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-} - -.ws03em { - word-spacing: 0.3em; -} - -sup { - vertical-align: baseline; - font-size: 80%; - position: relative; - top: -0.4em; -} - -sub { - vertical-align: baseline; - font-size: 80%; - position: relative; - top: 0.3em; -} - -@media handheld { -sup { - vertical-align: baseline; - font-size: 80%; - position: relative; - top: -0.4em;} - -sub { - vertical-align: baseline; - font-size: 80%; - position: relative; - top: 0.3em;} -} - -/* page numbering and hyperlinks */ -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: 11px; - font-weight: normal; - font-style: normal; - font-variant: normal; - text-align: right; - text-indent: 0em; - color: #585858; -} - -span[title].pagenum:after { - content: attr(title); -} - -a[name] { - position:absolute; /* Fix Opera bug */ -} - -a:link { - color: black; - text-decoration: underline; -} - -a:link:hover { - background: aqua; -} - -/* Illustrations */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} - -div.figcenter { - clear: both; - margin: 2em auto; - text-align: center; - max-width: 100%; -} - -.caption { - font-size: 90%; -} - -.figcenter div { - text-align: justify; -} - -@media handheld { - .figcenter div { - float: none; - margin-left: 15%; /* reduce caption width in epubs */ - margin-right: 15%; - display: block; /* enables margin control of epub caption*/ - } -} - -/* sandboxed dropcap image */ -div.sandbagbox { - display: block; - margin: auto; - width: 600px; - height: 492px; - clear: both; -} - -#imgi086 {background:url(images/i086.jpg) no-repeat top right} -#imgi086a {width: 600px; height: 202px;} -#imgi086b {width: 435px; height: 150px; float: right; clear: right;} -#imgi086c {width: 600px; height: 140px} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #F2F2F2; - color: black; - font-size: 85%; - padding: 0.5em; - margin-bottom: 5em; - font-family: sans-serif, serif; -} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Notes on Veterinary Anatomy, by Charles J. Korinek - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Notes on Veterinary Anatomy - -Author: Charles J. Korinek - -Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60949] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON VETERINARY ANATOMY *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><b><a id="Transcribers_notes"></a>Transcriber’s notes</b>:</p> - -<p>The text of this e-book has been preserved as in the original, -including inconsistent capitalisation and hyphenation. Archaic and -inconsistent spellings have also been preserved except where obviously -misspelled in the original. A list of corrections and inconsistencies -is appended at the <a href="#Spelling_inconsistencies">end</a>. -Archaic phraseology has been retained. Incorrect paragraph numbering -on p. 17 has been corrected, and several missing full stops have been -inserted. Cross references to a page or illustration have been -hyperlinked.</p> - -<p class="epubonly">The cover image of the book was -created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="titlepage"> -<div class="tp1">VETERINARY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION<br />OF AMERICA</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<h1><span class="t1">NOTES ON</span> -<span class="t2">VETERINARY ANATOMY</span></h1> - -<div class="tp2">BY</div> - -<div class="tp3">CHARLES J. KORINEK, V. S.</div> - -<div class="tp4"><i>Graduate of the Ontario Veterinary College, in affiliation with -the University of Toronto, Canada. Hon. Member of the Ontario -Veterinary Medical Society. Ex. State Veterinarian for -Oregon. Ex. President of the Oregon State Veterinary Medical -Board of Examiners. Author of “The Veterinarian”. Principal -of the Veterinary Science Association of America. Sixteen -years of Practical Experience as a Veterinary Surgeon.</i></div> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 160px; padding-top: 3em; padding-bottom: 3em;"> -<img src="images/logo.png" width="160" height="161" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="tp2">PUBLISHED BY THE</div> -<div class="tp5">VETERINARY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION<br /> -OF AMERICA</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chapgrey" /> - -<div class="tac mtb3em lh1em"> -<span class="fs70">COPYRIGHT 1917</span><br /> -<span class="fs50">by the</span><br /> -<span class="fs70">VETERINARY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION<br /> -OF AMERICA</span> -</div> - -<hr class="chapgrey" /> - - -<div class="epubonly"> -<p class="head">TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> - -<hr class="r5-1" /> - -<div class="center"> -<table width="500" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="table of illustrations"> -<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar pr1"></td><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><div>Page</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Plate</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>I.</div></td><td class="tal">Skeleton of the Horse</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_I">7</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Plate</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>II.</div></td><td class="tal">Muscles of the Horse, superficial layer</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_II">29</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Plate</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>III.</div></td><td class="tal">Muscles of the Horse, deep layer</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_III">31</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Plate</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>IV.</div></td><td class="tal">Digestive and Urinary Organs of the Horse</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_IV">37</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Plate</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>V.</div></td><td class="tal">Heart and Chief Blood Vessels of the Horse</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_V">69</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Plate</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>VI.</div></td><td class="tal">Nervous System of the Horse</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_VIa">73</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Plate</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>VII.</div></td><td class="tal">Structure of the Horse’s Foot</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_VII">78</a></div></td></tr> -</table> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="htmlonly"> -<p class="head">TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> - -<hr class="r5-1" /> - -<div class="center"> -<table width="500" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="table of illustrations"> -<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar vat"></td><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><div>Page</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar"><div>Plate</div></td><td class="tar vat"><div>I.</div></td><td class="tal">Skeleton of the Horse</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_I">7</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar"><div>Plate</div></td><td class="tar vat"><div>II.</div></td><td class="tal">Muscles of the Horse, superficial layer</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_II">29</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar"><div>Plate</div></td><td class="tar vat"><div>III.</div></td><td class="tal">Muscles of the Horse, deep layer</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_III">31</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar"><div>Plate</div></td><td class="tar vat"><div>IV.</div></td><td class="tal">Digestive and Urinary Organs of the Horse</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_IV">37</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar"><div>Plate</div></td><td class="tar vat"><div>V.</div></td><td class="tal">Heart and Chief Blood Vessels of the Horse</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_V">69</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar"><div>Plate</div></td><td class="tar vat"><div>VI.</div></td><td class="tal">Nervous System of the Horse</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_VIb">73</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar"><div>Plate</div></td><td class="tar vat"><div>VII.</div></td><td class="tal">Structure of the Horse’s Foot</td><td class="tar"><div><a href="#Pl_VII">78</a></div></td></tr> -</table> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chapgrey" /> - - -<p class="head">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</p> - -<hr class="r5-1" /> - - -<div class="center"> -<table width="500" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="table of contents"> -<tr><td class="tal vat"></td><td class="tar pr1"></td><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><div>Page</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal vat">Chapter</td><td class="tar vat"><div>I.</div></td><td class="tal">Osteology, or Structure of the Bones</td><td class="tar vab"><div><a href="#Page_8">8</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal vat">Chapter</td><td class="tar vat"><div>II.</div></td><td class="tal">Arthrology, or Study of the Joints</td><td class="tar vab"><div><a href="#Page_21">21</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal vat">Chapter</td><td class="tar vat"><div>III.</div></td><td class="tal">Myology, or Study of the Muscular System</td><td class="tar vab"><div><a href="#Page_28">28</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal vat">Chapter</td><td class="tar vat"><div>IV.</div></td><td class="tal pl12hi1">Splanchnology, or Study of the Digestive, Respiratory, Urinary and Generative Systems</td><td class="tar vab"><div><a href="#Page_38">38</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal vat">Chapter</td><td class="tar vat"><div>V.</div></td><td class="tal pl12hi1">Angiology, or Study of the Blood-Vascular System, as the Heart, Arteries, Veins, Lymphatic Vessels and Glands</td><td class="tar vab"><div><a href="#Page_67">67</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal vat">Chapter</td><td class="tar vat"><div>VI.</div></td><td class="tal pl12hi1">Neurology, or Study of the Nervous Tissue, as the Brain, Spinal Cord and Their Nerves</td><td class="tar vab"><div><a href="#Page_73">73</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal vat">Chapter</td><td class="tar vat"><div>VII.</div></td><td class="tal pl12hi1">Aesthesiology, or the Study of the Organs of Special Sense, as the Ear, Eye and Organs of Sensation, as Skin, Hair, Foot, etc.</td><td class="tar vab"><div><a href="#Page_75">75</a></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal vat">Chapter</td><td class="tar vat"><div>VIII.</div></td><td class="tal">Embryology or Development of the Foetus</td><td class="tar vab"><div><a href="#Page_81">81</a></div></td></tr> -</table> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p class="head">PREFACE</p> - - -<p>There are a number of excellent works on Veterinary -Anatomy, and many of them will amply repay the student -for the time taken to master them, but for quick -reference none seem to contain the wants of the veterinary -practitioner and student for which this humble little -work is primarily intended.</p> - -<p>It has been my endeavor to briefly describe each -organ as found in the healthy animal; its functions, etc., -in a condensed yet complete form. I am positive that the -student or veterinary practitioner will find its pages -highly instructive as well as profitable and interesting.</p> - -<p>In compiling this work a few authorities have been -consulted and quoted, while it has not been practical to -give individual credit for the use of ideas and language, -a general acknowledgement is here made:</p> - -<p class="fs75 ws03em ml1em">Veterinary Science, Hodgins and Haskett.</p> - -<p class="fs75 ws03em ml1em">Veterinary Anatomy, Strangeways.</p> - -<p class="sig"><span class="smcap">Charles J. Korinek</span>, V. S.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" title="5"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="head">DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY</p> -</div> - - -<p>Osteology is a term applied to that section of descriptive -anatomy which treats of the bones. <i>Arthrology</i>, -to the consideration of the joints or modes of union between -the bones, while by <i>Myology</i> is meant the doctrine -of the muscular system. <i>Splanchnology</i> treats of the -viscera, <i>Angiology</i> of the circulatory and absorbent systems. -<i>Neurology</i> deals with the nervous system. <i>Aesthesiology</i> -with the organs of sense; while <i>Embryology</i>, -as before stated is the consideration of the animal frame -at periods preceding its birth.</p> - -<p>In this work the various departments are discussed -in the order here given. The structures which are the -subject of the first three divisions are sometimes classed -together as the <i>Organs of Locomotion</i>; for bones form -the frame work of the body and often act as levers; the -joints connect the bones, permitting more or less motion -between them; while the muscles move the bones, and so -produce motion of a part of the body—or it may be -locomotion, or change of situation in the entire frame.</p> - -<p>In the study of comparative Anatomy the terms -<i>analogy</i> and <i>homology</i> are frequently met with. Although -these words are unfrequently used indiscriminately, -the following differences should be noted. -Organs are said to be analogous when, though differing -in structure, they perform the same function; but -when their functions are different, which, in the broad -sense, they correspond in structure or form, they are -said to be homologous. Thus the middle finger of the -human hand is the homologue of the anterior (front) -digit of a horse, because they have the same general -structure, and relation to the rest of the limb; but as -the functions they perform are quite dissimilar, they -cannot be termed analogous. Again, the lungs of a -mammal are analogous to the gills of a fish, for, though -they differ widely in structure, position and form, and<span class="pagenum" title="6"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a></span> -are therefore not homologous, their ultimate use is the -same—each of them being an apparatus in which is carried -on the process of purifying the blood.</p> - - -<p class="head">DISSECTION.</p> - -<p>Students must dissect as many animals as possible, -so as to familiarize themselves with the <i>frame work or -structure</i>, and the location of the <i>digestive, nervous and -blood systems</i>, as it will aid materially in the art or process -of determining the nature of various diseases.</p> - -<p>During cool weather an animal for dissecting purposes -can be kept for a considerable length of time without -preservatives</p> - -<p>It is well to have a copy of Anatomy at hand when -dissecting for it will show the location of the various -organs and explain their functions.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="7"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a id="Pl_I"></a> -<img src="images/i010.jpg" width="600" height="464" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="tac">SKELETON OF HORSE—AFTER MEGNIN.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="head2">EXPLANATION OF PLATE I</p> - -<p class="tac"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Horse</span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table width="510" class="fs80" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<col width="15" /><col width="240" /><col width="15" /><col width="240" /> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>1.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Skull, or skeleton of the head.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>15.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Os Melacarpi Magnus, metacarpal, or cannon bone.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>2.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Cervical vertebræ or neck bones.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>16.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Ossa Melacarpi Parva, or splint bones.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>3.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Dorsal vertebræ or back bones.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>17.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Proximal Phalanx, os suffraginis, or large pastern bone.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>4.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Lumbar vertebræ or loin bones.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>18.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Great Sesamoid Bones.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>5.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Sacral vertebræ or rump bones.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>19.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Medium Phalanx, os coronæ, or small pastern bone.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>6.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Coccygeal vertebræ or tail bones.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>20.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Distal Phalanx, os pedis, or coffin bone.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>7.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Pelvic or hip bones.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>21.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Os Naviculare, small sesamoid, or shuttle bone. (This bone can be plainly seen Plate <a href="#Pl_VII">VII</a>).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>8.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Sternum or breast bone.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>22.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Femur, or thigh bone.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>9.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Ribs.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>23.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Patella, or stifle bone.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>10.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Scapula or shoulder blade.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>24.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Tibia, or leg bone.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>11.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Humerus or shoulder bone.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>25.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Fibula. (This bone is little developed in the horse.)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>12.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Radius or bone of the fore-arm.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>26.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Tarsus or hock bones.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>13.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Ulna or bone of the fore-arm.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>27.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Metatarsus, or os metatarsi magnus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>14.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Carpus or bones of the knee.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>28.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Ossa Metatarsi Parva, or splint bones of the hind leg.</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="center"> -<table class="fs80 mt1em" width="400" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tal pb06 pl2" colspan="4">Names of joints placed according to numbers.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar pr1"><div>I.</div></td><td class="tal">Shoulder Joint.</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>VI.</div></td><td class="tal">Coffin Joint.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar pr1"><div>II.</div></td><td class="tal">Elbow Joint.</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>VII.</div></td><td class="tal">Hip Joint.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar pr1"><div>III.</div></td><td class="tal">Carpus or knee joint.</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>VIII.</div></td><td class="tal">Stifle Joint.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar pr1"><div>IV.</div></td><td class="tal">Fetlock Joint.</td><td class="tar pr1"><div>IX.</div></td><td class="tal">Tarsus or hock joint.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar pr1"><div>V.</div></td><td class="tal">Pastern Joint.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="8"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<h3>OSTEOLOGY.</h3> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Structure of the Bones</span>—Bones are hard, yellow-white, -insensitive objects, which form the skeleton and -give attachment to soft structures (muscles, tendons -and ligaments); they are of various sizes, forms and densities. -In the limbs the bones are ordinarily more or less -long, circular bodies, with expanded ends, effectually -supporting the body, supplying leverage and attachment -for soft structures, and forming the basis of all joints. -Where cavities, such as the cranium, chest, and pelvic, -enclosing the organs requiring protection and support, -the bones tend to assume a flat, expanded form.</p> - -<p>Living bone is bluish pink, insensitive, and elastic; -on exposure to air it becomes diseased and blackened, -very sensitive and painful; (the teeth excepted) which -are harder and of a higher specific gravity than any other -bone formation.</p> - -<p>Bones are composed of two kinds of substance—animal, -which makes the bone tough and flexible; earthy, -which makes it hard and fragile. In young animals the -animal matter forms about one-half of the bone substance; -in the adult, it diminishes to about a third, while -in old animals it is still less; hence the bones of very old -animals are brittle, more liable to fracture and harder to -mend.</p> - -<p>Bones in a six-year-old horse contained, Phosphate -of Lime, 54.37 per cent; Carbonate of Lime, 12.00 per -cent; Phosphate of Magnesia, 1.83 per cent; Soluble -Salts, 0.70 per cent, or mineral matter, 68.90 per cent. -While they contain Cartilage, 27.99 per cent; Fat, -etc., 3.11 per cent, or animal matter 31.10 per cent.</p> - -<p>In bone tissue there are two modifications of texture, -the <i>compact</i> and the <i>cancellated</i>. The former—hard,<span class="pagenum" title="9"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a></span> -dense, and ivory-like, is always situated externally; the -latter porous and spongy lies within.</p> - -<p>Although the compact tissue appears uniformly -dense, and destitute of porosity, yet, if we transversely -sectate the shaft of a long bone, and examine it under -the microscope, by transmitted light, it is found to contain -numerous round openings. These are called <i>Haversian -canals</i>. They transmit bloodvessels, and run in a -longitudinal or slightly oblique direction, opening on -either the outer or inner surface of the bone.</p> - -<p>The external (outer) surface of every bone is covered -by a tough, fibrous, inelastic membrane called periosteum, -which can be seen by examining the bone of an -animal which has recently died. The only exception to -this is at the joints where one bone articulates with -another, and where a tendon or muscle plays over a bone; -here we find its place taken by articular cartilage. By -its strength it sometimes retains bones in contact after -an oblique fracture; in the young, it is thicker and more -vascular than in the adult. Blood-vessels which penetrate -the periosteum pass directly to the bone; the outer -surface of the bone is always studded with numerous -<i>foramina</i> through which these enter.</p> - -<p>The periosteum owing to its inelasticity, is, when -inflamed, the seat of intense pain; and should any part -of it be stripped off, there is every probability of the -denuded bone dying and separating.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Contents of Bone.</span>—Red marrow is found in the -extremities or near the ends of bones, white marrow is -found in the shaft.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Classes of Bones.</span>—Bones are classed as long, flat, -and irregular. Long or cylindrical bones are found in -the limbs or extremities, and serve as levers and pillars -for traveling and to support the body. Descriptively, a -long bone is divisible into a center or <i>shaft</i> and two ends -or extremities. Flat bones are found where visceral -organs need protection. As the shoulder or scapula and -ribs, to protect the heart and lungs; pelvic or hip bones,<span class="pagenum" title="10"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a></span> -to protect the rectum and urinary and genital organs; -also the cranial bones, to protect the vital organ called -the brain. Irregular bones are found in the spinal column -and in the joints, such as the knee or carpus, hock -or tarsus, where great strength is required. They usually -possess many angles and indentations, with surfaces -for articulation and tendonous attachment, and consist -of a thin, dense, external (outer) case of compact bone -enclosing cancellated tissue. In proportion to their size -they present a much larger extent of articular surface -and greater mechanical strength than any other class.</p> - -<p class="pt1">1. <span class="smcap">Skull</span>, or skeleton of the head, the most anterior -(forward) part of the horse’s skeleton, articulates with -the first cervical vertebra (or atlas), from which it is -suspended by its posterior (or back part) extremity, its -anterior (forward) extremity being free. Its position -varies with the attitude of the animal; but in our descriptions -we shall always suppose it to be placed in a -horizontal position.</p> - -<p>In the young animal the skull is composed of a number -of bones, all of which, with the exception of the lower -jaw, the teeth, the bones of the tongue, and ossicles of -the ear, become united by ossification (growing -together) in the adult.</p> - -<p>In speaking of the different points of importance in -connection with the head bones of the horse, and other -animals, suppose a cross or longitudinal section of the -head is made. It will be noticed that it is full of cavities -or sinuses. The uses of these are to lighten the -head and also to warm the air as it passes into the nostrils, -on its way down to the lungs. It will also be found full -of foramen or small holes through which the nerves from -the brain and various blood vessels pass to the organs -situated in the head, such as the tongue, lips and the -various glands in and around the head.</p> - -<p>Then there are the cavities in which the eyes are situated, -one on each side of the head, called the orbital -fossa. In examining this fossa you will find a small<span class="pagenum" title="11"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a></span> -opening or foramen, through which the optic nerve -passes in coming from the brain to the eye. This is the -nerve of sight. Then the most important part of all to -consider is the cranial cavity in which that very important -organ is situated called the brain, which controls all -the various functions and movements of the body.</p> - -<p>Another important point is the situation of the ear -drum. It is situated in the hardest bone found in the -whole skeleton, called the petrosal. The nerve that gives -the function called hearing comes from the brain down to -the petrosal bone and enters by a small foramen or hole -into the drum of the ear to give hearing. This nerve is -called the auditory nerve.</p> - -<p class="pt1">2. <span class="smcap">Cervical Vertebrae or Neck Bones.</span>—These -bones are seven in number. The first and second bones -proceeding from the head receive special names. The -first one is called the atlas, from which the head is suspended -and to which it is attached; it somewhat resembles -the body of a bird with wings extended. The second -bone receives the name of dentata. This is the bone -which allows the head to turn in any direction, hence it -is sometimes called the axis or pivot of the neck. Between -these two bones, on the upper surface, is the only -place where the spinal cord is not covered with bone, a -spot about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The -next four bones receive no name, and are about the same -in size and length. The last, or the seventh bone, is -only about one half the length of the preceding ones and -receives no special name.</p> - -<p class="pt1">3. <span class="smcap">Dorsal Vertebrae or Back-Bone.</span>—Dorsal -bones are eighteen in number. The chief point of interest -about them are the height of the spines on the -upper surface of the bones. These large spines form the -withers of the horse, as will be noticed in the skeleton. -On either side of these bones the ribs are attached, 18 -pairs corresponding with the number of bones in this -region.</p> - -<p class="pt1">4. <span class="smcap">Lumbar Vertebrae</span> (or the bones which form<span class="pagenum" title="12"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a></span> -the skeleton of the loins). These bones are six in number, -and they are situated immediately above the kidneys.</p> - -<p class="pt1">5. <span class="smcap">Sacral Vertebrae or Rump Bones.</span>—There -are five of these bones in the young horse, but in the -adult they unite as a single bone, somewhat triangular-shape. -These are situated between the upper hip bones -and help to form the rump. Beneath these bones the -bladder is situated.</p> - -<p class="pt1">6. <span class="smcap">Coccygeal Vertebrae or Tail Bones.</span>—These -are 18 to 20 in number. There is no complete canal, like -in the previous vertebraes, for enclosure of the spinal -cord.</p> - -<p class="pt1">7. <span class="smcap">Pelvic or Hip Bones.</span>—The pelvic bones are -flat, but somewhat irregularly-shaped, and they form -the sides, floor, and part of the roof of the pelvic cavity. -Above they are connected with the sacrum, and below -united to each other, in the adult, by ossification (union -of bone). In the young animal, as above stated, and -especially in the foetus, each side consists of three parts, -which retain their names of ilium, ischium, and pubis, -even after union by ossification. They all three meet -in the acetabulum, or articular cavity for the femur or -hip bone.</p> - -<p class="pt1">8. <span class="smcap">Sternum or Breast Bone.</span>—This bone is small -and short in the horse and is situated on the lower surface -of the chest cavity. The principle points to be noted in -this bone are that of its softness, and that the first eight -pairs of ribs are attached to it on either side. This bone, -in the horse resembles the keel and cut-water of a boat.</p> - -<p class="pt1">9. <span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>—In the horse the ribs usually number -eighteen on each side. They extend in a series of arches -of varying curvature from the dorsal vertebrae above, -towards the sternum and sides of the abdomen below. -Their shape, in a great measure, determines the conformation -or shape of the thorax or chest cavity; they -protect its contents, and materially aid in its contraction -and expansion. They are continued downward and forward<span class="pagenum" title="13"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a></span> -by a small piece of cartilage or gristle, and are -just slightly attached to the breast bone or sternum; these -are called the false ribs. Note that, starting with the -first rib, they get longer until the ninth rib is reached; -they then get shorter, the last rib being only a few -inches long.</p> - -<p class="pt1">10. <span class="smcap">Scapula or Shoulder Blade.</span>—The scapula -is a flat bone situated on the antero-lateral (front side) -surface of the thorax or chest cavity, it is triangular in -shape, the base being turned upwards. The inferior or -lower extremity articulates with the humerus or shoulder -bone.</p> - -<p class="pt1">11. <span class="smcap">Humerus or Shoulder Bone.</span>—The humerus -is a long bone extending from the scapula to the radius -and ulna in an oblique direction downwards and backwards. -Like all long bones it possesses a shaft and two -extremities and two articular surfaces.</p> - -<p class="pt1">12. <span class="smcap">Radius, or Bone of the Fore-arm.</span>—The radius -is a long bone, and occupies a vertical position between -the humerus and the carpus.</p> - -<p class="pt1">13. <span class="smcap">Ulna, or Bone of the Fore-arm.</span>—The ulna -is an irregular bone, in form triangular, with the base -uppermost, and is placed on the supero-posterior or -(upper and back) part of the radius.</p> - -<p class="pt1">14. <span class="smcap">Carpus, or Knee.</span>—The carpus, knee or wrist, -as it is incorrectly termed in quadrupeds, is composed of -seven and often of eight small, irregular bones arranged -in two rows of three each, one above the other, the seventh -being at the back of the three in the upper row, and the -eight, when present, in a similar position with respect -to the lower row. Their names are as follows: scaphoid, -lunar bone, cuneiform bone, trapezium, trapezoid, os -magnus, unciform, pisiform, which is not always present.</p> - -<p class="pt1">15. <span class="smcap">Os Metacarpi Magnus, Metacarpal or Cannon -Bone.</span>—The large metacarpal, or cannon bone, is a -long, straight bone, placed in a vertical direction. Its<span class="pagenum" title="14"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a></span> -superior or upper extremity articulates with the carpus -and its inferior or lower extremity articulates with the -os suffraginis and the two sesamoids.</p> - -<p class="pt1">16. <span class="smcap">Ossa Metacarpi Parva, or Splint Bones.</span>—The -two small metacarpal, or splint bones, tuberous in -form (marked or covered with projections) at the carpus -and tapering distally (lower portion), are attached to -the large bone, one on each side of its posterior (back) -surface, by ligaments in the young animal, and by ossification -(union of bone) in most grown up, and in all old -animals.</p> - -<p class="pt1">17. <span class="smcap">Proximal Phalanx, Os Suffraginis, or -Large Pastern Bone.</span>—The os suffraginis, or large -pastern bone, passes obliquely downwards and forwards, -and articulates with the cannon bone above, and the -median phalanx or os coronae below. It belongs to the -class of long bones.</p> - -<p class="pt1">18. <span class="smcap">Great Sesamoid Bones.</span>—These bones, two in -number, are placed side by side at the postero-inferior -(back and lower) part of the metacarpus and postero-superior -(back and upper) part of the os suffraginis; -they are irregular in shape, their back parts are covered -with cartilage, for the passage of the flexor tendons of -the digit or the last four bones of the limb. Their superior -or upper surface is roughened, and their sides, -which are grooved for the reception of the suspensory -ligament. (This is called the fetlock joint.)</p> - -<p class="pt1">19. <span class="smcap">Median Phalanx, Os Coronae, or Small -Pastern Bone.</span>—The second phalanx, os coronae, or -small pastern bone, has no marrow canal, and belongs to -the class of irregular bones. It is inclined, like the os -suffraginis, obliquely downwards and forwards, and is -partly covered by the hoof. The upper portion of this -bone articulates with the os suffraginis and the two sesamoids, -the lower part articulates with the os pedis.</p> - -<p class="pt1">20. <span class="smcap">Distal Phalanx, Os Pedis, or Coffin Bone.</span>—The<span class="pagenum" title="15"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a></span> -third, or ungual phalanx, os pedis, or coffin bone, -is an irregular bone situated within the hoof, and, when -in a healthy state, corresponding somewhat to it in shape, -being semilunar in form, with the convexity to the front. -This bone is very hard and porous, having many openings -for the transmission of arteries and veins. In this -bone we notice the wall, the sole, the tendonous surface, -the articular surface, and the alae or wings. This bone -articulates with os coronae superiorly (upper) and posteriorly -it articulates with the os navicular bone.</p> - -<p class="pt1">21. <span class="smcap">Os Naviculare.</span>—The naviculare, third or -small sesamoid, or shuttle bone, is an irregular bone, situated -with its long axis transversely, behind and below -the os coronae, and behind the os pedis, with both of -which it articulates, the articulation of the three forming -the so-called <i>coffin</i> joint. The lower surface of this -bone is important as it is covered with cartilage, and -together form a kind of a pully over which plays the -great flexor perforans muscle. The remaining portion -of the anterior limb or front leg, will be considered under -anatomy of the foot. The navicular bone can be plainly -seen on Plate <a href="#Pl_VII">VII</a>, anatomy of the foot.</p> - -<p class="pt1">22. <span class="smcap">Femur or Thigh Bone.</span>—The os femoris, femur -or thigh bone, the largest, thickest, and strongest bone in -the body, belongs to the class of long bones, and is placed -in a direction obliquely downwards and forwards, articulating -with the cup-shaped cavity in the pelvic or hip -bones superiorly (or upper), and with the tibia and -patella inferiorly (or below). This bone is roughened -for the attachment of the powerful muscles of the hip.</p> - -<p class="pt1">23. <span class="smcap">Patella, or Stifle Bone.</span>—This, the kneepan -or stifle bone, is placed in front of the pully-shaped -groove of the femur. It is very compact, its front surface -being irregular, round and very much roughened, for -ligamentous attachment, and its posterior (or back) surface -very smooth to articulate with the groove in the -femur, presenting two depressions divided by a ridge,<span class="pagenum" title="16"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a></span> -the inner being the larger, and in the fresh state enlarged -still more by projecting cartilaginous lip, or elevation. -The patella increases the power of the hind leg, and it -is this bone that causes stifle joint lameness when it -slips out of the groove in which it glides normally.</p> - -<p class="pt1">24. <span class="smcap">Tibia, or Legbone.</span>—The tibia or leg bone, is a -long bone, larger at its upper than its lower end, situated -between the femur and the astragalus, slanting downwards -and backwards. This bone is three-sided, possessing -outer, inner and back surfaces, all of which are wider -above than below. This bone gives attachment to the -flexor muscles of the hip.</p> - -<p class="pt1">25. <span class="smcap">Fibula.</span>—This is a long slender bone, little developed -in the horse, and is an appendage to the tibia, -being attached to the outer side of that bone, and extending -from its head to its lower third, to which it is affixed -by a ligament; the space between the two bones is called -the tibial arch. The fibula gives attachment to the peroneus -muscle, the muscle that is supposed to be severely -contracted when an animal is affected with string-halt.</p> - -<p class="pt1">26. <span class="smcap">Tarsus, or Hock Bones.</span>—The tarsus, or hock, -corresponding to the ankle-joint of a man, is composed -of six irregular compact bones, situated between the -lower end of the tibia and the superior or upper extremity -of the metatarsus; they are arranged in two series; one -consisting of the cuboid and three cuneiform bones, the -magnum, medium, and parvum, corresponds to the lower -row or carpal bones; the other upper series consists of the -astragalus and calcaneum; the first, forming with the -bone above the mobile portion of the joint, may be said -to correspond to the upper row of carpal bones, while -the latter, being the lever bone, corresponds to the trapezium. -These bones, like those of the carpus, are thickly -covered with cartilage on their articular surfaces, which -acts as a protection against concussion. It is these bones -that become diseased and united when an animal is affected -with bone spavin. The calcaneum bone which -forms the prominent part, termed the point of the hock,<span class="pagenum" title="17"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a></span> -and corresponds to the heel-bone of man. This bone -gives attachment to the calcaneo-cuboid ligament, and -it is this ligament that is sprained or ruptured in curb of -the hock.</p> - -<p class="pt1">28. <span class="smcap">Metatarsus, or Os Metatarsi Magnum.</span>—This -bone presents the same general appearance as the -large metacarpal or cannon bone, from which it differs -principally in being about one-sixth longer and flattened -from side to side. It is rounded and more prominent in -front. This bone articulates above with the tarsus bones, -and its lower portion articulates with the os suffraginis.</p> - -<p class="pt1">29. <span class="smcap">Ossa Metatarsi Parva, or Splint Bones of -the Hind Leg.</span>—These also present the same general -form as the small metacarpal bones of the front leg; the -outer is the longest and largest, and has the largest head, -with two surfaces which articulates with the cuboid bone; -the inner one has also three articular surfaces, two for -small, and one for the middle cuniform bones. The two -surfaces on each head articulate with corresponding ones -on the large metatarsal bone. The remaining bones of -the hind extremity, viz.: the three phalanges, with their -three accessory bones, so closely resemble the corresponding -bones of the fore extremity, that it seems at first -sight difficult to distinguish one from the other; the -chief differences being, that the first phalanx of the -hind extremity is longer; its upper end larger, and its -lower end smaller, than in the fore extremity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="18"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a></span></p> - - -<h3>COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY.</h3> - -<p>In this section we shall endeavor to point out where -the skeleton of the domesticated animals, other than the -horse, differ from the typical skeleton of the latter in -any important particular. The following descriptions -are therefore in all cases comparisons, where comparison -is possible, between the typical skeleton and the skeleton -in question.</p> - - -<h3>RUMINANTIA.</h3> - -<p class="tac">(Cud Chewing Animal.)</p> - -<p>In this class we take the ox as the animal which -represents the best for our purpose, the family of ruminating -or cud-chewing animals, as cattle, sheep and -goats.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">The Skull or Cranium.</span>—In the skull of the ox an -important feature is the development of the frontal or -forehead bone, which extends from below the eyes to the -back of the skull, forming the entire forehead and crest -or top, in the middle of which is the forehead tuberosity -or knob-like elevation, which is very large in hornless -animals. Springing from the sides of the top are two -processes, varying in size and shape, but corresponding -to the shape of the horns, which they support.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Vertebrae.</span>—The true vertebral column is made up -of 26 bones divided into seven cervical or neck-bones, 13 -dorsal or back-bones, and six lumbar or loin bones.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Cervical or Neck-Bones.</span>—The bodies of these -bones are shorter than those of the horse, but same in -number.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Dorsal or Back-Bones.</span>—These bones are longer -than in the horse, but have the same general form. It<span class="pagenum" title="19"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a></span> -gives attachment to 13 ribs on each side in the same -manner as those of the horse.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Lumbar or Loin Bones.</span>—The lumbar vertebrae -are longer and thicker than in the horse, their bodies -being more round on the sides and lower surfaces.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Sacrum, or Rump Bones.</span>—The sacrum is larger -and more arched, and the upper surface more round than -in the horse.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Coccygeal or Tail Bones.</span>—The tail bones are from -15 to 20 in number, are strong and rougher than those -of the horse.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Pelvis or Hip Bones.</span>—The pelvis is larger, but -presents the same general appearance as in the horse.</p> - -<p>In studying the bones of the limbs in ruminants, the -only point of difference is in bones below the knee. The -large metacarpal bone presents a vertical groove down -its front, which marks the original division of the bone -into two bones. The lower extremity is divided by a -deep groove into two articulations, each resembling the -single one of the horse. The outer one being always the -smaller, a rudimentary metacarpus is placed on the back -and outer surface. The pasterns and sesamoids in either -limb are double, one set forming each digit; they are -small and narrow, the coffin bone resembles half of that -of the horse, equally divided.</p> - -<p>In the aged ruminant, two bones are commonly -found in the heart, and may be termed the cardiac bones. -They are found related with auriculo-ventricular rings. -In shape they present three angles, three borders, and -two surfaces. The left bone is somewhat smaller -than the right.</p> - - -<h3>OMNIVORA.</h3> - -<p>Animals eating both vegetable and animal food.</p> - -<p>The omnivora are represented in veterinary anatomy -by the hog.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="20"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a></span></p> - - -<h3>CARNIVORA.</h3> - -<p>An order, suborder, or family of mammals, especially -wild animals, including the dog and cat, etc. Animals -that eat flesh.</p> - -<p>In this order our description alludes mostly to the -dog.</p> - - -<h3>AVES.</h3> - -<p>The scope of the present work will allow only very -brief treatment of this part of the subject.</p> - -<p>Of or pertaining to Birds, Poultry, Etc.</p> - -<p>The bone tissue or substance of birds are exceedingly -compact and hard, white in color; and some of the bones -are pneumatic, or contain air instead of marrow, notably -these are bones of the skull, the sternum or breast bone, -and the upper bones of the limbs. There are a great -variety in the amount of pneumaticity or air possessed -by the skeleton of different species, but it is not necessarily -determined by the flying power of the animal.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" title="21"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>ARTHROLOGY.</h3> - - -<p>What is known regarding the articulations of bones -of joints. The several bones which form the skeleton -are united by means of certain soft structures, forming -a number of articulations or joints, the study of which is -termed arthrology.</p> - -<p>Before considering the different forms of joints, it -will be advisable to describe briefly the various tissue, -other than bone, which enter into and contributes towards -their formation. These are chiefly cartilage, connective -and elastic substance or tissues, and fat.</p> - -<p>In health, one bone never comes directly in contact -with another, cartilage or fibrous tissue being always -interposed; an exception to this exists in the adult skull, -most of the bones of which become firmly united by ossification -of the interposed soft material.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Cartilage.</span>—Cartilage, known also by the familiar -name of gristle, is a firm, bluish-white elastic animal -substance, somewhat transparent, resilient, and flexible, -possessing great cohesive power. That which forms the -original basis of the bony framework is termed temporary, -and that which persists in the adult, permanent -cartilage; the former disappears as it is replaced by bone, -but the latter, of which alone we have to treat here, never -under normal circumstances become ossified. Cartilage -consists of corpuscles or cells, usually embedded in an -intercellular substance.</p> - -<p>The articular cartilage is important as it encrusts -the articular surfaces of bones, helping to form joints by -supplying smooth, elastic cushions, which diminishes both -concussion and friction.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Connective Tissue</span> (White fibrous tissue.)—In one<span class="pagenum" title="22"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a></span> -form or another this tissue is found in all parts of the -body. The chief varieties are the areolar and the fibrous; -the former serving as a connecting medium, and support -to the various organs, and to the structures of which -they are formed. It appears as a loose, transparent -mesh, its interwoven bundles forming spaces termed the -areolar or cells.</p> - -<p>Connective tissue contains nerves and blood-vessels, -for the supply of neighboring structures as well as for -its own nourishment. When healthy it is little sensitive -to pain.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Yellow Elastic Tissue.</span>—This differs from the -white or connective tissue in being yellow, elastic, and -not so tough or strong. Its fibers are usually large but -when mixed with the white tissue in tendons the size -diminishes.</p> - -<p>Yellow elastic tissue is found nearly pure in the ligamentum -nuchae, and tunica abdominis, the coats of the -largest arteries and elsewhere. The lungs contain a -large quantity of this tissue.</p> - -<p>When white fibrous tissue is boiled gelatine is obtained, -which is not the result of boiling the yellow elastic -tissue.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Adipose Tissue.</span>—Fat or adipose tissue consists of -cells containing an oily material, and arranged in isolated -groups, or slightly separated by meshes of areolar tissue. -It is found in many parts of the body, and varies greatly -in quantity; in joints it occurs between the ligaments, -and serves the purpose of a packing material, while in -the form of medulla or marrow it occupies the cavities -of bones. In fat cell a nucleus is very rarely visible.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Ligaments.</span>—Ligaments are dense, fibrous, connecting -structures. They exist in most articulations, and -are made up principally of white fibrous tissue. There -are two kinds—capsular or bursal, and funicular or binding -ligaments.</p> - -<p>Capsular ligaments are membranous structures enclosing<span class="pagenum" title="23"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a></span> -true joints. They consist of a dense interlacement -of fibers attached to bones, round the edges of the -articular cartilages; some regard them as a continuation -of the periosteum or the covering of bone. They are -never closely applied, their use being to form cavities -round the joints, enclosing and protecting the synovial -or lubricating apparatus inside.</p> - -<p>Funicular or binding ligaments consist of rounded or -flattened cords, or bands of fibrous tissue, passing from -one bone to another, firmly attached to roughened portions -of their surfaces. They hold the bones in their -places, at the same time allowing the requisite amount -of motion in the joints. Ligaments which are situated -between bones are often termed interosseous. Annular -ligaments are those which bind down and protect the -tendons of muscles in certain joints, converting grooves -in the bones into channels or tubes which are lined with -synovial membrane, and through which the tendons play.</p> - -<p>Some ligaments are composed almost entirely of yellow -elastic tissue, such as the ligamentum nuchae (the -elastic ligament of the neck) and the ligaments connecting -the vertebral arches (arches between the bones of -the spinal column).</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Synovial Membranes.</span>—These are thin membranes -lining the capsular ligaments of joints, or they are interposed -elsewhere between structures which move one upon -another, and which would otherwise be injured by the -friction. Near the borders of articular cartilages the -membrane is generally found as a projecting fold, the -projection being due to a small pad of fat, interposed -between the membrane and the capsular ligament. These -projections were once erroneously termed synovial -glands, but their use is probably to assist in forcing the -synovia between the opposing surfaces of cartilage.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Synovia.</span>—Synovia or joint oil, is a viscid, transparent -fluid, colorless, or pale yellow, physically resembling -oil, but it contains very little fatty material, consisting -chiefly of albumen, salts and water; it is secreted by the<span class="pagenum" title="24"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a></span> -cells of the inner surface of the synovial membrane. -When an animal is in active exertion, there is a greater -demand for joint oil than when at rest, consequently -there is an increased secretion of it.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Classes of Joints.</span>—Joints may be divided into three -classes—Immovable, movable and mixed.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Motion in Joints.</span>—The following terms express -the various movements allowed by joints—<i>Extension</i> -tends to bring two bones as nearly into a straight line as -the structure of the joint will permit; <i>flexion</i> is the reverse -of this, and diminishes the angle that extension -increases; <i>abduction</i> expresses the outward movement -of a limb or bone from the central line of the body; <i>adduction</i> -is the reverse action; rotation signifies the partial -<i>revolution</i> of a bone or number of bones, as it were, on -their own axis; <i>circumduction</i> implies the movement of -the lower end of a bone or limb, where it describes a -curve, as the bow of a circle, <i>ellipse</i>, etc. The term gliding -explains itself, and is peculiar to movable and other -joints having no frictional surfaces.</p> - -<p>Important points of joints to be considered will be -described on Plate <a href="#Pl_I">I</a> by Roman figures to correspond -with those given below.</p> - - -<h4><span class="smcap">Joints of the Front Leg.</span></h4> - -<p>I. <span class="smcap">Shoulder Joint.</span>—This joint is formed by the -lower end of the scapula, or shoulder blade, and the upper -end of humerus or shoulder bone. This is a ball-and-socket -joint, and is held in its place by ligaments and -muscles. This belongs to the class of rotation joints, -its action is outward, inward, backward and forward.</p> - -<p class="pt1">II. <span class="smcap">Elbow Joint.</span>—This joint is formed by the -lower part of the humerus and the upper portion of the -radius and ulna. It is covered with ligaments and muscles -similar to the above mentioned joint. This is a -hinge joint the action of which is only forward and<span class="pagenum" title="25"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a></span> -backward, or flexion and extension. It has no lateral -movement.</p> - -<p class="pt1">III. <span class="smcap">Carpus or Knee Joint.</span>—This joint has been -explained very thoroughly in the previous chapter. There -are three separate articular surfaces in this joint. This -joint has a large capsular ligament, and has binding ligaments -one above the other, the seventh being at the back -of the three in the upper row, and the eight, when present, -in a similar position with respect to the lower row. -Thus there are three separate articular surfaces in this -joint. The upper surface of the carpus articulates with -the radius; this forms the hinge joint of the knee and is -where flexion and extension takes place. Another articulation -between the upper and lower carpus bones give -slight motion to the knee, but not so much as the upper -articular surface. Between the lower surface of the -lower row of carpus bones and the upper extremity of -the metacarpal, or cannon bones, is another articular -surface which gives motion to the knee. This joint has -a large capsular ligament, and has binding ligaments -inside and outside. In addition to the flexion and extension -movement the knee joint possesses, it also serves as a -cushion and relieves concussion of the fore limb.</p> - -<p class="pt1">IV. <span class="smcap">Fetlock Joint.</span>—This joint is formed above -by the lower portion of the metacarpal, or cannon bone, -and below by the part of the os suffraginis or the large -pastern bone. At the back of this joint there are two -small bones called the sesamoid bones. This joint has a -capsular and two lateral binding ligaments. The motion -of this joint is a backward and forward or flexion -and extension, same as that of the knee.</p> - -<p class="pt1">V. <span class="smcap">Pastern Joint.</span>—This joint is situated just -above the hoof, and is formed by the lower end of the -os suffraginis or large pastern bone and the upper end -of the os coronae or small pastern bone. It has a capsular -and lateral binding ligaments, same as the fetlock -joint. It also has the same motion as the fetlock joint, -and is often the seat of what is termed a high ringbone.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="26"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a></span></p> - -<p class="pt1">VI. <span class="smcap">Coffin Joint.</span>—This joint is situated within -the hoof. It is formed above by the lower end of the os -coronae or small pastern bone, and below by the upper -surface of the os pedis or coffin bone. Immediately behind -this joint, and articulating with the two mentioned -bones, is the navicular, or shuttle bone—it gets its name -from its likeness to the shuttle of a sewing machine. This -bone when diseased is the seat of navicular disease, or -coffin-joint lameness. The action of this joint is very -slight forward and backward.</p> - - -<h4><span class="smcap">Joints of the Hind Leg.</span></h4> - -<p class="pt1">VII. <span class="smcap">Hip Joint</span>. The hip joint is formed by the -pelvis and femur bone. This is a true ball-and-socket -joint similar to the shoulder joint. It has a capsular, -and is called the round ligament, in the joint, holding -the head or ball on the femur in the socket of the pelvis. -This can be seen plainly by examining the joint. This -round ligament is important, as it often becomes strained, -being the seat of hip joint lameness. It is also held -together by the strong muscles of the hip. Its motion is -rotation similar to that of the shoulder joint.</p> - -<p class="pt1">VIII. <span class="smcap">Stifle Joint.</span>—This joint is formed above -by the lower end of the femur, or hip bone, and the upper -end of the tibia or thigh bone. These two bones in front -form a pulley-like surface on which the patella, or stifle -bone, is situated. This bone, when the joint is in motion, -glides up and down over the pulley-like surface. It sometimes -becomes displaced, and this is termed dislocation of -the patella or stifle bone. This is an important point to -notice about this joint. It has a capsular and lateral, or -binding ligament, which hold the stifle bone to its place -as it plays upon the pulley-like process of this joint. The -action of this joint is only forward and backward or -flexion and extension. It has no lateral or side motion.</p> - -<p class="pt1">IX. <span class="smcap">Tarsus or Hock Joint.</span>—This joint contains -six bones. The two upper bones, one of which is a pulley-like -<span class="pagenum" title="27"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a></span>bone placed in front, and the other placed behind, -forms that portion of the hock which is called the point -of the hock to which the muscles of the gambe are attached. -It can be easily seen or felt. The upper surface -of these two bones articulate with the lower portion of -the tibia or thigh bone, and forms a true articulation of -the hock joint. This part is what gives most of the motion -to the joint. Below these are three other small, irregular -bones, placed one upon the other, having an -articular surface between them. Immediately behind -these three small bones is what is called the cuboid bone. -This bone also articulates with the three small irregular -bones, helping to form the articular surface of the hock. -The lower articular surface helps to give a small amount -of motion to the joint. This joint is the seat of bone or -bog spavin due to severe sprains, or poorly conformed -joints.</p> - -<p>Fetlock, pastern and coffin joints of the hind leg are -so closely allied to those of the fore leg that it is not -worth while discriminating between them.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" title="28"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>MYOLOGY.</h3> - -<p>The branch of anatomy which treats of the muscular -system is called Myology.</p> - -<p>Muscles are the active organs of motion, or locomotion, -each being separated from the other by a thin delicate -membrane made up of connective tissue, which -forms a sheath for the muscle. A muscle is divided into -two parts, viz.: muscular and tendinous. The muscular -part is the larger of the two. It is sometimes called the -belly of the muscle or flesh. This part is known as -muscular tissue, and has a reddish, meaty color. At -both ends of the muscle there is a tendinous part, or the -hard, white portion of the muscle which becomes attached -to the bone. All muscles are attached to two or more -places of different bones, and when contracted, the joints -of the body are moved. They are well supplied with -nerves, which give strength and feeling, and also well -supplied with small blood vessels, from which the muscle -is fed. Muscles are found in separate groups, all of -which have different actions to perform. There are two -kinds of muscles—voluntary and involuntary. The -voluntary muscles are under the control of the will of -the animal; example—the muscles of the head, neck, -back, hip and legs. The involuntary muscles are beyond -control of the animal, and will act even though the animal -were asleep—such as those of the heart, the large -muscular curtain which separates the chest cavity from -the abdominal cavity, which is one of the great muscles -of breathing; also the muscles around the chest which -assist in breathing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a id="Pl_II"></a> -<img src="images/i034.jpg" width="600" height="504" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="tac">MUSCLES OF THE HORSE—SUPERFICIAL LAYER—AFTER MEGNIN.</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="29"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a></span></p> - - -<p class="head2">EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.</p> - -<p class="tac"><span class="smcap">Muscles of the Horse.</span></p> - -<p>This illustration shows the superficial muscles of the -body after the skin and panniculus carnosis muscle has -been carefully removed. This muscle is spread over the -greater part of the body, which is related externally with -the skin; internally with the superficial layer of muscles. -Its action corrugates the skin, and thus enables the animal -to expel or shake off insects and irritating bodies, its use -being thus protective to some extent; it also supports and -binds down the superficial muscles.</p> - -<p class="tac">SUPERFICIAL LAYER.</p> - -<p>The panniculus and tunica abdominalis are removed.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="fs80" width="550" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>1.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Abducens.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>31.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Caput magnum extensor brachii.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>2.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Retrahentes muscles.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>33.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Extensor metacarpi magnus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>2′.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Attollens maximus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>34.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Humeralis obliquus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>2″.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Attollens anticus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>35.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Extensor pedis.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>3.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Temporalis.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>36.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Flexor metacarpi externus and medius.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>4.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Nasalis longus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>37.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Flexor metacarpi internus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>5.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Orbicularis palpebrarum.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>46.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Cervical</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>6.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Levator labii superioris alæque nasi.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>47.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Dorsal serratus magnus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>7.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Dilatator naris lateralis.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>48.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Rhomboideus longus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>8.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Orbicularis oris.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>49.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Superficialis costarum.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>9.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Zygomaticus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>50.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Splenius.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>9′.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Buccinator.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>52.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Intercostales.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>10.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Depressor labii inferioris.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>54.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Tensor fasciæ latæ.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>11.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Masseter.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>55.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Triceps abductor femoris.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>12.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Levator humeri.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>56.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Gluteus externus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>13.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Trapezius cervicalis.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>61.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Biceps rotator tibialis.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>14.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Trapezius dorsalis.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>62.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Rectus femoris.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>15.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Latissimus dorsi.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>63.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Vastus externus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>18.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Pectoralis parvus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>65.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Gastrocnemius externus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>19.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Pectoralis magnus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>68.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Flexor pedis perforans.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>20.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Sterno-maxillaris.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>69.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Peroneus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>23.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Subscapulo-hyoideus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>70.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Extensor pedis.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>24.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Antea-spinatus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>71.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Flexor metatarsi.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>25.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Teres externus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>72.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Flexor pedis accessorius.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>26.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Postea-spinatus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>74.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Obliquus abdominis externus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>30.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Caput medium of the triceps.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="30"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a></span></p> -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Voluntary Muscles.</span>—The voluntary muscles are -in groups. The first muscle we will call the student’s -attention to, after removing the skin, is the panniculus -carnosus (not shown in Plate <a href="#Pl_I">I</a>), which is a thin muscle, -and almost entirely covering the body, which is sometimes -accidentally removed by a careless person in skinning -the animal. The action of this muscle is to shake -the skin when flies or other objects bother the horse. -This muscle is not shown in Plate <a href="#Pl_I">I</a> it having been removed -in order to show the more important ones.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Head Muscles.</span>—At the head there is a group of -muscles which assist in chewing, or masticating, the food.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Gullet or Pharynx Muscles.</span>—Around the throat -is another set of muscles, sometimes called the muscles -of the gullet, or pharynx, which assist in swallowing.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Neck Muscles.</span>—The neck muscles are divided into -two groups, one on each side. The action of these is -to raise and lower the head, also to turn the neck and -head from side to side.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Muscles of the Back.</span>—The muscles of the back -are generally divided into two groups, one above the -spinal column and the other below. The muscles above -the spine assist the animal in running, jumping and rearing. -The muscles below the spine are sometimes called -the psoae, or lumbar, muscles, situated below the lumbar -bones, or the bones of the small of the back. The -action of these muscles is to assist the animal in getting -up. These muscles are important, for when paralyzed -the horse cannot use his hindquarters. Below these -muscles are the kidneys.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Hip or Gluteal Muscles.</span>—The muscles of the -hip are very large, filling in around the hip bones. The -action of these is much the same as those of the back, as -they assist in jumping, running, rearing and in flexing -and extending the hind leg.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a id="Pl_III"></a> -<img src="images/i038.jpg" width="600" height="516" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="tac">MUSCLES OF THE HORSE—DEEP LAYER—AFTER MEGNIN.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="31"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a></span></p> - - -<p class="head2">EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.</p> - -<p class="tac"><span class="smcap">Muscles of the Horse.</span></p> - -<p class="tac"><i>Deep Layer.</i></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="fs80" width="600" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>1.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Temporalis.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>22.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Humeralis obliquus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>1.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Stylo-maxillaris.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>22´.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Caput parvum (of triceps extensor brachii).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>2.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Rectus capitis anticus major.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>23.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Extensor suffraginis.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>3.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Sterno-thyro-hyoideus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>24.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Extensor metacarpi magnus divided.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>4.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Sterno-maxillaris.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>25.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Extensor metacarpi obliquus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>5.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">The Trachea.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>25´.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Its tendon.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>6.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Scalenus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>26, 28.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Flexor pedis perforans and perforatus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>7.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Splenius.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>29.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Obliquus abdominis internus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>8.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Funicular part of ligamentum nuchæ.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>30.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Gluteus maximus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>9.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Rhomboideus longus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>31.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Erector coccygis.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>10.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Cervical.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>32.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Curvator coccygis.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>15.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Costal serratus magnus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>33.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Depressor coccygis.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>11.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Cartilage of prolongation.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>34.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Rectus femoris.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>12.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Rhomboideus brevis.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>35.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Vastus externus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>13.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Transversalis costarum.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>36.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Part covered by triceps abductor.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>14.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Longissimus dorsi.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>37.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Biceps rotator tibialis.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>15.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Serratus Magnus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>38.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Gastrocnemius externus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>16.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">External intercostals.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>39.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Plantaris.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>17.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Internal intercostals.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>40.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Flexor pedis perforans.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>18.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Rectus abdominis.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>41.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Peroneus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>19 19.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Pectoralis magnus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>42.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Flexor metatarsi.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>20.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Postea-spinatus minor.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>43.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Extensor pedis (cut across).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>21.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Flexor brachii.</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Tail or Coccygeal Muscles.</span>—Here there are four -<span class="pagenum" title="32"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a></span>that are important, one situated on the upper side of the -tail when straight out, the action of which is to raise -the tail; two, one on each side of the tail, have the -power of drawing the tail to either side; the fourth is -situated under the tail and is the smallest one of the four. -Its action is to draw the tail down.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Abdominal Muscles.</span>—The abdominal or belly -muscles, are four large, flat muscles on each side of -the abdomen. The outer edge of these muscles is attached -to the outer ends of the false ribs, also to the -processes of the lumbar bones and the outer angles of -the pelvic or hip bones. They unite below to what is -called the linea alba, a hard, white fibrous cord. They -pass back in the center of the belly and are attached -to the front of the pelvic bones, called the lower bones of -the pelvic cavity. About ten inches from where it is -attached here, passing forward, is a small slit or hole, -which is called the navel, or umbilical opening. Here -the navel vessels pass in and out during the foetus life, -or before the colt is foaled. This is a point of importance -to note, for sometimes at the time of birth this -opening does not close and allows the bowels to come -down and form what is known as umbilical or navel -rupture.</p> - -<p>Before finishing the description of this group of -muscles a very large, important ligament should be -noted, which is found spread all over the abdomen of -the horse. It is of a yellowish color and about one-eighth -of an inch thick, attached in front to the back -of the breast bone and to the pelvic bones behind. This -is the first structure seen after removing the skin from -the abdomen. This ligament gives great support to the -organs contained in the abdominal cavity. The action, -or uses, of the abdominal muscles are to support the organs -contained in the abdominal cavity, to flex the back-bone -and assist in passing of the feces. In the mare these -muscles assist in parturition, or foaling.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Shoulder Muscles.</span>—The shoulder muscles are<span class="pagenum" title="33"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a></span> -very large and powerful. There are only three of great -importance. Two situated on the outside of the scapula -or shoulder blade are important, as they are muscles -affected in the disease called shoulder sweeny. The -other important one is that which passes down over the -shoulder joint through the groove or pulley-like surface -on the humerus, or shoulder bone. This is a long, powerful -muscle, attached above to the lower end of the scapula, -or shoulder blade, passing down through the groove mentioned, -and is attached to the upper and front part of the -radius or fore arm bone. Its chief point of importance -rests in its action in raising the front leg, where it passes -over the pulley-like surface mentioned, when it becomes -injured or diseased; it is the seat of shoulder joint lameness.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Muscles of the Front Leg.</span>—Muscles of the front -leg, from the shoulder down, are divided into two separate -kinds, the extensor and flexor muscles. The extensor -muscles are those which bring the leg forward. These -muscles above are attached to the bones around the elbow -joint, passing down in front of the arm bones. -About three inches above the knee they become changed -into the tendinous part of the muscles, or what is called -the cords of the leg. Some of them are attached to the -bones about the knee joint, while others pass over the -front of the joint and are held down to their place by a -band or ligament, forming a loop, as it were, for the -tendinous portion of the muscle to glide into when the -leg is in action. Each one of these loops through which -the muscles pass are supplied with a synovial membrane -to secrete the synovia, or oil, which lubricate it during -action, the same as in the joint. This is a point of importance, -as sometimes, on account of injury or strain -of this part of the joint through which the muscles play -there may be found a small, puffy enlargement containing -oil secreted by the synovial membrane. This disease -is called bursal enlargement.</p> - -<p>The flexor muscles are situated at the back part of<span class="pagenum" title="34"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a></span> -the leg, attached above to the back part of the elbow -joint, passing downwards at the back part of the leg. -About two or three inches above the back part of the -knee joint they become tendinous, and from there down -to the back part of the coffin bone, where two of the principle -muscles are attached; these form what is known as -the back tendons, or cords, of the leg. Some of them -become attached to the back part of the knee, same as -the muscles on the front part of the leg, while the other -two principal tendons pass through a loop formed by ligaments, -the same as those mentioned in the front part of -the knee. In tracing these tendons down from the knee -to the fetlock, notice that they pass through another -larger loop or sheath formed at the back of the fetlock, -where some of the fibers are attached, while others continue -down at the back part of the pastern bones, and -are attached to the os pedis or coffin bone. These tendons -are important, because when they are strained the -fact is spoken of as the strain of the back tendons. The -action of these muscles is to flex the leg, bend the knee, -pastern joints and fetlock.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Muscles of the Hind Leg.</span>—These are also divided -into two groups, extensor and flexor. The extensor muscles -are situated in front of the hind leg. They are attached -above, around the stifle joint, and pass downward -in front of the tibia, or thigh bone, one being attached -to the front part of the hock. The other passes -through sheaths, or loops, supplied by a synovial membrane, -formed by ligaments, to hold the muscles firm in -front while the leg is in action. In tracing them down, -in front of the shin bone to the fetlock, note that they -pass through loops, or sheaths, and continue down in -front of the pastern bones to where they are attached. -The action of these is to bring the leg forward.</p> - -<p>The flexor muscles of the hind legs are attached, -above, around the back part of the stifle joint. In tracing -them down it will be found that they become tendonous. -Two of the principal ones pass down to that part -of the hock joint, which forms the point known as the<span class="pagenum" title="35"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a></span> -cap. These form what is called the gambe of the leg, and -are partly attached at the point of the hock, and other -part passing down to the fetlock joint through a loop, -or sheath, along the back part of the pastern bones, and -are attached to the os pedis or coffin bone of the foot. -This muscle, from the hock down, forms one of the back -tendons of the hind leg. Another important muscle is -found passing down underneath those already mentioned, -through a loop, or sheath, at the back part of the -hock, where it is supplied with a synovia sac. This is a -point of importance, because when it becomes sprained it -is the seat of what is called thoroughpin. It then passes -down the back part of the shin bone beneath the other -tendons already mentioned, through the loop at the fetlock -to the back part of the os pedis or coffin bone, where -it is attached. The action of these muscles are to flex or -bend the fetlock and raise the hock joint in traveling.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Involuntary Muscles.</span>—Involuntary muscles, or -muscles not under the control of the will. The first to -notice are those of breathing or respiration. They form -a group situated about the chest in such a way as to be -the means of increasing or decreasing the size of the chest -cavity. When these muscles expand the chest cavity is -enlarged, causing the air to rush into the lungs, known -an inspiration. On the other hand, when these muscles -contract the air is expelled from the lungs, known as -expiration.</p> - -<p>The diaphragm is a muscular curtain which separates -the chest from the abdominal cavity. It also assists -greatly in drawing the air in, when it contracts. This -muscle also assists in passing faeces, and in the mare -foaling. It separates the heart and lungs from the bowels, -liver and stomach. This muscle should be carefully -examined by the students. It can be seen by opening -any dead animal.</p> - -<p>There is one muscle which is both voluntary and involuntary. -It is situated in the penis, surrounding the -urethra, or the tube, which carries the urine from the<span class="pagenum" title="36"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a></span> -bladder to the penis in the male animal. Its action is -voluntary while the animal is passing urine. It is involuntary -during sexual intercourse, forcing the semen -down through the penis.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a id="Pl_IV"></a> -<img src="images/i046.jpg" width="600" height="510" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="tac">DIGESTIVE AND MALE URINARY APPARATUS OF A HORSE—AFTER MEGNIN.</p> -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="37"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a></span></p> - -<p class="head2">EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV</p> - -<p class="tac"><span class="smcap">Digestive Apparatus of the Horse</span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="fs80" width="450" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>1.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Mouth.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>13.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Rectum.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>2.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Pharynx.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>14.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Anus.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>3.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Œsophagus.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>15.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Left kidney and ureter.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>4.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Diaphragm.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>16.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Bladder.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>5.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Spleen.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>17.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Urethra.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>6.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Stomach (left sac).</td><td class="tar vat"><div><i>a.</i></div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Hard palate.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>7.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Duodenum.</td><td class="tar vat"><div><i>b.</i></div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Tongue.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>8.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Liver (upper extremity).</td><td class="tar vat"><div><i>c.</i></div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Soft palate.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>9.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Great colon.</td><td class="tar vat"><div><i>d.</i></div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Trachea.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>10.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Cæcum.</td><td class="tar vat"><div><i>e.</i></div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Pulmonary artery (divided).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>11.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Small intestine.</td><td class="tar vat"><div><i>f.</i></div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Heart.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>12.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Floating colon.</td><td class="tar vat"><div><i>g.</i></div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Posterior aorta.</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="38"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<h3>SPLANCHNOLOGY.</h3> - - -<p>Study of large interior organs in any of the four -great bodily cavities especially those in the abdomen.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Digestive Organs of the Horse.</span>—The digestive -organs comprise the alimentary canal and the accessories -by which the alimentary matter is received and subjected -to specific actions, which adapt it for purposes of nutrition. -Digestion, therefore, embraces the collective operations -and changes which the food undergoes in the alimentary -canal.</p> - -<p>The whole digestive track from the mouth to the anus -which is situated just below the tail, is sometimes called -the alimentary canal.</p> - -<p>The mouth is an oval cavity at the commencement of -the alimentary or digestive canal. In front of the mouth -are the lips, one above and one below; at the sides are the -cheeks. The mouth is lined with what is known as the -mucous membrane, in which are several small openings, -from the glands, which are situated about the mouth. -Through these the saliva is poured. On the upper part -of the mouth the mucous membrane is thrown into ridges, -or folds, from 18 to 20 in number. This is a point of -importance in connection with bleeding a horse with -lampas. It is never safe to bleed back of the third bar -because there is a large artery which runs down through -the roof of the mouth and enters the hole in the bone -just before it reaches this bar. The tongue, which has -the chief nerves of the sense of taste, is situated in the -mouth; this organ also has a very important part to -perform in masticating the food and mixing it with -saliva. The teeth, which also take a very active part in<span class="pagenum" title="39"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a></span> -the masticating of food, are dealt with under the heading -of “Teeth.”</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Salivary Glands.</span>—These glands secrete the saliva -that is poured into the mouth while the animal is eating. -There are only three pairs of much importance. One -large pair, one on each side of the throat below the ears, -known as the parotid glands, fill up the space between -the jaw bone and the neck. This pair has tubes passing -around and under the lower jaw and up into the cheek -muscles entering the mouth opposite the fourth molar -tooth. These tubes, known as steno’s ducts are about -an eighth of an inch in diameter and convey the saliva -from the glands into the mouth. The next pair are situated -under the pair just mentioned. Their tubes enter -into the bottom part of the mouth. The third pair are -situated under the tongue, one on each side. They pour -their secretion into the mouth by several small openings -near the front under the tongue. This can be seen by -examining the under surface of the tongue closely. This -is very important fluid in connection with the digesting -of the food.</p> - -<p>The gullet is a cavity situated just back of the mouth. -It is chiefly made up of muscles which perform the act of -swallowing the food. It is lined with the continuation -of the mucous membrane of the mouth.</p> - -<p>The oesophagus, or the continuation of the gullet, is -a tube extending from the gullet to the stomach, and is -used to convey the food to that organ. It is made up of -two coats, the muscular and the mucous. The former -contains fibers which, when once the food enters the tube, -contract behind it, forcing it down to the stomach. Its -lining is a continuation of the mucous membrane of the -mouth and the gullet. In tracing the oesophagus or tube -down the neck from the gullet, note that it passes down -the left side of the neck, entering the thoracic, or chest -cavity, between the lungs over the heart through the -large muscular curtain known as the diaphragm, then<span class="pagenum" title="40"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a></span> -enters the stomach an inch or two after passing the -diaphragm.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">The Stomach.</span>—This organ is very small in the -horse in comparison with that of the ox. It holds only -about four gallons, and is situated just back of the curtain -which separates it from the lungs. It lies mostly to -the left side. The walls of the stomach being composed -of three coats. That on the outside is called the serous -membrane, a name applied to membranes which line -closed cavities, such as the abdominal cavity. The inside -lining is a continuation of the mucous membrane lining -the organs before mentioned. The lining in the left part -of the stomach or the part where the food is prepared -for digestion is the same color as that of the mouth. The -lining of the right part of the stomach, which is the true -digestive part, is of a deep red color resembling velvet, -and when placed under a microscope has the appearance -of a honey-comb. When the stomach is empty this membrane -is thrown into loose folds. Several small openings -may be noticed through which the gastric juice and pepsin -from the glands, situated in the walls of the stomach, -enters. These are very important fluids as they assist -greatly in digesting the food. The third coat is known as -the muscular coat already mentioned. Its action is to -give the stomach a churning motion, rolling the food -around and mixing it with the juices. The opening to -the stomach is guarded by a valve which prevents the -food from passing back through the gullet. There is -also a valve at the opening of the bowels, preventing any -coarse, undigested food from entering them. The stomach -is held in its place by five large ligaments, and is -well supplied by blood-vessels and nerves. Digestion of -the food takes place very quickly in the horse in comparison -to other animals. Frequently a change of food -or working too soon after eating will interfere with the -digestion, thus setting up what is known as indigestion. -This is a very painful disease in the horse. After the -food is acted upon by the juices in the stomach it changes<span class="pagenum" title="41"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a></span> -into what is known as chyme, which passes into the -bowels.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">The Bowels.</span>—They are divided into two parts—the -large and small.</p> - -<p>The small bowels are 72 feet in length, about one -inch in diameter, and are made up of three coats, same -as the stomach. The serous coat on the outside contains -small glands which secrete an oily material to lubricate -the outside of the bowels, which comes in contact with -the inner wall of the abdominal cavity. The muscular -coat, made up of muscular fibers, is situated between the -other two coats, the same as in the stomach; its action -is to contract the bowels, giving them motion to convey -the food along through them. The mucous coat is a -continuation of the mucous coat of the stomach. Along -this coat are found small glands known as villi lacteal; -these absorb the nourishment from the food as it passes -along through the bowels and pours it into the blood. -The small intestines or bowels are attached on the upper -side to what is known as the mesentery, which is attached -above to the roof of the abdominal cavity. It can be seen -in any of the smaller animals upon examination. About -six inches from the stomach, in the bowels, are found -two openings. One of these receive the hepatic duct, -a tube for the purpose of carrying the bile from the liver -to be poured in on the food as it passes through the -bowels. The other opening is for the duct of the gland -known as the pancreas. It secretes a clear fluid known -as the pancreatic juice. These juices act on the food in -the first part of the small intestines, changing it into -chyle. After this, the action of the rest of the intestines -is to absorb the nourishment out of the food as it is -passing back. The small intestines and stomach, when in -a healthy condition, should be found empty one hour after -food has been eaten. The small bowels or intestines are -situated mostly on the left side just behind the stomach.</p> - -<p>The large bowels have three coats, the same as the -small ones. The first part of the large bowels is known<span class="pagenum" title="42"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a></span> -as the blind bowel or caecum, and is about three feet in -length; this is generally the first thing to protrude when -opening a horse’s abdominal cavity. Its use is to act as a -reservoir to hold the water and fluid of the food; from -this organ the water and fluid parts are mostly taken up -into the system. The next part of the large bowels is -known as the large colon; it lays along the floor of the -abdominal cavity, is about nine feet in length and is -doubled on itself three times. In this bowel the solid -part of the food is found. Here digestion is brought -about by the contraction and expansion of the muscles -of the bowel and the nourishment taken from it, after -which it is worked back out of this bowel and enters -what is known as the floating colon. This is about ten -feet in length and about two inches in diameter, or double -the size of the small bowel. It is thrown into folds or -pleats, and as that portion of the food containing no -nourishment passes through it is worked into balls which -pass back and are emptied into the rectum or back bowel. -This is situated at the back part of the abdominal and -pelvic cavity back of the small bowels or intestines and -like them, is suspended by a fold paritoneum.</p> - -<p>The rectum or back bowel is sometimes known as -the straight bowel. It is about 18 inches long and forms -the last part of the bowels or intestines. Its coats are -a continuation of those of the large bowel, but each is -thicker and heavier. Above this bowel are the bones -of the sacrum, below it, in the horse the bladder and -other small glands. Below the rectum of the mare are -situated the womb and the vagina, the latter being the -passage into the womb from the outside. The bones -which help to form the pelvic cavity are situated at the -sides, and at the back immediately under the tail is what -is known as the annus. The use of the rectum is to hold -the balls as they pass back from the floating colon. When -the rectum becomes so full that there is pressure on the -sides of the wall thus stimulating the nerves the muscular -coat contracts and forces the contents back towards the<span class="pagenum" title="43"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a></span> -annus. At the same time the muscles of the annus dilate, -causing the faeces to pass out.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Accessory Organs of Digestion.</span>—In the abdominal -region these organs are the Liver, the Pancreas, and -the Spleen.</p> - -<p>The Liver is the largest gland in the body and is situated -between the stomach and the diaphragm. The liver -of the horse weighs from ten to twelve pounds. It is of a -dark brown color, well supplied with blood and nerves, -and is held in place by several strong ligaments. A bitter, -greenish colored fluid called the bile is secreted from -the liver and emptied into the digestive system, where it -plays an important part in its action on the food. There -is no gall bladder in the horse, but simply a tube passing -from the liver to the small bowel into which it empties the -bile about six inches back of the stomach. It is important -to note that it is in this tube that gall stones sometimes -collect.</p> - -<p>The Pancreas is another very important gland. It is -of a grayish, fatty color, and may be found near the roof -of the abdominal cavity in front of the kidneys. The -Pancreas secretes a clear, colorless fluid called the pancreatic -juice. This fluid, like the bile from the liver, also -plays an important part in the digestion of food. It is -carried down from the Pancreas by a duct or tube emptying -into the small bowel just back of that of the liver.</p> - -<p>The Spleen is a long, flat gland about fifteen inches -in length, situated along the left side of the stomach and -to which it is closely attached. It is of a grayish red color -and feels quite soft. It is ductless, there being no secretion -passing from it. The function of this gland is not -clearly understood, but by many it is supposed to regulate -the temperature of the stomach during the process -of digestion and to act as a reservoir for the blood. Some -speak of it as the burying ground of the red corpuscles. -It is well supplied with blood vessels and nerves and -weighs about two pounds in an average sized horse.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="44"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a></span></p> - - -<h3>RUMINANTIA.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Digestive System.</span>—The lips of an ox are thick and -hard. The upper has no hair on it and varies in color -with the color of the animal. When cattle are in good -health this space is always moist.</p> - -<p>The cheeks on the inside are covered by many small -rough processes, which give them a very rough appearance.</p> - -<p>The Tongue of the ox is stronger than that of the -horse and is more movable. It is very thick and heavy -at the back, pointed at the front end and the upper part -of it is very rough. It is by means of the tongue that the -ox takes most of the food into the mouth.</p> - -<p>The Salivary glands are similar to those of the horse.</p> - -<p>The Teeth differ very much from those of the horse.</p> - -<p>The ox has no front teeth in the upper part of his -mouth, their place being taken by a pad of cartilage or -gristle. This pad takes the place of the upper row of -front teeth. The lower row of teeth press against it when -the animal is cropping grass. This accounts for the fact -that cattle do not do as well on short grass as horses.</p> - -<p>The front teeth in the lower jaw also differ from -those of the horse. They are eight in number, chisel-shaped, -and are loosely set in the gum.</p> - -<p>The molars, or back teeth, are similar to those of the -horse, only they are smaller and not so smooth on their -upper surface. The ox has twenty-four molars or back -teeth, and eight incisors or front teeth, making thirty-two -in all.</p> - -<p>The Gullet of the ox is much larger than that of the -horse.</p> - -<p>The Oesophagus or tube, which carries the food down -from the mouth to the stomach is well developed, the -fibers in it being very strong and possessing a double -action. When the animal is eating they carry the food -from the mouth to the stomach, and when chewing the<span class="pagenum" title="45"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a></span> -cud they act the very opposite, carrying the food from -the stomach back into the mouth.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">The Stomach.</span>—The student will do well to give -some time to the study of this important organ of the -ox, as it is very frequently the seat of disease.</p> - -<p>The stomach has a capacity of fifty-two gallons and -is divided into four separate and distinct compartments: -the Rumen or Paunch, the Reticulum or Honey Comb, -the Omasum or Many-plies, and the Abomasum or the -true Stomach. In the first three of these the food undergoes -a sort of preparatory process, while in the fourth the -process of digestion is complete.</p> - -<p>The Rumen or paunch is very large, and in an aged -animal fills three-quarters of the abdominal cavity. It -lies up against the left side of the wall of the abdomen, -where it is attached and held to its place by the ligaments. -Its situation being an important matter, as many -diseases of the rumen, or paunch, are first noticed on the -left side. Tapping for bloating is always done on the -left side because of this fact. The walls of the paunch -of an ox resemble those of the stomach of the horse, but -are not so sensitive, and stand a great deal of abuse before -inflammation sets in. The paunch has two openings, -both of which are at the front; through one the food -enters, while through the other it passes out into the -next division.</p> - -<p>The Reticulum, or honey comb, is the smallest division -and resembles a honey comb in appearance. This -part has little to do with preparing the food. It is provided -with two openings, one in front, where the food -enters, the other at the back, where it passes through into -the third division. In the reticulum, or honey comb, -the food is softened further by the water that the animal -drinks which passes directly into the second division. -The food is here pressed into balls and prepared to be -forced back into the mouth to be further masticated.</p> - -<p>The Omasum, or many-plies, is the second largest -division of the stomach. When full it is ovoid in shape.<span class="pagenum" title="46"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a></span> -It is placed just behind the second division and at the -right side of the paunch. The inside is full of folds, or -layers of membrane, into which all the coarse parts of -the food pass and roll about until it is fine and well prepared -to pass into the last division. When this part of -the stomach becomes deranged and the food becomes -dry and hard between the folds, the disease called impaction -of the many-plies, or dry murrain, is the result.</p> - -<p>The Abomasum, or fourth stomach, is the true digestive -part. In it the food is completely digested. The -walls are redder in color than those of the three first divisions -and contain the glands which secrete the acids and -gastric juices. This stomach has two openings, one -through which the food enters and the other through -which it passes into the small bowels.</p> - -<p>The Bowels, or intestines, of the ox are divided into -large and small bowels. This, together with their structure -and action resembles that of the horse. The small -bowels are only half the size of the horse, being about -one-half inch in diameter, and about one hundred and -fifty feet in length. The large bowels are not nearly -so long as those of the horse and are thirty-five feet in -length.</p> - -<p>The Liver of the ox resembles that of the horse, except -that it is provided with a gall bladder which resembles -a pear in shape. This acts as a sac in which to -store the gall during the time it is not required in digestion. -When digestion is going on the wall of the gall -sac contracts and forces the gall down to the food. The -other glands, the pancreas and spleen, resemble those -of the horse. The juices from these glands have the same -action in cattle as they have in the horse.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Rumination, or Chewing the Cud.</span>—Food when -first taken into the mouth of a ruminant is but lightly -masticated and mixed with the saliva from the salivary -glands, after which it is swallowed, passing through the -oesophagus into the rumen or paunch (first stomach). -This division acts as a reservoir or storehouse for food<span class="pagenum" title="47"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a></span> -thus eaten quickly. When the animal has time, so to -speak, he lies down or stands quietly and completes the -process of mastication of his food by chewing the cud. -This peculiar act is performed as follows: After being -softened and moistened by warmth, the food passes from -the rumen or paunch into the second division—the reticulum, -honey comb or second stomach. In this small -globe-like compartment the food is moistened and compressed -into pellets—the cud. By a peculiar reverse -action of the oesophagus or gullet these pellets are taken -back into the mouth for further mastication or chewing. -When re-mastication is completed it is again swallowed, -but this time it passes directly into the omasum, many-plies -or third stomach, and thence to the fourth or true -stomach.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Process of Digestion After Rumination.</span>—Following -rumination which, strictly speaking, is the first -step in the digesting process, the food passes into the -third stomach. The fine parts pass right along to the -fourth stomach while the coarser parts are drawn between -the folds of the membrane in this division and -worked about until it is fine and ready to pass into the -fourth stomach, where it becomes fully digested by the -action of acids and gastric juices which are secreted in -this part. It then passes into the small bowels, and is -acted upon by the bile from the liver and the pancreatic -juice from the pancreas. These juices are emptied into -the first part of the small bowels through little ducts or -tubes, which lead from the glands down to the bowels, -just on the same principle as that of the horse. After -this, throughout the rest of the bowels, the nourishment -of the food is taken into the system by means of little -glands which are situated in the coating of the bowels. -The nourishment when once in the blood goes to supply -the different parts of the body, while the part containing -no nourishment or undigested passes off through the -back bowels in the form of feces.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="48"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a></span></p> - - -<h3>TEETH.</h3> - -<p>Teeth are objects situated in the upper and lower -jaws. They are made of the same tissues as bone -but contain <span class="nowrap">10<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></span> per cent. more of earthy salts. This -fact accounts for their extreme hardness. Unlike bone -they can stand exposure to air and friction without becoming -diseased. Teeth are used to masticate or chew -the food, and because of the constant change in their formation -and appearance they serve as a guide in telling -the age of the horse.</p> - -<p>There are three hard structures that enter into the -formation of the teeth—Dentine or Ivory, Enamel, and -Cementum, or Crusta Petrosa.</p> - -<p>The Dentine, or ivory, is situated in the upper part -around the pulp or nerve cavity. It is of yellowish -color and largely supplied with nerves which pass -through it from the pulp cavity.</p> - -<p>The Enamel is the hardest substance of the tooth, and -covers the outside of all the exposed part. This substance -is characterized by its whiteness and, unlike the -dentine, contains no blood vessels or nerves. If part of -the enamel is broken off it is never replaced, and the -tooth below the broken part generally becomes decayed.</p> - -<p>The Cementum, or crusta petrosa, is found in the -fang or root and the parts situated below the gum. It -is the softest part of the tooth.</p> - -<p>Teeth may be simple or compound. Simple as in -the dog, where the entire exposed surface is covered by -a solid cap of enamel, which alone is in wear; compound -or complex, as in the horse, where various tissues are -in wear. A tooth consists of the following anatomical -parts: The body, or crown, that part above the gum; -the table, the part that comes into wear on the top; the -neck, the part to which the gums are attached; and the -fangs or roots, the parts situated down in the bone.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="49"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a></span></p> - -<p>There are three kinds of teeth found in the horse, -the incisors, the canine and the molars.</p> - -<p>The Incisors, or front teeth, situated in the front -part of the mouth just inside the lips, are twelve in number, -six above and six below.</p> - -<p>The Canine, or bridle teeth, are often absent in the -mare. They are four in number, two in the upper and -two in the lower jaw, one on each side about two inches -back from the incisor teeth. They are from a quarter to -three-quarters of an inch above the gum, are round and -pointed and of no particular use. They resemble the -eye teeth of other animals.</p> - -<p>The Molars, or back teeth, are twenty-four in number, -six on each side in the upper and six on each side in -the lower jaw. With these the food is ground and masticated.</p> - -<p>Wolf Teeth are two small, round, pointed temporary -teeth which vary in size in different animals, situated -one on each side in front of the molars or back teeth -in the upper jaw.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Temporary and Permanent Teeth.</span>—The horse -has two sets of teeth. The milk are temporary and are -those that the colt sheds; while those that come in and -remain without being shed are called the permanent -teeth. The cutting of the teeth of the foal varies, but -at or within nine days after birth he has four front teeth, -two in the center above and two below, and in the back -part of the mouth twelve molars. At from seven to nine -weeks four more incisors or front teeth appear, one at -each side of the two center teeth in each jaw. At nine -months he gets the last of his milk or temporary teeth, -these being the corner teeth, two in the upper side and -two in the lower side of the jaw. At this time he has -his full set of milk temporary teeth, consisting of twelve -molars or grinders and twelve incisors or front teeth, -six above and six below, making twenty-four in all. As -the colt advances in age he sheds all these teeth. He then<span class="pagenum" title="50"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a></span> -commences to get permanent teeth. When the age of one -year is reached, four permanent molars appear, two in -each jaw, one on each side, behind the three temporary -teeth. At two years of age he gets four more back -molars, one on each side of each jaw. When the age -of two years and nine months is reached the two middle -teeth of the temporary incisors, or front teeth of each -jaw fall out, and are replaced by two permanent incisors -in each jaw; thus at the age of three years these four -permanent incisors are up and in wear. At this age, the -first eight molars, two on each side of each jaw, are shed -and replaced by eight permanent molars. At four years -of age he sheds four more front or incisor teeth next to -those shed at three years, and these are replaced by four -more permanent incisors or front teeth. At this age, -too, he sheds the four remaining temporary molars, or -grinders, which are replaced by four more permanent -molars. He also gets four more permanent molars at -the back of the mouth. Thus at the age of four years -the colt has a full set of permanent molars, consisting of -six on each side of each jaw, making twenty-four in all. -At five years of age he sheds the four remaining temporary -incisors or front teeth, which are replaced by four -permanent incisors, known as the corner teeth. It is -important to become familiar with the time at which the -colt sheds his different teeth, for sometimes the caps or -shells of the teeth do not fall off when they should. These -should be watched, for they greatly interfere with feeding -and should be removed with forceps. At five years -of age the canine or bridle teeth make their appearance; -thus at the age of five years the colt has all his teeth or -what is known as a full mouth.</p> - -<p>The following table shows the various changes taking<span class="pagenum" title="51"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a></span> -place in the mouth of the horse from the time of -birth up to the age of five years:</p> - -<p>Hence the horse <span class="nowrap">has—</span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="fs80" width="550" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tac" colspan="2"><div>—Incisors—</div></td><td class="tac"><div>Canine</div></td><td class="tac" colspan="2"><div>—Molars—</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">  Age</td><td class="tac"><div>Temporary</div></td><td class="tac"><div>Permanent</div></td><td class="tac"></td><td class="tac"><div>Temporary</div></td><td class="tac"><div><span class="ilb">Permanent</span></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">At or soon after birth</td><td class="tac"><div> 4</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">9 weeks</td><td class="tac"><div> 8</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">1 year</td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 4</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">2 years</td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 8</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">3 years</td><td class="tac"><div> 8</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 4</div></td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 4</div></td><td class="tac"><div>16</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">4 years</td><td class="tac"><div> 4</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 8</div></td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>24</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">5 years</td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td><td class="tac"><div>4</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td><td class="tar"><div>24=40  </div></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The table given below indicates the various changes which occur -in the mouths of ruminants, and more particularly in the mouth of -the ox:</p></div> - - -<p class="tac">RUMINANTS</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table class="fs80" width="550" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tac" colspan="2"><div>—Incisors—</div></td><td> </td><td></td><td class="tac" colspan="2"><div>—Molars—</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">  Age</td><td class="tac"><div>Temporary</div></td><td class="tac"><div>Permanent</div></td><td></td><td class="tal">  Age</td><td class="tac"><div>Temporary</div></td><td class="tac"><div><span class="ilb">Permanent</span></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">At or soon after birth</td><td class="tac"><div>4</div></td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td></td><td></td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">2 weeks</td><td class="tac"><div>6</div></td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td></td><td class="tal">1 year</td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 4</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">3 weeks</td><td class="tac"><div>8</div></td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td></td><td class="tal">2 years</td><td class="tac"><div> 8</div></td><td class="tac"><div>12</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">2 years</td><td class="tac"><div>6</div></td><td class="tac"><div>2</div></td><td></td><td class="tal">3 years</td><td class="tac"><div> 4</div></td><td class="tac"><div>16</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">3 years</td><td class="tac"><div>4</div></td><td class="tac"><div>4</div></td><td></td><td class="tal"></td><td class="tac"></td><td class="tac"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">4 years</td><td class="tac"><div>2</div></td><td class="tac"><div>6</div></td><td></td><td class="tal">4 and 5 years</td><td class="tac"><div> 0</div></td><td class="tar"><div>24=32 </div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">5 years</td><td class="tac"><div>0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>8</div></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A table giving the number and variety of teeth as they occur in -the domestic animals and in man may be serviceable as one of handy -reference, and is herewith appended:</p></div> - - -<div class="center"> -<table class="fs80" width="400" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tac"><div>Incisors</div></td><td class="tac"><div>Molars</div></td><td class="tac"><div>Canine</div></td><td class="tac"><div>Bicuspid</div></td><td class="tac"><div><span class="ilb">Total</span></div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Man</td><td class="tac"><div> 4<br />—<br /> 4</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 6<br />—<br /> 6</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 2<br />—<br /> 2</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 4<br />—<br /> 4</div></td><td class="tac"><div>= 32</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Horse</td><td class="tac"><div> 6<br />—<br /> 6</div></td><td class="tac"><div>12<br />—<br />12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 2<br />—<br /> 2</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0<br />—<br /> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>= 40</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Ox</td><td class="tac"><div> 0<br />—<br /> 8</div></td><td class="tac"><div>12<br />—<br />12</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0<br />—<br /> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0<br />—<br /> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>= 32</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Dog</td><td class="tac"><div> 6<br />—<br /> 6</div></td><td class="tac"><div>12<br /> —<br />14</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 2<br />—<br /> 2</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0<br />—<br /> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>= 42</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Pig</td><td class="tac"><div> 6<br />—<br /> 6</div></td><td class="tac"><div>14<br />—<br />14</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 2<br />—<br /> 2</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0<br />—<br /> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>= 44</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Cat</td><td class="tac"><div> 6<br />—<br /> 6</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 8<br />—<br /> 6</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 2<br />—<br /> 2</div></td><td class="tac"><div> 0<br />—<br /> 0</div></td><td class="tac"><div>= 30</div></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The dental formula of the ox is the same as that of all ruminants.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="52"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a></span></p> - - -<h3>RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF THE HORSE.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Organs of Respiration.</span>—By the action of these -organs certain chemical and physical changes take place -in the blood, the chief of these consisting of absorption -of oxygen from, and giving off carbonic acid to the atmospheric -air, the former change being necessary for -the elaboration of the fluid, the latter for the elimination -of a substance which, if retained, would prove injurious. -The organs of respiration are invariably adapted to the -wants of the animal and the medium in which it lives. -Thus insects breathe by air-tubes, opening on the surface -of the body; in the oyster breathing is performed -by fringes; in fishes by gills; in the mammalia by means -of elastic air-receptacles, called lungs, which are enclosed -in special cavities, and communicate with the atmosphere -by means of an air-tube.</p> - -<p>In the horse, who breathes only through his nose, -the organs of respiration are the nostrils, nasal-chambers, -larynx, trachea, and in the thoracic cavity, the -bronchi, bronchial tubes, and the lungs.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Nostrils.</span>—The nostrils are two openings, one on -each side of the nose. They are held open by the aid of -cartilage and muscles. About one and one-half inches -up the nostril on the under side is a small opening about -the size of a grain of shot. Through this opening the -duct or tube which carries the tears down from the eyes -empties into the nose. The nostril is lined with a thin, -delicate skin which changes into mucous membrane as -it passes up into the chambers of the head.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Nasal Chambers.</span>—These give passage to the air -from the nostril into the larynx. There are two of these -chambers, divided in the center by a thin partition or -cartilage called the septum nasi. These communicate -with the sinuses of the head. The horse cannot breathe -through the mouth on account of the formation of the<span class="pagenum" title="53"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a></span> -throat, and this compels him to always breathe through -the nostrils. This is a point which should be remembered.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Larynx.</span>—This is a cavity made of cartilage. It -gives passage to the air and also the organ of voice. It -is situated in the floor of the gullet. This cavity has an -opening on its upper side, guarded by a valve, which is -always opened except when the animal is swallowing -food or water. When the food is being swallowed it -passes over the valve which closes the opening while the -food passes over it. This is important, for if the valve -does not close properly, thus allowing either food or -water to drop into the windpipe, the animal will have a fit -of coughing. This is sometimes referred to as “the food -going down the wrong way.” On the outside of this -cavity of cartilage are found several small muscles which -help to hold it in its place. It is lined inside by a continuation -of the same membrane as that of the chambers -of the head. The vocal cords which come into play when -the animal is whinnying are found along the inside of -this cavity. These cords are not nearly so well marked -as in the human being, and if they or the cartilage of -the larynx become affected it generally gives rise to -the disease called wind-broken or roaring.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Trachea</span> (Windpipe).—This is a tube which conveys -the air down from the larynx to the bronchial tubes -in the lungs. It is made up of forty or fifty rings of -cartilage which are united to each other by strong elastic -ligaments. They give to the windpipe its flexibility, -that is, the power to bend in any direction almost like a -piece of elastic. From the larynx the windpipe enters -the chest where it terminates into two small tubes, one -going to the right lung and one to the left. These are -called the bronchial tubes.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Bronchial Tubes and Air Cells.</span>—These are -made up of the same material as that of the windpipe, -but are only about half the size. After passing into the<span class="pagenum" title="54"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a></span> -substance of the lungs they break up into small tubes -which pass all through the lungs and terminates into -what is known as the air-cells. These small tubes and -air cells are lined inside by a very thin mucous membrane, -a continuation of the membrane lining the other -organs already mentioned. Just inside this thin mucous -membrane is found the capillary network of the lungs, -and while the blood is slowly passing through this network -of vessels it gives off to the air in the air cells carbonic -acid gas and takes in the oxygen from the pure air -while it is in the lungs.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Lungs.</span>—Lungs are the most important organs of -respiration. They are spongy, yellowish organs, two -in number, one situated on the right side, and the other -on the left. The right lung is the largest because of the -left one having a hollow in its side for the heart. The -lungs are separated by a partition known as the mediastinum, -by the heart which is in the folds of this partition, -and also the large blood vessels and oesophagus. They -are made up of light elastic tissue and are full of air cells -and tubes. While the animal is alive they are very large -and fill up nearly the whole chest cavity, but after death -they collapse and are not nearly so large. Between the -lungs and the ribs is found a serous membrane called -the pleura or the lining membrane of the chest. It is -made up of two folds, one being attached around the -outer surface of the lungs, while the other is attached to -the ends of the ribs at the side and at the back to the -large curtain which separates the lungs from the bowels. -The little glands situated in this membrane secrete an -oily fluid which serves to lubricate these parts while the -lungs are working in the chest so as not to cause friction. -When this membrane becomes inflamed from a chill -or injury it sets up the disease called pleurisy.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Respiration.</span>—The number of respirations per minute<span class="pagenum" title="55"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a></span> -varies with the different classes of animals; as a rule, -the larger the animal the slower the respiration.</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table width="300" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="comparative respiratory rates"> -<tr><td class="tal">The horse</td><td class="tar"><div>8 to 10</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Cattle</td><td class="tar"><div>12 to 15</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Sheep and goats</td><td class="tar"><div>12 to 20</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">The dog</td><td class="tar"><div>15 to 20</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Swine</td><td class="tar"><div>10 to 15</div></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The rate of breathing is increased from the process -of digestion immediately after eating, or may increase -from exercise.</p> - - -<h3>RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF THE OX.</h3> - -<p>The nostrils are narrow and capable of little dilation -compared to those of the horse. The nasal chambers -differ chiefly in there being an additional turbinated -bone. The nasal chambers communicate with the mouth, -therefore cattle can breathe through the mouth to a certain -extent. The larynx is simpler in construction, the -true vocal cords being only slightly developed. The -trachea or windpipe presents no important variation. -We may note the presence of a third bronchus, which -passes to the right lung to supply a lobe which is wanting -in the horse.</p> - -<p>The Thoracic Cavity is relatively smaller in the ruminants, -and the pleurae present a very important deviation -from the arrangement found in the solipede—viz., -the back or posterior mediastinum is imperforate and -strong, completely separating one pleural sac from the -other. This arrangement exists in all the domesticated -mammals but the solipede. The left lung is divided into -two lobes, the right into four, the front one recurving -over and almost covering the front of the -heart. The interlobular or cellular tissue is exceedingly -thick, the separation between the lobules being distinctly -visible. This arrangement explains perfectly the special -nature of pneumonic lesions in the large ruminants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="56"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a></span></p> - - -<h3>URINARY SYSTEM OF THE HORSE.</h3> - -<p>The organs of this system secrete the urine from the -blood, and excrete or expel it from the body. These -organs are chiefly the kidneys, ureters, bladder and -urethra. The urine, which is a watery fluid, is secreted -by the kidneys, and carried off by their ducts, the ureters, -to a special reservoir, the bladder, where it accumulates -and from which it is finally expelled at intervals through -the urethra.</p> - -<p>The kidneys are two compound tubular glands, one -on the right side and one on the left side, and are situated -just below the small of the back (sublumbar -region), the right one being the fartherest ahead. In -shape they are long and narrow and resemble the liver -in color. In cutting one of the kidneys open, it is found -to be full of glands and tubes, which secrete the urine -from the blood while it is passing through the kidneys. -These tubes pass to the center of the kidneys, where -they empty the urine into what is called the pelvis. The -glands are largely supplied with blood vessels and -nerves. The use of the kidneys are to secrete the urine -from the blood, which contains a large amount of what -is known as ureaic acid, and if not taken out of the -blood by these glands, acts as a poison to the system.</p> - -<p>The Ureters are tubes which carry the urine down -from the pelvis of the kidney to the bladder. They are -two in number, one situated on the right side of the -pelvic cavity and the other on the left side, close to the -walls—they enter on each side at the upper surface of -the bladder. They are only about one-sixteenth of an -inch in diameter.</p> - -<p>The Bladder is situated in the pelvic cavity. When -it is full it sometimes stretches out into the abdominal -cavity. It consists of a body and neck. The body is -the large part, and is placed in front; the neck being at -the back part of the bladder. This is where the urine -passes out of the bladder. The bladder is made up of<span class="pagenum" title="57"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a></span> -three coats, somewhat similar to that of the bowels. The -serous coat is a continuation of the serous coat found -in the abdominal cavity lining the bowels. The inside is -lined with mucous membrane which is thrown into folds -when the bladder is empty. Another coat is found between -the two membranes above mentioned, called the -muscular coat, the action of which is to contract the -bladder when the animal wants to urinate. The bladder -is held in by ligaments. The rectum lies above the -bladder, which in the horse rests on the floor of the pelvic -cavity. Its position in the mare differs from that of the -horse. Instead of the rectum or back bowel being immediately -above it, as in the horse, the womb is just -above the bladder or between it and the rectum. The -bladder acts as a reservoir in which to store the urine -until it is full; it then presses on the walls and nerves, -giving a peculiar sensation to these parts, causing the -walls to contract, forcing the urine into a tube which -carries it from the body. This is called the urethra. -The neck of the bladder is simply an opening at the -back part, and is guarded by a valve which prevents the -urine from dripping out except when the animal is passing -its urine or water.</p> - -<p>The Urethra is the tube which carries the urine from -the bladder out of the body. It is situated much differently -in the mare than in the horse. In the mare it is -very short, passing from the neck of the bladder along -below the womb and vagina, which is the passage from -the outside into the neck of the womb. It opens up into -the underside of this passage about four inches in from -the outside. This opening is guarded by a small, thin -valve, and can be felt by passing the finger along the -under side of the passage which leads into the womb. -In the horse this tube is a great deal longer than in the -mare. It commences at the bladder, passes along below -the rectum or back bowel to just below the anus. Here -this tube bends downward and forward and passes into -the penis, continuing down to the end where it terminates. -Its purpose is to carry the urine from the bladder<span class="pagenum" title="58"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a></span> -out of the body and to perform certain actions in connection -with the genital organs. Its lining is a continuation -of the membrane of the bladder.</p> - - -<h3>URINARY ORGANS OF THE OX.</h3> - -<p>The chief difference in these organs occurs in the -kidneys, which in the ox are larger, and in place of being -smooth, like those of the horse, are rough, resembling a -bunch of grapes. The bladder and the urinary organs -resemble those of the horse.</p> - - -<h3>GENERATIVE SYSTEM OF THE HORSE.</h3> - -<p>Animals possess the faculty of reproducing or propagating -their species, and this function may be non-sexual -or sexual, the former being confined to certain -lowly-organized classes of animals.</p> - -<p>In all the higher animals the generation of a new being -is dependent upon two individuals, a male and a female, -the female furnishing a germ, or ovum, the male -a fecundating fluid, or sperm, which animates the germ -and renders it fit for development.</p> - -<p>Both the ovum of the female and the sperm of the -male are secretions of glands, which are termed the genital -glands, male and female; and in either sex the generative -system may be said to consist of these glands, -with certain accessory organs. The act of coition brings -the two secretions into contact.</p> - -<p>We have two systems of genital organs to consider—the -male and the female.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Male.</span>—The genital organs of the horse are as follows: -The scrotum or bag, the testicles, the spermatic -cord, the vesiculae seminales or pouches which hold the -semen or sperm, the urethra, the penis and the sheath.</p> - -<p>The Scrotum is a sac or bag which contains the testicles. -It is situated between the hind legs, and is covered<span class="pagenum" title="59"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a></span> -on the outside by a very fine, soft skin. Passing -up in the center under the sheath the scrotum is a well -marked line in the skin called median raphe. This can -be plainly seen when the horse is on his back. It continues -up, gradually getting fainter until it reaches the -anus. Under the skin are layers of white fascia or tissue -which can be seen by cutting through the scrotum. -There is a partition in the scrotum separating the two -testicles. The size of the scrotum is affected very much -by the weather. In cold weather its fibres contract, -causing it to get very much smaller, while in warm -weather the fibres relax, causing it to become very much -larger. The scrotum contains, supports and protects -the testicles.</p> - -<p>The Testicles are the glands which secrete the semen -or sperm. They are two in number, one situated on the -left side and the other on the right. They are oval in -shape, and are attached above to the spermatic cord. -Before the animal is born the testicles are situated in -the abdominal cavity and attached to the serous membrane -which has already been spoken of in connection -with that cavity. At or about the time of birth, there -takes place what is known as the descent of the testicles -into the scrotum. In their downward course they pass -through a slit or small opening at the back part of the -muscles of the abdomen, where they are attached to the -under part of the hip bone. These slits or openings are -known as the inguinal rings. They can be felt in the -horse by pressing the fingers well up into the groins. -The descent of the testicles is an important point to remember. -If the testicle does not descend into the scrotum -the horse is known as a ridgling. In this case the -testicle is not found in the scrotum. At the front part -of the testicle there is a small ridge called the globus -major and at the back of it is another smaller ridge -called the globus minor. Passing between these two -ridges is another well marked ridge called the epididymis. -These can be easily seen by examining the testicle<span class="pagenum" title="60"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a></span> -after the animal is altered or castrated. The substance -of the testicle is made up of small glands and fine tubes.</p> - -<p>These tubes, as they pass towards the back of the -testicle, form into larger tubes and finally unite to form -one called the vas deferens.</p> - -<p>The Spermatic Cords, or the cords of the testicles, -are attached above to the inguinal rings or openings -mentioned before. They are about five or six inches -long and have the testicles attached to them below. In -each cord is found a small muscle which goes by the -name of the spermatic muscle, the rest of the cord being -made up of the spermatic artery, veins and nerves. -Running up at the back of these cords is found a tube -called the vas deferens. Around the spermatic cords -and testicles is a serous membrane, one layer being attached -to the testicle and cord, while the other is closely -attached around the inside of the scrotum. In this membrane -are small glands which secrete an oily fluid to lubricate -the parts, preventing friction when they are jolted -about in the scrotum. This fluid flies out as soon as -the scrotum is cut. This is important, because -sometimes from a slight injury the glands will secrete -a large amount of this fluid, thus causing the scrotum -to look large and swollen. This disease is known as -hydrocele or water in the scrotum.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Vas Deferens.</span>—These tubes are two in number -and are situated just behind the spermatic cords. They -are about an eighth of an inch in diameter and quite hard. -They carry the semen up the back part of the spermatic -cord through the inguinal rings, before mentioned. -They pass backward and upwards, one on each side, to -the upper part of the bladder, where they empty into -two small pouches or sacs, called the vesiculae seminales. -These store up the semen as it is secreted by the testicles, -and when full present the appearance of a pear.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Vesiculae Seminales.</span>—These sacs or pouches are -situated at the upper side, over the neck of the bladder, -one on each side. They have the vas deferens emptying<span class="pagenum" title="61"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a></span> -into them at the front end, while at the back end of each -is a small opening that leads out into another small tube -which passes backward and empties into the urethra, -mentioned before as carrying the urine out from the -bladder. These sacs or pouches store up the semen or -sperm of the horse. During sexual intercourse, these -pouches contract and force the semen through the little -tubes mentioned out into the urethra, leading down -through the penis.</p> - -<p>The Penis is the main organ of sexual intercourse. -Its substance is formed of what is known as erectile tissue, -which under certain circumstances becomes enormously -distended with blood. Passing up the under -side there is, what has already been mentioned, the -urethra, or the tube, which carries the urine out of the -body, and also in the act of intercourse carries the semen. -This is used for two purposes, as we have already -mentioned.</p> - -<p>The Sheath is a loose process of skin which passes -downward from the scrotum, generally from about five -to six inches, according to the size of the animal. It is -attached to each side, leaving a hole or opening in the -center through which the penis passes. The outside of -the sheath is covered by a thin, delicate skin similar to -that of the scrotum. It is lined inside by a membrane -containing many small glands, which secrete a thick, -dark fluid to lubricate this passage. Sometimes this -fluid collects in here and has the appearance of tar. This -is important, for when it collects to a large extent the -sheath should be washed.</p> - -<p>The Semen or sperm of the horse is a light fluid, -which, when examined under a microscope is found to -contain small objects called spermatozoa. These move -about, and when in the womb meet the ovum of the female, -which is secreted by a gland called the ovary. -When these two small objects unite, they form the -foetus, or what may be called the animal in its first stage -of development.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="62"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a></span></p> - - -<h3>FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS.</h3> - -<p>The female genital organs, or the organs of the mare, -are very much different from those of the horse. They -are known as follows: The ovaries, the fallopian tubes, -or tubes which carry the ovum from the ovaries to the -uterus or womb, the uterus or womb, the vagina, and the -vulva.</p> - -<p>The Ovaries in the mare correspond to the testicles -in the horse. Each is about the size of a pigeon’s egg, -and resembles it much in shape. They are held in place -by ligaments, and at the back part are provided with -tubes leading from them called the fallopian tubes. The -ovaries secrete the ovum or germ. This is a very minute -body, which, when examined under the microscope, is -found to be only 1-150 of an inch in diameter.</p> - -<p>The Fallopian Tubes are two canals, one on each -side. They pass backward and upward, and enter the -front part of the uterus or womb. These small tubes -are simply used to carry the germ or ovum up from the -ovaries and empty into the uterus or womb.</p> - -<p>The Uterus or Womb is a muscular sac situated in -the pelvic cavity, bounded above by the rectum, below -by the bladder, and on either side by the walls of the -pelvic cavity. It is divided into what is known as a body -and a neck. The body of the womb is very small, being -only about four to six inches in length and a couple of -inches in diameter when the animal is not pregnant. -Near the front end, at the upper side there are openings -by which the ovum enters. When the animal becomes -pregnant, the body of the womb becomes enlarged and -passes forward and to the left side of the abdominal -cavity. It continues to enlarge as the time of pregnancy -passes on, until the foetus, or young, has attained its -full size. After the mare has had her young, the womb -begins to get smaller until it attains its natural size -again. The womb is very largely supplied with blood -vessels and nerves. This is especially so when the animal<span class="pagenum" title="63"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a></span> -is pregnant, as it takes a large amount of blood to -nourish the foetus, or the young animal, before birth. It -is made up of three coats. The inner is called mucous -membrane, and in the mare, while pregnant, is covered -with numerous processes about the size of peas to which -the placenta or after-birth of the foal is attached. The -muscular coat is next to that of the mucous coat, and lies -between the outer and inner coats of the womb. It is -made up of muscular fibres, and is strong and thick in -the womb, much thicker than it is in the bowels or other -organs, already mentioned. This coat supports and protects -the foetus, or young, while being carried in the -womb, and at the time of parturition, or what is commonly -known as foaling, this coat also comes in use. -It contracts the womb very forcibly on the foal, while -the neck of the womb lies open, thus helping to force -the foal out of the womb. This is important as the contraction -of this coat produces what is known as labor -pains. Lying outside, and covering around the womb, -is a serous coat, a continuation of the serous coat of the -bowels. The womb is held in place by strong ligaments -attached to the sides, and from there to the hip bones. -These are called broad ligaments. At the back part of -the womb is the neck. It consists of an opening, formed -by a projection about the size of an egg. This has a -hard, gritty feeling when the animal is not in season. -The neck at this time is closed. The neck of the womb -is under control of the muscle around it, and this muscle -is under control of the nerves of the womb. When a -mare comes in season this muscle is relaxed to a certain -extent, thus allowing the neck to open wide enough for -the passage of a couple of fingers. By working around -it with the fingers at this period it can be forced wide -enough to admit a man’s hand. If the mare is put to the -horse at this time and becomes pregnant or with foal, -the muscles in the neck of the womb contract, firmly -closing it. It remains closed until the time of foaling. -When, at the time of foaling, the labor pains come on, -the muscle in the neck dilates, allowing the neck of the<span class="pagenum" title="64"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a></span> -womb to open large enough for the foal to pass out. The -neck of the womb can be felt easily by oiling the hand -and passing it into the passage of the womb. It will be -noticed, too, that the neck spoken of projects into the -passage.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">The Vagina and the Vulva.</span>—These two organs -together make up the passage which leads into the womb -from the outside. In the young mare they are separated -by a thin curtain, or partition, made up of mucous membrane. -This curtain is found about four inches from the -outside, and is known as the hymen. It is destroyed, or -should be, when the mare is first put to the horse, although -it is broken down other ways, and in some cases -it will disappear of its own accord. The part of the passage -in front of the hymen is called the vagina. This -passage, in structures, resembles the womb, but is not -so strong. There are numerous glands situated along -the inner lining which secretes a fluid to lubricate it. The -principle use of this organ is to guide the penis during -sexual intercourse, and at the time of foaling serves as -a passage for the foal. That part of the passage behind -the hymen is known as the vulva. It is about four -inches long and about two or three inches high, varying -according to the size of the mare. In front, it is separated -from the vagina by the hymen membrane. It -resembles the vagina in structure and is also provided -with little glands in its inner membrane to secrete fluid -to lubricate the passage. At the back part of the vulva -or around the outside is what is known as the lips of the -vulva, one on each side of the opening. The outside of -the lips is covered by a very fine skin. Just below the -skin, they consist of erectile tissue, which is the same -kind of tissue as that of the penis of the horse. This -tissue is found more abundantly in the lips of the vulva -of the young mare than in those of an old mare. The -opening between these lips is situated just below the -anus, or the opening where the back bowel ends. At -the back part of the vulva, on the under side, is an opening, -or hole, about large enough for the passage of a<span class="pagenum" title="65"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a></span> -man’s finger. Through this hole the tube leading from -the bladder enters into the passage and allows the urine -to pass into the vulva, through which it runs out of the -body. The clitoris is situated on the upper side of this -passage, just inside the lips. It can be seen in the mare -when she works the vulva after passing urine. Just below -the clitoris are found two or three small glands -which secrete the fluid that passes away when the mare -is horsing.</p> - -<p>Mammary Glands, or what is known as the mare’s -udder or bag, are two in number, situated between the -thighs. In the young mare they are very small, but -after the mare is pregnant a few months these glands -enlarge, until at foaling time they attain their largest -size. They are covered outside by a thin, smooth skin. -The substance of them consists of small glands and -tubes retain or hold milk until it is drawn away from the -bag either by milking or by the young animals sucking. -During the time of suckling the young, the glands are -largely supplied with blood, from which the milk is secreted. -On the under side of each gland is found the -teat, or that part taken hold of by the young when sucking. -The end of the teat is pierced by several small -holes, through which the milk passes.</p> - - -<h3>GENITAL ORGANS OF THE BULL.</h3> - -<p>The testicles are ovoid in shape and well developed, -its long axis being nearly vertical; the membrane which -separate the two testicles is very strong.</p> - -<p>The spermatic cord and artery are small compared -with those of the horse.</p> - -<p>The penis is long and pointed, and has an S-shaped -curve in it just below the pelvic bones; this curve can be -felt by feeling just behind the bag.</p> - -<p>The sheath is long and runs further forward on the -belly. It has a tuft of hair on the point of it. During -the time the bull is serving the S-shaped part of the penis<span class="pagenum" title="66"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a></span> -is straightened out by the action of the protracter muscles, -and drawn back into the S-shaped curve by retractor -muscles.</p> - -<p>The urethra is completely enveloped by the fibrous -sheath.</p> - - -<h3>GENITAL ORGANS OF THE COW.</h3> - -<p>The ovaries of the cow are comparatively smaller -than those of the mare, but resemble them in structure.</p> - -<p>The uterus or womb of the cow somewhat resembles -that of the mare, but the inner membrane is different, -being covered with sixty or eighty mushroom-like bodies -about the size of a pigeon’s egg, more flattened out. -These bodies receive the name of cotyledons; to these the -placenta or afterbirth is attached—a very important -point with which every person interested should be familiar. -These may be felt by examining a cow soon after -calving. The passage from the womb of the cow is -shorter than that of the mare, but is formed on the same -principles.</p> - -<p>The mammary glands constitute an organ termed -the <i>udder</i>, which is composed of two symmetrical halves, -placed one against the other. Each half is again divided -into two distinct glands, each with its own teat, so that -the udder consists of four mammae and four teats; behind -this there may be two small rudimentary teats. In -the center of each quarter, just at the base of the teat, is -a large cavity, the general receptacle of all the milk -ducts. From this cavity, which is sometimes large -enough to contain a quart, proceeds down the center of -the teat one defined canal from which the milk is drawn.</p> - -<p>In the small ruminants as the sheep and goat there -are two mammae and two teats, constructed like those of -the cow.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" title="67"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>ANGIOLOGY.</h3> - - -<p class="tac"><b>Blood-Vascular System of the Horse.</b></p> - -<p>Under this heading we describe the organs of circulation, -by the action of which certain fluids are propelled -through the body. It is customary to divide this branch -of the subject into two sections, considering respectively -the blood-vascular and lymphatic systems.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Blood-Vascular System.</span>—This involves the consideration -of the blood, a fluid which supplies nutriment -to the tissues and receives effete material from them; the -heart, a muscular organ which, by its contraction, initiates -the motion of the blood; the arteries, a series of tubes -which convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the -body; the veins, tubes which return that fluid to the -heart; and the capillaries, minute tubes joining the small -arteries and veins.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Blood.</span>—Blood is a fluid tissue, which nourishes all -living structures, being the medium by which nutritive -material is conveyed to, and effete or waste material conveyed -away from the solid tissues. It is an opaque, thickish, -clammy liquid, with a peculiar odor, sickly saline -taste, and alkaline reaction. Its color varies in different -parts of the same animal, that in the arteries being bright -red or scarlet, while the blood in the veins is of a dark -purplish hue.</p> - -<p>When examined microscopically, the blood is found -to consist of minute corpuscles, and a clear, transparent, -yellow fluid, the liquor sanguinis, or plasma, in which -the corpuscles float. The corpuscles are of two kinds, -the red and the white or colorless; the former, by far -more numerous, vary in proportion. Red corpuscles vary -in shape, but in all mammals (animals that suckle their<span class="pagenum" title="68"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a></span> -young) are more or less flat, the families excepted where -they are oval, as in birds, reptiles, and fish, which -are also nucleated. Their average diameter in the -horse, ox or sheep is about 1/4000th part of an inch, their -average thickness being about one-fourth of this. Each -surface is depressed towards its center, hence the corpuscle -is appropriately described as a bi-concaved disc.</p> - -<p>The white corpuscles are larger than the red, round -in shape, and nucleated.</p> - -<p>The liquor sanguinis is pale and clear, and consists -of water, fibrin, albumen, fatty compounds, extracts, -odoriferous and saline matters. The serum is a thin, -transparent liquid, of a pale-straw or yellow color, consisting -of the liquor sanguinis deprived of fibrin. It contains -nearly 90 per cent of water, is always slightly alkaline, -and coagulates when heated, owing to the large -quantity of albumen it contains. Fibrin is a white, -stringy elastic substance, which, when the blood is in circulation, -is in solution, and cannot be distinguished from -the other constituents of the plasma.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Heart.</span>—The heart is the principal organ of circulation; -it weighs about six and one-half pounds in the average -horse and acts as a force pump to force the blood -through the arteries. It is composed of strong muscular -tissue, which acts involuntarily, and is situated between -the lungs, which are divided by what is known as the -mediastinum. This is a division between the lungs made -up of two folds, the heart being between them. The bottom -or apex, of the heart is downward and rests just -above the breast-bone; the upper part, or base is directed -upward and to the left side, the left lung having a depression -on its inner surface for the heart to work in. -There is a covering or sack around the heart which helps -to protect and support it in its place. It is attached -above to the back-bone, and below to the bones of the -breast. This sack is made up of fibrous tissue and is of a -whitish appearance; inner surface is smooth, and supplied -with numerous small glands which secrete an oily -substance called serous fluid. This lubricates the outer -surface of the heart and the inner surface of the sack so -that in action it does not irritate the walls or surfaces. -The cavity of the heart is divided into two parts, the -right and left sides; each of these parts is again subdivided. -The upper cavity is called auricle and the lower -cavity ventricle; thus there are the right and left ventricle -and right and left auricle. The right auricle communicates -with the right ventricle by an opening in the -septum or partition on the right side of the heart. This -opening is guarded by a valve to keep the blood from -flowing back into the auricle. The left auricle communicates -with the left ventricle, same as on the right side. -The right side of the heart is sometimes called the venous -side and contains only venous or impure blood. The -left side is sometimes called the arterial side. It contains -pure blood only. This side of the heart is very much -stronger and thicker than the right side.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a id="Pl_V"></a> -<img src="images/i080.jpg" width="600" height="514" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="tac">THE HEART AND THE CHIEF BLOOD VESSELS OF THE HORSE—AFTER MEGNIN.</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="69"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a></span></p> -<p class="head2">EXPLANATION OF PLATE V</p> - -<p class="tac"><span class="smcap">Blood-Vascular System of the Horse</span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table width="450" class="fs80" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>1.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Heart, right ventricle.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>18.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Coeliac axis.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>2.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Heart, left ventricle.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>19.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Mesenteric arteries.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>3.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Heart, left auricle.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>20.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Renal artery (left).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>4.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Pulmonary artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>21.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Small testicular artery.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>5.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Pulmonary veins.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>22.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Posterior vena cava.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>6.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Anterior aorta.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>23.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Portal vein.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>7.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Carotid artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>23´.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Hepatic circulation.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>8.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Glosso-facial artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>24.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">External iliac artery.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>9.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Left brachial artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>25.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Internal iliac artery.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>10.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Dorsal artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>26.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Lateral sacral artery.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>11.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Superior cervical artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>27.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Femoral artery.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>12.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Vertebral artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>28.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Posterior tibial artery.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>12′.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Internal thoracic artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>28′.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Anterior tibial artery.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>13.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Humeral artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>28″.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Femoro-popliteal artery.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>14.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Radial artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>29.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Metatarsal vessels.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>14′.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat vat">Cubital artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>30.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Venous plexus of the foot.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>15.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Great metacarpal artery.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>31.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Internal saphenic vein.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>16.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Ungual branches.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>32.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Cephalic vein.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tar vat"><div>17.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Posterior aorta.</td><td class="tar vat"><div>33.</div></td><td class="tal pl2hi1 vat">Jugular vein.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="70"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a></span></p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Arteries.</span>—Arteries are tubes the purpose of which -is to convey the blood from the heart. For this reason it -is apparent that all arteries carry pure arterial blood with -but one exception. The pulmonary artery carries the -blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, and consequently -carries impure or venous blood. Each time the -left ventricle contracts it causes a wave, as it were, to pass -all through the arteries. This contraction takes place -when in a healthy condition about 36 to 42 times every -minute and gives rise to what is known as the pulse. This -wave, or beating, may be detected at any point where the -artery is situated so closely to the surface as to affect the -outside of the body sufficient to be felt by placing the -finger on the point; consequently the pulse may be -counted at any of these points. Place your forefinger on -the lower edge of your own lower jaw directly under the -corner of your mouth. At this point an artery passes -out over the jaw bone and therefore runs very close to -the surface, making it quite possible to feel the wave -caused by the contraction of your own heart, quite dis<span class="pagenum" title="71"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a></span>tinctly. -Near this point on the jaw of the horse the pulse -is most conveniently felt and counted.</p> - -<p>The walls of the arteries are composed of elastic tissue -and after death are always lying open. Blood is -never found in them after death because they continue -to contract sufficiently long enough to force all the blood -through them.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Veins.</span>—Veins are tubes in construction not so -strong as the arteries—the purpose of which is to convey -the blood from all parts of the body to the heart. The -heart wave does not affect the veins, and consequently -the pulse cannot be detected by placing the finger on an -exposed portion of one of them. It is also apparent that -all veins carry impure or venous blood with but one exception, -viz., the pulmonary vein, the purpose of which -is to conduct the purified blood from the lungs to the -heart.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Capillaries.</span>—The small arteries terminate in a system -of minute vessels—the capillaries—which are interposed -between the termination of the arteries and the -commencement of the veins, forming plexuses (network) -which vary much in arrangement. Their average diameter -is about 2/1000ths of an inch, varying in different -construction of the organs, smallest in the brain and mucous -membrane of the intestines, larger in the skin, in -glands, and the interior of bones. All arteries do not -terminate in capillaries, an exception being in erectile -tissue of the penis, where arteries end in cells or cavities -placed at the origin of the veins. As the blood passes -slowly through these capillaries, the nourishment is absorbed -from it through their very thin walls to supply the -tissues of the body. When the blood passes through this -capillary network it again enters into large vessels called -the veins, which carry it on its way back to the heart.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Course of the Blood.</span>—We have seen that the -heart is divided into a right or venous, and a left or arterial -portion. The blood is pumped by the heart to all -parts of the body, through the arteries, passing through<span class="pagenum" title="72"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a></span> -the capillary system, where it parts with its nourishment, -is collected and returned to the heart by the veins, is again -pumped by the heart to the lungs, where it is purified -and returned to the heart to again commence the circuit -as before.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Lymphatic System.</span>—The lymphatic or absorbent -system is closely connected with the blood-vascular system, -and is made up of very fine minute tubes and glands. -These convey from the tissues of the body a clear fluid -known as lymph, and pours it into the blood of the veins -as it is on its way back to the heart. These glands are -found all through the body; for instance, there is a large -group inside the thigh or stifle joint of the horse, and another -large group inside the shoulder. It is important -to note these, as they sometimes become inflamed and the -leg is swollen. They are then the seat of the disease -called weed in the leg, or lymphangitis.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="epubonly"> -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a id="Pl_VIa"></a> -<img src="images/i086.jpg" width="600" height="492" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="tac">NERVOUS SYSTEM OF A HORSE—AFTER MEGNIN.</p></div> - -<p class="fs90"> -<i>1. Brain.</i><br /> -<i>2. Spinal cord.</i><br /> -<i>3. Brachial plexus.</i><br /> -<i>4. Sacrolumbar plexus.</i><br /> -<i>5. Pneumogastric.</i><br /> -<i>6. Sciatic.</i><br /> -<i>7. Sympathetic System.</i><br /> -<i>8. Solar plexus.</i> -</p> - -</div> -</div> - -<div class="htmlonly mt1em"> -<div class="sandbagbox"> -<a id="Pl_VIb"></a> -<div id="imgi086"> -<div id="imgi086a"></div> -<div id="imgi086b"></div> - -<p class="fs90"> -<i>1. Brain.</i><br /> -<i>2. Spinal cord.</i><br /> -<i>3. Brachial plexus.</i><br /> -<i>4. Sacrolumbar plexus.</i><br /> -<i>5. Pneumogastric.</i><br /> -<i>6. Sciatic.</i><br /> -<i>7. Sympathetic System.</i><br /> -<i>8. Solar plexus.</i> -</p> - -<div id="imgi086c"></div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="caption"><p class="tac">NERVOUS SYSTEM OF A HORSE—AFTER MEGNIN.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="73"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a></span></p> - - - -<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> - -<h3>NEUROLOGY.</h3> - - -<p>This illustration shows where the brain, spinal canal -and the principal nerves of the horse are located.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Study of the Nerves.</span>—The nervous system is a -very important set of organs controlling the motion of -the various members of the body and supplying the different -senses of feeling, seeing, hearing, smelling and -tasting. The two principal organs of the nervous system -are the brain and spinal cord.</p> - -<p>The brain is the center of the whole nervous system, -and is situated in the cranial cavity, surrounded by three -delicate membranes, the outer one being attached to the -inner wall of the bones forming the brain cavity. The -brain contains several important nerves called cranial -nerves, which are given off from the brain and pass down -through the various foramen or openings in the head to -supply the different organs situated there. The optic -nerve passes down to the eye, giving the sense of sight. -The auditory nerve passes down to the drum of the ear -to give the sense of hearing. The olfactory nerves, which -give the sense of smell, are situated in the mucous membrane -lining the nose. The nerves passing down to the -tongue give the sense of taste. Other nerves pass down -to the lips, teeth, mouth and face, giving motion and feeling -to the parts mentioned. Others pass down to the -pharynx or gullet, giving it the power of swallowing.</p> - -<p>The spinal cord passes from the brain through the -openings in the bones of the back, which gives off numerous -small nerves that supply the muscles of the back -with motion and feeling. Nearly opposite the shoulder -blade the spinal cord gives off a large trunk of nerves, -portion of which supplies the heart and lungs with nervous<span class="pagenum" title="74"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a></span> -power. This is a point of importance, for if the spinal -cord becomes injured in front of these nerves immediate -death is the result. The other portions of this trunk of -nerves supply the shoulder, chest and muscles of the front -legs. Passing backward along the spinal cord is found -the sympathetic system of nerves, which go to supply -the bowels, stomach, liver, kidneys, and other organs situated -in the abdominal cavity. Coming backwards along -the spinal cord to about opposite the hip bones, is another -set of nerves, one of which goes to supply the rectum, -or back bowels. Others go to the generative and urinary -organs where they assist in performing their functions. -Other nerves pass to the small organs situated in the pelvic -cavity; some of these nerves pass down to the hind -legs, supplying them with nervous power. The remainder -of the nerves go to supply the tail.</p> - -<p>The difference between the nervous system of a horse -and other animals is not worth mentioning.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" title="75"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>AESTHESIOLOGY.</h3> - - -<p>The study of organs of special sense, the ear, eye and -organs of special sensation, skin, hair, foot, etc.</p> - - -<h3>THE EAR.</h3> - -<p>The apparatus of hearing is composed of three parts -the outer, middle, and inner ear; the two first being accessory -for the collection and transmission of sounds, and -the latter the essential organ which receives the impressions -thus conveyed.</p> - -<p>The inner part, or drum, of the ear, is situated in the -hardest bone of the body, called the petrosal. The nerve -which passes into the drum of the ear and gives the sense -of hearing, is called the auditory nerve. From the drum -a small opening passes out into the outer part of the -ear; this is the portion which is seen on top of the head. -It is made up of a membrane known as the cartilage, -which gives the ear its stiffness. This cartilage is covered -by a fine, delicate skin, covered on the outside by fine, -short hair. Situated on the inner side of the outer ear -are numerous long hairs projecting outward, the use of -which is to keep foreign bodies from dropping into the -ear. The ear is moved backward and forward by small -muscles which are attached around it.</p> - - -<h3>THE EYE.</h3> - -<p>The apparatus of vision comprises the essential -organ, the globe of the eye or eyeball, and its accessory -parts or appendages. The eyeball is situated -in the orbital fossa, mentioned in chapter on the bones of -the head. It is chiefly made up of several coats around<span class="pagenum" title="76"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a></span> -the outside, and in the center by the humours of the eye. -On the inner side of these coats is a thin membrane called -the retina, which contains the branches of the optic nerve. -This receives the reflections of objects as they pass -through the humours of the eye and from which the sensation -passes along the optic nerve to the brain. The oblong -opening seen in the middle of the eye is known as -the pupil. If a horse be led from a dark stall into the -light and the pupils of the eyes watched closely, it will -be noticed that they get smaller, but on returning it to -the stall the pupils will be noticed to dilate or get larger; -thus it is seen that the pupils do not always remain the -same size. The chief use of the pupil is to gauge the -sight. At the back part of the eye are several muscles attached -from around the eye to the bones in the fossa. -These muscles move the eye and assist in holding it to its -place. Around the front part are two movable curtains, -one above and the other below, called eyelids, the use of -which is to open and close the eye, and also to protect it -from injuries. Around the free border of the eyelids are -what is known as the eyelashes, which keep foreign substances -from falling into the eye. Situated in the inner -angle is what is known as the haw of the eye; this membrane -also helps to protect it. In the corner of this -angle is a small duct or opening, through which a fluid -called the tears passes down into the nasal tubes, from -whence it is carried down through the bones of the head -and emptied into the under part of the nostril or nose. -A small gland is situated on the upper part of the eye. -This gland secretes the tears which lubricates the eyes. -The color of the eye is generally brown, but in some cases -it is white. It is then called a moon eye.</p> - - -<h3>THE SKIN.</h3> - -<p>The skin is a membrane or external casing of the -body. The skin itself consists of two layers covered -with hair, fine or coarse, long or short, according to its -position or purpose which nature intended it to serve.<span class="pagenum" title="77"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a></span> -The outer layer is called the epidermis, the inner the -dermis.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">The Epidermis.</span>—The epidermis is the outer layer. -It is not supplied with nerves and blood vessels, its purpose -being to protect the inner layer. This layer undergoes -a continual process of being made up and passing -away in dandruff.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">The Dermis.</span>—The dermis or true skin lies under -the epidermis. It is well supplied with nerves and blood -vessels, part of the nerves being the nerves of touch. -This fact accounts for its becoming so very sensitive and -painful when through injury of any kind the outer layer -is scraped off. It is attached to the body by a layer of -white tissue known as the areolor tissue, this being that -which is cut through when the animal is being skinned. -The thickness of the skin varies in different parts of the -body, being thinnest in the under parts. The sweat -glands are situated in the dermis.</p> - - -<h3>THE HAIR.</h3> - -<p>There are three kinds of hair on the horse—the common, -the finest of the three, covers most of the body; that -of the mane and tail, coarse and long; and that growing -on the muzzle or nose and lips, long and usually black, -known as tactile or cat hairs.</p> - -<p>On the inside of the front legs, just above the knee, -and on the inside of the hind legs, above the hock, are -rough, horny spots. These are called chestnuts.</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="78"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"> -<a id="Pl_VII"></a> -<img src="images/i093.jpg" width="420" height="533" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="tac">CROSS SECTION OF THE FOOT OF THE HORSE.</p></div> -</div> - - -<p class="head2">EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Anatomy of the Foot.</span>—This illustration represents -the foot of a horse sawed from above the fetlock -down through the center of the foot. It shows the structure -of the foot, the name of each part being given according -to number.</p> - -<p>1. Lower end of large metacarpal, or cannon bone.</p> - -<p>2. Bursa, which secretes the joint oil that lubricates -the place where the tendon, or cord, on the front of the -leg passes down over the front of the fetlock joint. This -is important as it sometimes gets injured and becomes -enlarged. It is then called a bursal enlargement, and is -of the same nature as a wind gall.</p> - -<p>3. Fetlock joint.</p> - -<p>4. Os suffraginis, or large pastern bone.</p> - -<p>5. Pastern joint. This joint is important; when -diseased it is the seat of a high ringbone.</p> - -<p>6. Os coronae or small pastern bone.</p> - -<p>7. Coffin joint. This joint is important, for when -it is diseased it is known as a low ringbone.</p> - -<p>8. Wall of the hoof.</p> - -<p>9. Os pedis, or coffin bone.</p> - -<p>10. Sensitive wall, or quick of the foot.</p> - -<p>11. Sensitive sole, or quick of the foot.</p> - -<p>12. Frog of the foot, or horney frog.</p> - -<p>13. Plantar cushion, or fatty frog.</p> - -<p>14. Navicular bone. This is also important, for -when diseased it is the seat of navicular, or coffin joint -lameness.</p> - -<p>15. Back tendons below the fetlock.</p> - -<p>16. Sesamoid, or fetlock bones.</p> - -<p>17. Skin.</p> - -<p>18. Back tendons above the fetlock.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Foot.</span>—In equine anatomy the word “foot” implies -the hoof, together with the bones and soft structures contained<span class="pagenum" title="79"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a></span> -therein. Many of these objects have already been -described, so that our description here will be confined -almost to the hoof and the structures with which it comes -into immediate contact internally.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wall of the Foot.</span>—The wall is that part of the -hoof seen when the foot is resting flat on the ground. -It is divided into the toe, the quarters, the heels and the -bars. The toe forms the front, and is the thickest and -strongest part of the wall. The quarters are situated -at the side. The walls are not nearly so thick here as at -the toe, but are almost straight up and down. The heels -are situated at the back part of the foot. From the heel -is a process of hoof, which looks like a bar, passing forward -between the frog and the sole of the foot; this can -be seen plainly by raising up the foot. There is one of -these at each side of the frog. They act as braces to -the heel and the quarters of the wall; these are called the -bars. Covering the outside of the wall is a fine membrane -called the periople, which gives the hoof its polished -appearance. This can be seen best when the hoof -is well washed off, as it is after traveling through wet -grass. This membrane keeps the moisture in the hoof -and protects it from water. This is a point of importance -in shoeing horses, as it is very injurious to file the -wall too much. Around the top part of the wall, where -it unites with the skin, is a groove which contains a white -band, called the coronary substance, or band. This -nourishes the wall of the hoof, or, in other words, it is -from this that the wall of the hoof grows. The under -part of the wall, or that which rests on the ground in the -unshod animal, is called the spread of the foot. On the -inside of the wall, attaching it to the bone of the foot -called the os pedis, is the part called the quick, or sensitive -laminae. It is important to note this when driving nails -in shoeing. The nail should not be driven into this membrane, -nor should it be even pressed upon, for it is very -sensitive. When a nail has been driven so as to injure -the membrane it is a common expression to say, “You -have pricked that horse’s foot.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" title="80"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a></span></p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Sole of the Foot.</span>—The sole is a thick plate of horn -which helps to form the under part of the hoof. It is situated -between the inner border of the under part of the wall -already mentioned and the front of the frog. The under -part of the sole is concave, or hollowed out. The upper -part of the sole is attached to the under surface of the -os pedis bone, or bone of the foot, by a membrane called -the quick, or sensitive sole—this membrane is merely a -continuation of the sensitive laminae. The outer part -of the sole is attached to the inner part of the wall. When -pared down a white ring is seen where the sole and the -wall unite. At the back part of the sole there is a notch -the shape of the letter V; in this notch the frog is situated. -It is important to remember when shoeing never -to let the shoe rest on any part of the sole; neither is it -well to pare off too much of the barky-looking substance -of the sole, as this helps to keep the moisture in the foot. -When this is taken off it allows the moisture to escape -and the hoof becomes dry and contracted.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Frog of the Foot.</span>—The frog is the important -spongy horn found in the V-shaped notch in the back of -the sole. It is wide at the back and helps to form the heel -of the foot; the pointed part in front is called the apex -of the frog. The under part of the frog is triangular in -shape and has a hollow in it called the cleft of the frog. -There is a hollow at each side of the frog, between it and -the bars, called the commissures of the frog. On the upper -part is a membrane, known as the sensitive frog, -which attaches it to the under part of the os pedis, or foot -bone. This membrane is simply a continuation of the -sensitive sole spoken of in connection with the sole. The -back part of the frog is the widest part and spreads out -to form the heel.</p> - -<p>The study of the foot of the horse is of the greatest -practical importance, owing to the many diseases and -injuries to which it is liable. It resolves itself here into -the consideration of the hoof or horny case, and the parts -contained within it.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" title="81"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>EMBRYOLOGY.</h3> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The Development of the Young.</span>—We must here -first speak of the ovum or germ, which is secreted by -the ovary of the mare. Every time she comes in season -(which occurs every three weeks during the hot weather) -this ovum passes down the tubes before the womb as before -mentioned, where it remains a few days and then -dies if she is not put to the horse; but if, during the time -this ovum is in the womb she is put to the horse and one -of the spermatozoa from the semen of the horse comes -in contact with it (the ovum) and a union of these takes -place, then the rest of the semen dies and passes away, -and the neck of the womb contracts gradually until it is -perfectly tight. These two little bodies begin to grow -when united and form the foetus, or foal. The foetus -may be for convenience divided into three parts, viz.: -the foetus proper, the navel string, and the placenta. -The placenta is the part which is found covering the foal -and is attached to the little pea-like elevations on the inside -of the womb. This covering is found to be full of -small blood vessels which finally unite to form two larger -vessels, known as the navel veins. These carry the blood -up through the navel opening of the foal and then to its -heart. By the action of the heart it is forced all through -the body of the foal and returned again to the heart. It -is then forced down another artery to the navel opening, -along the navel cord, into the placenta again, where it is -distributed through the small blood vessels. When the -blood comes down this cord from the foal it is in its -impure state, and while it is passing through -these small vessels in the placenta it comes very -close to the small blood vessels in the womb. The -blood is cleansed and nourished from the blood of its<span class="pagenum" title="82"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a></span> -mother by a process similar to that which was spoken of -when describing the lungs. The foetus, or foal, does -not grow so fast the first month as it does later on. At -the age of seventeen weeks the first hair appears on the -lips and the tip of the tail. Between the thirty-fifth and -the fortieth week the foal begins to show signs of life, -and is completely covered with hair. After this time it -grows very rapidly and may be seen moving around by -watching the flank closely. The mare carries her foal -eleven months, but in some cases an aged mare has been -known to carry her foal over twelve months. In rare -cases young mares may lack a few days of eleven months.</p> - - -<p class="tac">The Average Periods of Gestation of Domestic -Animals.</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="comparative gestation periods"> -<tr><td class="tal">Mare</td><td class="tar pl15"><div>11</div></td><td class="tal">months</td><td class="tal pl3">Goat</td><td class="tal pl15">5</td><td class="tar"><div>months</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Ass</td><td class="tar pl15"><div>12</div></td><td class="tal">months</td><td class="tal pl3">Sow</td><td class="tal pl15"><span class="nowrap">3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></span></td><td class="tar"><div>months</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Cow</td><td class="tar pl15"><div>9</div></td><td class="tal">months</td><td class="tal pl3">Bitch</td><td class="tal pl15">9</td><td class="tar"><div>weeks</div></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tal">Sheep</td><td class="tar pl15"><div>5</div></td><td class="tal">months</td><td class="tal pl3">Cat</td><td class="tal pl15">8</td><td class="tar"><div>weeks</div></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>Note—A mare having been served by a stallion may -occasionally in the course of four or five weeks, manifest -a desire for a second visit from the male; is again served -and conceives both times. This is known as superfoetation. -Such a case has been recorded by a veterinarian; -the animal in question, a mare, giving birth to a horse -colt and a mule colt, both dead. The mare had been -covered by a jack and subsequently by a horse.</p> - -<p class="pt1"><span class="smcap">Signs of Pregnancy.</span>—The veterinarian is occasionally -called upon to give an opinion as to the pregnancy -or non-pregnancy, of an animal and consequently should -familiarize himself with the various indications which -tend to prove the absence, or presence, of this condition. -As a rule, when the mare conceives, heat, or the desire -for the male, is no longer observable, and, on being led -to the horse, she not only refuses to receive his caresses, -but assumes the offensive, viciously striking and biting -at him until led away. Soon the hair becomes more<span class="pagenum" title="83"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a></span> -glossy, and the mare becomes quieter in disposition. This -change is usually well marked in mares that are of a -vicious disposition. The abdomen gradually enlarges as -pregnancy advances, the right side being a little larger -than the left. This enlargement is especially well marked -in the cow. In some cases the beating of the foetal heart -may be heard with the assistance of the stethoscope. Such -an examination is, however, very likely to give rise to -mistakes. After the eighth month well-marked symptoms -of pregnancy are manifested, the belly at this time -being considerably distended, the back sinking, etc. Before -this time it is, however, impossible to make a positive -statement as to the condition of the animal except by -making a very close and thorough examination per rectum. -The rectum should be cleared out by means of an -enema (injection) of tepid water; the hand and arm -should be well oiled and passed into the rectum. The -region of the uterus being reached, an examination may -be made of its condition. As the time for parturition approaches, -the ligaments relax to a greater or less degree, -and a well-marked depression or sinking in the lumbosacral -region may be observed, the udder or bag enlarges, -and milk is secreted. The secretion of milk sometimes -appears long before the time of parturition, and has frequently -been noticed to take place in animals that have -never been bred. As a rule the animal shows slight uneasiness -for a day or two before parturition, slight abdominal -pain, etc., being manifested. About this time -the vulva becomes larger, and presents more or less tumefaction. -There may also be observed a flow of mucous -taking place from the vulva for a day or two before parturition.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2>INDEX</h2> - -<p class="fs85"> -HORSE<br /> -Descriptive Anatomy, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> -Dissection, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> -<br /> -BONES<br /> -Osteology<br /> -Back Bones, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -Breast Bone, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Cannon Bone, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Carpus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Cervical Vertebrae, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -Classes of Bones, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> -Coccygeal Vertebrae, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Coffin Bone, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Contents of Bones, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> -Distal Phalanx, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Dorsal Vertebrae, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -Femur, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -Fibula, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> -Fore-arm Bone (large), <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Fore-arm Bone (small), <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Hip Bones, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Hock Bones, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> -Humerus, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Knee, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Loin Bones, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -Lumbar Vertebrae, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -Median Phalanx, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Metacarpal, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Metatarsus, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -Neck Bones, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -Os Coronae, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Os Metacarpi Magnus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Os Metatarsi Magnum, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -Os Naviculare, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -Os Pedis, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Os Suffraginis, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Ossa Metatarsi Parva, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -Ossa Metacarpi Parva, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Pastern Bone (large), <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Pastern Bone (small), <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Patella, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -Pelvic Bones, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Proximal Phalanx, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Radius, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Ribs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Rump Bones, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Sacral Vertebrae, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Scapula, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Sesamoid Bones, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Shoulder Blade, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -Shoulder Bone, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Shuttle Bone, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -Skeleton, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -Skull, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -Splint Bones (fore limb), <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Splint Bones (hind limb), <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -Sternum, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Stifle Bone, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -Structure of Bones, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -Tail Bones 12<br /> -Tarsus, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> -Thigh Bone, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -Tibia, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> -Ulna, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -<br /> -JOINTS<br /> -ARTHROLOGY<br /> -Adipose Tissue, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> -Cartilage, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -Connective Tissue, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -Elastic Tissue (Yellow), <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> -Fat, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> -Ligaments, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> -Synovial Membranes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> -Synovia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> -<br /> -Joints<br /> -Carpus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> -Classes of Joints, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> -Coffin Joint, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> -Elbow Joint, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> -Fetlock Joint, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> -Hip Joint, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> -Hock Joint, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> -Joints of the Front Leg, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> -Joints of the Hind Leg, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> -Knee Joint, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> -Motion in Joints, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> -Pastern Joint, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> -Shoulder Joint, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> -Stifle Joint, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> -Tarsus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> -<br /> -MYOLOGY<br /> -Abdominal Muscles, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -Back Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Coccygeal Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Deep Layer of Muscles, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> -Gluteal Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Gullet Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Head Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Hip Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Involuntary Muscles, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -Leg Muscles (front), <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> -Leg Muscles (hind), <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> -Muscles, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -Neck Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Pharynx Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Shoulder Muscles, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -Superficial Layer of Muscles, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Tail Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Voluntary Muscles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -<br /> -SPLANCHNOLOGY<br /> -Air Cells, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Bladder, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> -Bowels, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -Breathing, Normal, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> -Bronchial Tubes, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Canine Teeth, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Cementum (or crusta petrosa), <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -Dentine (or ivory), <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -Digestive Apparatus, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> -Enamel, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -Fallopian Tubes, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -Female Genital Organs, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -Generative, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> -Incisor Teeth, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Kidneys, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> -Larynx, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Liver, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -Lungs, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> -Male, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> -Mammary Glands, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -Molar Teeth, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Nasal Chambers, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -Nostrils, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -Organs of Respiration, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -Ovaries, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -Pancreas, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -Penis, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> -Permanent Teeth, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Rectum, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> -Respiration, <a href="#Page_54">54–55</a><br /> -Respiratory System of the Horse, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -Salivary Glands, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> -Scrotum, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> -Semen, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> -Sheath, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> -Spleen, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -Sperm, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> -Spermatic Cords, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> -Stomach, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> -Teeth, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -Teeth Tables (comparative), <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -Temporary Teeth, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Testicles, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -Ureters, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> -Urethra, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> -Urinary System, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> -Uterus, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -Vagina, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> -Vas Deferens, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> -Vesiculae Seminales, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> -Vulva, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> -Windpipe or Trachea, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Wolf Teeth, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Womb, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -<br /> -ANGIOLOGY<br /> -Arteries, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> -Blood, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> -Blood-vascular System, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> -Capillaries, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> -Circulation, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> -Corpuscles, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> -Course of Blood, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> -Heart, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -Liquor Sanguinis, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -Lymphatic System, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> -Veins, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> -<br /> -NEUROLOGY<br /> -Brain, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> -Spinal Cord, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> -<br /> -AESTHESIOLOGY<br /> -Anatomy of the Foot, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> -Dermis, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> -Ear, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> -Epidermis, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> -Eye, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> -Foot Sole, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> -Foot Frog, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> -Foot Wall, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> -Frog of Foot, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> -Hair, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> -Skin, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -Sole of Foot, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> -Wall of Foot, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> -<br /> -EMBRYOLOGY<br /> -Development of Young, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> -Gestation of Domestic Animals, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> -Pregnancy, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> -<br /> -COMPARATIVE ANATOMY<br /> -Abomasum, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -Air Cells, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Aves, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -Back Bones, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Bowels, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -Bronchial Tubes, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Carnivora, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -Cervical, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Chewing Cud, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -Coccygeal, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Comparative Osteology, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -Cud Chewing, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -Digestive System, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Dorsal, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Fourth Stomach, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -Genital Organs of the Bull, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -Genital Organs of the Cow, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> -Gullet, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Hip Bones, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -Honey Comb, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -Larynx, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Liver, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -Loin Bones, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Lumbar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Lungs, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> -Mammary Glands, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> -Many-plies, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -Neck Bones, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Normal Breathing, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> -Nostrils, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> -Oesophagus, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Omasum, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -Omnivora, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -Paunch, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -Pelvis Bones, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -Penis, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -Process of Digestion, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> -Respirations per Minute of Different Animals, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> -Respiratory System of the Ox, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> -Reticulum, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -Rumen, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -Ruminantia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Ruminantia (cud chewing animals), <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Rumination, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> -Rump Bones, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Sacrum, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Salivary, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Sheath, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -Skull, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Spermatic Cord, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -Stomach, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -Tail Bones, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Teeth, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Teeth, Front, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Teeth, Molars, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Testicles, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -Thoracic Cavity (lung cavity), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> -Tongue, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Trachea, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Urethra, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> -Uterus, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> -Urinary System of the Ox, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> -Vertebrae, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -Windpipe, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Womb, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p class="tac fs60 mt3em"> -<span class="smcap">Press of<br /> -Sweeney, Varney & Straub<br /> -Portland, Oregon</span> -</p> - - - -<div class="transnote mt3em"> -<a id="Spelling_inconsistencies"></a> -<p>Return to <a href="#Transcribers_notes">transcriber’s notes</a></p> - -<p><b>Spelling inconsistencies</b>:<br /> -after-birth/afterbirth<br /> -anus/annus<br /> -areolor/areolar<br /> -blood vessels/blood-vessels/bloodvessels<br /> -Œsophagus/oesophagus<br /> -pully/pulley<br /> -sweeney/sweeny<br /> -tendinous/tendonous<br /> -vertebræ/vertebrae/vertebraes<br /> -principle/principal not used strictly in accordance with present day usage -</p> - -<p><b>Spelling corrections</b>:<br /> -angilogy → angiology<br /> -Corpulscles → Corpuscles<br /> -cusion → cushion<br /> -Dessection → Dissection<br /> -discribing → describing<br /> -feltock → fetlock<br /> -femer → femur<br /> -Fermoro-popliteal → Femoro-popliteal<br /> -form → from<br /> -Forth → Fourth<br /> -heapitic → hepatic<br /> -lumlosacral → lumbosacral<br /> -mammelia → mammalia<br /> -Many Plies → Many-plies<br /> -mostened → moistened<br /> -muscles plays → muscles play<br /> -oposite → opposite<br /> -pannisulus → panniculus<br /> -planter → plantar<br /> -prefrom → perform<br /> -protracters → protracter<br /> -skining → skinning<br /> -thench → thence<br /> -through → though<br /> -vasiculae → vesiculae<br /> -Voscular → Vascular<br /> -</p> - -<p>Return to <a href="#Transcribers_notes">transcriber’s notes</a></p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Notes on Veterinary Anatomy, by Charles J. 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