks. -This low-angle thrusting was succeeded by high angle faulting. - -The Park rocks were subjected to weathering and erosion for over 300 -million years or until glaciers advanced over the area less than 60,000 -to 70,000 years ago. Advancing glaciers scoured the rock; retreating or -wasting glacial ice left deposits of clay, sand and gravel in the Park. -A series of lakes formed south of the northward wasting glacial ice and -deposits of beach-gravel and lake-sand formed along the slopes of Mt. -Philo, which was then an island. An arm of the sea next advanced -southward into the Champlain Valley leaving marine beach-gravels just -west of Mt. Philo. The marine waters retreated and present-day Lake -Champlain came into existence. The formation of the present soil cover -and the deposition of recent alluvium from presently flowing rivers and -streams concludes this brief summary of the Park’s geologic history. - - - - - SUGGESTED READING - (_in addition to the general references listed for D.A.R. State Park_) - - -Cady, W. M., 1945, _Stratigraphy and structure of west-central Vermont_, - Geological Society of America Bulletin, volume 56, pages 515-588. - -Chapman, C. H., 1937, _The glacial and postglacial history of the - Champlain valley_, American Journal of Science, 5th series, volume - 34, pages 89-124. - -Stewart, David P., 1961, _The glacial geology of Vermont_, Vermont - Geological Survey Bull. 19. - -Stewart, David P. and Paul MacClintock, 1969, _The Surficial Geology and - Pleistocene History of Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey Bull. - 31 (in press). - -Welby, C. W., 1961, _Bedrock geology of the Central Champlain Valley of - Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey Bull. 14. - - [Illustration: Fig. 12a. Over a typical Grand Isle split-rail fence - at Sand Bar State Park.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 13. A portion of the beach at Sand Bar State - Park looking east. The escarpment in the left distance marks the - trace of the Champlain thrust fault.] - - - - - THE GEOLOGY OF SAND BAR STATE PARK - - -INTRODUCTION - -Sand Bar State Park is located in northwestern Vermont on U.S. Route 2, -approximately 14 miles north of Burlington and near the east approach to -Sand Bar Bridge which leads to South Hero Island in Lake Champlain (see -map, Fig. 1). Tenting, picnicking and swimming are the Parks main -attractions (Fig. 12a). The swimming beach is on the north side of U.S. -Route 2 and fronts on Lake Champlain. Its shallowness makes the beach -safe for children (Fig. 13). The tenting facilities are located on the -south side of U.S. Route 2 on a south-facing shoreline. - - -THE GEOLOGY OF THE PARK - -The geologic history of Sand Bar State Park is recent, geologically -speaking, especially when compared with that of the other Parks treated -in this pamphlet. The sediments of the park are blue and brown clay -which were deposited throughout the Champlain Valley less than 10,000 -years ago. This clay, which can be seen in many places along the bathing -beach, was deposited from marine waters which flooded the Champlain -Valley just prior to the formation of present-day Lake Champlain. No -bedrock crops out in Sand Bar State Park. - -The blue clay is covered with deposits brought downstream by the -Lamoille River during very recent times and deposited as a _delta_[16] -into Lake Champlain. This delta has shifted its distributary channels -frequently and continues to grow southwestwardly into Lake Champlain. -Much of the finer material (sand) brought into Lake Champlain by the -Lamoille River has been shifted and concentrated by lake currents into -ridges or bars; one sand bar stretches to South Hero Island and forms -the foundation for the causeway named Sand Bar Bridge. Prior to the -building of Sand Bar Bridge (causeway was started in 1849, opened to -travel on December 5, 1850), this sand bar was fordable and was used as -a link between South Hero Island and the mainland. - -Most of the sand now found north of the Park bathing beach and which is -responsible for the extensive “shallows” in the swimming area, was -supplied by the now abandoned northern channel of the Lamoille River. It -is interesting to note that most of the sand now seen on the bathing -beach has been imported from nearby areas of Vermont. Since the northern -distributary channel of the Lamoille River is no longer supplying sand, -and sand from the active southern channel cannot work its way northward -because of the Sand Bar Bridge causeway, there is a lack of sand for the -beach. - -The extensive swamp areas near the east end of Sand Bar Bridge are a -wildlife sanctuary. The north-trending prominent escarpment east of the -Park marks the trace of the Champlain thrust fault (Fig. 13). In a -quarry at the east end of Sand Bar Bridge may be seen the fault contact -between the younger, Middle Ordovician, Stony Point Formation, and the -older, Lower Cambrian, Dunham Dolomite. - - - - - SUGGESTED READING - - -Erwin, R. B., 1957, _The Geology of the Limestone of Isle La Motte and - South Hero Island, Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey, Bull. 9. - -Stone, S. W. and Dennis, J. G., 1964, _The Geology of the Milton - Quadrangle, Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey Bull. 26. - - - Additional reports on the geology of Vermont state parks distributed - by the Vermont State Library, Montpelier, Vermont 05602. - - _The Geology of Groton State Forest_, by Robert A. Christman, 1956 - _The Geology of Mt. Mansfield State Forest_, by Robert A. Christman, - 1956 - _The Geology of the Calvin Coolidge State Forest Park_, by Harry W. - Dodge, Jr., 1959 - _Geology of Button Bay State Park_, by Harry W. Dodge, Jr., 1962 - _The Geology of Darling State Park_, by Harry W. Dodge, Jr., 1967 - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]A “strike” measurement is expressed as so many degrees east or west - of north or south. For a diagram illustrating the dip and strike of - a rock layer see Figure 3. - -[2]This is one of the three major rock groups or families. The first - consists of igneous rocks, including granite, syenite, and basalt, - which were formed by solidification of molten rock-material. The - igneous rocks are ancestors of the other two rock families; they - form over 90 percent of the outer 10 miles of the Earth’s crust. The - second family, consisting of sedimentary or layered rocks including - shale, sandstone and limestone, is composed of pieces and grains and - other materials from all the families of rocks. In addition, - sedimentary rocks are formed also from lime secreted by marine - plants and animals or chemically precipitated from sea water, or by - the accumulations of shells. The third family, metamorphic rocks, - including gneiss, schist, slate and marble, were igneous or - sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to heat and pressure in - the presence of mineral-forming solutions. Metamorphic rocks - generally look different from the rocks from which they formed, - because the original minerals of the rock have been changed and - reoriented. - -[3]The actual remains are usually not preserved in their original state - but are represented by molds and casts. Picture an ancient sea. The - sea bottom mud slowly hardens around a shell. Water then seeps - through the hardened mud and dissolves the shell leaving an open - space where the shell once was. This open space is a mold. If the - mold is filled a copy of the original shell is formed. This is - called a cast. - -[4]The relative rather than the absolute age of the rocks can be - determined from a study of their fossil content. These fossils are - compared with collections from various places in the world where the - standard geologic time scale assigns them a place (see Fig. 4). The - Park rocks were deposited during the Ordovician Period. How is a - standard geologic time scale put together? Several geologists first - worked out the sequences of rocks according to the Law of - Superposition in Great Britain and neighboring parts of Europe. When - systematic collections of fossils were made from these layers and - arranged according to age it was found that certain fossils - occurring in rocks in distant areas were identical and occupied the - same relative age position. These fossils were considered to be of - the same relative age. Fossils found in the Park can be compared - with these reference fossils and a relative geologic age can be - assigned to them. Absolute ages can be determined in some cases by - the use of rates of decay of radioactive elements and in general - these ages agree with the relative ages derived through the use of - fossils. - -[5]The capitalized syllable is the accented syllable. - -[6]An index fossil is used to date the rocks in which it occurs. A good - index fossil must be abundant, widespread and easily recognized. Its - vertical range is restricted to a small number of rock layers, - therefore the geological span of life of a good index fossil is - usually short. - -[7]Chitin is a colorless horny substance similar to the material which - makes up fingernails. - -[8]The black color is due to an abundance of finely divided organic - (plant and animal) material within the rock. - -[9]A quartzite is either a metamorphic or sedimentary rock consisting of - fragments of the mineral quartz (SiO₂) which are cemented together - by silica (quartz). The combination of quartz fragments held - together by quartz cement creates a very hard rock which oftentimes - will break across the fragments rather than around them. The - quartzites of the Park area are primarily of a sedimentary origin. - For a description of the three major rock groups, of which the - sedimentary and metamorphic groups are two, see footnote, D.A.R. - State Park, page 6. A dolostone is a sedimentary rock composed of - fragmental, concretionary, or precipitated dolomite (a mineral of - chemical composition, CaMg(CO₃)₂) of organic or inorganic origin. - -[10]The black color is due to the inclusion of finely disseminated - carbonaceous material (animal and plant remains) within the rock. - -[11]This splitting or cleavage was produced after the layers had - hardened into rock. The cleavage planes were produced when the rocks - were subjected to pressures too great to withstand. In some places - these cleavage planes do not parallel the layers. - -[12]According to the basic geologic law, the Law of Superposition, - younger rocks (those deposited last) are always found resting on - older rocks (those deposited before the younger). The only time that - this is not true is when either breaks (faults) or folds in the - earth’s crust place the layers in an inverted order, as in the case - here cited. - -[13]The fault plane of a high-angle fault forms a large angle (generally - from 30 to 90 degrees) at its intersection with an imaginary - horizontal plane. The plane of a thrust fault, or low-angle fault, - forms a small angle (generally less than 30 degrees) at its - intersection with an imaginary horizontal plane. - -[14]This is the Burlington till (Stewart, 1961) and was deposited from - the Burlington Ice Lobe during its period of wasting. The till is a - hodge-podge mixture of clay, sand and pebbles and is usually brown - in color. - -[15]A kame is a mound or ridge of poorly sorted (sometimes well-sorted, - that is, made up of all the same sized particles) water deposited - materials. Most kames are ice-contact features; that is to say, the - materials which make up the kame were deposited in contact with a - glacial ice surface. The Mt. Philo kame may be the filling of an - ice-free area during the final melting of the glacial ice. - -[16]Delta is the name of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, the - capital form of which is an equilateral triangle. The - triangular-shaped tract of land formed by the deposit of river - sediment at river mouths is named for the triangular shape of the - capital Greek letter delta. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of D.A.R. State Park, Mt. -Philo State Forest Park, Sand Bar Sta, by Harry W. Dodge, Jr. - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGY OF D.A.R. 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