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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..300046a --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60961 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60961) diff --git a/old/60961-0.txt b/old/60961-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 99386f3..0000000 --- a/old/60961-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4751 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Book of Shells - Containing the Classes Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhipeda, - Annulata, and Crustacea - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60961] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved. - Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations - in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered. - - - - -[Illustration: THE FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS - -DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME] - - - - - THE - BOOK OF SHELLS; - - CONTAINING - THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA, - CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND - CRUSTACEA. - - PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF - THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION, - APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING - CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. - - THE SECOND EDITION. - - LONDON: - JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND. - - M.DCCC.XXXVII. - - - - -TO THE READER. - - -In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which -embraces the VERTEBRAL ANIMALS,—namely, the Mammalia, the Birds, the -Reptiles, and the Fishes,—the arrangement of the BARON CUVIER was -adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in two others that -are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the INVERTEBRAL -ANIMALS, the method of M. LAMARCK will be adhered to. It is true, that, -since the works of that naturalist were published, many deviations -from certain parts of his system have taken place, some of which have -received the sanction of the highest names; but still, _as a whole_, -Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and the young naturalist can -readily add to the information it contains, by reference to the works -of more recent authors, in case he has sufficient inclination and -industry to follow out the subject. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - Page - Introductory Chapter 9 - - Class MOLLUSCA 14 - - Order HETEROPODA 15 - The Glassy Carinaria 15 - - Order CEPHALOPODA 16 - The Cuttle Fish 17 - Argonaut 20 - Pearly Nautilus 22 - - Order TRACHELIPODA 26 - The Marble Cone 27 - Porphyry Olive Shell 28 - Money Cowrie 29 - Diadem Whorl Shell 31 - Common Columbella 31 - Music Harp Shell 32 - Wide-Mouthed Purpura 33 - Spotted Scorpion Shell 37 - Variegated Sea-Trumpet 39 - Caniculated Pear-Shell 40 - Babylonian Split-Mouth 40 - Marble Turban-Shell 41 - Imperial Top-Shell 41 - Precious Scalaria 42 - Iris Ear-Shell 43 - Dusty Neritina 44 - Viviparous Paludina 44 - Lymnæa Stagnalis 45 - Horn-shaped Planorbis 46 - Red-mouthed Bulimus 46 - Mummy Puppet Shell 47 - Wood Snail 47 - - Order GASTEROPODA 51 - The Red Slug 51 - Woodlike Bulla 53 - Nail-shaped Crepidula 54 - Mediterranean Umbrella 54 - Clouded Fissurella 54 - Hungarian Bonnet Shell 55 - Scaly Chiton 56 - - Class CONCHIFERA 57 - - Order UNIMUSCULOSA 64 - The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell 64 - Oyster 65 - Great Comb Shell 68 - Pearl Oyster 69 - Hammer Oyster 77 - Rough Pinna 77 - Common Mussel 79 - Giant Tridacna 81 - - Order BIMUSCULOSA 82 - The Fresh-Water Mussel 83 - Heart-shaped Isocardia 84 - Wedge-shaped Donax 85 - Sheath Solen 85 - Date-shaped Pholas 87 - Ship-Worm 89 - - Class CIRRHIPEDA 91 - - Order CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA 92 - The Smooth Barnacle 92 - - Order CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA 94 - The Acorn-Shell 94 - - Class ANNULATA 97 - - Order ANNULATA SEDENTARIA 98 - The Magnificent Amphitrite 98 - - Order ANNULATA ANTENNATA 100 - The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen 100 - Blood-coloured Leodice 100 - Spinous Sea-Mouse 102 - - Order ANNULATA APODA 102 - The Common Earth-Worm 103 - Medicinal Leech 106 - - Class CRUSTACEA 115 - - Order CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ 115 - The Crab Tribe 117 - Land Crab 124 - Hermit Crab 127 - Lobster 130 - River Cray-Fish 131 - Phosphorescent Shrimp 132 - Opossum Shrimp 134 - - Order CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ 137 - The Spotted Squill 137 - Common Cloportus 138 - Molucca Crab 142 - Crab-like Limulus 144 - Water Flea 144 - Small Water Flea 147 - Hairy Cypris 148 - - - - -THE BOOK OF SHELLS. - - - - -INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. - - -In reviewing the first DIVISION of the animal kingdom, namely, the -vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have been delighted with the -wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed upon each individual; -but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of their possessors as -these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure must be still greater -in tracing the powers with which those creatures are endowed, which -constitute what we have been accustomed to call the lower orders of -animated nature. - -When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or -the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the -terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and -metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that -equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the -different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the -various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation; -but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple -appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to -consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to -look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose, -and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How -much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed -of every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully -developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the -highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is -their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable -to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves -of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even -to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of -the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain -we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the _Infusoria_, those -microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances -in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach, -and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned -foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach, -they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the -nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their -existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we -have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in -fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of -the Creator’s works. - -The second DIVISION of the objects of natural history, namely, the -INVERTEBRAL animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by -themselves, on account of their being without an internal skeleton, -consisting of a series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This -distinction is explained in the introductory chapter to the Book of -Animals. They have been separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven CLASSES, -namely:— - - 1. MOLLUSCA, (_soft-bodied animals_,) in general covered - with a shell; as, for instance, a snail; or without a - shell, as a slug. - - 2. CONCHIFERA, (_shell-bearing animals_,) with a shell, - consisting of two valves, as an oyster or mussel. - - 3. CIRRHIPEDA, (_with feet like cirri, or hairs_.) The inhabitant - of the acorn-shell, found on the back of the larger kind of - shell-fish, &c., is an instance of this class. - - 4. ANNELIDA, (_with body formed of rings_;) of this class - the leech and the earth-worm are instances. - - 5. CRUSTACEA, (_covered with a hard case_,) crabs, lobsters, &c. - - 6. ARACHNIDÆ, _Spiders_. - - 7. INSECTA, _Insects_. A perfect insect has always six legs. - - 8. TUNICATA, (_enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence_.) - - 9. VERMES, _Worms_. With lengthened body without divisions; - for instance, worms found in the intestines. - - 10. RADIARIÆ, (_radiated animals_,) with the different parts - of which they are formed arranged like rays round one - common centre; as, for instance, the Star-fish. - - 11. POLYPI, (_many feet_.) The animal that forms the Coral - is a Polypus. - - 12. INFUSORIA, (_Infusory animals_.) These are found in - infusions of vegetable substances in water, and are, - in general, too small to be visible to the naked eye. - -In the present little book we shall treat of the first five of these -Classes. - -The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed -first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling, -in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes. - -The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered -not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the -anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study. -In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of -the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the -animals. - -Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to -be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the -valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable -us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of -view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist. -In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different -species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the -royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small -univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress, -the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of -mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the -well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from -the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As -an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel, -scallop, &c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of -the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro -population in the West Indies. - -The _Teredo navalis_, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers, -ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which -many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on -this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history -and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of -ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with -the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the -useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep. - -The shell with which a Molluscous animal is covered, is absolutely -necessary to protect its delicate body from injury; this shell is, in -general, composed of much the same substances as bone; but the bone of -a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency of the blood, and the -particles of which it is composed are deposited by that fluid, and -again taken up and restored to the circulation, a circumstance which -does not take place in the substance of a shell. The shell is formed -by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of the growth of -the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells, point out their -periodical increase. - -[Illustration: _Fig 1. Fig 2._] - -It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between shells -of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless properly -defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The annexed -diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent occurrence -among the Mollusca. Fig. 1, represents a univalve shell; fig. 2, -another shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the -purpose of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for -instance, the periwinkle, (_Turbo vulgaris_,) have what is called -an operculum, (_a lid_,) which closes the opening, and protects the -inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of -horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell -itself. - - - - -CLASS MOLLUSCA. - - -In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily -attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the -creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in -different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and -brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they -are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be -of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the -snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling. - -The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different -form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of -muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or -drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are -situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of -a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from -view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished -with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in -others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion -of these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit -that element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land. - -The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following -Orders:— - - 1. HETEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - not uniform in all species_.) - - 2. CEPHALOPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - attached to the head_.) - - 3. TRACHELIPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - attached to the neck, near the gills_.) - - 4. GASTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - attached to the stomach_.) - - 5. PTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - like wings_.) - - -_ORDER HETEROPODA._ - -The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered -as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals, -intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods; -they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a jelly-like -substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty when -floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are less -known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great difficulty -there is in preserving them. - - -THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.) - -This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and -perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be -seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears -merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material -organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or -organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part -of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white -and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance -resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling -it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which -seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors -with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas -at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax -model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches -wide. - -[Illustration: THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)] - - -_ORDER CEPHALOPODA._ - -The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished -with a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find -among this class some of the most singular productions of the waters; -they differ materially from each other, and have been separated into -three groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia; -secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the -Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous -chambers, as the Nautilus. - - -THE CUTTLE FISH, (_Sepia officinalis_.) - -The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native -of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of -an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually -covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike -all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the -Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard -transparent substance. - -The Cuttle Fish, figured in the engraving, is furnished in front -with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy, -or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously -constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in -themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted -by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner -surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in -contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar -power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not -cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind -of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for -many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching. - -[Illustration: THE CUTTLE FISH.] - -[Illustration: BEAK OF A CEPHALOPOD.] - -The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and, -although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt -that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own -element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes, -capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe -are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and -very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within -its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the -power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it -escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms -a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal, -_Sepia_. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each -other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour, -and commonly known by the name of _Sea Grapes_. They are found attached -to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances. - -The Cuttle Fish generally remains with its body in some hole in a rock, -while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer -that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious, -and it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to -conquer. - -The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English -coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found -on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the -manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of -the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in -the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though -varying considerably in texture. - - -THE ARGONAUT, (_Argonauta argo_.) - - The tender Nautilus that steers its prow, - The sea-born sailor in its light canoe. - - * * * * * - - He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep - The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep. - He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind, - That shake the world, but tremble in the wind. - -The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest -ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and, -at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research -of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with -the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so -that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists -would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division -of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along -with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union -between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it -applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do -not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the -shell. - -The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its -resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in -full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have -been the first fitted out for commercial adventure. - -[Illustration: THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.] - -In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in -considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the -waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist, -Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal -miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or -Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture, -and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube, -all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily; -then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a -membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the -remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as -a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if -alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.” - -Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its -shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly -Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that -such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed -by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the -instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation. -The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these -interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean. - - -THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, (_Nautilus pompilius_.) - -The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after -with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years -that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this -knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while -engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen -containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now -deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London. - -The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided -into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now -describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to -be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking -in the Water at will. The body of this _Cephalopod_, it will be seen, -only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size -having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as -the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they -had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too -cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the -providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own -words, the capture of this interesting object. - -[Illustration: THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, - -Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.] - -“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather, -thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was -lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island -of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean, -that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at -some distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead -tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in -this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship -at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the -floating object.” - -“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly -known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus: it was captured and brought -on board; but the shell was shattered from having been struck with -the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was sinking when the boat -approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it would have escaped. I -extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly attached to -each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has been stated by Dr. -Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour, with deeper sports -and variegations,” the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent -specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown. - -[Illustration: SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN, OR INTERNAL -SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.] - -Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been -brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been -frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and -not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An -office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of -rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the -fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as -soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I -and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not -notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell, -merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the -membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful -prize.” - -Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with -its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out -his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the -poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse -position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the -ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on -the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but -after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops -floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves. -This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken -in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the -bottom.” - - -_ORDER TRACHELIPODA._ - -The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve -shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two -numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (_Zoophagi_,) and those -that exist on vegetable substances, (_Phytophagi_.) The animal feeders -are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without -jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at -pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies -of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known -from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a -_siphon_, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points -out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of -its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for -the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe -water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families. - - FAMILY CONVOLUTA, (_rolled up like a scroll_.) - FAMILY COLUMELLARIA, (_distinguished by a plaited columella_.) - FAMILY PURPURIFERA, (_yielding a purple colour_.) - FAMILY ALATA, (_winged_.) - FAMILY CANALIFERA (_having a canal at the base of the opening_.) - - -FAMILY _CONVOLUTA_. - -The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich -in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of -this class. - - -FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (ZOOPHAGI.) - - -THE MARBLE CONE, (_Conus marmoreus_.) - -Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The -Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and -is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular -white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable -manner the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his -works. - -[Illustration: _Voluta diadema. Conus marmoreus. Columbella -mercatoria._] - -It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is -much thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part; -and this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the -soft body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the -animal the shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes -internal, the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall; -if, therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original -thickness, its weight would become too great for its possessor. To -guard against this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material, -the creature possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance -of what now becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is -unnecessary for its present use, and of re-depositing the same on the -outward wall of its mansion, where strength is most required[1]. - -The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve -shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable -specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their -form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but, -above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of -celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors. - -[Illustration: _Oliva porphyria._] - -The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve -fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two -tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit -salt waters. - -The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal -which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the -columella. The Porphyry Olive is found in the South American Seas, on -the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species -of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish -brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with -irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly -four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell. - - -THE MONEY COWRIE, (_Cypræa moneta_.) - -The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African -coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a -circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in -Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are -obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for -rice. - -[Illustration: _Cypræa moneta._] - -Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea; -these having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to -Bengal, and from thence sent into this country. The value of these -shells as a circulating medium depends naturally enough on their -greater or less abundance. - -In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a -shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued at -a shilling. - -The Cowrie shell is found of three different forms, according to -its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely -imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the -usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then -begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely -slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly, -when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in -which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden. -The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the -two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult -state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large, -so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while -the deposition of the new matter is taking place. - -Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to -prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we -have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to -require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one; -from this it happens that the same individual can form successively -many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both -large and small. - -When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand, -at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot -climates. - - -FAMILY _COLUMELLARIA_. - -This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella -plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a -plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that -is, without a notch. - - -THE DIADEM WHORL SHELL, (_Voluta diadema_.) - -The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it -is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become -nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and -is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has -two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth -is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little -hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ, -springing out obliquely behind the head. - - -THE COMMON COLUMBELLA, (_Columbella mercatoria_.) - -The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island -of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of -an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it -possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot. - - -FAMILY _PURPURIFERA_. - -The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove -bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all -the genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to -these Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar -reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient -nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much -in use before the discovery of cochineal. - - -THE MUSIC HARP SHELL, (_Harpa musica_.) - -The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance -also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the -animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time -back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either -forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth, -although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:— - -[Illustration: _Harpa musica._] - -The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two -portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from -its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and -wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account -it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it -would be lost at the same time as the foot. - -The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were -less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours, -become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still -considered rare. - -The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the -regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a -harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number. - - -THE WIDE-MOUTHED PURPURA, (_Purpura patula_.) - -This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the -Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple -colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in -the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean. - -The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was -discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was -thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the -discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied -the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient -minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its -discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are -informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the -sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized -one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his -teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph -having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to -have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less -anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a -method of applying it to cloth. - -This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either -consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only -for the garments of royalty. - -Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar -and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The -Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most -of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing. -Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings -of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the -republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their -own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should -dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and -tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a -few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was -entirely lost. - -In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye, -nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths -the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and -on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the -accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour -were entirely fabulous. - -According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter -out of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure -state, and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from -the smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ -were caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken -out and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of -the matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels -over a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the -fleshy impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor -was tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was -defective, the boiling was renewed. - -Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at -other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among -these Pliny enumerates _Fucus marinus_, or Archil, and the _Anchusa -tinctoria_, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these -and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of -shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson. - -In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but -the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import. - -In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead, -was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made -considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson -colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this -colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr. -Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus -excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various -kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities -of a species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the -opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours, -he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying -transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the -fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a -horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous -clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it -may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to -be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor -in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if -placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,—that is, if -in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise, -or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer, -the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce -be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep -green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green, -after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue, -and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red, -after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,) -it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no -more.” - -“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding -water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the -wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned, -that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour, -which afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the -colour, will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in -handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will -be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.” - -Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species -of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they -had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were -white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of -them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it -stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by -washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it -was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of -the sun. - -The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these -shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but -Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial -in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little -colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a -substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being -applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition. - - -FAMILY _ALATA_. - -This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at -the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the -shell changing its form during the growth of the animal. - - -THE SPOTTED SCORPION SHELL, (_Pterocera scorpio_.) - -This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains -a considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the -projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance -is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced -period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and -is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted -and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell -is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on -which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or -slightly tinged with yellow. - -[Illustration: _Pterocera scorpio._] - - -FAMILY _CANALIFERA_. - -The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in -having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening -does not change its form through age. - - -THE VARIEGATED SEA-TRUMPET, (_Triton variegatum_.) - -The _Triton variegatum_, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and -beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found -chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on -the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell -applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet. - - Already Triton, at his call, appears - Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears, - And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears. - The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire, - And give the waves the signal to retire. - His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent - Grows by degrees into a large extent, - Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound, - Runs the wide circuit of the world around. - The sun first heard it, in his early east, - And met the rattling echoes in the west; - The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar, - Obey the summons, and forsake the shore. - DRYDEN. - -[Illustration: _Dolium perdix. Triton variegatum. Pyrula -caniculata._] - - -THE CANICULATED PEAR-SHELL, (_Pyrula caniculata_.) - -This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and -attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at -present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the -whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many -as eight-and-twenty species of this shell. - -[Illustration: _Turbo marmoratus. Pleurotoma babylonia. Trochus -imperialis._] - - -THE BABYLONIAN SPLIT-MOUTH, - -(_Pleurotoma babylonia_.) - -The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca -Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said -that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated -as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from -the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the -shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the -creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to -support. - - -VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (PHYTOPHAGI.) - -Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances -have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws; -they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which -they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their -tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in -stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These -last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of -breathing,—others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist -out of that element. - - -THE MARBLE TURBAN-SHELL, (_Turbo marmoratus_.) - -There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell. -The Marble Turban, _Turbo marmoratus_, is the largest, being as much -as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour -of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity. -It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting -of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells -whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of -mother-of-pearl. - -The _Turbo littoreus_ (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle, -with which our rocky coasts abound. - - -THE IMPERIAL TOP-SHELL, (_Trochus imperialis_.) - -These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form -to a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their -spire is always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called -_flat-mouthed snails_. The greater number of these shells, (and the -species are very numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and -many of them are also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there -are as many as seventy species,—the larger and more elegant are only -found in the seas of hot climates. - -[Illustration: _Haliotis iris. Scalaria pretiosa. Neritina pulligera._] - - -THE PRECIOUS SCALARIA, (_Scalaria pretiosa_.) - -This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of -its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were -only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the -turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast, -on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native -place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and -several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others -consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage -some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that -as much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given -for a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ -are much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast -of Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in -forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches -in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the -empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is -from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought -to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with -rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white. - - -THE IRIS EAR-SHELL, (_Haliotis Iris_.) - -The _Haliotides_, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species -are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the -system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many -doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it -continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of -Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food, -the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender -tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament -the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these -tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the -number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed -at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes -which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of -the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of -species very difficult and uncertain. - - -THE DUSTY NERITINA, (_Neritina pulligera_.) - -This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and -a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to -inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the -history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,—namely, -that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good -preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general -natives of hot climates. - - -THE VIVIPAROUS PALUDINA, (_Paludina vivipara_.) - -The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it -takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within -the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In -nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in -the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period. - -[Illustration: _Planorbis corneus. Paludina vivipara. Lymnæa -stagnalis._] - -These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water; -sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the -mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny -substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves -to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they -are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water. - - -LYMNÆA STAGNALIS. - -The _Lymnæa stagnalis_ is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow -ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for -its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the -water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great -numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance -of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into -its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it -instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order -to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the -ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts -its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very -little power to direct its own course. - -During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the -mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind, -they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes, -which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not -easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other. - - -THE HORN-SHAPED PLANORBIS, - -(_Planorbis corneus_.) - -The _Planorbis_, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses -the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like -substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year, -attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is -considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the -spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other -inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable, -certainly not poisonous. - - -THE RED-MOUTHED BULIMUS, (_Bulimus hæmastomus_.) - -The _Bulimus hæmastomus_ is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of -Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most -singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of -the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that -of a moderate-sized pigeon. - -[Illustration: _Bulimus hæmastomus. Pupa mummia._] - - -THE MUMMY PUPPET SHELL, (_Pupa mummia_.) - -The _Pupa mummia_ is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the -singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy. - -The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones, -and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The -greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of -tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and -other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small. - - -THE WOOD SNAIL, (_Helix nemoralis_.) - -The Snail (_Helix_) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe, -and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells -which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been -placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with -two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices -in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn -into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula -is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black -spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal, -and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all -the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal -appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some -writers suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of -these appendages. - -The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger -kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans, -according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in -the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening -them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in -great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they -are still used as food in several parts of the Continent. - -[Illustration: _Helix nemoralis._] - -In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are -frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but -used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other -diseases of the chest. - -It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have -portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be -afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished -extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was -not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails, -which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head -was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world -became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made, -and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one, -however, for a length of time, could succeed;—it was then suspected -that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length, -it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of -which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce -a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others, -the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper -nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two -years after the old head has been removed. - -M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred -Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden, -that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they -could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the -Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he -discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain -of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the -end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and -like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more -delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot -doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has -been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind -of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.” - -If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the -disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very -considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and -kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended -for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are -tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed -of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early -rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the -dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become -excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander -in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are -great destroyers both of Snails and slugs. - -A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth -recording. - -The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading -into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of -this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to -kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road; -but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks -and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled -him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails -which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not -in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct -line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as -if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is -the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails -aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green -spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,—from -the path, nothing but the wall in front,—but still, although the -whole of their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on, -until they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By -what other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies -the place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with -so liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature? - - -_ORDER GASTEROPODA._ - -The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and -foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which -this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the -creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is -for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished -from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral, -and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in -some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting -covering of any shell whatever. - - -THE RED SLUG, (_Limax rufus_.) - -The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order, -entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all -countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have -never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact -of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The _Limax -rufus_, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a -reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it -impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly -found in fields than in gardens. - -[Illustration: _Limax rufus._] - -There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on -account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown -kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is -very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields -of cabbages and turnips. - -In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head, -contains a very small oval shell. - -There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under -stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in -length; it is called _Limax noctiluca_, the night-shining Slug. The -buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which -exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining -with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm. - -We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact -mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have -laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were -dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being -placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched. - -The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by -a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to -entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight -acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the -apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing -two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field -of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two -women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs, -which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid -on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed -invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were -to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they -abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to -be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The -quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel. - - -THE WOODLIKE BULLA, (_Bulla lignaria_.) - -The animal of the _Bulla_ is singular, from possessing-within its -stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that -organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind -of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the -foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches -and a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck -mentions as many as eleven species. - -[Illustration: _Bulla lignaria._] - - -THE NAIL-SHAPED CREPIDULA, - -(_Crepidula unguiformis_.) - -The genus _Crepidula_ takes its name from its hearing some resemblance -to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these -there are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm -climates. - - -THE MEDITERRANEAN UMBRELLA, - -(_Umbrella Mediterranea_.) - -The _Umbrella Mediterranea_, as its name implies, is found in the -Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is -singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by -a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself. - - -THE CLOUDED FISSURELLA, (_Fissurella nimbosa_.) - -The _Fissurella nimbosa_ is found in various and distant parts of the -world,—in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &c. It is -rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in -length. - -[Illustration: - - _Umbrella Crepidula Fissurella - Mediterranea. unguiformis. nimbosa._ - -] - -The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by -having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell, -affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is -discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ. - - -THE HUNGARIAN BONNET SHELL, - -(_Pileopsis Ungarica_.) - -The _Pileopsis Ungarica_ is extremely elegant both in its form and -markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with -rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low -water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless -removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the -creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches -itself firmly to the surface. - -[Illustration: _Pileopsis Ungarica._] - - -THE SCALY CHITON, (_Chiton squamosus_.) - -The _Chitons_ differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in -the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed -by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck, -in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the -Mollusca. - -[Illustration: _Chiton squamosus._] - -“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe -the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the -marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not -a univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not -to be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one -piece, which Nature had originally broken transversely into several -distinct moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its -movements.” - -The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between -high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements. -Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton, -says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is -covered with a multitude of teeth,—some simple, and others with three -points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows. - - - - -CLASS CONCHIFERA. - - -The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells, -in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is -soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a -shell of two valves, without head or eyes,—a mouth, if it may be so -called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole -body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes, -generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the -principal distinguishing characters of this class. - -In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference -to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the -number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged -under the heads of _univalves_, of one piece, _bivalves_, with two -pieces, and _multivalves_, with more than two pieces. This arrangement -was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that -otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells, -however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals -belonging to the class Conchifera. - -The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses -except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well -described by Dr. Roget, in his _Bridgewater Treatise_, that we cannot -do better than extract a portion from that interesting work. - -[Illustration: Valves of the _Unio Batava_, with the Connecting -Ligament.] - -The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by -a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that -lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies -much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great -strength. - -During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell -is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of -the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment -and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary -to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell, -and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being -only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a -muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even -a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their -fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to -that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from -their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the _adductor -muscles_. - -[Illustration: Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the -Hinge, L., the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its -Fibres, with respect to the Valves.] - -The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of -being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing -to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are -not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies. - -Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the Oyster has some power of -locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling the -contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the -fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy -mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to -rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain -within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and -that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas, -those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water -never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they -are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous -experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left -them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish. - -[Illustration: _The Cardium, or Cockle._] - -Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a -leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In -the _Cardium_, or cockle, this organ is composed of a mass of muscular -fibres, interwoven together in a very complex manner, and which may -be compared to the muscular structure of the human tongue; the effect -in both is the same, namely, the conferring a power of motion in -all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded, retracted, or -inflected at every point. - -The _Solen_, or razor-shell fish, has a foot of a cylindrical shape, -tapering at the end, and much more resembling in its form a tongue -than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of the foot is effected -by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior of the organ is formed -of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a considerable quantity of -water, which the animal has the power of injecting into it, and of thus -increasing its dimensions. - -The foot of the _Mytilus edulis_, or common mussel, can be advanced -to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any -fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body, -and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and -by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed -object, continues slowly to advance. - -This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal -themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly -adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for -this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and -insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and -forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it -is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract -it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised -and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of -these exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is -moderately active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a -minute. The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which -was raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on -its side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to -be supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly -at every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be -perceived above the sand. - -By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the -foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell -may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before -protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled -quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can, -with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place. - -The _Cardium_ can also advance at the bottom of the sea, along the -surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot, as a -boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against -the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar -expedient, that the Solen forces its way through the sand, expanding -the end of its foot into the form of a club. - -The _Tellina_ is remarkable for the quickness and agility with which it -can spring to considerable distances, by first folding the foot into a -small compass, and then suddenly extending it, while the shell is, at -the same time, closed with a loud snap. - -The _Pinna_, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of -tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus -for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from -dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of -its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number -of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks, -and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a -convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of -this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round -tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to -retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their -power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous -matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being -drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the -spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a -certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously -constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from -the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this -groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting -it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this -canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient -tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied -to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully -attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is -then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by -its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is -disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same -operation is repeated. - -Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions -around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of -some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the -importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its -safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed, -by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an -action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once -the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the -power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which -they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly -to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that -no Pinna is capable of forming more than four, or at most five threads, -in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in -haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender -than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other -parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into -gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk. - -The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this -Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there -are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa, -with only one pair. - - -_ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA._ - -The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are -much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but -they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as, -for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the -oriental pearl. - - -THE HORSE-FOOT BOWL SHELL, - -(_Anomia ephippium_.) - -The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form; -like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence -attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger -inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the -same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of -the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value. -Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of -the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in -the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which, -instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of -shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this -_operculum_, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of -the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance, -by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty. - -[Illustration: _Anomia ephippium._ [_Anomia_, a little bowl; -_ephippium_, a horse’s foot.]] - - -THE OYSTER, (_Ostrea edulis_.) - -Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become -food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe; -they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky -ground, in no great depth from the surface. - -Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May; -when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease, -which the dredgers commonly call _cultch_. The growth of an Oyster is -tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of -the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in -three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a -half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size. - -[Illustration: _Ostrea edulis._] - -Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The -Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute, -attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which -they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from -England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the -luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported -in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were -fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to -those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour, -nearly black. - -The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following -places:—Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are -generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in -Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales. -In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and -at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters -is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April -inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome; -it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months -that have the letter _r_ in them. - -In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of -Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St. -Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this -is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope -which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is -then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few -minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken -are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places, -where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks -are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist -materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken -out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in -what we should call bad condition. - -Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or -sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a -narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks -are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed -on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand -on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the -water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may -have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them. -A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which -had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change -of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain -a peculiar kind of green food. - - -THE GREAT COMB SHELL, (_Pecten maximus_.) - -This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the -largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all -the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is -covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into -use among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other -articles of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil -species. - -[Illustration: _Pecten maximus. Malleus albus._] - -The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species -of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water, -and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but -this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its -habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it -tolerably palatable it requires cooking. - -In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the -poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the _restaurateurs_ employ -them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of -mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters, -and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell. - - -THE PEARL OYSTER, (_Meleagrina margaritifera_.) - -The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very -different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of -its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a _byssus_, or -beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found. -There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly -found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of -Australasia. - -The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other -inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable -dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained. - -The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a -pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by -an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the -inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the -mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future -irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances -cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval, -sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is -always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck, -or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be -traced on the pearl itself. - -[Illustration: _Meleagrina margaritifera._] - -But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;—in this case, the -pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for -instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid, -this nucleus can be traced. - -Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre, -consisting of the remains of a diseased _ovum_, or egg, of the animal. - -Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a -valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her -ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be -doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it -would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to -drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the -lapse of a very considerable time. - -At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great -moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is -conducted. - -The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of -Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye -but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are -the plants that nourish the cochineal insect[2]), and here and there -some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees. But Condatchy, -three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to be seen but a -few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during the period of -the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of which extend -upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are only intended -as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely constructed), -and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair on the grandest -scale. The people most active in erecting huts and speculating in the -various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans, Cingalese (natives -of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast of the continent of -India. Apparently, however, from their natural timidity, none of the -Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them engage in the other -active parts of the fishery; they merely resort hither for the purpose -of supplying the markets. - -About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery, -when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of -the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English -superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent -diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand -oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls -collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a -good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are -scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles -from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are -fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is -ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to -fifteen fathoms. - -The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the -same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but -considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference. -The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside -of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more -beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured. -The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy -part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several -pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty. - -Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely -at its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators: -but, most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual, -who sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year -1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than -120,000_l._ - -At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two -hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These, -with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything -necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different -parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions -and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of -these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they -reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day. - -At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to -emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open -scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from -each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended, -with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone -hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about -five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of -a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the -stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron, -to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a -slip of calico round his loins,—swimming in the water, he takes hold -of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of -the stone. - -He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting -himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden -hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to -him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone -and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels -himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils -with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other -gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and -instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is -thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached -to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon -as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone, -which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting -oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next -diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as -much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get -hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk -to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of -it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time, -free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above -water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a -distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a -rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into -the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is -training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely -experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the -manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a -single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has -reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain -under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in -this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert -man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket. -There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down -alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity -of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a -favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort -after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a -pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks -contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for -six hours. - -When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal, -and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten -to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and -noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the -oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore, -where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for -ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the -oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel, -filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their -putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells -broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which -have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards -handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from -the shells, with pincers. - -When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters -remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom -of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured -into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost. -Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance -in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are -by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom. - -As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being -conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small -and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of -considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with -salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into -classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves. -After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then -arranged on strings, and are fit for the market. - -Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest -times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are -often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various -attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular -of which,—known to have been practised early in the Christian era, -on the banks of the Red Sea,—is still carried on in China. A hole is -bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted, -and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point -of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually -hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite -size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land. - -A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced -the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be -formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually -established artificial pearleries,—but these were abandoned after -a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of -sufficient size to be of much value. - -False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is -covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white -wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which -adhere to the scales of the bleak, (_ablette_,) and was first applied -to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name -of Jacquin[3]. - - -THE HAMMER OYSTER, (_Malleus albus_.) - -The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable; -externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other -hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the -most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus -are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity -of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like -the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or -beard, by which it adheres to the rocks. - - -THE ROUGH PINNA, (_Pinna rudis_.) - -The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the -shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the -engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much -as a foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a -species found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water, -which is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria, -not only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard, -or byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very -remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the -Pinna, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a _crampe_, with teeth a -foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to -be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains -attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose -of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried -and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even -garments of much larger size. - -[Illustration: _Pinna rudis._] - -The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of -equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a -dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent. - -This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but -at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of -the Pinna, and the number of beards necessary to make even so small an -article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells -were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &c., they -would increase much more rapidly. - -These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British -shores possess but one species, the _Pinna lævis_ of Donovan; this is -of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size. - - -THE COMMON MUSSEL, (_Mytilus edulis_.) - -The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing -animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and -low water marks. - -[Illustration: _Mytilus edulis._] - -They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food; -and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish. - -The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of -severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned -for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by -which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be -detected,—a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance, -partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or -insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have -ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of -the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many -experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author, -the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding -on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely -a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass -of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is -cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of -July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common -observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in -which the letter _r_ is not found. This spawn, according to our author, -is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and -inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the -part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled -up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered -severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all -these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been -discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion -occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but -this has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten -with vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise. - -When an individual is _musselled_, the effects are very alarming; -the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few -hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is -attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink, -and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which -soon relieves the patient. - -The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it is -well adapted. - -In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the -multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom -of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which -the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August, -when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the -mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here -they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and -in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change -from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve -their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks, -preserves in which the salt water remains at rest. - - -THE GIANT TRIDACNA, (_Tridacna gigas_.) - -The _Tridacna gigas_ is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very -thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much as -five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells have -been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the -churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to -form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given -to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found -in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one -hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna -gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere -to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity, -as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of -separating them from the rock. - -[Illustration: _Tridacna gigas._] - - -_ORDER BIMUSCULOSA, - -(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)_ - -This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells, -all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their -structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their -use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome with -those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more -pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to -place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in -one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable -depth of water, they are not so easily obtained. - - -THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL, (_Anodonta cygnæa_.) - -Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble -it, are known by the trivial name of _Mussel_, the only resemblance -between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which -inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in -habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power -of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta -is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of -shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad -muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain -pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are -lined with mother-of-pearl. - -Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl, -very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high -price. - -A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the -collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County -Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months, -go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs, -and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell, -take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell -in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in -a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable -pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those -people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good -advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for -50_l._ that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40_l._ A -miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4_l._ 10_s._ to a man that -sold it for 10_l._, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30_l._, -with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80_l._ for it from the -late Dutchess of Ormond.” - -[Illustration: _Isocardia cor. Anodonta Cygnæa._] - - -THE HEART-SHAPED ISOCARDIA, - -(_Isocardia cor_.) - -This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by -the name of the _foolscap-shell_, and the _bullock’s heart shell_, is -rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast; -it is the largest British bivalve shell. - - -THE WEDGE-SHAPED DONAX, (_Donax cuneata_.) - -There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that -represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks: -it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these -species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and -streaked with pink. - -[Illustration: _Donax cuneata._] - -In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through -various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the -Tellina, or _earth-shell_, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the -Solen, or _razor-shell_. - - -THE SHEATH SOLEN, (_Solen vagina_.) - -The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying -themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a -couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to -penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell. -Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in -which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom. -This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which -forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is -enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose -of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal -ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may -possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of -Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms -for its retreat is always perpendicular. - -[Illustration: _Tellina. Solen vagina. Pandora rostrata._] - -One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on -the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather -cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the -farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of -the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated; -after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular -direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began -to descend, and that with considerable quickness. - -The Solens are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places -where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method -of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat -of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its -chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of -salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so -irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly -mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance, -snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes -good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal -escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect; -either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which -is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up -with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other -means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it -out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty. - - -THE DATE-SHAPED PHOLAS, (_Pholas dactyloides_.) - -These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the -solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in -stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of -much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical, -for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an -insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that -the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which -acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this -solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered -in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon -stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava. - -Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their -phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if -eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the -person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus. - -[Illustration: _Pholas dactyloides._] - -Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly -eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are -found. - -The species represented in the engraving is found on the British -coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully -carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the -engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole -from which a shell has been removed is shown. - - -THE SHIP-WORM, (_Teredo navalis_.) - -Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully -examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it -employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as -there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent -observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed, -are fully equal to the task. - -[Illustration: _Teredo navalis._] - -Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of -the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The -animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a -tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress -through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right -in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of -these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the -excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually -formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most -deeply sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally -excavates in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some -instances it crosses this grain. - -In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high -water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have -been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of -large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by -means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together. -These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this -destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and -had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts -of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost. - - - - -CLASS CIRRHIPEDA. - - -The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of _Barnacles_ and -_Acorn-shells_, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and -pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time. -They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca, -and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &c. These creatures, from their -singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of -the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was -unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their -true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British -naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any -definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately -after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought -more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and -lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case. - -After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea, -Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the -CLASS of Crustacea, I formed the _first order_ of this class, (the -_Cirrhipeds_,) under the name of _sightless Crustacea_, but a few years -afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of the Mollusca, -but this was no better. If, for example, we consider those characters -which furnish their most important organs, we shall find that the -Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the Crustacea, -for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws analogous to -those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the antennæ of the -shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was a task that -devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq., a surgeon in -his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery took place, we -shall notice further on. - -The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or -tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being -derived from two Latin words,—_cirrhus_, hair, and _pes_, the foot; -these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have, -in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion. - -They have been separated into two orders; namely, _Cirrhipeda -pedunculata_, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery -nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,—and _Cirrhipeda sedentaria_, -which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell. - - -_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA._ - -(_Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk._) - - -THE SMOOTH BARNACLE, (_Anatifa lævis_.) - -The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of -a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has -lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the -shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance of -this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission -granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days, -because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to -partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent -to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following -notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and _printed_ by -them in their _Transactions_. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and -convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the -shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I -found a perfect _sea-fowl_; the little bill like that of a _goose_, the -eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the -feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the -_feet_ like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor -did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that -did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen -some as big as their fist!!” - -[Illustration: _Anatifa lævis._] - - -_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA_, - -(_Sedentary Cirrhipeds_.) - - -THE ACORN-SHELL, (_Balanus_.) - -Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the -Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author had -devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was -returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when, -casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry -at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a -treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled -for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.” -After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues -“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in -any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the -little animal about to be described. - -[Illustration: _Balanus_, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)] - -“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a -somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue. -When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel, -and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water -in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are -withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves, -united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of -opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional -exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a -large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks, -&c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members, -so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke -to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a -succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1. Larva of Barnacle, natural size. - 2. " " " magnified, seen from above. - 3. " " " highly magnified, seen from side; - _a_, swimming-members; - _b_, front limb, with sucker. - 4. Eye, much magnified. - 5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size. - 6. " " " full grown. - -] - -“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal, -is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the -shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front, -at the sides of the body. - -“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826; -and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a -glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be -examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were -taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the -satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their _exuviæ_[4], -and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the -vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen -intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of -the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part -of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with -the _exuviæ_. On the 10th, another individual was seen _in the act of -throwing off its shell_, and attaching itself, like the others, to the -bottom of the glass.” - - - - -CLASS ANNULATA. - - -We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of -Lamarck; he calls them, - -“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or -inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least -transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without -antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number -having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of -being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though -not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various -forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this -separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white -blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals -are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which -have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated -into three Orders, namely, _Annulata sedentaria_, which are fixed to -other substances; _Annulata antennata_, possessing antennæ, or feelers; -and _Annulata apoda_, without projecting members answering as feet, -serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c.” - -[Illustration: _Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals._] - - -_ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA_, - -(_Sedentary Annulose Animals_.) - -The creatures which form this order are generally found attached -to rocks, shells, &c. and are usually of small size. The engraving -represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula -there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell -that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the -species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has -great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or -tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always -occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its _operculum_, the -lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily -formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of -course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy. - - -THE MAGNIFICENT AMPHITRITE, - -(_Amphitrite magnifica_.) - -This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as -yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica, -adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is -exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into -its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that -of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained -by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being -put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health. -That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an -umbrella, consists of the _branchiæ_ or organs of breathing; these are -of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite, -although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to -it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body. - -[Illustration: _Amphitrite magnifica._] - - -_ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA_, - -(_Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ_.) - - -THE SAND-WORM OF THE FISHERMEN, - -(_Arenicola piscatorium_.) - -This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much -sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the -European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met -with in great abundance. - -[Illustration: _Arenicola piscatorium._] - - -BLOOD-COLOURED LEODICE, (_Leodice sanguinea_.) - -The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are -enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs -of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four -well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear -a strong resemblance to the _scolopendra_, or centipede. - -[Illustration: _Leodice sanguinea._] - -The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of -Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to -the length of fourteen or fifteen inches. - -When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the -blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body -was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the -animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as -soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished. - -The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable -jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the -animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath -the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus. - - -THE SPINOUS SEA-MOUSE, OR SEA-CATERPILLAR, - -(_Halithæa aculeata_.) - -The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native -element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially -covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a -peacock. - -[Illustration: _Halithæa aculeata._] - - -_ORDER ANNULATA APODA_, - - -(_Footless Annulose Animals_.) - -The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already -described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides -of their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may, -consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those -we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they -are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and -live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We -find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the -Earth-worm and the Leech. - - -THE COMMON EARTH-WORM, - -(_Lumbricus terrestris_.) - -The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow -rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short, -silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like. -These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the -alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is -enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so -forming various fixed points of resistance or _fulcra_, upon which the -animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the -Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a -simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind -of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is -supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth. - -[Illustration] - -The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two -openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the dirt -which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the other -by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made by the -animal would be much in this form, descending at A, and reaching the -surface by B. It has been said, that the Earth-worm, if divided by the -spade or otherwise, will unite again and live; the foundation for this -appears to be the more probable fact, that, when divided, that portion -of the animal in which the head is placed may, perhaps, survive the -mutilation, and ultimately again become a perfect creature. - -Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks, -they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round -the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving -the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very -deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up -in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of _mucus_, -which is furnished by the pores of their body. - -The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with -the author of the _Journal of a Naturalist_; among other remarks, -he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important -one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers, -harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common -Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the -soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the -surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer -parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the -more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple -nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them -are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and -scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil, - - Death still producing life. - -“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey -of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary -example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction. -The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its -prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds; -fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it -unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and -burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in -dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the -earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element, -yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it -as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and -even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of -the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding -this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully -commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of -all. - -“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining -over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become -frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually -consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass -of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of -approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground, -than they approach the surface. - -“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing -the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into -the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service, -penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every -direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the -water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we -have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says, -“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of -knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and -fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any -vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that -all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale -as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that -permitted me to obtain this knowledge.” - - -THE MEDICINAL LEECH, (_Hirudo medicinalis_.) - -The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to -have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed -in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied -to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended -to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt -leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any -part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound -occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal. - -At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the -operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the -body, for which use it is eminently adapted. - -There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures, -but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the _Hirudo -medicinalis_, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or -striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted -with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not -uniformly found; and the _Hirudo troctina_, of a brownish colour, -the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is -surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow, -and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots. - -The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout -the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts; -it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very -abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture, -and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great -use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less -frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are -imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate -calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every -hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign -production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat -larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots. -Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by -the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were -employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech -appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is -found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and -seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears -to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the -sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by -the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable -depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated, -and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is -considered by the _leech-gatherers_ as a favourable time for collecting -them. - -The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some -persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a -leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the -following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be -serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel -without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the -animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of -fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a -state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will -remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless, -and so on. - -This natural barometer _appears_ to answer tolerably well, if there is -sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if -one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are -enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws, -and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient -accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use. - -The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood -or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is -not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the _larvæ_ -of aquatic insects, worms, &c., so that the common idea of the danger -of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation. - -The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms, -tadpoles, &c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five -horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the -number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were -missing was to be discovered. - -The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of -cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech, -which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species, -disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state, -and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a -lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more -powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that -period. - -A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a -trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different -parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench -annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it -(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of -the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such -pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent -were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere -skeleton.” - -From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo -_sanguisuga_, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to -the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name -of Hirudo _vorax_, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its -nature. - -Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in -confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained -slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a -doubt. - -On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form -of a horse-shoe, thus— - -[Illustration] - -These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or -eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are -merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in -describing their character, says they are without eyes. - -The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are -three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with -regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these -piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not -by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the -surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips); -in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there -remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the -piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three -minutes after the leech has commenced operation. - -Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been -taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The -principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels -sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those -which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered. - -Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination -to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to -commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &c.; but -these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears -to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when -any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to -puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the -little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling -to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little -cold water. - -After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to -induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt -frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of -Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the -preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head -of the leech instead of salt. - -The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has -swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of -the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the -most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood -remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed[5]. -The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed -of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with -the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal, -the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal, -through a distinct opening. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2.] - -It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced -from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are -developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon -of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its -natural size: fig. 1, shows the perfect case or cocoon, and fig. 2, the -same opened, with the young leeches contained within it; it is said -that, at times, there are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case. -This cocoon is formed by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the -mud or clay, which composes the bed of the pool it inhabits. - -The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although -only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to -the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of -this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of -sale. - -“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly -in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those -leeches which were intended for the Paris market. - -“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the -season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to -the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance. -These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are -known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of -water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches -quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they -are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the -cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of -allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow -much more rapidly after having partaken of blood. - -There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is -more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than -even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the -terrible hooded snake itself. - -The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in -length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active -animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally -to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no -sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to -crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is -shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with -these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down -in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping -them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly -than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than -would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in -persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers, -and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself. - -Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such -as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &c., but all to very -little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing -the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very -closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate. - - - - -CLASS CRUSTACEA. - - -The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history has -undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among the -insects:—others considered them to have more analogy to the spiders. -Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent CLASS -forming two _orders_, which he has named after the arrangement of the -branchiæ, or gills, by which they breathe, namely,—the _Crustacea -homobranchiæ_, the distinguishing marks of which he describes in this -manner: branchiæ hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass, -covering the body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the -mandibles always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks, -the head not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist -them in their movements. Secondly, the _Crustacea heterobranchiæ_, in -which the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under -the lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the -tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in -general fixed, _sedentary, not on footstalks_. - - -_ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ_, - -(_Shell-Fish with concealed gills._) - -The first of these orders, the _homobranchial_ Crustacea, includes most -of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters, -and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division. - -Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order, -and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last -appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal -kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is -apparently less complex. - -The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two -principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately -united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a -portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable -supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on -each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head. -The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this -spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The -two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest. - -The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat -pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather; -they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are -so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of -these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base. - -The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the -mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at -their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper -part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at -the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two -pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six -other members, which Lamarck calls _foot-jaws_, from their bearing -some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the -parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and -accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs -in particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that -may come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as -articles of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of -the year. - - -_THE CRAB TRIBE._ - -The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the -knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being -generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit -ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful -species. - -[Illustration: THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.] - -The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular -species, as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless -variety of curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most -brilliant colours; this more particularly applies to those which are -found in the seas of hot climates. - -The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was -placed by naturalists among the _Crustacea_, and considered a perfect -animal of a distinct species; it was named Zoea. Mr. Thomson, the -experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to -discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better -than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the -author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known -respecting these inhabitants of the deep. - -“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the -_Crustacea_) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body -of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant -troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a -fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast -expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a -kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by -those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts -of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants -with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the -bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is -interspersed with fields of Sargosa[6]. On due examination, however, we -shall not fail to find it everywhere peopled by a considerable variety -of animals, either of small size, or possessed of such a degree of -translucency as to render them invisible, or scarcely perceptible, even -when on or near to its surface; that it should possess its share of -the organized beings which we see spread over every other part of the -surface of our globe, is a conclusion we might arrive at indirectly, -from the consideration of oceanic fishes and birds being observed in -those parts of the ocean most distant from the land, and the provident -care of the Deity, which we invariably witness throughout the domain of -nature, to furnish food for all, even the meanest of his creatures; the -more minute and invisible inmates of the sea, then, must constitute the -food of oceanic fishes and birds. - -“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most -conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of -them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and -a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to -accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing -every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or -four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze, -bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it -up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to -ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater -rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the -spout of one of the _sea-water_ pumps, and examined three or four times -a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.” - -Although naturalists were decided in calling the Zoea a crustaceous -animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the -system it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike -each other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it -is known, that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but -merely the larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is -perfectly new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only -proving their real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as -described in most systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on -that account to be separated from the insects, but that they do undergo -a metamorphosis, and that of a most wonderful nature. - -It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ, -in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year -following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred; -this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully -supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died -in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which -it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a -great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs -and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be -considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in -hatching the _ova_ of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which -presented exactly the appearance of the _Zoea taurus_.” - -The Common Crab, _Cancer major_, is so well-known, that any description -of its appearance would be useless. - -One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that -is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this -power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase -in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the -peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed. - -The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about -to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured -retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it -creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year -when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time -their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest -perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking -the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among -the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the -attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal -discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously -harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its -kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in -anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting -its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against -each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated, -and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an -unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at -its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before -seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach -comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it -disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal, -with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a -boot that was too big for him. - -Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty; -but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several -hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation, -that many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such -a weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor -venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have -not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of -the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor -oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod, -and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness -continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is -seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before; -its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first -object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which -it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness. -In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength, -the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but -just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their -skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this -is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the -shell. These stones, popularly known as _crabs’ eyes_, were long -highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not -superior to so much chalk. - -When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the -old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found -the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears -wonderful how the old shell could have contained it. - -Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb, -or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty -of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it -has also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its -own legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury, -by bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received -the hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb -from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and -natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other -legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part -of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears -to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the -case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers. - -When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on -the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural -styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows -callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the -creature’s shell increases rapidly in size. - -Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and -kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so -bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking -off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal -bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the -tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one -of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly -creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted -its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which -bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off -its limb in the usual manner,—still, however, holding fast for a -length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away. - -The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not, -as it is said, walk exactly backwards. - - -THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.) - -Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there -is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands, -whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly -curious in themselves. - -[Illustration: THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)] - -Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near -salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year -in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of -the same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the -islands, many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these -places their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year, -to repair to the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. -They prepare for their annual migration about the month of April or -May, and, having mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets -forward, with all the regularity of an army, under the guidance of an -experienced commander. - -Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct -line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly -surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a -house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which -they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not -unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper. -If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow -its course without attempting to cross it. - -It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of -which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like -pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged -to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment -till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never -leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then -descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty -paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover -the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a -straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but -neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is -their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a -confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly, -to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables; -but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to -proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest. - -After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner, -they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately -enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several -times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where -they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek -the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of -being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already -repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their -annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and, -soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting -the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones, -however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and -lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are -obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover; -making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves -up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and -continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time -they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six -weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may -be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the -sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the -food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of -seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers. - - -THE HERMIT, OR SOLDIER CRAB, - -(_Pagurus bernhardus_.) - -This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of -remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock, -it may fancy. - -[Illustration: THE HERMIT CRAB, (_Pagurus bernhardus_.)] - -The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly -secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous -state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is -almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their -hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to -maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has -grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to -seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into -when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the -additional name of the Soldier Crab. - -“The Soldier when about to seek a new habitation, is still seen,” -says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears to have -considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the -mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell, -therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body; -and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer -both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight -inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along -that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave; -still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail, -unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage, -till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one -shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating -that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation, -to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it -quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently -changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to -this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the -body of the animal, claws and all.” - -Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the -Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest -between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which -they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike -with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to -yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor -takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times -back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist. - -When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring -to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will -sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not -easily cured. - -On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell -of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they -not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under -the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices -of which they hide themselves. - -The ancients were well acquainted with the Soldier Crab, as is evident -from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets: - - The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left - Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft. - Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish - For the cast crust of some new-covered fish; - Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore, - Whose first and rightful owners are no more. - They make glad seizure of the vacant room, - And count the borrowed shell their native home; - Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case, - And boldly herd with the crustaceous race. - But when they larger grow they fill the place, - And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space, - Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before, - And busy search around the pebbly shore, - Till a commodious roomy seat be found, - Such as the larger shell-fish living owned. - Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage, - And long for the disputed shell engage; - The strongest here the doubtful prize possess, - Power gives the right, and all the claim confess. - - -THE LOBSTER, (_Astacus europæa_.) - -The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great -abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland -is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast -of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the -Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth. -The methods of taking Lobsters are various,—the most usual is by means -of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of -twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap, -so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning. -These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place -being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a -kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only -carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the -London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast. - -Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other -sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they -frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor -creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent -clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the -crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the -pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while -the other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then, -its food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with -the other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and -lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable -distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when -in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a -beautiful deep blue. - -A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems -to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in -Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who -transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to -prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by, -they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning! - - -THE RIVER CRAY-FISH, (_Potamobius fluviatilis_.) - -The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in -appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is -commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the -banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that -may happen to come in its way. - -The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which -is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus -described:— - -Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the -thickness of the thumb,—split them at the smallest end, and by way -of bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take -then the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance -of the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are -there, they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you -perceive them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait -suddenly, and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the -bait, or will fall back into the net. - -Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a -hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst -of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the -water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained -there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found -partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually -prevent their escape. - - -THE PHOSPHORESCENT SHRIMP. - -The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known -to all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained, -that the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent -properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants -of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very -frequently met with. - -[Illustration: NOCTILUCA BANKSII magnified. - -The line above shows the natural length.] - -The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue -from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found -by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided -in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most -brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there -started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light. - -The author we have lately quoted, says,— - -“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable, that the -Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to -every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the -trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet, -has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and -of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider -that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,—is vivid in -proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light -of the moon,—and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea, -so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the -dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and -the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable -sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all -times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken -rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy -appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible -at a considerable distance.” - - -THE OPOSSUM SHRIMP, (_Mysis chamæleon_.) - -This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward -appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably -smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed -creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable -abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally -swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined -to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth -encloses myriads at a time. - -[Illustration: _Mysis chamæleon._] - -The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have -been called fissipeds, (_split-feet_,) on account of each of their -feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb -being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and -the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is -essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped -round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the -element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such -as shrimps, prawns, &c., there is a single row of five feet on each -side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four -rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet -amounts to as many as thirty-two,—sixteen adapted for swimming, and -sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization, -the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the -present genus frequent the surface. - -The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they -are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses, -fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this -pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is -destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in -a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the -young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened -form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in -this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards -the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted -together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily -observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the -large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp -are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch -we have described. - -We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the -Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve -as food for herrings. - -It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals -that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater -productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished -master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still -continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance, -after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has -informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one -piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part -appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together. -Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs, -which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs -still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently -jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the -various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which -actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment -necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison -with other creatures, they must possess! - -The Opossum Shrimps, we have seen, are the prey of the larger -inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that -are smaller than themselves,—seizing upon every animal substance they -are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a -vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other. - -The species represented in the engraving has been called the _Mysis -chamæleon_, from its colour varying according to the substances on -which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray, black, brown, and -pink. - - -_ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ._ - -(_Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously placed, never -concealed._) - -The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other -than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we -find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of -the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a -great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the -water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are -very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They -have been divided into several sections, according to their outward -form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine -ourselves to a description of some of the best known. - - -THE SPOTTED SQUILL, (_Squilla maculata_.) - -The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present -order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which -the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct, -appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called -the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that -name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its -foot-jaws are armed. - -The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is -the largest of the genus. - -The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little -consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent -the sandy bottom of the sea. - -[Illustration: _Squilla maculata._] - -There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the -young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter -under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered. - - -THE COMMON CLOPORTUS, (_Cloportus ascellus_.) - -This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is -somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a -dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where -the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to -a group of small Crustacea known by the name _Oniscus_. Some, as we see -in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion -inhabit the water. - -[Illustration: _Cloportus ascellus._ - -(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)] - -Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species -which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for -its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years -timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary -wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the -course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little -creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten -inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch -a year. Another species, _Cymothoa_, attaches itself to the backs of -different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body. - -A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the -fifth volume of the _American Philosophical Transactions_; it is -accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is -not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular -species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself -to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the -roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it. - -[Illustration: _Head of Alewife._ - -Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.] - -[Illustration: The insect seen from above.] - -“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort -to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife, -called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and -in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of -the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the -herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught -from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for -the table as the herring. - -“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect -about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly -holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate. - -“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without -injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider -the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken -out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable -of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to -preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always -obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other. - -“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and -lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately -scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his -position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and -unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained -his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant -resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he -certainly fares sumptuously every day. - -“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the -shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to -travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As -long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found -fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his -mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but -by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself -with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay -Alewife without the louse.” - -The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies, -many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their -body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads. - - -THE MOLUCCA CRAB, (_Polyphemus gigas_.) - -Why the singular creature here represented should have the name -Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every -schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is -represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas, -this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its -being so nearly allied to many very minute species. - -The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but -two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their -buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has -been called the Molucca Crab. - -The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by -the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives -employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of -poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this -circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no -other ground for the belief. - -[Illustration: _Polyphemus gigas._] - -During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very -easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything -until their danger becomes imminent. - -It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for -food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy. - -These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a -considerable distance over the wet sands,—but if incommoded by the -sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element. -When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if -this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the -waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power -of righting itself with the assistance of its tail. - - -THE CRAB-LIKE LIMULUS, (_Limulus cancriformis_.) - -The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &c.; they -are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their -principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles. - -[Illustration: _Limulus cancriformis._ (Natural size.)] - -“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in -which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler, -very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The -head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They -possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back. -Their legs are very numerous,—the two in front, much the largest, -spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with -silky articulated bristles.” - - -THE WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops quadricornis_.) - -There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That -represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most -interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr. -Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature. - -“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution, -as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of -creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred -on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision, -more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring, -and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the -elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the -mass of living matter they present to us. - -[Illustration: _Cyclops quadricornis._ - -(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)] - -“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the -year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant -in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm -day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an -inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered -with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil, -are of a fine rich colour. - -“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly -plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and -vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but -have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the -organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it -is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little -above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark -crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this -organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two -kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest -extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some -other positions it is square.” - -The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance -similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared -with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving, -(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder -portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque -colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red. - -The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are -extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has -described them as forming two distinct genera. - - -THE SMALL WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops minutus_.) - -This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its -body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much -smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form -renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says -Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if -approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside, -in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit -opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a -kind of vaulting leap.” - -[Illustration: _Cyclops minutus_, much magnified.] - -They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met -with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed, -growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April -and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will -not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and -require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of -clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the -under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or -cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey, -moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the -plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not -bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept -in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the -three hundredth part of an inch. - -The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the -eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of -the animal near the tail. - - -THE HAIRY CYPRIS, (_Cypris pubera_.) - -These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they -are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The -animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it -at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell -numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is -enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until -it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which -issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and -bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them -great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute -materially to the swimming powers of the creature. - -At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point -is seen,—this is the eye of the animal. - -[Illustration: _Cypris pubera._ - -(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)] - -The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is -found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they -are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are -more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the -year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course -of the year. - -The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense -numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in -this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in -the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a -kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the -marshes with water. - -A species nearly allied to this, the _Artemia Salina_, the Lymington -shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans, -which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other -Crustaceous animal. - -Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at -Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is -deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a -quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the -liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute, -in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm, -or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this -is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of -this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms -from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase -astonishingly in the course of a few days. - -It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans, -where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the -Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and -reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans, -and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much -diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the -manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at -the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers. - - THE END. - - LONDON: - JOHN W. PARKER, ST. MARTIN’S LANE. - - - - - [LIST NO. 1.] - - APPROVED BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS AND - FAMILIES. - - Those to which a * is prefixed, are published under the - Direction of the Committee of General Literature and - Education of the Society for Promoting Christian - Knowledge. - - - * ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By the Rev. Dr. RUSSELL, late Head - Master of Charter-House School. 1_s._ 6_d._ - - No language can be more simple and intelligible than - that in which the Rules of this Grammar are expressed. - The construction of Sentences, and the force of the - Prepositions and Conjunctions, are illustrated by - examples. Emphasis is treated very perspicuously; and the - Grammar closes with most useful Questions on the Rules. - - A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION to ENGLISH COMPOSITION; adapted - to the education of both sexes, by the Rev. J. EDWARDS, - M.A., one of the Masters of King’s College School, - London. 2_s._ 6_d._ - - In addition to other pursuits and studies, the cultivation - of a knowledge of English Literature is daily gaining - ground. This, it must be acknowledged, is very desirable, - but it is assuredly of great importance, that it should be - upon a plan which will tend to give a vigorous and healthy - tone to the mind. - - * THE CLASS READING BOOK; adapted for Schools, and - particularly designed to furnish Youth with Practical - Information on a variety of Interesting Subjects. By - GEORGE LUDLOW, one of the Masters of Christ’s Hospital. 3_s._ - - This work consists of nearly Two Hundred Reading Lessons, - adapted either for classes or individuals. 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These books may be put - into the hands of such children as can readily spell common - words, and read easy lessons.—The object of the work is not - only to furnish reading lessons, but also to carry the pupil - _forward_,—to impart _information_, and exercise - the mind. - - The first Six Volumes, in Thirty-six Numbers, contain the - following subjects, with numerous Engravings: - - VOLUME I. (or in Nos. 1 to 6.) - TALES and CONVERSATIONS on Familiar Subjects. - - VOLUME II. (or in Nos. 7 to 12.) - The HOUSE. MATERIALS used in BUILDING. FURNITURE. FOOD and - CLOTHING. - - VOLUME III. (or in Nos. 13 to 18.) - The UNIVERSE. The THREE KINGDOMS of NATURE. THE HUMAN FORM. - LESSONS on HEALTH. - - VOLUME IV. (or in Nos. 19 to 24.) - The CALENDAR; The Year, Months, Weeks, Days. The SEASONS. - APPEARANCES of NATURE. - - VOLUME V. (or in Nos. 25 to 30.) - DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY: The various Divisions of the World; - their People and Productions; with MAPS. - - VOLUME VI. (or in Nos. 31 to 36.) - ANCIENT HISTORY. - - London: JOHN W. PARKER, PUBLISHER, WEST STRAND. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[1] This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to -by nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory -chapter. - -[2] The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared. - -[3] See Book of Fishes, p. 51. - -[4] The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before -transformation. - -[5] It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of -its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most -favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and -I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves, -if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give -them a violent emetic.” - -[6] A kind of sea-weed, (_Fucus natans_.) - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS *** - -***** This file should be named 60961-0.txt or 60961-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/9/6/60961/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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} -.space-above2 { margin-top: 2em; } -.space-above3 { margin-top: 3em; } -.space-below2 { margin-bottom: 2em; } -.space-below3 { margin-bottom: 3em; } - -span.larger { font-size: 110%; } - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%; } -hr.r25 {width: 20%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: 40%; margin-right: 40%; } -hr.tb {width: 25%; margin-left: 37.5%; margin-right: 37.5%; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; } -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%; } -hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%; } - -ul.index { list-style-type: none; } -li.isub0 {text-indent: 0em;} -li.isub2 {text-indent: 2em;} -li.isub12 {text-indent: 12em;} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdl_sa1 {text-align: left; padding-top: 0.5em; } -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdr_bott {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} - -.pagenum { - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} - -.blockquot1 { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -.blockquot2 { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 15%; -} - -.bbox {border: solid 1px;} -.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; } -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.u {text-decoration: underline;} - -img {max-width: 100%; height: auto;} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; -} - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: - 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; -} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -.poetry-container { text-align: center; } -.poem { display: inline-block; text-align: left; } -.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} - .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i36 {display: block; margin-left: 18em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -.ws2 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 2em;} -.ws3 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em;} -.ws4 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 4em;} -.ws6 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 6em;} -.ws7 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 7em;} -.ws8 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 8em;} -.ws14 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 14em;} -.ws16 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 16em;} -.ws18 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 18em;} - -@media handheld { .pagenum {display:none;} - .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block;} -} - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Book of Shells - Containing the Classes Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhipeda, - Annulata, and Crustacea - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60961] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote bbox covernote"> -<p class="no-indent">The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is placed in the public domain.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="Frontispiece" width="600" height="427" /> - <p class="center"><small>THE</small><br /><big><b>FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS</b></big><br /> - <small>DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME</small></p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h1><span class="small_font">THE</span><br />BOOK OF SHELLS;</h1> - -<p class="f90 space-above3 space-below3">CONTAINING</p> -<p class="f110 space-below3"><b>THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,<br /> -CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND<br />CRUSTACEA.</b></p> -<hr class="r25" /> -<p class="f90">PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF<br /> -THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,<br /> -APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING<br />CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.</p> -<hr class="r25" /> -<p class="f120 space-above3 space-below3">THE SECOND EDITION.</p> -<p class="f120">LONDON:<br />JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="f90">M.DCCC.XXXVII.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="f120"><b>TO THE READER.</b></p></div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="blockquot2 no-indent">In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which -embraces the <span class="smcap">Vertebral Animals</span>,—namely, the Mammalia, the -Birds, the Reptiles, and the Fishes,—the arrangement of the <span class="smcap">Baron -Cuvier</span> was adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in -two others that are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the -<span class="smcap">Invertebral Animals</span>, the method of <span class="smcap">M. Lamarck</span> -will be adhered to. It is true, that, since the works of that naturalist were -published, many deviations from certain parts of his system have taken -place, some of which have received the sanction of the highest names; -but still, <i>as a whole</i>, Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and -the young naturalist can readily add to the information it contains, -by reference to the works of more recent authors, in case he has -sufficient inclination and industry to follow out the subject.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS.</b></p></div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of contents." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="3"><small>Page</small></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Introductory Chapter</big></b></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#INTRO"> 9</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span></big></b></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MOLLUSCA">14</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROPODA">15</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Glassy Carinaria</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CARINARIA">15</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CEPHALOPODA">16</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Cuttle Fish</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CUTTLE_FISH">17</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">  </td> <td class="tdl">Argonaut</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ARGO">20</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Pearly Nautilus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARLY">22</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#TRACHELIPODA">26</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Marble Cone</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MARBLE">27</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Porphyry Olive Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PORPHYRY">28</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Money Cowrie</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#COWRIE">29</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Diadem Whorl Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#DIADEM">31</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Common Columbella</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#COLUMBELLA">31</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Music Harp Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HARP">32</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Wide-Mouthed Purpura</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PURPURA">33</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Spotted Scorpion Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCORPION">37</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Variegated Sea-Trumpet</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRUMPET">39</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Caniculated Pear-Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEAR">40</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Babylonian Split-Mouth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BABYLON">40</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Marble Turban-Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#TURBAN">41</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Imperial Top-Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#IMPERIAL">41</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Precious Scalaria</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCALARIA">42</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Iris Ear-Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#IRIS">43</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Dusty Neritina</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#NERITINA">44</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Viviparous Paludina</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PALUDINA">44</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Lymnæa Stagnalis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#STAGNALIS">45</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Horn-shaped Planorbis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLANORBIS">46</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Red-mouthed Bulimus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULIMUS">46</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Mummy Puppet Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUMMY">47</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Wood Snail</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SNAIL">47</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#GASTEROPODA">51</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Red Slug</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SLUG">51</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Woodlike Bulla</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULLA">53</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Nail-shaped Crepidula</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CREPIDULA">54</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Mediterranean Umbrella</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#UMBRELLA">54</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Clouded Fissurella</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FISSURELLA">54</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Hungarian Bonnet Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BONNET">55</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Scaly Chiton</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHITON">56</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span></big></b></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CONCHIFERA">57</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Unimusculosa</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#UNIMUSCULOSA">64</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HORSE">64</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Oyster</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#OYSTER">65</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Great Comb Shell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#COMB">68</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Pearl Oyster</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARL">69</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Hammer Oyster</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HAMMER">77</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Rough Pinna</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PINNA">77</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Common Mussel</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUSSEL">79</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Giant Tridacna</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRIDACNA">81</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Bimusculosa</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BIMUSCULOSA">82</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Fresh-Water Mussel</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#FW_MUSSEL">83</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Heart-shaped Isocardia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ISOCARDIA">84</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Wedge-shaped Donax</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#DONAX">85</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Sheath Solen</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SOLEN">85</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Date-shaped Pholas</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PHOLAS">87</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Ship-Worm</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHIP_WORM">89</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span></big></b></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CIRRHIPEDA">91</a> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Pedunculata</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#PEDUNCULATA">92</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Smooth Barnacle</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BARNACLE">92</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Sedentaria</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SEDENTARIA">94</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Acorn-Shell</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ACORN">94</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Annulata</span></big></b></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANNULATA">97</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Sedentaria</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANN_SEDENTARIA">98</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Magnificent Amphitrite</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#AMPHITRITE">98</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Antennata</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANTENNATA">100</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SAND_WORM">100</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Blood-coloured Leodice</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEODICE">100</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Spinous Sea-Mouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOUSE">102</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Apoda</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#APODA">102</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Common Earth-Worm</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#EARTH_WORM">103</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Medicinal Leech</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEECH">106</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span></big></b></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRUSTACEA">115</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Homobranchiæ</span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HOMOBRANCHIAE">115</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Crab Tribe</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRAB_TRIBE">117</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Land Crab</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#LAND">124</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Hermit Crab</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HERMIT">127</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Lobster</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#LOBSTER">130</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">River Cray-Fish</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CRAY_FISH">131</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Phosphorescent Shrimp</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHRIMP">132</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Opossum Shrimp</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#OPOSSUM">134</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Heterobranchiæ  </span></td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROBRANCHIAE">137</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Spotted Squill</td> - <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SQUILL">137</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Common Cloportus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CLOPORTUS">138</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Molucca Crab</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOLUCCA">142</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Crab-like Limulus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#LIMULUS">144</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Water Flea</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FLEA">144</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Small Water Flea</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SW_FLEA">147</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdl">Hairy Cypris</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CYPRIS">148</a></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> -<p class="f150"><b><small>THE</small><br /><big>BOOK OF SHELLS.</big></b></p></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2><a name="INTRO" id="INTRO"></a>Introductory Chapter.</h2> - -<p>In reviewing the first <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the -animal kingdom, namely, the vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have -been delighted with the wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed -upon each individual; but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of -their possessors as these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure -must be still greater in tracing the powers with which those creatures -are endowed, which constitute what we have been accustomed to call the -lower orders of animated nature.</p> - -<p>When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or -the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the -terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and -metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that -equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the -different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the -various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation; -but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple -appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to -consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to -look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose, -and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How -much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> -every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully -developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the -highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is -their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable -to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves -of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even -to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of -the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain -we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the <i>Infusoria</i>, those -microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances -in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach, -and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned -foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach, -they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the -nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their -existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we -have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in -fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of -the Creator’s works.</p> - -<p>The second <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the objects of -natural history, namely, the <span class="smcap">Invertebral</span> -animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by themselves, on -account of their being without an internal skeleton, consisting of a -series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This distinction is explained -in the introductory chapter to the Book of Animals. They have been -separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven <span class="smcap">Classes</span>, namely:— -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> -<p class="no-indent">1. <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span>, -(<i>soft-bodied animals</i>,) in general covered with a shell; as, for -instance, a snail; or without a shell, as a slug.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">2. <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span>, -(<i>shell-bearing animals</i>,) with a shell, consisting of two valves, as -an oyster or mussel.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">3. <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span>, (<i>with -feet like cirri, or hairs</i>.) The inhabitant of the acorn-shell, found -on the back of the larger kind of shell-fish, &c., is an instance -of this class.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">4. <span class="smcap">Annelida</span>, (<i>with -body formed of rings</i>;) of this class the leech and the earth-worm are -instances.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">5. <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span>, -(<i>covered with a hard case</i>,) crabs, lobsters, &c.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">6. <span class="smcap">Arachnidæ</span>, -<i>Spiders</i>.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">7. <span class="smcap">Insecta</span>, <i>Insects</i>. -A perfect insect has always six legs.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">8. <span class="smcap">Tunicata</span>, -(<i>enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence</i>.)</p> - -<p class="no-indent">9. <span class="smcap">Vermes</span>, <i>Worms</i>. -With lengthened body without divisions; for instance, worms found in -the intestines.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">10. <span class="smcap">Radiariæ</span>, -(<i>radiated animals</i>,) with the different parts of which they are formed -arranged like rays round one common centre; as, for instance, the -Star-fish.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">11. <span class="smcap">Polypi</span>, (<i>many -feet</i>.) The animal that forms the Coral is a Polypus.</p> - -<p class="no-indent">12. <span class="smcap">Infusoria</span>, -(<i>Infusory animals</i>.) These are found in infusions of vegetable -substances in water, and are, in general, too small to be visible to -the naked eye.</p> -</div> - -<p class="space-above2">In the present little book we shall treat of the -first five of these Classes.</p> - -<p>The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed -first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling, -in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.</p> - -<p>The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered -not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the -anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study. -In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of -the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the animals. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> - -<p>Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to -be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the -valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable -us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of -view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist. -In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different -species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the -royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small -univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress, -the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of -mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the -well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from -the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As -an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel, -scallop, &c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of -the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro -population in the West Indies.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers, -ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which -many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on -this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history -and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of -ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with -the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the -useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> - -<p class="space-below2">The shell with which a Molluscous animal is -covered, is absolutely necessary to protect its delicate body from -injury; this shell is, in general, composed of much the same substances -as bone; but the bone of a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency -of the blood, and the particles of which it is composed are deposited -by that fluid, and again taken up and restored to the circulation, a -circumstance which does not take place in the substance of a shell. The -shell is formed by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of -the growth of the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells, -point out their periodical increase.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="SHELLS" id="SHELLS"></a> - <p class="center"><b><big><i>Fig 1.<span class="ws18">Fig 2.</span></i></big></b></p> - <img src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" /> -</div> - -<p>It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between -shells of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless -properly defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The -annexed diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent -occurrence among the Mollusca. <a href="#SHELLS">Fig. 1</a>, -represents a univalve shell; <a href="#SHELLS">fig. 2</a>, another -shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the purpose -of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> -instance, the periwinkle, (<i>Turbo vulgaris</i>,) have what is called -an operculum, (<i>a lid</i>,) which closes the opening, and protects the -inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of -horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell -itself.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="MOLLUSCA" id="MOLLUSCA"></a>CLASS MOLLUSCA.</h2></div> - -<p>In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily -attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the -creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in -different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and -brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they -are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be -of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the -snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.</p> - -<p>The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different -form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of -muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or -drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are -situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of -a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from -view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished -with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in -others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> -these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit that -element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.</p> - -<p>The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following -Orders:—</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub0">1. <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li> -<li class="isub2"><i>not uniform in all species</i>.)</li> -<li class="isub0">2. <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li> -<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the head</i>.)</li> -<li class="isub0">3. <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li> -<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the neck, near the gills</i>.)</li> -<li class="isub0">4. <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li> -<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the stomach</i>.)</li> -<li class="isub0">5. <span class="smcap">Pteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li> -<li class="isub2 space-below2"><i>like wings</i>.)</li> -</ul> - -<h3><a name="HETEROPODA" id="HETEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER HETEROPODA.</i></h3> - -<p>The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered -as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals, -intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods; -they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a -jelly-like substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty -when floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are -less known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great -difficulty there is in preserving them.</p> - -<h4><a name="CARINARIA" id="CARINARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Glassy Carinaria</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_16"><i>Carinaria vitrea</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and -perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be -seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> -merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material -organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or -organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part -of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white -and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance -resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling -it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which -seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors -with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas -at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax -model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches wide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_16" id="FIG_16"></a> - <img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="249" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><small>THE GLASSY CARINARIA</small>, - (<i>Carinaria vitrea</i>.)</p> -</div> - -<h3><a name="CEPHALOPODA" id="CEPHALOPODA"></a><i>ORDER CEPHALOPODA.</i></h3> - -<p>The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished with -a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find among -this class some of the most singular productions of the waters; they -differ materially from each other, and have been separated into three -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> -groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia; -secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the -Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous -chambers, as the Nautilus.</p> - -<h4><a name="CUTTLE_FISH" id="CUTTLE_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The Cuttle Fish</span>, -(<a href="#CUTTLE"><i>Sepia officinalis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native -of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of -an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually -covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike -all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the -Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard -transparent substance.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a>, figured in the engraving, is furnished -in front with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy, -or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously -constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in -themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted -by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner -surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in -contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar -power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not -cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind -of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for -many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="CUTTLE" id="CUTTLE"></a> - <img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="597" /> - <p class="center"><small>THE CUTTLE FISH.</small></p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_019.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="128" /> - <p class="center"><small>BEAK OF A<br />CEPHALOPOD.</small></p> -</div> - -<p>The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and, -although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt -that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own -element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes, -capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe -are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and -very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within -its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the -power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it -escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms -a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal, -<i>Sepia</i>. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each -other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour, -and commonly known by the name of <i>Sea Grapes</i>. They are found attached -to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a> generally remains with its body in some hole -in a rock, while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer -that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious, and -it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to conquer.</p> - -<p>The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English -coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found -on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the -manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of -the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> -the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though -varying considerably in texture.</p> - -<h4><a name="ARGO" id="ARGO"></a><span class="smcap">The Argonaut</span>, -(<a href="#ARGONAUTA"><i>Argonauta argo</i></a>.)</h4> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,<span class="ws3"> </span></span> -<span class="i0">The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.</span> -</div></div></div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep</span> -<span class="i0">The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.</span> -<span class="i0">He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,</span> -<span class="i0">That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.</span> -</div></div></div> - -<p>The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest -ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and, -at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research -of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with -the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so -that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists -would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division -of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along -with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union -between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it -applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do -not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the shell.</p> - -<p>The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its -resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in -full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have -been the first fitted out for commercial adventure. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="ARGONAUTA" id="ARGONAUTA"></a> - <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="498" /> - <p class="center"><small>THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.</small></p> -</div> - -<p>In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in -considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the -waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist, -Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal -miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or -Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture, -and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube, -all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily; -then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a -membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the -remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> -a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if -alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”</p> - -<p>Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its -shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly -Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that -such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed -by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the -instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation. -The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these -interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.</p> - -<h4><a name="PEARLY" id="PEARLY"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearly Nautilus</span>, -(<a href="#POMPILIUS"><i>Nautilus pompilius</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after -with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years -that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this -knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while -engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen -containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now -deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.</p> - -<p>The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided -into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now -describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to -be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking -in the Water at will. The body of this <i>Cephalopod</i>, it will be seen, -only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> -having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as -the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they -had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too -cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the -providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own -words, the capture of this interesting object.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="POMPILIUS" id="POMPILIUS"></a> - <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="489" /> - <p class="center"><small>THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,</small></p> - <p class="center space-below2">Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.</p> -</div> - -<p>“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather, -thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was -lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island -of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean, -that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at some -distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> -tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in -this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship -at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the -floating object.”</p> - -<p>“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly -known by the name of the <a href="#POMPILIUS">Pearly Nautilus</a>: -it was captured and brought on board; but the shell was shattered from -having been struck with the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was -sinking when the boat approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it -would have escaped. I extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was -firmly attached to each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has -been stated by Dr. Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour, -with deeper sports and variegations,” the colour, however, as it -appeared in this recent specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="344" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><small>SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN,<br /> - OR INTERNAL SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.</small></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> -Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been -brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been -frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and -not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An -office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of -rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the -fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as -soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I -and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not -notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell, -merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the -membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful -prize.”</p> - -<p>Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with -its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out -his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the -poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse -position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the -ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on -the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but -after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops -floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves. -This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken -in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.” -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="TRACHELIPODA" id="TRACHELIPODA"></a><i>ORDER TRACHELIPODA.</i></h3> - -<p>The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve -shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two -numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (<i>Zoophagi</i>,) and those -that exist on vegetable substances, (<i>Phytophagi</i>.) The animal feeders -are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without -jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at -pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies -of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known -from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a -<i>siphon</i>, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points -out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of -its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for -the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe -water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Convoluta</span>, (<i>rolled up like a scroll</i>.)</li> -<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Columellaria</span>, (<i>distinguished by a plaited columella</i>.)</li> -<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Purpurifera</span>, (<i>yielding a purple colour</i>.)</li> -<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Alata</span>, (<i>winged</i>.)</li> -<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Canalifera</span> (<i>having a canal at the base of the opening</i>.)</li> -</ul> - -<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CONVOLUTA</i>.</b></p> - -<p>The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich -in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of -this class.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="f120"><b>FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (<span class="smcap">Zoophagi</span>.)</b></p></div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<h4><a name="MARBLE" id="MARBLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble Cone</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Conus marmoreus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The -Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and -is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular -white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable manner -the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his works.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_27" id="FIG_27"></a> - <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Voluta diadema.<span class="ws4">Conus marmoreus.</span> - <span class="ws4">Columbella mercatoria.</span></i></p> -</div> - -<p>It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is much -thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part; and -this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the soft -body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the animal the -shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes internal, -the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall; if, -therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original thickness, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> -its weight would become too great for its possessor. To guard against -this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material, the creature -possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance of what now -becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is unnecessary for its -present use, and of re-depositing the same on the outward wall of its -mansion, where strength is most required<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</p> - -<p>The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve -shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable -specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their -form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but, -above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of -celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="PORPHYRY" id="PORPHYRY"></a> - <img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="338" /> - <p class="center"><i>Oliva porphyria.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve -fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two -tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit salt waters. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> - -<p>The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal -which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the -columella. The <a href="#PORPHYRY">Porphyry Olive</a> is found in the South American -Seas, on the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species -of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish -brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with -irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly -four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.</p> - -<h4><a name="COWRIE" id="COWRIE"></a><span class="smcap">The Money Cowrie</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_29"><i>Cypræa moneta</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African -coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a -circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in -Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are -obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for rice.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_29" id="FIG_29"></a> - <img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="257" /> - <p class="center"><i>Cypræa moneta.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea; these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> -having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to Bengal, and -from thence sent into this country. The value of these shells as a -circulating medium depends naturally enough on their greater or less -abundance.</p> - -<p>In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a -shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued -at a shilling.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_29">Cowrie shell</a> is found of three different forms, -according to its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely -imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the -usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then -begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely -slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly, -when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in -which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden. -The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the -two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult -state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large, -so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while -the deposition of the new matter is taking place.</p> - -<p>Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to -prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we -have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to -require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one; -from this it happens that the same individual can form successively -many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both -large and small.</p> - -<p>When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand, -at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot climates. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> - -<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>COLUMELLARIA</i>.</b></p> - -<p>This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella -plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a -plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that -is, without a notch.</p> - -<h4><a name="DIADEM" id="DIADEM"></a><span class="smcap">The Diadem Whorl Shell</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Voluta diadema</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it -is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become -nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and -is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has -two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth -is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little -hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ, -springing out obliquely behind the head.</p> - -<h4><a name="COLUMBELLA" id="COLUMBELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Common -Columbella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Columbella mercatoria</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island -of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of -an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it -possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.</p> - -<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>PURPURIFERA</i>.</b></p> - -<p>The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove -bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all the -genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> -Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar -reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient -nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much -in use before the discovery of cochineal.</p> - -<h4><a name="HARP" id="HARP"></a><span class="smcap">The Music Harp Shell</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_32"><i>Harpa musica</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance -also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the -animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time -back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either -forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth, -although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_32" id="FIG_32"></a> - <img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" /> - <p class="center"><i>Harpa musica.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two -portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from -its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> -wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account -it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it -would be lost at the same time as the foot.</p> - -<p>The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were -less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours, -become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still -considered rare.</p> - -<p>The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the -regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a -harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.</p> - -<h4><a name="PURPURA" id="PURPURA"></a><span class="smcap">The Wide-Mouthed -Purpura</span>, (<i>Purpura patula</i>.)</h4> - -<p>This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the -Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple -colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in -the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.</p> - -<p>The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was -discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was -thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the -discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied -the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient -minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its -discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are -informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the -sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized -one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> -teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph -having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to -have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less -anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a -method of applying it to cloth.</p> - -<p>This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either -consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only -for the garments of royalty.</p> - -<p>Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar -and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The -Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most -of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing. -Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings -of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the -republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their -own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should -dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and -tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a -few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was -entirely lost.</p> - -<p>In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye, -nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths -the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and -on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the -accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour -were entirely fabulous.</p> - -<p>According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter out -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> -of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure state, -and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from the -smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ were -caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken out -and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of the -matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels over -a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the fleshy -impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor was -tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was -defective, the boiling was renewed.</p> - -<p>Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at -other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among -these Pliny enumerates <i>Fucus marinus</i>, or Archil, and the <i>Anchusa -tinctoria</i>, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these -and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of -shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.</p> - -<p>In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but -the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.</p> - -<p>In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead, -was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made -considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson -colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this -colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr. -Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus -excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various -kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities of a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> -species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the -opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours, -he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying -transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the -fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a -horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous -clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it -may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to -be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor -in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if -placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,—that is, if -in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise, -or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer, -the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce -be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep -green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green, -after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue, -and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red, -after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,) -it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no -more.”</p> - -<p>“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding -water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the -wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned, -that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour, which -afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the colour, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> -will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in -handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will -be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”</p> - -<p>Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species -of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they -had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were -white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of -them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it -stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by -washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it -was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of -the sun.</p> - -<p>The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these -shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but -Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial -in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little -colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a -substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being -applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.</p> - -<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>ALATA</i>.</b></p> - -<p>This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at -the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the -shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.</p> - -<h4><a name="SCORPION" id="SCORPION"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted -Scorpion Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_38"><i>Pterocera scorpio</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> -considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the -projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance -is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced -period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and -is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted -and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell -is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on -which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or -slightly tinged with yellow.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_38" id="FIG_38"></a> - <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="468" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pterocera scorpio.</i></p> -</div> - -<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CANALIFERA</i>.</b></p> - -<p>The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in -having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening -does not change its form through age. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="TRUMPET" id="TRUMPET"></a><span class="smcap">The Variegated -Sea-Trumpet</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Triton variegatum</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The <i>Triton variegatum</i>, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and -beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found -chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on -the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell -applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Already Triton, at his call, appears<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And give the waves the signal to retire.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Grows by degrees into a large extent,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Runs the wide circuit of the world around.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The sun first heard it, in his early east,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And met the rattling echoes in the west;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.<br /></span> -<span class="i36"><span class="smcap">Dryden.</span><br /></span> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_39" id="FIG_39"></a> - <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="326" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Dolium perdix.<span class="ws7">Triton variegatum.</span> - <span class="ws3">Pyrula caniculata.</span></i></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="PEAR" id="PEAR"></a><span class="smcap">The Caniculated -Pear-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Pyrula caniculata</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and -attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at -present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the -whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many -as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_40" id="FIG_40"></a> - <img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="303" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Turbo marmoratus.<span class="ws7">Pleurotoma babylonia.</span> - <span class="ws3">Trochus imperialis.</span></i></p> -</div> - -<h4><a name="BABYLON" id="BABYLON"></a><span class="smcap">The Babylonian - Split-Mouth</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Pleurotoma babylonia</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca -Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said -that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated -as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from -the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the -shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the -creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to support. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="f120"><b>VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (<span class="smcap">Phytophagi</span>.)</b></p></div> - -<p>Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances -have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws; -they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which -they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their -tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in -stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These -last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of -breathing,—others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist -out of that element.</p> - -<h4><a name="TURBAN" id="TURBAN"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble -Turban-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Turbo marmoratus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell. -The Marble Turban, <i>Turbo marmoratus</i>, is the largest, being as much -as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour -of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity. -It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting -of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells -whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of -mother-of-pearl.</p> - -<p>The <i>Turbo littoreus</i> (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle, -with which our rocky coasts abound.</p> - -<h4><a name="IMPERIAL" id="IMPERIAL"></a><span class="smcap">The Imperial -Top-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Trochus imperialis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form to -a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their spire is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> -always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called <i>flat-mouthed -snails</i>. The greater number of these shells, (and the species are very -numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and many of them are -also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there are as many as -seventy species,—the larger and more elegant are only found in the -seas of hot climates.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_42" id="FIG_42"></a> - <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" /> - <p class="center space-below2"> <i>Haliotis iris.<span class="ws6">Scalaria pretiosa.</span> - <span class="ws4">Neritina pulligera.</span></i></p> -</div> - -<h4><a name="SCALARIA" id="SCALARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Precious -Scalaria</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Scalaria pretiosa</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of -its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were -only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the -turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast, -on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native -place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and -several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others -consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage -some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> -much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given for -a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ are -much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast of -Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in -forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches -in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the -empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is -from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought -to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with -rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.</p> - -<h4><a name="IRIS" id="IRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Iris Ear-Shell</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Haliotis Iris</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The <i>Haliotides</i>, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species -are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the -system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many -doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it -continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of -Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food, -the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender -tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament -the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these -tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the -number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed -at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes -which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of -the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of -species very difficult and uncertain. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="NERITINA" id="NERITINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Dusty -Neritina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Neritina pulligera</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and -a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to -inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the -history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,—namely, -that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good -preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general -natives of hot climates.</p> - -<h4><a name="PALUDINA" id="PALUDINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Viviparous -Paludina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Paludina vivipara</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it -takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within -the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In -nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in -the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_44" id="FIG_44"></a> - <img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="289" /> - <p class="center"><i>Planorbis corneus.<span class="ws4">Paludina vivipara.</span> - <span class="ws4">Lymnæa stagnalis.</span></i></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> -These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water; -sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the -mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny -substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves -to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they -are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.</p> - -<h4><a name="STAGNALIS" id="STAGNALIS"></a><span class="smcap">Lymnæa Stagnalis.</span></h4> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_44"><i>Lymnæa stagnalis</i></a> is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow -ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for -its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the -water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great -numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance -of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into -its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it -instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order -to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the -ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts -its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very -little power to direct its own course.</p> - -<p>During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the -mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind, -they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes, -which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not -easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="PLANORBIS" id="PLANORBIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Horn-shaped -Planorbis</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Planorbis corneus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The <i>Planorbis</i>, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses -the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like -substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year, -attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is -considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the -spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other -inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable, -certainly not poisonous.</p> - -<h4><a name="BULIMUS" id="BULIMUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Red-mouthed -Bulimus</span>, (<a href="#FIG_46"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The <i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i> is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of -Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most -singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of -the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that -of a moderate-sized pigeon.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_46" id="FIG_46"></a> - <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="288" /> - <p class="center"><span class="ws14"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus.</i></span> - <span class="ws3"><i>Pupa mummia.</i></span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="MUMMY" id="MUMMY"></a><span class="smcap">The Mummy -Puppet Shell</span>, (<i>Pupa mummia</i>.)</h4> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_46"><i>Pupa mummia</i></a> is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the -singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.</p> - -<p>The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones, -and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The -greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of -tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and -other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.</p> - -<h4><a name="SNAIL" id="SNAIL"></a><span class="smcap">The Wood -Snail</span>, (<a href="#FIG_48"><i>Helix nemoralis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Snail (<i>Helix</i>) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe, -and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells -which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been -placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with -two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices -in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn -into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula -is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black -spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal, -and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all -the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal -appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some writers -suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of these appendages. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> - -<p>The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger -kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans, -according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in -the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening -them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in -great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they -are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_48" id="FIG_48"></a> - <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="306" /> - <p class="center"><i>Helix nemoralis.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are -frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but -used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other -diseases of the chest.</p> - -<p>It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have -portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be -afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished -extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was -not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> -which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head -was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world -became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made, -and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one, -however, for a length of time, could succeed;—it was then suspected -that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length, -it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of -which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce -a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others, -the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper -nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two -years after the old head has been removed.</p> - -<p>M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred -Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden, -that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they -could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the -Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he -discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain -of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the -end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and -like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more -delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot -doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has -been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind -of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”</p> - -<p>If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> -disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very -considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and -kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended -for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are -tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed -of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early -rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the -dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become -excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander -in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are -great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.</p> - -<p>A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth -recording.</p> - -<p>The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading -into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of -this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to -kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road; -but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks -and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled -him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails -which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not -in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct -line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as -if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is -the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails -aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green -spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,—from the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> -path, nothing but the wall in front,—but still, although the whole of -their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on, until -they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By what -other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies the -place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with so -liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?</p> - -<h3><a name="GASTEROPODA" id="GASTEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER GASTEROPODA.</i></h3> - -<p>The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and -foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which -this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the -creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is -for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished -from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral, -and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in -some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting -covering of any shell whatever.</p> - -<h4><a name="SLUG" id="SLUG"></a><span class="smcap">The Red Slug</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_52"><i>Limax rufus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order, -entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all -countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have -never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact -of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The <i>Limax -rufus</i>, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> -reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it -impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly -found in fields than in gardens.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_52" id="FIG_52"></a> - <img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="352" /> - <p class="center"><i>Limax rufus.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on -account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown -kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is -very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields -of cabbages and turnips.</p> - -<p>In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head, -contains a very small oval shell.</p> - -<p>There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under -stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in -length; it is called <i>Limax noctiluca</i>, the night-shining Slug. The -buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which -exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining -with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> - -<p>We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact -mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have -laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were -dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being -placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.</p> - -<p>The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by -a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to -entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight -acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the -apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing -two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field -of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two -women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs, -which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid -on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed -invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were -to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they -abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to -be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The -quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.</p> - -<h4><a name="BULLA" id="BULLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Woodlike -Bulla</span>, (<a href="#FIG_54"><i>Bulla lignaria</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The animal of the <i>Bulla</i> is singular, from possessing-within its -stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that -organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind -of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the -foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> -a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck mentions -as many as eleven species.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_54" id="FIG_54"></a> - <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" /> - <p class="center"><i>Bulla lignaria.</i></p> -</div> - -<h4><a name="CREPIDULA" id="CREPIDULA"></a><span class="smcap">The Nail-shaped -Crepidula</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Crepidula unguiformis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The genus <i>Crepidula</i> takes its name from its hearing some resemblance -to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these there -are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm climates.</p> - -<h4><a name="UMBRELLA" id="UMBRELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Mediterranean -Umbrella</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The <i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i>, as its name implies, is found in the -Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is -singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by -a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.</p> - -<h4><a name="FISSURELLA" id="FISSURELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Clouded -Fissurella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Fissurella nimbosa</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The <i>Fissurella nimbosa</i> is found in various and distant parts of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> -world,—in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &c. It is -rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in -length.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_55" id="FIG_55"></a> - <img src="images/i_055_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="252" /> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>Umbrella</i><span class="ws4"> </span></td> - <td class="tdc"><i>Crepidula</i></td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4"> </span><i>Fissurella</i></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>Mediterranea.<span class="ws4"> </span></i></td> - <td class="tdc"><i>unguiformis.</i></td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4"> </span><i>nimbosa.</i></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -</div> - -<p>The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by -having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell, -affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is -discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.</p> - -<h4><a name="BONNET" id="BONNET"></a><span class="smcap">The Hungarian -Bonnet Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_56"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The <i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i> is extremely elegant both in its form and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> -markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with -rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low -water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless -removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the -creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches -itself firmly to the surface.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_56" id="FIG_56"></a> - <img src="images/i_055_b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="262" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica.</i></p> -</div> - -<h4><a name="CHITON" id="CHITON"></a><span class="smcap">The Scaly -Chiton</span>, (<a href="#FIG_56A"><i>Chiton squamosus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The <i>Chitons</i> differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in -the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed -by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck, -in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the Mollusca.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_56A" id="FIG_56A"></a> - <img src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" /> - <p class="center"><i>Chiton squamosus.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe -the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the -marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not a -univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not to -be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one piece, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> -which Nature had originally broken transversely into several distinct -moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its -movements.”</p> - -<p>The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between -high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements. -Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton, -says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is -covered with a multitude of teeth,—some simple, and others with three -points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CONCHIFERA" id="CONCHIFERA"></a>CLASS CONCHIFERA.</h2></div> - -<p>The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells, -in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is -soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a -shell of two valves, without head or eyes,—a mouth, if it may be so -called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole -body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes, -generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the -principal distinguishing characters of this class.</p> - -<p>In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference -to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the -number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged -under the heads of <i>univalves</i>, of one piece, <i>bivalves</i>, with two -pieces, and <i>multivalves</i>, with more than two pieces. This arrangement -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> -was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that -otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells, -however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals -belonging to the class Conchifera.</p> - -<p>The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses -except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well -described by Dr. Roget, in his <i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, that we cannot -do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="360" /> - <p class="center">Valves of the <i>Unio Batava</i>, with the Connecting Ligament.</p> -</div> - -<p>The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by -a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that -lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies -much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great -strength.</p> - -<p>During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell -is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> -the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment -and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary -to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell, -and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being -only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a -muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even -a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their -fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to -that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from -their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the <i>adductor -muscles</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="260" /> - <p class="center">Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the Hinge, L.,<br /> - the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its Fibres,<br /> - with respect to the Valves.</p> -</div> - -<p>The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of -being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing -to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are -not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.</p> - -<p>Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the <a href="#FIG_66">Oyster</a> has -some power of locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling -the contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the -fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> -mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to -rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain -within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and -that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas, -those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water -never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they -are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous -experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left -them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_60" id="FIG_60"></a> - <img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="294" /> - <p class="center"><i>The Cardium, or Cockle.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a -leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In -the <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a>, or cockle, this organ is composed -of a mass of muscular fibres, interwoven together in a very complex -manner, and which may be compared to the muscular structure of the -human tongue; the effect in both is the same, namely, the conferring a -power of motion in all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded, -retracted, or inflected at every point.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen</i></a>, or razor-shell fish, has a foot -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> -of a cylindrical shape, tapering at the end, and much more resembling -in its form a tongue than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of -the foot is effected by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior -of the organ is formed of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a -considerable quantity of water, which the animal has the power of -injecting into it, and of thus increasing its dimensions.</p> - -<p>The foot of the <a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>, or common mussel, -can be advanced to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any -fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body, -and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and -by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed -object, continues slowly to advance.</p> - -<p>This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal -themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly -adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for -this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and -insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and -forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it -is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract -it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised -and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of these -exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is moderately -active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a minute. -The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which was -raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on its -side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to be -supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly at -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> -every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be -perceived above the sand.</p> - -<p>By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the -foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell -may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before -protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled -quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can, -with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a> can also advance at the bottom of -the sea, along the surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot, -as a boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against -the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar -expedient, that the <a href="#FIG_86">Solen</a> forces its way through the sand, expanding -the end of its foot into the form of a club.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Tellina</i></a> is remarkable for the quickness -and agility with which it can spring to considerable distances, -by first folding the foot into a small compass, and then suddenly -extending it, while the shell is, at the same time, closed with a loud -snap.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna</i></a>, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of -tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus -for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from -dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of -its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number -of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks, -and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a -convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of -this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> -tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to -retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their -power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous -matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being -drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the -spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a -certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously -constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from -the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this -groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting -it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this -canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient -tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied -to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully -attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is -then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by -its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is -disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same -operation is repeated.</p> - -<p>Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions -around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of -some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the -importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its -safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed, -by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an -action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once -the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> -power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which -they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly -to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that -no <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a> is capable of forming more than four, or at most -five threads, in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in -haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender -than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other -parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into -gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.</p> - -<p>The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this -Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there -are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa, -with only one pair.</p> - -<h3><a name="UNIMUSCULOSA" id="UNIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA.</i></h3> - -<p>The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are -much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but -they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as, -for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the -oriental pearl.</p> - -<h4><a name="HORSE" id="HORSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Horse-Foot -Bowl Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_65"><i>Anomia ephippium</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form; -like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence -attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> -inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the -same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of -the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value. -Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of -the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in -the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which, -instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of -shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this -<i>operculum</i>, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of -the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance, -by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_65" id="FIG_65"></a> - <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="269" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anomia ephippium.</i><br />[<i>Anomia</i>, - a little bowl; <i>ephippium</i>, a horse’s foot.]</p> -</div> - -<h4><a name="OYSTER" id="OYSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Oyster</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_66"><i>Ostrea edulis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become -food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe; -they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky -ground, in no great depth from the surface. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> - -<p>Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May; -when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease, -which the dredgers commonly call <i>cultch</i>. The growth of an Oyster is -tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of -the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in -three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a -half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_66" id="FIG_66"></a> - <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" /> - <p class="center"><i>Ostrea edulis.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The -Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute, -attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which -they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from -England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the -luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported -in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were -fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to -those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour, -nearly black. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> - -<p>The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following -places:—Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are -generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in -Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales. -In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and -at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters -is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April -inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome; -it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months -that have the letter <i>r</i> in them.</p> - -<p>In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of -Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St. -Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this -is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope -which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is -then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few -minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken -are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places, -where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks -are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist -materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken -out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in -what we should call bad condition.</p> - -<p>Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or -sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a -narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> -are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed -on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand -on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the -water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may -have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them. -A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which -had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change -of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain -a peculiar kind of green food.</p> - -<h4><a name="COMB" id="COMB"></a><span class="smcap">The Great Comb Shell</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Pecten maximus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the -largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all -the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is -covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into use -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> -among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other articles -of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil species.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_69" id="FIG_69"></a> - <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="341" /> - <p class="center"><i>Pecten maximus.<span class="ws3">Malleus albus.</span></i></p> -</div> - -<p>The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species -of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water, -and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but -this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its -habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it -tolerably palatable it requires cooking.</p> - -<p>In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the -poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the <i>restaurateurs</i> employ -them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of -mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters, -and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.</p> - -<h4><a name="PEARL" id="PEARL"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearl Oyster</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_70"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very -different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of -its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a <i>byssus</i>, or -beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found. -There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly -found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of -Australasia.</p> - -<p>The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other -inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable -dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> - -<p>The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a -pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by -an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the -inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the -mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future -irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances -cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval, -sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is -always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck, -or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be -traced on the pearl itself.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_70" id="FIG_70"></a> - <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" /> - <p class="center"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;—in this case, the -pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for -instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid, -this nucleus can be traced.</p> - -<p>Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre, -consisting of the remains of a diseased <i>ovum</i>, or egg, of the animal. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> - -<p>Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a -valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her -ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be -doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it -would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to -drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the -lapse of a very considerable time.</p> - -<p>At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great -moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is conducted.</p> - -<p>The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of -Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye -but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are -the plants that nourish the cochineal insect<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>), -and here and there some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees. -But Condatchy, three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to -be seen but a few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during -the period of the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of -which extend upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are -only intended as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely -constructed), and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair -on the grandest scale. The people most active in erecting huts and -speculating in the various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans, -Cingalese (natives of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast -of the continent of India. Apparently, however, from their natural -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> -timidity, none of the Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them -engage in the other active parts of the fishery; they merely resort -hither for the purpose of supplying the markets.</p> - -<p>About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery, -when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of -the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English -superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent -diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand -oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls -collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a -good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are -scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles -from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are -fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is -ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to -fifteen fathoms.</p> - -<p>The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the -same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but -considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference. -The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside -of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more -beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured. -The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy -part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several -pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely at -its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators: but, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> -most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual, who -sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year -1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than -120,000<i>l.</i></p> - -<p>At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two -hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These, -with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything -necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different -parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions -and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of -these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they -reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.</p> - -<p>At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to -emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open -scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from -each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended, -with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone -hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about -five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of -a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the -stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron, -to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a -slip of calico round his loins,—swimming in the water, he takes hold -of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of -the stone.</p> - -<p>He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> -himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden -hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to -him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone -and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels -himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils -with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other -gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and -instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is -thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached -to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon -as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone, -which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting -oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next -diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as -much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get -hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk -to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of -it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time, -free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above -water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a -distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a -rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into -the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is -training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely -experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the -manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> -single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has -reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain -under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in -this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert -man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket. -There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down -alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity -of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a -favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort -after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a -pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks -contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for -six hours.</p> - -<p>When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal, -and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten -to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and -noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the -oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore, -where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for -ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the -oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel, -filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their -putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells -broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which -have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards -handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from -the shells, with pincers. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p> - -<p>When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters -remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom -of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured -into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost. -Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance -in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are -by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.</p> - -<p>As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being -conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small -and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of -considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with -salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into -classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves. -After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then -arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.</p> - -<p>Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest -times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are -often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various -attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular -of which,—known to have been practised early in the Christian era, -on the banks of the Red Sea,—is still carried on in China. A hole is -bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted, -and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point -of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually -hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite -size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p> - -<p>A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced -the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be -formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually -established artificial pearleries,—but these were abandoned after -a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of -sufficient size to be of much value.</p> - -<p>False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is -covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white -wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which -adhere to the scales of the bleak, (<i>ablette</i>,) and was first applied -to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name -of Jacquin<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>.</p> - -<h4><a name="HAMMER" id="HAMMER"></a><span class="smcap">The Hammer Oyster</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Malleus albus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable; -externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other -hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the -most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus -are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity -of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like -the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or -beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.</p> - -<h4><a name="PINNA" id="PINNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Rough Pinna</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna rudis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the -shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the -engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much as a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> -foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a species -found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water, which -is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria, not -only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard, or -byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very -remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the -<a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a <i>crampe</i>, -with teeth a foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to -be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains -attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose -of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried -and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even -garments of much larger size.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_78" id="FIG_78"></a> - <img src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="342" /> - <p class="center"><i>Pinna rudis.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of -equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a -dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> - -<p>This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but -at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of -the <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, and the number of beards necessary to make even -so small an article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells -were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &c., they -would increase much more rapidly.</p> - -<p>These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British -shores possess but one species, the <i>Pinna lævis</i> of Donovan; this is -of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.</p> - -<h4><a name="MUSSEL" id="MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Mussel</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing -animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and -low water marks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_79" id="FIG_79"></a> - <img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" /> - <p class="center"><i>Mytilus edulis.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food; -and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of -severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned -for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by -which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be -detected,—a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance, -partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or -insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have -ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of -the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many -experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author, -the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding -on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely -a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass -of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is -cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of -July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common -observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in -which the letter <i>r</i> is not found. This spawn, according to our author, -is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and -inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the -part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled -up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered -severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all -these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been -discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion -occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> -has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten with -vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.</p> - -<p>When an individual is <i>musselled</i>, the effects are very alarming; -the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few -hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is -attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink, -and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which -soon relieves the patient.</p> - -<p>The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it -is well adapted.</p> - -<p>In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the -multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom -of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which -the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August, -when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the -mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here -they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and -in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change -from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve -their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks, -preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.</p> - -<h4><a name="TRIDACNA" id="TRIDACNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Giant Tridacna</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_82"><i>Tridacna gigas</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The <i>Tridacna gigas</i> is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very -thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much -as five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells -have been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> -churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to -form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given -to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found -in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one -hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna -gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere -to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity, -as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of -separating them from the rock.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_82" id="FIG_82"></a> - <img src="images/i_082.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="311" /> - <p class="center"><i>Tridacna gigas.</i></p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h3><a name="BIMUSCULOSA" id="BIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,<br /> -(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)</i></h3> - -<p>This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells, -all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their -structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their -use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> -with those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more -pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to -place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in -one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable -depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.</p> - -<h4><a name="FW_MUSSEL" id="FW_MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Fresh-Water Mussel</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Anodonta cygnæa</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble -it, are known by the trivial name of <i>Mussel</i>, the only resemblance -between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which -inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in -habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power -of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta -is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of -shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad -muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain -pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are -lined with mother-of-pearl.</p> - -<p>Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl, -very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high price.</p> - -<p>A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the -collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County -Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months, -go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs, -and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell, -take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> -in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in -a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable -pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those -people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good -advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for -50<i>l.</i> that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40<i>l.</i> A -miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i> to a man that -sold it for 10<i>l.</i>, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30<i>l.</i>, -with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80<i>l.</i> for it from the -late Dutchess of Ormond.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_84" id="FIG_84"></a> - <img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="279" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><span class="ws8"><i>Isocardia cor.</i></span> - <span class="ws4"><i>Anodonta Cygnæa.</i></span></p> -</div> - -<h4><a name="ISOCARDIA" id="ISOCARDIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Heart-Shaped Isocardia</span>,<br /> -(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Isocardia cor</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by -the name of the <i>foolscap-shell</i>, and the <i>bullock’s heart shell</i>, is -rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast; -it is the largest British bivalve shell. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="DONAX" id="DONAX"></a><span class="smcap">The Wedge-Shaped Donax</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_85"><i>Donax cuneata</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that -represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks: -it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these -species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and -streaked with pink.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_85" id="FIG_85"></a> - <img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="254" /> - <p class="center"><i>Donax cuneata.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through -various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the -<a href="#FIG_86">Tellina</a>, or <i>earth-shell</i>, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the -Solen, or <i>razor-shell</i>.</p> - -<h4><a name="SOLEN" id="SOLEN"></a><span class="smcap">The Sheath Solen</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen vagina</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying -themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a -couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to -penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell. -Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> -which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom. -This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which -forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is -enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose -of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal -ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may -possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of -Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms -for its retreat is always perpendicular.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_86" id="FIG_86"></a> - <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="255" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Tellina.<span class="ws8">Solen vagina.</span> - <span class="ws4">Pandora rostrata.</span></i></p> -</div> - -<p>One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on -the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather -cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the -farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of -the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated; -after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular -direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began -to descend, and that with considerable quickness.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_86">Solens</a> are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> -where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method -of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat -of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its -chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of -salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so -irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly -mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance, -snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes -good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal -escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect; -either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which -is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up -with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other -means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it -out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.</p> - -<h4><a name="PHOLAS" id="PHOLAS"></a><span class="smcap">The Date-Shaped Pholas</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_88"><i>Pholas dactyloides</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the -solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in -stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of -much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical, -for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an -insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that -the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which -acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this -solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> -in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon -stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.</p> - -<p>Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their -phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if -eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the -person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_88" id="FIG_88"></a> - <img src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="384" /> - <p class="center"><i>Pholas dactyloides.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly -eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are -found.</p> - -<p>The species represented in the engraving is found on the British -coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully -carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the -engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole -from which a shell has been removed is shown. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="SHIP_WORM" id="SHIP_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Ship-Worm,</span> -(<a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully -examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it -employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as -there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent -observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed, -are fully equal to the task.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_89" id="FIG_89"></a> - <img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" /> - <p class="center"><i>Teredo navalis.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of -the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The -animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a -tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress -through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right -in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of -these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the -excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually -formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most deeply -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> -sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally excavates -in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some instances it -crosses this grain.</p> - -<p>In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high -water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have -been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of -large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by -means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together. -These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this -destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and -had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts -of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CIRRHIPEDA" id="CIRRHIPEDA"></a>CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.</h2></div> - -<p>The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of <i>Barnacles</i> and -<i>Acorn-shells</i>, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and -pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time. -They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca, -and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &c. These creatures, from their -singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of -the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was -unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their -true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British -naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any -definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately -after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought -more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and -lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.</p> - -<p>After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea, -Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the -<span class="smcap">class</span> of Crustacea, I formed the <i>first order</i> of this class, -(the <i>Cirrhipeds</i>,) under the name of <i>sightless Crustacea</i>, but a -few years afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of -the Mollusca, but this was no better. If, for example, we consider -those characters which furnish their most important organs, we shall -find that the Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> -Crustacea, for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws -analogous to those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the -antennæ of the shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was -a task that devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq., -a surgeon in his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery -took place, we shall notice further on.</p> - -<p>The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or -tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being -derived from two Latin words,—<i>cirrhus</i>, hair, and <i>pes</i>, the foot; -these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have, -in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.</p> - -<p>They have been separated into two orders; namely, <i>Cirrhipeda -pedunculata</i>, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery -nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,—and <i>Cirrhipeda sedentaria</i>, -which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.</p> - -<h3><a name="PEDUNCULATA" id="PEDUNCULATA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA.</i><br /> -(<i>Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk.</i>)</h3> - -<h4><a name="BARNACLE" id="BARNACLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Smooth Barnacle</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_93"><i>Anatifa lævis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of -a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has -lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the -shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance -of this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> -granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days, -because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to -partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent -to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following -notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and <i>printed</i> by -them in their <i>Transactions</i>. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and -convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the -shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I -found a perfect <i>sea-fowl</i>; the little bill like that of a <i>goose</i>, the -eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the -feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the -<i>feet</i> like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor -did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that -did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen -some as big as their fist!!”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_93" id="FIG_93"></a> - <img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="386" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anatifa lævis.</i></p> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> -<h3><a name="SEDENTARIA" id="SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br /> -(<i>Sedentary Cirrhipeds</i>.)</h3> - -<h4><a name="ACORN" id="ACORN"></a><span class="smcap">The Acorn-Shell</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_94"><i>Balanus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the -Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author -had devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was -returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when, -casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry -at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a -treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled -for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.” -After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues -“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in -any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the -little animal about to be described.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_94" id="FIG_94"></a> - <img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="266" /> - <p class="center"><i>Balanus</i>, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)</p> -</div> - -<p>“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> -somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue. -When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel, -and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water -in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are -withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves, -united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of -opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional -exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a -large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks, -&c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members, -so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke -to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a -succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="201" /> -</div> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub0">Fig. 1. Larva of Barnacle, natural size.</li> -<li class="isub2">2.  " " <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">magnified, seen from above.</span></li> -<li class="isub2">3.  " " <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">highly magnified, seen from side;</span></li> -<li class="isub12"><i>a</i>, swimming-members;</li> -<li class="isub12"><i>b</i>, front limb, with sucker.</li> -<li class="isub2">4. Eye, much magnified.</li> -<li class="isub2">5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.</li> -<li class="isub2">6.  "<span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">"</span>  full grown.</li> -</ul> - -<p>“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal, -is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> -shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front, -at the sides of the body.</p> - -<p>“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826; -and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a -glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be -examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were -taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the -satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their <i>exuviæ</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>, -and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the -vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen -intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of -the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part -of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with -the <i>exuviæ</i>. On the 10th, another individual was seen <i>in the act of -throwing off its shell</i>, and attaching itself, like the others, to the -bottom of the glass.”</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="ANNULATA" id="ANNULATA"></a>CLASS ANNULATA.</h2></div> - -<p>We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of -Lamarck; he calls them,</p> - -<p>“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or -inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least -transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without -antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number -having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of -being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though -not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various -forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this -separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white -blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals -are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> -have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated -into three Orders, namely, <i>Annulata sedentaria</i>, which are fixed to -other substances; <i>Annulata antennata</i>, possessing antennæ, or feelers; -and <i>Annulata apoda</i>, without projecting members answering as feet, -serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals.</i></p> -</div> - -<h3><a name="ANN_SEDENTARIA" id="ANN_SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br /> -(<i>Sedentary Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3> - -<p>The creatures which form this order are generally found attached -to rocks, shells, &c. and are usually of small size. The engraving -represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula -there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell -that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the -species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has -great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or -tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always -occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its <i>operculum</i>, the -lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily -formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of -course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.</p> - -<h4><a name="AMPHITRITE" id="AMPHITRITE"></a><span class="smcap">The Magnificent -Amphitrite</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_99"><i>Amphitrite magnifica</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as -yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> -adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is -exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into -its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that -of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained -by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being -put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health. -That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an -umbrella, consists of the <i>branchiæ</i> or organs of breathing; these are -of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite, -although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to -it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_99" id="FIG_99"></a> - <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="458" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Amphitrite magnifica.</i></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> -<h3><a name="ANTENNATA" id="ANTENNATA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA</i>,<br /> -(<i>Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ</i>.)</h3> - -<hr class="r25" /> -<h4><a name="SAND_WORM" id="SAND_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Sand-Worm of -the Fishermen</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_100"><i>Arenicola piscatorium</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much -sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the -European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met -with in great abundance.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_100" id="FIG_100"></a> - <img src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Arenicola piscatorium.</i></p> -</div> - -<h4><a name="LEODICE" id="LEODICE"></a><span class="smcap">Blood-coloured -Leodice</span>, (<a href="#FIG_101"><i>Leodice sanguinea</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are -enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs -of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> -well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear -a strong resemblance to the <i>scolopendra</i>, or centipede.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_101" id="FIG_101"></a> - <img src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" /> - <p class="center"><i>Leodice sanguinea.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of -Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to -the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.</p> - -<p>When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the -blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body -was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the -animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as -soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.</p> - -<p>The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable -jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the -animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath -the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="MOUSE" id="MOUSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Spinous Sea-Mouse, -or Sea-Caterpillar</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_102"><i>Halithæa aculeata</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native -element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially -covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a peacock.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_102" id="FIG_102"></a> - <img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" /> - <p class="center space-below2"><i>Halithæa aculeata.</i></p> -</div> - -<h3><a name="APODA" id="APODA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA APODA</i>,<br /> -(<i>Footless Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3> - -<p>The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already -described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> -their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may, -consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those -we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they -are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and -live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We -find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the -Earth-worm and the Leech.</p> - -<h4><a name="EARTH_WORM" id="EARTH_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Common -Earth-Worm</span>,<br />(<i>Lumbricus terrestris</i>.)</h4> - -<p>The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow -rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short, -silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like. -These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the -alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is -enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so -forming various fixed points of resistance or <i>fulcra</i>, upon which the -animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the -Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a -simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind -of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is -supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="83" /> -</div> - -<p>The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two -openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the -dirt which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the -other by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made -by the animal would be much in this form, descending at <span class="smcap">a</span>, -and reaching the surface by <span class="smcap">b</span>. It has been said, that the -Earth-worm, if divided by the spade or otherwise, will unite again and -live; the foundation for this appears to be the more probable fact, -that, when divided, that portion of the animal in which the head is -placed may, perhaps, survive the mutilation, and ultimately again -become a perfect creature.</p> - -<p>Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks, -they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round -the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving -the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very -deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up -in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of <i>mucus</i>, -which is furnished by the pores of their body.</p> - -<p>The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with -the author of the <i>Journal of a Naturalist</i>; among other remarks, -he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important -one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers, -harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common -Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the -soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the -surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer -parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the -more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple -nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them -are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> -scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,</p> - -<p class="center">Death still producing life.</p> - -<p>“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey -of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary -example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction. -The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its -prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds; -fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it -unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and -burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in -dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the -earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element, -yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it -as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and -even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of -the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding -this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully -commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of all.</p> - -<p>“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining -over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become -frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually -consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass -of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of -approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground, -than they approach the surface. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing -the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into -the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service, -penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every -direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the -water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we -have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says, -“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of -knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and -fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any -vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that -all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale -as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that -permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”</p> - -<h4><a name="LEECH" id="LEECH"></a><span class="smcap">The Medicinal -Leech</span>, (<a href="#LEECHES"><i>Hirudo medicinalis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to -have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed -in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied -to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended -to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt -leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any -part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound -occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.</p> - -<p>At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> -operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the -body, for which use it is eminently adapted.</p> - -<p>There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures, -but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the <i>Hirudo -medicinalis</i>, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or -striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted -with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not -uniformly found; and the <i>Hirudo troctina</i>, of a brownish colour, -the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is -surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow, -and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.</p> - -<p>The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout -the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts; -it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very -abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture, -and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great -use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less -frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are -imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate -calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every -hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign -production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat -larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots. -Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by -the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were -employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> -appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is -found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and -seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears -to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the -sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by -the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable -depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated, -and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is -considered by the <i>leech-gatherers</i> as a favourable time for collecting -them.</p> - -<p>The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some -persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a -leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the -following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be -serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel -without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the -animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of -fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a -state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will -remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless, -and so on.</p> - -<p>This natural barometer <i>appears</i> to answer tolerably well, if there -is sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if -one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are -enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws, -and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient -accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> - -<p>The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood -or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is -not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the <i>larvæ</i> -of aquatic insects, worms, &c., so that the common idea of the danger -of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.</p> - -<p>The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms, -tadpoles, &c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five -horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the -number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were -missing was to be discovered.</p> - -<p>The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of -cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech, -which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species, -disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state, -and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a -lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more -powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that -period.</p> - -<p>A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a -trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different -parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench -annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it -(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of -the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such -pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent -were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere -skeleton.”</p> - -<p>From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> -<i>sanguisuga</i>, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to -the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name -of Hirudo <i>vorax</i>, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its -nature.</p> - -<p>Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in -confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained -slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a -doubt.</p> - -<p>On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form -of a horse-shoe, thus—</p> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_110.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="81" /> -</div> - -<p>These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or -eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are -merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in -describing their character, says they are without eyes.</p> - -<p>The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are -three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with -regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these -piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not -by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the -surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips); -in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there -remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the -piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three -minutes after the leech has commenced operation.</p> - -<p>Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been -taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The -principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> -sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those -which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.</p> - -<p>Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination -to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to -commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &c.; but -these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears -to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when -any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to -puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the -little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling -to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little -cold water.</p> - -<p>After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to -induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt -frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of -Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the -preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head -of the leech instead of salt.</p> - -<p>The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has -swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of -the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the -most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood -remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> -The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed -of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with -the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal, -the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal, -through a distinct opening.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="LEECHES" id="LEECHES"></a> - <p class="center"><b>Fig. 1. <span class="ws16">Fig. 2.</span><span class="ws4"> </span></b></p> - <img src="images/i_112.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="237" /> -</div> - -<p>It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced -from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are -developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon -of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its -natural size: <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 1</a>, shows the perfect case or -cocoon, and <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 2</a>, the same opened, with the -young leeches contained within it; it is said that, at times, there -are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case. This cocoon is formed -by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the mud or clay, which -composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.</p> - -<p>The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although -only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to -the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of -this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of sale.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> -“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly -in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those -leeches which were intended for the Paris market.</p> - -<p>“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the -season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to -the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance. -These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are -known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of -water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches -quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they -are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the -cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of -allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow -much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.</p> - -<p>There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is -more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than -even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the -terrible hooded snake itself.</p> - -<p>The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in -length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active -animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally -to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no -sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to -crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is -shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with -these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> -in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping -them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly -than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than -would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in -persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers, -and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.</p> - -<p>Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such -as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &c., but all to very -little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing -the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very -closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CRUSTACEA" id="CRUSTACEA"></a>CLASS CRUSTACEA.</h2></div> - -<p>The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history -has undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among -the insects:—others considered them to have more analogy to the -spiders. Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent -<span class="smcap">CLASS</span> forming two <i>orders</i>, which he -has named after the arrangement of the branchiæ, or gills, by which -they breathe, namely,—the <i>Crustacea homobranchiæ</i>, the -distinguishing marks of which he describes in this manner: branchiæ -hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass, covering the -body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the mandibles -always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks, the head -not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist them in -their movements. Secondly, the <i>Crustacea heterobranchiæ</i>, in which -the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under the -lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the -tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in -general fixed, <i>sedentary, not on footstalks</i>.</p> - -<h3><a name="HOMOBRANCHIAE" id="HOMOBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ</i>,<br /> -(<i>Shell-Fish with concealed gills.</i>)</h3> - -<p>The first of these orders, the <i>homobranchial</i> Crustacea, includes most -of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters, -and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.</p> - -<p>Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order, -and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> -appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal -kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is -apparently less complex.</p> - -<p>The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two -principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately -united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a -portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable -supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on -each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head. -The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this -spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The -two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.</p> - -<p>The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat -pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather; -they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are -so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of -these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.</p> - -<p>The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the -mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at -their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper -part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at -the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two -pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six -other members, which Lamarck calls <i>foot-jaws</i>, from their bearing -some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the -parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and -accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> -particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that may -come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as articles -of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of the year.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="f150 u"><a name="CRAB_TRIBE" id="CRAB_TRIBE"></a><b><i>THE CRAB TRIBE.</i></b></p> -</div> - -<p>The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the -knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being -generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit -ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful -species.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="ZOEA" id="ZOEA"></a> - <img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="474" /> - <p class="center"><small>THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.</small></p> -</div> - -<p>The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular species, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> -as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless variety of -curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most brilliant -colours; this more particularly applies to those which are found in the -seas of hot climates.</p> - -<p>The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was -placed by naturalists among the <i>Crustacea</i>, and considered a perfect -animal of a distinct species; it was named <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a>. Mr. Thomson, -the experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to -discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better -than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the -author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known -respecting these inhabitants of the deep.</p> - -<p>“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the -<i>Crustacea</i>) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body -of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant -troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a -fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast -expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a -kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by -those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts -of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants -with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the -bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is -interspersed with fields of Sargosa<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>. -On due examination, however, we shall not fail to find it everywhere -peopled by a considerable variety of animals, either of small size, or -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> -possessed of such a degree of translucency as to render them invisible, -or scarcely perceptible, even when on or near to its surface; that it -should possess its share of the organized beings which we see spread -over every other part of the surface of our globe, is a conclusion we -might arrive at indirectly, from the consideration of oceanic fishes -and birds being observed in those parts of the ocean most distant from -the land, and the provident care of the Deity, which we invariably -witness throughout the domain of nature, to furnish food for all, even -the meanest of his creatures; the more minute and invisible inmates of -the sea, then, must constitute the food of oceanic fishes and birds.</p> - -<p>“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most -conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of -them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and -a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to -accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing -every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or -four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze, -bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it -up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to -ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater -rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the -spout of one of the <i>sea-water</i> pumps, and examined three or four times -a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”</p> - -<p>Although naturalists were decided in calling the <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a> a crustaceous -animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the system -it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike each -other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it is known, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> -that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but merely the -larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is perfectly -new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only proving their -real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as described in most -systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on that account to be -separated from the insects, but that they do undergo a metamorphosis, -and that of a most wonderful nature.</p> - -<p>It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ, -in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year -following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred; -this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully -supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died -in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which -it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a -great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs -and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be -considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in -hatching the <i>ova</i> of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which -presented exactly the appearance of the <i>Zoea taurus</i>.”</p> - -<p>The Common Crab, <i>Cancer major</i>, is so well-known, that any description -of its appearance would be useless.</p> - -<p>One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that -is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this -power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase -in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the -peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about -to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured -retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it -creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year -when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time -their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest -perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking -the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among -the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the -attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal -discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously -harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its -kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in -anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting -its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against -each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated, -and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an -unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at -its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before -seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach -comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it -disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal, -with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a -boot that was too big for him.</p> - -<p>Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty; -but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several -hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation, that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> -many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such a -weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor -venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have -not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of -the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor -oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod, -and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness -continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is -seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before; -its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first -object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which -it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness. -In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength, -the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but -just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their -skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this -is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the -shell. These stones, popularly known as <i>crabs’ eyes</i>, were long -highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not -superior to so much chalk.</p> - -<p>When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the -old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found -the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears -wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.</p> - -<p>Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb, -or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty -of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it has -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> -also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its own -legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury, by -bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received the -hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb -from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and -natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other -legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part -of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears -to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the -case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.</p> - -<p>When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on -the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural -styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows -callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the -creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.</p> - -<p>Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and -kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so -bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking -off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal -bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the -tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one -of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly -creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted -its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which -bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> -its limb in the usual manner,—still, however, holding fast for a -length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.</p> - -<p>The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not, -as it is said, walk exactly backwards.</p> - -<h4><a name="LAND" id="LAND"></a><span class="smcap">The Land Crab</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_124"><i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there -is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands, -whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly -curious in themselves.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_124" id="FIG_124"></a> - <img src="images/i_124.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" /> - <p class="center"><small>THE LAND CRAB,</small> (<i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i>.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near -salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year -in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> -same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the islands, -many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these places -their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year, to repair to -the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. They prepare for -their annual migration about the month of April or May, and, having -mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets forward, with all the -regularity of an army, under the guidance of an experienced commander.</p> - -<p>Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct -line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly -surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a -house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which -they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not -unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper. -If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow -its course without attempting to cross it.</p> - -<p>It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of -which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like -pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged -to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment -till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never -leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then -descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty -paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover -the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a -straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but -neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> -their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a -confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly, -to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables; -but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to -proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.</p> - -<p>After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner, -they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately -enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several -times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where -they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek -the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of -being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already -repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their -annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and, -soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting -the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones, -however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and -lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are -obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover; -making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves -up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and -continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time -they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six -weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may -be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> -sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the -food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of -seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.</p> - -<h4><a name="HERMIT" id="HERMIT"></a><span class="smcap">The Hermit, or Soldier Crab</span>,<br /> -(<a href="#FIG_127"><i>Pagurus bernhardus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of -remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock, -it may fancy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_127" id="FIG_127"></a> - <img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="340" /> - <p class="center"><small>THE HERMIT CRAB,</small> (<i>Pagurus bernhardus</i>.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly -secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous -state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is -almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their -hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to -maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has -grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to -seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> -when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the -additional name of the Soldier Crab.</p> - -<p>“The <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier</a> when about to seek a new habitation, -is still seen,” says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears -to have considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the -mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell, -therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body; -and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer -both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight -inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along -that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave; -still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail, -unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage, -till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one -shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating -that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation, -to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it -quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently -changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to -this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the -body of the animal, claws and all.”</p> - -<p>Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the -Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest -between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which -they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike -with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to -yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> -takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times -back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.</p> - -<p>When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring -to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will -sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not -easily cured.</p> - -<p>On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell -of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they -not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under -the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices -of which they hide themselves.</p> - -<p>The ancients were well acquainted with the <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier Crab</a>, -as is evident from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left</span> -<span class="i0">Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.</span> -<span class="i0">Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish</span> -<span class="i0">For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;</span> -<span class="i0">Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,</span> -<span class="i0">Whose first and rightful owners are no more.</span> -<span class="i0">They make glad seizure of the vacant room,</span> -<span class="i0">And count the borrowed shell their native home;</span> -<span class="i0">Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,</span> -<span class="i0">And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.</span> -<span class="i0">But when they larger grow they fill the place,</span> -<span class="i0">And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,</span> -<span class="i0">Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,</span> -<span class="i0">And busy search around the pebbly shore,</span> -<span class="i0">Till a commodious roomy seat be found,</span> -<span class="i0">Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.</span> -<span class="i0">Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,</span> -<span class="i0">And long for the disputed shell engage;</span> -<span class="i0">The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,</span> -<span class="i0">Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.</span> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> -</div></div></div> - -<h4><a name="LOBSTER" id="LOBSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Lobster</span>, -(<i>Astacus europæa</i>.)</h4> - -<p>The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great -abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland -is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast -of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the -Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth. -The methods of taking Lobsters are various,—the most usual is by means -of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of -twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap, -so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning. -These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place -being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a -kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only -carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the -London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.</p> - -<p>Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other -sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they -frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor -creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent -clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the -crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the -pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while the -other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then, its -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> -food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with the -other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and -lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable -distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when -in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a -beautiful deep blue.</p> - -<p>A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems -to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in -Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who -transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to -prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by, -they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!</p> - -<h4><a name="CRAY_FISH" id="CRAY_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The River Cray-Fish</span>, -(<i>Potamobius fluviatilis</i>.)</h4> - -<p>The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in -appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is -commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the -banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that -may happen to come in its way.</p> - -<p>The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which -is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus -described:—</p> - -<p>Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the -thickness of the thumb,—split them at the smallest end, and by way of -bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take then -the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance of -the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are there, -they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you perceive -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> -them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait suddenly, -and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the bait, or -will fall back into the net.</p> - -<p>Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a -hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst -of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the -water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained -there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found -partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually -prevent their escape.</p> - -<h4><a name="SHRIMP" id="SHRIMP"></a><span class="smcap">The Phosphorescent -Shrimp.</span></h4> - -<p>The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known to -all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained, that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> -the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent -properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants -of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very -frequently met with.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_132.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="356" /> - <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Noctiluca Banksii</span> magnified.</p> - <p class="center space-below2">The line above shows the natural length.</p> -</div> - -<p>The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue -from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found -by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided -in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most -brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there -started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.</p> - -<p>The author we have lately quoted, says,—</p> - -<p class="blockquot2">“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable, -that the Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to -every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the -trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet, -has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and -of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider -that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,—is vivid in -proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light -of the moon,—and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea, -so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the -dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and -the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable -sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all -times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken -rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy -appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible -at a considerable distance.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="OPOSSUM" id="OPOSSUM"></a><span class="smcap">The Opossum Shrimp</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_134"><i>Mysis chamæleon</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward -appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably -smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed -creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable -abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally -swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined -to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth -encloses myriads at a time.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_134" id="FIG_134"></a> - <img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="461" /> - <p class="center"><i>Mysis chamæleon.</i></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> -The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have -been called fissipeds, (<i>split-feet</i>,) on account of each of their -feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb -being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and -the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is -essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped -round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the -element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such -as shrimps, prawns, &c., there is a single row of five feet on each -side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four -rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet -amounts to as many as thirty-two,—sixteen adapted for swimming, and -sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization, -the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the -present genus frequent the surface.</p> - -<p>The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they -are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses, -fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this -pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is -destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in -a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the -young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened -form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in -this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards -the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted -together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> -observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the -large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp -are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch -we have described.</p> - -<p>We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the -Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve -as food for herrings.</p> - -<p>It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals -that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater -productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished -master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still -continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance, -after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has -informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one -piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part -appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together. -Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs, -which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs -still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently -jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the -various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which -actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment -necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison -with other creatures, they must possess!</p> - -<p>The <a href="#FIG_134">Opossum Shrimps</a>, we have seen, are the prey of the larger -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> -inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that -are smaller than themselves,—seizing upon every animal substance they -are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a -vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.</p> - -<p class="space-below2">The species represented in the engraving has -been called the <i>Mysis chamæleon</i>, from its colour varying according to -the substances on which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray, -black, brown, and pink.</p> - -<h3><a name="HETEROBRANCHIAE" id="HETEROBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ.</i></h3> - -<p class="center">(<i>Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously<br /> -placed, never concealed.</i>)</p> - -<p>The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other -than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we -find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of -the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a -great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the -water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are -very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They -have been divided into several sections, according to their outward -form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine -ourselves to a description of some of the best known.</p> - -<h4><a name="SQUILL" id="SQUILL"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted Squill</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_138"><i>Squilla maculata</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present -order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> -the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct, -appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called -the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that -name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its -foot-jaws are armed.</p> - -<p>The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is -the largest of the genus.</p> - -<p>The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little -consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent -the sandy bottom of the sea.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_138" id="FIG_138"></a> - <img src="images/i_138.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" /> - <p class="center"><i>Squilla maculata.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the -young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter -under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.</p> - -<h4><a name="CLOPORTUS" id="CLOPORTUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Cloportus</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_139"><i>Cloportus ascellus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> -somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a -dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where -the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to -a group of small Crustacea known by the name <i>Oniscus</i>. Some, as we see -in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion -inhabit the water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_139" id="FIG_139"></a> - <img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="283" /> - <p class="center"><i>Cloportus ascellus.</i></p> - <p class="center">(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species -which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for -its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years -timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary -wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the -course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little -creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten -inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch -a year. Another species, <i>Cymothoa</i>, attaches itself to the backs of -different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.</p> - -<p>A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> -fifth volume of the <i>American Philosophical Transactions</i>; it is -accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is -not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular -species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself -to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the -roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_140_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" /> - <p class="center"><i>Head of Alewife.</i></p> - <p class="center">Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.</p> -</div> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_140_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="195" /> - <p class="center">The insect seen from above.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> -“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort -to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife, -called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and -in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of -the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the -herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught -from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for -the table as the herring.</p> - -<p>“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect -about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly -holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.</p> - -<p>“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without -injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider -the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken -out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable -of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to -preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always -obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.</p> - -<p>“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and -lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately -scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his -position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and -unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained -his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant -resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he -certainly fares sumptuously every day. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p> - -<p>“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the -shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to -travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As -long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found -fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his -mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but -by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself -with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay -Alewife without the louse.”</p> - -<p>The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies, -many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their -body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.</p> - -<h4><a name="MOLUCCA" id="MOLUCCA"></a><span class="smcap">The Molucca Crab</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_143"><i>Polyphemus gigas</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>Why the singular creature here represented should have the name -Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every -schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is -represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas, -this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its -being so nearly allied to many very minute species.</p> - -<p>The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but -two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their -buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has -been called the Molucca Crab.</p> - -<p>The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by -the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> -employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of -poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this -circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no -other ground for the belief.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_143" id="FIG_143"></a> - <img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="294" /> - <p class="center"><i>Polyphemus gigas.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very -easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything -until their danger becomes imminent.</p> - -<p>It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for -food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.</p> - -<p>These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a -considerable distance over the wet sands,—but if incommoded by the -sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element. -When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if -this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the -waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power -of righting itself with the assistance of its tail. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="LIMULUS" id="LIMULUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Crab-like Limulus</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_144"><i>Limulus cancriformis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &c.; they -are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their -principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_144" id="FIG_144"></a> - <img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="221" /> - <p class="center"><i>Limulus cancriformis.</i> (Natural size.)</p> -</div> - -<p>“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in -which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler, -very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The -head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They -possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back. -Their legs are very numerous,—the two in front, much the largest, -spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with -silky articulated bristles.”</p> - -<h4><a name="FLEA" id="FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Water Flea</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_145"><i>Cyclops quadricornis</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That -represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most -interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr. -Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p> - -<p>“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution, -as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of -creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred -on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision, -more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring, -and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the -elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the -mass of living matter they present to us.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_145" id="FIG_145"></a> - <img src="images/i_145.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="464" /> - <p class="center"><i>Cyclops quadricornis.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p> -</div> - -<p>“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the -year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> -in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm -day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an -inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered -with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil, -are of a fine rich colour.</p> - -<p>“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly -plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and -vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but -have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the -organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it -is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little -above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark -crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this -organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two -kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest -extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some -other positions it is square.”</p> - -<p>The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance -similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared -with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving, -(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder -portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque -colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.</p> - -<p>The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are -extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has -described them as forming two distinct genera. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p> - -<h4><a name="SW_FLEA" id="SW_FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Small Water Flea</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_147"><i>Cyclops minutus</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its -body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much -smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form -renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says -Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if -approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside, -in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit -opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a -kind of vaulting leap.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_147" id="FIG_147"></a> - <img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" /> - <p class="center"><i>Cyclops minutus</i>, much magnified.</p> -</div> - -<p>They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met -with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed, -growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> -and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will -not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and -require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of -clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the -under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or -cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey, -moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the -plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not -bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept -in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the -three hundredth part of an inch.</p> - -<p>The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the -eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of -the animal near the tail.</p> - -<h4><a name="CYPRIS" id="CYPRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Hairy Cypris</span>, -(<a href="#FIG_149"><i>Cypris pubera</i></a>.)</h4> - -<p>These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they -are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The -animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it -at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell -numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is -enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until -it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which -issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and -bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them -great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute -materially to the swimming powers of the creature. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p> - -<p>At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point -is seen,—this is the eye of the animal.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FIG_149" id="FIG_149"></a> - <img src="images/i_149.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="218" /> - <p class="center"><i>Cypris pubera.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is -found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they -are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are -more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the -year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course -of the year.</p> - -<p>The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense -numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in -this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in -the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a -kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the -marshes with water.</p> - -<p>A species nearly allied to this, the <i>Artemia Salina</i>, the Lymington -shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans, -which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other -Crustaceous animal. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> - -<p>Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at -Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is -deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a -quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the -liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute, -in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm, -or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this -is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of -this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms -from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase -astonishingly in the course of a few days.</p> - -<p>It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans, -where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the -Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and -reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans, -and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much -diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the -manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at -the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.</p> - -<p class="f150 space-above2"><b>THE END.</b></p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London:</span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">John W. Parker, St. Martin’s Lane</span>.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - <p class="center"><b>[<span class="smcap">List No. 1.</span>]</b></p> - <p class="f150"><b>APPROVED BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS<br /> AND FAMILIES.</b></p> -</div> -<hr class="r25" /> -<p class="neg-indent">Those to which a * is prefixed, are published -under the Direction of the Committee of General Literature and -Education of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</p> -<hr class="r25" /> - -<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* ENGLISH GRAMMAR</span></b>. -By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. Dr. RUSSELL</span></b>, -late Head Master of Charter-House School. 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">No language can be more simple and intelligible -than that in which the Rules of this Grammar are expressed. The -construction of Sentences, and the force of the Prepositions and -Conjunctions, are illustrated by examples. Emphasis is treated very -perspicuously; and the Grammar closes with most useful Questions on the Rules.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION</span></b> to -<b><span class="larger">ENGLISH COMPOSITION</span></b>; -adapted to the education of both sexes, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS</span></b>, -M.A., one of the Masters of King’s College School, London. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In addition to other pursuits and -studies, the cultivation of a knowledge of English Literature is daily -gaining ground. This, it must be acknowledged, is very desirable, but -it is assuredly of great importance, that it should be upon a plan -which will tend to give a vigorous and healthy tone to the mind.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE CLASS READING -BOOK</span></b>; adapted for Schools, and particularly designed to -furnish Youth with Practical Information on a variety of Interesting -Subjects. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE LUDLOW</span></b>, one of -the Masters of Christ’s Hospital. 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">This work consists of nearly Two -Hundred Reading Lessons, adapted either for classes or individuals. -They are selected with a view to the communication of popular but -sound information, on various branches of knowledge, and there is a -department consisting of carefully selected Poems.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">ABBOTT’S -READER</span></b>; a Series of Familiar Pieces, in Prose and Verse, -calculated to produce a Moral Influence on the Hearts and Lives -of Young Persons. By the Authors of <span class="smcap">The Young -Christian</span>; <span class="smcap">The Corner-Stone</span>; -<span class="smcap">The Teacher</span>, &c. 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this <span -class="smcap">Reader</span> is, to exert a direct and powerful moral -influence upon the hearts of children; such an influence as shall -make them faithful and industrious in the improvement of their time, -obedient and affectionate to their parents, kind towards their -playmates, and upright and honest in their intercourse with others. -The compilers have honestly endeavoured to exclude everything which -they supposed would be unacceptable to any of the friends of piety and -morality, of whatever name.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ARITHMETIC -TAUGHT BY QUESTIONS.</span></b> 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principal novelty of this -Arithmetic consists in the <span class="smcap">Questions</span>, by -which the learner may be enabled to examine and teach himself. At -the same time, it is thought that many Teachers may profit by the -facilities which the questioning affords, and learn to ground those -whom they have been in the habit of teaching by rote.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A FIRST -BOOK</span> on <span class="larger">GEOMETRY</span></b>, including Plane -and Solid Geometry, and an Introduction to Trigonometry. 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this work will, it is believed, be -found all the essential Propositions of Plane and Solid Geometry. The -method of demonstration which has been followed is that of Euclid; but, -throughout, an attempt has been made to give it a character of greater -simplicity, and thus to render it more generally available.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE FIGURES OF EUCLID</span>; -with <span class="larger">QUESTIONS</span>, and a <span class="larger">PRAXIS</span> of -<span class="larger">GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES</span></b>. -By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS, M.A.</span></b>, of -King’s College School, London. 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of GEOGRAPHY</span></b>. - By <b><span class="larger">G. HOGARTH</span></b>. 10<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A comprehensive Manual of the leading -facts in this branch of Education, carefully condensed from the best -sources. It contains Tables of the Situations and Heights of the -principal Mountains, and of the Lengths of the principal Rivers, a Map -of the World, Five other Maps, and Four Plates of Costumes.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES -of the HISTORY of ENGLAND</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE -HOGARTH.</span></b> 1<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The leading events of English History -are related with simplicity, and their connexion traced with clearness. -The narratives are confined to the most memorable and important events; -and those circumstances particularly marked which have led to the -gradual formation of the British system of government. The work is -illustrated with many Engravings of Costumes, Views, &c.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ROMAN HISTORY</span></b>. -By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE HOGARTH</span></b>. 10<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A complete and popular epitome of the -History of the Rise, Progress, and Fall of the Roman Empire. It is -embellished with a handsome Print of a Roman Triumph, and numerous -Figures of Costumes, &c.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">OUTLINES of GRECIAN HISTORY</span></b>. -By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. BARTON BOUCHIER, M.A.</span></b> -With <span class="smcap">Maps</span> and <span class="smcap">Views</span>. 1<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of SACRED HISTORY</span></b>; -from the Creation of the World to the Destruction of Jerusalem. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this Work is to afford -a condensed view of the History of both the Old and New Testaments, -together with a brief account of the Jewish History in the interval -between the Babylonish Captivity and the Birth of Christ, and in the -period between Christ’s Ascension and the fulfilment of his awful -Prophecy of the Destruction of Jerusalem and the Dispersion of the Jews.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A MANUAL of ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY</span></b>, -in which the Modern Names of Places are attached to the Ancient, and the Words -marked with their proper quantities. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. WILLIAM HILDYARD, M.A.</span></b> - 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Geography and Chronology are, as -it has been quaintly but truly remarked, the eyes of History, and -the Editor’s experience in teaching (which has not been small,) has -convinced him of the great importance of making boys perfectly familiar -with the division of countries, and the relative situation of places, -if ever they are expected to read the classic authors, especially the -historians, with advantage.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ASTRONOMY</span></b>. -By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. G. HALL, M.A.</span></b>, Professor of Math., -King’s Coll., London. 10<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">An elementary Work, intended to -instruct, in the sublime facts of Astronomy, those who are unacquainted -with mathematical reasoning; and to explain to them, in familiar -language, the principal phenomena of the Heavens. The Lessons are -illustrated by numerous Engravings.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE ELEMENTS of BOTANY</span></b>. -New Edition, with many Cuts. 2<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principles of this beautiful and -important science are explained in a clear and simple manner, so -as to render the acquisition of them comparatively easy. The book -is illustrated by numerous cuts of the different parts of plants, -&c., and the examples, when possible, are selected from our own -wild flowers, or from those cultivated in all gardens or fields, and -they are cited by their familiar names. A Glossary of most of the terms -usually employed is subjoined, and an alphabetical List of the most -useful Plants, with their botanical names, &c.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* MANUAL of INSTRUCTION -in VOCAL MUSIC</span></b>, chiefly with a view to Psalmody. -By <b><span class="larger">JOHN TURNER, Esq.</span></b> 4<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The author offers this work not as -an experiment now for the first time to be tried, but as the result -of long experience. Though chiefly designed for the use of children -collected in large numbers, it may, with equal advantage, be adopted -in smaller assemblages, and in the domestic circle: and may also be -rendered serviceable to adults.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY LESSONS -IN MECHANICS</span></b>; with Familiar Illustrations, showing the -practical Application of the various Mechanical Principles. 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ON the EDUCATION -and TREATMENT of CHILDREN</span></b>. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—On -the means of developing the Bodily Senses in Infancy; Early Development -of the Affections; Early Cultivation of the Intellect; Management -in Childhood; Amusements and Employments; Sunday; Views of Death; -Supernatural Appearances; Politeness; Dress; Gentility; Management -during the Teens; Views of Matrimony.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSTRUCTIONS for -TEACHING ARITHMETIC to LITTLE CHILDREN</span></b>. -By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. V. SHORT, B.D.</span></b> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A LITTLE READING -BOOK for YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. With many Cuts. 4<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">SCRIPTURE HYMNS IN PROSE</span></b>. -With Cuts. 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The experience of some persons inclines -them to prefer compositions in prose, to those in verse, for the -exercise of the infant memory. There is at least no disadvantage in -having a choice of both.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A COLLIERY TALE, -or VILLAGE DISTRESS</span></b>. 4<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The object of this little narrative is, by God’s help, to -draw some profit from a recent calamity, which, in its -immediate pressure upon the limited community through -which it extended, has been most awfully severe.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* VILLAGE ANNALS</span></b>; -or, the Story of <span class="smcap">Hetty Jones</span>. 9<i>d.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> -<p class="no-indent">I have written this story in the -simplest style, for the use of the children in my own neighbourhood; as -in all the little publications of this kind I have hitherto met with, -the language and ideas are far above the comprehension of many of the -classes for whom they are designed.</p> -<p class="author">C. B.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">PRETTY LESSONS -for GOOD CHILDREN</span></b>; to which are added, <b><span class="larger">EASY -LESSONS in LATIN</span></b>. 2<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this little work is, -by means of easy rhymes, to attract the attention of young children, -and to impress upon their memories various elementary facts and moral -sentiments which they would not otherwise remember; for, “What will a -child learn sooner than a song?”</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY POETRY -FOR CHILDREN</span></b>. 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SIMPLE STORIES -FOR YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. By a <b><span class="larger">LADY</span></b>. -With Cuts. 1<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE CHILD’S -VERSE-BOOK OF DEVOTION</span></b>. With Cuts. 1<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SONGS for -CHILDREN</span></b>. With <span class="smcap">Engravings</span>. 4<i>d.</i></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">In this little book you’ll find,</span> -<span class="i0">Lessons for the infant mind;</span> -<span class="i0">Truth conveyed in easy verse,</span> -<span class="i0">Which the nursling may rehearse,</span> -<span class="i0">And thus be led, by simple lays,</span> -<span class="i0">To walk with God, and sing his praise.</span> -</div></div></div> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">READING LESSONS</span></b> -from the Books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes; with Questions and Answers upon them. 4<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">DAILY READINGS -from the PSALMS</span></b>. 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAMILIAR LECTURES -to CHILDREN</span></b>; in which the <b><span class="larger">IMPORTANT TRUTHS -of the GOSPEL</span></b> are engagingly set forth. Edited by the -<b><span class="larger">Rev. J. HOBART CAUNTER, B.D.</span></b> 2<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAITH AND PRACTICE</span></b>; -or, The Application of Christian Principles to the Practical Duties of Life. Fourth -Edition, improved. 1<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE RITE of CONFIRMATION -EXPLAINED</span></b>. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. D. I. EYRE, M.A.</span></b> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">CONFIRMATION</span></b>. -An <b><span class="larger">ADDRESS</span></b> from a <b><span class="larger">CLERGYMAN</span></b> -to his <b><span class="larger">PARISHIONERS</span></b>. 2<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">A FEW WORDS ON THE SIN -OF LYING</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">A LAYMAN</span></b>. 3<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* EASY LESSONS on MONEY MATTERS</span></b>, -for the Use of Young People. 1<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this little book, care has been -taken to convey elementary knowledge in such simple language, that, -it is hoped, these <span class="smcap">Lessons</span> will be found -easily intelligible even to such as have but the ordinary advantages in -point of education; and there are few subjects on which it is, for all -classes of people, more important to inculcate correct principles, and -to guard against specious fallacies.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN STORIES</span></b>; -illustrative of <b><span class="larger">EASTERN MANNERS</span></b> and -<b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS</span></b>. 1<i>s.</i> And,</p> - -<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN FABLES</span></b>, -for Young and Old. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. H. G. KEENE, M.A.</span></b> 1<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FIVE HUNDRED CHARADES</span></b>, -from History, Geography, and Biography. Third Edition, revised and improved. 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSECTS</span></b> -and their <b><span class="larger">HABITATIONS</span></b>. A Book for Children. 1<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">We may learn many useful lessons from -the History of Insects; and, by observing their habits, we shall find -that they set us an example of various good qualities.</p> - -<p class="no-indent"><b><span class="larger"><br />* The BOOK of ANIMALS</span></b>. - <b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of FISHES.</span></b><br /> -<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of BIRDS</span></b>. -<span class="ws3"><b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of REPTILES.</span></b></span><br /> -<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of SHELLS</span></b>. -<span class="ws3">Price 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</span></p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The nature, habits, and uses of the -Animals described, are presented in a correct, though simple and -attractive form, and the little volumes will be found useful additions -to the books for young persons, and acceptable introductions to works -of a higher class.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE STUDENT’S -MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY</span></b>; containing Accounts of -the <span class="smcap">Political Condition</span>, -<span class="smcap">Geographical Situation</span>, and -<span class="smcap">Social State</span> of the principal -<span class="smcap">Nations Of Antiquity</span>; carefully digested from the -Ancient Writers, and illustrated by the Discoveries of Modern Scholars -and Travellers. By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b> 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE FAMILY HISTORY -OF ENGLAND</span></b>, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG, M.A.</span></b>, -with a series of <span class="smcap">Pictorial Illustrations of the -Costumes, Architecture, Shipping</span>, &c., of the successive -periods of British History. In Eighteen Parts, at 1<i>s.</i> each, -or in Three Volumes, 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A POPULAR HISTORY -OF THE REFORMATION</span></b>, in <span class="smcap">Germany</span>, -<span class="smcap">Switzerland</span>, and <span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>; -and of its chief Promoters, Opposers, and Victims. -By <b><span class="larger">THOMAS FOX</span></b>. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH</span></b>; -from <span class="smcap">the Ascension of Jesus Christ to the Conversion of Constantine</span>. -By the late <b><span class="larger">Dr. BURTON</span></b>. Second Edition, 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE EARLY CHRISTIANS</span></b>; -their <b><span class="larger">MANNERS</span></b> and <b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS, TRIALS</span></b> -and <b><span class="larger">SUFFERINGS</span></b>. -By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. W. PRIDDEN, M.A.</span></b> 4<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CRUSADERS</span></b>; -by <b><span class="larger">THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, Esq.</span></b> Two Volumes, with Engravings. 11<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF MOHAMMEDANISM</span></b>, -and the <b><span class="larger">PRINCIPAL MOHAMMEDAN SECTS</span></b>. -By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b>, &c. 5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVES OF EMINENT CHRISTIANS</span></b>. -By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. R. B. HONE, M.A.</span></b>, Rector of Hales Owen. -Volumes I. and II., with Portraits, 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN ENGLISH PROSE LITERATURE</span></b>; -containing choice Specimens of the Works of the best English Writers; with -<span class="smcap">Essays on English Literature</span>. 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN POETRY</span></b>; -Selections from the Works of the best English Poets; with Specimens of the American Poets; -Notices of the Writers; and Notes. 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY</span></b>; -a Selection of the Lives of the most Eminent Men of all Nations. 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN SCIENCE</span></b>; -being familiar <b><span class="larger">EXPLANATIONS</span></b> of Appearances and Principles -in <b><span class="larger">NATURAL PHILOSOPHY</span></b>. With many Engravings.  5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">VENTOUILLAC’S RUDIMENTS</span></b> -of the <b><span class="larger">FRENCH LANGUAGE</span></b>; or, -<b><span class="larger">FIRST FRENCH READING BOOK</span></b>. New Edition, Revised and Corrected -by <b><span class="larger">F. J. WATTEZ</span></b>, First Assistant French Master in King’s -College, London. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVRE DE CLASSE</span></b>; -with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>, -Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London. 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">FRENCH POETRY</span></b>; -with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>, -Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London. 2<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">LE BOUQUET LITTERAIRE</span></b>. -Recueil de Beautés Religieuses et Morales, de divers Auteurs. Par feu -<b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>, Professeur de Littérature Française -au Collège Royale à Londres. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">BRASSEUR’S EXERCISES</span></b> -on <b><span class="larger">FRENCH PHRASEOLOGY</span></b>; with a Lexicon of -<b><span class="larger">IDIOMATIC VERBS</span></b>. By the French Professor of King’s -College, London. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">The FRENCH SCHOOL CLASSICS</span></b>. -Edited and Abridged by <b><span class="larger">MARIN DE LA VOYE</span></b>, -French Master in the East India College, at Addiscombe.</p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">While the necessity of introducing the -best standard French works into our schools and families is universally -acknowledged, serious doubts are entertained as to the propriety of -placing the writings of some among the French authors in the hands of -Christian youth. In order to remove all difficulties on this subject, -the Editor has been induced to undertake a careful Abridgment of such -works as are in most general use; and he has made it his object to -extract from the original every word and sentence relating either -to religion, politics, or philosophical speculation, respecting -which Christian parents or teachers can have the least difference of -opinion.</p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A purified text of the best French -Classical Works is, therefore, now offered for the use of young -persons of both sexes, in a state which, it is trusted, will be found -altogether unobjectionable.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Telemaque.</span> 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td> - <td class="tdl"> <span class="smcap">Pierre le Grand.</span> 2<i>s.</i></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Voyages de Cyrus.</span> 2<i>s.</i> </td> - <td class="tdl"> <span class="smcap">Charles XII.</span> 2<i>s.</i></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Belisaire.</span> 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td> - <td class="tdl"> <span class="smcap">Gil Blas Desantillane.</span> <i>In the Press.</i></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> - <p class="center">Six Volumes, at 2<i>s.</i> each, with Wood-Cuts,</p> -</div> -<p class="f150"><b>* THE INSTRUCTOR;</b></p> -<p class="f90">OR,</p> -<p class="f110"><b>PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN GENERAL KNOWLEDGE</b></p> -<p class="f90">A SERIES OF<br />ELEMENTARY BOOKS, ESPECIALLY ADAPTED<br /> -FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.</p> - -<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Under the general title of <span -class="smcap">The Instructor</span>, is comprised a series of little -books, by means of which children may be led through a progressive -course of Exercises in various branches of Elementary Knowledge. These -books may be put into the hands of such children as can readily spell -common words, and read easy lessons.—The object of the work -is not only to furnish reading lessons, but also to carry the pupil -<i>forward</i>,—to impart <i>information</i>, and exercise the mind.</p> - -<p class="blockquot2">The first Six Volumes, in Thirty-six Numbers, contain the -following subjects, with numerous Engravings:</p> - -<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME I.</b></big> (or in Nos. 1 to 6.)<br /> -<span class="larger">TALES</span> and <span class="larger">CONVERSATIONS</span> on Familiar Subjects.</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME II.</b></big> (or in Nos. 7 to 12.)<br /> -The <span class="larger"> HOUSE</span>. <span class="larger">MATERIALS</span> -used in <span class="larger">BUILDING</span>.<br /><span class="larger">FURNITURE</span>. -<span class="larger">FOOD</span> and <span class="larger">CLOTHING.</span></p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME III.</b></big> (or in Nos. 13 to 18.)<br /> -The <span class="larger">UNIVERSE</span>. The <span class="larger">THREE KINGDOMS of NATURE</span>. -<span class="larger">THE HUMAN FORM</span>. <span class="larger">LESSONS on HEALTH.</span></p> - -<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME IV.</b></big> (or in Nos. 19 to 24.)<br /> -The <span class="larger">CALENDAR</span>; The Year, Months, Weeks, Days.<br /> The <span class="larger">SEASONS</span>. -<span class="larger">APPEARANCES</span> of <span class="larger">NATURE.</span></p> - -<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME V.</b></big> (or in Nos. 25 to 30.)<br /> -<span class="larger">DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY</span>: The various Divisions of the World; -their People and Productions; with <span class="larger">MAPS</span>.</p> - -<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME VI.</b></big> (or in Nos. 31 to 36.)<br /> -<span class="larger">ANCIENT HISTORY.</span></p> - -<p class="center">London: JOHN W. PARKER, <span class="smcap">Publisher, West Strand</span>.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> -<p class="f150 u"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> -This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to by -nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory -chapter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> - The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> -See Book of Fishes, p. 51.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> -The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before transformation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> -It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of -its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most -favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and -I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves, -if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give -them a violent emetic.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> -A kind of sea-weed, (<i>Fucus natans</i>.)</p></div> - -<hr class="full" /> -<div class="transnote bbox"> -<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber's Notes:</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up - paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p> -<p class="indent">Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.</p> -<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations - in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS *** - -***** This file should be named 60961-h.htm or 60961-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/9/6/60961/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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