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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ca69fe --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60854 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60854) diff --git a/old/60854-0.txt b/old/60854-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 04e242f..0000000 --- a/old/60854-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2887 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jeffersonians, 1801-1829, by -Richard B. Morris and James Woodress - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Jeffersonians, 1801-1829 - Voices from America's Past - -Author: Richard B. Morris - James Woodress - -Release Date: December 6, 2019 [EBook #60854] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JEFFERSONIANS, 1801-1829 *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - VOICES FROM AMERICA’S PAST - - - - - THE JEFFERSONIANS - 1801-1829 - - - Edited by - Richard B. Morris - Gouverneur Morris Professor of History - Columbia University - New York, New York - - James Woodress - Chairman, Department of English - San Fernando Valley State College - Northridge, California - - - WEBSTER PUBLISHING COMPANY - ST. LOUIS ATLANTA DALLAS - - VOICES FROM AMERICA’S PAST - _The Beginnings of America 1607-1763_ - _The Times That Tried Men’s Souls 1770-1783_ - _The Age of Washington 1783-1801_ - _The Jeffersonians 1801-1829_ - _Jacksonian Democracy 1829-1848_ - _The Westward Movement 1832-1889_ - _A House Divided: The Civil War 1850-1865_ - (_Other titles in preparation_) - - Copyright ©, 1961, by Webster Publishing Company - Printed in the United States of America - All rights reserved - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - -Preface v - I Jefferson’s Administration, 1801-1809 - -The Election and Inauguration 1 - Margaret Bayard Smith Describes the Election and Inauguration 2 - Jefferson’s First Inaugural Address 4 - -Burr Kills Hamilton 7 - David Hosack Describes Hamilton’s Last Hours 7 - -Marbury vs. Madison 10 - Excerpts from John Marshall’s Decision 10 - -The Louisiana Purchase 12 - Jefferson Writes to Robert Livingston 13 - The Lewis and Clark Expedition: Lewis’ Journal 14 - -The Embargo Act 18 - Washington Irving Satirizes the Embargo Act 19 - II Madison’s Administration, 1809-1817 - -Madison’s Inauguration 22 - Mrs. Smith’s Report 22 - -The War of 1812 24 - The _Constitution_ Defeats the _Guerrière_: Isaac Hull 25 - Commodore Perry Wins a Victory on Lake Erie: Oliver Perry 27 - The British Burn Washington: Dolly Madison 28 - The British Burn Washington: George Gleig 30 - The Battle of New Orleans: George Gleig 32 - The Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson 35 - III James Monroe’s Administration, 1817-1825 - -Early Days in the Mississippi Valley 37 - A Husking Bee in Ohio: William Cooper Howells 38 - Religion in Tennessee: Lorenzo Dow 40 - Davy Crockett Runs for Office 44 - Early Days in Illinois: Morris Birkbeck 47 - -Ominous Loomings: The Missouri Compromise, 1820 50 - Representative Arthur Livermore Argues Against Extending Slavery 50 - Senator James Barbour Defends Slavery 52 - Representative James Stevens Argues for the Compromise 53 - -The Monroe Doctrine 54 - Excerpts from the Monroe Doctrine 54 - IV John Quincy Adams - -Lighthouses in the Sky 56 - Excerpts from Adams’ First Message to Congress 56 - - - - -The selections by Margaret Bayard Smith, from _Forty Years of Washington -Society_, edited by Gaillard Hunt, which begin on pages 2 and 22, were -reprinted through the courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons. - -The picture on the cover and the picture on page 1, of the Lewis and -Clark Expedition, were reprinted through the courtesy of the John -Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company of Boston, Massachusetts. The -picture on page 22, of the _Constitution_ and the _Guerrière_, was -reprinted through the courtesy of the New York Public Library. The -picture of a political speaker on the Fourth of July on page 37 and the -picture of John Quincy Adams on page 56 were reprinted through the -courtesy of the Library of Congress. - - - - - Preface - - -The early part of the last century was an exciting time to live in -America. The signers of the Declaration of Independence and the framers -of the Constitution, mostly old men by now, saw that their experiment in -republican government had turned out to be a success. The nation was -flourishing in these years like a healthy adolescent. There were growing -pains, to be sure, but no one doubted now that the youngster would reach -manhood. The question was: What is he going to be like? - -The party battles of John Adams’ administration left the Federalist -Party in ruins, and Thomas Jefferson succeeded to the presidency with an -overwhelming popular mandate. During his first term, Jefferson increased -his popularity through buying from France the enormous Louisiana -Territory which doubled the size of the United States. By the time the -Lewis and Clark Expedition returned from exploring the new land, people -began to realize the immense possibilities that the Louisiana Purchase -held for the future of the United States. - -Jefferson’s second term was beset by foreign problems that culminated -eventually in the War of 1812, during James Madison’s administration. -Despite George Washington’s advice in his Farewell Address to stay out -of entangling foreign alliances, America could not avoid being affected -by events abroad. She was caught between the hammer and the anvil during -Napoleon’s wars with the rest of Europe. The War of 1812 settled no -issues but, soon afterward, the main Anglo-American problems left over -from the Revolution were adjusted. Napoleon’s downfall at Waterloo -removed France as an obstacle to American development. - -The period known as the “Era of Good Feeling” followed the War of 1812. -During the two terms of James Monroe, internal matters were the main -concern of the country: tariffs, banking, domestic improvements, the -admission of new states into the Union. With the Monroe Doctrine, which -warned Europe to respect the independence of Latin America, the United -States began to emerge as a power in the world. Even more important was -the appearance of storm warnings heralding the eventual coming of the -Civil War. The Missouri Compromise, which drew a line between slave and -free territory, established an uneasy truce between the North and the -South. - -By the time John Quincy Adams became the sixth President, sectionalism -was rapidly developing, and the balance of power between the East and -the West, the industrial North and the agricultural South, was beginning -to shift. The two-party system, which had largely disappeared with the -collapse of the Federalists in 1800, was revived. In 1828 the long -monopoly that Virginia and Massachusetts had enjoyed in supplying -American Presidents came to an end with the election of Andrew Jackson -of Tennessee and a new era began. - -The selections in this booklet reflect most of the significant events of -these years from 1801 to 1829. The Louisiana Purchase, the Lewis and -Clark Expedition, the War of 1812, the Missouri Compromise, all are -represented. In addition we have included accounts of some small events -and background descriptions which give the flavor of the age. A proper -notion of this period requires not only a knowledge of the major issues, -such as understanding the Embargo Act or the significance of the -_Marbury_ vs. _Madison_ decision, but also an appreciation of the -quality of the experience of being an American in the first quarter of -the nineteenth century. Hence we have used such documents as Lorenzo -Dow’s diary describing the life of a frontier preacher and Morris -Birkbeck’s account of settling in Illinois. - -In editing the manuscripts in this booklet, we have followed the -practice of modernizing punctuation, capitalization, and spelling only -when necessary to make the selections clear. We have silently corrected -misspelled words and typographical errors. Wherever possible we have -used complete selections, but occasionally space limitations have made -necessary cuts in the original documents. Such cuts are indicated by -spaced periods. In general, the selections appear as the authors wrote -them. - - Richard B. Morris - James Woodress - - - - - Jefferson’s Administration, 1801-1809 - - - [Illustration: The Lewis and Clark expedition] - - - - - The Election and Inauguration - - -On election day in 1800, Thomas Jefferson won a clear victory over John -Adams but almost did not became President. The Constitution required -that presidential electors cast two ballots; the winner became President -and the runner-up became Vice-President. Jefferson’s running mate, Aaron -Burr, who had been nominated for Vice-President, received 73 electoral -votes, the same number as Jefferson. This strange situation occurred -because the Constitutional Convention had not anticipated the rise of -party politics. When John Adams had defeated Jefferson in 1796, -Jefferson, as the runner-up, was elected Vice-President. If parties had -not developed by 1800, Adams, as Jefferson’s opponent, would surely have -become Vice-President. But because parties had arisen, all of -Jefferson’s electors gave Burr their second vote. (A repetition of this -kind of deadlock was avoided for future elections by the Twelfth -Amendment.) - -The Constitution stated that if the two leading candidates were tied, -the election should be decided by the House of Representatives. The -trouble was that in 1800 the House was controlled by the Federalists and -not by Jefferson’s party. The Federalists nearly elected Burr President -because they disliked him less than they disliked Jefferson. - - -Margaret Bayard Smith Describes the Election and Inauguration - -Fortunately for the country, Federalist Alexander Hamilton, who knew -Burr was unfit to be President, opposed his party’s plan to defeat -Jefferson. But while this crucial decision was being made, the nation -waited breathlessly. The excitement in Washington is recorded in the -following selection from the notebook of Margaret Bayard Smith, wife of -the editor of the _National Intelligencer_. - - It was an awful crisis. The people, who with such an overwhelming - majority had declared their will, would never peaceably have allowed - the man of their choice to be set aside and the individual they had - chosen as Vice-President to be put in his place. A civil war must have - taken place, to be terminated in all human probability by a rupture of - the Union. Such consequences were at least calculated on and excited a - deep and inflammatory interest. Crowds of anxious spirits from the - adjacent county and cities thronged to the seat of government and hung - like a thunder cloud over the Capitol, their indignation ready to - burst on any individual who might be designated as President in - opposition to the people’s known choice. The citizens of Baltimore, - who from their proximity were the first apprised of this daring - design, were with difficulty restrained from rushing on with an armed - force, to prevent—or if they could not prevent, to avenge this - violation of the people’s will and in their own vehement language to - hurl the usurper from his seat. - - Mr. Jefferson, then President of the Senate, sitting in the midst of - these _conspirators_, as they were then called, unavoidably hearing - their loudly whispered designs, witnessing their gloomy and restless - machinations, aware of the dreadful consequences which must follow - their meditated designs, preserved through this trying period the most - unclouded serenity, the most perfect equanimity. A spectator who - watched his countenance would never have surmised that he had any - personal interest in the impending event. Calm and self-possessed, he - retained his seat in the midst of the angry and stormy, though - half-smothered passions that were struggling around him, and by this - dignified tranquility repressed any open violence. Though insufficient - to prevent whispered menaces and insults, to these, however, he turned - a deaf ear and resolutely maintained a placidity which baffled the - designs of his enemies. - - The crisis was at hand. The two bodies of Congress met, the Senators - as witnesses, the Representatives as electors. The question on which - hung peace or war, nay, the union of the states was to be decided. - What an awful responsibility was attached to every vote given on that - occasion. The sitting was held with closed doors. It lasted the whole - day, the whole night. Not an individual left that solemn assembly; the - necessary refreshment they required was taken in rooms adjoining the - Hall. They were not like the Roman conclave legally and forcibly - confined; the restriction was self-imposed from the deep-felt - necessity of avoiding any extrinsic or external influence. Beds, as - well as food, were sent for the accommodation of those whom age or - debility disabled from enduring such a long-protracted sitting. The - balloting took place every hour—in the interval men ate, drank, slept - or pondered over the result of the last ballot, compared ideas and - persuasions to change votes, or gloomily anticipated the consequences, - let the result be what it would. - - With what an intense interest did every individual watch each - successive examination of the ballot-box; how breathlessly did they - listen to the counting of the votes! Every hour a messenger brought to - the editor of the _National Intelligencer_ the result of the ballot. - That night I never lay down or closed my eyes. As the hour drew near - its close, my heart would almost audibly beat, and I was seized with a - tremour that almost disabled me from opening the door for the expected - messenger.... - - For more than thirty hours the struggle was maintained, but finding - the Republican phalanx impenetrable, not to be shaken in their - purpose, every effort proving unavailing, the Senator from Delaware - [_James A. Bayard—actually a Representative_], the withdrawal of whose - vote would determine the issue, took his part, gave up his party, for - his country, and threw into the box a blank ballot, thus leaving to - the Republicans a majority. Mr. Jefferson was declared duly elected. - The assembled crowds, without the Capitol, rent the air with their - acclamations and gratulations, and the conspirators, as they were - called, hurried to their lodgings under strong apprehensions of - suffering from the just indignation of their fellow citizens. - - The dark and threatening cloud which had hung over the political - horizon rolled harmlessly away, and the sunshine of prosperity and - gladness broke forth and ever since, with the exception of a few - passing clouds, has continued to shine on our happy country. - - -Jefferson’s First Inaugural Address - -As the author of the Declaration of Independence and many memorable -state papers, Thomas Jefferson was, with Abraham Lincoln, one of our two -greatest presidential writers. The following speech, which he delivered -on March 4, 1801, is an eloquent statement of democratic principles. -Jefferson approached the office of President with humility and a -conciliatory attitude towards his opponents. The simplicity and -directness of his prose contrast greatly with the flowery and lengthy -eloquence of most speakers in his day. - - Friends and Fellow Citizens: - - Called upon to undertake the duties of the first executive office of - our country, I avail myself of the presence of that portion of my - fellow citizens which is here assembled to express my grateful thanks - for the favor with which they have been pleased to look towards me, to - declare a sincere consciousness that the task is above my talents and - that I approach it with those anxious and awful presentiments which - the greatness of the charge and the weakness of my powers so justly - inspire. - - A rising nation spread over a wide and fruitful land, traversing all - the seas with the rich productions of their industry, engaged in - commerce with nations who feel power and forget right, advancing - rapidly to destinies beyond the reach of mortal eye; when I - contemplate these transcendent objects and see the honor, the - happiness, and the hopes of this beloved country committed to the - issue and the auspices of this day, I shrink from the contemplation - and humble myself before the magnitude of the undertaking. - - Utterly indeed should I despair, did not the presence of many whom I - here see remind me that in the other high authorities provided by our - Constitution, I shall find resources of wisdom, of virtue, and of - zeal, on which to rely under all difficulties. - - To you then, gentlemen, who are charged with the sovereign functions - of legislation and to those associated with you, I look with - encouragement for that guidance and support which may enable us to - steer with safety the vessel in which we are all embarked amidst the - conflicting elements of a troubled sea. - - During the contest of opinion through which we have passed, the - animation of discussions and of exertions, has sometimes worn an - aspect which might impose on strangers unused to think freely and to - speak and to write what they think. - - But this being now decided by the voice of the nation, announced - according to the rules of the Constitution, all will of course arrange - themselves under the will of the law, and unite in common efforts for - the common good. All too will bear in mind this sacred principle, that - though the will of the majority is in all cases to prevail, that will, - to be rightful, must be reasonable: that the minority possess their - equal rights, which equal laws must protect, and to violate would be - oppression. - - Let us then, fellow citizens, unite with one heart and one mind; let - us restore to social intercourse that harmony and affection, without - which liberty and even life itself are but dreary things. - - And let us reflect that having banished from our land that religious - intolerance under which mankind so long bled and suffered we have yet - gained little, if we countenance a political intolerance as despotic, - as wicked, and capable of as bitter and bloody persecution. - - During the throes and convulsions of the ancient world, during the - agonized spasms of infuriated man, seeking through blood and slaughter - his long lost liberty, it was not wonderful that the agitation of the - billows should reach even this distant and peaceful shore; that this - should be more felt and feared by some, and less by others, and should - divide opinions as to measures of safety. - - But every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. We - have called, by different names, brethren of the same principle. We - are all republicans: we are all federalists. - - If there be any among us who wish to dissolve this union, or to change - its republican form, let them stand undisturbed, as monuments of the - safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is - left free to combat it. - - I know indeed that some honest men have feared that a republican - government cannot be strong; that this government is not strong - enough. But would the honest patriot, in the full tide of successful - experiment abandon a government which has so far kept us free and - firm, on the theoretic and visionary fear that this government, the - world’s best hope may, by possibility, want energy to preserve itself? - - I trust not. I believe this, on the contrary, the strongest government - on earth. - - I believe it the only one where every man, at the call of the law, - would fly to the standard of the law; would meet invasions of public - order, as his own personal concern. - - Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the government of - himself. Can he then be trusted with the government of others? Or have - we found angels in the form of kings to govern him? Let history answer - this question. - - Let us then pursue with courage and confidence our own federal and - republican principles, our attachment to union and representative - government. - - Kindly separated by nature, and a wide ocean, from the exterminating - havoc of one quarter of the globe; too high-minded to endure the - degradations of the others; possessing a chosen country, with room - enough for our descendants to the thousandth and thousandth - generation; entertaining a due sense of our equal right, to the use of - our own faculties, to the acquisitions of our own industry, to honor - and confidence from our fellow citizens resulting not from birth, but - from our actions and their sense of them, enlightened by a benign - religion, professed indeed and practiced in various forms, yet all of - them inculcating honesty, truth, temperance, gratitude, and the love - of man, acknowledging and adoring an overruling providence, which by - all its dispensations proves that it delights in the happiness of man - here and his greater happiness hereafter. - - With all these blessings, what more is necessary to make us a happy - and a prosperous people? Still one thing more, fellow citizens, a wise - and frugal government, which shall restrain men from injuring one - another, shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own - pursuits of industry and improvement, and shall not take from the - mouth of labor the bread it has earned. - - This is the sum of good government, and this is necessary to close the - circle of our felicities. - - - - - Burr Kills Hamilton - - -The feud between Hamilton and Burr preceded the election of 1800, in -which Hamilton opposed Burr’s election to the presidency. The rivalry -between these two New Yorkers actually had begun during the Revolution -and had continued throughout their political careers, but it reached a -special intensity in 1800. As Vice-President under Jefferson, Burr had -reached the peak of his career, but Jefferson, realizing that Burr -almost had schemed his way into the presidency, undermined his influence -in the Republican Party. In 1804, Hamilton again thwarted Burr’s -ambitions by helping to defeat him for governor of New York. The duel -soon followed. - -Hamilton had no intention of firing at Burr and seems to have expected -to die, for he made his will and arranged his affairs before crossing -the Hudson River to New Jersey for the fatal duel on July 11, 1804. Burr -had great charm and undenied ability, but it might have been better for -him if he had died that day instead of Hamilton. He was an unscrupulous -intriguer, and his subsequent career tarnished his reputation. In 1805, -he tried to establish a political empire in the Mississippi Valley but -he was captured and tried for treason. Though he was acquitted, he had -to spend the next four years in exile. He later returned to an obscure -law practice in New York. - - -David Hosack Describes Hamilton’s Last Hours - -In the selection that follows, David Hosack, the physician who attended -Hamilton at the duel, describes the scene immediately after Burr fired -the fatal shot. He writes to William Coleman, editor of the New York -_Post_, the paper Hamilton had founded. - - To comply with your request is a painful task; but I will repress my - feelings while I endeavor to furnish you with an enumeration of such - particulars relative to the melancholy end of our beloved friend - Hamilton, as dwell most forcibly on my recollection. - - When called to him, upon his receiving the fatal wound, I found him - half sitting on the ground, supported in the arms of Mr. Pendleton. - His countenance of death I shall never forget. He had at that instant - just strength to say, “This is a mortal wound, Doctor”; when he sunk - away, and became to all appearance lifeless. I immediately stripped up - his clothes, and soon, alas! ascertained that the direction of the - ball must have been through some vital part. His pulses were not to be - felt; his respiration was entirely suspended; and upon laying my hand - on his heart, and perceiving no motion there, I considered him as - irrecoverably gone. I however observed to Mr. Pendleton that the only - chance for his reviving was immediately to get him upon the water. - - We therefore lifted him up, and carried him out of the wood, to the - margin of the bank, where the bargemen aided us in conveying him into - the boat, which immediately put off. During all this time I could not - discover the least symptom of returning life. I now rubbed his face, - lips, and temples, with spirits of hartshorn, applied it to his neck - and breast, and to the wrists and palms of his hands, and endeavored - to pour some into his mouth. When we had got, as I should judge, about - fifty yards from the shore, some imperfect efforts to breathe were for - the first time manifest. In a few minutes he sighed, and became - sensible to the impression of the hartshorn, or the fresh air of the - water. He breathed; his eyes, hardly opened, wandered, without fixing - upon any objects. To our great joy he at length spoke: “My vision is - indistinct,” were his first words. His pulse became more perceptible; - his respiration more regular; his sight returned. - - ... Soon after recovering his sight, he happened to cast his eye upon - the case of pistols, and observing the one that he had had in his hand - lying on the outside, he said, “Take care of that pistol; it is - undischarged, and still cocked; it may go off and do harm.—_Pendleton - knows_ (attempting to turn his head towards him) _that I did not - intend to fire at him_.” “Yes,” said Mr. Pendleton, understanding his - wish, “I have already made Dr. Hosack acquainted with your - determination as to that.”... Perceiving that we approached the shore, - he said, “Let Mrs. Hamilton be immediately sent for. Let the event be - gradually broken to her; but give her hopes.” - - Looking up, we saw his friend Mr. Bayard standing on the wharf in - great agitation. He had been told by his servant that General - Hamilton, Mr. Pendleton, and myself, had crossed the river in a boat - together, and too well he conjectured the fatal errand, and foreboded - the dreadful result. Perceiving, as we came nearer, that Mr. Pendleton - and myself only sat up in the stern sheets, he clasped his hands - together in the most violent apprehension; but when I called to him to - have a cot prepared, and he at the same moment saw his poor friend - lying in the bottom of the boat, he threw up his eyes and burst into a - flood of tears and lamentation. Hamilton alone appeared tranquil and - composed. We then conveyed him as tenderly as possible up to the - house. The distresses of this amiable family were such that till the - first shock was abated, they were scarcely able to summon fortitude - enough to yield sufficient assistance to their dying friend. - - ... During the night he had some imperfect sleep; but the succeeding - morning his symptoms were aggravated, attended, however, with a - diminution of pain. His mind retained all its usual strength and - composure. The great source of his anxiety seemed to be in his - sympathy with his half-distracted wife and children. He spoke to her - frequently of them. “My beloved wife and children,” were always his - expressions. But his fortitude triumphed over his situation, dreadful - as it was. Once, indeed, at the sight of his children brought to the - bedside together, seven in number, his utterance forsook him. He - opened his eyes, gave them one look, and closed them again till they - were taken away. As a proof of his extraordinary composure of mind, - let me add that he alone could calm the frantic grief of their mother. - “_Remember, my Eliza, you are a Christian_,” were the expressions with - which he frequently, with a firm voice, but in a pathetic and - impressive manner, addressed her. His words, and the tone in which - they were uttered, will never be effaced from my memory. At about two - o’clock, as the public well knows, he expired. - - - - - Marbury vs. Madison - - -The duel between the former Secretary of the Treasury and the -Vice-President provided high drama, but far more important was an event -that had occurred the year before in Washington. This event was a -Supreme Court decision written by Chief Justice Marshall, the decision -known as _Marbury_ vs. _Madison_. It established the principle that the -Supreme Court may declare unconstitutional any law passed by Congress -that conflicts with the Constitution. This principle has become so well -accepted today that we can hardly realize it ever had to be stated. Its -effect, however, was to strengthen the system of checks and balances -between the three main branches of our government. - -Marbury was an obscure justice of the peace, appointed by President -Adams just before his term expired. The lame-duck Federalist -administration went out of office before Marbury received his -commission, and Marbury appealed to the Supreme Court to force James -Madison, the new Secretary of State, to give it to him. The Supreme -Court declared that Marbury deserved his commission but that it could -not grant it. The reason was that the law saying the Court could do this -was contrary to the Constitution and therefore invalid. In the portion -of the decision that follows, Chief Justice Marshall argues the -principle that Congress may not give powers not specifically authorized -by the Constitution to the courts or to anyone else. - - -Excerpts from John Marshall’s Decision - - The question whether an act, repugnant [_opposed_] to the - Constitution, can become the law of the land is a question deeply - interesting to the United States but, happily, not of an intricacy - proportioned to its interest. It seems only necessary to recognize - certain principles, supposed to have been long and well established, - to decide it. - - That the people have an original right to establish, for their future - government, such principles as, in their opinion, shall most conduce - to their own happiness is the basis on which the whole American fabric - has been erected. The exercise of this original right is a very great - exertion; nor can it, nor ought it, to be frequently repeated. The - principles, therefore, so established are deemed fundamental. And as - the authority from which they proceed is supreme, and can seldom act, - they are designed to be permanent. - - This original and supreme will organizes the government and assigns to - different departments their respective powers. It may either stop here - or establish certain limits not to be transcended by those - departments. - - The government of the United States is of the latter description. The - powers of the legislature are defined and limited; and that those - limits may not be mistaken or forgotten, the Constitution is written. - To what purpose are powers limited, and to what purpose is that - limitation committed to writing, if these limits may, at any time, be - passed by those intended to be restrained? The distinction between a - government with limited and unlimited powers is abolished if those - limits do not confine the persons on whom they are imposed, and if - acts prohibited and acts allowed are of equal obligation. It is a - proposition too plain to be contested that the Constitution controls - any legislative act repugnant to it or that the legislature may alter - the Constitution by an ordinary act. - - Between these alternatives there is no middle ground. The Constitution - is either a superior paramount law, unchangeable by ordinary means, or - it is on a level with ordinary legislative acts and, like other acts, - is alterable when the legislature shall please to alter it. - - If the former part of the alternative be true, then a legislative act - contrary to the Constitution is not law; if the latter part be true, - then written constitutions are absurd attempts, on the part of the - people, to limit a power in its own nature illimitable. - - Certainly, all those who have framed written constitutions contemplate - them as forming the fundamental and paramount law of the nation, and, - consequently, the theory of every such government must be, that an act - of the legislature repugnant to the Constitution is void. - -Marshall goes on to refute the argument that the Supreme Court should -concern itself only with interpreting the law, regardless of the -Constitution. Then he quotes specific passages from the Constitution: - - It is declared that “no tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported - from any state.” Suppose a duty on the export of cotton, of tobacco, - or of flour; and a suit instituted to recover it. Ought judgment to be - rendered in such a case? Ought the judges to close their eyes on the - Constitution and only see the law?... - - “No person,” says the Constitution, “shall be convicted of treason, - unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same _overt_ act, or - on confession in open court.” Here the language of the Constitution is - addressed especially to the courts. It prescribes directly for them, a - rule of evidence not to be departed from. If the legislature should - change that rule and declare one witness, or a confession out of - court, sufficient for conviction, must the constitutional principle - yield to the legislative act? - - From these, and many other selections which might be made, it is - apparent that the framers of the Constitution contemplated that - instrument as a rule for the government of _courts_ as well as of the - legislature. - - Why otherwise does it direct the judges to take an oath to support it? - This oath certainly applies in an especial manner to their conduct in - their official character. How immoral to impose it on them if they - were to be used as the instruments, and the knowing instruments, for - violating what they swear to support! - -At the end of the decision the Chief Justice concluded that the language -of the Constitution confirmed and strengthened the principle essential -to all written constitutions “that a law repugnant to the Constitution -is void.” - - - - - The Louisiana Purchase - - -The great event of Jefferson’s first term was the acquisition of the -Louisiana Territory, that vast tract of land extending from the -Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, from the Canadian border to -the Gulf of Mexico. The purchase of this land from Napoleon was not a -premeditated act but rather the result of seizing an opportunity that -presented itself. President Jefferson started out merely to buy New -Orleans from France but ended up with more than 800,000 square miles. -The agreed-on price was about $15,000,000, or something like two cents -per acre. - -Napoleon had forced Spain to give Louisiana back to France after Spain -had held the territory nearly forty years. Just before the letter in the -following account was written, the Spanish Intendant (director) of New -Orleans, who had not yet turned over the city to France, closed the port -to American commerce. Because most of the produce of the Ohio and -Mississippi valleys reached eastern and foreign markets via New Orleans, -closing the port seemed almost an act of war against the United States. -At this point Jefferson sent James Monroe to Europe as special minister -to buy New Orleans. It turned out just then that Napoleon needed money -to renew his war against England, and the entire territory was purchased -within a few weeks. The events which led to the purchase are described -in the following letter that Jefferson wrote on February 3, 1803, to -Robert Livingston, the American minister to France. - - -Jefferson Writes to Robert Livingston - - A late suspension by the Intendant of New Orleans of our right of - deposit there, without which the right of navigation is impracticable, - has thrown this country into such a flame of hostile disposition as - can scarcely be described. The western country was peculiarly sensible - to it as you may suppose. Our business was to take the most effectual - pacific measures in our power to remove the suspension, and at the - same time to persuade our countrymen that pacific measures would be - the most effectual and the most speedily so. The opposition caught it - as a plank in a shipwreck, hoping it would enable them to tack the - western people to them. They raised the cry of war, were intriguing in - all the quarters to exasperate the western inhabitants to arm and go - down on their own authority and possess themselves of New Orleans, and - in the meantime were daily reiterating, in new shapes, inflammatory - resolutions for the adoption of the House. - - As a remedy to all this we determined to name a minister extraordinary - to go immediately to Paris and Madrid to settle this matter. This - measure being a visible one, and the person named peculiarly proper - with the western country, crushed at once and put an end to all - further attempts on the Legislature. From that moment all has become - quiet; and the more readily in the western country, as the sudden - alliance of these new federal friends had of itself already began to - make them suspect the wisdom of their own course. The measure was - moreover proposed from another cause. We must know at once whether we - can acquire New Orleans or not. We are satisfied nothing else will - secure us against a war at no distant period; and we cannot press this - reason without beginning those arrangements which will be necessary if - war is hereafter to result. - - For this purpose it was necessary that the negotiators should be fully - possessed of every idea we have on the subject, so as to meet the - propositions of the opposite party, in whatever form they may be - offered; and give them a shape admissible by us without being obliged - to await new instructions hence. With this view, we have joined Mr. - Monroe to yourself at Paris, and to Mr. Pinckney at Madrid, although - we believe it will be hardly necessary for him to go to this last - place. - - -The Lewis and Clark Expedition - -Exploring the Missouri River Valley and the Rocky Mountain area long had -been a cherished project of President Jefferson. He had talked about it -periodically since the Revolution, and when he became President he set -about to make his dream come true. Even before the United States owned -the Louisiana Territory, Capt. Meriwether Lewis, Jefferson’s secretary, -and William Clark, younger brother of George Rogers Clark, had been -picked to head an expedition to explore the West. - -The journey did not begin, however, until May, 1804, when the expedition -left St. Louis. Capt. Lewis led his explorers up the Missouri River to -what is now North Dakota, and before cold weather set in they built huts -and a stockade for winter quarters. The next spring they moved on up the -river in dugout canoes (pirogues) towards the mountains. The following -selection from Capt. Lewis’ journal of the expedition was set down on -April 13, 1805, when the party was at the junction of the Missouri and -the Little Missouri rivers, still in North Dakota. - - Being disappointed in my observations of yesterday for longitude, I - was unwilling to remain at the entrance of the river another day for - that purpose, and therefore determined to set out early this morning; - which we did accordingly; the wind was in our favour after 9 A.M. and - continued favourable until 3 P.M. We therefore hoisted both the sails - in the White Pirogue, consisting of a small square sail and spritsail, - which carried her at a pretty good gait, until about 2 in the - afternoon when a sudden squall of wind struck us and turned the - pirogue so much on the side as to alarm Charbonneau [_the - interpreter_], who was steering at the time. In this state of alarm he - threw the pirogue with her side to the wind, when the spritsail gibing - was as near oversetting the pirogue as it was possible to have missed. - The wind, however, abating for an instant, I ordered Drouillard [_also - an interpreter_] to the helm and the sails to be taken in, which was - instantly executed, and the pirogue being steered before the wind was - again placed in a state of security. This accident was very near - costing us dearly. Believing this vessel to be the most steady and - safe, we had embarked on board of it our instruments, papers, - medicine, and the most valuable part of the merchandise which we had - still in reserve as presents for the Indians. We had also embarked on - board ourselves, with three men who could not swim, and the squaw - [_Sacajawea, the Shoshone wife of Charbonneau, who showed the party - the way across the Continental Divide and obtained horses and - protection for them from the Shoshones_] with the young child, all of - whom, had the pirogue overset, would most probably have perished, as - the waves were high, and the pirogue upwards of 200 yards from the - nearest shore; however, we fortunately escaped and pursued our journey - under the square sail, which shortly after the accident I directed to - be again hoisted. - -By the end of May the expedition had moved halfway across Montana, still -following the Missouri River: - - Today we passed on the starboard [_right_] side the remains of a vast - many mangled carcasses of buffalo which had been driven over a - precipice of 120 feet by the Indians and perished; the water appeared - to have washed away a part of this immense pile of slaughter and still - there remained the fragments of at least a hundred carcasses. They - created a most horrid stench. In this manner the Indians of the - Missouri destroy vast herds of buffalo at a stroke; for this purpose - one of the most active and fleet young men is selected and disguised - in a robe of buffalo skin, having also the skin of the buffalo’s head - with the ears and horns fastened on his head in form of a cap. Thus - caparisoned he places himself at a convenient distance between a herd - of buffalo and a precipice proper for the purpose, which happens in - many places on this river for miles together; the other Indians now - surround the herd on the back and flanks, and at a signal agreed on - all show themselves at the same time moving forward towards the - buffalo. - - The disguised Indian or decoy has taken care to place himself - sufficiently nigh the buffalo to be noticed by them when they take to - flight, and running before them they follow him in full speed to the - precipice, the cattle behind driving those in front over and seeing - them go do not look or hesitate about following until the whole are - precipitated down the precipice forming one common mass of dead and - mangled carcasses. The decoy in the meantime has taken care to secure - himself in some cranny or crevice of the cliff which he had previously - prepared for that purpose. - -By August 13 the expedition was crossing the Continental Divide at Lemhi -Pass on the border between Montana and Idaho. In the selection that -follows, Capt. Lewis describes the party’s meeting with the Shoshone -Indians. - - We had not continued our route more than a mile when we were so - fortunate as to meet with three female savages. The short and steep - ravines which we passed concealed us from each other until we arrived - within 30 paces. A young woman immediately took to flight; an elderly - woman and a girl of about 12 years old remained. I instantly laid by - my gun and advanced towards them. They appeared much alarmed but saw - that we were too near for them to escape by flight; they therefore - seated themselves on the ground, holding down their heads as if - reconciled to die, which they expected no doubt would be their fate. I - took the elderly woman by the hand and raised her up, repeated the - word _tab-ba-bone_ and stripped up my shirt sleeve to show her my - skin; to prove to her the truth of the assertion that I was a white - man, for my face and hands, which have been constantly exposed to the - sun, were quite as dark as their own. They appeared instantly - reconciled, and the men coming up, I gave these women some beads, a - few moccasin awls, some pewter looking-glasses, and a little paint. - - I directed Drouillard to request the old woman to recall the young - woman who had run off to some distance by this time, fearing she might - alarm the camp before we approached and might so exasperate the - natives that they would perhaps attack us without enquiring who we - were. The old woman did as she was requested and the fugitive soon - returned almost out of breath. I bestowed an equivalent portion of - trinket on her with the others. I now painted their tawny cheeks with - some vermillion, which with this nation is emblematic of peace. After - they had become composed I informed them by signs that I wished them - to conduct us to their camp, that we were anxious to become acquainted - with the chiefs and warriors of their nation. They readily obeyed and - we set out, still pursuing the road down the river. - - We had marched about 2 miles when we met a party of about 60 warriors - mounted on excellent horses, who came in nearly full speed. When they - arrived, I advanced towards them with the flag, leaving my gun with - the party about 50 paces behind me. The chief and two others who were - a little in advance of the main body spoke to the women, and they - informed them who we were and exultingly showed the presents which had - been given them. These men then advanced and embraced me very - affectionately in their way, which is by putting their left arm over - your right shoulder, clasping your back, while they apply their left - cheek to yours and frequently vociferate the word _ah-hi-e, ah-hi-e_, - that is, I am much pleased, I am much rejoiced. Both parties now - advanced and we were all caressed and besmeared with their grease and - paint till I was heartily tired of the national hug. - - I now had the pipe lit and gave them smoke; they seated themselves in - a circle around us and pulled off their moccasins before they would - receive or smoke the pipe. This is a custom among them, as I - afterwards learned, indicative of a sacred obligation of sincerity in - their profession of friendship, given by the act of receiving and - smoking the pipe of a stranger. Or which is as much as to say that - they wish they may always go barefoot if they are not sincere; a - pretty heavy penalty if they are to march through the plains of their - country. - -After crossing the Continental Divide, the expedition descended the -Columbia River to the Pacific Coast, where they built a fort and spent -the winter of 1805-1806. The next year they retraced their steps across -the wilderness and returned to St. Louis in September, 1806, having been -gone twenty-eight months. The expedition not only was a great adventure, -but it also captured the imagination of the country. Not long afterwards -fur traders began tapping the rich resources of the area, and by the -middle of the century settlers were crossing the plains and mountains -via the Oregon Trail. - - - - - The Embargo Act - - -Although Jefferson was re-elected in 1804 by a landslide victory, his -popularity diminished greatly during his second term. The source of his -troubles lay in Europe, where England and France were involved in the -long, bitter Napoleonic Wars. England could not defeat Napoleon on land, -but her navy was superior. Hence she blockaded the continent. France -retaliated by counter-blockades. The United States, with a large -merchant fleet but scarcely any navy, was caught in the middle. Hundreds -of American ships were seized and their cargoes confiscated. Both -England and France violated American neutral rights, but England, with -the world’s strongest navy, was the chief offender. When a British -warship, the _Leopard_, fired on and impressed American seamen from an -American frigate, the _Chesapeake_, off the coast of Virginia, the -United States was ready to fight. - -President Jefferson, however, was determined to avoid war and answered -the _Chesapeake_ incident with a proclamation excluding British warships -from American waters, but the British would not agree to stop impressing -American seamen. In addition, to deal with the seizure of American -ships, Jefferson persuaded Congress to pass the Embargo Act. This act -forbade American ships to leave for foreign ports. The result was that -American ships rotted in the harbors and depression hit American -business. Yet England and France were not hurt enough to come to terms. -The Embargo Act had to be repealed. - - -Washington Irving Satirizes the Embargo Act - -About the time the Embargo Act was repealed, Washington Irving, -America’s first important man of letters, wrote his _History of New -York_. This book is a burlesque account of the old Dutch period in New -York history, a very funny book, full of comic pictures of the Dutch -governors and the early settlers. The book also contains some -contemporary political satire in the chapters devoted to William the -Testy. In the selections which follow you will see obvious references to -the _Chesapeake_ incident, the Embargo Act, and President Jefferson’s -actions. - - As my readers are well aware of the advantage a potentate has in - handling his enemies as he pleases in his speeches and bulletins, - where he has the talk all on his own side, they may rest assured that - William the Testy did not let such an opportunity escape of giving the - Yankees what is called “a taste of his quality.” In speaking of their - inroads into the territories of their High Mightinesses, he compared - them to the Gauls who desolated Rome, the Goths and Vandals who - overran the fairest plains of Europe; but when he came to speak of the - unparalleled audacity with which they of Weathersfield had advanced - their [_onion_] patches up to the very walls of Fort Goed Hoop, and - threatened to smother the garrison in onions, tears of rage started - into his eyes, as though he nosed the very offense in question. - - Having thus wrought up his tale to a climax, he assumed a most - belligerent look, and assured the council that he had devised an - instrument, potent in its effects, and which he trusted would soon - drive the Yankees from the land. So saying, he thrust his hand into - one of the deep pockets of his broad-skirted coat and drew forth, not - an infernal machine, but an instrument in writing, which he laid with - great emphasis upon the table. - - The burghers gazed at it for a time in silent awe, as a wary housewife - does at a gun, fearful it may go off half-cocked. The document in - question had a sinister look, it is true; it was crabbed in text, and - from a broad red ribbon dangled the great seal of the province, about - the size of a buckwheat pancake. Still, after all, it was but an - instrument in writing. Herein, however, existed the wonder of the - invention. The document in question was a PROCLAMATION, ordering the - Yankees to depart instantly from the territories of their High - Mightinesses, under pain of suffering all the forfeitures and - punishments in such case made and provided. It was on the moral effect - of this formidable instrument that Wilhelmus Kieft calculated, - pledging his valor as a governor that, once fulminated [_thundered_] - against the Yankees, it would in less than two months drive every - mother’s son of them across the borders. - - The council broke up in perfect wonder, and nothing was talked of for - some time among the old men and women of New Amsterdam but the vast - genius of the governor and his new and cheap mode of fighting by - proclamation. - - As to Wilhelmus Kieft, having dispatched his proclamation to the - frontiers, he put on his cocked hat and corduroy small clothes, and, - mounting a tall rawboned charger, trotted out to his rural retreat of - Dog’s Misery.... - - Never was a more comprehensive, a more expeditious—or, what is still - better, a more economical—measure devised than this of defeating the - Yankees by proclamation—an expedient, likewise, so gentle and humane - there were ten chances to one in favor of its succeeding, but then - there was one chance to ten that it would not succeed: as the - ill-natured Fates would have it, that single chance carried the day! - The proclamation was perfect in all its parts, well constructed, well - written, well sealed, and well published; all that was wanting to - insure its effect was, that the Yankees should stand in awe of it; - but, provoking to relate, they treated it with the most absolute - contempt, applied it to an unseemly purpose, and thus did the first - warlike proclamation come to a shameful end—a fate which I am credibly - informed has befallen but too many of its successors. - - So far from abandoning the country, those varlets [_rascals_] - continued their encroachments, squatting along the green banks of the - Varsche River, and founding Hartford, Stamford, New Haven, and other - border towns. I have already shown how the onion patches of Pyquag - were an eyesore to Jacobus Van Curlet and his garrison; but now these - moss-troopers increased in their atrocities, kidnaping hogs, - impounding horses, and sometimes grievously rib-roasting their owners. - Our worthy forefathers could scarcely stir abroad without danger of - being outjockeyed in horseflesh or taken in in bargaining, while in - their absence some daring Yankee peddler would penetrate to their - household and nearly ruin the good housewives with tinware and wooden - bowls.... - - It was long before William the Testy could be persuaded that his - much-vaunted war measure was ineffectual; on the contrary, he flew in - a passion whenever it was doubted, swearing that though slow in - operating, yet when it once began to work it would soon purge the land - of these invaders. When convinced, at length, of the truth, like a - shrewd physician he attributed the failure to the quantity, not the - quality, of the medicine, and resolved to double the dose. He - fulminated, therefore, a second proclamation, more vehement than the - first, forbidding all intercourse with these Yankee intruders, - ordering the Dutch burghers on the frontiers to buy none of their - pacing horses, measly port, apple sweetmeats, Weathersfield onions, or - wooden bowls, and to furnish them with no supplies of gin, - gingerbread, or sauerkraut. - - Another interval elapsed, during which the last proclamation was as - little regarded as the first, and the non-intercourse was especially - set at naught by the young folks of both sexes, if we may judge by the - active bundling which took place along the borders. - -Irving concludes this satire of William the Testy’s proclamation by a -comic account of how the Yankees captured Fort Goed Hoop. They sneaked -into the fort while the Dutch soldiers were sleeping off their dinner, -gave the defenders a kick in the pants, and sent them back to New -Amsterdam. - - - - - Madison’s Administration, 1809-1817 - - - [Illustration: The _Constitution_ and the _Guerrière_] - - -Madison’s Inauguration - -Despite the unpopularity of the Embargo Act, James Madison, Jefferson’s -choice to succeed him in the presidency, was elected by a large margin. -Madison had served a long career in public life, beginning with the -Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention and more recently -serving as Secretary of State under Jefferson. In the following -selection Margaret Bayard Smith again reports the Washington scene, this -time the events of March 4, 1809, Inauguration Day. Note that she mixes -up the sequence of events by starting with the reception after the -inauguration before describing the inauguration. - - Today after the inauguration we all went to Mrs. Madison’s. The street - was full of carriages and people, and we had to wait near half an hour - before we could get in—the house was completely filled, parlours, - entry, drawing room and bed room. Near the door of the drawing room - Mr. and Mrs. Madison stood to receive their company. She looked - extremely beautiful, was dressed in a plain cambric dress with a very - long train, plain round the neck without any handkerchief, and - beautiful bonnet of purple velvet, and white satin with white plumes. - She was all dignity, grace and affability. - - Mr. Madison shook my hand with all the cordiality of old acquaintance, - but it was when I saw our dear and venerable Mr. Jefferson that my - heart beat. When he saw me, he advanced from the crowd, took my hand - affectionately, and held it five or six minutes; one of the first - things he said was, “Remember the promise you have made me, to come to - see us next summer; do not forget it,” said he, pressing my hand, “for - we shall certainly expect you.” I assured him I would not, and told - him I could now wish him joy with much more sincerity than this day 8 - years ago. - - “You have now resigned a heavy burden,” said I. - - “Yes indeed,” he replied, “and am much happier at this moment than my - friend.” - - The crowd was immense both at the Capitol and here; thousands and - thousands of people thronged the avenue. The Capitol presented a gay - scene. Every inch of space was crowded and there being as many ladies - as gentlemen, all in full dress, it gave it rather a gay than a solemn - appearance—there was an attempt made to appropriate particular seats - for the ladies of public characters, but it was found impossible to - carry it into effect, for the sovereign people would not resign their - privileges and the high and low were promiscuously blended on the - floor and in the galleries. Mr. Madison was extremely pale and - trembled excessively when he first began to speak, but soon gained - confidence and spoke audibly. - -Mrs. Smith now interrupts her letter (to her sister-in-law) and finishes -it the next day. The event she describes is the inauguration ball at -Long’s Hotel. - - Last evening, I endeavored calmly to look on, and amidst the noise, - bustle and crowd, to spend an hour or two in sober reflection, but my - eye was always fixed on our venerable friend [_Jefferson_]. When he - approached my ear listened to catch every word, and when he spoke to - me my heart beat with pleasure. Personal attachment produces this - emotion, and I did not blame it. But I have not this regard for Mr. - Madison, and I was displeased at feeling no emotion when he came up - and conversed with me. He made some of his old kind of mischievous - allusions, and I told him I found him still unchanged. I tried in vain - to feel merely as a spectator; the little vanities of my nature often - conquered my better reason. - - The room was so terribly crowded that we had to stand on the benches; - from this situation we had a view of the moving mass; for it was - nothing else. It was scarcely possible to elbow your way from one side - to another, and poor Mrs. Madison was almost pressed to death, for - every one crowded round her, those behind pressing on those before, - and peeping over their shoulders to have a peep of her, and those who - were so fortunate as to get near enough to speak to her were happy - indeed. As the upper sashes of the windows could not let down, the - glass was broken, to ventilate the room, the air of which had become - oppressive. - - - - - The War of 1812 - - -The War of 1812, like the Korean war of this century, was a conflict -that neither side won. The young United States Navy scored some notable -victories at sea but could not prevent the overwhelming naval power of -the British from blockading American coasts and cutting off American -commerce. The United States Army, with a few notable exceptions, was -badly generaled and was outfought. General Hull surrendered Detroit -without a fight, and General Dearborn, who set out to attack Montreal, -marched to the Canadian border, lost his nerve, and turned back. - -The War of 1812 was also like the Korean war in that it was unpopular -with the political party out of office. Federalist New England refused -to support it, calling the conflict “Mr. Madison’s War,” and seriously -talked of secession. New England merchants traded with the enemy, and -when Maine was occupied by the British, many Americans quickly took an -oath of allegiance to the king. The Czar of Russia’s offer to act as -mediator between England and America was eagerly accepted. The peace -talks, however, dragged on for nearly two years before a settlement, -leaving things just as they were before the war, was agreed upon. - -Although neither side won, the War of 1812 did have some important -consequences. Historians see it as America’s second war for -independence. The Revolution severed American ties with England. The War -of 1812 removed any doubts in the minds of European powers that the -United States was here to stay. Also, in the years following the war, -America was able to settle her grievances with England and to force the -Spanish out of Florida. And, for the first time, the United States could -concentrate on internal problems. - - -The Constitution Defeats the Guerrière - -The frigate _Constitution_, captained by Isaac Hull, already had a -distinguished history when the War of 1812 began. She had been built in -Boston during the trouble with France in 1797 and had taken part in the -war with the Barbary pirates. The peace treaty with Tripoli had been -signed in the captain’s quarters on the gun deck. A trim, fast, graceful -ship, the frigate had been made from timbers of solid live oak, hard -pine, and red cedar. The bolts, copper sheathing, and brass-work had -been supplied by Paul Revere. This ship now is preserved as a museum at -the Boston Navy Yard. - -Congress declared war on England in June, 1812, and the next month Capt. -Hull sailed from Chesapeake Bay. In August he encountered the British -ship _Guerrière_, and the action that followed he reports in his -dispatch to the Secretary of the Navy. Thus, the war began with a -resounding sea victory. - - Sir, - - I have the honour to inform you, that on the 19th instant, at 2 P.M. - being in latitude 41, 42, longitude 55, 48, with the _Constitution_ - under my command, a sail was discovered from the masthead bearing E. - by S. or E.S.E. but at such a distance we could not tell what she was. - All sail was instantly made in chase, and soon found we came up with - her. At 3 P.M. could plainly see that she was a ship on the starboard - tack, under easy sail, close on a wind; at half past 3 P.M. made her - out to be a frigate; continued the chase until we were within about - three miles, when I ordered the light sails taken in, the courses - hauled up, and the ship cleared for action. At this time the chase had - backed his main top-sail, waiting for us to come down. - - As soon as the _Constitution_ was ready for action, I bore down with - an intention to bring him to close action immediately; but on our - coming within gunshot she gave us a broadside and filled away, and - wore, giving us a broadside on the other tack, but without effect; her - shot falling short. She continued wearing and maneuvering for about - three-quarters of an hour, to get a raking position, but finding she - could not, she bore up, and ran under top-sails and gib, with the wind - on the quarter. - - I immediately made sail to bring the ship up with her, and 5 minutes - before 6 P.M. being along side within half pistol shot, we commenced a - heavy fire from all our guns, double shotted with round and grape, and - so well directed were they, and so warmly kept up, that in 15 minutes - his mizen-mast went by the board, and his main-yard in the slings, and - the hull, rigging, and sails very much torn to pieces. The fire was - kept up with equal warmth for 15 minutes longer, when his main-mast, - and fore-mast went, taking with them every spar, excepting the - bowsprit; on seeing this we ceased firing, so that in 30 minutes after - we got fairly along side the enemy she surrendered, and had not a spar - standing, and her hull below and above water so shattered, that a few - more broadsides must have carried her down. - - After informing you that so fine a ship as the _Guerrière_, commanded - by an able and experienced officer, had been totally dismasted, and - otherwise cut to pieces, so as to make her not worth towing into port, - in the short space of 30 minutes, you can have no doubt of the - gallantry and good conduct of the officers and ship’s company I have - the honour to command. It only remains, therefore, for me to assure - you, that they all fought with great bravery; and it gives me great - pleasure to say, that from the smallest boy in the ship to the oldest - seaman, not a look of fear was seen. They all went into action, giving - three cheers, and requesting to be laid close along side the enemy. - - Enclosed I have the honour to send you a list of killed and wounded on - board the _Constitution_, and a report of the damages she has - sustained; also, a list of the killed and wounded on board the enemy. - - -Commodore Perry Wins a Victory on Lake Erie - -The naval campaigns of the War of 1812 were fought on the Great Lakes as -well as in the Atlantic. Because British troops were based in Canada, -the northern border of the United States inevitably became a battle -line. Commodore Perry won another important sea victory a year after the -_Constitution_ defeated the _Guerrière_ when his squadron defeated and -captured a British squadron on Lake Erie. This was the battle which -Perry reported to General William Henry Harrison in his famous remark: -“We have met the enemy, and they are ours.” In the two dispatches that -follow, Perry gives a full account of the action to the Secretary of the -Navy. - - Sir, - - It has pleased the Almighty to give to the arms of the United States a - signal victory over their enemies on this lake. The British squadron, - consisting of two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop, have - this moment surrendered to the force under my command, after a sharp - conflict. - - Sir, - - In my last I informed you that we had captured the enemy’s fleet on - this lake. I have now the honour to give you the most important - particulars of the action. On the morning of the 10th instant, at - sunrise, they were discovered from Put-In-Bay, when I lay at anchor - with the squadron under my command. We got under weigh, the wind light - at south-west, and stood for them. At 10 A.M. the wind hauled to - south-east and brought us to windward; formed the line and bore up. At - 15 minutes before 12, the enemy commenced firing; at 5 minutes before - 12, the action commenced on our part. - - Finding their fire very destructive owing to their long guns, and its - being mostly directed at the _Lawrence_, I made sail, and directed the - other vessels to follow, for the purpose of closing with the enemy. - Every brace and bowline being soon shot away, she became unmanageable, - notwithstanding the great exertions of the sailing master. In this - situation, she sustained the action upwards of two hours within - canister distance, until every gun was rendered useless, and the - greater part of her crew either killed or wounded. Finding she could - no longer annoy the enemy, I left her in charge of Lieutenant Yarnall, - who, I was convinced, from the bravery already displayed by him, would - do what would comport with the honour of the flag. - - At half past two, the wind springing up, Captain Elliot was enabled to - bring his vessel, the _Niagara_, gallantly into close action. I - immediately went on board of her, when he anticipated my wish by - volunteering to bring the schooner which had been kept astern by the - lightness of the wind, into close action. It was with unspeakable pain - that I saw, soon after I got on board the _Niagara_, the flag of the - _Lawrence_ come down, although I was perfectly sensible that she had - been defended to the last, and that to have continued to make a show - of resistance would have been a wanton sacrifice of the remains of her - brave crew. But the enemy was not able to take possession of her, and - circumstances soon permitted her flag again to be hoisted. - - At 45 minutes past 2, the signal was made for “close action.” The - _Niagara_ being very little injured, I determined to pass through the - enemy’s line, bore up and passed ahead of their two ships and a brig, - giving a raking fire to them from the starboard guns, and to a large - schooner and sloop, from the larboard side, at half pistol shot - distance. The smaller vessels at this time having got within grape and - canister distance, under the direction of Captain Elliot, and keeping - up a well-directed fire, the two ships, a brig, and a schooner - surrendered, a schooner and sloop making a vain attempt to escape. - - -The British Burn Washington - -Probably the most humiliating military defeat ever inflicted on the -United States occurred in August, 1814, when British troops marched into -Washington and burned the public buildings. This was a punitive action -designed to teach the Americans a lesson and to demoralize the country. -Official Washington fled at the approach of the British, and in the -following letter Dolly Madison, the President’s wife, describes her -activities on the day before and her flight from the White House on the -day of the British invasion. - - Dear Sister—My husband left me yesterday morning to join General - Winder. He inquired anxiously whether I had courage or firmness to - remain in the President’s house until his return on the morrow, or - succeeding day, and on my assurance that I had no fear but for him, - and the success of our army, he left, beseeching me to take care of - myself, and of the Cabinet papers, public and private. I have since - received two dispatches from him, written with a pencil. The last is - alarming, because he desires I should be ready at a moment’s warning - to enter my carriage, and leave the city; that the enemy seemed - stronger than had at first been reported, and it might happen that - they would reach the city with the intention of destroying it. I am - accordingly ready; I have pressed as many Cabinet papers into trunks - as to fill one carriage; our private property must be sacrificed, as - it is impossible to procure wagons for its transportation. I am - determined not to go myself until I see Mr. Madison safe, so that he - can accompany me, as I hear of much hostility towards him. - Disaffection stalks around us. My friends and acquaintances are all - gone, even Colonel C. with his hundred, who were stationed as a guard - in this inclosure. French John [_a faithful servant_], with his usual - activity and resolution, offers to spike the cannon at the gate, and - lay a train of powder, which would blow up the British, should they - enter the house. To the last proposition I positively object, without - being able to make him understand why all advantages in war may not be - taken. - - _Wednesday Morning_, twelve o’clock. Since sunrise I have been turning - my spy-glass in every direction, and watching with unwearied anxiety, - hoping to discover the approach of my dear husband and his friends; - but, alas! I can descry only groups of military, wandering in all - directions, as if there was a lack of arms, or of spirit to fight for - their own fireside. - - Three o’clock. Will you believe it, my sister? we have had a battle, - or skirmish, near Bladensburg, and here I am still, within sound of - the cannon! Mr. Madison comes not. May God protect us! Two messengers - covered with dust come to bid me fly; but here I mean to wait for - him.... At this late hour a wagon has been procured, and I have had it - filled with plate and the most valuable portable articles belonging to - the house. Whether it will reach its destination, the Bank of - Maryland, or fall into the hands of British soldiery, events must - determine. Our kind friend, Mr. Carroll, has come to hasten my - departure, and in a very bad humor with me, because I insist on - waiting until the large picture of General Washington is secured, and - it requires to be unscrewed from the wall. This process was found too - tedious for these perilous moments; I have ordered the frame to be - broken, and the canvas taken out. It is done! and the precious - portrait placed in the hands of two gentlemen of New York, for safe - keeping. And now, dear sister, I must leave this house, or the - retreating army will make me a prisoner in it by filling up the road I - am directed to take. When I shall again write to you, or where I shall - be tomorrow, I cannot tell! - - Dolly. - - -The British Burn Washington: George Gleig - -British General Robert Ross landed with about four thousand men and -marched into Washington without much opposition. The scene that took -place during the burning is vividly described by a British officer, -George Gleig, in _A Narrative of the Campaigns of the British Army_. - - While the third brigade was thus employed [_burning buildings_], the - rest of the army, having recalled its stragglers and removed the - wounded into Bladensburg, began its march towards Washington. Though - the battle was ended by four o’clock, the sun had set before the - different regiments were in a condition to move; consequently this - short journey was performed in the dark. The work of destruction had - also begun in the city, before they quitted their ground; and the - blazing of houses, ships, and stores, the report of exploding - magazines, and the crash of falling roofs informed them, as they - proceeded, of what was going forward. You can conceive nothing finer - than the sight which met them as they drew near to the town. The sky - was brilliantly illuminated by the different conflagrations, and a - dark red light was thrown upon the road, sufficient to permit each man - to view distinctly his comrade’s face. Except the burning of St. - Sebastian’s, I do not recollect to have witnessed ... a scene more - striking or more sublime. - - I need scarcely to observe that the consternation of the inhabitants - was complete, and that to them this was a night of terror. So - confident had they been of the success of their troops, that few of - them had dreamed of quitting their houses or abandoning the city; nor - was it till the fugitives from the battle began to rush in, filling - every place as they came with dismay, that the President himself - thought of providing for his safety. That gentleman, as I was credibly - informed, had gone forth in the morning with the army, and had - continued among his troops till the British forces began to make their - appearance. Whether the sight of his enemies cooled his courage or - not, I cannot say, but, according to my informer, no sooner was the - glittering of our arms discernible, than he began to discover that his - presence was more wanted in the Senate than with the army; and having - ridden through the ranks, and exhorted every man to do his duty, he - hurried back to his own house, that he might prepare a feast for the - entertainment of his officers, when they should return victorious. - - For the truth of these details, I will not be answerable; but this - much I know, that the feast was actually prepared, though, instead of - being devoured by American officers, it went to satisfy the less - delicate appetites of a party of English soldiers. When the detachment - sent out to destroy Mr. Madison’s house entered his dining parlor, - they found a dinner table spread and covers laid for forty guests. - Several kinds of wine, in handsome cut-glass decanters, were cooling - on the sideboard; plate-holders stood by the fireplace, filled with - dishes and plates; knives, forks, and spoons were arranged for - immediate use; in short, everything was ready for the entertainment of - a ceremonious party. Such were the arrangements in the dining room, - whilst in the kitchen were others answerable to them in every respect. - Spits, loaded with joints of various sorts, turned before the fire; - pots, saucepans, and other culinary utensils stood upon the grate; and - all the other requisites for an elegant and substantial repast were - exactly in a state which indicated that they had been lately and - precipitately abandoned. - - You will readily imagine that these preparations were beheld by a - party of hungry soldiers with no indifferent eye. An elegant dinner, - even though considerably overdressed, was a luxury to which few of - them, at least for some time back, had been accustomed, and which, - after the dangers and fatigues of the day, appeared peculiarly - inviting. They sat down to it, therefore, not indeed in the most - orderly manner, but with countenances which would not have disgraced a - party of aldermen at a civic feast, and, having satisfied their - appetites with fewer complaints than would have probably escaped their - rival _gourmands_, and partaken pretty freely of the wines, they - finished by setting fire to the house.... - - But, as I have just observed, this was a night of dismay to the - inhabitants of Washington. They were taken completely by surprise; nor - could the arrival of the flood be more unexpected to the natives of - the antediluvian world than the arrival of the British army to them. - The first impulse of course tempted them to fly, and the streets were - in consequence crowded with soldiers and senators, men, women, and - children, horses, carriages, and carts loaded with household - furniture, all hastening towards a wooden bridge which crosses the - Potomac. The confusion thus occasioned was terrible, and the crowd - upon the bridge was such as to endanger its giving way. But Mr. - Madison, having escaped among the first, was no sooner safe on the - opposite bank of the river than he gave orders that the bridge should - be broken down; which being obeyed, the rest were obliged to return - and to trust to the clemency of the victors. - - In this manner was the night passed by both parties; and at daybreak - next morning, the light brigade moved into the city, while the reserve - fell back to a height about a half mile in the rear. Little, however, - now remained to be done, because everything marked out for destruction - was already consumed. Of the Senate house, the President’s palace, the - barracks, the dockyard, etc., nothing could be seen except heaps of - smoking ruins; and even the bridge ... was almost wholly demolished. - - -The Battle of New Orleans - -Despite the general incompetence of the American leadership in the War -of 1812, Andrew Jackson emerged from the campaigns as a genuine war -hero. The Battle of New Orleans, which ironically was fought after the -peace treaty had been signed in Europe, was a great victory. Jackson’s -troops, greatly outnumbered, barricaded themselves behind cotton bales -and earthworks and mowed down the British as they stormed the American -positions. In the two selections that follow, we print first the account -of the battle by the British officer George Gleig and then General -Jackson’s terse report to the Secretary of War. - - - OFFICER GLEIG: - - The main body armed and moved forward some way in front of the - pickets. There they stood waiting for daylight and listening with the - greatest anxiety for the firing which ought now to be heard on the - opposite bank. But this attention was exerted in vain, and day dawned - upon them long before they desired its appearance. Nor was Sir Edward - Pakenham disappointed in this part of his plan alone. Instead of - perceiving everything in readiness for the assault, he saw his troops - in battle array, indeed, but not a ladder or fascine [_bundle of - sticks to fill ditches_] upon the field. The 44th, which was appointed - to carry them, had either misunderstood or neglected their orders and - now headed the column of attack without any means being provided for - crossing the enemy’s ditch, or scaling his rampart. - - The indignation of poor Pakenham on this occasion may be imagined, but - cannot be described. Galloping towards Colonel Mullens, who led the - 44th, he commanded him instantly to return with his regiment for the - ladders, but the opportunity of planting them was lost, and though - they were brought up, it was only to be scattered over the field by - the frightened bearers. For our troops were by this time visible to - the enemy. A dreadful fire was accordingly opened upon them, and they - were mowed down by hundreds, while they stood waiting for orders. - - Seeing that all his well-laid plans were frustrated, Pakenham gave the - word to advance, and the other regiments, leaving the 44th with the - ladders and fascines behind them, rushed on to the assault. On the - left a detachment of the 95th, 21st, and 4th stormed a three-gun - battery and took it. Here they remained for some time in the - expectation of support; but none arriving, and a strong column of the - enemy forming for its recovery, they determined to anticipate the - attack and pushed on. The battery which they had taken was in advance - of the body of the works, being cut off from it by a ditch, across - which only a single plank was thrown. Along this plank did these brave - men attempt to pass; but being opposed by overpowering numbers, they - were repulsed; and the Americans, in turn, forcing their way into the - battery, at length succeeded in recapturing it with immense slaughter. - - On the right, again, the 21st and 4th being almost cut to pieces and - thrown into some confusion by the enemy’s fire, the 93d pushed on and - took the lead. Hastening forward, our troops soon reached the ditch; - but to scale the parapet without ladders was impossible. Some few, - indeed, by mounting one upon another’s shoulders, succeeded in - entering the works, but these were instantly overpowered, most of them - killed, and the rest taken; while as many as stood without were - exposed to a sweeping fire, which cut them down by whole companies. It - was in vain that the most obstinate courage was displayed. They fell - by the hands of men whom they absolutely did not see; for the - Americans, without so much as lifting their faces above the rampart, - swung their firelocks by one arm over the wall, and discharged them - directly upon their heads. The whole of the guns, likewise, from the - opposite bank, kept up a well directed and deadly cannonade upon their - flank; and thus were they destroyed without an opportunity being given - of displaying their valour, or obtaining so much as revenge. - - Poor Pakenham saw how things were going, and did all that a General - could do to rally his broken troops. Riding towards the 44th which had - returned to the ground, but in great disorder, he called out for - Colonel Mullens to advance; but that officer had disappeared, and was - not to be found. He, therefore, prepared to lead them on himself, and - had put himself at their head for that purpose, when he received a - slight wound in the knee from a musket ball which killed his horse. - Mounting another, he again headed the 44th, when a second ball took - effect more fatally, and he dropped lifeless into the arms of his - aide-de-camp. - - Nor were Generals Gibbs and Keane inactive. Riding through the ranks, - they strove by all means to encourage the assailants and recall the - fugitives, till at length both were wounded and borne off the field. - All was now confusion and dismay. Without leaders, ignorant of what - was to be done, the troops first halted and then began to retire, till - finally the retreat was changed into a flight, and they quitted the - ground in the utmost disorder. But the retreat was covered in gallant - style by the reserve. Making a forward motion, the 7th and 43d - presented the appearance of a renewed attack; by which the enemy were - so much awed, that they did not venture beyond their lines in pursuit - of the fugitives. - - - GENERAL JACKSON’S REPORT: - - During the days of the 6th and 7th, the enemy had been actively - employed in making preparations for an attack on my lines. With - infinite labour they had succeeded on the night of the 7th, in getting - their boats across from the lake to the river, by widening and - deepening the canal on which they had effected their disembarkation. - It had not been in my power to impede these operations by a general - attack: added to other reasons, the nature of the troops under my - command, mostly militia, rendered it too hazardous to attempt - extensive _offensive_ movements in an open country, against a numerous - and well disciplined army. - - Although my forces, as to number, had been increased by the arrival of - the Kentucky division, my strength had received very little addition; - a small portion only of that detachment being provided with arms. - Compelled thus to wait the attack of the enemy, I took every measure - to repel it when it should be made, and to defeat the object he had in - view. General Morgan, with the New Orleans contingent, the Louisiana - militia, and a strong detachment of the Kentucky troops, occupied an - entrenched camp on the opposite side of the river, protected by strong - batteries on the bank, erected and superintended by Commodore - Patterson. - - In _my_ encampment everything was ready for action, when, early in the - morning of the 8th, the enemy after throwing a heavy shower of bombs - and congreve rockets, advanced their columns on my right and left, to - storm my entrenchments. I cannot speak sufficiently in praise of the - firmness and deliberation with which my whole line received their - approach—_more_ could not have been expected from veterans inured to - war. For an hour the fire of the small arms was as incessant and - severe as can be imagined. The artillery, too, directed by officers - who displayed equal skill and courage, did great execution. - - Yet the columns of the enemy continued to advance with a firmness - which reflects upon them the greatest credit. Twice the column which - approached me on my left, was repulsed by the troops of General - Carroll, those of General Coffee, and a division of the Kentucky - militia, and twice they formed again and renewed the assault. At - length, however, cut to pieces, they fled in confusion from the field, - leaving it covered with their dead and wounded. - - The loss which the enemy sustained on this occasion, cannot be - estimated at less than 1500 in killed, wounded and prisoners. [_The - British actually lost over 2,000. American casualties: 8 killed, 13 - wounded._] Upwards of three hundred have already been delivered over - for burial; and my men are still engaged in picking them up within my - lines and carrying them to the point where the enemy are to receive - them. This is in addition to the dead and wounded whom the enemy have - been enabled to carry from the field, during and since the action, and - to those who have since died of the wounds they received. We have - taken about 500 prisoners, upwards of 300 of whom are wounded, and a - great part of them mortally. My loss has not exceeded, and I believe - has not amounted to, 10 killed and as many wounded.... - - I have the honor to be, etc. - Andrew Jackson - -Incidentally, this battle was the last time that British and American -troops ever fought each other. The next time they met on the field of -battle they were allies in World War I. - - - - - James Monroe’s Administration, 1817-1825 - - - [Illustration: Public speaker on the Fourth of July] - - - - - Early Days in the Mississippi Valley - - -James Monroe was the last of the quartet of Virginia Presidents which -had begun with George Washington. He was elected after serving as -Madison’s Secretary of State, but before that he had fought in the -Revolution, sat in the Continental Congress, been a Senator, a governor, -and a minister to France. His term as President is known as the Era of -Good Feeling because of the absence of serious problems to divide the -country. It was a period of rapid growth as settlers pushed west and the -beginnings of the industrial revolution began to change the East. - -During the early decades of the nineteenth century the wilderness across -the Allegheny Mountains began to fill up with farmers. Throughout -Jefferson’s administration there were occasional skirmishes with the -Indians, but gradually the Indians were pushed out of their traditional -hunting grounds. While Madison was President, the Shawnee chief -Tecumseh, who had attempted to organize Indian resistance, was crushed -by William Henry Harrison in the Battle of Tippecanoe. Meantime, Ohio -had become a state in 1803, and in 1816, the year that James Monroe was -elected President, Indiana was admitted to the Union. Two years later, -Illinois joined the growing Union. - -In the selections reprinted in this part of _The Jeffersonians_ we have -chosen four pieces that show various aspects of life in the Mississippi -Valley. Here you will find examples of farm life, religion, and politics -in the new states west of the mountains. - - -A Husking Bee in Ohio - -William Cooper Howells, the author of the next selection, was the father -of a famous magazine editor and novelist, William Dean Howells. The -elder Howells was taken to Ohio from England as a child and grew up on a -farm while Ohio was a new state. His memories come from _Recollections -of Life in Ohio from 1813 to 1840_. - - One of the gatherings for joint work, which has totally disappeared - from the agriculture of modern times, and one that was always a jolly - kind of affair, was the cornhusking. It was a sort of harvest home in - its department, and it was the more jolly because it was a gathering - with very little respect to persons, and embraced in the invitation - men and big boys, with the understanding that no one would be - unwelcome. There was always a good supper served at the husking, and - as certainly a good appetite to eat it with. It came at a plentiful - season, when the turkeys and chickens were fat, and a fat pig was at - hand, to be flanked on the table with good bread in various forms, - turnips and potatoes from the autumn stores, apple and pumpkin pies, - good coffee and the like. And the cooking was always well done, and - all in such bountiful abundance that no one feared to eat, while many - a poor fellow was certain of a square meal by being present at a - husking. You were sure to see the laboring men of the vicinity out, - and the wives of a goodly number of farm hands would be on hand to - help in the cooking and serving at the table. The cornhusking has been - discontinued because the farmers found out that it was less trouble to - husk it in the field, direct from the stalk, than to gather in the - husk and go over it again. But in that day they did not know that much - and therefore took the original method of managing their corn crop, - which was this: as soon as the grain began to harden they would cut - the stalks off just above the ears and save these tops for fodder, and - if they had time they stripped all the blades off the stalks below the - ears, which made very nice though costly feed. Then, as barn room was - not usually over plenty, they made a kind of frame of poles, as for a - tent, and thatched it, sides and top, with the corn tops placed with - the tassel downward, so as to shed the rain and snow. This was called - the fodder-house and was built in the barnyard. Inside they would - store the blades in bundles, the husks, and the pumpkins that were - saved for use in the winter. The fodder-house was commonly made ten - feet high and as long as was necessary, and it was used up through the - winter by feeding the fodder to the cattle, beginning at the back, - which would be temporarily closed by a few bundles of the tops. It - would thus serve as a protection for what might be stored in it till - all was used up. The fodder-house was, of all things, a favorite place - for the children to hide in and play. When the season for gathering - the corn came the farmers went through the fields and pulled off the - ears and husks together, throwing them upon the ground in heaps, - whence they were hauled into the barnyard and there piled up in a neat - pile of convenient length, according to the crop, and say four or five - feet high, rising to a sharp peak from a base of about six feet. Care - was taken to make this pile of equal width and height from end to end, - so that it would be easily and fairly divided in the middle by a rail - laid upon it. - - When the husking party had assembled they were all called out into - line, and two fellows, mostly ambitious boys, were chosen captains. - These then chose their men, each calling out one of the crowd - alternately, till all were chosen. Then the heap was divided, by two - judicious chaps walking solemnly along the ridge of the heap of corn, - and deciding where the dividing rail was to be laid, and, as this had - to be done by starlight or moonlight at best, it took considerable - deliberation, as the comparative solidity of the ends of the heap and - the evenness of it had to be taken into account. This done, the - captains placed a good steady man at each side of the rail, who made - it a point to work through and cut the heap in two as soon as - possible; and then the two parties fell to husking, all standing with - the heap in front of them, and throwing the husked corn on to a clear - place over the heap, and the husks behind them. From the time they - began till the corn was all husked at one end, there would be steady - work, each man husking all the corn he could, never stopping except to - take a pull at the stone jug of inspiration that passed occasionally - along the line; weak lovers of the stuff were sometimes overcome, - though it was held to be a disgraceful thing to take too much. The - captains would go up and down their lines and rally their men as if in - a battle, and the whole was an exciting affair. - - As soon as one party got done, they raised a shout, and hoisting their - captain on their shoulders, carried him over to the other side with - general cheering. Then would come a little bantering talk and - explanation why the defeated party lost, and all would turn to and - husk up the remnants of the heap. All hands would then join to carry - the husks into the fodder-house. The shout at hoisting the captain was - the signal for bringing the supper on the table, and the huskers and - the supper met soon after. These gatherings often embraced forty or - fifty men. If the farmhouse was small it would be crowded, and the - supper would be managed by repeated sittings at the table. At a large - house there was less crowding and more fun, and if, as was often the - case, some occasion had been given for an assemblage of the girls of - the neighborhood, and particularly if the man that played the fiddle - should attend, after the older men had gone, there was very apt to be - a good time. There was a tradition that the boys who accidentally - husked a red ear and saved it would be entitled to a kiss from - somebody. But I never knew it to be necessary to produce a red ear to - secure a kiss where there was a disposition to give or take one. - - -Religion in Tennessee - -Religion played an important part in the lives of frontier settlers. -Instead of the stern Puritanism of colonial New England, the religion of -the West in the early years of the last century was highly evangelistic. -By this time, the Methodist movement had made a large number of converts -and was particularly strong on the frontier. One tireless Methodist -preacher was Lorenzo Dow, often known as “Crazy Dow,” who traveled -throughout the United States during a long ministry. Though he lived -until 1834, the selection that follows comes from his journal of 1804, -when he visited Tennessee at the age of 27. He was then traveling about -ten thousand miles a year by horse and on foot over trails and primitive -roads. This selection is particularly interesting for its account of a -backwoods religious fervor, almost a physical affliction, described by -Dow as the _jerks_. - - Next day I rode forty-five miles in company with Dr. Nelson across the - dismal Allegheny mountains by the warm springs, and on the way a young - man, a traveller, came in (where I breakfasted gratis at an inn) and - said that he had but three sixteenths of a dollar left, having been - robbed of seventy-one dollars on the way; and he being far from home, - I gave him half of what I had with me. - - My horse having a navel gall come on his back, I sold him with the - saddle, bridle, cloak and blanket, etc., on credit for about three - fourths of the value, with uncertainty whether I should ever be paid: - thus I crossed the river French Broad in a canoe and set out for my - appointment; but fearing I should be behind the time, I hired a man - (whom I met on the road with two horses) to carry me five miles in - haste for three shillings; which left me but one sixteenth of a - dollar. In our speed he observed there was a nigh way by which I could - clamber the rocks and cut off some miles: so we parted; he having not - gone two thirds of the way yet insisted on the full sum. - - I took to my feet the nigh way as fast as I could pull on, as - intricate as it was, and came to a horrid ledge of rocks on the bank - of the river where there was no such thing as going round; and to - clamber over would be at the risk of my life, as there was danger of - slipping into the river. However, being unwilling to disappoint the - people, I pulled off my shoes, and with my handkerchief fastened them - about my neck, and creeping upon my hands and feet with my fingers and - toes in the cracks of the rocks with difficulty I got safe over. In - about four miles I came to a house and hired a woman to take me over - the river in a canoe, for my remaining money and a pair of scissors; - the latter of which was the chief object with her: so our extremities - are other’s opportunities. Thus with difficulty I got to my - appointment in Newport in time. - - I had heard about a singularity called the _jerks_ or _jerking - exercise_, which appeared first near Knoxville in August last, to the - great alarm of the people; which reports at first I considered as - vague and false. But at length, like the Queen of Sheba, I set out to - go and see for myself and sent over these appointments into this - country accordingly. - - When I arrived in sight of this town, I saw hundreds of people - collected in little bodies; and observing no place appointed for - meeting, before I spoke to any, I got on a log and gave out an hymn; - which caused them to assemble round, in solemn attentive silence. I - observed several involuntary motions in the course of the meeting, - which I considered as a specimen of the jerks. I rode seven miles - behind a man across streams of water and held meeting in the evening, - being ten miles on my way. - - In the night I grew uneasy, being twenty-five miles from my - appointment for next morning at eleven o’clock; I prevailed on a young - man to attempt carrying me with horses until day, which he thought was - impracticable, considering the darkness of the night and the thickness - of the trees. Solitary shrieks were heard in these woods, which he - told me were said to be the cries of murdered persons. At day we - parted, being still seventeen miles from the spot, and the ground - covered with a white frost. I had not proceeded far before I came to a - stream of water from the springs of the mountain, which made it - dreadful cold; in my heated state I had to wade this stream five times - in the course of about an hour, which I perceived so affected my body - that my strength began to fail. Fears began to arise that I must - disappoint the people, till I observed some fresh tracks of horses - which caused me to exert every nerve to overtake them in hopes of aid - or assistance on my journey, and soon I saw them on an eminence. I - shouted for them to stop, till I came up; they inquired what I wanted; - I replied I had heard there was meeting at Seversville by a stranger - and was going to it. They replied that they had heard that a crazy man - was to hold forth there and were going also; and perceiving that I was - weary, they invited me to ride, and soon our company was increased to - forty or fifty who fell in with us on the road, from different - plantations. At length I was interrogated, whether I knew anything - about the preacher. I replied. “I have heard a good deal about him, - and have heard him preach, but I have no great opinion of him.” And - thus the conversation continued for some miles before they found me - out, which caused some color and smiles in the company. - - Thus I got on to meeting, and after taking a cup of tea gratis, I - began to speak to a vast audience; and I observed about thirty to have - the _jerks_. Though they strove to keep still as they could, these - emotions were involuntary, and irresistible, as any unprejudiced eye - might discern. Lawyer Porter (who had come a considerable distance) - got his heart touched under the word and being informed how I came to - meeting, voluntarily lent me a horse to ride near one hundred miles - and gave me a dollar, though he had never seen me before. - - Hence to Marysville, where I spoke to about one thousand five hundred; - and many appeared to feel the word, but about fifty felt the jerks. At - night I lodged with one of the Nicholites, a kind of Quakers who do - not feel free to wear coloured clothes. I spoke to a number of people - at his house that night. Whilst at tea I observed his daughter (who - sat opposite to me at the table) to have the jerks; and dropped the - tea cup from her hand in the violent agitation. I said to her, “Young - woman, what is the matter?” She replied, “I have got the jerks.” I - asked her how long she had it? She observed “a few days” and that it - had been the means of the awakening and conversion of her soul by - stirring her up to serious consideration about her careless state, - etc. - - Sunday, February 19th, I spoke in Knoxville to hundreds more than - could get into the court house, the Governor being present. About one - hundred and fifty appeared to have jerking exercise, among whom was a - circuit preacher (Johnson) who had opposed them a little before, but - he now had them powerfully; and I believe he would have fallen over - three times had not the auditory been so crowded that he could not, - unless he fell perpendicularly. - - After meeting I rode eighteen miles to hold meeting at night. The - people of this settlement were mostly Quakers; and they had said (as I - was informed) the Methodists and Presbyterians have the _jerks_ - because they _sing_ and _pray_ so much, but we are a still peaceable - people, wherefore we do not have them. However, about twenty of them - came to meeting, to hear one, as was said, somewhat in a Quaker line, - but their usual stillness and silence was interrupted; for about a - dozen of them had the jerks as keen and as powerful as any I had seen, - so as to have occasioned a kind of grunt or groan when they would - jerk. It appears that many have undervalued the great revival, and - attempted to account for it altogether on natural principles; - therefore it seems to me (from the best judgment I can form) that God - hath seen proper to take this method, to convince people, that he will - work in a way to show his power; and sent the _jerks_ as a sign of the - times, partly in judgment for the people’s unbelief, and yet as a - mercy to convict people of divine realities. - - -Davy Crockett Runs for Office - -Davy Crockett, who describes himself as an “ignorant backwoods -bearhunter,” was just another poor frontier boy until he got into -politics. Then he served in the state legislature and later in Congress. -He became the fair-haired boy of Whig politicians when he broke with -Andrew Jackson, his fellow Tennessee Democrat. Subsequently, his -backwoods humor, tall tales, and picturesque personality were exploited -by Whig journalists, and Crockett became a sort of folklore hero. - -But Tennessee Democrats would not tolerate his desertion of their party -and turned him out of office. After that, he went to Texas and died, as -everyone remembers, during the heroic defense of the Alamo. The -following selection is taken from _A Narrative of the Life of Davy -Crockett_, which passes for his autobiography but which undoubtedly was -ghostwritten for him. This account describes with typical frontier -exaggeration Crockett’s first campaign for office. - - In a little time I was asked to offer for the Legislature in the - counties of Lawrence and Heckman. I offered my name in the month of - February, and started about the first of March with a drove of horses - to the lower part of the State of North Carolina. This was in the year - 1821, and I was gone upwards of three months. I returned, and set out - electioneering, which was a brand-fire new business to me. It now - became necessary that I should tell the people something about the - government, and an eternal sight of other things that I knowed nothing - more about than I did about Latin, and law, and such things as that. I - have said before that in those days none of us called General Jackson - the government [_Jackson was not yet President, and Crockett was still - a Democrat_], nor did he seem in as fair a way to become so as I do - now; but I knowed so little about it, that if any one had told me he - was “the government,” I should have believed it, for I had never read - even a newspaper in my life, or anything else, on the subject. But - over all my difficulties, it seems to me I was born for luck, though - it would be hard for any one to guess what sort. I will, however, - explain that hereafter. - - I went first into Heckman county, to see what I could do among the - people as a candidate. Here they told me that they wanted to move - their town nearer to the centre of the county, and I must come out in - favor of it. There’s no devil if I knowed what this meant, or how the - town was to be moved; and so I kept dark, going on the identical same - plan that I now find is called “_noncommittal_.” About this time there - was a great squirrel hunt on Duck River, which was among my people. - They were to hunt two days; then to meet and count the scalps, and - have a big barbecue, and what might be called a tip-top country - frolic. The dinner, and a general treat, was all to be paid for by the - party having taken the fewest scalps. I joined one side, taking the - place of one of the hunters, and got a gun ready for the hunt. I - killed a great many squirrels, and when we counted scalps, my party - was victorious. - - The company had every thing to eat and drink that could be furnished - in so new a country, and much fun and good humor prevailed. But before - the regular frolic commenced, I mean the dancing, I was called on to - make a speech as a candidate; which was a business I was as ignorant - of as an outlandish Negro. - - A public document I had never seen, nor did I know there were such - things; and how to begin I couldn’t tell. I made many apologies, and - tried to get off, for I know’d I had a man to run against who could - speak prime, and I know’d, too, that I wasn’t able to shuffle and cut - with him. He was there, and knowing my ignorance as well as I did - myself, he also urged me to make a speech. The truth is, he thought my - being a candidate was a mere matter of sport; and didn’t think for a - moment that he was in any danger from an ignorant backwoods bear - hunter. But I found I couldn’t get off, and so I determined just to go - ahead, and leave it to chance what I should say. I got up and told the - people I reckoned they know’d what I come for, but if not, I could - tell them. I had come for their votes, and if they didn’t watch mighty - close I’d get them too. But the worst of all was, that I could not - tell them anything about government. I tried to speak about something, - and I cared very little what, until I choked up as bad as if my mouth - had been jamm’d and cramm’d chock full of dry mush. There the people - stood, listening all the while, with their eyes, mouths, and ears all - open, to catch every word.... - - At last I told them I was like a fellow I had heard of not long - before. He was beating on the head of an empty barrel near the - road-side, when a traveler, who was passing along, asked him what he - was doing that for? The fellow replied that there was some cider in - that barrel a few days before, and he was trying to see if there was - any then, but if there was he couldn’t get at it. I told them that - there had been a little bit of speech in me a while ago, but I - believed I couldn’t get it out. They all roared out in a mighty laugh, - and I told some other anecdotes, equally amusing to them, and - believing I had them in a first-rate way, I quit and got down, - thanking the people for their attention. But I took care to remark - that I was as dry as a powder-horn, and that I thought it was time for - us all to wet our whistles a little; and so I put off to the liquor - stand, and was followed by the greater part of the crowd. - - I felt certain this was necessary, for I knowed my competitor could - open government matters to them as easy as he pleased. He had, - however, mighty few left to hear him, as I continued with the crowd, - now and then taking a horn, and telling good-humored stories, till he - was done speaking. I found I was good for the votes at the hunt, and - when we broke up I went on to the town of Vernon, which was the same - [_town_] they wanted me to move. Here they pressed me again on the - subject, and I found I could get either party by agreeing with them. - But I told them I didn’t know whether it would be right or not, and so - couldn’t promise either way. - - Their court commenced on the next Monday, as the barbecue was on a - Saturday, and the candidates for Governor, and for Congress, as well - as my competitor and myself, all attended. - - The thought of having to make a speech made my knees feel mighty weak, - and set my heart to fluttering almost as bad as my first love scrape - with the Quaker’s niece. But as good luck would have it, these big - candidates spoke nearly all day, and when they quit, the people were - worn out with fatigue, which afforded me a good apology for not - discussing the government. But I listened mighty close to them, and - was learning pretty fast about political matters. When they were all - done, I got up and told some laughable story, and quit. I found I was - safe in those parts, and so I went home, and did not go back again - till after the election was over. But to cut this matter short, I was - elected, doubling my competitor, and nine votes over. - - -Early Days in Illinois - -Morris Birkbeck was an Englishman who came to the United States and -settled in southeastern Illinois where he founded the town of Albion. -His account of the people and life in Illinois in 1817, just before it -became a state, is good reporting. He has a sharp eye for detail, and -because he was fresh from Europe, he sees and records the contrasts -between the Midwestern backwoods and the Old World. The following -selection comes from his book, _Notes on a Journey in America, from the -Coast of Virginia to the Territory of Illinois_. - - _August 1._ Dagley’s, twenty miles north of Shawnee Town. After - viewing several beautiful prairies, so beautiful with their - surrounding woods as to seem like the creation of fancy, gardens of - delight in a dreary wilderness, and after losing our horses and - spending two days in recovering them, we took a hunter as our guide - and proceeded across the Little Wabash to explore the country between - that river and the Skillet-fork. - - Since we left the Fox settlement, about fifteen miles north of the Big - Prairie, cultivation has been very scanty, many miles intervening - between the little “clearings.” This may therefore be truly called a - new country. - - These lonely settlers are poorly off—their bread corn must be ground - thirty miles off, requiring three days to carry to the mill and bring - back the small horse-load of three bushels. Articles of family - manufacture are very scanty, and what they purchase is of the meanest - quality and excessively dear: yet they are friendly and willing to - share their simple fare with you. It is surprising how comfortable - they seem, wanting everything. To struggle with privations has now - become the habit of their lives, most of them having made several - successive plunges into the wilderness, and they begin already to talk - of selling their “improvements” and getting still farther “back” on - finding that emigrants of another description are thickening about - them. - - Our journey across the Little Wabash was a complete departure from all - mark of civilization. We saw no bears, as they are now buried in the - thickets, and seldom appear by day; but, at every few yards, we saw - recent marks of their doings, “wallowing” in the long grass or turning - over decayed logs in quest of beetles or worms, in which work the - strength of this animal is equal to that of four men. Wandering - without track, where even the sagacity of our hunter-guide had nearly - failed us, we at length arrived at the cabin of another hunter, where - we lodged. - - This man and his family are remarkable instances of the effect on the - complexion produced by the perpetual incarceration [_imprisonment_] of - a thorough woodland life. Incarceration may seem to be a term less - applicable to the condition of a roving backwoodsman than to any - other, and especially unsuitable to the habits of this individual and - his family; for the cabin in which he entertained us is the third - dwelling he has built within the last twelve months, and a very - slender motive would place him in a fourth before the ensuing winter. - In his general habits the hunter ranges as freely as the beasts he - pursues; labouring under no restraint, his activity is only bounded by - his own physical powers: still he is incarcerated—“Shut from the - common air.” Buried in the depth of a boundless forest, the breeze of - health never reaches these poor wanderers; the bright prospect of - distant hills fading away into the semblance of clouds, never cheered - their sight. They are tall and pale, like vegetables that grow in a - vault, pining for light.... - - Our stock of provisions being nearly exhausted, we were anxious to - provide ourselves with a supper by means of our guns, but we could - meet with neither deer nor turkey; however, in our utmost need, we - shot three raccoons, an old one to be roasted for our dogs and the two - young ones to be stewed up daintily for ourselves. We soon lighted a - fire and cooked the old raccoon for the dogs; but famished as they - were, they would not touch it, and their squeamishness so far abated - our relish for the promised stew that we did not press our complaining - landlady to prepare it; and thus our supper consisted of the residue - of our “corn” bread and _no_ raccoon. However, we laid our bear skins - on the filthy earth (floor there was none), which they assured us was - “too damp for fleas,” and wrapped in our blankets slept soundly - enough; though the collops [_slices_] of venison hanging in comely - rows in the smoky fireplace and even the shoulders put by for the dogs - and which were suspended over our heads would have been an acceptable - prelude to our night’s rest, had we been invited to partake of them; - but our hunter and our host were too deeply engaged in conversation to - think of supper. In the morning the latter kindly invited us to cook - some of the collops, which we did by toasting them on a stick, and he - also divided some shoulders among the dogs; so we all fared - sumptuously. - - The cabin, which may serve as a specimen of these rudiments of houses, - was formed of round logs with apertures of three or four inches - between. No chimney, but large intervals between the “clapboards” for - the escape of the smoke. The roof was, however, a more effectual - covering than we have generally experienced, as it protected us very - tolerably from a drenching night. Two bedsteads of unhewn logs and - cleft boards laid across; two chairs, one of them without a bottom, - and a low stool were all the furniture required by this numerous - family. A string of buffalo hide stretched across the hovel was a - wardrobe for their rags; and their utensils, consisting of a large - iron pot, some baskets, the effective rifle and two that were - superannuated [_too old to use_], stood about in corners, and the - fiddle, which was only silent when we were asleep, hung by them. - - - - - Ominous Loomings: The Missouri Compromise, 1820 - - -When the War of 1812 ended, the United States consisted of eighteen -states—nine free and nine slave. Very soon Indiana was admitted as a -free state, offset by Mississippi as a slave state. It was inevitable -that this precarious balance between the North and the South would some -day cause trouble, and the trouble came very soon. In 1818, Illinois -entered as a free state, and the enabling legislation to admit Missouri -was introduced in Congress in 1819. - -The South assumed that Missouri would be a slave state, but a New York -Congressman amended the Missouri statehood bill to provide for gradual -freeing of the slaves there. The South reacted vigorously to keep from -losing its equal representation in the Senate and blocked passage of the -bill. Meanwhile, Alabama came in to balance Illinois, and there were -eleven northern and eleven southern states. - -The following year, when Maine applied for admission into the Union, -Henry Clay of Kentucky engineered the famous Missouri Compromise. This -agreement provided that Missouri would come in as a slave state but that -no more slave states would be admitted from territory north of -Missouri’s southern boundary. This compromise is important because it -foreshadows the struggle between the North and South that eventuated in -the Civil War a generation later. Although most of the oratory dealt -with the slavery issue, the struggle also concerned the broader matter -of political control in the West. - - -Representative Arthur Livermore Argues Against Extending Slavery - -The following selections illustrate the debate in Congress over the -Missouri question. The first speech is by Congressman Arthur Livermore -of New Hampshire against the extension of slavery. - - I propose to show what slavery is, and to mention a few of the many - evils which follow in its train; and I hope to evince that we are not - bound to tolerate the existence of so disgraceful a state of things - beyond its present extent, and that it would be impolitic and very - unjust to let it spread over the whole face of our Western territory. - Slavery in the United States is the condition of man subjected to the - will of a master who can make any disposition of him short of taking - away his life. In those States where it is tolerated, laws are enacted - making it penal to instruct slaves in the art of reading, and they are - not permitted to attend public worship or to hear the Gospel preached. - - Thus the light of science and of religion is utterly excluded from the - mind, that the body may be more easily bowed down to servitude. The - bodies of slaves may, with impunity, be prostituted to any purpose and - deformed in any manner by their owners. The sympathies of nature in - slaves are disregarded; mothers and children are sold and separated; - the children wring their little hands and expire in agonies of grief, - while the bereft mothers commit suicide in despair. How long will the - desire of wealth render us blind to the sin of holding both the bodies - and souls of our fellow-men in chains! - - But, sir, I am admonished of the Constitution, and told that we cannot - emancipate slaves. I know we may not infringe that instrument, and - therefore do not propose to emancipate slaves. The proposition before - us goes only to prevent our citizens from making slaves of such as - have a right to freedom. In the present slaveholding States let - slavery continue, for our boasted Constitution connives at it; but do - not, for the sake of cotton and tobacco, let it be told to future ages - that, while pretending to love liberty, we have purchased an extensive - country to disgrace it with the foulest reproach of nations. - - Our Constitution requires no such thing of us. The ends for which that - supreme law was made are succinctly stated in its preface. They are, - first, to form a more perfect union and insure domestic tranquility. - Will slavery effect this? Can we, sir, by mingling bond with free, - black spirits with white, like Shakespeare’s witches in Macbeth, form - a more perfect union and insure domestic tranquility? Secondly, to - establish justice. Is justice to be established by subjecting half - mankind to the will of the other half? Justice, sir, is blind to - colors, and weighs in equal scales the rights of all men, whether - white or black. Thirdly, to provide for the common defense and secure - the blessings of liberty. Does slavery add anything to the common - defense? Sir, the strength of a republic is in the arm of freedom. - But, above all things, do the blessings of liberty consist in slavery? - - -Senator James Barbour Defends Slavery - -In the second selection we have chosen, Senator James Barbour of -Virginia defends slavery: - - The gentleman from Pennsylvania asks shall we suffer Missouri to come - into the Union with this savage mark [_of slavery_] on her - countenance? I appeal to that gentleman to know whether this be - language to address to an American Senate, composed equally of members - from States precisely in that condition that Missouri would be in, - were she to tolerate slavery. Are these sentiments calculated to - cherish that harmony and affection so essential to any beneficial - results from our Union? But, sir, I will not imitate this course, and - I will strive to repress the feeling which such remarks are calculated - to awaken. - - ... They assure us that they do not mean to touch this property - [_slavery_] in the old states.... What kind of ethics is this that is - bounded by latitude and longitude, which is inoperative on the left, - but is omnipotent on the right bank of a river? Such a doctrine is - well calculated to excite our solicitude; for, although the gentlemen - who now hold it are sincere in their declarations, and mean to content - themselves with a triumph in this controversy, what security have we - that others will not apply it to the South generally? - - Let it not, however, be supposed that in the abstract I am advocating - slavery. Like all other human things, it is mixed with good and - evil—the latter, no doubt, preponderating.... Whether slavery was - ordained by God Himself in a particular revelation to His chosen - people, or whether it be merely permitted as a part of that moral evil - which seems to be the inevitable portion of man, are questions I will - not approach; I leave them to the casuists [_debaters_] and the - divines [_preachers_]. It is sufficient for us, as statesmen, to know - that it has existed from the earliest ages of the world, and that to - us has been assigned such a portion as, in reference to their number - and the various considerations resulting from a change of their - condition, no remedy, even plausible, has been suggested, though - wisdom and benevolence united have unceasingly brooded over the - subject. - - However dark and inscrutable may be the ways of heaven, who is he that - arrogantly presumes to arraign [_challenge_] them? The same mighty - power that planted the greater and the lesser luminary in the heavens - permits on earth the bondsman and the free. To that Providence, as men - and Christians, let us bow. If it be consistent with His will, in the - fullness of time, to break the fetter of the slave, He will raise up - some Moses to be their deliverer. To him commission will be given to - lead them up out of the land of bondage. - - -Representative James Stevens Argues for the Compromise - -In the final selection James Stevens, Representative from Connecticut, -pleads with Congress to accept the Compromise: - - I have listened with pain to the very long, protracted debate that has - been had on this unfortunate question. I call it unfortunate, sir, - because it has drawn forth the worst passions of man in the course of - the discussion.... - - If the deadliest enemy this country has, or ever had, could dictate - language the most likely to destroy your glory, prosperity, and - happiness, would it not be precisely what has been so profusely used - in this debate—sectional vaunting?... Indeed, sir, there is no view of - this unhappy division of our country but must be sickening to the - patriot and in direct violation of the dictate of wisdom, and the - last, though not least, important advice of the Father and Friend of - his Country. He forbids the use of the words Northern and Southern, - Atlantic and Western, as descriptive of the various parts of your - country. - - But, sir, we have now arrived at a point at which every gentleman - agrees something must be done. A precipice lies before us at which - perdition [_ruin_] is inevitable. Gentlemen on both sides of this - question, and in both Houses, indoors and out of doors, have evinced a - determination that augurs ill of the high destinies of this country! - And who does not tremble for the consequences?... - - I wish not to be misunderstood, sir. I don’t pretend to say that in - just five calendar months your Union will be at an end;... - - But, sir, I do say, and, for the verity of the remark, cite the - lamentable history of our own time, that the result of a failure to - compromise at this time, in the way now proposed, or in some other way - satisfactory to both, would be to create ruthless hatred, irradicable - jealousy, and a total forgetfulness of the ardor of patriotism, to - which, as it has heretofore existed, we owe, under Providence, more - solid national glory and social happiness than ever before was - possessed by any people, nation, kindred, or tongue under Heaven. - - - - - The Monroe Doctrine - - -Although the United States was mainly concerned with internal problems -during Monroe’s presidency, there was one important policy established -during this period in the area of foreign relations. This was the Monroe -Doctrine. It was a statement of policy made by the President in a -message to Congress in 1823, which defined the role of the United States -in international affairs and which, in some respects, is still vital -United States policy. - -The Doctrine states that the United States will not tolerate further -foreign colonial expansion by European powers in North or South America. -This policy was necessary because Spain’s colonies in Latin America had -recently revolted, and it looked as though the other European powers -might try to reconquer Spain’s former colonies. In addition, Russia was -moving southward from Alaska and claiming land down to the 51st -parallel, which would have taken in much of what is now British -Columbia. The Monroe Doctrine also declares that the United States will -not interfere with existing European colonies in the Americas nor with -the internal affairs of European nations. In the following selection we -reprint part of the Monroe Doctrine. - - -Excerpts from the Monroe Doctrine - - In the wars of the European powers in matters relating to themselves - we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy so - to do. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced - that we resent injuries or make preparation for our defense. With the - movements in this hemisphere we are of necessity more immediately - connected, and by causes which must be obvious to all enlightened and - impartial observers.... - - We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing - between the United States and those powers to declare that we should - consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any - portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With - the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have - not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the Governments who - have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose - independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles, - acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of - oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by - any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an - unfriendly disposition toward the United States. - - In the war between those new Governments and Spain we declared our - neutrality at the time of their recognition, and to this we have - adhered, and shall continue to adhere, provided no change shall occur - which, in the judgment of the competent authorities of this - Government, shall make a ... change on the part of the United States - indispensable to their security.... - - Our policy in regard to Europe, which was adopted at an early stage of - the wars which have so long agitated that quarter of the globe, - nevertheless remains the same, which is, not to interfere in the - internal concerns of any of its powers; to consider the government _de - facto_ [_actually ruling_] as the legitimate government for us; to - cultivate friendly relations with it, and to preserve those relations - by a frank, firm, and manly policy, meeting in all instances the just - claims of every power, submitting to injuries from none. But in regard - to those continents circumstances are eminently and conspicuously - different. - - It is impossible that the allied powers should extend their political - system to any portion of either continent [_North or South America_] - without endangering our peace and happiness; nor can anyone believe - that our southern brethren, if left to themselves, would adopt it of - their own accord. It is equally impossible, therefore, that we should - behold such interposition in any form with indifference. - - - - - John Quincy Adams - - - [Illustration: John Quincy Adams] - - - - - Lighthouses in the Sky - - -John Quincy Adams, who succeeded James Monroe as President in 1825, was -the son of John Adams, the second President. He too had served a long -apprenticeship in government, having been Senator, minister to Great -Britain and Russia, and Secretary of State. Although he served only one -term and was defeated for re-election by Andrew Jackson, he was a -forward-looking President. We illustrate his interest in science and the -internal development of the United States by a portion of his first -message to Congress. He begins with a plea that the object of government -is to improve the lot of the people. He favors roads and canals, but -even more, moral and intellectual improvements. - - -Excerpts from Adams’ First Message to Congress - - Upon this first occasion of addressing the Legislature of the Union, - with which I have been honored, in presenting to their view the - execution so far as it has been effected of the measures sanctioned by - them for promoting the internal improvement of our country, I can not - close the communication without recommending to their calm and - persevering consideration the general principle in a more enlarged - extent.... - - Among the first, perhaps the very first, instrument for the - improvement of the conditions of men is knowledge, and to the - acquisition of much of the knowledge adapted to the wants, the - comforts, and enjoyments of human life public institutions and - seminaries of learning are essential. So convinced of this was the - first of my predecessors in this office [_George Washington_], now - first in the memory, as, living, he was first in the hearts, of our - countrymen, that once and again in his addresses to the Congresses - with whom he co-operated in the public service he earnestly - recommended the establishment of seminaries of learning, to prepare - for all the emergencies of peace and war—a national university and a - military academy. With respect to the latter, had he lived to the - present day, in turning his eyes to the institution at West Point he - would have enjoyed the gratification of his most earnest wishes; but - in surveying the city which has been honored with his name he would - have seen the spot of earth which he had destined and bequeathed to - the use and benefit of his country as the site for an university still - bare and barren. - - In assuming her station among the civilized nations of the earth it - would seem that our country had contracted the engagement to - contribute her share of mind, of labor, and of expense to the - improvement of those parts of knowledge which lie beyond the reach of - individual acquisition, and particularly to geographical and - astronomical science. Looking back to the history only of the half - century since the declaration of our independence, and observing the - generous emulation with which the Governments of France, Great - Britain, and Russia have devoted the genius, the intelligence, the - treasures of their respective nations to the common improvement of the - species in these branches of science, is it not incumbent upon us to - inquire whether we are not bound by obligations of a high and - honorable character to contribute our portion of energy and exertion - to the common stock?... - - In inviting the attention of Congress to the subject of internal - improvements upon a view thus enlarged it is not my design to - recommend the equipment of an expedition for circumnavigating the - globe for purposes of scientific research and inquiry. We have objects - of useful investigation nearer home, and to which our cares may be - more beneficially applied. The interior of our own territories has yet - been very imperfectly explored. Our coasts along many degrees of - latitude upon the shores of the Pacific Ocean, though much frequented - by our spirited commercial navigators, have been barely visited by our - public ships.... - - The establishment of an uniform standard of weights and measures was - one of the specific objects contemplated in the formation of our - Constitution, and to fix that standard was one of the powers delegated - by express terms in that instrument to Congress. The Governments of - Great Britain and France have scarcely ceased to be occupied with - inquiries and speculations on the same subject since the existence of - our Constitution, and with them it has expanded into profound, - laborious, and expensive researches into the figure of the earth and - the comparative length of the pendulum vibrating seconds in various - latitudes from the equator to the pole.... - - Connected with the establishment of an university, or separate from - it, might be undertaken the erection of an astronomical observatory, - with provision for the support of an astronomer, to be in constant - attendance of observation upon the phenomena of the heavens, and for - the periodical publication of his observations. It is with no feeling - of pride as an American that the remark may be made that on the - comparatively small territorial surface of Europe there are existing - upward of 130 of these light-houses of the skies, while throughout the - whole American hemisphere there is not one. If we reflect a moment - upon the discoveries which in the last four centuries have been made - in the physical constitution of the universe by the means of these - buildings and of observers stationed in them, shall we doubt of their - usefulness to every nation? And while scarcely a year passes over our - heads without bringing some new astronomical discovery to light, which - we must fain receive at second hand from Europe, are we not cutting - ourselves off from the means of returning light for light while we - have neither observatory nor observer upon our half of the globe and - the earth revolves in perpetual darkness to our unsearching eyes? - - [Illustration: The Lewis and Clark expedition] - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - ---Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - ---Silently corrected a few palpable typos, leaving period spellings - unchanged. - ---In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - ---Added subheadings in the text to match entries in the Table of - Contents. - ---Added captions to illustrations based on the attributions in front - matter. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jeffersonians, 1801-1829, by -Richard B. 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Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/60854-0.zip b/old/60854-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4199836..0000000 --- a/old/60854-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/60854-8.txt b/old/60854-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f5777b6..0000000 --- a/old/60854-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2887 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jeffersonians, 1801-1829, by -Richard B. Morris and James Woodress - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Jeffersonians, 1801-1829 - Voices from America's Past - -Author: Richard B. Morris - James Woodress - -Release Date: December 6, 2019 [EBook #60854] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JEFFERSONIANS, 1801-1829 *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - VOICES FROM AMERICA'S PAST - - - - - THE JEFFERSONIANS - 1801-1829 - - - Edited by - Richard B. Morris - Gouverneur Morris Professor of History - Columbia University - New York, New York - - James Woodress - Chairman, Department of English - San Fernando Valley State College - Northridge, California - - - WEBSTER PUBLISHING COMPANY - ST. LOUIS ATLANTA DALLAS - - VOICES FROM AMERICA'S PAST - _The Beginnings of America 1607-1763_ - _The Times That Tried Men's Souls 1770-1783_ - _The Age of Washington 1783-1801_ - _The Jeffersonians 1801-1829_ - _Jacksonian Democracy 1829-1848_ - _The Westward Movement 1832-1889_ - _A House Divided: The Civil War 1850-1865_ - (_Other titles in preparation_) - - Copyright , 1961, by Webster Publishing Company - Printed in the United States of America - All rights reserved - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - -Preface v - I Jefferson's Administration, 1801-1809 - -The Election and Inauguration 1 - Margaret Bayard Smith Describes the Election and Inauguration 2 - Jefferson's First Inaugural Address 4 - -Burr Kills Hamilton 7 - David Hosack Describes Hamilton's Last Hours 7 - -Marbury vs. Madison 10 - Excerpts from John Marshall's Decision 10 - -The Louisiana Purchase 12 - Jefferson Writes to Robert Livingston 13 - The Lewis and Clark Expedition: Lewis' Journal 14 - -The Embargo Act 18 - Washington Irving Satirizes the Embargo Act 19 - II Madison's Administration, 1809-1817 - -Madison's Inauguration 22 - Mrs. Smith's Report 22 - -The War of 1812 24 - The _Constitution_ Defeats the _Guerrire_: Isaac Hull 25 - Commodore Perry Wins a Victory on Lake Erie: Oliver Perry 27 - The British Burn Washington: Dolly Madison 28 - The British Burn Washington: George Gleig 30 - The Battle of New Orleans: George Gleig 32 - The Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson 35 - III James Monroe's Administration, 1817-1825 - -Early Days in the Mississippi Valley 37 - A Husking Bee in Ohio: William Cooper Howells 38 - Religion in Tennessee: Lorenzo Dow 40 - Davy Crockett Runs for Office 44 - Early Days in Illinois: Morris Birkbeck 47 - -Ominous Loomings: The Missouri Compromise, 1820 50 - Representative Arthur Livermore Argues Against Extending Slavery 50 - Senator James Barbour Defends Slavery 52 - Representative James Stevens Argues for the Compromise 53 - -The Monroe Doctrine 54 - Excerpts from the Monroe Doctrine 54 - IV John Quincy Adams - -Lighthouses in the Sky 56 - Excerpts from Adams' First Message to Congress 56 - - - - -The selections by Margaret Bayard Smith, from _Forty Years of Washington -Society_, edited by Gaillard Hunt, which begin on pages 2 and 22, were -reprinted through the courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons. - -The picture on the cover and the picture on page 1, of the Lewis and -Clark Expedition, were reprinted through the courtesy of the John -Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company of Boston, Massachusetts. The -picture on page 22, of the _Constitution_ and the _Guerrire_, was -reprinted through the courtesy of the New York Public Library. The -picture of a political speaker on the Fourth of July on page 37 and the -picture of John Quincy Adams on page 56 were reprinted through the -courtesy of the Library of Congress. - - - - - Preface - - -The early part of the last century was an exciting time to live in -America. The signers of the Declaration of Independence and the framers -of the Constitution, mostly old men by now, saw that their experiment in -republican government had turned out to be a success. The nation was -flourishing in these years like a healthy adolescent. There were growing -pains, to be sure, but no one doubted now that the youngster would reach -manhood. The question was: What is he going to be like? - -The party battles of John Adams' administration left the Federalist -Party in ruins, and Thomas Jefferson succeeded to the presidency with an -overwhelming popular mandate. During his first term, Jefferson increased -his popularity through buying from France the enormous Louisiana -Territory which doubled the size of the United States. By the time the -Lewis and Clark Expedition returned from exploring the new land, people -began to realize the immense possibilities that the Louisiana Purchase -held for the future of the United States. - -Jefferson's second term was beset by foreign problems that culminated -eventually in the War of 1812, during James Madison's administration. -Despite George Washington's advice in his Farewell Address to stay out -of entangling foreign alliances, America could not avoid being affected -by events abroad. She was caught between the hammer and the anvil during -Napoleon's wars with the rest of Europe. The War of 1812 settled no -issues but, soon afterward, the main Anglo-American problems left over -from the Revolution were adjusted. Napoleon's downfall at Waterloo -removed France as an obstacle to American development. - -The period known as the "Era of Good Feeling" followed the War of 1812. -During the two terms of James Monroe, internal matters were the main -concern of the country: tariffs, banking, domestic improvements, the -admission of new states into the Union. With the Monroe Doctrine, which -warned Europe to respect the independence of Latin America, the United -States began to emerge as a power in the world. Even more important was -the appearance of storm warnings heralding the eventual coming of the -Civil War. The Missouri Compromise, which drew a line between slave and -free territory, established an uneasy truce between the North and the -South. - -By the time John Quincy Adams became the sixth President, sectionalism -was rapidly developing, and the balance of power between the East and -the West, the industrial North and the agricultural South, was beginning -to shift. The two-party system, which had largely disappeared with the -collapse of the Federalists in 1800, was revived. In 1828 the long -monopoly that Virginia and Massachusetts had enjoyed in supplying -American Presidents came to an end with the election of Andrew Jackson -of Tennessee and a new era began. - -The selections in this booklet reflect most of the significant events of -these years from 1801 to 1829. The Louisiana Purchase, the Lewis and -Clark Expedition, the War of 1812, the Missouri Compromise, all are -represented. In addition we have included accounts of some small events -and background descriptions which give the flavor of the age. A proper -notion of this period requires not only a knowledge of the major issues, -such as understanding the Embargo Act or the significance of the -_Marbury_ vs. _Madison_ decision, but also an appreciation of the -quality of the experience of being an American in the first quarter of -the nineteenth century. Hence we have used such documents as Lorenzo -Dow's diary describing the life of a frontier preacher and Morris -Birkbeck's account of settling in Illinois. - -In editing the manuscripts in this booklet, we have followed the -practice of modernizing punctuation, capitalization, and spelling only -when necessary to make the selections clear. We have silently corrected -misspelled words and typographical errors. Wherever possible we have -used complete selections, but occasionally space limitations have made -necessary cuts in the original documents. Such cuts are indicated by -spaced periods. In general, the selections appear as the authors wrote -them. - - Richard B. Morris - James Woodress - - - - - Jefferson's Administration, 1801-1809 - - - [Illustration: The Lewis and Clark expedition] - - - - - The Election and Inauguration - - -On election day in 1800, Thomas Jefferson won a clear victory over John -Adams but almost did not became President. The Constitution required -that presidential electors cast two ballots; the winner became President -and the runner-up became Vice-President. Jefferson's running mate, Aaron -Burr, who had been nominated for Vice-President, received 73 electoral -votes, the same number as Jefferson. This strange situation occurred -because the Constitutional Convention had not anticipated the rise of -party politics. When John Adams had defeated Jefferson in 1796, -Jefferson, as the runner-up, was elected Vice-President. If parties had -not developed by 1800, Adams, as Jefferson's opponent, would surely have -become Vice-President. But because parties had arisen, all of -Jefferson's electors gave Burr their second vote. (A repetition of this -kind of deadlock was avoided for future elections by the Twelfth -Amendment.) - -The Constitution stated that if the two leading candidates were tied, -the election should be decided by the House of Representatives. The -trouble was that in 1800 the House was controlled by the Federalists and -not by Jefferson's party. The Federalists nearly elected Burr President -because they disliked him less than they disliked Jefferson. - - -Margaret Bayard Smith Describes the Election and Inauguration - -Fortunately for the country, Federalist Alexander Hamilton, who knew -Burr was unfit to be President, opposed his party's plan to defeat -Jefferson. But while this crucial decision was being made, the nation -waited breathlessly. The excitement in Washington is recorded in the -following selection from the notebook of Margaret Bayard Smith, wife of -the editor of the _National Intelligencer_. - - It was an awful crisis. The people, who with such an overwhelming - majority had declared their will, would never peaceably have allowed - the man of their choice to be set aside and the individual they had - chosen as Vice-President to be put in his place. A civil war must have - taken place, to be terminated in all human probability by a rupture of - the Union. Such consequences were at least calculated on and excited a - deep and inflammatory interest. Crowds of anxious spirits from the - adjacent county and cities thronged to the seat of government and hung - like a thunder cloud over the Capitol, their indignation ready to - burst on any individual who might be designated as President in - opposition to the people's known choice. The citizens of Baltimore, - who from their proximity were the first apprised of this daring - design, were with difficulty restrained from rushing on with an armed - force, to prevent--or if they could not prevent, to avenge this - violation of the people's will and in their own vehement language to - hurl the usurper from his seat. - - Mr. Jefferson, then President of the Senate, sitting in the midst of - these _conspirators_, as they were then called, unavoidably hearing - their loudly whispered designs, witnessing their gloomy and restless - machinations, aware of the dreadful consequences which must follow - their meditated designs, preserved through this trying period the most - unclouded serenity, the most perfect equanimity. A spectator who - watched his countenance would never have surmised that he had any - personal interest in the impending event. Calm and self-possessed, he - retained his seat in the midst of the angry and stormy, though - half-smothered passions that were struggling around him, and by this - dignified tranquility repressed any open violence. Though insufficient - to prevent whispered menaces and insults, to these, however, he turned - a deaf ear and resolutely maintained a placidity which baffled the - designs of his enemies. - - The crisis was at hand. The two bodies of Congress met, the Senators - as witnesses, the Representatives as electors. The question on which - hung peace or war, nay, the union of the states was to be decided. - What an awful responsibility was attached to every vote given on that - occasion. The sitting was held with closed doors. It lasted the whole - day, the whole night. Not an individual left that solemn assembly; the - necessary refreshment they required was taken in rooms adjoining the - Hall. They were not like the Roman conclave legally and forcibly - confined; the restriction was self-imposed from the deep-felt - necessity of avoiding any extrinsic or external influence. Beds, as - well as food, were sent for the accommodation of those whom age or - debility disabled from enduring such a long-protracted sitting. The - balloting took place every hour--in the interval men ate, drank, slept - or pondered over the result of the last ballot, compared ideas and - persuasions to change votes, or gloomily anticipated the consequences, - let the result be what it would. - - With what an intense interest did every individual watch each - successive examination of the ballot-box; how breathlessly did they - listen to the counting of the votes! Every hour a messenger brought to - the editor of the _National Intelligencer_ the result of the ballot. - That night I never lay down or closed my eyes. As the hour drew near - its close, my heart would almost audibly beat, and I was seized with a - tremour that almost disabled me from opening the door for the expected - messenger.... - - For more than thirty hours the struggle was maintained, but finding - the Republican phalanx impenetrable, not to be shaken in their - purpose, every effort proving unavailing, the Senator from Delaware - [_James A. Bayard--actually a Representative_], the withdrawal of - whose vote would determine the issue, took his part, gave up his - party, for his country, and threw into the box a blank ballot, thus - leaving to the Republicans a majority. Mr. Jefferson was declared duly - elected. The assembled crowds, without the Capitol, rent the air with - their acclamations and gratulations, and the conspirators, as they - were called, hurried to their lodgings under strong apprehensions of - suffering from the just indignation of their fellow citizens. - - The dark and threatening cloud which had hung over the political - horizon rolled harmlessly away, and the sunshine of prosperity and - gladness broke forth and ever since, with the exception of a few - passing clouds, has continued to shine on our happy country. - - -Jefferson's First Inaugural Address - -As the author of the Declaration of Independence and many memorable -state papers, Thomas Jefferson was, with Abraham Lincoln, one of our two -greatest presidential writers. The following speech, which he delivered -on March 4, 1801, is an eloquent statement of democratic principles. -Jefferson approached the office of President with humility and a -conciliatory attitude towards his opponents. The simplicity and -directness of his prose contrast greatly with the flowery and lengthy -eloquence of most speakers in his day. - - Friends and Fellow Citizens: - - Called upon to undertake the duties of the first executive office of - our country, I avail myself of the presence of that portion of my - fellow citizens which is here assembled to express my grateful thanks - for the favor with which they have been pleased to look towards me, to - declare a sincere consciousness that the task is above my talents and - that I approach it with those anxious and awful presentiments which - the greatness of the charge and the weakness of my powers so justly - inspire. - - A rising nation spread over a wide and fruitful land, traversing all - the seas with the rich productions of their industry, engaged in - commerce with nations who feel power and forget right, advancing - rapidly to destinies beyond the reach of mortal eye; when I - contemplate these transcendent objects and see the honor, the - happiness, and the hopes of this beloved country committed to the - issue and the auspices of this day, I shrink from the contemplation - and humble myself before the magnitude of the undertaking. - - Utterly indeed should I despair, did not the presence of many whom I - here see remind me that in the other high authorities provided by our - Constitution, I shall find resources of wisdom, of virtue, and of - zeal, on which to rely under all difficulties. - - To you then, gentlemen, who are charged with the sovereign functions - of legislation and to those associated with you, I look with - encouragement for that guidance and support which may enable us to - steer with safety the vessel in which we are all embarked amidst the - conflicting elements of a troubled sea. - - During the contest of opinion through which we have passed, the - animation of discussions and of exertions, has sometimes worn an - aspect which might impose on strangers unused to think freely and to - speak and to write what they think. - - But this being now decided by the voice of the nation, announced - according to the rules of the Constitution, all will of course arrange - themselves under the will of the law, and unite in common efforts for - the common good. All too will bear in mind this sacred principle, that - though the will of the majority is in all cases to prevail, that will, - to be rightful, must be reasonable: that the minority possess their - equal rights, which equal laws must protect, and to violate would be - oppression. - - Let us then, fellow citizens, unite with one heart and one mind; let - us restore to social intercourse that harmony and affection, without - which liberty and even life itself are but dreary things. - - And let us reflect that having banished from our land that religious - intolerance under which mankind so long bled and suffered we have yet - gained little, if we countenance a political intolerance as despotic, - as wicked, and capable of as bitter and bloody persecution. - - During the throes and convulsions of the ancient world, during the - agonized spasms of infuriated man, seeking through blood and slaughter - his long lost liberty, it was not wonderful that the agitation of the - billows should reach even this distant and peaceful shore; that this - should be more felt and feared by some, and less by others, and should - divide opinions as to measures of safety. - - But every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. We - have called, by different names, brethren of the same principle. We - are all republicans: we are all federalists. - - If there be any among us who wish to dissolve this union, or to change - its republican form, let them stand undisturbed, as monuments of the - safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is - left free to combat it. - - I know indeed that some honest men have feared that a republican - government cannot be strong; that this government is not strong - enough. But would the honest patriot, in the full tide of successful - experiment abandon a government which has so far kept us free and - firm, on the theoretic and visionary fear that this government, the - world's best hope may, by possibility, want energy to preserve itself? - - I trust not. I believe this, on the contrary, the strongest government - on earth. - - I believe it the only one where every man, at the call of the law, - would fly to the standard of the law; would meet invasions of public - order, as his own personal concern. - - Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the government of - himself. Can he then be trusted with the government of others? Or have - we found angels in the form of kings to govern him? Let history answer - this question. - - Let us then pursue with courage and confidence our own federal and - republican principles, our attachment to union and representative - government. - - Kindly separated by nature, and a wide ocean, from the exterminating - havoc of one quarter of the globe; too high-minded to endure the - degradations of the others; possessing a chosen country, with room - enough for our descendants to the thousandth and thousandth - generation; entertaining a due sense of our equal right, to the use of - our own faculties, to the acquisitions of our own industry, to honor - and confidence from our fellow citizens resulting not from birth, but - from our actions and their sense of them, enlightened by a benign - religion, professed indeed and practiced in various forms, yet all of - them inculcating honesty, truth, temperance, gratitude, and the love - of man, acknowledging and adoring an overruling providence, which by - all its dispensations proves that it delights in the happiness of man - here and his greater happiness hereafter. - - With all these blessings, what more is necessary to make us a happy - and a prosperous people? Still one thing more, fellow citizens, a wise - and frugal government, which shall restrain men from injuring one - another, shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own - pursuits of industry and improvement, and shall not take from the - mouth of labor the bread it has earned. - - This is the sum of good government, and this is necessary to close the - circle of our felicities. - - - - - Burr Kills Hamilton - - -The feud between Hamilton and Burr preceded the election of 1800, in -which Hamilton opposed Burr's election to the presidency. The rivalry -between these two New Yorkers actually had begun during the Revolution -and had continued throughout their political careers, but it reached a -special intensity in 1800. As Vice-President under Jefferson, Burr had -reached the peak of his career, but Jefferson, realizing that Burr -almost had schemed his way into the presidency, undermined his influence -in the Republican Party. In 1804, Hamilton again thwarted Burr's -ambitions by helping to defeat him for governor of New York. The duel -soon followed. - -Hamilton had no intention of firing at Burr and seems to have expected -to die, for he made his will and arranged his affairs before crossing -the Hudson River to New Jersey for the fatal duel on July 11, 1804. Burr -had great charm and undenied ability, but it might have been better for -him if he had died that day instead of Hamilton. He was an unscrupulous -intriguer, and his subsequent career tarnished his reputation. In 1805, -he tried to establish a political empire in the Mississippi Valley but -he was captured and tried for treason. Though he was acquitted, he had -to spend the next four years in exile. He later returned to an obscure -law practice in New York. - - -David Hosack Describes Hamilton's Last Hours - -In the selection that follows, David Hosack, the physician who attended -Hamilton at the duel, describes the scene immediately after Burr fired -the fatal shot. He writes to William Coleman, editor of the New York -_Post_, the paper Hamilton had founded. - - To comply with your request is a painful task; but I will repress my - feelings while I endeavor to furnish you with an enumeration of such - particulars relative to the melancholy end of our beloved friend - Hamilton, as dwell most forcibly on my recollection. - - When called to him, upon his receiving the fatal wound, I found him - half sitting on the ground, supported in the arms of Mr. Pendleton. - His countenance of death I shall never forget. He had at that instant - just strength to say, "This is a mortal wound, Doctor"; when he sunk - away, and became to all appearance lifeless. I immediately stripped up - his clothes, and soon, alas! ascertained that the direction of the - ball must have been through some vital part. His pulses were not to be - felt; his respiration was entirely suspended; and upon laying my hand - on his heart, and perceiving no motion there, I considered him as - irrecoverably gone. I however observed to Mr. Pendleton that the only - chance for his reviving was immediately to get him upon the water. - - We therefore lifted him up, and carried him out of the wood, to the - margin of the bank, where the bargemen aided us in conveying him into - the boat, which immediately put off. During all this time I could not - discover the least symptom of returning life. I now rubbed his face, - lips, and temples, with spirits of hartshorn, applied it to his neck - and breast, and to the wrists and palms of his hands, and endeavored - to pour some into his mouth. When we had got, as I should judge, about - fifty yards from the shore, some imperfect efforts to breathe were for - the first time manifest. In a few minutes he sighed, and became - sensible to the impression of the hartshorn, or the fresh air of the - water. He breathed; his eyes, hardly opened, wandered, without fixing - upon any objects. To our great joy he at length spoke: "My vision is - indistinct," were his first words. His pulse became more perceptible; - his respiration more regular; his sight returned. - - ... Soon after recovering his sight, he happened to cast his eye upon - the case of pistols, and observing the one that he had had in his hand - lying on the outside, he said, "Take care of that pistol; it is - undischarged, and still cocked; it may go off and do harm.--_Pendleton - knows_ (attempting to turn his head towards him) _that I did not - intend to fire at him_." "Yes," said Mr. Pendleton, understanding his - wish, "I have already made Dr. Hosack acquainted with your - determination as to that."... Perceiving that we approached the shore, - he said, "Let Mrs. Hamilton be immediately sent for. Let the event be - gradually broken to her; but give her hopes." - - Looking up, we saw his friend Mr. Bayard standing on the wharf in - great agitation. He had been told by his servant that General - Hamilton, Mr. Pendleton, and myself, had crossed the river in a boat - together, and too well he conjectured the fatal errand, and foreboded - the dreadful result. Perceiving, as we came nearer, that Mr. Pendleton - and myself only sat up in the stern sheets, he clasped his hands - together in the most violent apprehension; but when I called to him to - have a cot prepared, and he at the same moment saw his poor friend - lying in the bottom of the boat, he threw up his eyes and burst into a - flood of tears and lamentation. Hamilton alone appeared tranquil and - composed. We then conveyed him as tenderly as possible up to the - house. The distresses of this amiable family were such that till the - first shock was abated, they were scarcely able to summon fortitude - enough to yield sufficient assistance to their dying friend. - - ... During the night he had some imperfect sleep; but the succeeding - morning his symptoms were aggravated, attended, however, with a - diminution of pain. His mind retained all its usual strength and - composure. The great source of his anxiety seemed to be in his - sympathy with his half-distracted wife and children. He spoke to her - frequently of them. "My beloved wife and children," were always his - expressions. But his fortitude triumphed over his situation, dreadful - as it was. Once, indeed, at the sight of his children brought to the - bedside together, seven in number, his utterance forsook him. He - opened his eyes, gave them one look, and closed them again till they - were taken away. As a proof of his extraordinary composure of mind, - let me add that he alone could calm the frantic grief of their mother. - "_Remember, my Eliza, you are a Christian_," were the expressions with - which he frequently, with a firm voice, but in a pathetic and - impressive manner, addressed her. His words, and the tone in which - they were uttered, will never be effaced from my memory. At about two - o'clock, as the public well knows, he expired. - - - - - Marbury vs. Madison - - -The duel between the former Secretary of the Treasury and the -Vice-President provided high drama, but far more important was an event -that had occurred the year before in Washington. This event was a -Supreme Court decision written by Chief Justice Marshall, the decision -known as _Marbury_ vs. _Madison_. It established the principle that the -Supreme Court may declare unconstitutional any law passed by Congress -that conflicts with the Constitution. This principle has become so well -accepted today that we can hardly realize it ever had to be stated. Its -effect, however, was to strengthen the system of checks and balances -between the three main branches of our government. - -Marbury was an obscure justice of the peace, appointed by President -Adams just before his term expired. The lame-duck Federalist -administration went out of office before Marbury received his -commission, and Marbury appealed to the Supreme Court to force James -Madison, the new Secretary of State, to give it to him. The Supreme -Court declared that Marbury deserved his commission but that it could -not grant it. The reason was that the law saying the Court could do this -was contrary to the Constitution and therefore invalid. In the portion -of the decision that follows, Chief Justice Marshall argues the -principle that Congress may not give powers not specifically authorized -by the Constitution to the courts or to anyone else. - - -Excerpts from John Marshall's Decision - - The question whether an act, repugnant [_opposed_] to the - Constitution, can become the law of the land is a question deeply - interesting to the United States but, happily, not of an intricacy - proportioned to its interest. It seems only necessary to recognize - certain principles, supposed to have been long and well established, - to decide it. - - That the people have an original right to establish, for their future - government, such principles as, in their opinion, shall most conduce - to their own happiness is the basis on which the whole American fabric - has been erected. The exercise of this original right is a very great - exertion; nor can it, nor ought it, to be frequently repeated. The - principles, therefore, so established are deemed fundamental. And as - the authority from which they proceed is supreme, and can seldom act, - they are designed to be permanent. - - This original and supreme will organizes the government and assigns to - different departments their respective powers. It may either stop here - or establish certain limits not to be transcended by those - departments. - - The government of the United States is of the latter description. The - powers of the legislature are defined and limited; and that those - limits may not be mistaken or forgotten, the Constitution is written. - To what purpose are powers limited, and to what purpose is that - limitation committed to writing, if these limits may, at any time, be - passed by those intended to be restrained? The distinction between a - government with limited and unlimited powers is abolished if those - limits do not confine the persons on whom they are imposed, and if - acts prohibited and acts allowed are of equal obligation. It is a - proposition too plain to be contested that the Constitution controls - any legislative act repugnant to it or that the legislature may alter - the Constitution by an ordinary act. - - Between these alternatives there is no middle ground. The Constitution - is either a superior paramount law, unchangeable by ordinary means, or - it is on a level with ordinary legislative acts and, like other acts, - is alterable when the legislature shall please to alter it. - - If the former part of the alternative be true, then a legislative act - contrary to the Constitution is not law; if the latter part be true, - then written constitutions are absurd attempts, on the part of the - people, to limit a power in its own nature illimitable. - - Certainly, all those who have framed written constitutions contemplate - them as forming the fundamental and paramount law of the nation, and, - consequently, the theory of every such government must be, that an act - of the legislature repugnant to the Constitution is void. - -Marshall goes on to refute the argument that the Supreme Court should -concern itself only with interpreting the law, regardless of the -Constitution. Then he quotes specific passages from the Constitution: - - It is declared that "no tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported - from any state." Suppose a duty on the export of cotton, of tobacco, - or of flour; and a suit instituted to recover it. Ought judgment to be - rendered in such a case? Ought the judges to close their eyes on the - Constitution and only see the law?... - - "No person," says the Constitution, "shall be convicted of treason, - unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same _overt_ act, or - on confession in open court." Here the language of the Constitution is - addressed especially to the courts. It prescribes directly for them, a - rule of evidence not to be departed from. If the legislature should - change that rule and declare one witness, or a confession out of - court, sufficient for conviction, must the constitutional principle - yield to the legislative act? - - From these, and many other selections which might be made, it is - apparent that the framers of the Constitution contemplated that - instrument as a rule for the government of _courts_ as well as of the - legislature. - - Why otherwise does it direct the judges to take an oath to support it? - This oath certainly applies in an especial manner to their conduct in - their official character. How immoral to impose it on them if they - were to be used as the instruments, and the knowing instruments, for - violating what they swear to support! - -At the end of the decision the Chief Justice concluded that the language -of the Constitution confirmed and strengthened the principle essential -to all written constitutions "that a law repugnant to the Constitution -is void." - - - - - The Louisiana Purchase - - -The great event of Jefferson's first term was the acquisition of the -Louisiana Territory, that vast tract of land extending from the -Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, from the Canadian border to -the Gulf of Mexico. The purchase of this land from Napoleon was not a -premeditated act but rather the result of seizing an opportunity that -presented itself. President Jefferson started out merely to buy New -Orleans from France but ended up with more than 800,000 square miles. -The agreed-on price was about $15,000,000, or something like two cents -per acre. - -Napoleon had forced Spain to give Louisiana back to France after Spain -had held the territory nearly forty years. Just before the letter in the -following account was written, the Spanish Intendant (director) of New -Orleans, who had not yet turned over the city to France, closed the port -to American commerce. Because most of the produce of the Ohio and -Mississippi valleys reached eastern and foreign markets via New Orleans, -closing the port seemed almost an act of war against the United States. -At this point Jefferson sent James Monroe to Europe as special minister -to buy New Orleans. It turned out just then that Napoleon needed money -to renew his war against England, and the entire territory was purchased -within a few weeks. The events which led to the purchase are described -in the following letter that Jefferson wrote on February 3, 1803, to -Robert Livingston, the American minister to France. - - -Jefferson Writes to Robert Livingston - - A late suspension by the Intendant of New Orleans of our right of - deposit there, without which the right of navigation is impracticable, - has thrown this country into such a flame of hostile disposition as - can scarcely be described. The western country was peculiarly sensible - to it as you may suppose. Our business was to take the most effectual - pacific measures in our power to remove the suspension, and at the - same time to persuade our countrymen that pacific measures would be - the most effectual and the most speedily so. The opposition caught it - as a plank in a shipwreck, hoping it would enable them to tack the - western people to them. They raised the cry of war, were intriguing in - all the quarters to exasperate the western inhabitants to arm and go - down on their own authority and possess themselves of New Orleans, and - in the meantime were daily reiterating, in new shapes, inflammatory - resolutions for the adoption of the House. - - As a remedy to all this we determined to name a minister extraordinary - to go immediately to Paris and Madrid to settle this matter. This - measure being a visible one, and the person named peculiarly proper - with the western country, crushed at once and put an end to all - further attempts on the Legislature. From that moment all has become - quiet; and the more readily in the western country, as the sudden - alliance of these new federal friends had of itself already began to - make them suspect the wisdom of their own course. The measure was - moreover proposed from another cause. We must know at once whether we - can acquire New Orleans or not. We are satisfied nothing else will - secure us against a war at no distant period; and we cannot press this - reason without beginning those arrangements which will be necessary if - war is hereafter to result. - - For this purpose it was necessary that the negotiators should be fully - possessed of every idea we have on the subject, so as to meet the - propositions of the opposite party, in whatever form they may be - offered; and give them a shape admissible by us without being obliged - to await new instructions hence. With this view, we have joined Mr. - Monroe to yourself at Paris, and to Mr. Pinckney at Madrid, although - we believe it will be hardly necessary for him to go to this last - place. - - -The Lewis and Clark Expedition - -Exploring the Missouri River Valley and the Rocky Mountain area long had -been a cherished project of President Jefferson. He had talked about it -periodically since the Revolution, and when he became President he set -about to make his dream come true. Even before the United States owned -the Louisiana Territory, Capt. Meriwether Lewis, Jefferson's secretary, -and William Clark, younger brother of George Rogers Clark, had been -picked to head an expedition to explore the West. - -The journey did not begin, however, until May, 1804, when the expedition -left St. Louis. Capt. Lewis led his explorers up the Missouri River to -what is now North Dakota, and before cold weather set in they built huts -and a stockade for winter quarters. The next spring they moved on up the -river in dugout canoes (pirogues) towards the mountains. The following -selection from Capt. Lewis' journal of the expedition was set down on -April 13, 1805, when the party was at the junction of the Missouri and -the Little Missouri rivers, still in North Dakota. - - Being disappointed in my observations of yesterday for longitude, I - was unwilling to remain at the entrance of the river another day for - that purpose, and therefore determined to set out early this morning; - which we did accordingly; the wind was in our favour after 9 A.M. and - continued favourable until 3 P.M. We therefore hoisted both the sails - in the White Pirogue, consisting of a small square sail and spritsail, - which carried her at a pretty good gait, until about 2 in the - afternoon when a sudden squall of wind struck us and turned the - pirogue so much on the side as to alarm Charbonneau [_the - interpreter_], who was steering at the time. In this state of alarm he - threw the pirogue with her side to the wind, when the spritsail gibing - was as near oversetting the pirogue as it was possible to have missed. - The wind, however, abating for an instant, I ordered Drouillard [_also - an interpreter_] to the helm and the sails to be taken in, which was - instantly executed, and the pirogue being steered before the wind was - again placed in a state of security. This accident was very near - costing us dearly. Believing this vessel to be the most steady and - safe, we had embarked on board of it our instruments, papers, - medicine, and the most valuable part of the merchandise which we had - still in reserve as presents for the Indians. We had also embarked on - board ourselves, with three men who could not swim, and the squaw - [_Sacajawea, the Shoshone wife of Charbonneau, who showed the party - the way across the Continental Divide and obtained horses and - protection for them from the Shoshones_] with the young child, all of - whom, had the pirogue overset, would most probably have perished, as - the waves were high, and the pirogue upwards of 200 yards from the - nearest shore; however, we fortunately escaped and pursued our journey - under the square sail, which shortly after the accident I directed to - be again hoisted. - -By the end of May the expedition had moved halfway across Montana, still -following the Missouri River: - - Today we passed on the starboard [_right_] side the remains of a vast - many mangled carcasses of buffalo which had been driven over a - precipice of 120 feet by the Indians and perished; the water appeared - to have washed away a part of this immense pile of slaughter and still - there remained the fragments of at least a hundred carcasses. They - created a most horrid stench. In this manner the Indians of the - Missouri destroy vast herds of buffalo at a stroke; for this purpose - one of the most active and fleet young men is selected and disguised - in a robe of buffalo skin, having also the skin of the buffalo's head - with the ears and horns fastened on his head in form of a cap. Thus - caparisoned he places himself at a convenient distance between a herd - of buffalo and a precipice proper for the purpose, which happens in - many places on this river for miles together; the other Indians now - surround the herd on the back and flanks, and at a signal agreed on - all show themselves at the same time moving forward towards the - buffalo. - - The disguised Indian or decoy has taken care to place himself - sufficiently nigh the buffalo to be noticed by them when they take to - flight, and running before them they follow him in full speed to the - precipice, the cattle behind driving those in front over and seeing - them go do not look or hesitate about following until the whole are - precipitated down the precipice forming one common mass of dead and - mangled carcasses. The decoy in the meantime has taken care to secure - himself in some cranny or crevice of the cliff which he had previously - prepared for that purpose. - -By August 13 the expedition was crossing the Continental Divide at Lemhi -Pass on the border between Montana and Idaho. In the selection that -follows, Capt. Lewis describes the party's meeting with the Shoshone -Indians. - - We had not continued our route more than a mile when we were so - fortunate as to meet with three female savages. The short and steep - ravines which we passed concealed us from each other until we arrived - within 30 paces. A young woman immediately took to flight; an elderly - woman and a girl of about 12 years old remained. I instantly laid by - my gun and advanced towards them. They appeared much alarmed but saw - that we were too near for them to escape by flight; they therefore - seated themselves on the ground, holding down their heads as if - reconciled to die, which they expected no doubt would be their fate. I - took the elderly woman by the hand and raised her up, repeated the - word _tab-ba-bone_ and stripped up my shirt sleeve to show her my - skin; to prove to her the truth of the assertion that I was a white - man, for my face and hands, which have been constantly exposed to the - sun, were quite as dark as their own. They appeared instantly - reconciled, and the men coming up, I gave these women some beads, a - few moccasin awls, some pewter looking-glasses, and a little paint. - - I directed Drouillard to request the old woman to recall the young - woman who had run off to some distance by this time, fearing she might - alarm the camp before we approached and might so exasperate the - natives that they would perhaps attack us without enquiring who we - were. The old woman did as she was requested and the fugitive soon - returned almost out of breath. I bestowed an equivalent portion of - trinket on her with the others. I now painted their tawny cheeks with - some vermillion, which with this nation is emblematic of peace. After - they had become composed I informed them by signs that I wished them - to conduct us to their camp, that we were anxious to become acquainted - with the chiefs and warriors of their nation. They readily obeyed and - we set out, still pursuing the road down the river. - - We had marched about 2 miles when we met a party of about 60 warriors - mounted on excellent horses, who came in nearly full speed. When they - arrived, I advanced towards them with the flag, leaving my gun with - the party about 50 paces behind me. The chief and two others who were - a little in advance of the main body spoke to the women, and they - informed them who we were and exultingly showed the presents which had - been given them. These men then advanced and embraced me very - affectionately in their way, which is by putting their left arm over - your right shoulder, clasping your back, while they apply their left - cheek to yours and frequently vociferate the word _ah-hi-e, ah-hi-e_, - that is, I am much pleased, I am much rejoiced. Both parties now - advanced and we were all caressed and besmeared with their grease and - paint till I was heartily tired of the national hug. - - I now had the pipe lit and gave them smoke; they seated themselves in - a circle around us and pulled off their moccasins before they would - receive or smoke the pipe. This is a custom among them, as I - afterwards learned, indicative of a sacred obligation of sincerity in - their profession of friendship, given by the act of receiving and - smoking the pipe of a stranger. Or which is as much as to say that - they wish they may always go barefoot if they are not sincere; a - pretty heavy penalty if they are to march through the plains of their - country. - -After crossing the Continental Divide, the expedition descended the -Columbia River to the Pacific Coast, where they built a fort and spent -the winter of 1805-1806. The next year they retraced their steps across -the wilderness and returned to St. Louis in September, 1806, having been -gone twenty-eight months. The expedition not only was a great adventure, -but it also captured the imagination of the country. Not long afterwards -fur traders began tapping the rich resources of the area, and by the -middle of the century settlers were crossing the plains and mountains -via the Oregon Trail. - - - - - The Embargo Act - - -Although Jefferson was re-elected in 1804 by a landslide victory, his -popularity diminished greatly during his second term. The source of his -troubles lay in Europe, where England and France were involved in the -long, bitter Napoleonic Wars. England could not defeat Napoleon on land, -but her navy was superior. Hence she blockaded the continent. France -retaliated by counter-blockades. The United States, with a large -merchant fleet but scarcely any navy, was caught in the middle. Hundreds -of American ships were seized and their cargoes confiscated. Both -England and France violated American neutral rights, but England, with -the world's strongest navy, was the chief offender. When a British -warship, the _Leopard_, fired on and impressed American seamen from an -American frigate, the _Chesapeake_, off the coast of Virginia, the -United States was ready to fight. - -President Jefferson, however, was determined to avoid war and answered -the _Chesapeake_ incident with a proclamation excluding British warships -from American waters, but the British would not agree to stop impressing -American seamen. In addition, to deal with the seizure of American -ships, Jefferson persuaded Congress to pass the Embargo Act. This act -forbade American ships to leave for foreign ports. The result was that -American ships rotted in the harbors and depression hit American -business. Yet England and France were not hurt enough to come to terms. -The Embargo Act had to be repealed. - - -Washington Irving Satirizes the Embargo Act - -About the time the Embargo Act was repealed, Washington Irving, -America's first important man of letters, wrote his _History of New -York_. This book is a burlesque account of the old Dutch period in New -York history, a very funny book, full of comic pictures of the Dutch -governors and the early settlers. The book also contains some -contemporary political satire in the chapters devoted to William the -Testy. In the selections which follow you will see obvious references to -the _Chesapeake_ incident, the Embargo Act, and President Jefferson's -actions. - - As my readers are well aware of the advantage a potentate has in - handling his enemies as he pleases in his speeches and bulletins, - where he has the talk all on his own side, they may rest assured that - William the Testy did not let such an opportunity escape of giving the - Yankees what is called "a taste of his quality." In speaking of their - inroads into the territories of their High Mightinesses, he compared - them to the Gauls who desolated Rome, the Goths and Vandals who - overran the fairest plains of Europe; but when he came to speak of the - unparalleled audacity with which they of Weathersfield had advanced - their [_onion_] patches up to the very walls of Fort Goed Hoop, and - threatened to smother the garrison in onions, tears of rage started - into his eyes, as though he nosed the very offense in question. - - Having thus wrought up his tale to a climax, he assumed a most - belligerent look, and assured the council that he had devised an - instrument, potent in its effects, and which he trusted would soon - drive the Yankees from the land. So saying, he thrust his hand into - one of the deep pockets of his broad-skirted coat and drew forth, not - an infernal machine, but an instrument in writing, which he laid with - great emphasis upon the table. - - The burghers gazed at it for a time in silent awe, as a wary housewife - does at a gun, fearful it may go off half-cocked. The document in - question had a sinister look, it is true; it was crabbed in text, and - from a broad red ribbon dangled the great seal of the province, about - the size of a buckwheat pancake. Still, after all, it was but an - instrument in writing. Herein, however, existed the wonder of the - invention. The document in question was a PROCLAMATION, ordering the - Yankees to depart instantly from the territories of their High - Mightinesses, under pain of suffering all the forfeitures and - punishments in such case made and provided. It was on the moral effect - of this formidable instrument that Wilhelmus Kieft calculated, - pledging his valor as a governor that, once fulminated [_thundered_] - against the Yankees, it would in less than two months drive every - mother's son of them across the borders. - - The council broke up in perfect wonder, and nothing was talked of for - some time among the old men and women of New Amsterdam but the vast - genius of the governor and his new and cheap mode of fighting by - proclamation. - - As to Wilhelmus Kieft, having dispatched his proclamation to the - frontiers, he put on his cocked hat and corduroy small clothes, and, - mounting a tall rawboned charger, trotted out to his rural retreat of - Dog's Misery.... - - Never was a more comprehensive, a more expeditious--or, what is still - better, a more economical--measure devised than this of defeating the - Yankees by proclamation--an expedient, likewise, so gentle and humane - there were ten chances to one in favor of its succeeding, but then - there was one chance to ten that it would not succeed: as the - ill-natured Fates would have it, that single chance carried the day! - The proclamation was perfect in all its parts, well constructed, well - written, well sealed, and well published; all that was wanting to - insure its effect was, that the Yankees should stand in awe of it; - but, provoking to relate, they treated it with the most absolute - contempt, applied it to an unseemly purpose, and thus did the first - warlike proclamation come to a shameful end--a fate which I am - credibly informed has befallen but too many of its successors. - - So far from abandoning the country, those varlets [_rascals_] - continued their encroachments, squatting along the green banks of the - Varsche River, and founding Hartford, Stamford, New Haven, and other - border towns. I have already shown how the onion patches of Pyquag - were an eyesore to Jacobus Van Curlet and his garrison; but now these - moss-troopers increased in their atrocities, kidnaping hogs, - impounding horses, and sometimes grievously rib-roasting their owners. - Our worthy forefathers could scarcely stir abroad without danger of - being outjockeyed in horseflesh or taken in in bargaining, while in - their absence some daring Yankee peddler would penetrate to their - household and nearly ruin the good housewives with tinware and wooden - bowls.... - - It was long before William the Testy could be persuaded that his - much-vaunted war measure was ineffectual; on the contrary, he flew in - a passion whenever it was doubted, swearing that though slow in - operating, yet when it once began to work it would soon purge the land - of these invaders. When convinced, at length, of the truth, like a - shrewd physician he attributed the failure to the quantity, not the - quality, of the medicine, and resolved to double the dose. He - fulminated, therefore, a second proclamation, more vehement than the - first, forbidding all intercourse with these Yankee intruders, - ordering the Dutch burghers on the frontiers to buy none of their - pacing horses, measly port, apple sweetmeats, Weathersfield onions, or - wooden bowls, and to furnish them with no supplies of gin, - gingerbread, or sauerkraut. - - Another interval elapsed, during which the last proclamation was as - little regarded as the first, and the non-intercourse was especially - set at naught by the young folks of both sexes, if we may judge by the - active bundling which took place along the borders. - -Irving concludes this satire of William the Testy's proclamation by a -comic account of how the Yankees captured Fort Goed Hoop. They sneaked -into the fort while the Dutch soldiers were sleeping off their dinner, -gave the defenders a kick in the pants, and sent them back to New -Amsterdam. - - - - - Madison's Administration, 1809-1817 - - - [Illustration: The _Constitution_ and the _Guerrire_] - - -Madison's Inauguration - -Despite the unpopularity of the Embargo Act, James Madison, Jefferson's -choice to succeed him in the presidency, was elected by a large margin. -Madison had served a long career in public life, beginning with the -Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention and more recently -serving as Secretary of State under Jefferson. In the following -selection Margaret Bayard Smith again reports the Washington scene, this -time the events of March 4, 1809, Inauguration Day. Note that she mixes -up the sequence of events by starting with the reception after the -inauguration before describing the inauguration. - - Today after the inauguration we all went to Mrs. Madison's. The street - was full of carriages and people, and we had to wait near half an hour - before we could get in--the house was completely filled, parlours, - entry, drawing room and bed room. Near the door of the drawing room - Mr. and Mrs. Madison stood to receive their company. She looked - extremely beautiful, was dressed in a plain cambric dress with a very - long train, plain round the neck without any handkerchief, and - beautiful bonnet of purple velvet, and white satin with white plumes. - She was all dignity, grace and affability. - - Mr. Madison shook my hand with all the cordiality of old acquaintance, - but it was when I saw our dear and venerable Mr. Jefferson that my - heart beat. When he saw me, he advanced from the crowd, took my hand - affectionately, and held it five or six minutes; one of the first - things he said was, "Remember the promise you have made me, to come to - see us next summer; do not forget it," said he, pressing my hand, "for - we shall certainly expect you." I assured him I would not, and told - him I could now wish him joy with much more sincerity than this day 8 - years ago. - - "You have now resigned a heavy burden," said I. - - "Yes indeed," he replied, "and am much happier at this moment than my - friend." - - The crowd was immense both at the Capitol and here; thousands and - thousands of people thronged the avenue. The Capitol presented a gay - scene. Every inch of space was crowded and there being as many ladies - as gentlemen, all in full dress, it gave it rather a gay than a solemn - appearance--there was an attempt made to appropriate particular seats - for the ladies of public characters, but it was found impossible to - carry it into effect, for the sovereign people would not resign their - privileges and the high and low were promiscuously blended on the - floor and in the galleries. Mr. Madison was extremely pale and - trembled excessively when he first began to speak, but soon gained - confidence and spoke audibly. - -Mrs. Smith now interrupts her letter (to her sister-in-law) and finishes -it the next day. The event she describes is the inauguration ball at -Long's Hotel. - - Last evening, I endeavored calmly to look on, and amidst the noise, - bustle and crowd, to spend an hour or two in sober reflection, but my - eye was always fixed on our venerable friend [_Jefferson_]. When he - approached my ear listened to catch every word, and when he spoke to - me my heart beat with pleasure. Personal attachment produces this - emotion, and I did not blame it. But I have not this regard for Mr. - Madison, and I was displeased at feeling no emotion when he came up - and conversed with me. He made some of his old kind of mischievous - allusions, and I told him I found him still unchanged. I tried in vain - to feel merely as a spectator; the little vanities of my nature often - conquered my better reason. - - The room was so terribly crowded that we had to stand on the benches; - from this situation we had a view of the moving mass; for it was - nothing else. It was scarcely possible to elbow your way from one side - to another, and poor Mrs. Madison was almost pressed to death, for - every one crowded round her, those behind pressing on those before, - and peeping over their shoulders to have a peep of her, and those who - were so fortunate as to get near enough to speak to her were happy - indeed. As the upper sashes of the windows could not let down, the - glass was broken, to ventilate the room, the air of which had become - oppressive. - - - - - The War of 1812 - - -The War of 1812, like the Korean war of this century, was a conflict -that neither side won. The young United States Navy scored some notable -victories at sea but could not prevent the overwhelming naval power of -the British from blockading American coasts and cutting off American -commerce. The United States Army, with a few notable exceptions, was -badly generaled and was outfought. General Hull surrendered Detroit -without a fight, and General Dearborn, who set out to attack Montreal, -marched to the Canadian border, lost his nerve, and turned back. - -The War of 1812 was also like the Korean war in that it was unpopular -with the political party out of office. Federalist New England refused -to support it, calling the conflict "Mr. Madison's War," and seriously -talked of secession. New England merchants traded with the enemy, and -when Maine was occupied by the British, many Americans quickly took an -oath of allegiance to the king. The Czar of Russia's offer to act as -mediator between England and America was eagerly accepted. The peace -talks, however, dragged on for nearly two years before a settlement, -leaving things just as they were before the war, was agreed upon. - -Although neither side won, the War of 1812 did have some important -consequences. Historians see it as America's second war for -independence. The Revolution severed American ties with England. The War -of 1812 removed any doubts in the minds of European powers that the -United States was here to stay. Also, in the years following the war, -America was able to settle her grievances with England and to force the -Spanish out of Florida. And, for the first time, the United States could -concentrate on internal problems. - - -The Constitution Defeats the Guerrire - -The frigate _Constitution_, captained by Isaac Hull, already had a -distinguished history when the War of 1812 began. She had been built in -Boston during the trouble with France in 1797 and had taken part in the -war with the Barbary pirates. The peace treaty with Tripoli had been -signed in the captain's quarters on the gun deck. A trim, fast, graceful -ship, the frigate had been made from timbers of solid live oak, hard -pine, and red cedar. The bolts, copper sheathing, and brass-work had -been supplied by Paul Revere. This ship now is preserved as a museum at -the Boston Navy Yard. - -Congress declared war on England in June, 1812, and the next month Capt. -Hull sailed from Chesapeake Bay. In August he encountered the British -ship _Guerrire_, and the action that followed he reports in his -dispatch to the Secretary of the Navy. Thus, the war began with a -resounding sea victory. - - Sir, - - I have the honour to inform you, that on the 19th instant, at 2 P.M. - being in latitude 41, 42, longitude 55, 48, with the _Constitution_ - under my command, a sail was discovered from the masthead bearing E. - by S. or E.S.E. but at such a distance we could not tell what she was. - All sail was instantly made in chase, and soon found we came up with - her. At 3 P.M. could plainly see that she was a ship on the starboard - tack, under easy sail, close on a wind; at half past 3 P.M. made her - out to be a frigate; continued the chase until we were within about - three miles, when I ordered the light sails taken in, the courses - hauled up, and the ship cleared for action. At this time the chase had - backed his main top-sail, waiting for us to come down. - - As soon as the _Constitution_ was ready for action, I bore down with - an intention to bring him to close action immediately; but on our - coming within gunshot she gave us a broadside and filled away, and - wore, giving us a broadside on the other tack, but without effect; her - shot falling short. She continued wearing and maneuvering for about - three-quarters of an hour, to get a raking position, but finding she - could not, she bore up, and ran under top-sails and gib, with the wind - on the quarter. - - I immediately made sail to bring the ship up with her, and 5 minutes - before 6 P.M. being along side within half pistol shot, we commenced a - heavy fire from all our guns, double shotted with round and grape, and - so well directed were they, and so warmly kept up, that in 15 minutes - his mizen-mast went by the board, and his main-yard in the slings, and - the hull, rigging, and sails very much torn to pieces. The fire was - kept up with equal warmth for 15 minutes longer, when his main-mast, - and fore-mast went, taking with them every spar, excepting the - bowsprit; on seeing this we ceased firing, so that in 30 minutes after - we got fairly along side the enemy she surrendered, and had not a spar - standing, and her hull below and above water so shattered, that a few - more broadsides must have carried her down. - - After informing you that so fine a ship as the _Guerrire_, commanded - by an able and experienced officer, had been totally dismasted, and - otherwise cut to pieces, so as to make her not worth towing into port, - in the short space of 30 minutes, you can have no doubt of the - gallantry and good conduct of the officers and ship's company I have - the honour to command. It only remains, therefore, for me to assure - you, that they all fought with great bravery; and it gives me great - pleasure to say, that from the smallest boy in the ship to the oldest - seaman, not a look of fear was seen. They all went into action, giving - three cheers, and requesting to be laid close along side the enemy. - - Enclosed I have the honour to send you a list of killed and wounded on - board the _Constitution_, and a report of the damages she has - sustained; also, a list of the killed and wounded on board the enemy. - - -Commodore Perry Wins a Victory on Lake Erie - -The naval campaigns of the War of 1812 were fought on the Great Lakes as -well as in the Atlantic. Because British troops were based in Canada, -the northern border of the United States inevitably became a battle -line. Commodore Perry won another important sea victory a year after the -_Constitution_ defeated the _Guerrire_ when his squadron defeated and -captured a British squadron on Lake Erie. This was the battle which -Perry reported to General William Henry Harrison in his famous remark: -"We have met the enemy, and they are ours." In the two dispatches that -follow, Perry gives a full account of the action to the Secretary of the -Navy. - - Sir, - - It has pleased the Almighty to give to the arms of the United States a - signal victory over their enemies on this lake. The British squadron, - consisting of two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop, have - this moment surrendered to the force under my command, after a sharp - conflict. - - Sir, - - In my last I informed you that we had captured the enemy's fleet on - this lake. I have now the honour to give you the most important - particulars of the action. On the morning of the 10th instant, at - sunrise, they were discovered from Put-In-Bay, when I lay at anchor - with the squadron under my command. We got under weigh, the wind light - at south-west, and stood for them. At 10 A.M. the wind hauled to - south-east and brought us to windward; formed the line and bore up. At - 15 minutes before 12, the enemy commenced firing; at 5 minutes before - 12, the action commenced on our part. - - Finding their fire very destructive owing to their long guns, and its - being mostly directed at the _Lawrence_, I made sail, and directed the - other vessels to follow, for the purpose of closing with the enemy. - Every brace and bowline being soon shot away, she became unmanageable, - notwithstanding the great exertions of the sailing master. In this - situation, she sustained the action upwards of two hours within - canister distance, until every gun was rendered useless, and the - greater part of her crew either killed or wounded. Finding she could - no longer annoy the enemy, I left her in charge of Lieutenant Yarnall, - who, I was convinced, from the bravery already displayed by him, would - do what would comport with the honour of the flag. - - At half past two, the wind springing up, Captain Elliot was enabled to - bring his vessel, the _Niagara_, gallantly into close action. I - immediately went on board of her, when he anticipated my wish by - volunteering to bring the schooner which had been kept astern by the - lightness of the wind, into close action. It was with unspeakable pain - that I saw, soon after I got on board the _Niagara_, the flag of the - _Lawrence_ come down, although I was perfectly sensible that she had - been defended to the last, and that to have continued to make a show - of resistance would have been a wanton sacrifice of the remains of her - brave crew. But the enemy was not able to take possession of her, and - circumstances soon permitted her flag again to be hoisted. - - At 45 minutes past 2, the signal was made for "close action." The - _Niagara_ being very little injured, I determined to pass through the - enemy's line, bore up and passed ahead of their two ships and a brig, - giving a raking fire to them from the starboard guns, and to a large - schooner and sloop, from the larboard side, at half pistol shot - distance. The smaller vessels at this time having got within grape and - canister distance, under the direction of Captain Elliot, and keeping - up a well-directed fire, the two ships, a brig, and a schooner - surrendered, a schooner and sloop making a vain attempt to escape. - - -The British Burn Washington - -Probably the most humiliating military defeat ever inflicted on the -United States occurred in August, 1814, when British troops marched into -Washington and burned the public buildings. This was a punitive action -designed to teach the Americans a lesson and to demoralize the country. -Official Washington fled at the approach of the British, and in the -following letter Dolly Madison, the President's wife, describes her -activities on the day before and her flight from the White House on the -day of the British invasion. - - Dear Sister--My husband left me yesterday morning to join General - Winder. He inquired anxiously whether I had courage or firmness to - remain in the President's house until his return on the morrow, or - succeeding day, and on my assurance that I had no fear but for him, - and the success of our army, he left, beseeching me to take care of - myself, and of the Cabinet papers, public and private. I have since - received two dispatches from him, written with a pencil. The last is - alarming, because he desires I should be ready at a moment's warning - to enter my carriage, and leave the city; that the enemy seemed - stronger than had at first been reported, and it might happen that - they would reach the city with the intention of destroying it. I am - accordingly ready; I have pressed as many Cabinet papers into trunks - as to fill one carriage; our private property must be sacrificed, as - it is impossible to procure wagons for its transportation. I am - determined not to go myself until I see Mr. Madison safe, so that he - can accompany me, as I hear of much hostility towards him. - Disaffection stalks around us. My friends and acquaintances are all - gone, even Colonel C. with his hundred, who were stationed as a guard - in this inclosure. French John [_a faithful servant_], with his usual - activity and resolution, offers to spike the cannon at the gate, and - lay a train of powder, which would blow up the British, should they - enter the house. To the last proposition I positively object, without - being able to make him understand why all advantages in war may not be - taken. - - _Wednesday Morning_, twelve o'clock. Since sunrise I have been turning - my spy-glass in every direction, and watching with unwearied anxiety, - hoping to discover the approach of my dear husband and his friends; - but, alas! I can descry only groups of military, wandering in all - directions, as if there was a lack of arms, or of spirit to fight for - their own fireside. - - Three o'clock. Will you believe it, my sister? we have had a battle, - or skirmish, near Bladensburg, and here I am still, within sound of - the cannon! Mr. Madison comes not. May God protect us! Two messengers - covered with dust come to bid me fly; but here I mean to wait for - him.... At this late hour a wagon has been procured, and I have had it - filled with plate and the most valuable portable articles belonging to - the house. Whether it will reach its destination, the Bank of - Maryland, or fall into the hands of British soldiery, events must - determine. Our kind friend, Mr. Carroll, has come to hasten my - departure, and in a very bad humor with me, because I insist on - waiting until the large picture of General Washington is secured, and - it requires to be unscrewed from the wall. This process was found too - tedious for these perilous moments; I have ordered the frame to be - broken, and the canvas taken out. It is done! and the precious - portrait placed in the hands of two gentlemen of New York, for safe - keeping. And now, dear sister, I must leave this house, or the - retreating army will make me a prisoner in it by filling up the road I - am directed to take. When I shall again write to you, or where I shall - be tomorrow, I cannot tell! - - Dolly. - - -The British Burn Washington: George Gleig - -British General Robert Ross landed with about four thousand men and -marched into Washington without much opposition. The scene that took -place during the burning is vividly described by a British officer, -George Gleig, in _A Narrative of the Campaigns of the British Army_. - - While the third brigade was thus employed [_burning buildings_], the - rest of the army, having recalled its stragglers and removed the - wounded into Bladensburg, began its march towards Washington. Though - the battle was ended by four o'clock, the sun had set before the - different regiments were in a condition to move; consequently this - short journey was performed in the dark. The work of destruction had - also begun in the city, before they quitted their ground; and the - blazing of houses, ships, and stores, the report of exploding - magazines, and the crash of falling roofs informed them, as they - proceeded, of what was going forward. You can conceive nothing finer - than the sight which met them as they drew near to the town. The sky - was brilliantly illuminated by the different conflagrations, and a - dark red light was thrown upon the road, sufficient to permit each man - to view distinctly his comrade's face. Except the burning of St. - Sebastian's, I do not recollect to have witnessed ... a scene more - striking or more sublime. - - I need scarcely to observe that the consternation of the inhabitants - was complete, and that to them this was a night of terror. So - confident had they been of the success of their troops, that few of - them had dreamed of quitting their houses or abandoning the city; nor - was it till the fugitives from the battle began to rush in, filling - every place as they came with dismay, that the President himself - thought of providing for his safety. That gentleman, as I was credibly - informed, had gone forth in the morning with the army, and had - continued among his troops till the British forces began to make their - appearance. Whether the sight of his enemies cooled his courage or - not, I cannot say, but, according to my informer, no sooner was the - glittering of our arms discernible, than he began to discover that his - presence was more wanted in the Senate than with the army; and having - ridden through the ranks, and exhorted every man to do his duty, he - hurried back to his own house, that he might prepare a feast for the - entertainment of his officers, when they should return victorious. - - For the truth of these details, I will not be answerable; but this - much I know, that the feast was actually prepared, though, instead of - being devoured by American officers, it went to satisfy the less - delicate appetites of a party of English soldiers. When the detachment - sent out to destroy Mr. Madison's house entered his dining parlor, - they found a dinner table spread and covers laid for forty guests. - Several kinds of wine, in handsome cut-glass decanters, were cooling - on the sideboard; plate-holders stood by the fireplace, filled with - dishes and plates; knives, forks, and spoons were arranged for - immediate use; in short, everything was ready for the entertainment of - a ceremonious party. Such were the arrangements in the dining room, - whilst in the kitchen were others answerable to them in every respect. - Spits, loaded with joints of various sorts, turned before the fire; - pots, saucepans, and other culinary utensils stood upon the grate; and - all the other requisites for an elegant and substantial repast were - exactly in a state which indicated that they had been lately and - precipitately abandoned. - - You will readily imagine that these preparations were beheld by a - party of hungry soldiers with no indifferent eye. An elegant dinner, - even though considerably overdressed, was a luxury to which few of - them, at least for some time back, had been accustomed, and which, - after the dangers and fatigues of the day, appeared peculiarly - inviting. They sat down to it, therefore, not indeed in the most - orderly manner, but with countenances which would not have disgraced a - party of aldermen at a civic feast, and, having satisfied their - appetites with fewer complaints than would have probably escaped their - rival _gourmands_, and partaken pretty freely of the wines, they - finished by setting fire to the house.... - - But, as I have just observed, this was a night of dismay to the - inhabitants of Washington. They were taken completely by surprise; nor - could the arrival of the flood be more unexpected to the natives of - the antediluvian world than the arrival of the British army to them. - The first impulse of course tempted them to fly, and the streets were - in consequence crowded with soldiers and senators, men, women, and - children, horses, carriages, and carts loaded with household - furniture, all hastening towards a wooden bridge which crosses the - Potomac. The confusion thus occasioned was terrible, and the crowd - upon the bridge was such as to endanger its giving way. But Mr. - Madison, having escaped among the first, was no sooner safe on the - opposite bank of the river than he gave orders that the bridge should - be broken down; which being obeyed, the rest were obliged to return - and to trust to the clemency of the victors. - - In this manner was the night passed by both parties; and at daybreak - next morning, the light brigade moved into the city, while the reserve - fell back to a height about a half mile in the rear. Little, however, - now remained to be done, because everything marked out for destruction - was already consumed. Of the Senate house, the President's palace, the - barracks, the dockyard, etc., nothing could be seen except heaps of - smoking ruins; and even the bridge ... was almost wholly demolished. - - -The Battle of New Orleans - -Despite the general incompetence of the American leadership in the War -of 1812, Andrew Jackson emerged from the campaigns as a genuine war -hero. The Battle of New Orleans, which ironically was fought after the -peace treaty had been signed in Europe, was a great victory. Jackson's -troops, greatly outnumbered, barricaded themselves behind cotton bales -and earthworks and mowed down the British as they stormed the American -positions. In the two selections that follow, we print first the account -of the battle by the British officer George Gleig and then General -Jackson's terse report to the Secretary of War. - - - OFFICER GLEIG: - - The main body armed and moved forward some way in front of the - pickets. There they stood waiting for daylight and listening with the - greatest anxiety for the firing which ought now to be heard on the - opposite bank. But this attention was exerted in vain, and day dawned - upon them long before they desired its appearance. Nor was Sir Edward - Pakenham disappointed in this part of his plan alone. Instead of - perceiving everything in readiness for the assault, he saw his troops - in battle array, indeed, but not a ladder or fascine [_bundle of - sticks to fill ditches_] upon the field. The 44th, which was appointed - to carry them, had either misunderstood or neglected their orders and - now headed the column of attack without any means being provided for - crossing the enemy's ditch, or scaling his rampart. - - The indignation of poor Pakenham on this occasion may be imagined, but - cannot be described. Galloping towards Colonel Mullens, who led the - 44th, he commanded him instantly to return with his regiment for the - ladders, but the opportunity of planting them was lost, and though - they were brought up, it was only to be scattered over the field by - the frightened bearers. For our troops were by this time visible to - the enemy. A dreadful fire was accordingly opened upon them, and they - were mowed down by hundreds, while they stood waiting for orders. - - Seeing that all his well-laid plans were frustrated, Pakenham gave the - word to advance, and the other regiments, leaving the 44th with the - ladders and fascines behind them, rushed on to the assault. On the - left a detachment of the 95th, 21st, and 4th stormed a three-gun - battery and took it. Here they remained for some time in the - expectation of support; but none arriving, and a strong column of the - enemy forming for its recovery, they determined to anticipate the - attack and pushed on. The battery which they had taken was in advance - of the body of the works, being cut off from it by a ditch, across - which only a single plank was thrown. Along this plank did these brave - men attempt to pass; but being opposed by overpowering numbers, they - were repulsed; and the Americans, in turn, forcing their way into the - battery, at length succeeded in recapturing it with immense slaughter. - - On the right, again, the 21st and 4th being almost cut to pieces and - thrown into some confusion by the enemy's fire, the 93d pushed on and - took the lead. Hastening forward, our troops soon reached the ditch; - but to scale the parapet without ladders was impossible. Some few, - indeed, by mounting one upon another's shoulders, succeeded in - entering the works, but these were instantly overpowered, most of them - killed, and the rest taken; while as many as stood without were - exposed to a sweeping fire, which cut them down by whole companies. It - was in vain that the most obstinate courage was displayed. They fell - by the hands of men whom they absolutely did not see; for the - Americans, without so much as lifting their faces above the rampart, - swung their firelocks by one arm over the wall, and discharged them - directly upon their heads. The whole of the guns, likewise, from the - opposite bank, kept up a well directed and deadly cannonade upon their - flank; and thus were they destroyed without an opportunity being given - of displaying their valour, or obtaining so much as revenge. - - Poor Pakenham saw how things were going, and did all that a General - could do to rally his broken troops. Riding towards the 44th which had - returned to the ground, but in great disorder, he called out for - Colonel Mullens to advance; but that officer had disappeared, and was - not to be found. He, therefore, prepared to lead them on himself, and - had put himself at their head for that purpose, when he received a - slight wound in the knee from a musket ball which killed his horse. - Mounting another, he again headed the 44th, when a second ball took - effect more fatally, and he dropped lifeless into the arms of his - aide-de-camp. - - Nor were Generals Gibbs and Keane inactive. Riding through the ranks, - they strove by all means to encourage the assailants and recall the - fugitives, till at length both were wounded and borne off the field. - All was now confusion and dismay. Without leaders, ignorant of what - was to be done, the troops first halted and then began to retire, till - finally the retreat was changed into a flight, and they quitted the - ground in the utmost disorder. But the retreat was covered in gallant - style by the reserve. Making a forward motion, the 7th and 43d - presented the appearance of a renewed attack; by which the enemy were - so much awed, that they did not venture beyond their lines in pursuit - of the fugitives. - - - GENERAL JACKSON'S REPORT: - - During the days of the 6th and 7th, the enemy had been actively - employed in making preparations for an attack on my lines. With - infinite labour they had succeeded on the night of the 7th, in getting - their boats across from the lake to the river, by widening and - deepening the canal on which they had effected their disembarkation. - It had not been in my power to impede these operations by a general - attack: added to other reasons, the nature of the troops under my - command, mostly militia, rendered it too hazardous to attempt - extensive _offensive_ movements in an open country, against a numerous - and well disciplined army. - - Although my forces, as to number, had been increased by the arrival of - the Kentucky division, my strength had received very little addition; - a small portion only of that detachment being provided with arms. - Compelled thus to wait the attack of the enemy, I took every measure - to repel it when it should be made, and to defeat the object he had in - view. General Morgan, with the New Orleans contingent, the Louisiana - militia, and a strong detachment of the Kentucky troops, occupied an - entrenched camp on the opposite side of the river, protected by strong - batteries on the bank, erected and superintended by Commodore - Patterson. - - In _my_ encampment everything was ready for action, when, early in the - morning of the 8th, the enemy after throwing a heavy shower of bombs - and congreve rockets, advanced their columns on my right and left, to - storm my entrenchments. I cannot speak sufficiently in praise of the - firmness and deliberation with which my whole line received their - approach--_more_ could not have been expected from veterans inured to - war. For an hour the fire of the small arms was as incessant and - severe as can be imagined. The artillery, too, directed by officers - who displayed equal skill and courage, did great execution. - - Yet the columns of the enemy continued to advance with a firmness - which reflects upon them the greatest credit. Twice the column which - approached me on my left, was repulsed by the troops of General - Carroll, those of General Coffee, and a division of the Kentucky - militia, and twice they formed again and renewed the assault. At - length, however, cut to pieces, they fled in confusion from the field, - leaving it covered with their dead and wounded. - - The loss which the enemy sustained on this occasion, cannot be - estimated at less than 1500 in killed, wounded and prisoners. [_The - British actually lost over 2,000. American casualties: 8 killed, 13 - wounded._] Upwards of three hundred have already been delivered over - for burial; and my men are still engaged in picking them up within my - lines and carrying them to the point where the enemy are to receive - them. This is in addition to the dead and wounded whom the enemy have - been enabled to carry from the field, during and since the action, and - to those who have since died of the wounds they received. We have - taken about 500 prisoners, upwards of 300 of whom are wounded, and a - great part of them mortally. My loss has not exceeded, and I believe - has not amounted to, 10 killed and as many wounded.... - - I have the honor to be, etc. - Andrew Jackson - -Incidentally, this battle was the last time that British and American -troops ever fought each other. The next time they met on the field of -battle they were allies in World War I. - - - - - James Monroe's Administration, 1817-1825 - - - [Illustration: Public speaker on the Fourth of July] - - - - - Early Days in the Mississippi Valley - - -James Monroe was the last of the quartet of Virginia Presidents which -had begun with George Washington. He was elected after serving as -Madison's Secretary of State, but before that he had fought in the -Revolution, sat in the Continental Congress, been a Senator, a governor, -and a minister to France. His term as President is known as the Era of -Good Feeling because of the absence of serious problems to divide the -country. It was a period of rapid growth as settlers pushed west and the -beginnings of the industrial revolution began to change the East. - -During the early decades of the nineteenth century the wilderness across -the Allegheny Mountains began to fill up with farmers. Throughout -Jefferson's administration there were occasional skirmishes with the -Indians, but gradually the Indians were pushed out of their traditional -hunting grounds. While Madison was President, the Shawnee chief -Tecumseh, who had attempted to organize Indian resistance, was crushed -by William Henry Harrison in the Battle of Tippecanoe. Meantime, Ohio -had become a state in 1803, and in 1816, the year that James Monroe was -elected President, Indiana was admitted to the Union. Two years later, -Illinois joined the growing Union. - -In the selections reprinted in this part of _The Jeffersonians_ we have -chosen four pieces that show various aspects of life in the Mississippi -Valley. Here you will find examples of farm life, religion, and politics -in the new states west of the mountains. - - -A Husking Bee in Ohio - -William Cooper Howells, the author of the next selection, was the father -of a famous magazine editor and novelist, William Dean Howells. The -elder Howells was taken to Ohio from England as a child and grew up on a -farm while Ohio was a new state. His memories come from _Recollections -of Life in Ohio from 1813 to 1840_. - - One of the gatherings for joint work, which has totally disappeared - from the agriculture of modern times, and one that was always a jolly - kind of affair, was the cornhusking. It was a sort of harvest home in - its department, and it was the more jolly because it was a gathering - with very little respect to persons, and embraced in the invitation - men and big boys, with the understanding that no one would be - unwelcome. There was always a good supper served at the husking, and - as certainly a good appetite to eat it with. It came at a plentiful - season, when the turkeys and chickens were fat, and a fat pig was at - hand, to be flanked on the table with good bread in various forms, - turnips and potatoes from the autumn stores, apple and pumpkin pies, - good coffee and the like. And the cooking was always well done, and - all in such bountiful abundance that no one feared to eat, while many - a poor fellow was certain of a square meal by being present at a - husking. You were sure to see the laboring men of the vicinity out, - and the wives of a goodly number of farm hands would be on hand to - help in the cooking and serving at the table. The cornhusking has been - discontinued because the farmers found out that it was less trouble to - husk it in the field, direct from the stalk, than to gather in the - husk and go over it again. But in that day they did not know that much - and therefore took the original method of managing their corn crop, - which was this: as soon as the grain began to harden they would cut - the stalks off just above the ears and save these tops for fodder, and - if they had time they stripped all the blades off the stalks below the - ears, which made very nice though costly feed. Then, as barn room was - not usually over plenty, they made a kind of frame of poles, as for a - tent, and thatched it, sides and top, with the corn tops placed with - the tassel downward, so as to shed the rain and snow. This was called - the fodder-house and was built in the barnyard. Inside they would - store the blades in bundles, the husks, and the pumpkins that were - saved for use in the winter. The fodder-house was commonly made ten - feet high and as long as was necessary, and it was used up through the - winter by feeding the fodder to the cattle, beginning at the back, - which would be temporarily closed by a few bundles of the tops. It - would thus serve as a protection for what might be stored in it till - all was used up. The fodder-house was, of all things, a favorite place - for the children to hide in and play. When the season for gathering - the corn came the farmers went through the fields and pulled off the - ears and husks together, throwing them upon the ground in heaps, - whence they were hauled into the barnyard and there piled up in a neat - pile of convenient length, according to the crop, and say four or five - feet high, rising to a sharp peak from a base of about six feet. Care - was taken to make this pile of equal width and height from end to end, - so that it would be easily and fairly divided in the middle by a rail - laid upon it. - - When the husking party had assembled they were all called out into - line, and two fellows, mostly ambitious boys, were chosen captains. - These then chose their men, each calling out one of the crowd - alternately, till all were chosen. Then the heap was divided, by two - judicious chaps walking solemnly along the ridge of the heap of corn, - and deciding where the dividing rail was to be laid, and, as this had - to be done by starlight or moonlight at best, it took considerable - deliberation, as the comparative solidity of the ends of the heap and - the evenness of it had to be taken into account. This done, the - captains placed a good steady man at each side of the rail, who made - it a point to work through and cut the heap in two as soon as - possible; and then the two parties fell to husking, all standing with - the heap in front of them, and throwing the husked corn on to a clear - place over the heap, and the husks behind them. From the time they - began till the corn was all husked at one end, there would be steady - work, each man husking all the corn he could, never stopping except to - take a pull at the stone jug of inspiration that passed occasionally - along the line; weak lovers of the stuff were sometimes overcome, - though it was held to be a disgraceful thing to take too much. The - captains would go up and down their lines and rally their men as if in - a battle, and the whole was an exciting affair. - - As soon as one party got done, they raised a shout, and hoisting their - captain on their shoulders, carried him over to the other side with - general cheering. Then would come a little bantering talk and - explanation why the defeated party lost, and all would turn to and - husk up the remnants of the heap. All hands would then join to carry - the husks into the fodder-house. The shout at hoisting the captain was - the signal for bringing the supper on the table, and the huskers and - the supper met soon after. These gatherings often embraced forty or - fifty men. If the farmhouse was small it would be crowded, and the - supper would be managed by repeated sittings at the table. At a large - house there was less crowding and more fun, and if, as was often the - case, some occasion had been given for an assemblage of the girls of - the neighborhood, and particularly if the man that played the fiddle - should attend, after the older men had gone, there was very apt to be - a good time. There was a tradition that the boys who accidentally - husked a red ear and saved it would be entitled to a kiss from - somebody. But I never knew it to be necessary to produce a red ear to - secure a kiss where there was a disposition to give or take one. - - -Religion in Tennessee - -Religion played an important part in the lives of frontier settlers. -Instead of the stern Puritanism of colonial New England, the religion of -the West in the early years of the last century was highly evangelistic. -By this time, the Methodist movement had made a large number of converts -and was particularly strong on the frontier. One tireless Methodist -preacher was Lorenzo Dow, often known as "Crazy Dow," who traveled -throughout the United States during a long ministry. Though he lived -until 1834, the selection that follows comes from his journal of 1804, -when he visited Tennessee at the age of 27. He was then traveling about -ten thousand miles a year by horse and on foot over trails and primitive -roads. This selection is particularly interesting for its account of a -backwoods religious fervor, almost a physical affliction, described by -Dow as the _jerks_. - - Next day I rode forty-five miles in company with Dr. Nelson across the - dismal Allegheny mountains by the warm springs, and on the way a young - man, a traveller, came in (where I breakfasted gratis at an inn) and - said that he had but three sixteenths of a dollar left, having been - robbed of seventy-one dollars on the way; and he being far from home, - I gave him half of what I had with me. - - My horse having a navel gall come on his back, I sold him with the - saddle, bridle, cloak and blanket, etc., on credit for about three - fourths of the value, with uncertainty whether I should ever be paid: - thus I crossed the river French Broad in a canoe and set out for my - appointment; but fearing I should be behind the time, I hired a man - (whom I met on the road with two horses) to carry me five miles in - haste for three shillings; which left me but one sixteenth of a - dollar. In our speed he observed there was a nigh way by which I could - clamber the rocks and cut off some miles: so we parted; he having not - gone two thirds of the way yet insisted on the full sum. - - I took to my feet the nigh way as fast as I could pull on, as - intricate as it was, and came to a horrid ledge of rocks on the bank - of the river where there was no such thing as going round; and to - clamber over would be at the risk of my life, as there was danger of - slipping into the river. However, being unwilling to disappoint the - people, I pulled off my shoes, and with my handkerchief fastened them - about my neck, and creeping upon my hands and feet with my fingers and - toes in the cracks of the rocks with difficulty I got safe over. In - about four miles I came to a house and hired a woman to take me over - the river in a canoe, for my remaining money and a pair of scissors; - the latter of which was the chief object with her: so our extremities - are other's opportunities. Thus with difficulty I got to my - appointment in Newport in time. - - I had heard about a singularity called the _jerks_ or _jerking - exercise_, which appeared first near Knoxville in August last, to the - great alarm of the people; which reports at first I considered as - vague and false. But at length, like the Queen of Sheba, I set out to - go and see for myself and sent over these appointments into this - country accordingly. - - When I arrived in sight of this town, I saw hundreds of people - collected in little bodies; and observing no place appointed for - meeting, before I spoke to any, I got on a log and gave out an hymn; - which caused them to assemble round, in solemn attentive silence. I - observed several involuntary motions in the course of the meeting, - which I considered as a specimen of the jerks. I rode seven miles - behind a man across streams of water and held meeting in the evening, - being ten miles on my way. - - In the night I grew uneasy, being twenty-five miles from my - appointment for next morning at eleven o'clock; I prevailed on a young - man to attempt carrying me with horses until day, which he thought was - impracticable, considering the darkness of the night and the thickness - of the trees. Solitary shrieks were heard in these woods, which he - told me were said to be the cries of murdered persons. At day we - parted, being still seventeen miles from the spot, and the ground - covered with a white frost. I had not proceeded far before I came to a - stream of water from the springs of the mountain, which made it - dreadful cold; in my heated state I had to wade this stream five times - in the course of about an hour, which I perceived so affected my body - that my strength began to fail. Fears began to arise that I must - disappoint the people, till I observed some fresh tracks of horses - which caused me to exert every nerve to overtake them in hopes of aid - or assistance on my journey, and soon I saw them on an eminence. I - shouted for them to stop, till I came up; they inquired what I wanted; - I replied I had heard there was meeting at Seversville by a stranger - and was going to it. They replied that they had heard that a crazy man - was to hold forth there and were going also; and perceiving that I was - weary, they invited me to ride, and soon our company was increased to - forty or fifty who fell in with us on the road, from different - plantations. At length I was interrogated, whether I knew anything - about the preacher. I replied. "I have heard a good deal about him, - and have heard him preach, but I have no great opinion of him." And - thus the conversation continued for some miles before they found me - out, which caused some color and smiles in the company. - - Thus I got on to meeting, and after taking a cup of tea gratis, I - began to speak to a vast audience; and I observed about thirty to have - the _jerks_. Though they strove to keep still as they could, these - emotions were involuntary, and irresistible, as any unprejudiced eye - might discern. Lawyer Porter (who had come a considerable distance) - got his heart touched under the word and being informed how I came to - meeting, voluntarily lent me a horse to ride near one hundred miles - and gave me a dollar, though he had never seen me before. - - Hence to Marysville, where I spoke to about one thousand five hundred; - and many appeared to feel the word, but about fifty felt the jerks. At - night I lodged with one of the Nicholites, a kind of Quakers who do - not feel free to wear coloured clothes. I spoke to a number of people - at his house that night. Whilst at tea I observed his daughter (who - sat opposite to me at the table) to have the jerks; and dropped the - tea cup from her hand in the violent agitation. I said to her, "Young - woman, what is the matter?" She replied, "I have got the jerks." I - asked her how long she had it? She observed "a few days" and that it - had been the means of the awakening and conversion of her soul by - stirring her up to serious consideration about her careless state, - etc. - - Sunday, February 19th, I spoke in Knoxville to hundreds more than - could get into the court house, the Governor being present. About one - hundred and fifty appeared to have jerking exercise, among whom was a - circuit preacher (Johnson) who had opposed them a little before, but - he now had them powerfully; and I believe he would have fallen over - three times had not the auditory been so crowded that he could not, - unless he fell perpendicularly. - - After meeting I rode eighteen miles to hold meeting at night. The - people of this settlement were mostly Quakers; and they had said (as I - was informed) the Methodists and Presbyterians have the _jerks_ - because they _sing_ and _pray_ so much, but we are a still peaceable - people, wherefore we do not have them. However, about twenty of them - came to meeting, to hear one, as was said, somewhat in a Quaker line, - but their usual stillness and silence was interrupted; for about a - dozen of them had the jerks as keen and as powerful as any I had seen, - so as to have occasioned a kind of grunt or groan when they would - jerk. It appears that many have undervalued the great revival, and - attempted to account for it altogether on natural principles; - therefore it seems to me (from the best judgment I can form) that God - hath seen proper to take this method, to convince people, that he will - work in a way to show his power; and sent the _jerks_ as a sign of the - times, partly in judgment for the people's unbelief, and yet as a - mercy to convict people of divine realities. - - -Davy Crockett Runs for Office - -Davy Crockett, who describes himself as an "ignorant backwoods -bearhunter," was just another poor frontier boy until he got into -politics. Then he served in the state legislature and later in Congress. -He became the fair-haired boy of Whig politicians when he broke with -Andrew Jackson, his fellow Tennessee Democrat. Subsequently, his -backwoods humor, tall tales, and picturesque personality were exploited -by Whig journalists, and Crockett became a sort of folklore hero. - -But Tennessee Democrats would not tolerate his desertion of their party -and turned him out of office. After that, he went to Texas and died, as -everyone remembers, during the heroic defense of the Alamo. The -following selection is taken from _A Narrative of the Life of Davy -Crockett_, which passes for his autobiography but which undoubtedly was -ghostwritten for him. This account describes with typical frontier -exaggeration Crockett's first campaign for office. - - In a little time I was asked to offer for the Legislature in the - counties of Lawrence and Heckman. I offered my name in the month of - February, and started about the first of March with a drove of horses - to the lower part of the State of North Carolina. This was in the year - 1821, and I was gone upwards of three months. I returned, and set out - electioneering, which was a brand-fire new business to me. It now - became necessary that I should tell the people something about the - government, and an eternal sight of other things that I knowed nothing - more about than I did about Latin, and law, and such things as that. I - have said before that in those days none of us called General Jackson - the government [_Jackson was not yet President, and Crockett was still - a Democrat_], nor did he seem in as fair a way to become so as I do - now; but I knowed so little about it, that if any one had told me he - was "the government," I should have believed it, for I had never read - even a newspaper in my life, or anything else, on the subject. But - over all my difficulties, it seems to me I was born for luck, though - it would be hard for any one to guess what sort. I will, however, - explain that hereafter. - - I went first into Heckman county, to see what I could do among the - people as a candidate. Here they told me that they wanted to move - their town nearer to the centre of the county, and I must come out in - favor of it. There's no devil if I knowed what this meant, or how the - town was to be moved; and so I kept dark, going on the identical same - plan that I now find is called "_noncommittal_." About this time there - was a great squirrel hunt on Duck River, which was among my people. - They were to hunt two days; then to meet and count the scalps, and - have a big barbecue, and what might be called a tip-top country - frolic. The dinner, and a general treat, was all to be paid for by the - party having taken the fewest scalps. I joined one side, taking the - place of one of the hunters, and got a gun ready for the hunt. I - killed a great many squirrels, and when we counted scalps, my party - was victorious. - - The company had every thing to eat and drink that could be furnished - in so new a country, and much fun and good humor prevailed. But before - the regular frolic commenced, I mean the dancing, I was called on to - make a speech as a candidate; which was a business I was as ignorant - of as an outlandish Negro. - - A public document I had never seen, nor did I know there were such - things; and how to begin I couldn't tell. I made many apologies, and - tried to get off, for I know'd I had a man to run against who could - speak prime, and I know'd, too, that I wasn't able to shuffle and cut - with him. He was there, and knowing my ignorance as well as I did - myself, he also urged me to make a speech. The truth is, he thought my - being a candidate was a mere matter of sport; and didn't think for a - moment that he was in any danger from an ignorant backwoods bear - hunter. But I found I couldn't get off, and so I determined just to go - ahead, and leave it to chance what I should say. I got up and told the - people I reckoned they know'd what I come for, but if not, I could - tell them. I had come for their votes, and if they didn't watch mighty - close I'd get them too. But the worst of all was, that I could not - tell them anything about government. I tried to speak about something, - and I cared very little what, until I choked up as bad as if my mouth - had been jamm'd and cramm'd chock full of dry mush. There the people - stood, listening all the while, with their eyes, mouths, and ears all - open, to catch every word.... - - At last I told them I was like a fellow I had heard of not long - before. He was beating on the head of an empty barrel near the - road-side, when a traveler, who was passing along, asked him what he - was doing that for? The fellow replied that there was some cider in - that barrel a few days before, and he was trying to see if there was - any then, but if there was he couldn't get at it. I told them that - there had been a little bit of speech in me a while ago, but I - believed I couldn't get it out. They all roared out in a mighty laugh, - and I told some other anecdotes, equally amusing to them, and - believing I had them in a first-rate way, I quit and got down, - thanking the people for their attention. But I took care to remark - that I was as dry as a powder-horn, and that I thought it was time for - us all to wet our whistles a little; and so I put off to the liquor - stand, and was followed by the greater part of the crowd. - - I felt certain this was necessary, for I knowed my competitor could - open government matters to them as easy as he pleased. He had, - however, mighty few left to hear him, as I continued with the crowd, - now and then taking a horn, and telling good-humored stories, till he - was done speaking. I found I was good for the votes at the hunt, and - when we broke up I went on to the town of Vernon, which was the same - [_town_] they wanted me to move. Here they pressed me again on the - subject, and I found I could get either party by agreeing with them. - But I told them I didn't know whether it would be right or not, and so - couldn't promise either way. - - Their court commenced on the next Monday, as the barbecue was on a - Saturday, and the candidates for Governor, and for Congress, as well - as my competitor and myself, all attended. - - The thought of having to make a speech made my knees feel mighty weak, - and set my heart to fluttering almost as bad as my first love scrape - with the Quaker's niece. But as good luck would have it, these big - candidates spoke nearly all day, and when they quit, the people were - worn out with fatigue, which afforded me a good apology for not - discussing the government. But I listened mighty close to them, and - was learning pretty fast about political matters. When they were all - done, I got up and told some laughable story, and quit. I found I was - safe in those parts, and so I went home, and did not go back again - till after the election was over. But to cut this matter short, I was - elected, doubling my competitor, and nine votes over. - - -Early Days in Illinois - -Morris Birkbeck was an Englishman who came to the United States and -settled in southeastern Illinois where he founded the town of Albion. -His account of the people and life in Illinois in 1817, just before it -became a state, is good reporting. He has a sharp eye for detail, and -because he was fresh from Europe, he sees and records the contrasts -between the Midwestern backwoods and the Old World. The following -selection comes from his book, _Notes on a Journey in America, from the -Coast of Virginia to the Territory of Illinois_. - - _August 1._ Dagley's, twenty miles north of Shawnee Town. After - viewing several beautiful prairies, so beautiful with their - surrounding woods as to seem like the creation of fancy, gardens of - delight in a dreary wilderness, and after losing our horses and - spending two days in recovering them, we took a hunter as our guide - and proceeded across the Little Wabash to explore the country between - that river and the Skillet-fork. - - Since we left the Fox settlement, about fifteen miles north of the Big - Prairie, cultivation has been very scanty, many miles intervening - between the little "clearings." This may therefore be truly called a - new country. - - These lonely settlers are poorly off--their bread corn must be ground - thirty miles off, requiring three days to carry to the mill and bring - back the small horse-load of three bushels. Articles of family - manufacture are very scanty, and what they purchase is of the meanest - quality and excessively dear: yet they are friendly and willing to - share their simple fare with you. It is surprising how comfortable - they seem, wanting everything. To struggle with privations has now - become the habit of their lives, most of them having made several - successive plunges into the wilderness, and they begin already to talk - of selling their "improvements" and getting still farther "back" on - finding that emigrants of another description are thickening about - them. - - Our journey across the Little Wabash was a complete departure from all - mark of civilization. We saw no bears, as they are now buried in the - thickets, and seldom appear by day; but, at every few yards, we saw - recent marks of their doings, "wallowing" in the long grass or turning - over decayed logs in quest of beetles or worms, in which work the - strength of this animal is equal to that of four men. Wandering - without track, where even the sagacity of our hunter-guide had nearly - failed us, we at length arrived at the cabin of another hunter, where - we lodged. - - This man and his family are remarkable instances of the effect on the - complexion produced by the perpetual incarceration [_imprisonment_] of - a thorough woodland life. Incarceration may seem to be a term less - applicable to the condition of a roving backwoodsman than to any - other, and especially unsuitable to the habits of this individual and - his family; for the cabin in which he entertained us is the third - dwelling he has built within the last twelve months, and a very - slender motive would place him in a fourth before the ensuing winter. - In his general habits the hunter ranges as freely as the beasts he - pursues; labouring under no restraint, his activity is only bounded by - his own physical powers: still he is incarcerated--"Shut from the - common air." Buried in the depth of a boundless forest, the breeze of - health never reaches these poor wanderers; the bright prospect of - distant hills fading away into the semblance of clouds, never cheered - their sight. They are tall and pale, like vegetables that grow in a - vault, pining for light.... - - Our stock of provisions being nearly exhausted, we were anxious to - provide ourselves with a supper by means of our guns, but we could - meet with neither deer nor turkey; however, in our utmost need, we - shot three raccoons, an old one to be roasted for our dogs and the two - young ones to be stewed up daintily for ourselves. We soon lighted a - fire and cooked the old raccoon for the dogs; but famished as they - were, they would not touch it, and their squeamishness so far abated - our relish for the promised stew that we did not press our complaining - landlady to prepare it; and thus our supper consisted of the residue - of our "corn" bread and _no_ raccoon. However, we laid our bear skins - on the filthy earth (floor there was none), which they assured us was - "too damp for fleas," and wrapped in our blankets slept soundly - enough; though the collops [_slices_] of venison hanging in comely - rows in the smoky fireplace and even the shoulders put by for the dogs - and which were suspended over our heads would have been an acceptable - prelude to our night's rest, had we been invited to partake of them; - but our hunter and our host were too deeply engaged in conversation to - think of supper. In the morning the latter kindly invited us to cook - some of the collops, which we did by toasting them on a stick, and he - also divided some shoulders among the dogs; so we all fared - sumptuously. - - The cabin, which may serve as a specimen of these rudiments of houses, - was formed of round logs with apertures of three or four inches - between. No chimney, but large intervals between the "clapboards" for - the escape of the smoke. The roof was, however, a more effectual - covering than we have generally experienced, as it protected us very - tolerably from a drenching night. Two bedsteads of unhewn logs and - cleft boards laid across; two chairs, one of them without a bottom, - and a low stool were all the furniture required by this numerous - family. A string of buffalo hide stretched across the hovel was a - wardrobe for their rags; and their utensils, consisting of a large - iron pot, some baskets, the effective rifle and two that were - superannuated [_too old to use_], stood about in corners, and the - fiddle, which was only silent when we were asleep, hung by them. - - - - - Ominous Loomings: The Missouri Compromise, 1820 - - -When the War of 1812 ended, the United States consisted of eighteen -states--nine free and nine slave. Very soon Indiana was admitted as a -free state, offset by Mississippi as a slave state. It was inevitable -that this precarious balance between the North and the South would some -day cause trouble, and the trouble came very soon. In 1818, Illinois -entered as a free state, and the enabling legislation to admit Missouri -was introduced in Congress in 1819. - -The South assumed that Missouri would be a slave state, but a New York -Congressman amended the Missouri statehood bill to provide for gradual -freeing of the slaves there. The South reacted vigorously to keep from -losing its equal representation in the Senate and blocked passage of the -bill. Meanwhile, Alabama came in to balance Illinois, and there were -eleven northern and eleven southern states. - -The following year, when Maine applied for admission into the Union, -Henry Clay of Kentucky engineered the famous Missouri Compromise. This -agreement provided that Missouri would come in as a slave state but that -no more slave states would be admitted from territory north of -Missouri's southern boundary. This compromise is important because it -foreshadows the struggle between the North and South that eventuated in -the Civil War a generation later. Although most of the oratory dealt -with the slavery issue, the struggle also concerned the broader matter -of political control in the West. - - -Representative Arthur Livermore Argues Against Extending Slavery - -The following selections illustrate the debate in Congress over the -Missouri question. The first speech is by Congressman Arthur Livermore -of New Hampshire against the extension of slavery. - - I propose to show what slavery is, and to mention a few of the many - evils which follow in its train; and I hope to evince that we are not - bound to tolerate the existence of so disgraceful a state of things - beyond its present extent, and that it would be impolitic and very - unjust to let it spread over the whole face of our Western territory. - Slavery in the United States is the condition of man subjected to the - will of a master who can make any disposition of him short of taking - away his life. In those States where it is tolerated, laws are enacted - making it penal to instruct slaves in the art of reading, and they are - not permitted to attend public worship or to hear the Gospel preached. - - Thus the light of science and of religion is utterly excluded from the - mind, that the body may be more easily bowed down to servitude. The - bodies of slaves may, with impunity, be prostituted to any purpose and - deformed in any manner by their owners. The sympathies of nature in - slaves are disregarded; mothers and children are sold and separated; - the children wring their little hands and expire in agonies of grief, - while the bereft mothers commit suicide in despair. How long will the - desire of wealth render us blind to the sin of holding both the bodies - and souls of our fellow-men in chains! - - But, sir, I am admonished of the Constitution, and told that we cannot - emancipate slaves. I know we may not infringe that instrument, and - therefore do not propose to emancipate slaves. The proposition before - us goes only to prevent our citizens from making slaves of such as - have a right to freedom. In the present slaveholding States let - slavery continue, for our boasted Constitution connives at it; but do - not, for the sake of cotton and tobacco, let it be told to future ages - that, while pretending to love liberty, we have purchased an extensive - country to disgrace it with the foulest reproach of nations. - - Our Constitution requires no such thing of us. The ends for which that - supreme law was made are succinctly stated in its preface. They are, - first, to form a more perfect union and insure domestic tranquility. - Will slavery effect this? Can we, sir, by mingling bond with free, - black spirits with white, like Shakespeare's witches in Macbeth, form - a more perfect union and insure domestic tranquility? Secondly, to - establish justice. Is justice to be established by subjecting half - mankind to the will of the other half? Justice, sir, is blind to - colors, and weighs in equal scales the rights of all men, whether - white or black. Thirdly, to provide for the common defense and secure - the blessings of liberty. Does slavery add anything to the common - defense? Sir, the strength of a republic is in the arm of freedom. - But, above all things, do the blessings of liberty consist in slavery? - - -Senator James Barbour Defends Slavery - -In the second selection we have chosen, Senator James Barbour of -Virginia defends slavery: - - The gentleman from Pennsylvania asks shall we suffer Missouri to come - into the Union with this savage mark [_of slavery_] on her - countenance? I appeal to that gentleman to know whether this be - language to address to an American Senate, composed equally of members - from States precisely in that condition that Missouri would be in, - were she to tolerate slavery. Are these sentiments calculated to - cherish that harmony and affection so essential to any beneficial - results from our Union? But, sir, I will not imitate this course, and - I will strive to repress the feeling which such remarks are calculated - to awaken. - - ... They assure us that they do not mean to touch this property - [_slavery_] in the old states.... What kind of ethics is this that is - bounded by latitude and longitude, which is inoperative on the left, - but is omnipotent on the right bank of a river? Such a doctrine is - well calculated to excite our solicitude; for, although the gentlemen - who now hold it are sincere in their declarations, and mean to content - themselves with a triumph in this controversy, what security have we - that others will not apply it to the South generally? - - Let it not, however, be supposed that in the abstract I am advocating - slavery. Like all other human things, it is mixed with good and - evil--the latter, no doubt, preponderating.... Whether slavery was - ordained by God Himself in a particular revelation to His chosen - people, or whether it be merely permitted as a part of that moral evil - which seems to be the inevitable portion of man, are questions I will - not approach; I leave them to the casuists [_debaters_] and the - divines [_preachers_]. It is sufficient for us, as statesmen, to know - that it has existed from the earliest ages of the world, and that to - us has been assigned such a portion as, in reference to their number - and the various considerations resulting from a change of their - condition, no remedy, even plausible, has been suggested, though - wisdom and benevolence united have unceasingly brooded over the - subject. - - However dark and inscrutable may be the ways of heaven, who is he that - arrogantly presumes to arraign [_challenge_] them? The same mighty - power that planted the greater and the lesser luminary in the heavens - permits on earth the bondsman and the free. To that Providence, as men - and Christians, let us bow. If it be consistent with His will, in the - fullness of time, to break the fetter of the slave, He will raise up - some Moses to be their deliverer. To him commission will be given to - lead them up out of the land of bondage. - - -Representative James Stevens Argues for the Compromise - -In the final selection James Stevens, Representative from Connecticut, -pleads with Congress to accept the Compromise: - - I have listened with pain to the very long, protracted debate that has - been had on this unfortunate question. I call it unfortunate, sir, - because it has drawn forth the worst passions of man in the course of - the discussion.... - - If the deadliest enemy this country has, or ever had, could dictate - language the most likely to destroy your glory, prosperity, and - happiness, would it not be precisely what has been so profusely used - in this debate--sectional vaunting?... Indeed, sir, there is no view - of this unhappy division of our country but must be sickening to the - patriot and in direct violation of the dictate of wisdom, and the - last, though not least, important advice of the Father and Friend of - his Country. He forbids the use of the words Northern and Southern, - Atlantic and Western, as descriptive of the various parts of your - country. - - But, sir, we have now arrived at a point at which every gentleman - agrees something must be done. A precipice lies before us at which - perdition [_ruin_] is inevitable. Gentlemen on both sides of this - question, and in both Houses, indoors and out of doors, have evinced a - determination that augurs ill of the high destinies of this country! - And who does not tremble for the consequences?... - - I wish not to be misunderstood, sir. I don't pretend to say that in - just five calendar months your Union will be at an end;... - - But, sir, I do say, and, for the verity of the remark, cite the - lamentable history of our own time, that the result of a failure to - compromise at this time, in the way now proposed, or in some other way - satisfactory to both, would be to create ruthless hatred, irradicable - jealousy, and a total forgetfulness of the ardor of patriotism, to - which, as it has heretofore existed, we owe, under Providence, more - solid national glory and social happiness than ever before was - possessed by any people, nation, kindred, or tongue under Heaven. - - - - - The Monroe Doctrine - - -Although the United States was mainly concerned with internal problems -during Monroe's presidency, there was one important policy established -during this period in the area of foreign relations. This was the Monroe -Doctrine. It was a statement of policy made by the President in a -message to Congress in 1823, which defined the role of the United States -in international affairs and which, in some respects, is still vital -United States policy. - -The Doctrine states that the United States will not tolerate further -foreign colonial expansion by European powers in North or South America. -This policy was necessary because Spain's colonies in Latin America had -recently revolted, and it looked as though the other European powers -might try to reconquer Spain's former colonies. In addition, Russia was -moving southward from Alaska and claiming land down to the 51st -parallel, which would have taken in much of what is now British -Columbia. The Monroe Doctrine also declares that the United States will -not interfere with existing European colonies in the Americas nor with -the internal affairs of European nations. In the following selection we -reprint part of the Monroe Doctrine. - - -Excerpts from the Monroe Doctrine - - In the wars of the European powers in matters relating to themselves - we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy so - to do. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced - that we resent injuries or make preparation for our defense. With the - movements in this hemisphere we are of necessity more immediately - connected, and by causes which must be obvious to all enlightened and - impartial observers.... - - We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing - between the United States and those powers to declare that we should - consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any - portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With - the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have - not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the Governments who - have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose - independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles, - acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of - oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by - any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an - unfriendly disposition toward the United States. - - In the war between those new Governments and Spain we declared our - neutrality at the time of their recognition, and to this we have - adhered, and shall continue to adhere, provided no change shall occur - which, in the judgment of the competent authorities of this - Government, shall make a ... change on the part of the United States - indispensable to their security.... - - Our policy in regard to Europe, which was adopted at an early stage of - the wars which have so long agitated that quarter of the globe, - nevertheless remains the same, which is, not to interfere in the - internal concerns of any of its powers; to consider the government _de - facto_ [_actually ruling_] as the legitimate government for us; to - cultivate friendly relations with it, and to preserve those relations - by a frank, firm, and manly policy, meeting in all instances the just - claims of every power, submitting to injuries from none. But in regard - to those continents circumstances are eminently and conspicuously - different. - - It is impossible that the allied powers should extend their political - system to any portion of either continent [_North or South America_] - without endangering our peace and happiness; nor can anyone believe - that our southern brethren, if left to themselves, would adopt it of - their own accord. It is equally impossible, therefore, that we should - behold such interposition in any form with indifference. - - - - - John Quincy Adams - - - [Illustration: John Quincy Adams] - - - - - Lighthouses in the Sky - - -John Quincy Adams, who succeeded James Monroe as President in 1825, was -the son of John Adams, the second President. He too had served a long -apprenticeship in government, having been Senator, minister to Great -Britain and Russia, and Secretary of State. Although he served only one -term and was defeated for re-election by Andrew Jackson, he was a -forward-looking President. We illustrate his interest in science and the -internal development of the United States by a portion of his first -message to Congress. He begins with a plea that the object of government -is to improve the lot of the people. He favors roads and canals, but -even more, moral and intellectual improvements. - - -Excerpts from Adams' First Message to Congress - - Upon this first occasion of addressing the Legislature of the Union, - with which I have been honored, in presenting to their view the - execution so far as it has been effected of the measures sanctioned by - them for promoting the internal improvement of our country, I can not - close the communication without recommending to their calm and - persevering consideration the general principle in a more enlarged - extent.... - - Among the first, perhaps the very first, instrument for the - improvement of the conditions of men is knowledge, and to the - acquisition of much of the knowledge adapted to the wants, the - comforts, and enjoyments of human life public institutions and - seminaries of learning are essential. So convinced of this was the - first of my predecessors in this office [_George Washington_], now - first in the memory, as, living, he was first in the hearts, of our - countrymen, that once and again in his addresses to the Congresses - with whom he co-operated in the public service he earnestly - recommended the establishment of seminaries of learning, to prepare - for all the emergencies of peace and war--a national university and a - military academy. With respect to the latter, had he lived to the - present day, in turning his eyes to the institution at West Point he - would have enjoyed the gratification of his most earnest wishes; but - in surveying the city which has been honored with his name he would - have seen the spot of earth which he had destined and bequeathed to - the use and benefit of his country as the site for an university still - bare and barren. - - In assuming her station among the civilized nations of the earth it - would seem that our country had contracted the engagement to - contribute her share of mind, of labor, and of expense to the - improvement of those parts of knowledge which lie beyond the reach of - individual acquisition, and particularly to geographical and - astronomical science. Looking back to the history only of the half - century since the declaration of our independence, and observing the - generous emulation with which the Governments of France, Great - Britain, and Russia have devoted the genius, the intelligence, the - treasures of their respective nations to the common improvement of the - species in these branches of science, is it not incumbent upon us to - inquire whether we are not bound by obligations of a high and - honorable character to contribute our portion of energy and exertion - to the common stock?... - - In inviting the attention of Congress to the subject of internal - improvements upon a view thus enlarged it is not my design to - recommend the equipment of an expedition for circumnavigating the - globe for purposes of scientific research and inquiry. We have objects - of useful investigation nearer home, and to which our cares may be - more beneficially applied. The interior of our own territories has yet - been very imperfectly explored. Our coasts along many degrees of - latitude upon the shores of the Pacific Ocean, though much frequented - by our spirited commercial navigators, have been barely visited by our - public ships.... - - The establishment of an uniform standard of weights and measures was - one of the specific objects contemplated in the formation of our - Constitution, and to fix that standard was one of the powers delegated - by express terms in that instrument to Congress. The Governments of - Great Britain and France have scarcely ceased to be occupied with - inquiries and speculations on the same subject since the existence of - our Constitution, and with them it has expanded into profound, - laborious, and expensive researches into the figure of the earth and - the comparative length of the pendulum vibrating seconds in various - latitudes from the equator to the pole.... - - Connected with the establishment of an university, or separate from - it, might be undertaken the erection of an astronomical observatory, - with provision for the support of an astronomer, to be in constant - attendance of observation upon the phenomena of the heavens, and for - the periodical publication of his observations. It is with no feeling - of pride as an American that the remark may be made that on the - comparatively small territorial surface of Europe there are existing - upward of 130 of these light-houses of the skies, while throughout the - whole American hemisphere there is not one. If we reflect a moment - upon the discoveries which in the last four centuries have been made - in the physical constitution of the universe by the means of these - buildings and of observers stationed in them, shall we doubt of their - usefulness to every nation? And while scarcely a year passes over our - heads without bringing some new astronomical discovery to light, which - we must fain receive at second hand from Europe, are we not cutting - ourselves off from the means of returning light for light while we - have neither observatory nor observer upon our half of the globe and - the earth revolves in perpetual darkness to our unsearching eyes? - - [Illustration: The Lewis and Clark expedition] - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - ---Silently corrected a few palpable typos, leaving period spellings - unchanged. - ---In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - ---Added subheadings in the text to match entries in the Table of - Contents. - ---Added captions to illustrations based on the attributions in front - matter. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jeffersonians, 1801-1829, by -Richard B. 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text-align:center; text-indent:0; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap, p.caption { margin-left:0; text-align:center; margin-top:0; font-size:80%; margin-bottom:.5em; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:2em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; margin-right:2em; margin-top:.5em; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jeffersonians, 1801-1829, by -Richard B. Morris and James Woodress - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Jeffersonians, 1801-1829 - Voices from America's Past - -Author: Richard B. Morris - James Woodress - -Release Date: December 6, 2019 [EBook #60854] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JEFFERSONIANS, 1801-1829 *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Jeffersonians 1801-1829" width="500" height="750" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<p class="center">VOICES FROM AMERICA’S PAST</p> -<h1>THE JEFFERSONIANS -<br /><span class="smallest">1801-1829</span></h1> -<dl class="undent"><dt>Edited by</dt> -<dd class="t">Richard B. Morris</dd> -<dd class="t">Gouverneur Morris Professor of History</dd> -<dd class="t">Columbia University</dd> -<dd class="t">New York, New York</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dd class="t">James Woodress</dd> -<dd class="t">Chairman, Department of English</dd> -<dd class="t">San Fernando Valley State College</dd> -<dd class="t">Northridge, California</dd></dl> -<p class="tbcenter">WEBSTER PUBLISHING COMPANY -<br /><span class="smaller">ST. LOUIS</span> <span class="hst"><span class="smaller">ATLANTA</span><span class="hst"> <span class="smaller">DALLAS</span></span></span></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="smaller"><span class="ss">VOICES FROM AMERICA’S PAST</span></span></dt> -<dt><i>The Beginnings of America 1607-1763</i></dt> -<dt><i>The Times That Tried Men’s Souls 1770-1783</i></dt> -<dt><i>The Age of Washington 1783-1801</i></dt> -<dt><i>The Jeffersonians 1801-1829</i></dt> -<dt><i>Jacksonian Democracy 1829-1848</i></dt> -<dt><i>The Westward Movement 1832-1889</i></dt> -<dt><i>A House Divided: The Civil War 1850-1865</i></dt> -<dt><span class="smaller">(<i>Other titles in preparation</i>)</span></dt></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt>Copyright ©, 1961, by Webster Publishing Company</dt> -<dt>Printed in the United States of America</dt> -<dt>All rights reserved</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_iii">iii</div> -<h2 id="toc">TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c1">Preface</a> v</dt> -<dd class="center">I Jefferson’s Administration, 1801-1809</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c2">The Election and Inauguration</a> 1</dt> -<dd><a href="#c3">Margaret Bayard Smith Describes the Election and Inauguration</a> 2</dd> -<dd><a href="#c4">Jefferson’s First Inaugural Address</a> 4</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c5">Burr Kills Hamilton</a> 7</dt> -<dd><a href="#c6">David Hosack Describes Hamilton’s Last Hours</a> 7</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c7">Marbury vs. Madison</a> 10</dt> -<dd><a href="#c8">Excerpts from John Marshall’s Decision</a> 10</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c9">The Louisiana Purchase</a> 12</dt> -<dd><a href="#c10">Jefferson Writes to Robert Livingston</a> 13</dd> -<dd><a href="#c11">The Lewis and Clark Expedition: Lewis’ Journal</a> 14</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c12">The Embargo Act</a> 18</dt> -<dd><a href="#c13">Washington Irving Satirizes the Embargo Act</a> 19</dd> -<dd class="center">II Madison’s Administration, 1809-1817</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c14">Madison’s Inauguration</a> 22</dt> -<dd><a href="#c15">Mrs. Smith’s Report</a> 22</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c16">The War of 1812</a> 24</dt> -<dd><a href="#c17">The <i>Constitution</i> Defeats the <i>Guerrière</i>: Isaac Hull</a> 25</dd> -<dd><a href="#c18">Commodore Perry Wins a Victory on Lake Erie: Oliver Perry</a> 27</dd> -<dd><a href="#c19">The British Burn Washington: Dolly Madison</a> 28</dd> -<dd><a href="#c20">The British Burn Washington: George Gleig</a> 30</dd> -<dd><a href="#c21">The Battle of New Orleans: George Gleig</a> 32</dd> -<dd><a href="#c22">The Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson</a> 35</dd> -<dd class="center">III James Monroe’s Administration, 1817-1825</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c23">Early Days in the Mississippi Valley</a> 37</dt> -<dd><a href="#c24">A Husking Bee in Ohio: William Cooper Howells</a> 38</dd> -<dd><a href="#c25">Religion in Tennessee: Lorenzo Dow</a> 40</dd> -<dd><a href="#c26">Davy Crockett Runs for Office</a> 44</dd> -<dd><a href="#c27">Early Days in Illinois: Morris Birkbeck</a> 47</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c28">Ominous Loomings: The Missouri Compromise, 1820</a> 50</dt> -<dd><a href="#c29">Representative Arthur Livermore Argues Against Extending Slavery</a> 50</dd> -<dd><a href="#c30">Senator James Barbour Defends Slavery</a> 52</dd> -<dd><a href="#c31">Representative James Stevens Argues for the Compromise</a> 53</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c32">The Monroe Doctrine</a> 54</dt> -<dd><a href="#c33">Excerpts from the Monroe Doctrine</a> 54</dd> -<dd class="center">IV John Quincy Adams</dd> -<dt class="dsp"><a href="#c34">Lighthouses in the Sky</a> 56</dt> -<dd><a href="#c35">Excerpts from Adams’ First Message to Congress</a> 56</dd> -</dl> -<p class="tb">The selections by Margaret Bayard Smith, from <i>Forty Years of Washington -Society</i>, edited by Gaillard Hunt, which begin on pages <a class="pgref" href="#Page_2">2</a> and -<a class="pgref" href="#Page_22">22</a>, were reprinted through the courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons.</p> -<p>The picture on the <a href="#Page_i">cover</a> and the picture on <a class="pgref" href="#Page_1">page 1</a>, of the Lewis and -Clark Expedition, were reprinted through the courtesy of the John -Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company of Boston, Massachusetts. The -picture on <a class="pgref" href="#Page_22">page 22</a>, of the <i>Constitution</i> and the <i>Guerrière</i>, was reprinted -through the courtesy of the New York Public Library. The picture of a -political speaker on the Fourth of July on <a class="pgref" href="#Page_37">page 37</a> and the picture of -John Quincy Adams on <a class="pgref" href="#Page_56">page 56</a> were reprinted through the courtesy -of the Library of Congress.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_v">v</div> -<h2 id="c1">Preface</h2> -<p>The early part of the last century was an exciting time to live in -America. The signers of the Declaration of Independence and the framers -of the Constitution, mostly old men by now, saw that their experiment -in republican government had turned out to be a success. The -nation was flourishing in these years like a healthy adolescent. There -were growing pains, to be sure, but no one doubted now that the -youngster would reach manhood. The question was: What is he going -to be like?</p> -<p>The party battles of John Adams’ administration left the Federalist -Party in ruins, and Thomas Jefferson succeeded to the presidency with -an overwhelming popular mandate. During his first term, Jefferson increased -his popularity through buying from France the enormous Louisiana -Territory which doubled the size of the United States. By the time -the Lewis and Clark Expedition returned from exploring the new land, -people began to realize the immense possibilities that the Louisiana -Purchase held for the future of the United States.</p> -<p>Jefferson’s second term was beset by foreign problems that culminated -eventually in the War of 1812, during James Madison’s administration. -Despite George Washington’s advice in his Farewell Address -to stay out of entangling foreign alliances, America could not avoid -being affected by events abroad. She was caught between the hammer -and the anvil during Napoleon’s wars with the rest of Europe. The -War of 1812 settled no issues but, soon afterward, the main Anglo-American -problems left over from the Revolution were adjusted. Napoleon’s -downfall at Waterloo removed France as an obstacle to American -development.</p> -<p>The period known as the “Era of Good Feeling” followed the War -of 1812. During the two terms of James Monroe, internal matters -were the main concern of the country: tariffs, banking, domestic improvements, -the admission of new states into the Union. With the Monroe -Doctrine, which warned Europe to respect the independence of Latin -America, the United States began to emerge as a power in the world. -Even more important was the appearance of storm warnings heralding -the eventual coming of the Civil War. The Missouri Compromise, -which drew a line between slave and free territory, established an -uneasy truce between the North and the South.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_vi">vi</div> -<p>By the time John Quincy Adams became the sixth President, sectionalism -was rapidly developing, and the balance of power between -the East and the West, the industrial North and the agricultural South, -was beginning to shift. The two-party system, which had largely disappeared -with the collapse of the Federalists in 1800, was revived. In -1828 the long monopoly that Virginia and Massachusetts had enjoyed -in supplying American Presidents came to an end with the election of -Andrew Jackson of Tennessee and a new era began.</p> -<p>The selections in this booklet reflect most of the significant events -of these years from 1801 to 1829. The Louisiana Purchase, the Lewis -and Clark Expedition, the War of 1812, the Missouri Compromise, all -are represented. In addition we have included accounts of some small -events and background descriptions which give the flavor of the age. A -proper notion of this period requires not only a knowledge of the major -issues, such as understanding the Embargo Act or the significance of -the <i>Marbury</i> vs. <i>Madison</i> decision, but also an appreciation of the quality -of the experience of being an American in the first quarter of the -nineteenth century. Hence we have used such documents as Lorenzo -Dow’s diary describing the life of a frontier preacher and Morris Birkbeck’s -account of settling in Illinois.</p> -<p>In editing the manuscripts in this booklet, we have followed the practice -of modernizing punctuation, capitalization, and spelling only when -necessary to make the selections clear. We have silently corrected misspelled -words and typographical errors. Wherever possible we have used -complete selections, but occasionally space limitations have made necessary -cuts in the original documents. Such cuts are indicated by spaced -periods. In general, the selections appear as the authors wrote them.</p> -<p><span class="lr">Richard B. Morris</span> -<span class="lr">James Woodress</span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<h2><span class="large">Jefferson’s Administration, 1801-1809</span></h2> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/i01.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="502" /> -<p class="caption">The Lewis and Clark expedition</p> -</div> -<h2 id="c2">The Election and Inauguration</h2> -<p>On election day in 1800, Thomas Jefferson won a clear victory over -John Adams but almost did not became President. The Constitution required -that presidential electors cast two ballots; the winner became -President and the runner-up became Vice-President. Jefferson’s running -mate, Aaron Burr, who had been nominated for Vice-President, received -73 electoral votes, the same number as Jefferson. This strange situation -occurred because the Constitutional Convention had not anticipated -the rise of party politics. When John Adams had defeated Jefferson in -1796, Jefferson, as the runner-up, was elected Vice-President. If parties -had not developed by 1800, Adams, as Jefferson’s opponent, would -surely have become Vice-President. But because parties had arisen, all -<span class="pb" id="Page_2">2</span> -of Jefferson’s electors gave Burr their second vote. (A repetition of this -kind of deadlock was avoided for future elections by the Twelfth -Amendment.)</p> -<p>The Constitution stated that if the two leading candidates were -tied, the election should be decided by the House of Representatives. -The trouble was that in 1800 the House was controlled by the Federalists -and not by Jefferson’s party. The Federalists nearly elected Burr -President because they disliked him less than they disliked Jefferson.</p> -<h3 id="c3">Margaret Bayard Smith Describes the Election and Inauguration</h3> -<p>Fortunately for the country, Federalist Alexander Hamilton, who -knew Burr was unfit to be President, opposed his party’s plan to defeat -Jefferson. But while this crucial decision was being made, the nation -waited breathlessly. The excitement in Washington is recorded in the -following selection from the notebook of Margaret Bayard Smith, wife -of the editor of the <i>National Intelligencer</i>.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">It</span> was an awful crisis. The people, who with such an overwhelming -majority had declared their will, would never peaceably -have allowed the man of their choice to be set aside and the individual -they had chosen as Vice-President to be put in his place. A -civil war must have taken place, to be terminated in all human -probability by a rupture of the Union. Such consequences were at -least calculated on and excited a deep and inflammatory interest. -Crowds of anxious spirits from the adjacent county and cities -thronged to the seat of government and hung like a thunder cloud -over the Capitol, their indignation ready to burst on any individual -who might be designated as President in opposition to the people’s -known choice. The citizens of Baltimore, who from their proximity -were the first apprised of this daring design, were with difficulty -restrained from rushing on with an armed force, to prevent—or -if they could not prevent, to avenge this violation of the people’s -will and in their own vehement language to hurl the usurper from -his seat.</p> -<p>Mr. Jefferson, then President of the Senate, sitting in the midst -of these <i>conspirators</i>, as they were then called, unavoidably hearing -their loudly whispered designs, witnessing their gloomy and -restless machinations, aware of the dreadful consequences which -must follow their meditated designs, preserved through this trying -<span class="pb" id="Page_3">3</span> -period the most unclouded serenity, the most perfect equanimity. A -spectator who watched his countenance would never have surmised -that he had any personal interest in the impending event. Calm -and self-possessed, he retained his seat in the midst of the angry -and stormy, though half-smothered passions that were struggling -around him, and by this dignified tranquility repressed any open -violence. Though insufficient to prevent whispered menaces and -insults, to these, however, he turned a deaf ear and resolutely -maintained a placidity which baffled the designs of his enemies.</p> -<p>The crisis was at hand. The two bodies of Congress met, the -Senators as witnesses, the Representatives as electors. The question -on which hung peace or war, nay, the union of the states was to be -decided. What an awful responsibility was attached to every vote -given on that occasion. The sitting was held with closed doors. It -lasted the whole day, the whole night. Not an individual left that -solemn assembly; the necessary refreshment they required was -taken in rooms adjoining the Hall. They were not like the Roman -conclave legally and forcibly confined; the restriction was self-imposed -from the deep-felt necessity of avoiding any extrinsic or -external influence. Beds, as well as food, were sent for the accommodation -of those whom age or debility disabled from enduring -such a long-protracted sitting. The balloting took place every hour—in -the interval men ate, drank, slept or pondered over the result -of the last ballot, compared ideas and persuasions to change -votes, or gloomily anticipated the consequences, let the result be -what it would.</p> -<p>With what an intense interest did every individual watch each -successive examination of the ballot-box; how breathlessly did they -listen to the counting of the votes! Every hour a messenger brought -to the editor of the <i>National Intelligencer</i> the result of the ballot. -That night I never lay down or closed my eyes. As the hour drew -near its close, my heart would almost audibly beat, and I was -seized with a tremour that almost disabled me from opening the -door for the expected messenger....</p> -<p>For more than thirty hours the struggle was maintained, but -finding the Republican phalanx impenetrable, not to be shaken in -their purpose, every effort proving unavailing, the Senator from -Delaware [<i>James A. Bayard—actually a Representative</i>], the -<span class="pb" id="Page_4">4</span> -withdrawal of whose vote would determine the issue, took his part, -gave up his party, for his country, and threw into the box a blank -ballot, thus leaving to the Republicans a majority. Mr. Jefferson -was declared duly elected. The assembled crowds, without the -Capitol, rent the air with their acclamations and gratulations, and -the conspirators, as they were called, hurried to their lodgings under -strong apprehensions of suffering from the just indignation of their -fellow citizens.</p> -<p>The dark and threatening cloud which had hung over the political -horizon rolled harmlessly away, and the sunshine of prosperity -and gladness broke forth and ever since, with the exception -of a few passing clouds, has continued to shine on our happy -country.</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c4">Jefferson’s First Inaugural Address</h3> -<p>As the author of the Declaration of Independence and many memorable -state papers, Thomas Jefferson was, with Abraham Lincoln, one of -our two greatest presidential writers. The following speech, which he -delivered on March 4, 1801, is an eloquent statement of democratic -principles. Jefferson approached the office of President with humility -and a conciliatory attitude towards his opponents. The simplicity and -directness of his prose contrast greatly with the flowery and lengthy -eloquence of most speakers in his day.</p> -<blockquote> -<p>Friends and Fellow Citizens:</p> -<p><span class="sc">Called</span> upon to undertake the duties of the first executive office -of our country, I avail myself of the presence of that portion -of my fellow citizens which is here assembled to express my grateful -thanks for the favor with which they have been pleased to look -towards me, to declare a sincere consciousness that the task is -above my talents and that I approach it with those anxious and -awful presentiments which the greatness of the charge and the -weakness of my powers so justly inspire.</p> -<p>A rising nation spread over a wide and fruitful land, traversing -all the seas with the rich productions of their industry, engaged in -commerce with nations who feel power and forget right, advancing -rapidly to destinies beyond the reach of mortal eye; when I contemplate -<span class="pb" id="Page_5">5</span> -these transcendent objects and see the honor, the happiness, -and the hopes of this beloved country committed to the issue -and the auspices of this day, I shrink from the contemplation and -humble myself before the magnitude of the undertaking.</p> -<p>Utterly indeed should I despair, did not the presence of many -whom I here see remind me that in the other high authorities provided -by our Constitution, I shall find resources of wisdom, of virtue, -and of zeal, on which to rely under all difficulties.</p> -<p>To you then, gentlemen, who are charged with the sovereign -functions of legislation and to those associated with you, I look -with encouragement for that guidance and support which may enable -us to steer with safety the vessel in which we are all embarked -amidst the conflicting elements of a troubled sea.</p> -<p>During the contest of opinion through which we have passed, -the animation of discussions and of exertions, has sometimes worn -an aspect which might impose on strangers unused to think freely -and to speak and to write what they think.</p> -<p>But this being now decided by the voice of the nation, announced -according to the rules of the Constitution, all will of course -arrange themselves under the will of the law, and unite in common -efforts for the common good. All too will bear in mind this sacred -principle, that though the will of the majority is in all cases to prevail, -that will, to be rightful, must be reasonable: that the minority -possess their equal rights, which equal laws must protect, and to -violate would be oppression.</p> -<p>Let us then, fellow citizens, unite with one heart and one mind; -let us restore to social intercourse that harmony and affection, -without which liberty and even life itself are but dreary things.</p> -<p>And let us reflect that having banished from our land that religious -intolerance under which mankind so long bled and suffered -we have yet gained little, if we countenance a political intolerance -as despotic, as wicked, and capable of as bitter and bloody -persecution.</p> -<p>During the throes and convulsions of the ancient world, during -the agonized spasms of infuriated man, seeking through blood and -slaughter his long lost liberty, it was not wonderful that the agitation -of the billows should reach even this distant and peaceful -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -shore; that this should be more felt and feared by some, and less -by others, and should divide opinions as to measures of safety.</p> -<p>But every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. -We have called, by different names, brethren of the same principle. -We are all republicans: we are all federalists.</p> -<p>If there be any among us who wish to dissolve this union, or -to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed, as monuments -of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated -where reason is left free to combat it.</p> -<p>I know indeed that some honest men have feared that a republican -government cannot be strong; that this government is not -strong enough. But would the honest patriot, in the full tide of -successful experiment abandon a government which has so far -kept us free and firm, on the theoretic and visionary fear that this -government, the world’s best hope may, by possibility, want energy -to preserve itself?</p> -<p>I trust not. I believe this, on the contrary, the strongest government -on earth.</p> -<p>I believe it the only one where every man, at the call of the -law, would fly to the standard of the law; would meet invasions of -public order, as his own personal concern.</p> -<p>Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the government -of himself. Can he then be trusted with the government of -others? Or have we found angels in the form of kings to govern -him? Let history answer this question.</p> -<p>Let us then pursue with courage and confidence our own federal -and republican principles, our attachment to union and representative -government.</p> -<p>Kindly separated by nature, and a wide ocean, from the exterminating -havoc of one quarter of the globe; too high-minded to -endure the degradations of the others; possessing a chosen country, -with room enough for our descendants to the thousandth and -thousandth generation; entertaining a due sense of our equal right, -to the use of our own faculties, to the acquisitions of our own industry, -to honor and confidence from our fellow citizens resulting not -from birth, but from our actions and their sense of them, enlightened -by a benign religion, professed indeed and practiced in various -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -forms, yet all of them inculcating honesty, truth, temperance, -gratitude, and the love of man, acknowledging and adoring an -overruling providence, which by all its dispensations proves that it -delights in the happiness of man here and his greater happiness -hereafter.</p> -<p>With all these blessings, what more is necessary to make us a -happy and a prosperous people? Still one thing more, fellow citizens, -a wise and frugal government, which shall restrain men from -injuring one another, shall leave them otherwise free to regulate -their own pursuits of industry and improvement, and shall not take -from the mouth of labor the bread it has earned.</p> -<p>This is the sum of good government, and this is necessary to -close the circle of our felicities.</p> -</blockquote> -<h2 id="c5">Burr Kills Hamilton</h2> -<p>The feud between Hamilton and Burr preceded the election of 1800, -in which Hamilton opposed Burr’s election to the presidency. The -rivalry between these two New Yorkers actually had begun during the -Revolution and had continued throughout their political careers, but it -reached a special intensity in 1800. As Vice-President under Jefferson, -Burr had reached the peak of his career, but Jefferson, realizing that -Burr almost had schemed his way into the presidency, undermined his -influence in the Republican Party. In 1804, Hamilton again thwarted -Burr’s ambitions by helping to defeat him for governor of New York. -The duel soon followed.</p> -<p>Hamilton had no intention of firing at Burr and seems to have expected -to die, for he made his will and arranged his affairs before -crossing the Hudson River to New Jersey for the fatal duel on July 11, -1804. Burr had great charm and undenied ability, but it might have -been better for him if he had died that day instead of Hamilton. He -was an unscrupulous intriguer, and his subsequent career tarnished his -reputation. In 1805, he tried to establish a political empire in the Mississippi -Valley but he was captured and tried for treason. Though he -was acquitted, he had to spend the next four years in exile. He later -returned to an obscure law practice in New York.</p> -<h3 id="c6">David Hosack Describes Hamilton’s Last Hours</h3> -<p>In the selection that follows, David Hosack, the physician who attended -Hamilton at the duel, describes the scene immediately after Burr -<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span> -fired the fatal shot. He writes to William Coleman, editor of the New -York <i>Post</i>, the paper Hamilton had founded.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">To</span> comply with your request is a painful task; but I will repress -my feelings while I endeavor to furnish you with an enumeration -of such particulars relative to the melancholy end of our beloved -friend Hamilton, as dwell most forcibly on my recollection.</p> -<p>When called to him, upon his receiving the fatal wound, I -found him half sitting on the ground, supported in the arms of -Mr. Pendleton. His countenance of death I shall never forget. He -had at that instant just strength to say, “This is a mortal wound, -Doctor”; when he sunk away, and became to all appearance lifeless. -I immediately stripped up his clothes, and soon, alas! ascertained -that the direction of the ball must have been through some -vital part. His pulses were not to be felt; his respiration was entirely -suspended; and upon laying my hand on his heart, and perceiving -no motion there, I considered him as irrecoverably gone. -I however observed to Mr. Pendleton that the only chance for his -reviving was immediately to get him upon the water.</p> -<p>We therefore lifted him up, and carried him out of the wood, -to the margin of the bank, where the bargemen aided us in conveying -him into the boat, which immediately put off. During all this -time I could not discover the least symptom of returning life. I now -rubbed his face, lips, and temples, with spirits of hartshorn, applied -it to his neck and breast, and to the wrists and palms of his hands, -and endeavored to pour some into his mouth. When we had got, -as I should judge, about fifty yards from the shore, some imperfect -efforts to breathe were for the first time manifest. In a few minutes -he sighed, and became sensible to the impression of the hartshorn, -or the fresh air of the water. He breathed; his eyes, hardly opened, -wandered, without fixing upon any objects. To our great joy he at -length spoke: “My vision is indistinct,” were his first words. His -pulse became more perceptible; his respiration more regular; his -sight returned.</p> -<p>... Soon after recovering his sight, he happened to cast his -eye upon the case of pistols, and observing the one that he had -<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span> -had in his hand lying on the outside, he said, “Take care of that -pistol; it is undischarged, and still cocked; it may go off and do -harm.—<i>Pendleton knows</i> (attempting to turn his head towards -him) <i>that I did not intend to fire at him</i>.” “Yes,” said Mr. Pendleton, -understanding his wish, “I have already made Dr. Hosack -acquainted with your determination as to that.”... Perceiving -that we approached the shore, he said, “Let Mrs. Hamilton be immediately -sent for. Let the event be gradually broken to her; but -give her hopes.”</p> -<p>Looking up, we saw his friend Mr. Bayard standing on the -wharf in great agitation. He had been told by his servant that -General Hamilton, Mr. Pendleton, and myself, had crossed the river -in a boat together, and too well he conjectured the fatal errand, -and foreboded the dreadful result. Perceiving, as we came nearer, -that Mr. Pendleton and myself only sat up in the stern sheets, he -clasped his hands together in the most violent apprehension; but -when I called to him to have a cot prepared, and he at the same -moment saw his poor friend lying in the bottom of the boat, he -threw up his eyes and burst into a flood of tears and lamentation. -Hamilton alone appeared tranquil and composed. We then conveyed -him as tenderly as possible up to the house. The distresses of -this amiable family were such that till the first shock was abated, -they were scarcely able to summon fortitude enough to yield sufficient -assistance to their dying friend.</p> -<p>... During the night he had some imperfect sleep; but the -succeeding morning his symptoms were aggravated, attended, -however, with a diminution of pain. His mind retained all its usual -strength and composure. The great source of his anxiety seemed -to be in his sympathy with his half-distracted wife and children. -He spoke to her frequently of them. “My beloved wife and children,” -were always his expressions. But his fortitude triumphed -over his situation, dreadful as it was. Once, indeed, at the sight of -his children brought to the bedside together, seven in number, his -utterance forsook him. He opened his eyes, gave them one look, -and closed them again till they were taken away. As a proof of his -extraordinary composure of mind, let me add that he alone could -calm the frantic grief of their mother. “<i>Remember, my Eliza, you -are a Christian</i>,” were the expressions with which he frequently, -<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span> -with a firm voice, but in a pathetic and impressive manner, addressed -her. His words, and the tone in which they were uttered, -will never be effaced from my memory. At about two o’clock, as -the public well knows, he expired.</p> -</blockquote> -<h2 id="c7">Marbury vs. Madison</h2> -<p>The duel between the former Secretary of the Treasury and the -Vice-President provided high drama, but far more important was an -event that had occurred the year before in Washington. This event was -a Supreme Court decision written by Chief Justice Marshall, the decision -known as <i>Marbury</i> vs. <i>Madison</i>. It established the principle that the -Supreme Court may declare unconstitutional any law passed by Congress -that conflicts with the Constitution. This principle has become -so well accepted today that we can hardly realize it ever had to be -stated. Its effect, however, was to strengthen the system of checks -and balances between the three main branches of our government.</p> -<p>Marbury was an obscure justice of the peace, appointed by President -Adams just before his term expired. The lame-duck Federalist -administration went out of office before Marbury received his commission, -and Marbury appealed to the Supreme Court to force James -Madison, the new Secretary of State, to give it to him. The Supreme -Court declared that Marbury deserved his commission but that it could -not grant it. The reason was that the law saying the Court could do this -was contrary to the Constitution and therefore invalid. In the portion of -the decision that follows, Chief Justice Marshall argues the principle that -Congress may not give powers not specifically authorized by the Constitution -to the courts or to anyone else.</p> -<h3 id="c8">Excerpts from John Marshall’s Decision</h3> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">The</span> question whether an act, repugnant [<i>opposed</i>] to the -Constitution, can become the law of the land is a question deeply -interesting to the United States but, happily, not of an intricacy -proportioned to its interest. It seems only necessary to recognize -certain principles, supposed to have been long and well established, -to decide it.</p> -<p>That the people have an original right to establish, for their -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span> -future government, such principles as, in their opinion, shall most -conduce to their own happiness is the basis on which the whole -American fabric has been erected. The exercise of this original -right is a very great exertion; nor can it, nor ought it, to be frequently -repeated. The principles, therefore, so established are -deemed fundamental. And as the authority from which they proceed -is supreme, and can seldom act, they are designed to be -permanent.</p> -<p>This original and supreme will organizes the government and -assigns to different departments their respective powers. It may -either stop here or establish certain limits not to be transcended by -those departments.</p> -<p>The government of the United States is of the latter description. -The powers of the legislature are defined and limited; and -that those limits may not be mistaken or forgotten, the Constitution -is written. To what purpose are powers limited, and to what purpose -is that limitation committed to writing, if these limits may, at -any time, be passed by those intended to be restrained? The distinction -between a government with limited and unlimited powers -is abolished if those limits do not confine the persons on whom -they are imposed, and if acts prohibited and acts allowed are of -equal obligation. It is a proposition too plain to be contested that -the Constitution controls any legislative act repugnant to it or that -the legislature may alter the Constitution by an ordinary act.</p> -<p>Between these alternatives there is no middle ground. The -Constitution is either a superior paramount law, unchangeable by -ordinary means, or it is on a level with ordinary legislative acts -and, like other acts, is alterable when the legislature shall please to -alter it.</p> -<p>If the former part of the alternative be true, then a legislative -act contrary to the Constitution is not law; if the latter part be -true, then written constitutions are absurd attempts, on the part of -the people, to limit a power in its own nature illimitable.</p> -<p>Certainly, all those who have framed written constitutions contemplate -them as forming the fundamental and paramount law of -the nation, and, consequently, the theory of every such government -must be, that an act of the legislature repugnant to the Constitution -is void.</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div> -<p>Marshall goes on to refute the argument that the Supreme Court -should concern itself only with interpreting the law, regardless of the -Constitution. Then he quotes specific passages from the Constitution:</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">It</span> is declared that “no tax or duty shall be laid on articles -exported from any state.” Suppose a duty on the export of cotton, -of tobacco, or of flour; and a suit instituted to recover it. Ought -judgment to be rendered in such a case? Ought the judges to close -their eyes on the Constitution and only see the law?...</p> -<p>“No person,” says the Constitution, “shall be convicted of treason, -unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same <i>overt</i> -act, or on confession in open court.” Here the language of the -Constitution is addressed especially to the courts. It prescribes directly -for them, a rule of evidence not to be departed from. If the -legislature should change that rule and declare one witness, or a -confession out of court, sufficient for conviction, must the constitutional -principle yield to the legislative act?</p> -<p>From these, and many other selections which might be made, -it is apparent that the framers of the Constitution contemplated that -instrument as a rule for the government of <i>courts</i> as well as of the -legislature.</p> -<p>Why otherwise does it direct the judges to take an oath to support -it? This oath certainly applies in an especial manner to their -conduct in their official character. How immoral to impose it on -them if they were to be used as the instruments, and the knowing -instruments, for violating what they swear to support!</p> -</blockquote> -<p>At the end of the decision the Chief Justice concluded that the -language of the Constitution confirmed and strengthened the principle -essential to all written constitutions “that a law repugnant to the -Constitution is void.”</p> -<h2 id="c9">The Louisiana Purchase</h2> -<p>The great event of Jefferson’s first term was the acquisition of the -Louisiana Territory, that vast tract of land extending from the Mississippi -River to the Rocky Mountains, from the Canadian border to the Gulf of -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span> -Mexico. The purchase of this land from Napoleon was not a premeditated -act but rather the result of seizing an opportunity that presented -itself. President Jefferson started out merely to buy New Orleans from -France but ended up with more than 800,000 square miles. The agreed-on -price was about $15,000,000, or something like two cents per acre.</p> -<p>Napoleon had forced Spain to give Louisiana back to France after -Spain had held the territory nearly forty years. Just before the letter in -the following account was written, the Spanish Intendant (director) of -New Orleans, who had not yet turned over the city to France, closed -the port to American commerce. Because most of the produce of the -Ohio and Mississippi valleys reached eastern and foreign markets via -New Orleans, closing the port seemed almost an act of war against -the United States. At this point Jefferson sent James Monroe to Europe -as special minister to buy New Orleans. It turned out just then that -Napoleon needed money to renew his war against England, and the -entire territory was purchased within a few weeks. The events which -led to the purchase are described in the following letter that Jefferson -wrote on February 3, 1803, to Robert Livingston, the American minister -to France.</p> -<h3 id="c10">Jefferson Writes to Robert Livingston</h3> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">A late</span> suspension by the Intendant of New Orleans of our -right of deposit there, without which the right of navigation is impracticable, -has thrown this country into such a flame of hostile -disposition as can scarcely be described. The western country was -peculiarly sensible to it as you may suppose. Our business was to -take the most effectual pacific measures in our power to remove -the suspension, and at the same time to persuade our countrymen -that pacific measures would be the most effectual and the most -speedily so. The opposition caught it as a plank in a shipwreck, -hoping it would enable them to tack the western people to them. -They raised the cry of war, were intriguing in all the quarters to -exasperate the western inhabitants to arm and go down on their -own authority and possess themselves of New Orleans, and in the -meantime were daily reiterating, in new shapes, inflammatory -resolutions for the adoption of the House.</p> -<p>As a remedy to all this we determined to name a minister -extraordinary to go immediately to Paris and Madrid to settle this -<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span> -matter. This measure being a visible one, and the person named -peculiarly proper with the western country, crushed at once and -put an end to all further attempts on the Legislature. From that -moment all has become quiet; and the more readily in the western -country, as the sudden alliance of these new federal friends had -of itself already began to make them suspect the wisdom of their -own course. The measure was moreover proposed from another -cause. We must know at once whether we can acquire New Orleans -or not. We are satisfied nothing else will secure us against a -war at no distant period; and we cannot press this reason without -beginning those arrangements which will be necessary if war is -hereafter to result.</p> -<p>For this purpose it was necessary that the negotiators should -be fully possessed of every idea we have on the subject, so as to -meet the propositions of the opposite party, in whatever form they -may be offered; and give them a shape admissible by us without -being obliged to await new instructions hence. With this view, we -have joined Mr. Monroe to yourself at Paris, and to Mr. Pinckney -at Madrid, although we believe it will be hardly necessary for him -to go to this last place.</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c11">The Lewis and Clark Expedition</h3> -<p>Exploring the Missouri River Valley and the Rocky Mountain area -long had been a cherished project of President Jefferson. He had -talked about it periodically since the Revolution, and when he became -President he set about to make his dream come true. Even before the -United States owned the Louisiana Territory, Capt. Meriwether Lewis, -Jefferson’s secretary, and William Clark, younger brother of George -Rogers Clark, had been picked to head an expedition to explore the -West.</p> -<p>The journey did not begin, however, until May, 1804, when the -expedition left St. Louis. Capt. Lewis led his explorers up the Missouri -River to what is now North Dakota, and before cold weather set in -they built huts and a stockade for winter quarters. The next spring -they moved on up the river in dugout canoes (pirogues) towards the -mountains. The following selection from Capt. Lewis’ journal of the expedition -was set down on April 13, 1805, when the party was at the junction -of the Missouri and the Little Missouri rivers, still in North Dakota.</p> -<blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<p><span class="sc">Being</span> disappointed in my observations of yesterday for longitude, -I was unwilling to remain at the entrance of the river another -day for that purpose, and therefore determined to set out early this -morning; which we did accordingly; the wind was in our favour -after 9 <span class="sc">A.M.</span> and continued favourable until 3 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> We therefore -hoisted both the sails in the White Pirogue, consisting of a small -square sail and spritsail, which carried her at a pretty good gait, -until about 2 in the afternoon when a sudden squall of wind struck -us and turned the pirogue so much on the side as to alarm Charbonneau -[<i>the interpreter</i>], who was steering at the time. In this -state of alarm he threw the pirogue with her side to the wind, when -the spritsail gibing was as near oversetting the pirogue as it was -possible to have missed. The wind, however, abating for an instant, -I ordered Drouillard [<i>also an interpreter</i>] to the helm and the -sails to be taken in, which was instantly executed, and the pirogue -being steered before the wind was again placed in a state of security. -This accident was very near costing us dearly. Believing this -vessel to be the most steady and safe, we had embarked on board -of it our instruments, papers, medicine, and the most valuable part -of the merchandise which we had still in reserve as presents for -the Indians. We had also embarked on board ourselves, with three -men who could not swim, and the squaw [<i>Sacajawea, the Shoshone -wife of Charbonneau, who showed the party the way across the -Continental Divide and obtained horses and protection for them -from the Shoshones</i>] with the young child, all of whom, had the -pirogue overset, would most probably have perished, as the waves -were high, and the pirogue upwards of 200 yards from the nearest -shore; however, we fortunately escaped and pursued our journey -under the square sail, which shortly after the accident I directed -to be again hoisted.</p> -</blockquote> -<p>By the end of May the expedition had moved halfway across Montana, -still following the Missouri River:</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">Today</span> we passed on the starboard [<i>right</i>] side the remains of -a vast many mangled carcasses of buffalo which had been driven -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -over a precipice of 120 feet by the Indians and perished; the water -appeared to have washed away a part of this immense pile of -slaughter and still there remained the fragments of at least a hundred -carcasses. They created a most horrid stench. In this manner -the Indians of the Missouri destroy vast herds of buffalo at a -stroke; for this purpose one of the most active and fleet young men -is selected and disguised in a robe of buffalo skin, having also the -skin of the buffalo’s head with the ears and horns fastened on his -head in form of a cap. Thus caparisoned he places himself at a -convenient distance between a herd of buffalo and a precipice -proper for the purpose, which happens in many places on this -river for miles together; the other Indians now surround the herd -on the back and flanks, and at a signal agreed on all show themselves -at the same time moving forward towards the buffalo.</p> -<p>The disguised Indian or decoy has taken care to place himself -sufficiently nigh the buffalo to be noticed by them when they take -to flight, and running before them they follow him in full speed to -the precipice, the cattle behind driving those in front over and seeing -them go do not look or hesitate about following until the whole -are precipitated down the precipice forming one common mass of -dead and mangled carcasses. The decoy in the meantime has taken -care to secure himself in some cranny or crevice of the cliff which -he had previously prepared for that purpose.</p> -</blockquote> -<p>By August 13 the expedition was crossing the Continental Divide at -Lemhi Pass on the border between Montana and Idaho. In the selection -that follows, Capt. Lewis describes the party’s meeting with the Shoshone -Indians.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">We</span> had not continued our route more than a mile when we -were so fortunate as to meet with three female savages. The short -and steep ravines which we passed concealed us from each other -until we arrived within 30 paces. A young woman immediately -took to flight; an elderly woman and a girl of about 12 years old -remained. I instantly laid by my gun and advanced towards them. -They appeared much alarmed but saw that we were too near for -them to escape by flight; they therefore seated themselves on the -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -ground, holding down their heads as if reconciled to die, which -they expected no doubt would be their fate. I took the elderly -woman by the hand and raised her up, repeated the word <i>tab-ba-bone</i> -and stripped up my shirt sleeve to show her my skin; to prove -to her the truth of the assertion that I was a white man, for my -face and hands, which have been constantly exposed to the sun, -were quite as dark as their own. They appeared instantly reconciled, -and the men coming up, I gave these women some beads, a -few moccasin awls, some pewter looking-glasses, and a little paint.</p> -<p>I directed Drouillard to request the old woman to recall the -young woman who had run off to some distance by this time, fearing -she might alarm the camp before we approached and might so -exasperate the natives that they would perhaps attack us without -enquiring who we were. The old woman did as she was requested -and the fugitive soon returned almost out of breath. I bestowed an -equivalent portion of trinket on her with the others. I now painted -their tawny cheeks with some vermillion, which with this nation is -emblematic of peace. After they had become composed I informed -them by signs that I wished them to conduct us to their camp, that -we were anxious to become acquainted with the chiefs and warriors -of their nation. They readily obeyed and we set out, still pursuing -the road down the river.</p> -<p>We had marched about 2 miles when we met a party of about -60 warriors mounted on excellent horses, who came in nearly full -speed. When they arrived, I advanced towards them with the flag, -leaving my gun with the party about 50 paces behind me. The -chief and two others who were a little in advance of the main body -spoke to the women, and they informed them who we were and -exultingly showed the presents which had been given them. These -men then advanced and embraced me very affectionately in their -way, which is by putting their left arm over your right shoulder, -clasping your back, while they apply their left cheek to yours and -frequently vociferate the word <i>ah-hi-e, ah-hi-e</i>, that is, I am much -pleased, I am much rejoiced. Both parties now advanced and we -were all caressed and besmeared with their grease and paint till I -was heartily tired of the national hug.</p> -<p>I now had the pipe lit and gave them smoke; they seated themselves -in a circle around us and pulled off their moccasins before -<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span> -they would receive or smoke the pipe. This is a custom among -them, as I afterwards learned, indicative of a sacred obligation of -sincerity in their profession of friendship, given by the act of receiving -and smoking the pipe of a stranger. Or which is as much as -to say that they wish they may always go barefoot if they are not -sincere; a pretty heavy penalty if they are to march through the -plains of their country.</p> -</blockquote> -<p>After crossing the Continental Divide, the expedition descended the -Columbia River to the Pacific Coast, where they built a fort and spent -the winter of 1805-1806. The next year they retraced their steps across -the wilderness and returned to St. Louis in September, 1806, having -been gone twenty-eight months. The expedition not only was a great -adventure, but it also captured the imagination of the country. Not long -afterwards fur traders began tapping the rich resources of the area, -and by the middle of the century settlers were crossing the plains and -mountains via the Oregon Trail.</p> -<h2 id="c12">The Embargo Act</h2> -<p>Although Jefferson was re-elected in 1804 by a landslide victory, -his popularity diminished greatly during his second term. The source of -his troubles lay in Europe, where England and France were involved in -the long, bitter Napoleonic Wars. England could not defeat Napoleon -on land, but her navy was superior. Hence she blockaded the continent. -France retaliated by counter-blockades. The United States, with a large -merchant fleet but scarcely any navy, was caught in the middle. Hundreds -of American ships were seized and their cargoes confiscated. -Both England and France violated American neutral rights, but England, -with the world’s strongest navy, was the chief offender. When a British -warship, the <i>Leopard</i>, fired on and impressed American seamen from -an American frigate, the <i>Chesapeake</i>, off the coast of Virginia, the -United States was ready to fight.</p> -<p>President Jefferson, however, was determined to avoid war and answered -the <i>Chesapeake</i> incident with a proclamation excluding British -warships from American waters, but the British would not agree to stop -impressing American seamen. In addition, to deal with the seizure of -American ships, Jefferson persuaded Congress to pass the Embargo Act. -<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span> -This act forbade American ships to leave for foreign ports. The result -was that American ships rotted in the harbors and depression hit American -business. Yet England and France were not hurt enough to come -to terms. The Embargo Act had to be repealed.</p> -<h3 id="c13">Washington Irving Satirizes the Embargo Act</h3> -<p>About the time the Embargo Act was repealed, Washington Irving, -America’s first important man of letters, wrote his <i>History of New York</i>. -This book is a burlesque account of the old Dutch period in New York -history, a very funny book, full of comic pictures of the Dutch governors -and the early settlers. The book also contains some contemporary political -satire in the chapters devoted to William the Testy. In the selections -which follow you will see obvious references to the <i>Chesapeake</i> -incident, the Embargo Act, and President Jefferson’s actions.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">As</span> my readers are well aware of the advantage a potentate -has in handling his enemies as he pleases in his speeches and bulletins, -where he has the talk all on his own side, they may rest -assured that William the Testy did not let such an opportunity -escape of giving the Yankees what is called “a taste of his quality.” -In speaking of their inroads into the territories of their High Mightinesses, -he compared them to the Gauls who desolated Rome, the -Goths and Vandals who overran the fairest plains of Europe; but -when he came to speak of the unparalleled audacity with which -they of Weathersfield had advanced their [<i>onion</i>] patches up to -the very walls of Fort Goed Hoop, and threatened to smother the -garrison in onions, tears of rage started into his eyes, as though -he nosed the very offense in question.</p> -<p>Having thus wrought up his tale to a climax, he assumed a -most belligerent look, and assured the council that he had devised -an instrument, potent in its effects, and which he trusted would -soon drive the Yankees from the land. So saying, he thrust his -hand into one of the deep pockets of his broad-skirted coat and -drew forth, not an infernal machine, but an instrument in writing, -which he laid with great emphasis upon the table.</p> -<p>The burghers gazed at it for a time in silent awe, as a wary -housewife does at a gun, fearful it may go off half-cocked. The -document in question had a sinister look, it is true; it was crabbed -in text, and from a broad red ribbon dangled the great seal of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span> -province, about the size of a buckwheat pancake. Still, after all, -it was but an instrument in writing. Herein, however, existed the -wonder of the invention. The document in question was a -PROCLAMATION, ordering the Yankees to depart instantly -from the territories of their High Mightinesses, under pain of suffering -all the forfeitures and punishments in such case made and -provided. It was on the moral effect of this formidable instrument -that Wilhelmus Kieft calculated, pledging his valor as a governor -that, once fulminated [<i>thundered</i>] against the Yankees, it would -in less than two months drive every mother’s son of them across -the borders.</p> -<p>The council broke up in perfect wonder, and nothing was -talked of for some time among the old men and women of New -Amsterdam but the vast genius of the governor and his new and -cheap mode of fighting by proclamation.</p> -<p>As to Wilhelmus Kieft, having dispatched his proclamation to -the frontiers, he put on his cocked hat and corduroy small clothes, -and, mounting a tall rawboned charger, trotted out to his rural retreat -of Dog’s Misery....</p> -<p>Never was a more comprehensive, a more expeditious—or, -what is still better, a more economical—measure devised than -this of defeating the Yankees by proclamation—an expedient, -likewise, so gentle and humane there were ten chances to one in -favor of its succeeding, but then there was one chance to ten that -it would not succeed: as the ill-natured Fates would have it, that -single chance carried the day! The proclamation was perfect in all -its parts, well constructed, well written, well sealed, and well published; -all that was wanting to insure its effect was, that the Yankees -should stand in awe of it; but, provoking to relate, they treated -it with the most absolute contempt, applied it to an unseemly purpose, -and thus did the first warlike proclamation come to a shameful -end—a fate which I am credibly informed has befallen but -too many of its successors.</p> -<p>So far from abandoning the country, those varlets [<i>rascals</i>] -continued their encroachments, squatting along the green banks of -the Varsche River, and founding Hartford, Stamford, New Haven, -and other border towns. I have already shown how the onion -patches of Pyquag were an eyesore to Jacobus Van Curlet and his -<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span> -garrison; but now these moss-troopers increased in their atrocities, -kidnaping hogs, impounding horses, and sometimes grievously rib-roasting -their owners. Our worthy forefathers could scarcely stir -abroad without danger of being outjockeyed in horseflesh or taken -in in bargaining, while in their absence some daring Yankee peddler -would penetrate to their household and nearly ruin the good -housewives with tinware and wooden bowls....</p> -<p>It was long before William the Testy could be persuaded that -his much-vaunted war measure was ineffectual; on the contrary, -he flew in a passion whenever it was doubted, swearing that though -slow in operating, yet when it once began to work it would soon -purge the land of these invaders. When convinced, at length, of -the truth, like a shrewd physician he attributed the failure to the -quantity, not the quality, of the medicine, and resolved to double -the dose. He fulminated, therefore, a second proclamation, more -vehement than the first, forbidding all intercourse with these Yankee -intruders, ordering the Dutch burghers on the frontiers to buy -none of their pacing horses, measly port, apple sweetmeats, Weathersfield -onions, or wooden bowls, and to furnish them with no supplies -of gin, gingerbread, or sauerkraut.</p> -<p>Another interval elapsed, during which the last proclamation -was as little regarded as the first, and the non-intercourse was -especially set at naught by the young folks of both sexes, if we -may judge by the active bundling which took place along the -borders.</p> -</blockquote> -<p>Irving concludes this satire of William the Testy’s proclamation by -a comic account of how the Yankees captured Fort Goed Hoop. They -sneaked into the fort while the Dutch soldiers were sleeping off their -dinner, gave the defenders a kick in the pants, and sent them back -to New Amsterdam.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<h2 id="c14">Madison’s Administration, 1809-1817</h2> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/i02.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="656" /> -<p class="caption">The <i>Constitution</i> and the <i>Guerrière</i></p> -</div> -<h3 id="c15">Madison’s Inauguration</h3> -<p>Despite the unpopularity of the Embargo Act, James Madison, Jefferson’s -choice to succeed him in the presidency, was elected by a -large margin. Madison had served a long career in public life, beginning -with the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention -and more recently serving as Secretary of State under Jefferson. In the -following selection Margaret Bayard Smith again reports the Washington -scene, this time the events of March 4, 1809, Inauguration Day. -Note that she mixes up the sequence of events by starting with the -reception after the inauguration before describing the inauguration.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">Today</span> after the inauguration we all went to Mrs. Madison’s. -The street was full of carriages and people, and we had to wait -near half an hour before we could get in—the house was completely -filled, parlours, entry, drawing room and bed room. Near -the door of the drawing room Mr. and Mrs. Madison stood to receive -<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span> -their company. She looked extremely beautiful, was dressed -in a plain cambric dress with a very long train, plain round the -neck without any handkerchief, and beautiful bonnet of purple -velvet, and white satin with white plumes. She was all dignity, -grace and affability.</p> -<p>Mr. Madison shook my hand with all the cordiality of old acquaintance, -but it was when I saw our dear and venerable Mr. -Jefferson that my heart beat. When he saw me, he advanced from -the crowd, took my hand affectionately, and held it five or six minutes; -one of the first things he said was, “Remember the promise -you have made me, to come to see us next summer; do not forget -it,” said he, pressing my hand, “for we shall certainly expect you.” -I assured him I would not, and told him I could now wish him joy -with much more sincerity than this day 8 years ago.</p> -<p>“You have now resigned a heavy burden,” said I.</p> -<p>“Yes indeed,” he replied, “and am much happier at this moment -than my friend.”</p> -<p>The crowd was immense both at the Capitol and here; thousands -and thousands of people thronged the avenue. The Capitol -presented a gay scene. Every inch of space was crowded and there -being as many ladies as gentlemen, all in full dress, it gave it rather -a gay than a solemn appearance—there was an attempt made to -appropriate particular seats for the ladies of public characters, but -it was found impossible to carry it into effect, for the sovereign -people would not resign their privileges and the high and low were -promiscuously blended on the floor and in the galleries. Mr. -Madison was extremely pale and trembled excessively when -he first began to speak, but soon gained confidence and spoke -audibly.</p> -</blockquote> -<p>Mrs. Smith now interrupts her letter (to her sister-in-law) and finishes -it the next day. The event she describes is the inauguration ball at -Long’s Hotel.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">Last</span> evening, I endeavored calmly to look on, and amidst the -noise, bustle and crowd, to spend an hour or two in sober reflection, -<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span> -but my eye was always fixed on our venerable friend [<i>Jefferson</i>]. -When he approached my ear listened to catch every word, -and when he spoke to me my heart beat with pleasure. Personal -attachment produces this emotion, and I did not blame it. -But I have not this regard for Mr. Madison, and I was displeased -at feeling no emotion when he came up and conversed with me. -He made some of his old kind of mischievous allusions, and I told -him I found him still unchanged. I tried in vain to feel merely as -a spectator; the little vanities of my nature often conquered my -better reason.</p> -<p>The room was so terribly crowded that we had to stand on the -benches; from this situation we had a view of the moving mass; -for it was nothing else. It was scarcely possible to elbow your way -from one side to another, and poor Mrs. Madison was almost -pressed to death, for every one crowded round her, those behind -pressing on those before, and peeping over their shoulders to have -a peep of her, and those who were so fortunate as to get near -enough to speak to her were happy indeed. As the upper sashes -of the windows could not let down, the glass was broken, to ventilate -the room, the air of which had become oppressive.</p> -</blockquote> -<h2 id="c16">The War of 1812</h2> -<p>The War of 1812, like the Korean war of this century, was a conflict -that neither side won. The young United States Navy scored some -notable victories at sea but could not prevent the overwhelming naval -power of the British from blockading American coasts and cutting off -American commerce. The United States Army, with a few notable exceptions, -was badly generaled and was outfought. General Hull surrendered -Detroit without a fight, and General Dearborn, who set out -to attack Montreal, marched to the Canadian border, lost his nerve, and -turned back.</p> -<p>The War of 1812 was also like the Korean war in that it was -unpopular with the political party out of office. Federalist New England -refused to support it, calling the conflict “Mr. Madison’s War,” and -seriously talked of secession. New England merchants traded with the -enemy, and when Maine was occupied by the British, many Americans -quickly took an oath of allegiance to the king. The Czar of Russia’s -<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span> -offer to act as mediator between England and America was eagerly -accepted. The peace talks, however, dragged on for nearly two years -before a settlement, leaving things just as they were before the war, -was agreed upon.</p> -<p>Although neither side won, the War of 1812 did have some important -consequences. Historians see it as America’s second war for independence. -The Revolution severed American ties with England. The -War of 1812 removed any doubts in the minds of European powers -that the United States was here to stay. Also, in the years following -the war, America was able to settle her grievances with England and -to force the Spanish out of Florida. And, for the first time, the United -States could concentrate on internal problems.</p> -<h3 id="c17">The Constitution Defeats the Guerrière</h3> -<p>The frigate <i>Constitution</i>, captained by Isaac Hull, already had a -distinguished history when the War of 1812 began. She had been built -in Boston during the trouble with France in 1797 and had taken part -in the war with the Barbary pirates. The peace treaty with Tripoli had -been signed in the captain’s quarters on the gun deck. A trim, fast, -graceful ship, the frigate had been made from timbers of solid live -oak, hard pine, and red cedar. The bolts, copper sheathing, and brass-work -had been supplied by Paul Revere. This ship now is preserved -as a museum at the Boston Navy Yard.</p> -<p>Congress declared war on England in June, 1812, and the next -month Capt. Hull sailed from Chesapeake Bay. In August he encountered -the British ship <i>Guerrière</i>, and the action that followed he reports in -his dispatch to the Secretary of the Navy. Thus, the war began with a -resounding sea victory.</p> -<blockquote> -<p>Sir,</p> -<p><span class="sc">I have</span> the honour to inform you, that on the 19th instant, at -2 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> being in latitude 41, 42, longitude 55, 48, with the <i>Constitution</i> -under my command, a sail was discovered from the masthead -bearing E. by S. or E.S.E. but at such a distance we could -not tell what she was. All sail was instantly made in chase, and -soon found we came up with her. At 3 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> could plainly see that -she was a ship on the starboard tack, under easy sail, close on a -<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span> -wind; at half past 3 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> made her out to be a frigate; continued -the chase until we were within about three miles, when I ordered -the light sails taken in, the courses hauled up, and the ship cleared -for action. At this time the chase had backed his main top-sail, -waiting for us to come down.</p> -<p>As soon as the <i>Constitution</i> was ready for action, I bore down -with an intention to bring him to close action immediately; but on -our coming within gunshot she gave us a broadside and filled away, -and wore, giving us a broadside on the other tack, but without -effect; her shot falling short. She continued wearing and maneuvering -for about three-quarters of an hour, to get a raking position, -but finding she could not, she bore up, and ran under top-sails and -gib, with the wind on the quarter.</p> -<p>I immediately made sail to bring the ship up with her, and -5 minutes before 6 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> being along side within half pistol shot, we -commenced a heavy fire from all our guns, double shotted with -round and grape, and so well directed were they, and so warmly -kept up, that in 15 minutes his mizen-mast went by the board, and -his main-yard in the slings, and the hull, rigging, and sails very -much torn to pieces. The fire was kept up with equal warmth for -15 minutes longer, when his main-mast, and fore-mast went, taking -with them every spar, excepting the bowsprit; on seeing this we -ceased firing, so that in 30 minutes after we got fairly along side -the enemy she surrendered, and had not a spar standing, and her -hull below and above water so shattered, that a few more broadsides -must have carried her down.</p> -<p>After informing you that so fine a ship as the <i>Guerrière</i>, commanded -by an able and experienced officer, had been totally dismasted, -and otherwise cut to pieces, so as to make her not worth -towing into port, in the short space of 30 minutes, you can have -no doubt of the gallantry and good conduct of the officers and -ship’s company I have the honour to command. It only remains, -therefore, for me to assure you, that they all fought with great -bravery; and it gives me great pleasure to say, that from the smallest -boy in the ship to the oldest seaman, not a look of fear was -seen. They all went into action, giving three cheers, and requesting -to be laid close along side the enemy.</p> -<p>Enclosed I have the honour to send you a list of killed and -<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span> -wounded on board the <i>Constitution</i>, and a report of the damages -she has sustained; also, a list of the killed and wounded on board -the enemy.</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c18">Commodore Perry Wins a Victory on Lake Erie</h3> -<p>The naval campaigns of the War of 1812 were fought on the Great -Lakes as well as in the Atlantic. Because British troops were based in -Canada, the northern border of the United States inevitably became a -battle line. Commodore Perry won another important sea victory a -year after the <i>Constitution</i> defeated the <i>Guerrière</i> when his squadron -defeated and captured a British squadron on Lake Erie. This was the -battle which Perry reported to General William Henry Harrison in his -famous remark: “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.” In the -two dispatches that follow, Perry gives a full account of the action to -the Secretary of the Navy.</p> -<blockquote> -<p>Sir,</p> -<p><span class="sc">It</span> has pleased the Almighty to give to the arms of the United -States a signal victory over their enemies on this lake. The British -squadron, consisting of two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one -sloop, have this moment surrendered to the force under my command, -after a sharp conflict.</p> -</blockquote> -<blockquote> -<p>Sir,</p> -<p><span class="sc">In</span> my last I informed you that we had captured the enemy’s -fleet on this lake. I have now the honour to give you the most important -particulars of the action. On the morning of the 10th instant, -at sunrise, they were discovered from Put-In-Bay, when I -lay at anchor with the squadron under my command. We got under -weigh, the wind light at south-west, and stood for them. At 10 <span class="sc">A.M.</span> -the wind hauled to south-east and brought us to windward; formed -the line and bore up. At 15 minutes before 12, the enemy commenced -firing; at 5 minutes before 12, the action commenced on -our part.</p> -<p>Finding their fire very destructive owing to their long guns, and -its being mostly directed at the <i>Lawrence</i>, I made sail, and directed -the other vessels to follow, for the purpose of closing with the enemy. -<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span> -Every brace and bowline being soon shot away, she became -unmanageable, notwithstanding the great exertions of the sailing -master. In this situation, she sustained the action upwards of two -hours within canister distance, until every gun was rendered useless, -and the greater part of her crew either killed or wounded. -Finding she could no longer annoy the enemy, I left her in charge -of Lieutenant Yarnall, who, I was convinced, from the bravery -already displayed by him, would do what would comport with the -honour of the flag.</p> -<p>At half past two, the wind springing up, Captain Elliot was -enabled to bring his vessel, the <i>Niagara</i>, gallantly into close action. -I immediately went on board of her, when he anticipated my wish -by volunteering to bring the schooner which had been kept astern -by the lightness of the wind, into close action. It was with unspeakable -pain that I saw, soon after I got on board the <i>Niagara</i>, the -flag of the <i>Lawrence</i> come down, although I was perfectly sensible -that she had been defended to the last, and that to have continued -to make a show of resistance would have been a wanton -sacrifice of the remains of her brave crew. But the enemy was not -able to take possession of her, and circumstances soon permitted -her flag again to be hoisted.</p> -<p>At 45 minutes past 2, the signal was made for “close action.” -The <i>Niagara</i> being very little injured, I determined to pass through -the enemy’s line, bore up and passed ahead of their two ships and -a brig, giving a raking fire to them from the starboard guns, and -to a large schooner and sloop, from the larboard side, at half pistol -shot distance. The smaller vessels at this time having got within -grape and canister distance, under the direction of Captain Elliot, -and keeping up a well-directed fire, the two ships, a brig, and a -schooner surrendered, a schooner and sloop making a vain attempt -to escape.</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c19">The British Burn Washington</h3> -<p>Probably the most humiliating military defeat ever inflicted on the -United States occurred in August, 1814, when British troops marched -into Washington and burned the public buildings. This was a punitive -action designed to teach the Americans a lesson and to demoralize the -country. Official Washington fled at the approach of the British, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span> -in the following letter Dolly Madison, the President’s wife, describes her -activities on the day before and her flight from the White House on -the day of the British invasion.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">Dear</span> Sister—My husband left me yesterday morning to join -General Winder. He inquired anxiously whether I had courage or -firmness to remain in the President’s house until his return on the -morrow, or succeeding day, and on my assurance that I had no -fear but for him, and the success of our army, he left, beseeching -me to take care of myself, and of the Cabinet papers, public and -private. I have since received two dispatches from him, written -with a pencil. The last is alarming, because he desires I should be -ready at a moment’s warning to enter my carriage, and leave the -city; that the enemy seemed stronger than had at first been reported, -and it might happen that they would reach the city with -the intention of destroying it. I am accordingly ready; I have -pressed as many Cabinet papers into trunks as to fill one carriage; -our private property must be sacrificed, as it is impossible to procure -wagons for its transportation. I am determined not to go myself -until I see Mr. Madison safe, so that he can accompany me, -as I hear of much hostility towards him. Disaffection stalks around -us. My friends and acquaintances are all gone, even Colonel C. -with his hundred, who were stationed as a guard in this inclosure. -French John [<i>a faithful servant</i>], with his usual activity and resolution, -offers to spike the cannon at the gate, and lay a train of -powder, which would blow up the British, should they enter the -house. To the last proposition I positively object, without being able -to make him understand why all advantages in war may not be -taken.</p> -<p><i>Wednesday Morning</i>, twelve o’clock. Since sunrise I have -been turning my spy-glass in every direction, and watching with -unwearied anxiety, hoping to discover the approach of my dear -husband and his friends; but, alas! I can descry only groups of -military, wandering in all directions, as if there was a lack of arms, -or of spirit to fight for their own fireside.</p> -<p>Three o’clock. Will you believe it, my sister? we have had a -battle, or skirmish, near Bladensburg, and here I am still, within -<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span> -sound of the cannon! Mr. Madison comes not. May God protect us! -Two messengers covered with dust come to bid me fly; but here -I mean to wait for him.... At this late hour a wagon has been -procured, and I have had it filled with plate and the most valuable -portable articles belonging to the house. Whether it will reach its -destination, the Bank of Maryland, or fall into the hands of British -soldiery, events must determine. Our kind friend, Mr. Carroll, has -come to hasten my departure, and in a very bad humor with me, -because I insist on waiting until the large picture of General Washington -is secured, and it requires to be unscrewed from the wall. -This process was found too tedious for these perilous moments; I -have ordered the frame to be broken, and the canvas taken out. -It is done! and the precious portrait placed in the hands of two -gentlemen of New York, for safe keeping. And now, dear sister, I -must leave this house, or the retreating army will make me a prisoner -in it by filling up the road I am directed to take. When I -shall again write to you, or where I shall be tomorrow, I cannot -tell!</p> -<p><span class="lr">Dolly.</span></p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c20">The British Burn Washington: George Gleig</h3> -<p>British General Robert Ross landed with about four thousand men -and marched into Washington without much opposition. The scene that -took place during the burning is vividly described by a British officer, -George Gleig, in <i>A Narrative of the Campaigns of the British Army</i>.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">While</span> the third brigade was thus employed [<i>burning buildings</i>], -the rest of the army, having recalled its stragglers and removed -the wounded into Bladensburg, began its march towards -Washington. Though the battle was ended by four o’clock, the sun -had set before the different regiments were in a condition to move; -consequently this short journey was performed in the dark. The -work of destruction had also begun in the city, before they quitted -their ground; and the blazing of houses, ships, and stores, the report -of exploding magazines, and the crash of falling roofs informed -them, as they proceeded, of what was going forward. You -can conceive nothing finer than the sight which met them as they -drew near to the town. The sky was brilliantly illuminated by the -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span> -different conflagrations, and a dark red light was thrown upon the -road, sufficient to permit each man to view distinctly his comrade’s -face. Except the burning of St. Sebastian’s, I do not recollect to -have witnessed ... a scene more striking or more sublime.</p> -<p>I need scarcely to observe that the consternation of the inhabitants -was complete, and that to them this was a night of terror. -So confident had they been of the success of their troops, that few -of them had dreamed of quitting their houses or abandoning the -city; nor was it till the fugitives from the battle began to rush in, -filling every place as they came with dismay, that the President -himself thought of providing for his safety. That gentleman, as I -was credibly informed, had gone forth in the morning with the -army, and had continued among his troops till the British forces -began to make their appearance. Whether the sight of his enemies -cooled his courage or not, I cannot say, but, according to my informer, -no sooner was the glittering of our arms discernible, than -he began to discover that his presence was more wanted in the -Senate than with the army; and having ridden through the ranks, -and exhorted every man to do his duty, he hurried back to his -own house, that he might prepare a feast for the entertainment -of his officers, when they should return victorious.</p> -<p>For the truth of these details, I will not be answerable; but -this much I know, that the feast was actually prepared, though, -instead of being devoured by American officers, it went to satisfy -the less delicate appetites of a party of English soldiers. When the -detachment sent out to destroy Mr. Madison’s house entered his -dining parlor, they found a dinner table spread and covers laid -for forty guests. Several kinds of wine, in handsome cut-glass decanters, -were cooling on the sideboard; plate-holders stood by the -fireplace, filled with dishes and plates; knives, forks, and spoons -were arranged for immediate use; in short, everything was ready -for the entertainment of a ceremonious party. Such were the arrangements -in the dining room, whilst in the kitchen were others -answerable to them in every respect. Spits, loaded with joints of -various sorts, turned before the fire; pots, saucepans, and other -culinary utensils stood upon the grate; and all the other requisites -for an elegant and substantial repast were exactly in a state which -indicated that they had been lately and precipitately abandoned.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<p>You will readily imagine that these preparations were beheld -by a party of hungry soldiers with no indifferent eye. An elegant -dinner, even though considerably overdressed, was a luxury to -which few of them, at least for some time back, had been accustomed, -and which, after the dangers and fatigues of the day, appeared -peculiarly inviting. They sat down to it, therefore, not -indeed in the most orderly manner, but with countenances which -would not have disgraced a party of aldermen at a civic feast, and, -having satisfied their appetites with fewer complaints than would -have probably escaped their rival <i>gourmands</i>, and partaken pretty -freely of the wines, they finished by setting fire to the house....</p> -<p>But, as I have just observed, this was a night of dismay to the -inhabitants of Washington. They were taken completely by surprise; -nor could the arrival of the flood be more unexpected to -the natives of the antediluvian world than the arrival of the British -army to them. The first impulse of course tempted them to fly, and -the streets were in consequence crowded with soldiers and senators, -men, women, and children, horses, carriages, and carts loaded -with household furniture, all hastening towards a wooden bridge -which crosses the Potomac. The confusion thus occasioned was -terrible, and the crowd upon the bridge was such as to endanger -its giving way. But Mr. Madison, having escaped among the first, -was no sooner safe on the opposite bank of the river than he gave -orders that the bridge should be broken down; which being -obeyed, the rest were obliged to return and to trust to the clemency -of the victors.</p> -<p>In this manner was the night passed by both parties; and at -daybreak next morning, the light brigade moved into the city, -while the reserve fell back to a height about a half mile in the -rear. Little, however, now remained to be done, because everything -marked out for destruction was already consumed. Of the -Senate house, the President’s palace, the barracks, the dockyard, -etc., nothing could be seen except heaps of smoking ruins; and -even the bridge ... was almost wholly demolished.</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c21">The Battle of New Orleans</h3> -<p>Despite the general incompetence of the American leadership in -the War of 1812, Andrew Jackson emerged from the campaigns as a -<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span> -genuine war hero. The Battle of New Orleans, which ironically was -fought after the peace treaty had been signed in Europe, was a -great victory. Jackson’s troops, greatly outnumbered, barricaded themselves -behind cotton bales and earthworks and mowed down the British -as they stormed the American positions. In the two selections that follow, -we print first the account of the battle by the British officer George -Gleig and then General Jackson’s terse report to the Secretary of War.</p> -<blockquote> -<h4>OFFICER GLEIG:</h4> -<p><span class="sc">The</span> main body armed and moved forward some way in front -of the pickets. There they stood waiting for daylight and listening -with the greatest anxiety for the firing which ought now to be -heard on the opposite bank. But this attention was exerted in vain, -and day dawned upon them long before they desired its appearance. -Nor was Sir Edward Pakenham disappointed in this part of -his plan alone. Instead of perceiving everything in readiness for -the assault, he saw his troops in battle array, indeed, but not a -ladder or fascine [<i>bundle of sticks to fill ditches</i>] upon the field. -The 44th, which was appointed to carry them, had either misunderstood -or neglected their orders and now headed the column -of attack without any means being provided for crossing the enemy’s -ditch, or scaling his rampart.</p> -<p>The indignation of poor Pakenham on this occasion may be -imagined, but cannot be described. Galloping towards Colonel -Mullens, who led the 44th, he commanded him instantly to return -with his regiment for the ladders, but the opportunity of planting -them was lost, and though they were brought up, it was only to -be scattered over the field by the frightened bearers. For our -troops were by this time visible to the enemy. A dreadful fire was -accordingly opened upon them, and they were mowed down by -hundreds, while they stood waiting for orders.</p> -<p>Seeing that all his well-laid plans were frustrated, Pakenham -gave the word to advance, and the other regiments, leaving the -44th with the ladders and fascines behind them, rushed on to the -assault. On the left a detachment of the 95th, 21st, and 4th -stormed a three-gun battery and took it. Here they remained for -some time in the expectation of support; but none arriving, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span> -a strong column of the enemy forming for its recovery, they determined -to anticipate the attack and pushed on. The battery which -they had taken was in advance of the body of the works, being -cut off from it by a ditch, across which only a single plank was -thrown. Along this plank did these brave men attempt to pass; but -being opposed by overpowering numbers, they were repulsed; and -the Americans, in turn, forcing their way into the battery, at length -succeeded in recapturing it with immense slaughter.</p> -<p>On the right, again, the 21st and 4th being almost cut to pieces -and thrown into some confusion by the enemy’s fire, the 93d -pushed on and took the lead. Hastening forward, our troops soon -reached the ditch; but to scale the parapet without ladders was -impossible. Some few, indeed, by mounting one upon another’s -shoulders, succeeded in entering the works, but these were instantly -overpowered, most of them killed, and the rest taken; while -as many as stood without were exposed to a sweeping fire, which -cut them down by whole companies. It was in vain that the most -obstinate courage was displayed. They fell by the hands of men -whom they absolutely did not see; for the Americans, without so -much as lifting their faces above the rampart, swung their firelocks -by one arm over the wall, and discharged them directly upon their -heads. The whole of the guns, likewise, from the opposite bank, -kept up a well directed and deadly cannonade upon their flank; -and thus were they destroyed without an opportunity being given -of displaying their valour, or obtaining so much as revenge.</p> -<p>Poor Pakenham saw how things were going, and did all that a -General could do to rally his broken troops. Riding towards the -44th which had returned to the ground, but in great disorder, he -called out for Colonel Mullens to advance; but that officer had -disappeared, and was not to be found. He, therefore, prepared to -lead them on himself, and had put himself at their head for that -purpose, when he received a slight wound in the knee from a musket -ball which killed his horse. Mounting another, he again headed -the 44th, when a second ball took effect more fatally, and he -dropped lifeless into the arms of his aide-de-camp.</p> -<p>Nor were Generals Gibbs and Keane inactive. Riding through -the ranks, they strove by all means to encourage the assailants -and recall the fugitives, till at length both were wounded and -<span class="pb" id="Page_35">35</span> -borne off the field. All was now confusion and dismay. Without -leaders, ignorant of what was to be done, the troops first halted -and then began to retire, till finally the retreat was changed into -a flight, and they quitted the ground in the utmost disorder. But -the retreat was covered in gallant style by the reserve. Making a -forward motion, the 7th and 43d presented the appearance of a -renewed attack; by which the enemy were so much awed, -that they did not venture beyond their lines in pursuit of the -fugitives.</p> -</blockquote> -<blockquote> -<h4 id="c22">GENERAL JACKSON’S REPORT:</h4> -<p><span class="sc">During</span> the days of the 6th and 7th, the enemy had been actively -employed in making preparations for an attack on my lines. -With infinite labour they had succeeded on the night of the 7th, -in getting their boats across from the lake to the river, by widening -and deepening the canal on which they had effected their disembarkation. -It had not been in my power to impede these operations -by a general attack: added to other reasons, the nature of -the troops under my command, mostly militia, rendered it too hazardous -to attempt extensive <i>offensive</i> movements in an open country, -against a numerous and well disciplined army.</p> -<p>Although my forces, as to number, had been increased by the -arrival of the Kentucky division, my strength had received very -little addition; a small portion only of that detachment being provided -with arms. Compelled thus to wait the attack of the enemy, -I took every measure to repel it when it should be made, and to -defeat the object he had in view. General Morgan, with the New -Orleans contingent, the Louisiana militia, and a strong detachment -of the Kentucky troops, occupied an entrenched camp on the opposite -side of the river, protected by strong batteries on the bank, -erected and superintended by Commodore Patterson.</p> -<p>In <i>my</i> encampment everything was ready for action, when, -early in the morning of the 8th, the enemy after throwing a heavy -shower of bombs and congreve rockets, advanced their columns -on my right and left, to storm my entrenchments. I cannot speak -sufficiently in praise of the firmness and deliberation with which -my whole line received their approach—<i>more</i> could not have -been expected from veterans inured to war. For an hour the fire -<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span> -of the small arms was as incessant and severe as can be imagined. -The artillery, too, directed by officers who displayed equal skill -and courage, did great execution.</p> -<p>Yet the columns of the enemy continued to advance with a -firmness which reflects upon them the greatest credit. Twice the -column which approached me on my left, was repulsed by the -troops of General Carroll, those of General Coffee, and a division -of the Kentucky militia, and twice they formed again and renewed -the assault. At length, however, cut to pieces, they fled in confusion -from the field, leaving it covered with their dead and -wounded.</p> -<p>The loss which the enemy sustained on this occasion, cannot -be estimated at less than 1500 in killed, wounded and prisoners. -[<i>The British actually lost over 2,000. American casualties: 8 -killed, 13 wounded.</i>] Upwards of three hundred have already been -delivered over for burial; and my men are still engaged in picking -them up within my lines and carrying them to the point where -the enemy are to receive them. This is in addition to the dead -and wounded whom the enemy have been enabled to carry from -the field, during and since the action, and to those who have since -died of the wounds they received. We have taken about 500 prisoners, -upwards of 300 of whom are wounded, and a great part -of them mortally. My loss has not exceeded, and I believe has not -amounted to, 10 killed and as many wounded....</p> -<p><span class="center">I have the honor to be, etc.</span> -<span class="lr">Andrew Jackson</span></p> -</blockquote> -<p>Incidentally, this battle was the last time that British and American -troops ever fought each other. The next time they met on the field of -battle they were allies in World War I.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div> -<h2><span class="large">James Monroe’s Administration, 1817-1825</span></h2> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/i03.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="503" /> -<p class="caption">Public speaker on the Fourth of July</p> -</div> -<h2 id="c23">Early Days in the Mississippi Valley</h2> -<p>James Monroe was the last of the quartet of Virginia Presidents -which had begun with George Washington. He was elected after serving -as Madison’s Secretary of State, but before that he had fought in -the Revolution, sat in the Continental Congress, been a Senator, a governor, -and a minister to France. His term as President is known as the -Era of Good Feeling because of the absence of serious problems to -divide the country. It was a period of rapid growth as settlers pushed -west and the beginnings of the industrial revolution began to change -the East.</p> -<p>During the early decades of the nineteenth century the wilderness -across the Allegheny Mountains began to fill up with farmers. Throughout -Jefferson’s administration there were occasional skirmishes with the -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span> -Indians, but gradually the Indians were pushed out of their traditional -hunting grounds. While Madison was President, the Shawnee chief Tecumseh, -who had attempted to organize Indian resistance, was crushed -by William Henry Harrison in the Battle of Tippecanoe. Meantime, Ohio -had become a state in 1803, and in 1816, the year that James -Monroe was elected President, Indiana was admitted to the Union. Two -years later, Illinois joined the growing Union.</p> -<p>In the selections reprinted in this part of <i>The Jeffersonians</i> we have -chosen four pieces that show various aspects of life in the Mississippi -Valley. Here you will find examples of farm life, religion, and politics -in the new states west of the mountains.</p> -<h3 id="c24">A Husking Bee in Ohio</h3> -<p>William Cooper Howells, the author of the next selection, was the -father of a famous magazine editor and novelist, William Dean Howells. -The elder Howells was taken to Ohio from England as a child and -grew up on a farm while Ohio was a new state. His memories come -from <i>Recollections of Life in Ohio from 1813 to 1840</i>.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">One</span> of the gatherings for joint work, which has totally disappeared -from the agriculture of modern times, and one that was -always a jolly kind of affair, was the cornhusking. It was a sort -of harvest home in its department, and it was the more jolly because -it was a gathering with very little respect to persons, and -embraced in the invitation men and big boys, with the understanding -that no one would be unwelcome. There was always a good -supper served at the husking, and as certainly a good appetite to -eat it with. It came at a plentiful season, when the turkeys and -chickens were fat, and a fat pig was at hand, to be flanked on the -table with good bread in various forms, turnips and potatoes from -the autumn stores, apple and pumpkin pies, good coffee and the -like. And the cooking was always well done, and all in such bountiful -abundance that no one feared to eat, while many a poor fellow -was certain of a square meal by being present at a husking. -You were sure to see the laboring men of the vicinity out, and -the wives of a goodly number of farm hands would be on hand to -help in the cooking and serving at the table. The cornhusking has -<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span> -been discontinued because the farmers found out that it was less -trouble to husk it in the field, direct from the stalk, than to gather -in the husk and go over it again. But in that day they did not -know that much and therefore took the original method of managing -their corn crop, which was this: as soon as the grain began -to harden they would cut the stalks off just above the ears and -save these tops for fodder, and if they had time they stripped all -the blades off the stalks below the ears, which made very nice -though costly feed. Then, as barn room was not usually over -plenty, they made a kind of frame of poles, as for a tent, and -thatched it, sides and top, with the corn tops placed with the tassel -downward, so as to shed the rain and snow. This was called the -fodder-house and was built in the barnyard. Inside they would -store the blades in bundles, the husks, and the pumpkins that were -saved for use in the winter. The fodder-house was commonly made -ten feet high and as long as was necessary, and it was used up -through the winter by feeding the fodder to the cattle, beginning -at the back, which would be temporarily closed by a few bundles -of the tops. It would thus serve as a protection for what might be -stored in it till all was used up. The fodder-house was, of all things, -a favorite place for the children to hide in and play. When the -season for gathering the corn came the farmers went through the -fields and pulled off the ears and husks together, throwing them -upon the ground in heaps, whence they were hauled into the barnyard -and there piled up in a neat pile of convenient length, according -to the crop, and say four or five feet high, rising to a -sharp peak from a base of about six feet. Care was taken to make -this pile of equal width and height from end to end, so that it -would be easily and fairly divided in the middle by a rail laid -upon it.</p> -<p>When the husking party had assembled they were all called -out into line, and two fellows, mostly ambitious boys, were chosen -captains. These then chose their men, each calling out one of the -crowd alternately, till all were chosen. Then the heap was divided, -by two judicious chaps walking solemnly along the ridge of the -heap of corn, and deciding where the dividing rail was to be laid, -and, as this had to be done by starlight or moonlight at best, it -took considerable deliberation, as the comparative solidity of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span> -ends of the heap and the evenness of it had to be taken into account. -This done, the captains placed a good steady man at each -side of the rail, who made it a point to work through and cut the -heap in two as soon as possible; and then the two parties fell to -husking, all standing with the heap in front of them, and throwing -the husked corn on to a clear place over the heap, and the husks -behind them. From the time they began till the corn was all husked -at one end, there would be steady work, each man husking all -the corn he could, never stopping except to take a pull at the -stone jug of inspiration that passed occasionally along the line; -weak lovers of the stuff were sometimes overcome, though it was -held to be a disgraceful thing to take too much. The captains would -go up and down their lines and rally their men as if in a battle, -and the whole was an exciting affair.</p> -<p>As soon as one party got done, they raised a shout, and hoisting -their captain on their shoulders, carried him over to the other -side with general cheering. Then would come a little bantering -talk and explanation why the defeated party lost, and all would -turn to and husk up the remnants of the heap. All hands would -then join to carry the husks into the fodder-house. The shout at -hoisting the captain was the signal for bringing the supper on the -table, and the huskers and the supper met soon after. These gatherings -often embraced forty or fifty men. If the farmhouse was -small it would be crowded, and the supper would be managed by -repeated sittings at the table. At a large house there was less crowding -and more fun, and if, as was often the case, some occasion -had been given for an assemblage of the girls of the neighborhood, -and particularly if the man that played the fiddle should attend, -after the older men had gone, there was very apt to be a good -time. There was a tradition that the boys who accidentally husked -a red ear and saved it would be entitled to a kiss from somebody. -But I never knew it to be necessary to produce a red ear to secure -a kiss where there was a disposition to give or take one.</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c25">Religion in Tennessee</h3> -<p>Religion played an important part in the lives of frontier settlers. -Instead of the stern Puritanism of colonial New England, the religion of -the West in the early years of the last century was highly evangelistic. -<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span> -By this time, the Methodist movement had made a large number of -converts and was particularly strong on the frontier. One tireless Methodist -preacher was Lorenzo Dow, often known as “Crazy Dow,” who -traveled throughout the United States during a long ministry. Though -he lived until 1834, the selection that follows comes from his journal -of 1804, when he visited Tennessee at the age of 27. He was then -traveling about ten thousand miles a year by horse and on foot over -trails and primitive roads. This selection is particularly interesting for its -account of a backwoods religious fervor, almost a physical affliction, -described by Dow as the <i>jerks</i>.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">Next</span> day I rode forty-five miles in company with Dr. Nelson -across the dismal Allegheny mountains by the warm springs, and -on the way a young man, a traveller, came in (where I breakfasted -gratis at an inn) and said that he had but three sixteenths -of a dollar left, having been robbed of seventy-one dollars on the -way; and he being far from home, I gave him half of what I had -with me.</p> -<p>My horse having a navel gall come on his back, I sold him -with the saddle, bridle, cloak and blanket, etc., on credit for about -three fourths of the value, with uncertainty whether I should ever -be paid: thus I crossed the river French Broad in a canoe and -set out for my appointment; but fearing I should be behind the -time, I hired a man (whom I met on the road with two horses) to -carry me five miles in haste for three shillings; which left me but -one sixteenth of a dollar. In our speed he observed there was a -nigh way by which I could clamber the rocks and cut off some -miles: so we parted; he having not gone two thirds of the way -yet insisted on the full sum.</p> -<p>I took to my feet the nigh way as fast as I could pull on, as -intricate as it was, and came to a horrid ledge of rocks on the -bank of the river where there was no such thing as going round; -and to clamber over would be at the risk of my life, as there was -danger of slipping into the river. However, being unwilling to disappoint -the people, I pulled off my shoes, and with my handkerchief -fastened them about my neck, and creeping upon my hands -and feet with my fingers and toes in the cracks of the rocks with -<span class="pb" id="Page_42">42</span> -difficulty I got safe over. In about four miles I came to a house -and hired a woman to take me over the river in a canoe, for my -remaining money and a pair of scissors; the latter of which was -the chief object with her: so our extremities are other’s opportunities. -Thus with difficulty I got to my appointment in Newport in -time.</p> -<p>I had heard about a singularity called the <i>jerks</i> or <i>jerking exercise</i>, -which appeared first near Knoxville in August last, to the -great alarm of the people; which reports at first I considered as -vague and false. But at length, like the Queen of Sheba, I set out -to go and see for myself and sent over these appointments into -this country accordingly.</p> -<p>When I arrived in sight of this town, I saw hundreds of people -collected in little bodies; and observing no place appointed for -meeting, before I spoke to any, I got on a log and gave out an -hymn; which caused them to assemble round, in solemn attentive -silence. I observed several involuntary motions in the course of -the meeting, which I considered as a specimen of the jerks. I rode -seven miles behind a man across streams of water and held meeting -in the evening, being ten miles on my way.</p> -<p>In the night I grew uneasy, being twenty-five miles from my -appointment for next morning at eleven o’clock; I prevailed on a -young man to attempt carrying me with horses until day, which -he thought was impracticable, considering the darkness of the -night and the thickness of the trees. Solitary shrieks were heard in -these woods, which he told me were said to be the cries of murdered -persons. At day we parted, being still seventeen miles from -the spot, and the ground covered with a white frost. I had not -proceeded far before I came to a stream of water from the springs -of the mountain, which made it dreadful cold; in my heated state -I had to wade this stream five times in the course of about an hour, -which I perceived so affected my body that my strength began -to fail. Fears began to arise that I must disappoint the people, till I -observed some fresh tracks of horses which caused me to exert -every nerve to overtake them in hopes of aid or assistance on my -journey, and soon I saw them on an eminence. I shouted for them -to stop, till I came up; they inquired what I wanted; I replied I -had heard there was meeting at Seversville by a stranger and was -<span class="pb" id="Page_43">43</span> -going to it. They replied that they had heard that a crazy man was -to hold forth there and were going also; and perceiving that I was -weary, they invited me to ride, and soon our company was increased -to forty or fifty who fell in with us on the road, from different -plantations. At length I was interrogated, whether I knew -anything about the preacher. I replied. “I have heard a good deal -about him, and have heard him preach, but I have no great opinion -of him.” And thus the conversation continued for some miles -before they found me out, which caused some color and smiles in -the company.</p> -<p>Thus I got on to meeting, and after taking a cup of tea gratis, -I began to speak to a vast audience; and I observed about thirty -to have the <i>jerks</i>. Though they strove to keep still as they could, -these emotions were involuntary, and irresistible, as any unprejudiced -eye might discern. Lawyer Porter (who had come a considerable -distance) got his heart touched under the word and being -informed how I came to meeting, voluntarily lent me a horse to -ride near one hundred miles and gave me a dollar, though he had -never seen me before.</p> -<p>Hence to Marysville, where I spoke to about one thousand five -hundred; and many appeared to feel the word, but about fifty felt -the jerks. At night I lodged with one of the Nicholites, a kind of -Quakers who do not feel free to wear coloured clothes. I spoke -to a number of people at his house that night. Whilst at tea I -observed his daughter (who sat opposite to me at the table) to -have the jerks; and dropped the tea cup from her hand in the violent -agitation. I said to her, “Young woman, what is the matter?” -She replied, “I have got the jerks.” I asked her how long she had -it? She observed “a few days” and that it had been the means of -the awakening and conversion of her soul by stirring her up to -serious consideration about her careless state, etc.</p> -<p>Sunday, February 19th, I spoke in Knoxville to hundreds more -than could get into the court house, the Governor being present. -About one hundred and fifty appeared to have jerking exercise, -among whom was a circuit preacher (Johnson) who had opposed -them a little before, but he now had them powerfully; and I believe -he would have fallen over three times had not the auditory -been so crowded that he could not, unless he fell perpendicularly.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_44">44</div> -<p>After meeting I rode eighteen miles to hold meeting at night. -The people of this settlement were mostly Quakers; and they had -said (as I was informed) the Methodists and Presbyterians have -the <i>jerks</i> because they <i>sing</i> and <i>pray</i> so much, but we are a still -peaceable people, wherefore we do not have them. However, -about twenty of them came to meeting, to hear one, as was said, -somewhat in a Quaker line, but their usual stillness and silence -was interrupted; for about a dozen of them had the jerks as keen -and as powerful as any I had seen, so as to have occasioned a kind -of grunt or groan when they would jerk. It appears that many -have undervalued the great revival, and attempted to account for -it altogether on natural principles; therefore it seems to me (from -the best judgment I can form) that God hath seen proper to take -this method, to convince people, that he will work in a way to -show his power; and sent the <i>jerks</i> as a sign of the times, partly -in judgment for the people’s unbelief, and yet as a mercy to convict -people of divine realities.</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c26">Davy Crockett Runs for Office</h3> -<p>Davy Crockett, who describes himself as an “ignorant backwoods -bearhunter,” was just another poor frontier boy until he got into politics. -Then he served in the state legislature and later in Congress. He -became the fair-haired boy of Whig politicians when he broke with -Andrew Jackson, his fellow Tennessee Democrat. Subsequently, his backwoods -humor, tall tales, and picturesque personality were exploited by -Whig journalists, and Crockett became a sort of folklore hero.</p> -<p>But Tennessee Democrats would not tolerate his desertion of their -party and turned him out of office. After that, he went to Texas and -died, as everyone remembers, during the heroic defense of the Alamo. -The following selection is taken from <i>A Narrative of the Life of Davy -Crockett</i>, which passes for his autobiography but which undoubtedly -was ghostwritten for him. This account describes with typical frontier -exaggeration Crockett’s first campaign for office.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">In</span> a little time I was asked to offer for the Legislature in the -counties of Lawrence and Heckman. I offered my name in the -month of February, and started about the first of March with a -<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span> -drove of horses to the lower part of the State of North Carolina. -This was in the year 1821, and I was gone upwards of three -months. I returned, and set out electioneering, which was a brand-fire -new business to me. It now became necessary that I should -tell the people something about the government, and an eternal -sight of other things that I knowed nothing more about than I did -about Latin, and law, and such things as that. I have said before -that in those days none of us called General Jackson the government -[<i>Jackson was not yet President, and Crockett was still a Democrat</i>], -nor did he seem in as fair a way to become so as I do now; -but I knowed so little about it, that if any one had told me he -was “the government,” I should have believed it, for I had never -read even a newspaper in my life, or anything else, on the subject. -But over all my difficulties, it seems to me I was born for luck, -though it would be hard for any one to guess what sort. I will, -however, explain that hereafter.</p> -<p>I went first into Heckman county, to see what I could do among -the people as a candidate. Here they told me that they wanted to -move their town nearer to the centre of the county, and I must -come out in favor of it. There’s no devil if I knowed what this -meant, or how the town was to be moved; and so I kept dark, -going on the identical same plan that I now find is called “<i>noncommittal</i>.” -About this time there was a great squirrel hunt on -Duck River, which was among my people. They were to hunt two -days; then to meet and count the scalps, and have a big barbecue, -and what might be called a tip-top country frolic. The dinner, and -a general treat, was all to be paid for by the party having taken -the fewest scalps. I joined one side, taking the place of one of the -hunters, and got a gun ready for the hunt. I killed a great many -squirrels, and when we counted scalps, my party was victorious.</p> -<p>The company had every thing to eat and drink that could be -furnished in so new a country, and much fun and good humor -prevailed. But before the regular frolic commenced, I mean the -dancing, I was called on to make a speech as a candidate; which -was a business I was as ignorant of as an outlandish Negro.</p> -<p>A public document I had never seen, nor did I know there -were such things; and how to begin I couldn’t tell. I made many -apologies, and tried to get off, for I know’d I had a man to run -<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span> -against who could speak prime, and I know’d, too, that I wasn’t -able to shuffle and cut with him. He was there, and knowing my -ignorance as well as I did myself, he also urged me to make a -speech. The truth is, he thought my being a candidate was a mere -matter of sport; and didn’t think for a moment that he was in any -danger from an ignorant backwoods bear hunter. But I found I -couldn’t get off, and so I determined just to go ahead, and leave -it to chance what I should say. I got up and told the people I -reckoned they know’d what I come for, but if not, I could tell -them. I had come for their votes, and if they didn’t watch mighty -close I’d get them too. But the worst of all was, that I could not -tell them anything about government. I tried to speak about something, -and I cared very little what, until I choked up as bad as -if my mouth had been jamm’d and cramm’d chock full of dry -mush. There the people stood, listening all the while, with their -eyes, mouths, and ears all open, to catch every word....</p> -<p>At last I told them I was like a fellow I had heard of not long -before. He was beating on the head of an empty barrel near the -road-side, when a traveler, who was passing along, asked him -what he was doing that for? The fellow replied that there was -some cider in that barrel a few days before, and he was trying to -see if there was any then, but if there was he couldn’t get at it. I -told them that there had been a little bit of speech in me a while -ago, but I believed I couldn’t get it out. They all roared out in a -mighty laugh, and I told some other anecdotes, equally amusing -to them, and believing I had them in a first-rate way, I quit and -got down, thanking the people for their attention. But I took care -to remark that I was as dry as a powder-horn, and that I thought -it was time for us all to wet our whistles a little; and so I put off to -the liquor stand, and was followed by the greater part of the -crowd.</p> -<p>I felt certain this was necessary, for I knowed my competitor -could open government matters to them as easy as he pleased. He -had, however, mighty few left to hear him, as I continued with -the crowd, now and then taking a horn, and telling good-humored -stories, till he was done speaking. I found I was good for the votes -at the hunt, and when we broke up I went on to the town of Vernon, -which was the same [<i>town</i>] they wanted me to move. Here -<span class="pb" id="Page_47">47</span> -they pressed me again on the subject, and I found I could get -either party by agreeing with them. But I told them I didn’t know -whether it would be right or not, and so couldn’t promise either -way.</p> -<p>Their court commenced on the next Monday, as the barbecue -was on a Saturday, and the candidates for Governor, and for Congress, -as well as my competitor and myself, all attended.</p> -<p>The thought of having to make a speech made my knees feel -mighty weak, and set my heart to fluttering almost as bad as my -first love scrape with the Quaker’s niece. But as good luck would -have it, these big candidates spoke nearly all day, and when they -quit, the people were worn out with fatigue, which afforded me a -good apology for not discussing the government. But I listened -mighty close to them, and was learning pretty fast about political -matters. When they were all done, I got up and told some laughable -story, and quit. I found I was safe in those parts, and so I -went home, and did not go back again till after the election was -over. But to cut this matter short, I was elected, doubling my competitor, -and nine votes over.</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c27">Early Days in Illinois</h3> -<p>Morris Birkbeck was an Englishman who came to the United States -and settled in southeastern Illinois where he founded the town of Albion. -His account of the people and life in Illinois in 1817, just before it -became a state, is good reporting. He has a sharp eye for detail, and -because he was fresh from Europe, he sees and records the contrasts -between the Midwestern backwoods and the Old World. The following -selection comes from his book, <i>Notes on a Journey in America, from the -Coast of Virginia to the Territory of Illinois</i>.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><i>August 1.</i> <span class="sc">Dagley’s</span>, twenty miles north of Shawnee Town. -After viewing several beautiful prairies, so beautiful with their surrounding -woods as to seem like the creation of fancy, gardens of -delight in a dreary wilderness, and after losing our horses and -spending two days in recovering them, we took a hunter as our -guide and proceeded across the Little Wabash to explore the country -between that river and the Skillet-fork.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div> -<p>Since we left the Fox settlement, about fifteen miles north of -the Big Prairie, cultivation has been very scanty, many miles intervening -between the little “clearings.” This may therefore be -truly called a new country.</p> -<p>These lonely settlers are poorly off—their bread corn must -be ground thirty miles off, requiring three days to carry to the mill -and bring back the small horse-load of three bushels. Articles of -family manufacture are very scanty, and what they purchase is of -the meanest quality and excessively dear: yet they are friendly -and willing to share their simple fare with you. It is surprising how -comfortable they seem, wanting everything. To struggle with privations -has now become the habit of their lives, most of them having -made several successive plunges into the wilderness, and they -begin already to talk of selling their “improvements” and getting -still farther “back” on finding that emigrants of another description -are thickening about them.</p> -<p>Our journey across the Little Wabash was a complete departure -from all mark of civilization. We saw no bears, as they are -now buried in the thickets, and seldom appear by day; but, at -every few yards, we saw recent marks of their doings, “wallowing” -in the long grass or turning over decayed logs in quest of -beetles or worms, in which work the strength of this animal is -equal to that of four men. Wandering without track, where even -the sagacity of our hunter-guide had nearly failed us, we at length -arrived at the cabin of another hunter, where we lodged.</p> -<p>This man and his family are remarkable instances of the effect -on the complexion produced by the perpetual incarceration [<i>imprisonment</i>] -of a thorough woodland life. Incarceration may seem -to be a term less applicable to the condition of a roving backwoodsman -than to any other, and especially unsuitable to the habits -of this individual and his family; for the cabin in which he -entertained us is the third dwelling he has built within the last -twelve months, and a very slender motive would place him in a -fourth before the ensuing winter. In his general habits the hunter -ranges as freely as the beasts he pursues; labouring under no restraint, -his activity is only bounded by his own physical powers: -still he is incarcerated—“Shut from the common air.” Buried in -the depth of a boundless forest, the breeze of health never reaches -<span class="pb" id="Page_49">49</span> -these poor wanderers; the bright prospect of distant hills fading -away into the semblance of clouds, never cheered their sight. They -are tall and pale, like vegetables that grow in a vault, pining for -light....</p> -<p>Our stock of provisions being nearly exhausted, we were anxious -to provide ourselves with a supper by means of our guns, but -we could meet with neither deer nor turkey; however, in our utmost -need, we shot three raccoons, an old one to be roasted for -our dogs and the two young ones to be stewed up daintily for ourselves. -We soon lighted a fire and cooked the old raccoon for -the dogs; but famished as they were, they would not touch it, and -their squeamishness so far abated our relish for the promised stew -that we did not press our complaining landlady to prepare it; and -thus our supper consisted of the residue of our “corn” bread and -<i>no</i> raccoon. However, we laid our bear skins on the filthy earth -(floor there was none), which they assured us was “too damp for -fleas,” and wrapped in our blankets slept soundly enough; though -the collops [<i>slices</i>] of venison hanging in comely rows in the smoky -fireplace and even the shoulders put by for the dogs and which -were suspended over our heads would have been an acceptable -prelude to our night’s rest, had we been invited to partake of them; -but our hunter and our host were too deeply engaged in conversation -to think of supper. In the morning the latter kindly invited us -to cook some of the collops, which we did by toasting them on a -stick, and he also divided some shoulders among the dogs; so we -all fared sumptuously.</p> -<p>The cabin, which may serve as a specimen of these rudiments -of houses, was formed of round logs with apertures of three or -four inches between. No chimney, but large intervals between the -“clapboards” for the escape of the smoke. The roof was, however, -a more effectual covering than we have generally experienced, as -it protected us very tolerably from a drenching night. Two bedsteads -of unhewn logs and cleft boards laid across; two chairs, one -of them without a bottom, and a low stool were all the furniture -required by this numerous family. A string of buffalo hide -stretched across the hovel was a wardrobe for their rags; and their -utensils, consisting of a large iron pot, some baskets, the effective -rifle and two that were superannuated [<i>too old to use</i>], stood about -<span class="pb" id="Page_50">50</span> -in corners, and the fiddle, which was only silent when we were -asleep, hung by them.</p> -</blockquote> -<h2 id="c28">Ominous Loomings: The Missouri Compromise, 1820</h2> -<p>When the War of 1812 ended, the United States consisted of eighteen -states—nine free and nine slave. Very soon Indiana was admitted as -a free state, offset by Mississippi as a slave state. It was inevitable -that this precarious balance between the North and the South would -some day cause trouble, and the trouble came very soon. In 1818, -Illinois entered as a free state, and the enabling legislation to admit -Missouri was introduced in Congress in 1819.</p> -<p>The South assumed that Missouri would be a slave state, but a -New York Congressman amended the Missouri statehood bill to provide -for gradual freeing of the slaves there. The South reacted vigorously -to keep from losing its equal representation in the Senate and blocked -passage of the bill. Meanwhile, Alabama came in to balance Illinois, -and there were eleven northern and eleven southern states.</p> -<p>The following year, when Maine applied for admission into the -Union, Henry Clay of Kentucky engineered the famous Missouri Compromise. -This agreement provided that Missouri would come in as a slave -state but that no more slave states would be admitted from territory -north of Missouri’s southern boundary. This compromise is important -because it foreshadows the struggle between the North and South that -eventuated in the Civil War a generation later. Although most of the -oratory dealt with the slavery issue, the struggle also concerned the -broader matter of political control in the West.</p> -<h3 id="c29">Representative Arthur Livermore Argues Against Extending Slavery</h3> -<p>The following selections illustrate the debate in Congress over the -Missouri question. The first speech is by Congressman Arthur Livermore -of New Hampshire against the extension of slavery.</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">I propose</span> to show what slavery is, and to mention a few of -the many evils which follow in its train; and I hope to evince that -we are not bound to tolerate the existence of so disgraceful a state -of things beyond its present extent, and that it would be impolitic -and very unjust to let it spread over the whole face of our Western -<span class="pb" id="Page_51">51</span> -territory. Slavery in the United States is the condition of man subjected -to the will of a master who can make any disposition of him -short of taking away his life. In those States where it is tolerated, -laws are enacted making it penal to instruct slaves in the art of -reading, and they are not permitted to attend public worship or -to hear the Gospel preached.</p> -<p>Thus the light of science and of religion is utterly excluded -from the mind, that the body may be more easily bowed down to -servitude. The bodies of slaves may, with impunity, be prostituted -to any purpose and deformed in any manner by their owners. The -sympathies of nature in slaves are disregarded; mothers and children -are sold and separated; the children wring their little hands -and expire in agonies of grief, while the bereft mothers commit -suicide in despair. How long will the desire of wealth render us -blind to the sin of holding both the bodies and souls of our fellow-men -in chains!</p> -<p>But, sir, I am admonished of the Constitution, and told that -we cannot emancipate slaves. I know we may not infringe that -instrument, and therefore do not propose to emancipate slaves. -The proposition before us goes only to prevent our citizens from -making slaves of such as have a right to freedom. In the present -slaveholding States let slavery continue, for our boasted Constitution -connives at it; but do not, for the sake of cotton and tobacco, -let it be told to future ages that, while pretending to love liberty, -we have purchased an extensive country to disgrace it with the -foulest reproach of nations.</p> -<p>Our Constitution requires no such thing of us. The ends for -which that supreme law was made are succinctly stated in its preface. -They are, first, to form a more perfect union and insure domestic -tranquility. Will slavery effect this? Can we, sir, by mingling -bond with free, black spirits with white, like Shakespeare’s -witches in Macbeth, form a more perfect union and insure domestic -tranquility? Secondly, to establish justice. Is justice to be established -by subjecting half mankind to the will of the other half? -Justice, sir, is blind to colors, and weighs in equal scales the rights -of all men, whether white or black. Thirdly, to provide for the -common defense and secure the blessings of liberty. Does slavery -add anything to the common defense? Sir, the strength of a republic -<span class="pb" id="Page_52">52</span> -is in the arm of freedom. But, above all things, do the blessings -of liberty consist in slavery?</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c30">Senator James Barbour Defends Slavery</h3> -<p>In the second selection we have chosen, Senator James Barbour of -Virginia defends slavery:</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">The</span> gentleman from Pennsylvania asks shall we suffer Missouri -to come into the Union with this savage mark [<i>of slavery</i>] on -her countenance? I appeal to that gentleman to know whether -this be language to address to an American Senate, composed -equally of members from States precisely in that condition that -Missouri would be in, were she to tolerate slavery. Are these sentiments -calculated to cherish that harmony and affection so essential -to any beneficial results from our Union? But, sir, I will not imitate -this course, and I will strive to repress the feeling which such remarks -are calculated to awaken.</p> -<p>... They assure us that they do not mean to touch this property -[<i>slavery</i>] in the old states.... What kind of ethics is this that -is bounded by latitude and longitude, which is inoperative on the -left, but is omnipotent on the right bank of a river? Such a doctrine -is well calculated to excite our solicitude; for, although the -gentlemen who now hold it are sincere in their declarations, and -mean to content themselves with a triumph in this controversy, -what security have we that others will not apply it to the South -generally?</p> -<p>Let it not, however, be supposed that in the abstract I am -advocating slavery. Like all other human things, it is mixed with -good and evil—the latter, no doubt, preponderating.... Whether -slavery was ordained by God Himself in a particular revelation -to His chosen people, or whether it be merely permitted as a part -of that moral evil which seems to be the inevitable portion of man, -are questions I will not approach; I leave them to the casuists -[<i>debaters</i>] and the divines [<i>preachers</i>]. It is sufficient for us, as -statesmen, to know that it has existed from the earliest ages of -the world, and that to us has been assigned such a portion as, in -reference to their number and the various considerations resulting -from a change of their condition, no remedy, even plausible, has -<span class="pb" id="Page_53">53</span> -been suggested, though wisdom and benevolence united have unceasingly -brooded over the subject.</p> -<p>However dark and inscrutable may be the ways of heaven, -who is he that arrogantly presumes to arraign [<i>challenge</i>] them? -The same mighty power that planted the greater and the lesser -luminary in the heavens permits on earth the bondsman and the -free. To that Providence, as men and Christians, let us bow. If it -be consistent with His will, in the fullness of time, to break the -fetter of the slave, He will raise up some Moses to be their deliverer. -To him commission will be given to lead them up out of -the land of bondage.</p> -</blockquote> -<h3 id="c31">Representative James Stevens Argues for the Compromise</h3> -<p>In the final selection James Stevens, Representative from Connecticut, -pleads with Congress to accept the Compromise:</p> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">I have</span> listened with pain to the very long, protracted debate -that has been had on this unfortunate question. I call it unfortunate, -sir, because it has drawn forth the worst passions of man -in the course of the discussion....</p> -<p>If the deadliest enemy this country has, or ever had, could -dictate language the most likely to destroy your glory, prosperity, -and happiness, would it not be precisely what has been so profusely -used in this debate—sectional vaunting?... Indeed, sir, -there is no view of this unhappy division of our country but must -be sickening to the patriot and in direct violation of the dictate -of wisdom, and the last, though not least, important advice of the -Father and Friend of his Country. He forbids the use of the words -Northern and Southern, Atlantic and Western, as descriptive of -the various parts of your country.</p> -<p>But, sir, we have now arrived at a point at which every gentleman -agrees something must be done. A precipice lies before us at -which perdition [<i>ruin</i>] is inevitable. Gentlemen on both sides of -this question, and in both Houses, indoors and out of doors, have -evinced a determination that augurs ill of the high destinies of this -country! And who does not tremble for the consequences?...</p> -<p>I wish not to be misunderstood, sir. I don’t pretend to say that -in just five calendar months your Union will be at an end;...</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div> -<p>But, sir, I do say, and, for the verity of the remark, cite the -lamentable history of our own time, that the result of a failure to -compromise at this time, in the way now proposed, or in some -other way satisfactory to both, would be to create ruthless hatred, -irradicable jealousy, and a total forgetfulness of the ardor of patriotism, -to which, as it has heretofore existed, we owe, under -Providence, more solid national glory and social happiness than -ever before was possessed by any people, nation, kindred, or -tongue under Heaven.</p> -</blockquote> -<h2 id="c32">The Monroe Doctrine</h2> -<p>Although the United States was mainly concerned with internal problems -during Monroe’s presidency, there was one important policy established -during this period in the area of foreign relations. This was the -Monroe Doctrine. It was a statement of policy made by the President -in a message to Congress in 1823, which defined the role of the -United States in international affairs and which, in some respects, is still -vital United States policy.</p> -<p>The Doctrine states that the United States will not tolerate further -foreign colonial expansion by European powers in North or South America. -This policy was necessary because Spain’s colonies in Latin America -had recently revolted, and it looked as though the other European -powers might try to reconquer Spain’s former colonies. In addition, -Russia was moving southward from Alaska and claiming land down to -the 51st parallel, which would have taken in much of what is now -British Columbia. The Monroe Doctrine also declares that the United -States will not interfere with existing European colonies in the Americas -nor with the internal affairs of European nations. In the following -selection we reprint part of the Monroe Doctrine.</p> -<h3 id="c33">Excerpts from the Monroe Doctrine</h3> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">In</span> the wars of the European powers in matters relating to -themselves we have never taken any part, nor does it comport -with our policy so to do. It is only when our rights are invaded or -seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make preparation for -our defense. With the movements in this hemisphere we are of -<span class="pb" id="Page_55">55</span> -necessity more immediately connected, and by causes which must -be obvious to all enlightened and impartial observers....</p> -<p>We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations -existing between the United States and those powers to declare -that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their -system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace -and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any -European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. -But with the Governments who have declared their independence -and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great -consideration and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not -view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling -in any other manner their destiny, by any European power -in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition -toward the United States.</p> -<p>In the war between those new Governments and Spain we -declared our neutrality at the time of their recognition, and to this -we have adhered, and shall continue to adhere, provided no -change shall occur which, in the judgment of the competent authorities -of this Government, shall make a ... change on the -part of the United States indispensable to their security....</p> -<p>Our policy in regard to Europe, which was adopted at an early -stage of the wars which have so long agitated that quarter of the -globe, nevertheless remains the same, which is, not to interfere in -the internal concerns of any of its powers; to consider the government -<i>de facto</i> [<i>actually ruling</i>] as the legitimate government for -us; to cultivate friendly relations with it, and to preserve those relations -by a frank, firm, and manly policy, meeting in all instances -the just claims of every power, submitting to injuries from none. -But in regard to those continents circumstances are eminently and -conspicuously different.</p> -<p>It is impossible that the allied powers should extend their political -system to any portion of either continent [<i>North or South -America</i>] without endangering our peace and happiness; nor can -anyone believe that our southern brethren, if left to themselves, -would adopt it of their own accord. It is equally impossible, therefore, -that we should behold such interposition in any form with -indifference.</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div> -<h2><span class="large">John Quincy Adams</span></h2> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/i04.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="667" /> -<p class="caption">John Quincy Adams</p> -</div> -<h2 id="c34">Lighthouses in the Sky</h2> -<p>John Quincy Adams, who succeeded James Monroe as President -in 1825, was the son of John Adams, the second President. He too had -served a long apprenticeship in government, having been Senator, minister -to Great Britain and Russia, and Secretary of State. Although he -served only one term and was defeated for re-election by Andrew -Jackson, he was a forward-looking President. We illustrate his interest -in science and the internal development of the United States by a portion -of his first message to Congress. He begins with a plea that the -object of government is to improve the lot of the people. He favors -roads and canals, but even more, moral and intellectual improvements.</p> -<h3 id="c35">Excerpts from Adams’ First Message to Congress</h3> -<blockquote> -<p><span class="sc">Upon</span> this first occasion of addressing the Legislature of the -Union, with which I have been honored, in presenting to their -view the execution so far as it has been effected of the measures -<span class="pb" id="Page_57">57</span> -sanctioned by them for promoting the internal improvement of our -country, I can not close the communication without recommending -to their calm and persevering consideration the general principle -in a more enlarged extent....</p> -<p>Among the first, perhaps the very first, instrument for the improvement -of the conditions of men is knowledge, and to the acquisition -of much of the knowledge adapted to the wants, the comforts, -and enjoyments of human life public institutions and seminaries -of learning are essential. So convinced of this was the first -of my predecessors in this office [<i>George Washington</i>], now -first in the memory, as, living, he was first in the hearts, of our -countrymen, that once and again in his addresses to the Congresses -with whom he co-operated in the public service he earnestly recommended -the establishment of seminaries of learning, to prepare -for all the emergencies of peace and war—a national university -and a military academy. With respect to the latter, had he lived -to the present day, in turning his eyes to the institution at West -Point he would have enjoyed the gratification of his most earnest -wishes; but in surveying the city which has been honored with his -name he would have seen the spot of earth which he had destined -and bequeathed to the use and benefit of his country as the site -for an university still bare and barren.</p> -<p>In assuming her station among the civilized nations of the -earth it would seem that our country had contracted the engagement -to contribute her share of mind, of labor, and of expense to -the improvement of those parts of knowledge which lie beyond -the reach of individual acquisition, and particularly to geographical -and astronomical science. Looking back to the history only of -the half century since the declaration of our independence, and -observing the generous emulation with which the Governments of -France, Great Britain, and Russia have devoted the genius, the -intelligence, the treasures of their respective nations to the common -improvement of the species in these branches of science, is -it not incumbent upon us to inquire whether we are not bound by -obligations of a high and honorable character to contribute our -portion of energy and exertion to the common stock?...</p> -<p>In inviting the attention of Congress to the subject of internal -improvements upon a view thus enlarged it is not my design to -<span class="pb" id="Page_58">58</span> -recommend the equipment of an expedition for circumnavigating -the globe for purposes of scientific research and inquiry. We have -objects of useful investigation nearer home, and to which our cares -may be more beneficially applied. The interior of our own territories -has yet been very imperfectly explored. Our coasts along -many degrees of latitude upon the shores of the Pacific Ocean, -though much frequented by our spirited commercial navigators, -have been barely visited by our public ships....</p> -<p>The establishment of an uniform standard of weights and -measures was one of the specific objects contemplated in the formation -of our Constitution, and to fix that standard was one of -the powers delegated by express terms in that instrument to Congress. -The Governments of Great Britain and France have scarcely -ceased to be occupied with inquiries and speculations on the same -subject since the existence of our Constitution, and with them it -has expanded into profound, laborious, and expensive researches -into the figure of the earth and the comparative length of the pendulum -vibrating seconds in various latitudes from the equator to -the pole....</p> -<p>Connected with the establishment of an university, or separate -from it, might be undertaken the erection of an astronomical observatory, -with provision for the support of an astronomer, to be -in constant attendance of observation upon the phenomena of the -heavens, and for the periodical publication of his observations. It -is with no feeling of pride as an American that the remark may -be made that on the comparatively small territorial surface of Europe -there are existing upward of 130 of these light-houses of the -skies, while throughout the whole American hemisphere there is -not one. If we reflect a moment upon the discoveries which in the -last four centuries have been made in the physical constitution of -the universe by the means of these buildings and of observers stationed -in them, shall we doubt of their usefulness to every nation? -And while scarcely a year passes over our heads without bringing -some new astronomical discovery to light, which we must fain receive -at second hand from Europe, are we not cutting ourselves -off from the means of returning light for light while we have neither -observatory nor observer upon our half of the globe and the earth -revolves in perpetual darkness to our unsearching eyes?</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_i">i</div> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/i22.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="449" /> -<p class="caption">The Lewis and Clark expedition</p> -</div> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>Silently corrected a few palpable typos, leaving period spellings unchanged.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -<li>Added subheadings in the text to match entries in the Table of Contents.</li> -<li>Added captions to illustrations based on the attributions in front matter.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jeffersonians, 1801-1829, by -Richard B. 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