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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 60830 ***

                       HOW TO STUDY ARCHITECTURE




                                HOW TO
                          STUDY ARCHITECTURE


                                  BY
                           CHARLES H. CAFFIN

             Author of “How to Study Pictures,” “The Story
          of French Painting,” “The Story of Dutch Painting,”
            “The Story of Spanish Painting,” “Appreciations
              of the Drama,” “Art for Life’s Sake,” etc.

                 AN ATTEMPT TO TRACE THE EVOLUTION OF
              ARCHITECTURE AS THE PRODUCT AND EXPRESSION
                 OF SUCCESSIVE PHASES OF CIVILISATION

                         _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS_

                            [Illustration]


                               NEW YORK
                        DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
                                 1917


                            COPYRIGHT, 1917
                    BY DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY, Inc.




ACKNOWLEDGMENT


The author gratefully acknowledges the critical assistance given to him
on certain points by Professor William H. Goodyear, W. Harmon Beers and
William Warfield; and his indebtedness to Caroline Caffin for compiling
the index and to Irving Heyl for several architectural drawings. For
some of the illustrations he has put himself under obligations to the
following publications, through the courtesy of the Librarian of the
Metropolitan Museum of Art--“Histoire de l’Art,” by Perrot et Chipiez;
“Assyrian Sculptures,” by Rev. Archibald Paterson; “Monuments Modernes
de la Perse,” by Pascal Coste; “Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian at
Spalato” by R. Adams, and “The Annual of the British School at
Athens.”




CONTENTS


BOOK I

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER                                                             PAGE

I PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS                                           3

II PRIMITIVE STRUCTURES                                               13


BOOK II

PRE-CLASSIC PERIOD

I EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION                                               25

II EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE                                              38

III CHALDÆAN, ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN CIVILISATION                    56

IV CHALDÆAN, ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE                     65

V PERSIAN CIVILISATION                                                74

VI PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE                                               80

VII MINOAN OR ÆGEAN CIVILISATION                                      88

VIII MINOAN OR ÆGEAN ARCHITECTURE                                     95


BOOK III

CLASSIC PERIOD

I HELLENIC CIVILISATION                                              105

II HELLENIC ARCHITECTURE                                             116

III ROMAN CIVILISATION                                               147

IV ROMAN ARCHITECTURE                                                163


BOOK IV

POST-CLASSIC PERIOD

I EARLY CHRISTIAN CIVILISATION                                       187

II EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE                        193

III MUHAMMEDAN, ALSO CALLED SARACENIC CIVILISATION                   212

IV MUHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE                                           220

V EARLY MEDIÆVAL CIVILISATION                                        232

VI EARLY MEDIÆVAL OR ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE                         241


BOOK V

GOTHIC PERIOD

I LATER MEDIÆVAL CIVILISATION                                        263

II GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE                                               270

III GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE                                    281

IV GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND WALES                          287

V GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS,
AND SPAIN                                                            301

VI GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY                                      310


BOOK VI

THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD

I RENAISSANCE CIVILISATION                                           319

II RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY                                 338

III RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY--CONTINUED                     357

IV RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE                                375

V RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS,
AND SPAIN                                                            391

VI RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICAN
COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE                                                410


BOOK VII

POST-RENAISSANCE PERIOD

I CLASSICAL AND GOTHIC REVIVALS                                      435

II THE MODERN SITUATION                                              454

GLOSSARY                                                             479

INDEX                                                                497




ILLUSTRATIONS


                                                                  FACING
                                                                    PAGE

Stonehenge. Salisbury Plain, England                                  12

Section and Plan of Treasury of Atreus                                12

Teocalli or “House of God,” at Guatusco                               12

Section of Pyramid                                                    38

Models of Mastabas                                                    38

Types of Egyptian Columns                                             38

Temple-Tomb of Rameses II at Abou-Simbel                              38

Plan of Ramesseum                                                     38

Model of Hypostyle Hall at Karnak                                     39

Peripteral Sanctuary, at Philæ                                        39

Temple of Edfou. Entrance to Hypostyle Hall                           39

Example of Carved Decoration                                          39

“Sargon’s Castle.” Conjectured Restoration                            66

Part of “Lion Frieze” and “Frieze of Arches”                          66

Details of Wall Decoration at Koyunjik                                67

Tomb of Darius I, Persepolis                                          80

Palace of Darius I, Persepolis. Conjectured
Restoration                                                           80

Type of Persian Columns                                               81

Hall of One Hundred Columns, Persepolis. Conjectured Restoration      81

The Palaces of Persepolis. Conjectured Restoration                    81

Wall Decoration in Palace of Cnossus                                  94

Lion Gateway at Mycenæ                                                94

Plan of Acropolis of Tiryns                                           94

Part of Staircase in Palace of Cnossus                                95

Council Chamber, with Gypsum Throne, Palace of Cnossus                95

Some Temple Plans--Hellenic                                          116

Hellenic Orders (Columns and Entablatures)                           116

Roman Orders (Columns and Entablatures)                              116

Model of the Acropolis                                               116

Model of the Parthenon (restored)                                    116

The Parthenon                                                        117

Temples at Pæstum                                                    117

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens                              117

Temple of Nike Apteros, Athens                                       117

Portico of the Caryatides, Erechtheion                               117

Detail of Ornament--Hellenic                                         117

Statues in the Round of Persephone and Demeter from the
East Pediment of the Parthenon                                       117

Figures in High Relief from Procession of Worshipers.
Frieze of the Parthenon                                              117

Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii                                      117

Plan of Theatre of Dramyssus                                         117

Roman Forum, Conjectured Restoration                                 162

Maison Carrée, Nîmes                                                 162

Arch of Constantine                                                  162

Pantheon, Rome                                                       162

Section of the Pantheon                                              162

Colosseum, Rome                                                      162

Section of Colosseum                                                 162

Basilica of Constantine                                              163

Roman Vaulting; from Baths of Diocletian                             163

Gothic Vaulting; from Salisbury Cathedral                            163

Theatre of Orange, France. Conjectured Restoration                   163

Plan of Theatre of Orange, France. Conjectured Restoration           163

Porta Aurea--Golden Gate--Palace of Diocletian                       163

Pont-du-Gard, Aqueduct Near Nîmes                                    163

Peristyle and Court of the House of the Vettii                       163

Wall Paintings in the House of the Vettii                            163

S. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna                                         192

S. Apollinare-in-Classe, Ravenna                                     192

Church of Kalb-Lauzeh, Syria                                         193

Church of Turmanin, Syria                                            193

Tomb of Galla Placidia                                               202

Interior of San Vitale, Ravenna                                      202

Diagram Showing Pendentives                                          202

Section of SS. Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople                   202

Section of S. Sophia, Constantinople                                 202

Diagram showing how a dome rests on eight piers enclosing
an octagon, by niches or squinches                                   202

Exterior of S. Sophia, Constantinople                                203

Interior of S. Sophia, Constantinople                                203

Plan of S. Sophia, Constantinople                                    203

Plan of S. Mark’s, Venice                                            203

Exterior of St. Mark’s, Venice                                       203

Mosque of El Azhar, Cairo                                            220

Suleimaniyeh or Mosque of Suleiman                                   220

Arcades of the Mosque, now Cathedral, of Cordova                     220

Court of the Lions, Alhambra, Spain                                  220

Palace of Ispahan, Persia. Conjectured Restoration of
Pavilion of Mirrors and Gardens                                      221

College of Shah Hussein, Restoration; Ispahan, Persia                221

Mosque of Akbur, Futtehpore-Sikri, India                             221

Taj Mahal, Agra, India                                               221

Pisa Cathedral, Campanile and Baptistry                              240

Interior of Pisa Cathedral                                           240

S. Ambrogio, Milan                                                   240

S. Michele, Pavia                                                    240

The Certosa, or Church of the Carthusian Order, Pavia                240

Church of Vézelay, France                                            240

Church of Abbaye-aux-Dames, Caen                                     240

Remains of the Church of Cluny Abbey                                 240

Church of the Apostles, Cologne                                      241

Doorway of Salamanca Cathedral                                       241

Anglo-Saxon Tower, Earl’s Barton, Northamptonshire                   241

Iffley Church, near Oxford                                           241

S. John’s Chapel, Tower of London                                    241

Nave of Durham Cathedral                                             241

Peterborough Cathedral                                               241

English Romanesque Detail                                            241

Sculptured Details from Amiens Cathedral Doorway                     270

Skeleton Structure, showing method of vaulting, by means of
pointed arch, and concentration of thrusts and counter-thrusts       270

Gothic Detail                                                        270

Gothic Detail                                                        270

Gothic Detail                                                        270

Gothic Detail                                                        271

Gothic Detail                                                        271

Gothic Detail                                                        271

Exterior and Interior Views of Lichfield Cathedral Showing
the Nave Widening                                                    271

Notre Dame, Paris, Plan                                              280

Amiens Cathedral, Plan                                               280

Amiens Cathedral                                                     280

Notre Dame, Paris                                                    280

Rouen Cathedral                                                      280

Rheims Cathedral                                                     280

Interior of Notre Dame Cathedral                                     281

Interior of Amiens Cathedral                                         281

Interior of Rheims Cathedral                                         281

Hôtel de Bourgtheroulde, Rouen                                       281

House of Jacques Cœur                                                281

Sainte Chapelle, Paris                                               281

Nave of Norwich Cathedral                                            286

Salisbury Cathedral, Interior                                        286

York Minster, West Façade                                            286

Lincoln Cathedral                                                    286

Wells Cathedral, West Façade                                         287

Winchester Cathedral                                                 287

Henry VII’s Chapel, Westminster                                      287

Westminster Hall, Timber Roof                                        287

Strasburg Cathedral                                                  300

Ratisbon Cathedral                                                   300

Town Hall of Munster                                                 300

Cathedral of S. Gudule, Brussels                                     300

Cologne Cathedral                                                    300

Cloth Hall of Ypres                                                  300

Town Hall, Louvain                                                   301

Town Hall, Brussels                                                  301

Mechlin Cathedral                                                    301

Antwerp Cathedral                                                    301

Toledo Cathedral                                                     301

Burgos Cathedral                                                     301

Siena Cathedral, Interior                                            310

San Miniato, Florence; Marble Façade                                 310

Cathedral of Florence and Campanile                                  310

Doge’s Palace, Venice                                                310

Siena Cathedral, Campanile attached                                  311

Orvieto Cathedral, West Façade                                       311

Milan Cathedral                                                      311

Milan Cathedral, Interior                                            311

Pazzi Chapel, S. Croce, Florence                                     338

Santa Maria Novella, Florence                                        338

Strozzi Palace, Florence                                             338

Caprarola Palace                                                     338

Gvimane Palace, Venice                                               339

Basilica Vicenza                                                     339

Doge’s Palace, Venice; Renaissance Portal                            339

S. Maria della Salute, Venice                                        339

Riccardi Palace, Florence                                            356

Palazzo Vecchio, Florence                                            356

Ca d’Oro, Venice                                                     356

Vendramini Palace, Venice                                            356

Farnese Palace, Rome                                                 356

Court of the Farnese Palace                                          356

Capitol Palaces, Rome                                                357

Library of S. Mark, Venice                                           357

S. Spirito, Florence                                                 357

S. Andrea, Mantua                                                    357

S. Peter’s, Rome                                                     357

Interior of S. Peter’s, Rome                                         357

Château de Blois. Gothic part built by Louis XII                     374

Maison François I, Paris                                             374

Château de Blois. Part added by Francis I                            374

Château de Chambord                                                  374

Luxembourg Palace                                                    375

Plan showing growth of Louvre                                        375

Pavilion de l’Horloge, Louvre                                        375

Castle of Heidelberg                                                 390

Another View of the Heinrichsbau                                     390

Bremen City Hall                                                     390

Pellershaus, Nüremburg                                               390

Antwerp City Hall                                                    390

Liège, Court of Palais de Justice                                    390

College of Santa Cruz, Valladolid                                    391

Court of the Casa de Zaporta                                         391

Court of the College of Alcala de Henares                            391

Elevation and Plan of uncompleted Palace Charles V                   391

The Escoriál                                                         391

Plan of The Escoriál                                                 391

Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire                                       410

Banqueting Hall, Whitehall                                           410

Haddon Hall, Derbyshire                                              410

Haddon Hall; the Long Gallery                                        410

S. Paul’s Cathedral, London                                          411

S. Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside, London                                    411

Old Charlton, Kent                                                   411

Georgian Chimney piece and overmantel                                411

Christ Church, Philadelphia                                          428

Home of the Poet Longfellow, Cambridge, Mass.                        428

Washington’s Home at Mount Vernon                                    429

Another Southern Colonial example, Montgomery, Ala.                  429

La Madeleine, Paris                                                  436

S. George’s Hall, Liverpool                                          436

Panthéon, Paris                                                      436

Arc de l’Etoile, Paris                                               436

Opera House, Paris                                                   436

State House, Boston                                                  436

Capitol at Washington                                                436

City Hall, New York                                                  437

St. Thomas, New York                                                 437

Houses of Parliament                                                 437

Plan of the Houses of Parliament                                     437

Scotland Yard                                                        454

Woodburn Hall, New Windsor, N. Y.                                    454

Trinity Church, Boston                                               454

County Buildings, Pittsburg                                          454

The Breakers, Newport, R. I.                                         454

Detail of residence of Mr. Thomas Hastings, Westbury, Long
Island                                                               454

Schiller Theatre Building, Chicago                                   455

Woolworth Building                                                   455

Steel Cage Construction. Scene in lower New York                     455




BOOK I




HOW TO STUDY ARCHITECTURE




CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS


Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting share the distinctive title of the
Fine Arts, or, as the Italians and French more fitly call them, the
Beautiful Arts; the arts, that is to say, of beautiful design. They are
known by their beauty.

By their beauty they appeal to the eye and through the eye to the mind,
stirring in us emotions or feelings of pleasure--a higher kind of
pleasure than that which is derived solely from the gratification of the
senses--the kind which is distinguished as æsthetic.

The term æsthetic is derived from a Greek word, meaning perception.
Originally it described the act of perceiving “objects” by means of the
senses--“objects” meaning anything that can be perceived through the
senses. But the term æsthetic has come to have another meaning,
especially in respect to sense-perceptions derived from seeing and
hearing. It means that the perception gives us pleasure, because it
stirs in us a sense of beauty. It may do so without any conscious
activity on the part of our mind. We may be absorbed in the delight of
the sensation; or it may appeal to our mind--to our memory or
imagination--in such a way as to set us thinking and feeling not only
about the immediate “object” but also about something which our mind
associates with it.

For example: by simple sense-perception we discover that one tree is
taller than another, or that one tree is an elm, another a silver birch.
Our perception may stop there; but not if we are in a mood to
contemplate. Then the perception that one tree is taller than the other
may be followed by the feeling that the taller tree gives us more
satisfaction. It may seem to us to be a better proportioned tree: its
parts are more pleasingly related to the whole mass; or it may seem to
be in a fitter relation to the spot it occupies and to the other
“objects” near it. Again, having ascertained by pure sense-impression
that one tree is an elm and the other a silver birch, we may find
ourselves thinking about the _qualities_ of difference presented by the
two trees. With what splendid assurance the elm trunk rears up! How
majestically the branches radiate from it and bear their glorious masses
of abundant foliage! On the other hand, how dainty are the stems and
branches of the silver birch, how delicately graceful the sprays of tiny
leaves! “How sensitive!” perhaps we say. For to our imagination the
slender tree may seem to be endowed with senses that respond to every
movement of the air, to every glancing of the sunlight.

In all these cases we have gone beyond mere sense-perception. We are no
longer interested only in the “object.” Our interest has become
_subjective_. We are interested in the _subject_ not the object of the
verb, to perceive--the subject _who_ perceives, in this case, ourself;
how the thing affects oneself; how it stirs in one a sense of beauty. By
this time our thoughts may have been withdrawn from the concrete object
and have passed on to “abstract” ideas, suggested by the object. It is
grandeur of growth, as embodied in the elm, fragile tenderness, as
expressed in the birch, that absorb our thought; and the wonder also how
qualities so different can survive the rude shocks of nature, and find,
each its special function in the scheme of nature’s beauty.

In thus feeling external objects through our own experience of life and
our own sense of beauty, we are employing the sense-perception that is
specially called _æsthetic_. And it is in the degree to which objects of
architecture, sculpture, or painting have the capacity of stimulating
this _æsthetic appreciation_ that they properly belong in the company of
the Fine Arts.

       *       *       *       *       *

Architecture is the science and art of building structures that, while
in most cases they serve a useful purpose, are in all cases designed and
built with a view to beauty. Their motive is beauty as well as utility.

In certain instances, as, for example, the triumphal arch, the motive
may seem to have been solely one of beauty. On the other hand, when we
recall that the arch was erected as a memorial to some great man or some
great exploit--the Arch of Titus, for example, commemorating this
general’s capture of Jerusalem--the imposing dignity of the structure,
by compelling attention and exciting admiration, would actually serve
the purpose for which it was erected.

Indeed, the distinction which people are apt to draw between the
_useful_ and the _beautiful_ is not necessarily so sharp as is supposed
and is largely founded upon ignorance or a mistaken attitude toward
life. The tendency to be satisfied with the utility of a thing and to
regard beauty as a fad, impractical and wasteful, shows that, although
our civilisation may have progressed in some respects, it has fallen
back in others. For there is nothing more surely certain in the history
of human progress, than that, while primitive man had to exercise his
ingenuity in providing for the necessities of life and in the making of
tools, implements, utensils, and so forth to achieve his needs, he was
not satisfied that his work should be merely useful. He had a mind to
make it pleasing in shape and by means of ornament. And this attention
to beauty grew as men grew in civilisation, becoming most conspicuous as
their civilisation reached its highest point; and continued through the
ages, until machinery began to replace the individual craftsman.

For the individual craftsman, responsible for making a thing from start
to finish, must, if he is worth a hill of beans, take a personal pride
in making it as well as he can. As the Bible relates of the Supreme
Creator, “And God saw everything that he had made and, behold, it was
very good.” And the craftsman, so long as he is free to create out of
his own knowledge and his own feeling, must be able to feel this,
because there is an instinct in him, an imperative need of his own
nature, that he shall be proud of his work. It is a wonderful fact of
human nature that when it works freely, putting forth all its
capacities, it is prompted by this instinct, not only to make useful
things but also to make them well and as beautiful as may be.

But gradually machinery took away the workman’s control of his work. He
ceased to design, lay out, and carry through all the details of his work
to a finish. He has come to be intrusted with only a part of the
operation, and that is performed under the control of a machine that
turns out the work with soulless uniformity. The craftsman has
degenerated into a repeater of partial processes; he has become the
servant of a machine; a cog in a vast mechanical system. And, with the
development of high power machines the output of production has been
increased, until _quantity_ rather than quality has tended to become the
ambition of the system.

It has followed as a logical result of this taking away from millions of
men and women the privilege of being individual craftsmen, creators of
their own handiwork, that they have grown indifferent to the quality of
the work turned out; taste, which means the ability to discriminate
between qualities, has diminished and a general indifference to the
element of beauty has ensued.

       *       *       *       *       *

Of all the Fine Arts, Architecture is closest to the life of man. It has
been developed out of the primitive necessity of providing shelter from
the elements and protection against the assaults of all kinds of
aggressors. And chief among the aggressors against which primitive man
sought to defend himself were the mysterious forces of nature which his
imagination pictured as evil spirits. To ward off these and to enlist
the support of kindly spirits represented a necessity of life that
developed through fetish worship into some positive conception of
religion. This need was embodied in structures, which, originating in
the selection or erection of a single stone, gradually became composed
of an aggregation of stones variously disposed, in heaps, in geometric
groups of single stones, or in the placing of stones horizontally upon
two or more vertical supporting stones.

In these crude devices to mark the burial places of dead heroes and to
provide for the necessities of religion, primitive man used the stones
as he found them, with a preference for those of enormous size, to
ensure permanency. Meanwhile, in the huts that he erected for the
living, it is reasonable to suppose that, when available, the more
perishable material of timber was employed. And here, again, he would
use at first the smaller limbs, planting them in the ground in a circle
or square and drawing them together at the top, so that they took the
shape of a heap of stones; and covering them with skins, so that they
became the prototype of the tent. Then gradually he would employ stouter
timbers, planting them upright and keeping them in place at the top with
horizontal timbers. On these would be laid transverse beams to form a
roof; the spaces between the beams, as between the uprights of the
walls, being filled in with wattles of twigs or reeds and rendered still
more impervious to weather by a coating of clay or mud.

The efforts of primitive builders, it is true, are rather of
archæological than of architectural significance, yet they have this
much to do with architecture, that in them are to be discovered the
rudiments of the art. For by the time that man had superimposed a stone
horizontally upon two vertical ones, he had hit upon the principle of
construction, now variously styled “post and lintel” or “post and beam”
or “trabeated,” that is to say, “beam” construction. The embryo was
conceived that in the fulness of time would be developed into the
trabeated design of the Egyptian temple and the column-and-entablature
design of Classic architecture. From the colossal, monolithic form,
still preserved, for example, in Stonehenge, there is a direct
progression to the highly organised perfection of the Parthenon.

It is this fact that makes the study of architecture so vitally
interesting. Its evolution has proceeded, stage by stage, with the
evolution of civilisation. Having its roots in necessity, it has
expressed the phases of civilisation more directly and intimately than
have the other Fine Arts; while the comparative durability of the
materials in which it has been embodied has caused more of its records
to survive. Even out of the fragments of architecture it is possible for
the imagination to visualise epochs of civilisation long since buried in
the past; while the memorials that have been preserved in comparative
integrity stand out through the misty pages of history as object lessons
of distinct illumination.

       *       *       *       *       *

Accordingly, one purpose of this book represents an attempt to study the
evolution of architecture in relation to the phases of civilisation that
it immediately embodied; to find in the monuments of architecture so
many “sermons in stone”--discourses upon the character, conditions of
life, the methods and the ideals of the men who reared and shaped them.

And this involves the second purpose, that we shall try to study
architecture as it actually evolved in practice. Remembering that it
originated in the need of making provision for certain specific
purposes, in a word, that its motive primarily was practical, moreover,
that from the first it has been the product of invention, we will try to
study it in relation to man’s gradual mastery of material and the
processes of building. We will regard architecture in its fundamental
significance as the science and art of building; tracing, as far as is
possible, the stages by which man has met the problems imposed upon him
by the purpose of the structure and by the conditions of the material
available; how he gradually surmounted the difficulties of building,
step by step improving upon his devices and processes and thereby
creating new principles of construction, and, further, how the practical
operations of one race and period were carried on, modified, or
developed by other races, under different conditions and in response to
differences of needs and ideals.

And, while thus studying architecture as the gradual solution of
practical problems of construction we will also keep constantly in mind
the stages by which as man’s skill in building progressed, so also did
his desire to make his structures more and more expressive of his higher
consciousness of human dignity. How age after age built not only to meet
the needs of living but also to embody its ideals of the present and the
future life; how hand in hand with growing skill in workmanship was
evolved superior achievement in artistic beauty.

Our methods of study shall follow, as far as possible, the architect’s
order of procedure. Given a site and the commission of erecting thereon
a building for a specific purpose, the architect first concerns himself
with the _plans_: the _ground plan_, and, if the building be of more
than one story, the several _floor plans_. He lays out in the form of a
diagram the lines that enclose the building and those that mark the
divisions and subdivisions; indicating by breaks in the lines the
openings of doors and windows and by isolated figures the position of
columns or piers which he may be going to use for support of ceilings
and roofs. The disposition of all these particulars will be determined
not only by the purpose of the building, but also by the character of
the site and by the nature of the materials and method of construction
that the architect purposes to employ.

Then, having acquired the habit of thinking of a building as having
originated in a plan, we will follow the building as it grows up out of
the plan, taking vertical form in what the architect calls the
_elevation_, or, when he is speaking specifically of the outside of the
building, the _façades_. Sometimes we shall study one of the diagrams,
which he calls a _section_, when he imagines his building intersected by
a vertical plane that cuts the structure into two parts. The one between
the spectator and the cutting plane is supposed to be removed, and thus
is laid bare the system of the interior construction-work.

In studying the exterior of a building, therefore, we shall keep in mind
the interior disposition, arising out of the planning, and acquire the
habit of looking on the outside of a building as logically related to
the interior. The design of a building will come to mean to us not a
mere pattern of façade, arbitrarily invented, but an arrangement of
vertical and horizontal features, of solid surfaces and open spaces,
that has grown out of the interior conditions and proclaims them.

In a word, we shall regard a work of architecture as an organic growth;
rooted in the plan, springing up in accordance with constructive
principles; each part having its separate function, and all co-ordinated
in harmonious relation to the unity of the whole. For we shall find that
_unity of design_ is a special element of excellence in architecture; a
unity secured by the relations of _proportion, harmony and rhythm_
established between the several parts and between the parts and the
whole. And, since architecture is primarily an art of practical
utility, all these relations are equally determined by the principle of
_fitness_; in order that each and every part may perform most
efficiently its respective function in the combined purpose of the whole
edifice. For this is the first and final criterion of organic
composition.

[Illustration: STONEHENGE. SALISBURY PLAIN, ENGLAND

PRIMITIVE USE OF POST AND BEAM CONSTRUCTION. PP. 8, 16]

[Illustration: SECTION AND PLAN OF “TREASURY OF ATREUS”

AT MYCENÆ. EXAMPLE OF “THOLOS” OR BEE-HIVE CONSTRUCTION. P. 14]

[Illustration: TEOCALLI OR “HOUSE OF GOD”

AT GUATUSCO, COSTA RICA. P. 20]




CHAPTER II

PRIMITIVE STRUCTURES


The various remains that exist of prehistoric structures, though
scattered widely over different parts of the world, present a general
similarity of purpose and design.

The earliest examples of domestic buildings are the lake-dwellings which
have been discovered at the bottom of some of the Swiss lakes, as well
as in other countries both in the Eastern and Western hemispheres. They
consist of huts, rudely constructed of timber, erected on piles,
sometimes in such numbers as to form a fair-sized village. Their purpose
was apparently to afford security against sudden attacks of enemies, the
danger of wild beasts and snakes and the malaria and fever of the swampy
shores, while bringing the inhabitants nearer to their food supply and
offering a crude but ready means of sanitation. The system still
survives among the natives of many tropical countries and has its
analogy in the boat-houses that throng the Canton River in China.

More important, however, archæologically as well as in relation to the
subsequent story of building, as it gradually developed into the art of
architecture are: the single huge stone, known as a _Menhir_; the
_Galgal_ or _Cairn_ of stones piled in a heap; the _Tumulus_ or
_Barrow_, composed of a mound of earth and the _Cromlech_.

The single stone seems to have been regarded as an object of veneration
and a fetish to ward off evil spirits. It may have been the primitive
origin of the Egyptian _obelisk_, the Greek _stele_ and the modern
tombstone. From the galgal and barrow may have been developed the
pyramids of Egypt and the _truncated_ pyramid which we shall find to be
the foundation platforms of temples in various parts of the world while
the cromlech is the prototype of temples.

Two stones were set upright and a third was placed upon the top of them.
This represents in rudimentary form the so-called “post and beam”
principle of temple construction. Sometimes two or four uprights were
surmounted by a large flat stone. It had the appearance of a gigantic
table and is called a _Dolmen_. It is conjectured that this was a form
of sepulchral-chamber, in which the corpse was laid, being thus
protected from the earth that was heaped around the stones into a mound.
If so, the _Dolmen_ is the origin of the sepulchral chamber that was
embedded in the Egyptian pyramid.

Meanwhile, an intermediary stage between the highly developed _pyramids_
and the primitive _dolmen_ is represented in the =Altun-Obu Sepulchre=,
near =Kertsch= in the Crimea. Here the mound is faced with layers of
shaped stones, with which also the chamber and the passage leading to it
are lined. The ceilings of both are constructed of courses of stone,
each of which projects a little beyond the one beneath it, until the
diminishing space is capped by a single stone. In the angle of masonry
thus formed is discoverable the rudimentary beginning of the arch.

It is also convenient here to note, though it anticipates our story, the
more elaborate example of this principle of roofing which is shown in
the so-called =Treasury of Atreus= at =Mycenæ= in Greece. In this instance,
moreover, there is a farther approximation toward the arch, since the
projections of the stones have been cut so as to present a continuous
line. And these contour lines are slightly concave and meet at the top
in a point, for which reason this class of tomb is known as _bee-hive_.

Another form of this method of angular roofing is seen in an =Arch at
Delos=, which is part of a system of masonry that is known as
_Cyclopean_, after the name of the one-eyed giant whom Ulysses and his
followers encountered in Sicily, during their return from Troy. For the
masonry is composed of large blocks of unshaped stone, the interstices
of which are filled in with smaller stones. Here, too, the actual arch
is composed of a repetition of huge, upright monoliths, supporting a
series of single blocks, set up one against the other at an angle.

While, however, these primitive forms of roof construction prefigure the
later development of the true arch, the student is warned in advance
that they represent rather a feeling of the need of some such method of
construction than any approach to a solution of the problem. For the
latter, as we shall find later, consisted in discovering how to
counteract the thrust of the arch; its tendency, that is, to press
outward and collapse; whereas in the primitive construction this danger
was evaded by embedding the roof in a mass of masonry or earth that made
lateral strains impossible. The system, in fact, was more like that
employed in shoring up the excavations in modern tunnelling and mining.

Meanwhile, this rude method of spanning an opening with more than one
piece of stone was the primitive germ of the later development of arch,
vault, and dome construction, just as the placing of a single horizontal
stone on two upright ones is the prototype of columns and entablature.
Thus the instinct of man, in earliest times, reached out toward the two
fundamental principles of architectural construction.

The most interesting examples of primitive structure are the so-called
_Cromlechs_, of which that of =Stonehenge=, in England, is the best
preserved. The unit of this and like remains is the “post and beam”
formation, composed of a block of stone, supported on two uprights. In
the case of Stonehenge this formation was repeated so as to form a
continuous circle one hundred feet in diameter. Within this was a
concentric circle, composed of smaller slabs, which enclosed a series of
five separate post and beam structures on a horse-shoe plan. The latter
is repeated by another series of slabs and in the centre stands the flat
altar stone. Seventeen stones of the outer circle, varying from sixteen
to eighteen feet in height, are still standing and in part connected by
their beam slabs.

This impressive memorial stands on Salisbury Plain, eight miles north of
the cathedral city of Salisbury, in the neighbourhood of which are many
barrows. Was it then the temple of a burying place of mighty chieftains
or was it erected in memory of some great victory in honour of the dead
heroes and the nation’s god? According to Geoffrey of Monmouth (<small>A.D.</small>
1154) who is supposed to have compiled much of his history from Celtic
legends, Stonehenge is a Celtic Memorial, erected to the glory of the
Celtic Zeus.

Rhys, in his “Celtic Heathendom,” accepts the probability of this
account and adds: “What sort of temple could have been more appropriate
for the primary god of light and of the luminous heavens than a spacious
open-air enclosure of a circular form like Stonehenge? Nor do I see any
objection to the old idea that Stonehenge was the original of the famous
temple of Apollo in the island of the Hyperboreans, the stories about
which were based in the first instance most likely on the journal of
Pytheas’ travels.” Pytheas was a Greek navigator and astronomer of the
second half of the fourth century <small>B.C.</small>, who was a native of the Greek
colony of Massilia (Marseilles) and visited the coasts of Spain, Gaul,
and Britain.

Situated some twenty miles to the north of Stonehenge is the =Abury= or
=Avebury= monument. Its remains comprise two circles, formed of _menhirs_,
which are enclosed within a large outer circle of _monoliths_, about
1250 feet in diameter. This was further surrounded by a moat and
rampart, which suggest that the structure may have served at once the
purposes of a place of assembly and a stronghold.

At =Carnac=, in the old territory of Brittany, in France, are the remains
of about 1000 _menhirs_, some of which reach a height of 16 feet,
disposed in parallel straight rows, forming avenues nearly two miles
long. They are unworked blocks of granite, set in the ground at their
smaller ends. The neighbourhood also abounds with _tumuli_, _dolmens_,
and later monuments that belong to the Polished Stone Age.

Furthermore, remains of such monuments as we have been describing are
found in Scandinavia, Ireland, North Germany (in Hannover and the Baltic
Provinces); also in India and Asia Minor, in Egypt, on the northwest of
Africa and in the region about the Atlas Mountains. This fact, assuming
that the monuments are of Celtic origin, testifies to the wide-spread
migrations of this important branch of the Indo-European family which
in prehistoric times swept westward in successive waves. It is known
that this race also overflowed into Northern Italy and Spain. That none
of their monuments of the Rough Stone and Polished Stone ages exist in
these countries seems to point to the migration thither having been made
at a later period.

From the time that the Celtic race finds its way into recorded history
it has been recognised as pre-eminently characterised by artistic
genius. The rude _menhirs_, under the combined influences of
Christianity and art were in time replaced by _Stone Crosses_ that in
form closely approximate the thickset simplicity of the monolith, but
are embellished with carved ornament. And the latter in its detail is
evidently akin to the motives of decoration found upon the weapons and
earthenware of the Bronze Age, combined with the interlace of lines,
suggested by the example of weaving, and the use of motives derived from
plant forms. These same principles of decoration were applied to the
metal-work in which the Celt excelled and later to the decorated
manuscripts in which he reached so high a degree of artistry. The Celtic
artists in time also introduced human and animal figures into their
designs, but always treated them solely as motives of decoration and
never with the purpose of representing them naturally.

The prevalence of these decorative motives in ancient Asiatic and
European ornament may have been due to the extended migrations of the
Celts. But not necessarily; for they are equally to be found in the
primitive ornament of the South Sea Islanders, North American Indians,
and the inhabitants of Peru, Mexico, and Central America. Primitive man,
in fact, shows a tendency to similarity of motives and methods at
corresponding stages of his evolution.

       *       *       *       *       *

In the last three countries have been discovered some of the most
remarkable remains of the Polished Stone Age and the Bronze Age. For it
was to this stage--after how many centuries of development is only a
matter of conjecture--that the mighty nations of the Incas, Aztecs, and
others had attained, when the Spanish invaders in the sixteenth century
overcame them and wiped out their civilisations.

Hitherto the most famous example has been the ruins of =Cuzco=, the
imperial city of the Incas in Peru, which was captured by Pizarro; but
the exploration of Professor Hiram Bingham has recently unearthed, also
in Peru, =Machu Picchu=, a city of refuge, perched almost inaccessibly on
the heights of the Andes. It is the belief of the explorer that this is
the traditional city of Tampu Tocco, to which a highly civilised tribe
retreated, when they were hard pressed by barbarian enemies and from
which, legend says, they descended later to conquer Peru and found the
city of Cuzco, under the leadership of “three brothers who went out from
three windows.” Now Tampa means a place of temporary abode and Tocco
means windows; and in the principal plaza of this newly discovered city
has been found a temple with three windows.

Thus it is possible that it was actually a deserted city at the time of
the Spanish invasion, held in reverence as the cradle city of the Incas.
Anyhow, it escaped the knowledge and the ravages of the Spaniards and
retains to-day its primitive state, unmixed with the additions of any
subsequent civilisation.

It occupies an immense area, only rivalled by that of Cuzco, and is
constructed of stones, many of which weigh several tons, hewn into shape
with stone hammers. Large portions of the mountain sides are built up
with terraces, which were used for agricultural purposes and suggest an
analogy with the “hanging gardens” of Babylon. No less than a hundred
flights of steps connect the various parts of the city, which is divided
into wards or “clan groups” by walled enclosures, enclosing houses and
sometimes a central place of worship. The typical design of the houses
is much like that of an Irish cabin--a ground story and a half story
with gabled ends, each pierced by a small window. The wooden roofs have
disappeared, but the stones, bored with a hole, to which the timbers
were lashed, are still in place. In the burial caves bronze objects of
fine workmanship have been discovered.

Among other noted remains of early buildings is the =Teocalli= or “House
of the God” of =Guatusco= in Costa Rica. It shows a truncated pyramid of
masonry, rising in steps, the top forming a platform on which the temple
stands. A still more important example of this form of structure must
have been the =Teocalli= of =Tenochtitlan=, the ancient name of Mexico City.
Built about 1446, it was destroyed by the Spaniards and part of its site
is now occupied by the Cathedral. According to accounts it comprised a
truncated pyramid, measuring at the top, which was 86 feet from the
ground, 325 by 250 feet. In the ascent it was necessary to pass five
times round the structure by a series of terraces. On the platform were
several ceremonial buildings, the terrible image of the god
Huitzilopochtli, supposed to be the one that is now in the Museum of
Mexico City, and the sacrificial stone. Upon the latter were sacrificed
immense numbers of human victims; report saying, though no doubt with
exaggeration, that at the dedication of the temple seventy thousand were
slaughtered to appease the sanguinary appetite of this hideous idol.

The exteriors of the latest remains of Central America and Mexican
primitive civilisation are embellished with ornament, the motives of
which exhibit curved and rectangular meanders and interlacings, derived
from the example of weaving and plaiting, as well as vegetable and
animal forms. Often, as in the =Casa de Monjas= in =Yucatan=, the ornament
is so profuse that it obscures the character of the structure, while the
forms are fantastic and extravagant and in some instances horribly
grotesque. Their intention apparently was to strike awe into the
spectator.

Most of what we have been studying in this chapter comes under the head
of archaeology rather than of art. Nevertheless, since it represents the
gradual approach of civilisation toward the artistic conception, it is
well worth attention.




BOOK II

PRE-CLASSIC PERIOD




CHAPTER I

EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION


The most ancient civilisation known to us is that of Egypt, and the
knowledge of it is mainly derived from its architectural remains and the
sculpture, painting, and inscriptions with which they are decorated. In
addition, there are the records written upon papyri, the Biblical books
of Exodus, and the history of Manetho, an Egyptian priest, who lived
about 250 <small>B.C.</small> By this time Egypt had been subdued by Alexander the
Great and had passed under the rule of the Ptolemies. So Manetho wrote
in Greek, but only fragments of his work have survived, through
quotations made from it by Eusebius, Josephus, and other historians.

It is from all these materials that scholars have endeavoured to piece
together some sort of connected history of the period covered by
Manetho; the difficulty being increased by the fact that the Egyptian
system of chronology reckoned by dynasties and computed the time by the
years of the reigning sovereign, beginning anew with each succession.
Furthermore, the inscriptions omit references to any interruptions that
occurred in the sequence of the dynasties; recording only the periods of
Egyptian supremacy and leaving out those in which the country suffered
from the domination, short or long, of foreign conquerors.

Accordingly, while Manetho names the first ruler of the First Dynasty as
Menes, there is nothing but the conjecture of scholars as to the date;
and the latter has been variously estimated as from 3892 to 5650 years
before Christ.

It will be a help at the outset to summarise the Dynasties under two
heads: (A) those of Independent Egypt; (B) those of Subject Egypt.

A. Dynasties of Independence.

    1. I-X--THE ANCIENT EMPIRE; Capital, Memphis in
    Lower Egypt. Lasted about 1500 years.

    2. XI-XIII--THE MIDDLE EMPIRE, or First Theban
    Monarchy; Capital, Thebes in Upper Egypt.
    Lasted about 900 years.

    3. XIV-XVII--Hyksos Invaders occupy Lower
    Egypt; the Egyptian princes rule as vassal
    princes in Upper Egypt: from 400-500 years.

    4. XVIII-XX--THE NEW EMPIRE or Second Theban
    Monarchy. The Great Epoch of Egyptian
    power and art. Lasted about 600 years and
    ended about 1000 <small>B.C.</small>

B. Dynasties of Subjection.

    5. XXI-XXXII--THE PERIOD OF DECADENCE under
    various foreign rulers; sometimes called the
    Saitic Period, because the first conquerors, the
    Libyans, made their capital at Sais. Lasted
    from about 1000-324 <small>B.C.</small>

    6. XXXIII--THE PTOLEMAIC PERIOD of Greek rule,
    following the Conquest of Egypt by Alexander
    the Great; 324-31 <small>B.C.</small>

    7. XXXIV--THE ROMAN RULE: Egypt a Province
    of the Roman Empire; 31 <small>B.C.</small> to 395 <small>A.D.</small> At
    the latter date it became a part of the Eastern
    Roman Empire.

In 389 the emperor, Theodosius, issued an edict proclaiming that
Christianity was to be recognised as the religion of Egypt. In
consequence of this change all knowledge of the old form of writing
gradually disappeared and the antiquities of Egypt remained a sealed
book for some fourteen centuries.

       *       *       *       *       *

The commencement of the modern interest in Egypt, as a mine of
historical, archæological, and artistic lore, dates from Napoleon
Bonaparte’s invasion, for he took with him a body of savants to explore
the topography and nature of the country and its antiquities. The
results of their labours were published in 1809-13 in twenty-five
volumes, illustrated with 900 engravings.

Meanwhile, in 1799, Captain Boussard, an engineer under Bonaparte, had
discovered in the trenches a tablet of black basalt, inscribed with
three kinds of writing, one of which was Greek. From the name of the
village near which it was found it is called the _Rosetta Stone_ and is
now in the British Museum. Various attempts were made to decipher
through the Greek the other two scripts, which were, respectively,
hieroglyphic and the demotic or popular writing-form of ancient Egypt.

Finally, the clue was discovered by the French scholar, Champollion. He
found there had been three kinds of characters which represented
successive developments of one system of writing: that in the
hieroglyphic each letter was represented by a picture-form; that in the
hieratic or priestly writing, these forms were represented in a freer
and more fluent way, which was further simplified in the demotic
characters, used generally by the scribes. Two of these had been
repeated as nearly as possible in the Greek text. It is out of this
discovery that Egyptology, or the science which concerns itself with
the writing, language, literature, monuments, and history of ancient
Egypt, is being gradually developed. Yet the subject is still involved
in great uncertainty, owing to the difficulty in discovering principles
of grammar, so that the translations of one scholar vary from those of
others and all reach only the general sense, without assurance of
accuracy.

       *       *       *       *       *

The civilisation of a country is always largely determined by its
geographical character and the latter, in the case of Egypt, is of
exceptional significance. Herodotus called Egypt the “Gift of the Nile.”
The great river created it and has continued to preserve it. For the
country comprises a narrow strip of soil varying from 4 to 16 miles in
width, bordering the two sides of the stream, and extending in ancient
times, as far as the second cataract, a distance of some 900 miles;
approximating, that is to say, the distance from New York to Chicago or
from London to Florence. It is bounded by rocky hills, and, as it
reaches the Mediterranean, fans out into a delta of flat lands, the
various streams being kept in place by dykes. The only thing that has
saved this country from being swallowed up in the desert is the annual
rise of the river, succeeding the tropical rains in the interior and the
melting of the snow in the mountains of Abyssinia. This floods the
lowlands and leaves behind an alluvial deposit, so richly fertile that
the soil, warmed by constant sunshine, yields three harvests annually.
Meanwhile, it is a remarkable fact that the records of ancient times
tally with those of to-day, both showing that the amount of the rise
varies but little from year to year.

Before considering how these natural features of the country affected
the civilisation of its inhabitants, a fact is to be noted. At the point
of time when Manetho commenced his history of the Egyptians, variously
estimated from about 4000 to about 6000 years before the Christian Era,
they appear as a people already possessed of a high degree of
civilisation, surrounded by inferior races. An immense interval of
progress separates them from the earliest conditions that we considered
in the previous chapter. By what stages did they reach this footing of
superiority and through what length of time; moreover, what was the
origin of their race? To these questions of profound interest there is
no answer forthcoming. Some recent scholars are disposed to believe that
the civilisation of Egypt, as we first meet with it, had been preceded
by a still more remote civilisation in Babylonia; but as yet they have
not shaken the accepted view that priority in civilisation belongs to
the Land of the Nile. So far as knowledge exists, civilisation appeared
first in Egypt and by a wonderful combination of circumstances,
continued up to historic times.

The tenacity of the civilisation of the Egyptians is a counterpart of
the tenacity of character of the people, as a result primarily of their
natural surroundings. Within the limits of Upper and Lower, that is to
say of Southern and Northern Egypt, the Nile has no tributaries.
Consequently, there was at first no urge to the inhabitants to push
outward; and every inducement to cling to their own strip of territory.
Moreover, since the periodic river floods were constant, there was every
inducement, nay almost necessity, that they should cling to the methods
by which they had learned to utilise them. Hence, _conservatism_ was
forced upon them and became ingrained in their character and
institutions. It was further encouraged by their isolation; for the
adjoining country was desert, meagrely occupied by nomad tribes.
Accordingly, that tendency of every nation to consider itself the salt
of the earth and especially favoured of the gods seemed justified
abundantly in their case.

Again, their dependence on the Nile early taught them the habit of
noting the seasons, while the necessity of husbanding the water in
reservoirs and by irrigation made them skilled in engineering and
generally resourceful. And these characteristics of method and
constructiveness were reflected in the social organisation.

The King was the supreme head of the whole system, descendant of the
Sun-god, Ra, the individual embodiment of the nation’s greatness, while
beneath him the people were divided into the official class, middle
class, and slaves. The first included generals, high-priests, officers,
physicians, overseers, district-chiefs, judges, master-builders,
scribes, and many others--officialdom being spun like a web over the
life of the people. The middle class, composed of merchants, traders,
ordinary priests, artisans, free working potters, carpenters, joiners,
smiths, and agriculturists, enjoyed many of the privileges of the upper
classes, but were not permitted to erect tombs, though their place of
burial might be marked by a _stele_ with inscriptions. The slaves were
mere hewers of wood and drawers of water.

Title to all land, except that attached to the temples, was vested in
the King and the land was worked for the State by slaves or let out at
an annual rental. In connection with this subject compare the story of
Joseph, especially Genesis xli.

Each administrative department had its own troops--or, to use the
modern word, _corvée_--of slaves, under an overseer who kept tally of
work done and rations distributed. It was the troop, not the individual,
that constituted the unit. Agriculturists ranked higher than the
artisans; although the work of the latter was highly esteemed. The
weavers made baskets, mats, and boats of papyrus leaves and produced
linen of the finest quality as well as coarser grades. The carpenter,
notwithstanding the scarcity of timber, did creditable work with the
simplest kind of tools. Little variation was attempted by the potters in
the forms of vessels, which were crude but often finished with fine
glazes. The metal workers used gold, silver, bronze, iron, and tin;
silver exceeding gold in value. Whence they procured tin is unknown, but
the other metals came from the mines of Sinai and Nubia.

The processes of agriculture were of the simplest. The plough was formed
of a sharpened stake, dragged by oxen; the crops were cut with sickles,
and the grain was winnowed by casting it in the air, after which it was
stored in large, tunnel-shaped receptacles, filled from the top by a
ladder. While the Egyptians prided themselves on their immense herds of
cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and asses, the shepherds, living in the
remote marshes, were “an abomination unto the Egyptians” (Genesis xlvi,
34).

Their recreations included the hunting of wild animals with dogs, while
the men were armed with lasso and spear and occasionally a bow and
arrows. In the marshy districts birds were brought down with a boomerang
or caught in nets and traps. The people indulged in wrestling matches,
gymnastics, ball-playing, quoits, and juggling, while work was performed
to the accompaniments of music and singing, and music and dancing
enlivened the feasts. The instruments comprised the flute and a kind of
whistle, the guitar, harp, and lyre, the last two having sometimes
twenty strings.

The school, “bookhouse” or “house of instruction,” was presided over by
a scribe and attended by children of all classes. The curriculum
included orthography, calligraphy, and the rules of etiquette, together
with practice in the technical work of the department for which the
children were being trained.

The uniform male garment for all classes was an apron fastened around
the loins. To this in early times the King added a lion’s tail and the
noble a panther-skin. In the Middle Empire the apron took a pointed,
triangular shape in front and became longer, while by degrees a single
apron gave way to a short, opaque under-apron with a long, transparent
one over it. The short apron, however, continued to be the sole garment
of the priest. In time, the costume of the King included garments
covering the upper part of the body, a practice which dates from the
Eighteenth Dynasty, when the vigorous Queen Hatasu adopted the male
costume. The uniform dress of women was a transparent robe hung from the
shoulders by straps and reaching from the breasts to the ankles. In
later times it was supplemented with a sleeved or sleeveless mantle.

These, and countless other particulars of daily life, are pictured with
precise details, in coloured carvings and in paintings on the walls of
tombs, so as to continue after death, for the benefit of the _Ka_ or
double, the conditions which the deceased had been accustomed to in
life. This Ka was believed to be separate from the body, mind, or soul
of the individual; an independent spiritual existence which, as long as
it was present, ensured “protection, life, continuance, purity, health,
and joy.” Hence the care with which provision was made to induce it to
remain with the individual when dead. For continuance of life after
death was the cardinal principle of Egyptian religion. It was the
spiritualised expression of the people’s intense conservatism; and the
preservation of the body as a mummy and the taking of measures to ensure
that the Ka would abide with it or, at least, visit it frequently, were
the chief duties of the priesthood. The homes of the living, therefore,
were considered of less importance than those of the dead; and, while
few traces remain of dwellings or even of palaces, Egypt abounds with
Tombs. These are the memorials of individuals, while the Temples embody
the pride and glory of the national, collective life. Indeed, it would
seem that during life the individual, except only the King, who
represented the union of all, was regarded simply as a factor in the
collective organisation of the community, the splendour and power of
which was visualised in the Temples.

Hence the importance which was attached to size and beauty of colour in
the Temple architecture. Evidence shows the Egyptians were not an
intellectual race. That is to say, they were not given to speculation;
nor did they carry their mathematical or scientific studies beyond the
point at which they were needed for material and practical purposes. And
equally devoid of abstract qualities was their imagination. It conceived
of “better” in terms of “bigger,” and “best” in terms of “biggest.”
Through all their centuries of civilisation they did not progress beyond
the crude stage of finding sufficient satisfaction in constructing or
possessing “the biggest thing on earth.” And the biggest was constructed
by sheer force of numbers of slave-workers, at an immense human
sacrifice. It has been computed that every stone in the huge Temples
cost at least one life.

Accordingly, the distinguishing features of their Temple architecture
are colossal height and the spreading out over vast areas, as succeeding
kings added to the original building another Court or Hall to
demonstrate the grandeur of his reign.

And, to repeat once more, it was the conservatism, characteristic of the
race, that encouraged this repetition of motives, while at the same time
establishing conventionalised forms for the details. Individuality of
artistic expression was curbed by the canons of form that the priests
had laid down and enforced age after age. Meanwhile, in the scenes of
life with which they decorated the walls, some latitude was allowed the
painters and sculptors in the direction of naturalistic representation;
and it was increased when, in later times, the influence of Cretan
civilisation penetrated to Egypt.

       *       *       *       *       *

We will conclude with a brief summary of the part played by the several
Dynasties in the art which is discussed in the following chapter.

It is to be noted that no inscriptions survive from the first three
Dynasties; but that with the Fourth commence the records which have been
recovered from the _Tombs_ or _Mastabas_.

To Snofru (Greek Soris, as given by Manetho) is attributed the
stepped-pyramid at Sakkarah, while the four pyramids at Gizeh are known
by the names of their builders Khufu or Cheops; Khafra or Chephren, and
Menkara or Mycerinus. The Sixth Dynasty closed with the reign of Queen
Nitocris, who is supposed to have faced with granite the Pyramid of
Menkara, in which it is believed her funeral chamber was constructed.
After her reign a period of darkness intervened during which the power
of the monarchy was gradually developed, until, with the beginning of
the Eleventh Dynasty, the Government was established in Thebes.

The Kings of the Middle Empire, Usertesen I, II, and III, signalised
their rule by reaching out beyond the limits of Lower and Upper Egypt.
They conquered Ethiopia to the south and opened up trade to the eastward
with Syria, and recovered possession of the mines of Sinai. Temples were
built and great public works of irrigation carried out, while changes
were inaugurated in writing and education. The process of development
seems to have been continued even during the Hyksos usurpation. For
these Asiatic invaders, whose race and origin are unknown--the term
Hyksos meaning Shepherd Kings or Bedouin Chiefs--confined their
occupation to Lower Egypt, while the Egyptian Kings continued to govern
Upper Egypt as vassal princes.

It was an attempted interference with Egyptian self-rule that
precipitated the expulsion of the Hyksos. The latter’s chief had
demanded of the “Prince of the South” that he abandon the worship of
Ra-Ammon for that of the Hyksos god. A refusal led to war which was
brought to a successful end by Amasis or Ahmes I, first King of the
Eighteenth Dynasty.

With the commencement of the New Empire Egypt entered upon an era of
prosperity and power that were reflected in the grandeur of her art. It
corresponded in Egyptian history to the age of Pericles in Athens; the
Imperial Epoch of Rome, and the High Renaissance of the sixteenth
century in Italy. Amenophis subdued the Libyans to the westward of the
Delta. His successor, Thothmes I, carried conquest as far south as the
third cataract and annexed the land of Cush as a province. Having thus
consolidated authority in the neighbourhood of Egypt, he invaded
Palestine and Syria as far as the Euphrates. His daughter, Queen Hatasu,
fitted out an expedition to the land of Punt (South Arabia) and brought
back incense, wood, and animals, such as the dog-headed ape; all of
which is duly recorded on the walls of her temple at Deir-el-Bahri. But
the acme of power was reached by her half-brother, Thothmes III; for
this monarch made fifteen expeditions, in the course of which he reduced
the rising power of the Hittites and made himself master of the
countries west of the Euphrates and south of Amanus. His two successors
managed to hold together this great empire; but in time these foreign
entanglements necessitated frequent expeditions.

By the time of the Nineteenth Dynasty the federation of the Hittites had
been consolidated and Seti I advanced against them, claiming a victory
which was at least not final, for they threatened his successor, Rameses
II, who, however, made a treaty of peace with them and married the
daughter of the Hittite king. Rameses II also invaded Palestine and
afterwards penetrated as far as the Orontes. He reigned sixty-six years
and it has been estimated that half the buildings in Egypt bear his
cartouche; although in many cases he probably followed the practice of
adding his own cartouche to buildings already existing.

It was during the reign of his son, Meneptah, that the Hebrew Exodus is
supposed to have taken place; an event that indicates the weakening of
the central authority, which was continued under this king’s successors.
Finally, during the reign of Rameses III, of the Twentieth Dynasty,
mercenaries were not only employed but allowed to settle in the country
and during the remainder of the Rameseide Dynasty the monarchs became
the tools of mercenaries and priests. Thus set in the decadence of power
and art, which marked the Saitic Dynasty.

Then followed a short period of Persian domination, which was so hateful
to the Egyptians that they welcomed Alexander as a liberator. He
appointed as king one of his generals, Ptolemy, in whose family the
succession continued through sixteen rulers of the same name. During
this period Egypt became an intellectual centre, its splendid library
being the nucleus of scholarship. It was by order or at least permission
of Ptolemy Philadelphos, about 270 or 280 <small>B.C.</small>, that the Hebrew
scriptures were translated into Greek by seventy scholars, whence the
version is known as the _Septuagint_. The Ptolemies signalised their
rule by the restoration of the old temples and monuments, which had
suffered from the havoc of invasions.

After the victory of Augustus Cæsar at Actium in <small>B.C.</small> 31 and the death
of Cleopatra the following year, Egypt became, as we have already noted,
a Roman province.




CHAPTER II

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE


The remains of monumental architecture in Egypt afford a remarkable
opportunity of studying the development from primitive types of
structure. The earliest, which comprise the _pyramids_, _mastabas_, and
two examples of _temples_, represent developed forms of the _tumulus_
and _dolmen_, while the later temples, which began to appear in the
Twelfth Dynasty, exhibit their origin in the primitive hut of the
country.


THE ANCIENT EMPIRE

=Great Sphinx.=--Meanwhile among the earliest monuments, of uncertain date
and origin, is the Great Sphinx of =Gizeh=. It is the prototype of the
sphinxes that were afterwards used to form avenues of approach to the
temples, being distinguished from the Greek type of Sphinx by the fact
that the recumbent lion body is wingless and carries a male instead of
female head and bust. The heads of the later sphinxes represented
portraits of the reigning kings, the conception symbolised in the whole
figure being the royal power. An inscription, however, upon a small
temple, which was erected between the paws of the Great Sphinx in the
Eighteenth Dynasty, records that it was made in honour of Harmachis, one
of the forms of the Sun-god, Ra.

Hewn out of the living rock, it faces eastward, as if on guard over the
pyramids and the entrance to the Nile Valley. The dimensions, when the
sand was cleared from

[Illustration: SECTION OF PYRAMID

SHOWING KING’S CHAMBER, QUEEN’S CHAMBER AND A THIRD ONE BELOW. P. 40]

[Illustration: MODELS OF MASTABAS

FROM THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. P. 40]

[Illustration: TYPES OF EGYPTIAN COLUMNS

BELL OR CAMPANIFORM      HATHOR-HEADED    LOTUS BUD: UPPER FROM
                                              BENI HASSAN

P. 52]

[Illustration: TEMPLE-TOMB OF RAMESES II AT ABOU-SIMBEL.

P. 45]

[Illustration: PLAN OF RAMESSEUM OR TEMPLE-TOMB OF RAMESES II

NEAR DEIR-EL-BAHRI. SHOWING PYLONS, TWO FORECOURTS WITH COLONNADES;
HYPOSTYLE HALL OR HALL OF COLUMNS, AND THE SANCTUARY AND RITUAL
CHAMBERS. TYPE OF ALL EGYPTIAN TEMPLE PLANS. P. 46]

[Illustration: © Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.

MODEL HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK

SHOWING CONSTRUCTION AND DECORATION. P. 51]

[Illustration: PERIPTERAL SANCTUARY

SURROUNDED ON FOUR SIDES BY COLUMNS. AT PHILÆ. P. 53]

[Illustration: TEMPLE OF EDFOU

ENTRANCE TO HYPOSTYLE HALL. METHOD OF ADMITTING LIGHT IN PTOLEMAIC
PERIOD. P. 54]

[Illustration: EXAMPLE OF CARVED DECORATION P. 48]

the body in the nineteenth century, were found to be: length, 189 feet;
height, 66 feet. The face, which was originally painted red, has lost
part of the nose and beard, as the result of being used as a target by
the Mameluke cavalry.

=Pyramids.=--The Pyramids, numbering over a hundred, were the sepulchres
of the kings of the first twelve Dynasties. Some, for example, the one
at =Sakkarah=, attributed to Senefrou of the Third Dynasty, are of the
form known as _stepped-pyramids_, their sides ascending in six bold
steps; there is one at =Dashour= which slopes steeply from the ground and
then breaks to a gentler slope; but the usual type is an unbroken
pyramid on a square base.

Three of these, situated at =Gizeh=, are of surprising size and known by
the names of their builders: =Cheops= or Khufu; =Chephren= or Khafra, and
=Mycerinus= or Menkara; all of the Fourth Dynasty. The largest of these,
that of =Cheops=, known as the Great Pyramid, is 482 feet high, with a
side length of 764 feet. It is, in fact, 150 feet higher than St. Paul’s
Cathedral, 50 feet higher than St. Peter’s, while it covers an area
nearly three times that of the latter.

The evolution of the pyramid form has been traced from the method of
burial. In prehistoric times the body was laid in a square pit which was
roofed over with poles and brushwood, covered with sand. The kings of
the First Dynasty lined the pit with wood. Later a wooden chamber with a
beam roof was erected within the pit, descent to which was by a stairway
on one side. Still later, the whole was covered by a pile of earth, held
in place by dwarf walls. Then, in the Third Dynasty, the earth was
replaced by a mass of brickwork with a sloping passage leading down to
the mummy chamber, and subsequently stone was employed. The completed
development is represented in the pyramids of Gizeh.

They are constructed of limestone upon a foundation of levelled rock and
were originally finished on the outside with massive blocks of polished
stone. The entrance is on the north side by a passage, which first
descends and then rises to the principal chamber, which contained the
king’s sarcophagus. This was lined on the east and west sides with
immense stones, supporting several layers of horizontal blocks, crowned
with a gable, formed of stones, which are so placed that they exert no
thrust upon the stones below. A similar gable formed the ceiling of the
Queen’s Chamber, which is situated at a lower level, while at a still
lower level is a third chamber.

The statues and sculptured reliefs, discovered in the pyramids and
mastabas of the Fourth to Sixth Dynasties, exhibit not only a highly
developed skill in the cutting of hard and soft stone, and ivory and
wood and in beating copper but also remarkable expression of character.
The minute statuette in ivory of Cheops, though the face is only about a
quarter of an inch in length, is a portrait of extraordinary force, and
the life-size figure of Chephren, carved in hard diorite, is equally
distinguished for its serenity and power. The character of all the
sculpture, even of low-reliefs of everyday scenes, is but little
naturalistic, being impressed with a certain grandeur, as of something
inevitable and immutable.

The earliest example of wall-painting appears at Sakkarah in the Pyramid
of Onas, the last king of the Fifth Dynasty; where, amid the record of
ritual observances, is depicted the grinding of the god’s bones to make
bread.

=Mastabas.=--From the methods of burial were also developed the type of
the =mastabas= or tombs of the royal family, priests, and chieftains,
which were erected at =Sakkarah=, near Memphis, during the Fourth, Fifth,
and Sixth Dynasties. The name is derived from the Arabian term for a
bench, the familiar type of which is a seat, supported upon boards that
slope inward. Similarly the tomb has a flat roof and _battered_, or
inward sloping, walls of masonry. It is entered usually on the east
side, by a passage that descends to the Chamber of Offering, which
contains, to hold the offerings, a sculptured table. Near it a vertical
pit, or well, from forty to fifty feet deep, is sunk in the solid rock,
communicating with the mummy chamber. Another hidden chamber, often
connected with the Chamber of Offering, is known as the _Serdab_, which
was intended to serve as a home for the deceased’s Ka or “double.” It
contained a statue of the deceased and sometimes a model of his home and
representations of his occupations during life. Thus, in the =Mastaba of
Thy=, with a view to inducing the Ka to overlook the break that has
occurred in the life of the deceased, the reliefs depict harvest
operations, ship-building scenes, the arts and crafts of the period, the
slaughtering of sacrificial animals and Thy himself traversing the
marshes in a boat.

=Sphinx Temple.=--Akin to the mastaba is the earliest type of temple, such
as the so-called Sphinx Temple, which although near the Great Sphinx is
now attributed to Chephren. Partially excavated out of rock, it is T
shaped in plan, with two rows of square piers in the longitudinal
portion and one row in the transverse, supporting the stone beams of the
roof. The piers are monoliths of polished granite, while the interior
walls are veneered with slabs of alabaster. The whole was embedded in a
rectangular mass of masonry. Another temple of the Fourth or Fifth
Dynasty is represented as restored in a model in the Metropolitan
Museum, New York.


FIRST THEBAN MONARCHY OR MIDDLE EMPIRE

With the removal of the seat of government from Memphis to Thebes
commenced the First Theban Monarchy or Middle Empire, comprising the
Eleventh, Twelfth, and Thirteenth Dynasties. Abydos and Beni Hassan now
became the place of tombs.

Two types of tomb distinguish this period. One, frequently found at
=Abydos=, consists of a pyramidal structure with a cubical porch on one
side, entered by an arched portal. The latter feature proves that the
Egyptians were familiar with the principle of the arch, although they
did not employ it in their monumental buildings. It appears later in the
elliptical barrel-vaultings which crowned the long tunnel-like cellars
that Rameses I (The Great) erected for the storage of grain. The above
mentioned tombs were structural, whereas those of the second type were
excavated in the vertical rock-wall that forms the west bank of the
Nile; their entrance thus being toward the east. At =Beni Hassan= is a
group of thirty-nine such tombs which show a marked progress in
architectural design.

The front of each presents a porch, composed of columns supporting a
cornice, the latter being surmounted by a row of projections or
_dentils_ that resemble the ends of beams. The shafts of the columns are
polygonal, with eight, sixteen, or thirty-two faces, and are surmounted
by a square _abacus_. It has been conjectured that these columns may be
the prototype of the Doric column and accordingly their type has been
designated as _proto-Doric_. Meanwhile the columns inside the tomb
exhibit a stage in the development of the _lotus_ column; the motive of
their design having been derived from a post around the top of which had
been fastened the decoration of a cluster of lotus buds. The interior
walls of these tombs are decorated with pictorial scenes, executed in
red, yellow, and blue.

=Obelisks.=--To the Twelfth Dynasty belongs the earliest =Obelisk= still in
position; that of =Usertesen I=, in the necropolis of =Memphis=, its
companion having fallen. For these developed forms of the monolithic
_menhir_, regarded by the Egyptians as symbols of royalty and of the
Sun-god, Ra, were placed in pairs, usually before the entrance of a
temple. Their design was of great refinement, the taper being regulated
very carefully in proportion to the width and height. The top was
crowned with a small pyramid which in certain instances, at any rate,
was capped with metal. The sides of the shaft were given a slight convex
curve, or _entasis_, to offset the effect of concavity which they might
have produced if rectilinear, and also to relieve the rigidity of the
design. It is one of the instances which prove that the Egyptians
understood and practised the principle of _asymmetry_, or deviation from
strictly geometrical formality--a subject we shall study more fully in
Hellenic and Gothic architecture.

The two obelisks now known as =Cleopatra’s Needles=, one of which is on
the Thames Embankment, London, the other in Central Park, New York, were
removed from Heliopolis to Alexandria by the Romans. They were
originally erected by Thothmes III of the Eighteenth Dynasty, whose
half-sister, Queen Hatasu, numbered among her achievements the
completion and erection of an obelisk, 100 feet high, in the short space
of seven months.

From this period of the Middle Empire survive the fragments of three
temples. Amid the ruins of =Bubastis= have been found examples of the type
of _clustered lotus_ columns, while portions of polygonal columns,
discovered among the ruins of the Great Temple at Karnak, have been
identified as belonging to a temple of the Twelfth Dynasty. The evidence
which these remains afford of the fact that such columns were employed
in actual construction as well as in rock-cut form, has been
corroborated by the recent discovery of a sepulchral temple on the south
side of the Temple of Deir-el-Bahri--to be mentioned later--of which it
is the prototype. For the earlier was reached by steps that led up to a
solid mass of masonry, which in the opinion of some authorities was
crowned by a pyramid. It was surrounded by a peristyle, composed of an
outer range of square piers and an inner one of octagonal columns.

It is surmised, in fact, that during the Middle Empire, which was a
period of great development in the arts of peace, many of the
architectural problems were worked out in temples, afterwards destroyed,
to make way for the superior developments that were achieved under the
Second Theban Empire.


SECOND THEBAN EMPIRE OR NEW EMPIRE

No architectural monuments mark the period of Hyksos usurpation. But the
expulsion of the invaders and the restoration of the power alike of the
monarchy and of the national religion produced an outburst of patriotic
ardour that was fostered by rulers of exceptional greatness. The
Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties are brilliant with the
prowess and architectural creations that are associated with such names
as Thothmes, Amenophis, Queen Hatasu, Seti and Rameses.

The =Tombs= of the New Theban Empire comprised both the structural and the
excavated types. The rock-cut royal tombs are distinguished by the
extent and complexity of their shafts, passages, and chambers, designed
to baffle the efforts of any possible marauder, while notwithstanding
the darkness which fills all the spaces, the walls are brilliantly
decorated with coloured reliefs for the propitiation of the Ka. In
contrast with the interior is the extreme simplicity of the entrance, of
which the main features are the majestic colossal seated figures of the
Monarch, which take the place of the statue within the tomb. The
grandest example is the =Temple-Tomb of Rameses II= at =Abou Simbel=.

An exception to this external simplicity is the =Temple-Tomb= of =Queen
Hatasu= at =Deir-el-Bahri=, which, however, presents a combination of the
structural and excavated types, for projecting from the face of the rock
was an extensive portico, from which steps seem to have descended to a
terrace bounded by a peristyle and communicating by another flight of
steps with the lower ground--an impressive architectural ensemble,
designed, apparently, for ritual ceremonies.

The most magnificent examples of the purely structural Tomb are the
=Ramesseum= or =Tomb of Rameses II=, near =Deir-el-Bahri=, and that of =Rameses
III= at =Medinet Abou=. They may have been rivalled by the =Amenopheum= or
Tomb of Amenophis III, of which, however, scarce a trace remains except
the colossal seated figures, fifty-six feet high, of the King and his
Queen. The former is known as the “Vocal Memnon,” a name given to it by
the Greeks, after that of the son of Eos (Dawn), because of the legend,
that when the statue was smitten by the rays of the rising sun, it gave
forth a sound as of a broken chord.

The Ramesseum is a sepulchral temple and its plan, involving a sanctuary
and ritual chambers, a hall of columns entered between pylons, and
forecourts, presents the typal form of Temple plan.

=Temples.=--The New Theban Empire was the great age of Temple Building. It
is characteristic of the conservatism of the Egyptians not only that the
style of their monumental architecture was evolved from the rude
primitive hut-construction but also that it preserved features of the
latter, even though the necessity for them no longer existed. And so
persistent was the adherence to these features, now transformed into
elements of beauty, that they were continued even in the later temples,
built during the period of Roman domination.

It has been suggested that the origin of the style can be discovered in
the modelled and sculptured reliefs of the house of the deceased, found
in the earliest rock-cut tombs. The house represents a developed stage
of the still earlier hut, the character of which was determined by the
scarcity of wood. Instead, therefore, of employing poles, connected by
wattled twigs or reeds and covered with mud, the Egyptians fashioned the
alluvial deposit into bricks, dried in the sun, which they laid in
horizontal courses, each layer projecting inwards, until the walls met
at the top. Gradually this beehive form of construction was modified in
the better class of dwellings, by the adoption of a square plan and the
use of the trunks of palm trees to form the lintel of the door and to
support a flat mud-covered roof. The representations at =Gizeh= show that
bundles of reeds were used to reinforce the angles of the structure and
were also laid along the top of the walls, so as to form a rolled
border, corresponding to what is later called a _torus_. This, through
the weight of the roof, had a tendency to be forced outward, so that it
formed what was practically a concave cornice along the top of the wall.
Hence the so-called _cavetto_ cornice which is one of the marked
distinctions of the Egyptian monumental style. Moreover, while the
sun-dried bricks acquire a hardness and compactness, they are unable to
sustain much pressure, so that it was necessary to make the walls
thicker at the bottom than at the top. From this resulted the _batter_
of the walls, which is another distinctive characteristic of the
Egyptian style. Further, owing to the intense heat, windows were
dispensed with and the walls in consequence were unbroken except by the
entrance. To this day the houses of the poorer classes are built as of
old and present the rudiments out of which was developed the style of
the stone-built temples, so vastly impressive in the embodied suggestion
of elemental grandeur and eternal durability.

From the outside were visible only the walls and portal of the
rectangular temple enclosure. The walls sloped backward, like the glacis
of a fortification. A clustered torus moulding, as of reeds bound
together at intervals, so as to produce alternate hollows and swells,
ran up each of the angles of the masonry and along the top of the walls,
where it was surmounted by a cavetto cornice, terminating in a square
moulding. A similar finish crowned the entrance door and its flanking
pylons. The door, framed at the sides and top with squared blocks of
stone, frankly proclaimed the post and beam principle that also
governed the interior construction of the temple.

The door was flanked by _pylons_, each a truncated pyramid with oblong
base; the form, in fact, of a hut grandiosely enlarged into a decorative
feature of immense impressiveness. Set into its walls were rings to hold
flag-staffs, and the surface of the pylon, like that of the walls, was
resplendent with coloured reliefs, extolling the prowess of the King who
had erected the temple. His statue flanked the doorway, in front of
which soared two obelisks, while the roadway that led to the temple was
embellished with an avenue of sphinxes. These avenues were of great
length, the one from Karnak to Luxor extending a mile and a half.

On the lintel over the door was the winged globe, symbol of the Sun’s
flight through the sky to conquer Night. Other symbolic ornaments
adorned the jambs and the various cornices, while historic pictures,
recording the achievements of the monarch’s rule, covered the surfaces
of walls and pylons. All were executed in the same way as the symbolic
ornament and the pictures in honour of the deity, which covered the
walls, columns, beams, and ceiling of the interior of the temple. The
forms were either cut down in very low relief or enclosed by incised
lines, the edges of which on the side nearer to the form were slightly
rounded, in order to give a sense of modelling. In both cases the
designs were filled in with the primary colours, blue, red, and yellow.
Thus the decoration, derived from the method of drawing patterns in the
mud of a wall while it was still damp, was inset, its higher parts being
in the same plane as the wall’s surface--a method distinctively mural
which also maintained the avoidance of projections. This avoidance of
projecting members, except in the cornice, was a marked characteristic
of the Egyptian use of the post and beam principle, as compared with the
use of it by the Greeks and Romans.

The essential feature of the temple within the enclosure was the
sanctuary of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated, around which
were grouped chambers for the service of the priests in connection with
the ritual. Entrance to this Holy of Holies and its subsidiary cells was
through a _hypostyle hall_, so called because its ceiling of slabs of
stone was supported upon stone beams that rested upon columns. The
latter, to withstand the weight of the superincumbent mass, were of
great girth and closely ranged, so that an effect as of the depths of a
forest was produced, rendered more mysterious and apparently limitless
by the dim and fitful light. This penetrated through _clerestory_
windows, covered with pierced stonework and set in the sides of the
central portion of the roof, which, supported on higher columns, rose
above the side roofs, as the nave of a Gothic cathedral rises above the
level of the aisles. When one recollects that the interior was
completely covered with symbolic ornament and pictures, one can imagine
no mode of lighting better adapted to produce a phantasy of effect, to
preclude distinctness of vistas and promote a suggestion of limitless
immensity, according with the idea of the eternal continuity of the
soul’s existence, on which the religion of the Egyptians was founded.

The only approximation in architecture to the mysterious grandeur of the
hypostyle hall, leading to the sanctuary, is the nave and aisles and
choir of a Gothic cathedral. But the latter presents a great difference,
since it was arranged for the congregational service of crowds of
worshippers and, partly for this reason and partly because it was a
product of the comparatively sunless north, it is flooded through its
numerous and large stained-glass windows more abundantly with “dim
religious light.”

It remains to note the approach to this hall through an open court which
was surrounded on two or three sides by a colonnade or peristyle, while
an avenue of columns frequently led through the centre from the main
entrance of the pylons to the portal of the hall.

This combination of Court, Hall, and Sanctuary with its Chambers,
already present in the =Ramesseum=, formed the essential of every temple
plan, even during the period of Roman occupation. But while the nucleus
of the plan was organically complete, unity of effect was abandoned in
actual practice owing to the additions made to the original temple by
successive kings, who would contribute another hall of columns or
another court and sometimes erect another temple as an annex. The most
remarkable example of this gradual accretion of additional features is
to be found at Karnak; a group of temples in honour of the Sun-god
Ra-Ammon, the building of which extended throughout the period of the
New Empire.

=Temples of Karnak.=--The nucleus of the scheme was the granite sanctuary
and chambers erected by Usertesen I of the Twelfth Dynasty. In the
Eighteenth Dynasty Thothmes I added to the west front of this a columned
hall with pylon entrances, surrounding the interior wall with _Osirid_
statues, seated statues of Osiris, the wise and beneficent ruler of the
Second Dynasty, who after his death was honoured as the King of the Dead
in the nether world. Later a third pair of pylons was built by Rameses
I; and this was utilised as one of the sides of the Great Hypostyle
Hall begun by Seti I and completed by Rameses II. It communicated
through another pair of immense pylons with the Great Court of Sheshonk.

In the northwest corner of the latter Seti II of the Nineteenth Dynasty
erected a small temple, while, protruding into the court on the opposite
side was the temple of =Ammon=, built by Rameses III of the Twentieth, who
also built the adjacent temple of =Chons=, connected with the main group
of buildings by an avenue of Sphinxes. It was from this temple that the
long avenue of sphinxes, already mentioned, extended to the =Temple of
Luxor=.

Meanwhile, during the Eighteenth Dynasty, Thothmes III had erected at
some distance to the eastward of Usertesen’s original sanctuary, a large
hall and adjoining chambers. These are supposed to have been his palace,
though it is urged to the contrary that they offered but little
accommodation for the retinue of servants and officials which
distinguished an oriental court, besides being gloomy as a residence.
Possibly, however, Thothmes under the spell of religious feeling may
have used this palace for occasional occupation, even as Philip II of
Spain built a palace in connection with a monastery, a school of priests
and a great church and mausoleum--the aggregate of functions represented
in the Escoriál.

The climax of the architectural ensemble at =Karnak= is Seti’s =Great
Hypostyle Hall=, the most imposing example known of post and beam
construction. It is 338 feet wide with a depth of 170. A double row of
six mighty columns 70 feet high and nearly 12 in diameter support the
central nave, on each side of which the flat roof is supported by 61
columns, each about 42 feet high and 9 wide. The capitals of the taller
columns are of the so-called _bell_ type; those of the lower ones,
_lotus bud_.

=Column Types.=--Reference already has been made to the _lotus-bud_ type
of columns found in the interior of some of the tombs at =Beni Hassan=.
These represented a conventionalised design as of four buds with long
stems bound around a circular post. The later columns, however, of the
lotus-bud type were no longer only a decorative feature but had to
support the immense weight of the beams and ceiling slabs, consequently
the diameter was increased to about one sixth of the height. The capital
suggests either one bud with numerous petals crowning a smooth circular
shaft or a cluster of buds and stalks bound at intervals with rows of
fillets; the design in both cases being more conventionalised than in
the early examples.

The _bell_, or _campaniform_ type is distinguished by a smooth shaft
crowned with a conventionalised single blossom of the lotus, the petals
of which flare or curve outward so as to resemble the shape of an
inverted bell.

Another example of the flaring capital is that of the _palm_ column, the
fronds of which are bound by fillets to a smooth shaft. It is a type
that appears in the later temples and was varied by the architects of
the Ptolemaic period, who substituted for the palm other motives derived
from river plants.

An exceptional form, which appears in =Temples of Isis=, as at =Denderah=,
=Edfou=, and =Esneh=, is the so-called _Hathor-headed_ column, which has a
cubical capital, embellished on each side with a face of the goddess and
surmounted by a miniature temple. The latter takes the place of the
_impost_ block which in the other types of column sustains the weight of
the beam and protects the carving of the capital.

In certain instances the columns were superseded by piers with
rectangular shafts, which sometimes were unadorned in their impressive
simplicity, at other times ornamented with lotus flowers and stalks or
heads of Hathor. In the so-called _Osirid pier_ a colossal statue of the
god projects from the face of the pier, being the only example of a
feature added to a pier or column for purposes solely of symbolic
ornament and without any structural function.

       *       *       *       *       *

Next to Karnak in magnificence and extent is the neighbouring =Temple of
Luxor=. Another important example of the period is the temple erected at
=Abydos= by Seti I dedicated to Osiris and other deities. In consequence
it is distinguished by seven sanctuaries, ranged side by side and roofed
over with horizontal courses of stonework, each of which projects inward
over the one below it, until they meet at the top, the undersides being
chiselled into the form of a vault.

A few examples are found of the _peripteral_ type of temple, consisting
of a _cella_ or sanctuary, surrounded on the four sides by columns. In
one instance--the temple erected by Amenophis III at =Elephantine=--the
columns are confined to the front and rear, while at the sides are
square piers. These structures are small, and, in two cases, at =Philae=,
are unaccompanied by a cella; which suggests that they were used as
waiting places in connection with the adjoining temples.


PTOLEMAIC AND ROMAN PERIODS

During the period of political decadence the building of temples
declined, but it was renewed under the rule of the Ptolemies and
continued during the Roman occupation. While, notwithstanding foreign
domination, the Egyptian type was in the main adhered to, an important
change of detail was adopted in the manner of lighting the hypostyle
hall. The light was admitted from the front, over the top of screen
walls, which were erected between the columns to about half their
height. A celebrated example is at =Edfou=, the most perfectly preserved
temple of this period, which also conforms most closely to the old type.
For in other instances there was a growing tendency to introduce
novelties of detail, characterised by greater elaboration and
ornateness. It is signally represented in the =Temple of Isis= on the
island of =Philae=, for here the shape of the site has produced
irregularities in the planning of the various buildings, which enhances
the general picturesqueness of the whole group. Unfortunately, in
consequence of the erection of the Assouan Dam, these temples at =Philae=
are submerged for the greater part of the year.

How far the Egyptians studied orientation, or the placing of a temple
with reference to the points of the compass, is uncertain. But there are
grounds for supposing that in some cases they orientated the principal
entrance toward the sun or a certain star, the exact position of which
on some particular day would indicate to the priests the exact time of
year.


=Palace and Domestic Architecture.=--Of palace architecture the only
conjectured remains are the buildings erected in the rear of the Temple
of Karnak by Thothmes III and the pavilion of Medinet Abou on the west
bank of the Nile at Thebes; the unsuitability of which as royal
residences has already been noted.

A clue to the laying out of a town and the character of domestic
buildings has been found at =Tel-el-Amarna= and at =Kahun=, in the Fayoum.
On the latter site Petrie discovered the walls of a town which was
erected for the overseers and workmen employed in the construction of
the pyramid of =Illahun= (2684-2666 <small>B.C.</small>) and abandoned after the
completion of the work. The streets ran at right angles; and the houses
were built around open courts, whence the light was derived, for there
were no windows giving on to the streets. The houses varied in size from
the one room hut of the labourer to the group of rooms with their own
court occupied by the overseer, while a still larger group in the centre
of the town was the residence of the governor.

From these remains and from pictures of “soul houses,” found in the
tombs, it is concluded that the houses of the richer classes
corresponded to a Roman villa; consisting that is to say of detached
buildings built within enclosures, which were surrounded on the interior
with colonnades and were laid out with groves, fishponds, and other
ornamental features. The material employed in the walls and buildings
was sunburnt brick which was overlayed with stucco decorated in bright
colours. The walls in the case of the residences were carried up through
two or three stories with windows in the upper ones and a verandah under
the flat roof. The latter, constructed of timbers, supporting smaller
beams, filled in with mud, was reached by a staircase in the rear. When
the rooms exceeded nine feet or so in width, their ceilings were
supported by columns or posts.




CHAPTER III

CHALDÆAN, ASSYRIAN, AND BABYLONIAN CIVILISATION


Rooted deep in the recesses of the past was the ancient civilisation
that flourished in Mesopotamia. Some latest scholars are disposed to
believe that it even preceded the civilisation of Egypt, with which it
has some features in common. For this strip of territory, extending from
near the Persian Gulf in the south to the mountainous country of Armenia
in the north, is an alluvial plain, made and nourished by its
rivers--the Tigris on the east and the Euphrates on the west. The latter
is a shallow stream, except at the annual flood, when it sweeps over the
low banks and innundates the flat lands. Thus the inhabitants of
Mesopotamia, like the Egyptians, early learned to control the river with
drains and dykes and to construct canals and systems of irrigation. And
on a par with their engineering prowess became their achievements in
building.

Like Egypt also, Mesopotamia came to have its upper and lower kingdoms.
The former, the Biblical Padan-Aram, became associated with the history
of the Assyrians; the latter, the Plain of Shinar, with that of the
Chaldæans and Babylonians. It was the lower or southern part that seems
to have been first occupied, by a people apparently of non-Semitic
stock, whose origin is unknown. Named by different scholars Akkadians or
Sumerians, they were an unwarlike race which early attained a
considerable degree of civilisation. Their chief city was Babylon,
whence the country derived the name of Babylonia. It is supposed that
these people invented the cuneiform system of writing, which was later
employed by the Babylonians and Assyrians, while its use spread to the
other nations from Persia to the Mediterranean.

This wedge-shaped script was in its origin a form of pictorial or
ideographic writing and developed its peculiar character from the fact
that the writing was done on tables of soft clay. Pressure was needed to
make the marks and accordingly the stylus came to be formed of three
plane surfaces, meeting at a point like the angle of a cubic triangle.
As the system grew the ideogram from merely picturing the object was
used to denote the first syllable of its name and then by degrees to
denote that syllable in whatever word it might occur.

The clue to the reading of the cuneiform script was discovered in 1802
by a German, Georg Friedrich Grotefind, whose work was carried farther
by Christian Lassen of Bohn. Meanwhile, the Englishman, Henry Rawlinson
had mastered the secret through a study of Persian cuneiform script.
Thus an immense mine of knowledge was opened up to the scholars, for the
kings of Babylonia and Assyria kept most extensive records, not only of
their wars and personal prowess in the chase, but also of commercial
transactions, while many of them epitomised the history of past periods.
For example, it is from one of these records, made by Napa-haik, the
last native king of Babylonia (555-538 <small>B.C.</small>), that we get the earliest
date of the so-called Akkadians. For he caused it to be written that,
while he was restoring an ancient temple at Sippar, he found among the
foundations a record of Sargon I--not to be confused with the later
Assyrian king of the same name--which dated back 3200 years before its
discovery. Moreover, an Assyrian scribe makes this Sargon relate of
himself that he was born in secret, exposed as an infant in a basket of
rushes on a river, rescued and brought up by a shepherd, chosen the
leader of a band in the mountains and finally became a king. It would be
interesting to know the date of this record, but presumably it was after
the Jews had been carried captive to Assyria.

       *       *       *       *       *

The prosperity of this early race and its unwarlike character invited
invaders. For, it is in this particular that the fortunes of Mesopotamia
differed from those of Egypt. While the latter was isolated by great
deserts and its people in early times were neither disturbed from the
outside nor tempted to stray beyond their borders, the deserts
surrounding Mesopotamia were broken up with frequent spots of fertility.
On these subsisted nomad tribes of Semitic origin, which early must have
looked with covetous eyes upon the superior abundance of the
river-enclosed lands. Thus the non-Semitic inhabitants became involved
with Semitic peoples: Chaldæans, Elamites, and Assyrians.

Fortunately it is not necessary for our purpose to attempt the difficult
task of unravelling the stages of this obscure story. A few particulars
will suffice.

       *       *       *       *       *

The Chaldæans appeared in the South and established a capital at Ur of
the Chaldees, extending their sway over what was called later Babylonia.
But so far from crushing the original inhabitants, they seem to have
assumed toward them the attitude of protectors. They were the strong
men, as it were, that kept the house armed against aggression, while the
peaceful occupants continued to pursue their industries and arts. Thus
ensued that period distinguished as THE EARLY CHALDÆAN (about 2250 to
1110 <small>B.C.</small>) which produced those treasures of art, especially in glazed
pottery, that recent exploration has been discovering.

       *       *       *       *       *

And just as this older civilisation was respected by the warlike
Chaldæans, so also it was borrowed and imitated by the warlike Assyrians
who gradually gathered power in upper or northern Mesopotamia. They
founded a city and called it Assur, after their national god, in whose
honour they erected a temple in 1820 <small>B.C.</small> This is the first definite
date of this people, based on the authority of King Tiglath-Pileser
(about 1120-1100 <small>B.C.</small>), who relates that, while restoring the temple, he
found the ancient record of its founding. It is significant of the
general attitude of the Assyrians toward the civilisation of Babylonia
that they also borrowed the latter’s national god, Marduk. The first
extensive records of the Assyrians are derived from the “library” of
this Tiglath-Pileser, found among the ruins of Assur. They describe his
wars and hunting expeditions and how he killed with his own hands ten
elephants and nine hundred and twenty lions. This monarch, by the
capture of Babylon, brought to a conclusion the rivalry that had existed
since the fifteenth century <small>B.C.</small> between Assyria and the
Chaldæan-Babylonian kingdom. We may date from his reign, namely about
1110 <small>B.C.</small> the supremacy of the ASSYRIAN EMPIRE which lasted until 606
<small>B.C.</small>

Meanwhile, the city of Nineveh, now marked by the mounds of Koyunjik and
Nebi Yanus had been in existence as early as 1816 <small>B.C.</small> A palace was
erected there by Shalmaneser I (1330 <small>B.C.</small>) and at some date unknown a
temple to Ishtar. She was the goddess of Love and War and in her
voluptuous aspect corresponds to Ashtoreth or Astarte of the
Syro-Phœnicians. This cult characterised her shrine at Nineveh, while in
her warlike aspect she was worshipped at Arbela.

For a time the prestige of Nineveh waned, as Assurnazar-pal (885 <small>B.C.</small>)
and Shalmaneser II erected palaces at Nimroud, the ancient Calah. The
latter monarch was the first, so far as known, to come in conflict with
Israel. He conquered Ahab and exacted tribute from Jehu.

With Tiglath-Pileser III (also called Pul by the Hebrews) who carried a
portion of Northern Israel into captivity (2 Kings xv), began the period
of Assyria’s greatest glory. The last dynasty commences with Sargon
(722-705 <small>B.C.</small>) who built himself the famous palace at Khorsabad. He
conquered Samaria and carried the whole of northern Israel into
captivity, replacing them with men “from Babylon and from Cuthah and
from Ava and from Hamath and from Sepharvaim” (2 Kings, xvii, 24). This
allusion to Babylon is significant. It points to Sargon’s policy of
reducing the rival power of the city, which was destroyed by his son and
successor, Sennacherib. It was the latter who “came up against all the
fenced cities of Judah and took them,” afterward suffering the loss of
his army in the siege of Jerusalem, as chronicled in 2 Kings, xviii,
xix; though this disaster is not mentioned in the cuneiform records. He
revived the grandeur of Nineveh, which was added to by his son
Esarhaddon (680-668 <small>B.C.</small>). This monarch’s reign represented the
high-water mark of Assyrian supremacy. Among his exploits was the
conquest of Egypt, whereby he added to his titles that of “King of Kings
of Lower and Upper Egypt and Ethiopia.” He was also a great builder,
restoring Babylon and erecting for himself a superb palace at Nineveh,
the materials for which were supplied by twenty-two subject kings.

Under his son Asurbanipal, the Sardanapalus of the Greeks (668-626
<small>B.C.</small>), the last of the Sargon Dynasty, Assyrian prosperity reached its
culmination. Being, as he said, “endowed with attentive ears,”
Asurbanipal was inclined to the study of “all inscribed tablets” and
caused the collecting and re-editing of the whole cuneiform literature
then in existence. A great part of his “library” has been recovered from
the ruins of Koyunjik and is now in the British Museum.

In the year following this monarch’s death Nabopolassar (625-604 <small>B.C.</small>)
who seems to have been the Assyrian vice-roy of Babylonia, entered into
alliance with the Medes and through their help destroyed the supremacy
of the Assyrians and became the first king of the NEW BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.

       *       *       *       *       *

His son, Nebuchadnezzar, or Nebuchadrezzar, conquered Jerusalem and
carried its inhabitants captive to Babylon. To him this city owed its
final magnificence. Occupying both banks of the Euphrates, it was now
surrounded by two fortified walls, the outer one being fifty-five miles
in circumference, with a height of 340 feet and a thickness of 85. It
was further protected by 250 towers and pierced with a hundred gates of
brass. Numerous temples adorned the city, the grandest being that of the
national god, Marduk (Merodach). Near this was the royal palace, now
represented by the ruins of Al Gasr, “the Castle.” Sloping down from it
to the river were the terraced gardens laid out by the king for the
pleasure of his Median wife, Amytis. They are better known as the
hanging gardens of Semiramis, from the Greek account that attributed
various Oriental wonders to this mythical queen. Nebuchadnezzar also
restored the temple of Nebo in a suburb of Babylon, now called Borsippa.
This famous shrine was constructed in the form of a stepped-pyramid and
from its seven terraces was called “The Temple of the Seven Spheres of
Heaven and Earth.” Included in Assyrian temples was frequently a tower,
and the one belonging to this temple of Nebo is assumed to have been
associated with the story of the “Tower of Babel” (Genesis xi).

Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his son, Nabonidus, whose eldest son,
Belshazzar, was co-regent with him and governor of South Babylon. This
is the cuneiform record, which varies from that of Daniel (Chapter v),
who makes Belshazzar the son of Nebuchadnezzar and last king of
Babylonia. In 538 <small>B.C.</small> Cyrus the Great took Babylon by storm and the
country passed under the Persian rule. Darius I razed the fortified
walls and Xerxes stripped the temples of their golden images and
treasure. The city fell into decay, until in 300 <small>B.C.</small> much of it was
demolished to provide material for building the neighbouring city of
Seleucia. By the time of Pliny (23-72 <small>A.D.</small>) the once proud city was a
place of desolation.

       *       *       *       *       *

While the Assyrians and Babylonians were religious peoples, their
temples were insignificant, as compared with those of the Egyptians nor
have they left any tombs of architectural importance. Their religion was
of an eminently practical kind, devoted to securing benefits in this
world and concerned little with a future life. Thus their gods were
representative of natural phenomena or of their own pursuits: gods of
the sun, moon, the heavens, earth (Bel), weather; of water and canals,
the chase, war, invention of writing and literature; and unfriendly gods
of pestilence and fire.

As may be seen in their sculptures, they valued the qualities of energy
and physical prowess. Their kings are not represented, like those of
Egypt, as of slim, svelte figure, or wrapped in monumental composure.
They are giants of exaggerated muscular development, engaged in conflict
with wild beasts of corresponding strength. They were mighty captains of
war and in times of peace, mighty hunters and builders.

While Assyria borrowed its culture from Babylonia, the character of the
two nations was very different. Babylonia was a country of merchants and
agriculturists; Assyria, an organised camp. The latter’s dynasties were
founded by successful generals; while in Babylonia it was always a
priest whom a revolution raised to the throne and the king remained to
the last a priest under the control of a powerful hierarchy. The
Assyrian King, on the contrary, was an autocratic general, supported in
earlier times by a feudal nobility and, from the reign of
Tiglath-Pileser III, by an elaborate bureaucracy. In each country there
was a large body of slaves.

In Assyria education was confined to the ruling class; whereas in
Babylonia every one, women as well as men, learned to read and write.
Most of the Babylonian cities and temples had their libraries and the
genius of the people displayed itself most characteristically in
literature. Among works which have been discovered, whole or in
fragments, were the “Epic of Gilgamesh,” consisting of twelve books each
of which recounts an adventure in the hero’s career; another epic, that
of the Creation, and the “Legend of Adapa,” the first man. In astronomy
and astrology the Chaldæans and Babylonians from early times were
adepts; observatories being attached to the temples from which reports
were regularly submitted to the King. They were also skilled in
mathematics and mechanics. For example, a glass lens, turned on a lathe,
was discovered by Layard at Nimroud, among the remains of glass vases
which bear the name of Sargon.

While the Chaldæans in time had become mingled with the Babylonians, so
that the latter name was used to designate both peoples, the term
Chaldæan came to be used in a special sense. The “Wisdom of the
Chaldæans” continued to be recognised, and it was probably to the pure
race of Chaldæans that the priests, “astrologers” and “magicians”
belonged. And their distinction as wise men even survived the overthrow
of Babylon. In all likelihood they were Chaldæans, those “Wise men from
the East,” who saw and interpreted the star and followed it to
Bethlehem.




CHAPTER IV

CHALDÆAN, ASSYRIAN, AND BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE


=Brick Construction.=--In its principal features and general character of
construction, the architecture of each of these three civilisations is
similar, being based upon the methods that originated with the
Chaldæans. These methods were the direct result of the geographic and
climatic conditions of the country they inhabited. For Lower
Mesopotamia, Babylonia proper, is an alluvial plain, interrupted by a
single ridge of limestone hills which were sparsely covered with small
trees, especially the scrub-oak. Timber and stone were scarce, while
everywhere clay abounded. Accordingly, the chief material of
construction was brick, shaped in wooden moulds and sun-dried. The
limited amount of fuel permitted only the making of burnt bricks for
special purposes: namely, the facing of the structures and the paving of
the floors. And these superior bricks or tiles were frequently glazed
and decorated with ornament in bright colours.

Meanwhile, in Upper Mesopotamia, Assyria proper, the ground was
comparatively arid and plentifully supplied with limestone. Yet such was
the habit of the Assyrians to imitate the Southern kingdom in matters of
civilisation, that they also relied upon sun-dried brick for
construction, and employed glazed earthenware for decoration. In time,
however, they came to employ stone for facing as well as for the
sculpture, which was a characteristic decorative feature of the palaces.

=Platforms.=--We shall see presently how the fierce heat affected the
principles of architectural construction, noting in advance the means
taken to provide against the periodical inundations due to the
torrential rains and the overflow of the Tigris. From earlier times all
important buildings were erected upon platforms, constructed of
sun-dried bricks and faced with fired bricks or stone, the walls having
a batter, that is to say, sloping inward. Approach to the summit was
either by flights of steps or an inclined roadway that paralleled the
wall--technically known as a _ramp_. Intersecting these mounds or
platforms was a system of arched culverts, designed, as in modern
railroad embankments, to carry off the water.

In course of time, as buildings fell into decay or were replaced with
newer ones by later builders, the height of the mound increased. The
result is that the plain of Babylonia for 220 miles is studded with
immense mounds, some of them a mile in diameter and attaining 200 feet
in height, crowned with the remains of towns. Beneath these, the modern
explorer, cutting down into the interior of the mound, comes upon
successive stages of foundations, representing the remains of various
epochs.

=Temple at Nippur.=--The earliest example, so far disclosed, is a temple
at =Nippur=, which bears a close resemblance to the oldest pyramid in
Egypt, =Medum=, before the latter had been faced. It is on the principle
of the _stepped-pyramid_, consisting of several stories, each of which
sets back from the one below it, while the walls of all have a batter.
The terraces on one side are of extra width to allow for the stairways.
This old type of stage-temple, called in the East _ziggurat_ (holy
mountain), derived probably from the ancient custom of worshipping in
“high places,” was still preserved in the famous

[Illustration: “SARGON’S CASTLE,” NEAR KHORSABAD

CONJECTURED RESTORATION. P. 67]

[Illustration: PART OF “LION FRIEZE” AND “FRIEZE OF ARCHERS”

EXECUTED IN GLAZED TILES. P. 72]

[Illustration: DETAILS OF WALL DECORATION AT KOYUNJIK

SHOWING (LEFT) THE HANDLING OF A COLOSSAL BULL STATUE; AND (RIGHT) THAT
THE ASSYRIANS USED SOME FORM OF DOME-ROOFS]

=Temple of Nebo=, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar at =Borsippa=. Only four stages
of the latter survive, but a record discovered in the ruins shows that
the original number was seven, dedicated to the seven planets and
decorated with the colours sacred to each. The ground story of this
temple was 272 feet square and 45 feet high, while the total height of
the structure was about 160 feet. It is noteworthy that the tomb-pyramid
of =Medum= also consisted of seven stories.

In a ziggurat at =Tello=, opened up by the French savant, de Sarzac, was
discovered a magnificent collection of statues of diorite--a mixture of
granite, felspar and hornblende--dark grey in colour--which is now in
the Louvre. One of these, which has lost its head, represents a certain
Gudea, priest-king and architect of Lagash. He is seated and carries on
his lap a tablet, on which a fortified enclosure is engraved, while in
the corner appear a dividing scale and a stylos.

=Sargon’s Castle.=--The oldest palace remains have been discovered at
=Nimroud=, the ancient Calah. They belong to the palace of Assur-nazar-pal
(885-860 <small>B.C.</small>). Ten miles to the northeast, at =Khorsabad=, the French
explorer P. E. Botta, discovered in 1843 the remains of a tower and
palace, which subsequent excavations have proved to be the ruins of
Dur-Sharrukim, “Sargon’s Castle,” built by Sargon as a royal residence
(705-702 <small>B.C.</small>). The remains of the palace, being the most extensive of
those hitherto explored, can be studied as a type of Assyrian palace
architecture.

The platform on which the palace stood, constructed of sun-dried bricks
and faced with cut stone, reaches the immense size of nearly a million
square feet, raised forty-eight feet above the surrounding level
country. The total platform, therefore, measured about 23 acres, as
compared with the 3½ acres occupied by the Capitol at Washington, or the
8 acres occupied by the Houses of Parliament in London. Making allowance
for the fact that the Assyrian Palace did not extend over the whole of
the platform space, its actual dimensions must have been approximately
twice as large as the Houses of Parliament and four and a half times
those of the Capitol.

Leading up from the level on the northeast side appears to have been a
double ramp, for the use of chariots and for general service, while the
state entrance was at the southeast by a double flight of steps. These
mounted to a terrace that extended the whole length of the palace front,
some 900 feet. In the centre of this façade was the principal gate,
which was small in actual size, but flanked by two tower-like
projections of masonry. These, for the moment, may recall the pylons
that flanked the entrance to an Egyptian temple. But the latter stately
structures, built with a batter and crowned with a _cavetto cornice_,
were designed for monumental dignity. On the other hand, the towers of
Sargon’s Castle were pierced near the top with loop-holes and surmounted
by battlements. They were designed to serve the purpose of warlike
defence and suggest appropriately that the entrance is not only to a
palace but also to the castle or stronghold of a feudal chieftain. The
same suggestion is prolonged in the battlemented walls, free of windows
and only occasionally pierced with loopholes, which seem to have
surrounded the entire structure.

=Gateway.=--The towers were embellished with a notably structural
decoration, a system of rectangular panelling, filled with semi-circular
shafts. The ornamental details were derived from the Chaldæan use of
glazed tiles, decorated with rosettes, palmettes, lotus-flowers and the
_guilloche_ or repeat of intertwined bands, arching round a central
button. Similarly decorated is the _archivolt_ which surrounds the arch
of the entrance, the latter being a _barrel-_ or semi-circular-vaulted
passageway, carried right through the thickness of the walls.

=Colossal Bulls.=--In Egypt the entrance to the temples was made solemn
and magnificent by colossal statues of the monarch. Here, the beholder
must have been filled with awe by the colossal monsters that stood as
guardians of the portal, projecting from the side-posts of the gateway
and ranged in pairs at the foot of each tower. These monsters, which are
now in the British Museum, fitly embody the warlike ideals of the
Assyrian nation. They loom up in height to twelve feet. Their bodies are
those of bulls, mighty in bulk and thews; yet they are quick to attack,
having eagle’s wings, while dominating them is the head of a man,
large-eyed, thick-lipped, square of jaw and hairy, implacably sensual
and cruel.

The modeling of these monsters is for the most part as broad as a Barye
bronze; though minute detail is attained in the sculpturing of the
beards, hair and head-dresses. But, while their treatment is in the main
naturalistic, their motive is not representation of nature, but the
representation of an idea through natural suggestion. Accordingly, each
embodiment has five legs; the two forelegs, planted side by side, being
supplemented by another in the act of walking; so that whether the
monster be viewed from the front or the side, the full significance of
the legs is emphasised--the forelegs representing firmly established
power; the side view showing the legs in free and powerful movement.

=No Columns.=--The arched entrance leads into a large open court that
corresponds to the great court of an Egyptian temple, although here the
sides are not embellished with colonnades. For, nowhere in Assyrian
architecture has the column been found as a structural member. The
single example which has been excavated, measured only three feet four
inches in height and, it is conjectured, was used for a pavilion,
possibly to support an awning. The absence of columnar construction in
the early buildings of the Lower Kingdom is easily accounted for by the
scarcity of stone; and the northern builders in dispensing with columns
were only following their usual habit of imitation.

=No Windows.=--Meanwhile, another reason for the absence of columns may be
found in the fierce heat of Mesopotamia, against which colonnades would
prove no protection. The same cause explains the absence of windows in
Assyrian palaces, for none have been found or shown in any of the
bas-reliefs. It has been considered possible that such light as was
needed was admitted through terra-cotta pipes or cylinders, for many of
the latter have been come upon in the ruins and this method is still
employed in the East for the lighting of domes.

=?Barrel Vaults?=--Another feature of the interior construction was the
immense thickness of the walls, which varied from nine to twenty-five
feet in solid brickwork. The object may have been to secure additional
coolness, but this reason will scarcely afford a complete explanation of
the extreme measurement. It is significant that the latter occurs in the
halls of state which are also distinguished by their great length of 150
feet as compared with the width, 30 feet. When the narrow width of the
halls is considered in relation to the immense thickness of the walls,
it seems reasonable to conclude that the latter were intended to
support the downward strain of barrel-vaulted ceilings. Additional
probability is given to this conclusion by La Place’s discovery of great
blocks, curved like the soffits of a vault, which had apparently fallen
from a height. Moreover, in a bas-relief found by Layard in Koyunjik
some of the buildings are shown to be roofed on the outside by domes.
Accordingly, it is now the generally accepted belief that the usual
style of ceiling employed by the Assyrians, was the barrel-vault.

The origin of the latter may be found in the culverts by which the
mounds were drained; but how, considering the scarcity of timber, it was
possible to construct vaults of thirty feet span, is purely a matter of
conjecture. It has been suggested that, while timber was costly,
slave-labour was cheap, and it is possible that temporary structures of
brick were erected as an underpinning to support the vault while in
process of construction. On the other hand, we shall note later on that
the architects of Gothic cathedrals, in countries where timber was
scarce, adopted the method of rib-vaulting. Can it be possible that this
invention was anticipated by the Assyrians?

=Decorations.=--The walls of these halls of state were decorated up to a
height of nine feet with sculptured slabs of delicate white alabaster or
brilliantly yellow limestone, on which traces of paint have been
discovered. As in the case of the Egyptian temples, scenes of everyday
life, as well as of war or hunting, are represented, with a vividness
that shows how closely nature had been studied by the sculptors, who,
however, were more intent upon representing the spirit of the scene and
preserving the feeling of decoration than in imitating nature.

Thus, when they represented an archer, stretching his bow, neither the
string nor the arrow was allowed to cut the lines of the figure. Both
were shown as if the hand which held them were on the opposite side of
the body. It is needless to say that this could not have been due to
ignorance or negligence on the part of the sculptor, who otherwise
proved his knowledge and observation of nature; but was a deliberate
kind of conventionalisation, adopted, like the five legs of the colossal
bulls, for a well-considered purpose--perhaps, not to interfere with the
action of the figure.

Above the dado of sculpture the walls were embellished with glazed
tiles, decorated with winged figures of the King, and occasionally with
animals, especially lions, framed with borders of rosettes. The usual
colours were yellow, blue, green, and black. Coloured tiles also, as
well as slabs of alabaster, formed the paving of the floors, which, in
the case of smaller rooms, were formed merely of stamped clay, covered,
no doubt, while in use, with mats or rugs.

Wall paintings of figures and arabesques seem to have been an
exceptional form of decoration, found at Khorsabad only in the larger
rooms of the harem.

Yet for all this brilliance of decoration, the effect of the interiors
must have been one of subdued richness. The imagination, indeed,
pictures the vast palace with its labyrinth of seven hundred rooms,
surrounding three sides of the entrance court, where the glare of
sunshine would be pitiless, as a sort of subterranean arrangement of
tunnel-like passages and chambers.

Their distribution can be studied in the ground plan restoration. There
were three groups, each disposed around its own central court. On the
left of the main court lay the harem, with its separate provision for
four wives, while on the opposite side was accommodation for the
service, including kitchen, bakery, wine cellars, and stables. Fronting
the main entrance were the King’s suite of rooms and the quarters of his
official staff, beyond which were the halls of state. In the open space,
adjoining the royal rooms, rose the ziggurat, or terraced temple, the
three lower stories of which still exist, connected by a winding ramp.

The conception that one gathers of this huge pile is, externally, of a
stronghold, somewhat forbidding; internally, of a crypt-like maze,
offering perhaps comfort, but little beauty--the lair of the absolute
monarch of a race to whom the market-place and fields of battle and
hunting represented the chief ideals of existence.




CHAPTER V

PERSIAN CIVILISATION


The name Iran, by which the Persians still call their country, preserves
the origin of their race. They were Aryans, as distinguished from the
Semitic peoples; a branch of the race which migrated from the country
now called Southern Russia and Turkestan into the rich lands of the
South. One branch pushed on to the Ganges and became identified with
India; the other settled about the Indus, whence they gradually pushed
their way westward. This branch comprised many tribes which in time
developed into peoples.

The most powerful of these at the period when the Aryans first came into
conflict with the Semitic race, was the Medes, who occupied the northern
part of the west side of what is now Persia, while the Persians, who
rose to supremacy later, occupied the southern part. This western
division of the country, separated by a desert from the eastern,
entirely differs in character from Mesopotamia.

For a distance of 50 miles from the Persian Gulf it is flat, swampy, and
unhealthful. Then it rises to a system of mountain ranges that average
five thousand feet in height, broken up with valleys, lakes, and
countless streams. It was a country admirably adapted to rear a hardy
and industrious race of men and fine breeds of cattle and horses. The
Aryans seem to have always been cattle breeders, from which fact is
supposed to be derived the reverence of the cow, which still exists in
India. They were also great lovers of the horse and it was not until
after 1700 <small>B.C.</small> when advanced posts of the Aryan migration came in touch
with the Semitic nations of the West, that the horse made its appearance
in Babylonia, Egypt, and Greece. But, while the bas-reliefs of the
Egyptians after this date show the horse used only in chariots, its
general use among the Persians was for riding purposes. So the love of
the modern Aryan races for the horse and horse exercise is an inherited
instinct that knits them like their language to their earliest
ancestors.

Of the Assyrian Kings, Shalmaneser II was the first to come in conflict
with the Medes, and from this date (836 <small>B.C.</small>), the Medes are frequently
mentioned in Assyrian records as paying tribute. Finally, in 626 <small>B.C.</small>,
the fortunes of war began to be reversed. The Median King, Cyaxares, as
we have seen in a previous chapter, formed an alliance with Nabopolassar
that resulted in the ousting of the Assyrian domination from Babylon and
the establishment of the New Babylonian Empire. The Medes followed this
up by a vigorous campaign against Assyria which resulted, in 606 <small>B.C.</small> in
the taking and destruction of Nineveh. New capitals were built at Susa
and Ecbatana and the sway of the Medes extended over Northern
Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Cappadocia.

Then in 550 <small>B.C.</small> the Median supremacy ceased. Cyrus, King of Persia, of
the clan Achæmenian, rebelled against his suzerain, Astyages, the son of
Cyaxares, conquered him in battle and became the founder of the Persian
Empire. He captured Babylon in 538 <small>B.C.</small> and gradually extended his sway
from the Indus River to the Ægean Sea and the borders of Egypt. In his
homeland of Persia he founded the city of Pasargadae, the modern
Murghab, where he built himself a palace and a tomb. For it was here
that his Persians, urged on by their women-folk, had struck the final
blow that conquered the Medes. Accordingly, each king of the Achæmenian
dynasty was here, in the temple of the warrior goddess, invested with
the garb of Cyrus and partook of a meal of figs, terebinth, and sour
milk; and, whenever he visited the city, gave a gold piece to every
woman.

Darius I, fourth of the Achæmenian dynasty, founded Persepolis, about
forty miles northeast of the modern Shiraz, commenced building the
famous palace and constructed for himself a tomb. Xerxes I added a
palace and a tomb of his own, while tombs also were built by Artaxerxes
III and Darius II. But, while Persepolis remained the favourite resort
of the Persian Kings, it was too remote a spot to be the seat of
government, which continued to be divided between Babylon, Susa, and
Ecbatana.

Meanwhile, under Xerxes I the Persian power came into conflict with the
Hellenic and was worsted in the battles of Platæa and Thermopylæ and the
sea-fight at Salamis. Henceforth the advance of the Persian Empire was
checked; dissensions began to weaken it; the central authority relapsed
into feebleness, with lurid intervals of cruelty, until finally it
succumbed to the rising tide of Macedonian conquest. In 331 <small>B.C.</small>
Alexander the Great crushed the army of Darius III near Arbela; took in
turn the cities of Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana and stripped them of
their treasure, finally capturing Persepolis, and setting fire to it.

This act of vandalism has been variously explained. One story, which
forms the subject of Dryden’s “Ode to Saint Cecilia’s Day,” had it that
the wanton act was instigated by the courtezan, Thais. Another story is
that it was an act of revenge for the destruction of Greek temples by
Xerxes I; while still another relates that in this destruction of the
very heart of Iran, Alexander wished to impress the Oriental imagination
with the absoluteness of his supremacy.

After being subject to the rule of the successors of Alexander and to
the domination of the later Parthian Empire, Persia once more became an
empire under the Sassanian Dynasty, Ctesiphon being one of its chief
cities. In the seventh century <small>A.D.</small> it was conquered by the Saracens and
entered into the Mohammedan civilisation, which we shall discuss in a
later chapter.

       *       *       *       *       *

The rapid rise of the Persian power was due to the hardiness of this
mountain race and its highly organised preparation for war. Every
Persian able to bear arms was bound to serve the King: the great
landowners on horseback, the commonalty on foot. The army, therefore,
unlike those of the Oriental nations it encountered, was composed of
cavalry as well as infantry; and, while the latter, armed with bows,
kept the enemy at a distance and harassed them with storms of arrows,
the cavalry, operating on their flanks and rear, completed the rout. It
was only when the power had become unwieldy by its very vastness, that
this method of warfare proved useless against the Greek hoplites and the
massed formation of the Macedonian phalanx.

In its beginning the Persian system was a beneficent feudalism. The
nobles, excused from personal cultivation of the soil, were pledged to
appear at Court as frequently as possible. Their children were brought
up in company with the princes “at the Gate of the King,” instructed in
riding, hunting, and the use of weapons, educated to the service of the
State and a knowledge of the law, as well as to the commandments of
religion. Under Darius, who completed the vast structure of empire which
Cyrus had founded, the organisation of government and society was on
broad and free lines; an empire established in righteousness, following
the precepts of Zoroaster.

It is concluded from various testimony that this great prophet of the
Aryan peoples lived about 1000 <small>B.C.</small> He taught that in this world there
is a continual conflict between the Powers of Good--Light, Creative
Strength, Life, and Truth--and the Powers of Evil--Darkness,
Destruction, Death, and Deceit. At the head of the Good Powers is the
Great Wisdom Ahuramazda, whose helpers are the six powers of Good
Thought, Right Order, Excellent Kingdom, Holy Character, Health, and
Immortality. At the head of the Evil, Ahriman. Midway between these
Powers is Man, who has to make his choice on which side he will take his
stand. He is called to serve the Powers of Good; to speak the truth and
fight a lie; to obey the command of law and true order; to tend his
cattle and fields; to practise the Good and True in thought, word, and
deed, and to keep from pollution the elements of the earth, water, and
particularly fire. For Zoroaster preserved the old Aryan belief in the
element of fire. Altars were erected upon the hills, tended by
fire-kindlers, who were the ministers of the true religion and the
intermediaries between God and man.

Moreover, Zoroastrianism was a proselytising religion. Ahuramazda, whom
king and people alike acknowledged, had given them dominion “over the
earth afar, over many peoples and tongues.” Yet, while they felt it to
be their destiny to rule the whole world, the Persians believed that it
was the will of Ahuramazda that they must govern it aright. Hence they
treated the conquered with clemency and employed their leaders as
administrators and generals. Cyrus, for example, permitted the Jews to
return to Jerusalem and restored to them the temple vessels of gold and
silver which had been taken by Nebuchadnezzar.

Thus, the religion of Iran had to do with practical life, this world and
the joy thereof, and moral conduct; and as long as it retained its
character of plain living and high thinking--of which the simple
coronation ritual of the kings was symbolical--the Empire continued
strong. Luxury, however, gradually crept in; the Persian Kings vied with
the Kings they had conquered in magnificence of living and slowly but
surely the strength of the Empire was sapped.

Cruelty also became part of the Persian religion, as indicated by
remains of human sacrifices taken from ash-heaps that stood beside
Zoroastrian altars. This also caused a degeneration to devil-worship,
which in some localities survives to-day.




CHAPTER VI

PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE


=Combination of Style.=--In the days before their supremacy the Persians,
as agriculturists and breeders of cattle and horses, preserving their
simple existence, had no desire or need of monumental architecture. But
when Cyrus had overthrown the domination of the Medes, made himself
master of Mesopotamia and extended his conquests to the shores of the
Ægean Sea, he too was minded to immortalise in architecture the might of
the Persian Empire. Accordingly, as his race had no traditions in
building, he borrowed from the methods and styles of the nations he had
conquered. Thus Persian architecture represents a mingling of Median,
Assyrian, Asiatic Greek and, in a small degree, Egyptian.

The boyhood of Cyrus was spent at the court of Astyages the Mede, so
that the Median palaces at =Susa= and =Ecbatana= were familiar to him. Those
of the latter city, according to Polybius consisted of porticoes and
hypostyle halls, the columns being of cedar or cypress, overlaid with
plates of silver. These have long since disappeared, and the remains
which now exist at =Ecbatana= are of columns of stone, which are supposed
to be part of the restoration of the palace under the Persian Kings. For
the substitution of stone for wood in the columns distinguishes
everywhere the Persian architecture.


=Tombs and Palaces; No Temples.=--The remains of Persian architecture
comprise tombs and palaces. The

[Illustration: TOMB OF DARIUS I

EXCAVATED IN THE MOUNTAIN SIDE, PERSEPOLIS. P. 82]

[Illustration: PALACE OF DARIUS I, PERSEPOLIS

CONJECTURED RESTORATION. OF WHICH THE TOMB FAÇADE WAS AN IMITATION. P.
82]

[Illustration: TYPES OF PERSIAN COLUMNS P. 83]

[Illustration: HALL OF ONE HUNDRED COLUMNS, PERSEPOLIS

CONJECTURED RESTORATION. P. 85]

[Illustration: THE PALACES OF PERSEPOLIS

CONJECTURED RESTORATION. P. 84]

Zoroastrian religion had no use for temples made with hands. Its temple
was the universe; the floor of it the mountain tops of Persia from which
countless altars, tended continually by the Fire-Kindlers, sent up
flames in worship of the element of Fire. Meanwhile it was the desire of
every Persian Monarch whom war and government obliged to be absent so
much from the homeland, that, when they died, their bodies should be
brought home “to the Persians.” Accordingly, when Cyrus erected a palace
at =Pasargadae=, the modern Marghab, he also built himself a =Tomb=, which
still exists.

Its style is a singular mixture of Assyrian and Asiatic Greek. Built of
large blocks of white polished marble, it consists of a platform of
seven steps, on the top of which is a small shrine or cella, rectangular
in plan, covered by a pitched roof that terminates in the front and
rear, in a gable-end or pediment. It is, in fact, a Greek temple of very
rudimentary simplicity, mounted on a ziggurat. The ruins show that the
tomb was surrounded on three sides by colonnades.

Following the Assyrian precedent, the =Palace of Cyrus= occupied a
platform, of about 40,000 square feet, which still exists and is known
to the natives as “The Throne of Solomon.” But here the terrace is of
natural rock, faced round the sides with cut stone walls distinguished
by the beauty of the masonry. It is the earliest instance known of the
so-called _drafted_ masonry, of which a magnificent example is found in
the terraces of Herod’s temple at Jerusalem. It represents a method of
cutting, which leaves the surface of the block of stone rough-hewn, as
when it left the quarry, but dresses the edges to a “draft,” or smooth,
bevelled surface.

Such scanty remains as have been found suggest that Cyrus’s palace was
of the simplest kind, including a central hall, the roof of which was
carried by two rows of stone columns, thirty feet high, with porticoes
_in antis_. The latter is a feature borrowed from Greek-Asiatic
temple-building; the term, _in antis_, being used when the columns of
the portico are set between the prolongation of the side walls of the
main building.

It is, however, from the remains of the group of buildings at =Persepolis=
that the magnificence of Persian architecture can be best appreciated.
Here, again, is a terrace of natural rock; but of vast size, covering an
area of about one million six hundred thousand square feet. This, like
the terrace of the Escoriál of the Spanish Kings, projects from the foot
of a rocky mountain side. The Escoriál includes a royal mausoleum, built
within the confines of the palace; but, at Persepolis, three tombs, one
of them unfinished, are excavated behind the palace in the mountain
wall. Two are supposed to be the resting places of later kings,
Artaxerxes II and III, while the unfinished one is that of Arses, who
reigned only two years.

Meanwhile the =Tomb of Darius I=, the founder of Persepolis, has been
identified as one of four tombs, eight miles distant from the palace.
These also are excavated in the mountain side, and at such a height from
the bottom of the valley, that they corroborate the account which
Ctesias, the Greek historian of Persia, gives of the tomb of Darius,
that it was on the face of a rock and only to be reached by an apparatus
of ropes. The three other tombs of this group are ascribed to Xerxes I,
Artaxerxes I, and Darius II.

The Tomb of Darius I is of special interest because it bears upon its
face a sculptured representation of the palace which he built at
Persepolis. This mode of decorating a tomb was probably derived from the
Lycians, whose custom it was to face their rock-cut tombs with a
representation of the house which the deceased had occupied while alive.
Meanwhile, there is little doubt that the Lycians derived the idea of
the rock-hewn tomb from Egypt.

The sculptured front of Darius’s tomb shows the portico of the palace,
and above it, upon the roof, the monarch himself upon his throne. The
latter is an immense cube, the face of which is decorated with an upper
and a lower row of warriors, or perhaps, tribute-bearers, while the
corners are buttressed with baluster-shaped columns, surmounted by
bulls’ heads. The monarch stands before the altar, with hands uplifted
in worship of the sun and moon. This recognition of the religion of the
Babylonians and Assyrians is characteristic of the Persian attitude
toward conquered nations, and recalls Cyrus’s proclamation to these
nations, guaranteeing them their life and property and designating
himself the favourite of their own sun-god, Marduk, Bel-Merodach.

The lower part of the façade of the tomb represents the portico of
Darius’s palace. The four columns are set _in antis_, but we have to
imagine the second row of columns as well as the windows which flanked
the door, and, like the latter, were constructed, as the ruins of the
palace shows, with monolithic jambs and lintels.

The =columns= suggest two considerations: first, the use of them, as
compared with the entire absence of the structural column in Assyrian
and Babylonian architecture, and, secondly, the peculiar design of their
capitals. The use was derived through the Medes probably from
Asiatic-Greek models; but the form of the capital is peculiar to
Persian architecture. It is composed of the head and forelegs of two
recumbent beasts, which have been called bulls, but bear much more
resemblance to horses, and when they have a horn, to the unicorn, a
fabled creature that early legend attributed to India. It was identified
with strength and fleetness and might well have been used symbolically
by a race that derived from the same Aryan source as the Indians; while
the use of the horse in decoration would come naturally to a nation of
horse-lovers. It is also noticeable that these beasts are embellished
with trappings that suggest harness.

However this may be, the tomb carving shows between the heads, the ends
of the beams that support the cornice and roof. As these are not found
in the case of the columns at Persepolis, it appears that the roofs of
the palaces were constructed of wood, which perished in the fire of
Alexander. It has been remarked that the character of this whole
portico, taken in connection with the wooden columns at Pasagardae,
suggests that the style of Persian palace architecture was derived
originally from a primitive wooden construction. But, while this may be
true, its development into stone construction was not affected by the
Persians themselves. They employed Asiatic-Greek workmen whose style of
temple-building, like that of the Mainland-Greeks, shows the traces of
primitive wood construction.

Before leaving this tomb, there is one other feature to be noticed;
namely, that the lintel of the doorway is surmounted by a
cavetto-cornice, decorated with rows of conventionalised lotus-petals,
derived through Lycia, from Egypt.

The restored plan of the platform of palaces at Persepolis exhibits a
monumental approach on the west side, formed of a double flight of
marble steps, set in double ramp. The steps are 22 feet wide, with a
rise of 4 inches and a tread of 15, so that they could easily be mounted
by horses. The stairs led to a terrace, paved, as was the whole
platform, with marble, in the centre of which was the entrance gate, or,
to use the later classic term, a Propylæa. This was square in plan, with
a portal, front and rear, flanked by winged bulls, while the ceiling was
supported by four columns. Its walls, like those of the other buildings,
built of sun-dried bricks or _rubble_ masonry, set with clay mortar,
have long since crumbled into ruins.

The earliest palace of the group is that of Darius I, to the portico of
which we have already alluded. Its plan shows a room, right and left of
the portico, in which may have been stairs leading to the roof; then a
square hypostyle hall of sixteen columns, set in rows of four, with
various chambers, along the sides and at the end.

In one building, the =Hall of a Hundred Columns=, the roof was carried by
ten ranges of ten columns; for the hall, as indeed were all the halls at
Persepolis, was square in plan. This can scarcely have been a mere
coincidence. Is it fanciful to imagine that a people, trained in
Zoroastrianism, found in the principle of the square a fitting symbol of
“Creative Strength” and “Right Order”?

But the most important building at Persepolis, “one of the most
stupendous relics of antiquity,” is the great =Palace of Xerxes=. Elevated
on a terrace of its own, twenty feet high, which was ascended on the
north side by four flights of steps, it occupied an area of one hundred
thousand square feet, more than double that of the Great Hall at Karnak,
and larger than that of any Gothic cathedral in Europe, Milan and
Seville alone excepted. Two rows of six columns supported each of the
three porticoes, and six times six the ceiling of the Hall: in which
combination one may perhaps detect a symbol of the Six Helpers of
Ahuramazda, “the spiritual Wise One” or “Great Wisdom.”

The columns, including base and capital, rose to a height of 65 feet,
which may be compared with the 69 feet of the central nave columns in
the Hall of Karnak. The latter, however, had a diameter of 12 feet, and
were separated by intervals of scarcely twice that width; while those in
Xerxes’ palace were set at a comparatively far greater distance from one
another and measured in diameter only about 5 feet. Moreover, instead of
a minimum of light percolating through a clerestory as at Karnak, the
light and air streamed freely through the windows in the walls of
Xerxes’ palace, so that in every respect the impression produced by the
two halls must have been very different.

The grandeur of Karnak was weighted down with mystery and awe, while
Xerxes’ “lordly pleasure house” was an exalted symbol of the Zoroastrian
belief in the joy of life. For in addition to the grandeur of its
structural features, the imagination must picture the accompanying
gladness of marble floors, water basins, fountains, and flowers, and
varicoloured rugs and hangings. The walls, also, may have been
resplendent with brilliantly enamelled tiles as in Xerxes’ other palace
at =Susa=, where the French explorer, M. Dieulafoy, discovered the
magnificent frieze of archers, a frieze of lions, and other decorations
executed in bright-coloured enamels on concrete blocks. That Xerxes
spared no pains to render his palace at Persepolis as superb as possible
may be inferred from the columns in the hall and north portico. For in
them the double capital of beasts does not rest directly on the fluted
shafts, but is supplemented by two lower members; the first a curious
arrangement of scrolls or volutes, the second a sort of conventionalised
calyx of the lotus, beneath which, in bell-like form, is a
conventionalisation of pendant leaves. In the volutes a suggestion of
the Ionic capital has been detected, while the lower points to an
Egyptian origin.

This medley of motives has a certain decorative value, but lacks the
supreme beauty of architectural relationship between the parts and the
whole. That is to say, the use of the various parts has not been
regulated by _constructive_ logic, necessity, or fitness; but represents
a purely whimsical and arbitrary multiplication of motive. The student
may assure himself of this by comparing the Persian column with the
Doric Order. In the latter he may observe a superior quality of fitness
in the relationship of the parts and of the sense of an inevitable
logical growth in the composition as a whole.

The fantastic elaboration of the columns at Persepolis, as well as the
general conglomeration of motives in Persian architecture, points to the
fact that the latter was the work of foreign artists, imported from
various parts of the great Persian Empire. It represents the character
of the empire--a variety in unity; a unity, however, not of natural
growth, but one that, having no artistic traditions of its own, puts the
world under tribute to supply motives for the exploitation of its
magnificence.




CHAPTER VII

MINOAN OR ÆGEAN CIVILISATION


So far our study of ancient civilisation and architecture has been
fairly consecutive. We have now to break the continuity of the story and
take a leap back into a remote past and explore the origins of a
civilisation which was a forerunner of that of Greece. This civilisation
had been called “Mycenæan” because its existence was first brought to
modern knowledge by Schliemann’s discoveries in Mycenæ. But subsequent
exploration has proved that the civilisation was far spread and that
Mycenæ was not even the centre of it.

One of the most astonishing results of recent exploration is the
knowledge of a civilisation that developed without break from the
polished stone age and reached its highest point contemporaneously with
the New Empire in Egypt; ending, that is to say, about 1000 <small>B.C.</small> Not the
least interesting feature of the discovery is that it throws a new light
on the civilisation of prehistoric Greece.

The classical writers of Greece pointed to Mycenæ and Tiryns in Argolis
as being the principal evidence of a prehistoric civilisation, which was
assumed to belong to the Homeric period or even farther back to a rude
heroic beginning of Hellenic civilisation. This opinion continued to be
held by scholars until <small>A.D.</small> 1876. In this year, however, Dr. Schliemann,
opening up the graves which are just inside the Lion Gateway of the
citadel at Mycenæ, came upon a quantity of objects which proved the high
state of civilisation to which the prehistoric inhabitants of the city
had attained. Furthermore, they corresponded in character to the vases
and gold, silver, and bronze objects which, three years earlier, he had
dug from the ruins of the “Burnt City” (Troy) at Hissarlik in the Troad.
These objects from the peninsula of Peloponnesus and the mainland of
Asia Minor were not only similar in character but also of a fabric and
decoration which differed from those of any known art. But a relation
between the objects of art described by Homer and these “Mycenæan”
treasures was generally allowed.

In 1884-1885 Schliemann and Dörpfeld, exploring the ruins of Tiryns,
came upon a building which offers the most complete example in Greece of
a palace of the “Mycenæan” age, belonging to a period probably between
1400 and 1200 <small>B.C.</small> During the subsequent years of the nineteenth
century, when exploration was extended to other parts of the
Peloponnesus and Northern parts of Greece, dome or beehive tombs, such
as had been found at Mycenæ, were discovered in Attica, Thessaly, and
elsewhere. By degrees, exploration was carried beyond the mainland of
Greece to the Ionian Islands and the islands of the Ægean, particularly
to Cyprus and Crete and the mainland of Asia Minor. This resulted in
further discoveries of objects, related in a common family, distinct
from that of any other art division. Meanwhile, objects of similar
character were met with in Egypt, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain.

Finally, the culmination of all this mass of corroborative evidence was
reached by the explorations of Dr. A. J. Evans, at Cnossus in Crete,
which have been followed up by explorations in Phæstus, and other Cretan
sites. The net result is to establish the knowledge that Crete was the
centre of a civilisation which had dealings with Egypt and Mesopotamia
and extended to the sea-coast of Asia Minor and Phœnicia, the other
islands of the Ægean Archipelago, the Ionian Islands, and the mainland
of Greece and spread its offshoots along the west shores of the
Adriatic, into Sardinia and Spain and took deep root in Sicily. To the
far-extending ramifications of this civilisation has been given the
comprehensive name of Minoan or Ægean.

In a most remarkable way the discoveries in Crete have corroborated the
Greek legends of the Cretan King Minos. It is conjectured that a Minos
may have been the founder of a dynasty and that the name passed into a
title of all the rulers, corresponding to the title, Pharaoh, in Egypt.
Scholars, therefore, have given the name Minoan to the civilisation of
Crete; dividing it into Early, Middle, and Late Minoan.

In the Early Minoan Period, represented in the contents of early tombs
and dwellings and such objects as stone vases and seal-stones, there is
evidence that the Cretans had already reached considerable cultivation
and had opened up communications with the Nile Valley. The date of this
period is conjectured to have centred around 2500 <small>B.C.</small>, and to have
corresponded, roughly speaking, with the earlier of the Egyptian
dynasties. Most remarkable of Dr. Evans’s discoveries was the finding in
1900 of whole archives of clay tablets in the palace of Cnossus, which
prove that the Cretans had a highly developed system of hieroglyphics
and lineal script 2000 years before the time when the Phœnicians
introduced writing into Greece. Incidentally, this knowledge
corroborates the statement of the historian Diodorus, that the
Phœnicians did not invent letters, but only altered their forms.

The Middle Minoan Period centres round 2000-1850 <small>B.C.</small>, and corresponds
with the Twelfth Dynasty in Egypt. It was the age of the earliest palace
building. Already appears the beginning of a school of wall-painting,
while a manufactory of fine faience was attached to the palace at
Cnossus.

The Late Minoan Period covers the period of the Hyksos usurpation in
Egypt and reached its own culmination about the time of the Eighteenth
Dynasty when the New Egyptian Empire or Second Theban Monarchy
commenced. We have already noted the appearance in Egypt of this Cretan
influence, inducing a habit of naturalistic representation in place of
the old conventionalised forms of sculpture and painting. To this late
Minoan period belongs the greatest development of palace building, as
seen at Cnossus, Phæstus, and Tiryns, while the painting on walls and
vases becomes more free and animated than anything of the kind in Egypt.

Toward 1400 <small>B.C.</small> a period of decline becomes apparent in Cretan art,
which is reflected all over the Ægean area. The conclusion is that the
islands and mainland of Greece had been invaded by less civilised
conquerors, who, having no cultivation of their own, adopted the art
they found and spoiled it. Probably they came from the North of Greece
and were precursors of the later “Hellenes.”

Finally, about 1000 <small>B.C.</small>, the palace at Cnossus was again destroyed,
never again to be rebuilt; and at the same time the “Bronze Age” of
Minoan and Mycenæan civilisation came to an end. It fell before a
nation, barbarous, but possessed of iron weapons; probably the tribes
which later Greek tradition and Homer knew as Dorians. Then followed a
period of several centuries of unrest, as, successively, Achaæn, Æolian,
and Doric migrations came from the North through the mainland of Greece
and the islands of the Ægean, while an Ionian migration from Armenia
spread to the west shore of Asia Minor. Finally, when the Ægean area
emerges into history, it is dominated by Hellenes.

The Ægean Archipelago has been called the ancient bridge between the
civilisations of the East and West, and the imagination pictures Crete
at the southern end of it, within easy distance of three continents and
engaged in peaceful intercourse with all; the head of a maritime
confederacy of sea-rovers who planted their trading stations throughout
the Mediterranean, their art everywhere following their trade. She
herself was protected from aggression by her island walls; while the
outposts of culture on the mainland of Greece--Mycenæ and Tiryns--were
compelled to erect their palaces within citadels.

From the fact that no remains of Minoan and Mycenæan temples have been
found, but only shrines within the precincts of the palaces, it has been
concluded that, as in Assyria and Babylonia, the monarchs were also
priests. Evidence points to the principal Minoan divinity being a kind
of Earth Mother, who was associated with a satellite god. One part of
her religious attributes survived in the later Aphrodite, the other in
Rhea, the mother of the Olympian Zeus. While images of the deity were
made as early as 2000 <small>B.C.</small> the principal objects of worship, or
fetishes, in the Minoan age were natural objects: rocks and mountain
peaks, trees, and curiously shaped stones, and even artificial pillars
of wood and stone. Sometimes, as in the famous instance of the Lion Gate
at Mycenæ, the fetish object--here a pillar--was guarded by animals.

A special form of fetish for the two principal divinities was that of
the double axes: one double-headed axe above another on the same handle.
“It has been discovered,” says the Encyclopædia Britannica (11th
edition), “that the great Minoan foundation at Cnossus was at once a
palace and a sanctuary of the Double Axe. We can hardly any longer
hesitate to recognise in this vast building, with its winding corridors
and subterranean ducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition. It is
difficult, also, not to connect the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs
of the palace, illustrating the cruel bull sports of the Minoan arena,
in which girls as well as youths took part, with the legend of the
Minotaur, or Bull of Minos, for whose grisly meals Athens was forced to
pay annual tribute of her own sons and daughters.” Actual figures of a
monster with a bull’s head and man’s body have been found on seals in
Crete, and evidence points to these bull sports being part of a
religious ceremony.

Even the smaller houses were of stone, plastered within, while the
palaces suggest a luxurious mode of living; being richly decorated, with
separate sleeping apartments and large halls, fine stairways,
bath-chambers, windows, folding and sliding doors, and remarkably modern
arrangements for water supply and drainage. The furniture included
thrones, tables, seats, constructed of stone or plastered terra-cotta; a
great variety of cooking utensils and vessels of all sorts from stone
wine jars, ten feet high, to the tiniest ointment-holders.

Ladies, in curiously modern costumes, formed a favourite subject both
for wall-decoration and miniature painting; many of the latter showing
groups with architectural and landscape surroundings, done with
remarkable spirit and naturalness.

The clay tablets are almost exclusively concerned with inventories and
business transactions, and prove that a decimal system of numeration was
used.

Next to Cnossus the most important sources of knowledge concerning this
ancient civilisation have been Hissarlik, Mycenæ, Phæstus, Hagia Triada,
and Tiryns.

[Illustration: WALL DECORATION IN PALACE OF CNOSSUS

SHOWING MALE AND FEMALE BULL-FIGHTERS. P. 93]

[Illustration: LYON GATEWAY AT MYCENÆ

P. 98]

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE ACROPOLIS OF TIRYNS

P. 100]

[Illustration: PARTS OF STAIRCASE IN PALACE OF CNOSSUS

P. 96]

[Illustration: COUNCIL CHAMBER WITH GYPSUM THRONE

IN PALACE OF CNOSSUS. P. 96]




CHAPTER VIII

MINOAN OR ÆGEAN ARCHITECTURE


In so far as the prehistoric remains of Minoan or civilisation belonged
to the Polished Stone Age and Bronze Age, they are in the phase of
development that is represented in the Peruvian remains of the city of
Machu Picchu. Meanwhile, in its active consciousness of beauty as a
motive, the Minoan reached a perfection within the limits of its
possibilities that carried it far beyond the Peruvian.

This may have been partly due to the influence of the neighbouring
civilisation of Egypt, and also to the fact that the people of the Ægean
area mixed freely in their roving life with one another and with outside
peoples, so that there was a free-trade in ideas, and the seed which
they planted grew and multiplied. But it must also have been due to
something inherent in the race itself. What the race was has not been
determined. So far, the examination of skulls and bones in Cretan tombs
has established only the fact that the race, while showing signs of
mixture, belonged on the whole to the dark, long-haired “Mediterranean
race,” whose probable origin lay in Mid-Eastern Africa. The main
interest of this is to discredit an Asiatic source for Minoan
civilisation. It is apparent from its achievements in engineering and
the arts and industries that it was a race of great intelligence, with
an active interest in life that led it to strive for the beauty as well
as the conveniences of living.

=Palace of Cnossus.=--The palace of Cnossus occupies an area of about six
acres, surmounting the debris of human settlements, which go back, it
has been estimated, to a distance of from 12,000 to 14,000 years before
the Christian era. The remains show that the palace formed a hollow
square, constructed around a central court. The principal entrance was
upon the north, though what appears to have been the royal entrance was
upon the west, opening on to a paved court.

The west wing contained a small council chamber, or office, in which was
found a throne, made of gypsum in a design curiously Gothic, around
which were lower stone benches. The walls of this chamber were decorated
with sacred dragons represented in a Nile landscape. They were executed,
like the other paintings found in these Cretan palaces, in fresco; that
is to say, in water colours mixed with some gelatinous medium, laid on
the still damp plaster, so that as the latter dried the colour became
incorporated in the actual material of the walls. To this council
chamber was attached a bathroom, probably for ritual purposes.

Near it was also discovered a small shrine, containing figures and
reliefs, exquisitely fashioned in faience, one of which shows a snake
goddess and her votaries; this being one of the aspects of the chief
divinity. The walls and pillars of these chambers are repeatedly
decorated with the sign of the Double Axe, while miniature frescoes on
the walls exhibit pillared shrines, with double axes stuck into some of
the wooden pillars.

For the remains of the palace itself show that the pillars used in this
construction were of wood, rounded like posts. The circular sockets
still remain in the stonework and a comparison of the top and bottom
ones shows that the pillar tapered downward, the diameter at the bottom
being six-sevenths of the top one.

Another feature of this west wing is a series of eighteen magazines or
storerooms which contained quantities of clay documents and great stone
jars. The latter are decorated with horizontal bands, connected by
diagonal ones, like the straw work on a modern ginger jar. This design,
wrought upon the stone surface of these colossal jars, is an interesting
memento of one of the primitive methods of clay modelling. For, before
the invention of the potter’s wheel, the method of shaping, almost
universally adopted, was one of the three following: (1) _scooping_ out
from a ball of clay; (2) or _coiling_, in which the clay was rolled out
into thin ropes, which were coiled round and round upon one another and
then smoothed over; (3) or the building up of the form upon a shape of
_basket-work_ or _matting_.

A large bathroom was discovered in the northwest corner of the
quadrangle but the actual residential quarters seem to have occupied the
east wing. There are the remains of a _Megaron_, or great hall of state,
approached directly from the central court, near which were found
painted reliefs, illustrating scenes of the bull-ring, with female as
well as male toreadors. These and other reliefs, some of which also
commemorated incidents of bull-fighting, were not carved upon the stone,
as in the Egyptian temples, or executed in tiles, as in Assyrian or
Persian temples, but applied to the wall with hard plaster. This method,
known as _gesso_ work, was used later in Byzantine decoration and by the
Italians of the Renaissance, for decorative details; by Pinturricchio,
for example, in the Borgia apartments of the Vatican. It has been
revived by modern mural decorators; John S. Sargent, for instance,
employing it in some of his panels in the Boston Public Library.

To the south of the great hall a staircase, of which three flights and
traces of a fourth are still preserved, descended to a series of halls
and private rooms. Attached to one of these, identified as the “Queen’s
Megaron,” was a bathroom, decorated with frescoes of flying fish. The
drainage system in this part of the palace includes a water-closet and
is of a complete and modern kind.

The character and features of this palace are repeated on a smaller
scale in those discovered at Phæstus, Hagia Triada, and other spots in
Crete, and resemble in the main those of Mycenæ and Tiryns.

A glance at the map of ancient Greece shows that these last two cities,
situated at the north of the rich plain of Argolis, commanded the
approaches to the peninsula of the Peloponnesus; Mycenæ occupying a
strategic position on the highroad; Tiryns, on the sea. They were
equally important in resisting invasion from the North across the
Isthmus of Corinth, and in the struggle for supremacy that was waged
between Argolis and the Peloponnesus. Accordingly, the distinguishing
feature of each city was that it occupied an acropolis, the natural
strength of which was increased by fortifications built with irregular
blocks of stone of great size, in the style known as _Cyclopean_.

=Mycenæ.=--Those at Mycenæ surrounded an area which is roughly triangular
in plan, the main entrance being through the above mentioned portal of
the =Lion Gate=. Its side posts and lintel are composed of monoliths and
surmounted by the famous lion-relief, which fills the triangular space
formed by the gradual projection of the stones of the wall. The pillar
or fetish-post corresponds to the alabaster columns, now in the British
Museum, which flanked the entrance of the =Treasury= or =Tomb= of =Atreus=,
just outside the Lion Gate.

The shaft of these columns is without a base and tapers slightly to the
bottom. Ornamented with bands of repeated _chevrons_, which alternately
are plain and embellished with flutings, it supports a cushion or
_echinus_, decorated with plain and spiral bands, on which rests a
square plinth or _abacus_. It comprises, in fact, the features which in
later times were simplified into the Doric column.

The tomb itself is a subterranean chamber, of the style known as
_beehive_ or in Greek, _tholos_. Its circular plan has a diameter of
nearly 50 feet, and the domed ceiling, commencing at the floor and
formed of inwardly projecting courses of stone, rises to about the same
height. It leads into a small square chamber and is itself approached by
a horizontal avenue, 20 feet wide and 115 feet long, the sides of which
are of squared stone, sloping upward to a height of 45 feet.

A trace of this subterranean beehive method seems to survive in some of
the rock-hewn tombs at =Myra=, in =Lycia=. Here the façade represents the
front of a house, which is clearly of primitive wood construction. In
later instances it is composed of Ionic columns and cornices. In the
older examples the entrance is surmounted by a gable, which frequently
takes the curves of the beehive.

Intermediate between these Lycian Tombs and the Minoan structures are
certain rock-cut tombs in =Phrygia= which recall the Lion Gate. The façade
comprises a cornice supported by columns, above which is a gable,
occupied by colossal lions. At =Arslan=, one of these _pediments_ shows
two lions, in this instance not rampant, which support a central pillar.
Inside, however, two rampant lions flank a nude human figure.

At Mycenæ are earlier tombs than that of Atreus, which consist simply of
a deep shaft lowered into the rock. These are situated just inside the
Lion Gate, the area which they occupy being enclosed by two concentric
circles of thin slabs, set up on end with others laid across the top of
them. It is a feature that in its attenuated form seems to recall
Stonehenge. Dr. Schliemann reached the conclusion that these were the
graves which were shown to Pausanias, as being those of Agamemnon,
Cassandra, and her companions.

On the summit of the Acropolis at Mycenæ are the remains of a palace,
similar to, but less extensive than, that of Tiryns, which we may
therefore examine in preference.

=Tiryns.=--The palace of Tiryns, which probably dates to a period between
the fourteenth and twelfth centuries <small>B.C.</small>, seems to have combined the
luxuriousness of the residence of an Oriental king with the feudal state
of a mediæval baron and his crowd of retainers. The acropolis is of oval
shape, with its long axis north and south, surrounded by immense
ramparts of Cyclopean masonry, from 30 to 40 feet in thickness, while
the outside height was about 50 feet and that of the inside 10 feet from
the level of the ground. In certain parts chambers were embedded in the
thickness of the wall, and round its inner side ran a colonnade,
supported by wooden posts.

The area thus enclosed was divided into three successive levels, of
which the highest was excavated by Schliemann and Dörpfeld, 1884-1885.
The plan shows the entrance situated on the west side, away from the
sea, which probably was once fitted with a gateway similar to that at
Mycenæ. The approach passes between massive walls to another gate,
whence it proceeds to a propylæa, with rooms for the guard. This opens
into a forecourt, from which another propylæa gives approach to the
actual palace.

The first feature of the =Palace= is a court bounded on three sides by a
post-supported colonnade. An altar or sacrificial pit is in the same
position as that occupied by the altar of Zeus in a later Greek house.
It may be possible in this connection to see evidence that the principal
deity on the mainland of Greece was already, unlike that of Crete, a
male; perhaps a terrible prototype of the later benignant Zeus, to whom
human sacrifices were made, as to the hideous Mexican divinity,
Huitzilopochtli.

On the north side of the court a portico, succeeded by a vestibule,
gives access to the Megaron. In the centre of this is the hearth, a
feature not needed in the warmer climate of Crete and therefore not
found in the palaces of that island. Four columns supported the roof,
the centre of which may have been raised to allow openings for light and
smoke escape. Adjoining the sleeping chambers on the west side of this
hall is a bathroom, about 12 feet by 10 feet, the floor of which is
composed of a single slab of stone, sloped so that the water drained out
through a pipe in the wall.

Another group of buildings, supposed, though without authority, to be
the women’s quarters, lies to the east of the great hall, from which,
however, it is completely cut off by a solid wall; it is entered by two
circuitous passages, one leading from the first propylæa, the other from
a postern gate in the western rampart. Here again the plan shows an
open court, without an altar, from which a vestibule admits to a smaller
megaron.

The floors of the megara are of stucco, incised with a series of lines,
coloured blue and red, while the walls are decorated with frescoes as in
the palace at Cnossus, one of the best preserved paintings showing a
bull-fight scene. On the other hand, the palace of Tiryns shows part of
a frieze of alabaster, sculptured in relief with rosettes and
interlacing patterns and studded with jewel-like pieces of blue glass or
enamel.

The walls to a height of about three feet above ground were of stone,
above which they were continued with sun-dried bricks; the upper story
being probably of wood, with roofs of stamped earth. The doorways,
though sometimes of wood, were more usually constructed of monoliths.
Bronze cup-like sockets, let into the stone thresholds, show that the
doors revolved upon a pivot.

It is agreed that while the palace of Tiryns represents the general
character of a royal house, as it is pictured in the Homeric poems, it
is a mistake to look in it for an explanation of details of
arrangement.




BOOK III

CLASSIC PERIOD




CHAPTER I

HELLENIC CIVILISATION


The use of the term Hellenic can be traced back to the seventh century
<small>B.C.</small> It was the name under which the various streams of
migration--Achæan, Æolian, Dorian, and Ionian--merged their differences
in the proud recognition of a common race.

The date and extent of these migrations are clouded with obscurity; but
certain points are clear. The Ionians came from Armenia and settled in
Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, while the other three penetrated
into Greece from the shores of the Baltic. The Achæan was the first to
arrive and had maintained a long civilisation before the later migration
of Æolians and Dorians. The Dorian invasion seems to have been
especially aggressive and after fastening a hold upon the mainland of
Greece extended to the Ægean Archipelago, overrunning Crete and wresting
supremacy of the Mediterranean from the Minoan Sea-Kings about 1000 <small>B.C.</small>

Hellenic, however, never implied a national bond. The Hellenes were
never united as one people under one government. Hellas was a congeries
of independent states which even allowed their colonies, from the first,
complete self-government. The bond which loosely held them together was
the common sense of superiority to all other races; and as their
civilisation developed, a common pride in its glory, not that this was
sufficient to prevent continuous rivalry and frequent warfare between
states and cities. Consequently, there is properly speaking no such
thing as Greek history; nor would it be profitable for our purpose to
trace the rise and decline of the several states. It is better to
consider Hellenism as a principle, the more or less common ideal of a
people, not confined to Hellas, but spread over the littoral of the
Mediterranean; wherever Hellenes settled--a race of mariners and
merchants, thinkers and artists, who lifted themselves to so high a
pitch of civilisation, that it became a source of inspiration to all
subsequent culture.

In the Minoan and Mycenæan Age the political system was a monarchy that
combined the functions of high priest and commander-in-chief. In the
Homeric Age there were still kings who led their armies and acted as the
intermediaries of the gods, but their power was controlled by a _Boule_,
or consulting assembly. With the Dorians the rule of kings passed to
that of oligarchies, chosen from one or more of the noble classes whose
claim to government was founded on birth and the ownership of land. They
were associated with a Boule, representative of the privileged classes,
while the priestly functions were exercised by magistrates, who,
however, were drawn from the aristocracy.

In many parts of Hellas the oligarchies gave way to “tyrannoi.” These
are not to be understood in the sense that our word “tyrant” has. They
were a step in the evolution of popular government, inasmuch as they
were a means of breaking up the exclusive authority of the privileged
classes. To consolidate their own power, the tyrannoi sought the favour
of the populace and made concessions in the direction of popular
government. Accordingly, while some of the tyrannoi were succeeded by a
return to the oligarchies, in more cases they prepared the way for a
democratic form of government.

In order to take religion out of the exclusive domain of the
aristocracy, the tyrants established popular cults. Peisistrates, for
example, tyrant of Athens, is thought to have established the Great
Dionysiac festival and raised the Panathenæa to the position of the
chief national festival of the Athenian State. Everywhere the tyrants
were the patrons of literature and the arts. To Peisistrates is
attributed the first critical edition of the text of Homer, while under
the encouragement of himself and his successors (the Peisistratids)
which lasted from 560-511 <small>B.C.</small> architecture and sculpture also
progressed to a degree that made possible their grandeur in the “Great
Age.” He is also said to have encouraged Thespes, the Attic poet, to
impersonate characters and thus convert the narrative poem into dramatic
form, laying the foundation of Greek drama.

Peisistrates also gave the people a constitution, extended the power of
Athens by alliances, and increased its commerce. With the fall of the
Peisistratids the rule of the many (_hoi polloi_) was assured. The
government of Athens became democratic.

It is to be noted that while there were various forms of democratic
government in Hellas, all differed from our modern conception of
democracy. The latter is based upon the principle of doing away with
privilege, while the Greek form implied privilege, although it enlarged
its area. No foreigner could acquire citizenship, which also was denied
to native-born inhabitants who were of foreign extraction, on either the
father’s or the mother’s side. Furthermore, the Greeks regarded labour
as a disqualification for political rights, and almost all unskilled
labour and most of the skilled was performed by slaves. The latter,
however, were well treated and not only enjoyed personal liberty but
also the opportunity of becoming prosperous.

Again, the government under the Hellenic democracy was not
representative. The citizen body was so small that all could meet in the
_Ecclesia_ and register their vote directly on any question. Appointment
to office was by lot and not election, and accordingly the number of
citizens who held at one time or another big or little offices included
a great majority of the whole body. The result of this was an intimacy
on the part of all the citizen body with the machinery of government and
the pros and cons of every question as it arose. They voted with
intelligence and their votes counted directly; a system which helped
immensely to cultivate their intellectual keenness.

The two Persian invasions, the first under Datis and Artaphernes (490
<small>B.C.</small>) in the reign of Darius I, the second by Xerxes in person (480-479
<small>B.C.</small>), had proved the need of closer co-operation among the Hellenic
States, and the Delian League was formed under the leadership of Athens
and with Athens as the “predominant partner.” An annual tribute was paid
by all the member-states for the maintenance of a fleet. Athens was the
treasurer and the fleet was mainly Athenian, while the commanders were
entirely so. The power thus concentrated in Athens gave her so marked a
supremacy that Pericles used the League to form an Athenian Empire. This
lasted about thirty years (461-430 <small>B.C.</small>), during which period Athens
reached the culmination not only of her power but also of her
magnificence. For Pericles spent the money, contributed by the allies
for common defence, in beautifying the Acropolis; the excuse being that
in doing so he was giving glory to Athena, who was the patron goddess of
the League. Pericles also encouraged literature and counted among his
friends three of the greatest Greek writers--Sophocles, Herodotus, and
Thucydides.

But the power of Athens incited the envy of the other states, which
ranged themselves with Sparta. In the Peloponnesian wars, the supremacy
of Athens was broken and the Athenian Empire was succeeded by a Spartan
Empire, which in time succumbed to the Theban Hegemony. Finally Hellas
was conquered by Philip of Macedon and passed into the Macedonian
Empire, established by this king and enlarged by his son, Alexander the
Great.

Through all these struggles Athens, though despoiled of her supremacy,
played a big part until she was conquered by Philip at Chæronæa, in 338
<small>B.C.</small> The latter date is adopted as the end of the Great Age which had
lasted since 480 <small>B.C.</small>, including within its circumference the age of
Pericles. Besides its triumphant achievements in architecture and
sculpture, the Great Age comprised in drama the names of Æschylus,
Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes; in history, Herodotus,
Thucydides; in oratory, Demosthenes; in philosophy, Aristotle and Plato.
Meanwhile, the century preceding it had produced, among the poets,
Anacreon and Sappho; and, as representatives of mathematics, astronomy,
geography, and metaphysics, Thales, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, Heraclitus,
Parmenides, Anaximander, and Hecatæus of Miletus.

It is significant that none of these last named poets and thinkers
belonged to the mainland of Hellas, but to the islands and cities of the
Ionian group or to the adjacent Cyclades. And what is true of literature
is equally true of architecture and sculpture. In fact during the fifth
century <small>B.C.</small> and also the three preceding centuries, culture had been
more developed in Ionia than in Attica. For, through its commerce with
the East, Ionia reached a high state of prosperity and borrowed
something of Eastern luxuriousness as well as Eastern thought and art
ideals, just as in turn the East borrowed from it. Miletus was for a
long time the wealthiest and most luxurious of Hellenic cities, rivalled
only by Sybaris on the gulf of Tarentum; one of the flourishing cities
of the so-called Magna Græcia in the south of Italy.

Similarly Corinth under the rule of her tyrants, Cypselus and his son
Periander (657-581 <small>B.C.</small>), had enjoyed a period of great prosperity. She
extended her trade from Asia Minor and Egypt to Magna Græcia in the
west, and was also a great industrial centre, famous for its pottery,
metal work, and other decorative crafts. Moreover, it was reported to
have “invented” painting.

These brief references serve to emphasise two points: first, the wide
spread of Hellenic culture; and, secondly, the variety that it
exhibited. The most cherished sentiment in Hellas, as we have remarked,
was that of autonomy. Even under the hegemonies and empires, individual
cities and colonies were permitted self-government and, as its
corollary, self-development. Hence the variety in unity that
characterised Hellenic culture. The unity was strengthened and the
variety diffused throughout the whole by the Festival-contests which
were held at regular intervals. These originated in local religious
festivals, which in time were thrown open to competitors from all parts
of Hellas.

The oldest and the greatest was the Olympic Festival, held in the valley
of the river Alphæus in Elis, which was celebrated at intervals of four
years. The event became so important in the life of Hellas that the
interval of four years between one celebration and the succeeding one,
called an Olympiad, became the measure for computing time, the first
Olympiad being reckoned as 776 <small>B.C.</small> Originally the festival was held in
honour of Hera, to whom a temple--the earliest as yet known in
Hellas--was dedicated, 1000 <small>B.C.</small> Later the chief honour was paid to the
Olympian Zeus. His temple, which in time contained the celebrated
chryselephantine statue of the god by Pheidias, stood in a sacred grove,
the Altis, which was adorned with statues of the successful athletes,
made by the most famous sculptors. The sacred enclosure was surrounded
by walls and colonnades, adjoining which, on one side, were the
gymnasium, palæstra, and baths for the use of the athletes, whose
training in the sacred precincts lasted for ten months, before they
could compete in the stadium. The latter adjoined the Altis on the east
side.

From all parts of Hellas, states and cities vied with one another in
furnishing competitors and, as the date of the Festival approached,
heralds proclaimed throughout the Hellenic world the “Truce of God”
under which, for the time being, warlike operations were suspended and
safe conduct was guaranteed to all visitors to Olympia.

The influence of Sparta had regulated the character of the contests of
endurance: running, leaping, wrestling, boxing, to which in time was
added chariot racing. But as the spirit of culture spread the Olympian
and the other festivals included musical contests, while the poet
declaimed his verses and the painter showed his work for the pleasure
and profit of the assembled multitudes.

The Olympic festival, in fact, was the supreme realisation of the
Hellenic ideal: perfection of physical development, joined to highest
intellectual development and the finest development of the senses. It
was an ideal that involved the possible perfection of the whole man, a
harmony of body, senses, and intellect--the Hellenic ideal of Beauty.

Olympia, wrote Lysias, is “the fairest spot on earth,” and, surely, in
the loveliness of its natural setting, in the embellishments which the
architect and sculptor had added, in the glory of the youthful vigour of
the competitors and the inspiration of poets and musicians, and, not
least, in the joyous enthusiasm of the spectators was realised, as
perhaps nowhere else at any time, the Beauty of Life; the idea, as Plato
taught, that the Good is the Beautiful, the Beautiful the Good.

Such was the Hellenic ideal. And an ideal, need one add, is not an aim
that is actually achieved but one beyond our capacity to achieve wholly,
that yet gives continuous incentive to higher and nobler effort. This
ideal of the possible perfection of man in all his parts is the highest
to which man has ever aspired and the Hellenes of the Great Age came the
nearest to achieving it. Hence their example has become to succeeding
ages Classic.

Having this ideal, the Hellenes translated it as far as possible into
visible form. No athlete could compete at Olympia unless his body and
his character were free from blemish; no statue or temple must be
erected except as the finest possible expression of organic perfection.

For the beauty involved in the Hellenic ideal is organic beauty.
Everything about Olympia, as everything about a Hellenic Temple, must
perform its function in the organic beauty of the whole.

Further, it is to be noted that in the pursuit of this ideal the Greeks
did not rely upon the feeling of the senses, nor yet upon the judgment
of the intellect; but upon a union of the two. They submitted the
inspiration of the senses to processes of reason. In a word, they
intellectualised their sensations. It is this which has made the
expression of their ideal Classic.

It is not necessary for our present purpose to trace the ebb and flow of
the influence of this ideal through the centuries. But we may observe
that while the Romans despoiled Hellas of her works of art and imitated,
as far as they could, the externals of her ideal of beauty, the Arabs,
Moors, and Saracens in later years more intimately imbibed its spirit
and gave their own expression to it. Italy, however, in the latter half
of the fifteenth century and during the sixteenth, came nearer than any
other nation to both the spirit and the form of Hellenic culture. For
her scholars and artists were more inclined to emulate than to imitate
the example of the Greeks and tried to incorporate the Hellenic ideal
into their own lives.

On the other hand, the Classical revival which began toward the end of
the eighteenth century and has continued intermittently to our own day,
has for the most part made the mistake of imitating instead of
emulating. Artists have tried to copy the form, without imbibing the
spirit. But form so used is like the letter that killeth; without the
spirit that giveth life.

Meanwhile, there are indications that the world to-day is going to
approach nearer to the Hellenic ideal than ever before and in some
respects to better it. For there was a flaw in the latter. It despised
labour and denied workmen a share in government. Its democracy was
merely an extended aristocracy and, since those privileged to share in
it received payment while filling office, it has been said that “the
majority of the Athenian citizens were salaried paupers.” On the other
hand, the theory, at least, of modern society is the honourableness of
labour, and one of the best recognised problems of to-day is the shaping
of conditions in order that labour may in truth be honourable--a
blessing and not a curse, enhancing the beauty of the worker’s life
instead of starving it. In fact, the modern world in adopting anew the
Hellenic ideal of the beauty of the whole life is going to carry it
further, to include the whole life of the whole community.

Moreover, our hope in being able to revive the Hellenic ideal and even
to carry it farther consists in the fact that the foundation of our
progress, as of the Greek, has again become reason, and reason
established on a wider and firmer basis, owing to the immense
development of modern science. And, while science encompasses every
field of human thought and activity, its tendency is more and more
directed to promoting the health and happiness of life. It is aiming
anew at the Hellenic ideal of physical, moral and mental perfection, not
confined to a few, but embracing whole communities and peoples.

There was a further flaw in the Hellenic system. It relegated women to
an inactive position in the public affairs of life. Women were excluded
even as sight-seers from the Olympic Games. The Greek worshipped the
physical in woman, but refused development of her intellectual
faculties. Their ideal was, in fact, centred in a single sex; it could
not breed and perpetuate itself. But to-day the idea is spreading that
this is a woman’s as well as a man’s world, and that to approximate to
the ideal of human perfection needs the full, free, and independent
co-operation of the woman and the man.

In conclusion let us note how in one respect the Hellenic ideal still
transcends our own. There was a logic in the Greek, to which we have
hardly yet attained. It practically amounted to this that “a tree is
known by its fruits.” If a thing is good physically, morally, and
mentally, it must naturally manifest its goodness so that it can be
appreciated by the senses. Beauty must be made visible and audible. The
possibility of the ideal must be made familiar to all, in literature,
song, dance, drama, and the arts of beautiful design.

To the Greeks æsthetics, the study of what is appreciated as beautiful
by the senses, was not a separate department of life, as it is apt to be
with us, but only another aspect of morality and religion. It was the
natural and inevitable expression of the inward spirit of the ideal. How
could a man’s life reach its highest possibility if it did not love and
seek after beauty; how could a city be truly great unless it were
manifestly beautiful?

One can hardly imagine a Hellen, who wished to retain any reputation for
intelligence, asserting, as many people are satisfied and even seem
proud to do in these days: “I don’t know anything about art, but I know
what I like.” To this it is on record that an artist retorted, “And so
does a cow.” Which would have been the sort of retort that a Hellen
might have made to the speaker, whom he would at once determine was a
person of low intelligence.

For Greek art, as we have already said, was not an expression solely of
the senses; but of the sensations guided by the intellect; and it was
just as much a part of a Greek’s intellectual training to know and
understand and feel--in a word, appreciate--art, as it was to fit
himself for other services to the State. Yet, do not forget it, the
Hellenes were a race of traders and manufacturers, like the backbone of
our communities to-day.




CHAPTER II

HELLENIC ARCHITECTURE


We have noted in the previous chapter that Hellenic art, like Hellenic
culture generally, was a product of the senses guided by the
intellect--the expression of intellectualised sensations. To his crude
sensations the artist applied very much the same process that the modern
scientist has applied to crude oil, until, through experiments guided by
observation and reasoning, he has developed refined oil, which gives the
purest and intensest possible illumination. Thus the Hellenic artists,
through generations, refined upon the forms of their architecture, to
create a unity, distinguished by fitness, proportion, harmony and
rhythm, until they brought it to the highest degree of expressional
capacity; appealing alike to feeling and to reason. It reached its
highest expression in the temple, the supreme monument of the
community’s civic consciousness.

The developed form of the Hellenic Temple resembled the Egyptian in
being a product of the “post and beam” principle of construction; but
differed in its purpose that the outside rather than the inside should
present superior dignity of design. The chief feature of the latter was
the Order, as it is called in Hellenic and Roman architecture, or
combination of columns and entablature. It might be confined to a
portico at the entrance or supplemented by another portico in the rear,
or still further extended by a colonnade that surrounded all

[Illustration: SOME TEMPLE PLANS P. 120

TEMPLE OF POSEIDON, PAESTUM. HEXASTYLE-PERIPTERAL

PARTHENON. OCTOSTYLE-PERIPTERAL

TEMPLE OF APOLLO, BASSÆ

DISTYLE IN ANTIS

TEMPLE OF JUPITER OLYMPUS, ATHENS. OCTOSTYLE-DIPTERAL

ERECHTHEION. AT THE LEFT IS THE “NORTH PORCH” OF THE CARYATIDES]

[Illustration: HELLENIC ORDERS

(COLUMNS AND ENTABLATURES.) PP. 123, ET SEQ.

IONIC ORDER

DORIC ORDER

CORINTHIAN ORDER MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES]

[Illustration: ROMAN ORDERS

(COLUMNS AND ENTABLATURES.) P. 163

ROMAN IONIC ORDER
TEMPLE OF FORTVNA VIRILIS: ROME
150 B.C.?

SIDE ELEVATION OF CAPITAL

Doric Order.

ARCH OF
TIRVS: ROME
87 A.D.
ROMAN
COMPOSITE
ORDER

ROMAN TVSCAN
ORDER
ACCORDING TO
VIGNOLA

ROMAN
CORINTHIAN
ORDER
TEMPLE OF CASTOR
AND POLLVX, ROME.
6 A.D.
]

[Illustration: MODEL OF THE ACROPOLIS

(RIGHT) ROMAN GATEWAY AT PROPYLÆA; (LEFT) ERECHTHEION. ADJOINING REMAINS
OF EARLY TEMPLE OF ATHENÆ; BEYOND IS THE PARTHENON; BACK OF THE LATTER,
TEMPLE OF ROME AND AUGUSTUS]

[Illustration:

© Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.

MODEL OF THE PARTHENON

(RESTORED)]

[Illustration: THE PARTHENON

P. 140, ETC.]

[Illustration: TEMPLES AT PÆSTUM

POSEIDON, AT THE RIGHT. P. 125]

[Illustration: CHORAGIC MONUMENT

OF LYSICRATES, ATHENS. P. 131]

[Illustration: TEMPLE OF NIKE APTEROS

ATHENS, “WINGLESS.” NOTICE LOOPING FILLETS IN CAPITALS. P. 141]

[Illustration: PORTICO OF THE CARYATIDES. ERECHTHEION

IONIC ARCHITRAVE AND CORNICE; NO FRIEZE. P. 141]

[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT

IN ORDER FROM BELOW: ANTHEMION, BEAD-AND-SPOOL, EGG-AND-DART,
BEAD-AND-SPOOL, HEART-LEAF. P. 132]

[Illustration: STATUES IN THE ROUND OF PERSEPHONE AND DEMETER

FROM THE EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON. P. 135]

[Illustration: FIGURES IN HIGH RELIEF

FROM THE PROCESSION OF WORSHIPERS. FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON. P. 135]

[Illustration: PLAN OF HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII

ENTRANCE FROM R. LEADING TO E. THE ATRIUM, WITH IMPLUVIUM IN THE CENTER.
F. PERISTYLE ENCLOSING A SMALL GARDEN OR FISH POND. B. LIVING ROOMS,
TRICLINIUM TO THE RIGHT. C. KITCHEN QUARTERS. SLEEPING APARTMENTS A. AND
OPENING ON THE COURTS. PLAN ENDS ON LEFT WITH PORTICO, OPENING ONTO
GARDEN. P. 181]

[Illustration: PLAN OF THEATRE OF DRAMYSSUS

ONE HUNDRED FEET TO ONE INCH]

four sides of the _cella_ or _domos_, house of the god, in which case it
is called a _peristyle_.

The emphasis of the order as a constructive and decorative feature has
been traced back by some students to the Dorian people’s primitive
custom of worshipping in groves. The religious ceremonies, which
included a procession of the worshippers, would be conducted amid the
trees surrounding the altar or shrine, and in time a roofing of cross
pieces thatched with boughs may have been attached to the trees.
Accordingly, those who adopt this view suggest that when the use of a
grove was succeeded by a constructed temple, the original feature was
the peristyle. And possibly there is a commemoration of this in the
peristyle of the Parthenon, where a procession of worshippers of the
goddess is represented in the sculptured frieze that embellishes the
outside of the walls of the cella--thus embodying in the most highly
developed form of Hellenic temple its origin in primitive religion.

The character of the form seems to have originated in wood construction,
certain features of which--to be referred to later--were retained after
stone or marble was employed and were translated into details of
decoration. The gradual transition to materials of construction, less at
the mercy of fire, is hinted at by Pausanias, a Greek geographer and
writer on art of the second century <small>B.C.</small>, in his description of the
=Heraion= or =Temple of Hera= (Juno) at =Olympia=, the oldest known example of
a Doric Temple, attributed to 1000 <small>B.C.</small>

The cella wall, he says, was constructed of sun-dried bricks on a lower
course of stonework, but the entablature was still of wood, covered with
terra-cotta. One wooden column was still standing in the _opisthodomos_,
but elsewhere as the wooden columns decayed they had been replaced by
stone ones; the design of their capitals showing that the work of
restoration lasted from the sixth century to Roman times. The roof was
covered with tiles. The cella was divided into a central _nave_ and
_side-aisles_ by two rows of columns for the support of the roof, and
the aisles were intersected by small screen walls; thus forming alcoves,
corresponding to the side-chapels of a Gothic cathedral. In one of these
alcoves German explorers in 1878 discovered the _Hermes_ of Praxiteles,
which is probably the only marble statue in existence that was actually
wrought by the hands of one of the great sculptors.

=Early Doric Examples.=--The Dorian migration pushed down through
Macedonia and Thessaly into the peninsula of Greece and spread through
the islands of the Ægean as far as Crete, afterward planting colonies at
=Pæstum= and other sites in Southern Italy and at =Syracuse=, =Selinus=, and
=Agrigentum= in Sicily. Throughout all this wide area they carried their
particular style of Order--the Doric. In developing it, they brought
into play what has been judged their distinguishing trait of
character--sense of proportion.

The earliest known examples of Doric temples, built originally of stone,
are at =Corinth= and that of =Phœbus Apollo= on the island of =Ortygia=, at
the entrance to the harbour of Syracuse. In these, which are attributed
to the seventh century <small>B.C.</small>, the columns are monoliths with widely
projecting capitals, and set so close together that the
intercolumniation was less than one diameter of the column. For the
early Greeks appear to have been distrustful of the bearing capacity of
stone as compared with wood.

Belonging to the sixth century are the colossal =Temples= =of Zeus= at
=Selinus= and =Agrigentum= and the =Temple of Poseidon= (Neptune) in =Pæstum=.
In the last the columns are composed of sections or “drums,” and there
are still in position in the cella the smaller columns, superimposed on
the main ones for the support of the roof.

The temples of the fifth century are distinguished by increased
refinement in the matter of proportion and details and by superior skill
and workmanship. They include the =Temple of Athene= (Minerva) on the
island of =Ægina=; the so-called =Theseum=, supposed to have been dedicated
to =Heracles= (Hercules), in =Athens=; and the =Temple of Zeus= which forms
one of the group of temples at =Olympia=. It is the most complete
temple-group yet discovered, and was the scene of the religious
ceremonies in connection with the Pan-Hellenic Games.

With the second half of the fifth century began the supremacy of Athens
in the affairs of Hellas under the rule of Pericles, which enabled her
as custodian of the Hellenic treasury to undertake the beautifying of
the Acropolis. This culminated in the =Parthenon=, the noblest example of
the Doric style and, as Mr. A. D. F. Hamlin writes, “the most faultless
in design and execution of all buildings erected by man.”

Following, apparently, the tradition of worshipping in groves, the
Dorians placed their temples in a _temenos_, or enclosure in which were
other shrines, altars, and treasuries. Whether this temenos was on a
hill-top, as in the case of the Acropolis in Athens and the site of the
temple-group in =Agrigentum=, or in a valley on sloping ground as at
=Delphi=, the irregularities of the ground were taken advantage of in the
disposition of the buildings. Thus was created an ensemble in which art
and nature united, while in the case of a level site, as at =Olympia=,
=Delos=, and =Pæstum=, the temples were grouped in picturesque
irregularity.

=Temple Plans.=--The nucleus of the temple plan was the _naos_, containing
the statue of the deity. Adjoining it were other chambers, connected
with the ritual of worship; and this aggregate of naos and chambers,
enclosed within walls, is known as the _Cella_.

It was approached from the front, which faced the _east_, by a covered,
columned vestibule, open at the sides, called the _pronaos_. This was
often repeated at the rear under the name of _epinaos_, or, as the
Romans called it, _posticum_.

The pronaos was entered through a _portico_. When the latter was
composed of columns, set between the prolonged sides of the cella, the
type of plan was called _in antis_.

When the side-walls were not prolonged, but terminated in pilasters,
known as _antiæ_, and the supporting members of the front façade were
solely columns, the type was called _prostylar_ or _prostyle_.

If, under the same conditions the portico was repeated at the rear, the
type was called _amphi-prostylar_ or _amphi-prostyle_.

If the whole were surrounded by a colonnade or _peristyle_ the type was
_peripteral_; while if a second row of columns were added on each side,
as in the great =Temple= of the =Olympian Zeus=, erected in Athens during
the Roman occupation, the type was _dipteral_. The external aisle,
formed by the colonnade on each side was known as the _pteroma_.

Where there was no peristyle, but columns, known as false or
engaged, were built into the wall of the cella, the type was
_pseudo-peripteral_.

There are also to be mentioned the octagonal plan, as seen in the =Tower
of the Winds= in =Athens=; the circular peripteral plan of the =Tholos= at
=Epidauros= and the examples of irregular planning presented by the
=Erechtheion= and =Propylæa=.

The type was further distinguished by the number of columns--four, six,
eight, or ten--composing the portico, as, respectively, tetrastyle,
hexastyle, octostyle, and decastyle.

Thus the =Parthenon= is _octostyle peripteral_; Temple of =Poseidon=,
=Paestum=, hexastyle peripetral; of =Jupiter Olympios=, =Atucus=, _octostyle
dipteral_; of =Apollo=, =Bassæ=, _in antis_.

=Temple Form.=--The cella, or chamber for the god, was built originally of
wood; later of sunburnt bricks on a lower course of stonework, the whole
being coated with a thin layer of stucco, as is found to have been the
practice also in later Doric temples in Sicily and Italy, where the
material was soft stone. To protect it from the damp of the ground as
well as to dignify it, the cella was raised on a platform, approached by
steps.

On the top of the walls was laid a framework of timber sills, crossed by
transverse beams, on which stood posts to hold the ridge-piece, from
which the rafters sloped to the sills, so that the roof which was of
wood, covered with sunburnt brick and later by tiles, formed eaves to
protect the cella from the roof-rain.

The next step to add dignity to the entrance would be to prolong the
gable end in front and support it by posts, so as to form a porch or
portico. At first the weight of this might be chiefly carried by an
extension of the side walls. Then a superior effect of lightness and
dignity would be given to the portico by omitting the support of the
sides and substituting posts; while, for further embellishment, a
similar portico might be extended from the rear of the cella.

Then, in the search for dignity and also to give more protection from
weather to the walls of the cella, the eaves of the roof would be
further prolonged outward and made to rest on sills that were supported
by a series of posts. In this way the cella was completely surrounded by
a colonnade or peristyle.

As the use of stone or marble was adopted, the platform became the
_stylobate_, which was approached by three steps, carried along the
entire length of all the sides. The cella was built of marble or
stucco-covered stone, and marble or stone took the place of the sills
and beams of the roof, but the latter continued to be constructed of
wood, supported by small columns resting on the capitals of larger ones.
The outside sheathing of the roof was of terra-cotta or marble tiles.
Unlike the roof of an Egyptian temple which was raised in the centre to
admit clerestory windows, that of a Hellenic temple had an uninterrupted
slope. Whence then was the light derived for the interior?

=Lighting.=--Since all roofs, being of wood, have perished, the
explanations that have been attempted are purely conjectural. A remark
by Vitruvius, the Roman architect and author of ten books on
architecture, regarding the =Temple of Zeus= at =Athens= that it was
_hypæthral_ (open to the sky) has led to a suggestion that part of the
roof may have been open, as in the case of the Pantheon in Rome. But, at
the time he wrote, the cella was exposed because Sulla had carried off
to Rome some of the supporting columns. Another Roman writer, Strabo,
describes the decastyle =Temple of Apollo= near =Miletus= as hypæthral, but
gives as the reason the enormous size of the cella, in which precious
groves of laurel bushes grew. So, it is purely a surmise that the
portion of the roof may have been omitted and that the temples were
hypæthral.

Another theory, founded upon the discovery in a temple at =Bassæ= of three
marble tiles, or thin slabs, pierced with holes about 18 inches by 10,
is that some five of these, let into each side of the roof, would have
lighted the interior amply without admitting much rain. Again, the use
of marble tiles has afforded a suggestion that, Parian marble being very
translucent, the light might have penetrated through. James Fergusson,
on the other hand, conjectured that a trench was let into each side of
the roof; but this would have needed drains to carry off the water and
no sign of a system of drainage has been found in any temple. Other
authorities, however, maintain that it was only through the open doorway
that light was admitted, which owing to the clear atmosphere of Greece
and the reflection from the marble pavement, would be sufficient.

=The Orders.=--In Hellenic architecture there are two fully developed
Orders--or combinations of Columns and Entablature--the Doric and the
Ionic. To these are usually added a third, the Corinthian, which,
however, though invented by the Hellenic artists, did not receive its
full development as an independent order until employed by the Romans.
The principal members of the classic column are the _capital_, _shaft_,
and, except in the Doric order where the shaft was set directly on the
stylobate, the _base_.

=Doric Column.=--It is possible that the Dorians took the character of
their column originally from the example of Minoan architecture. For in
a fresco at Cnossos appear the façades of three temples with columns,
and the representation of the latter corresponds with the facts
discovered in the actual remains of the palace. The columns are of wood,
and have no base, since the shaft is let into a socket in the masonry.
It is crowned by a _torus_, or circular cushion with a half-round edge,
on which rests a square block, the _abacus_. The shaft differs in one
respect, it narrows downward; whereas all Hellenic columns taper upward.
The reason assigned for the Cretan practice is that the tree-trunk was
inverted so that it might retain the sap.

All these features are reproduced in stone in the columns of the doorway
of the =Tomb of Atreus= at =Mycenæ=, which has been already mentioned. The
shafts of these columns are decorated with _chevrons_, whereas the
Greeks in their best examples never decorated the shaft, nor, in fact,
any other part of the structure that carried the chief strains.

Upon this crude type the Dorian architects continually improved until
they had evolved an order of the most subtle refinement. In the earlier
examples the diminution upward of the shaft is more pronounced than in
the Parthenon, where the diameter at the bottom is 6 feet 3 inches and
at the top 4 feet 9 inches, which gives a diminution of slightly over
one quarter of the lower diameter. The shaft, except in one or two
temples that were not completed, was always fluted. The flutes usually
numbered twenty, and were elliptic in section, meeting in a sharp edge
or arris, thus differing from the flat-edged fillet that separated the
flutings of the Ionic and Corinthian. In order to correct the optical
illusion, suggested in a diminishing shaft, that the contours are
concave, they were made slightly convex, the swell of this _entasis_,
as the convex is called, being greatest at about one-third of the
distance from the bottom.

As the shaft nears the capital, it is encircled by a narrow groove or
_annula_. At the top of the shaft is a series of annulæ, some of which
are cut in the shaft and others in the lower member of the capital, the
_echinus_, so that the shaft appears to project in a necking, into which
the capital is set. The _echinus_ is a circular cushion with an
eccentric curve; a curve, that is to say, that is not part of a circle.
(Compare by contrast the semi-circular curve of the _torus_.) Upon the
echinus sets firmly the _abacus_, a square block with a side measurement
the same as the diameter of the echinus.

The height of the column varied in its proportion to the lower diameter.
In the =Temple of Poseidon=, at =Pæstum=, the height is four times the
diameter; in the later example of the =Parthenon= nearly five and a half
times, while in the =Temple of Jupiter Nemæus= it is six and a half times.

The _intercolumniation_, or space between the columns, also varies. In
the older temples it was about one diameter of the column, the space
between the angle columns being always less; while in the case of the
Parthenon the distance varies from one diameter to 1.24; this being an
instance of deviation from geometrical regularity to be referred to
later.

It remains to mention the _antæ_. These were flat, right-angled columns,
projecting slightly from the wall of the pronaos at the corners, facing
the end columns. While they correspond to the latter, they differ in
three respects. The shaft did not taper and was set on a small base,
while the capital was distinguished by different mouldings. For the
mouldings suitable to a free-standing column, supporting actual weight
were felt to be unsuited for a member attached to a wall, whose
functions were decorative.

=Doric Entablature.=--The principal members of the entablature are the
_architrave_ or supporting member, the _frieze_ or decorative member,
and the _cornice_ or protecting member.

The _architrave_, as its name implies, “the chief beam” of the
entablature, rests immediately upon the abacus; its edge corresponding
neither with that of the abacus nor with the top edge of the shaft, but
so adjusted to both as to ensure a feeling of complete stability. The
architrave was usually plain[1] and crowned with a projecting fillet,
called the _tænia_, which beneath the _triglyphs_, is supplemented by a
lower fillet, known as the _regula_. On the under side of the latter
were six studs, which recall perhaps the wooden pegs with which the ends
of the beams in primitive construction were fastened.

The _frieze_ is a vertical surface, composed alternately of triglyphs
and metopes. The _triglyphs_, so called because they are divided into
three vertical channels, represent the ends of the primitive
longitudinal sills of the cella roof; and a recollection of the
woodworker’s craft was still preserved in the chamfer or hollow of their
outer edges. The function of the triglyphs was to support the cornice.
Generally they were set above and between the columns, but at each end
of the entablature one adjoins the corner, thereby increasing the effect
of stability.

The space between the triglyphs, called the _metope_, was originally
left open, except for a wooden shutter to keep out birds. But in the
most elaborate examples of later date the metope was decorated with
sculpture in high relief. Those of the Parthenon contained groups,
representing fights with Centaurs, Amazons, and Trojans.

Above the frieze was the cornice, which, as a protection from the drip
of the roof, projected to a distance, about one-third of the diameter of
a column. Its chief members were a vertical band, known as the _corona_,
and an under-part, the _soffit_. The latter sloped down under the corona
at about the same angle as the slope of the roof, and was decorated
above each triglyph and metope with a _mutule_ or square block, studded
with eighteen _guttae_, or drops, a device that recalls the method of
making fast the ends of the rafters with wooden pegs.

The cornice was carried up the two sloping edges of the roof, but here
distinguished by an additional feature, the _cymatium_ or gutter. The
triangle or gable thus formed by the three cornices was called the
_pediment_. It was embellished at the top and ends with small pedestals,
_acroteria_, on which stood figures or conventional ornaments.

In a Doric temple the corona, on the sides of the building was without a
cymatium, but studded instead with _ante-fixae_, ornaments of
terra-cotta or marble, placed opposite the end of each tile-ridge of the
roof. The latter, as we have already noted, was covered with tiles of
marble or terra-cotta, and finished at the top with ridge-tiles.

The mere reading of these details is dry enough. They should be read
with an eye on the examples illustrated but also with a mind constantly
alert to think out the function and appropriateness of each feature. For
the principle of Hellenic construction was that every member should
perform a special function. The architect’s logic would not permit him,
as we say, to send a boy on a man’s errand or waste a man by employing
him at boy’s work, still less to confuse the responsibility for the
function between two or more members. Accordingly, the student who is
reading intelligently will assure himself at each step as to what
particular responsibility was laid upon each member and how
appropriately it was fitted to its function.

=Ionic Order.=--From the grandiose simplicity of the Doric order we pass
to the slenderer and more graceful and decorated order of the Ionic. It
is almost like passing from a masculine to a feminine type: from a
reflection of the severe discipline of the old Dorian, as perpetuated by
the Spartans, to the more pleasure-loving and elegant life of the
wealthy Ionians; from the grave influence of the Olympian Zeus, chief
god of the Dorians, to the grace of the youthful Apollo and Artemis,
beloved of the Ionians.

For the Ionic order, as the name implies, was developed by the Asiatic
Hellenes whose migration from Armenia has been already noted. From them
the Greeks of Europe borrowed it. Among the earliest known examples are
a =Temple of Apollo= at =Naucratis=, in Egypt, and the archaic =Temple of
Artemis=, at =Ephesus=, both belonging to about 560 <small>B.C.</small> The remains of the
latter are in the British Museum. They include two capitals, inscribed
with the name of Crœsus, who is known to have contributed to the temple.

As in the Doric order, the Ionic temple rested on a _stylobate_ of three
steps, but the column is also provided with a base. The latter was
usually composed of two _tori_, of semi-circular profile, separated by
a concave moulding or _scotia_. Sometimes, as in the =Erechtheion= at
Athens, the base stood upon a square, flat base-block, or _plinth_.
Frequently the tori were embellished with horizontal flutings or the
interlacing wave-lines, called _guilloche_.

The Ionic shaft was proportionately higher than the Doric, being from 8
to 10 diameters in height as compared with the 4⅓ to 7 of the Doric.
Consequently, the entasis was less. The intercolumniation was sometimes
as much as two diameters. The shaft was incised with twenty-four narrow
flutings, separated by flat-edged fillets.

The capital usually commenced with a narrow convex moulding, called the
_astragal_, which was often enriched with the alternate bead and spool
ornament. Above this was the _echinus_, decorated with the egg-and-dart
pattern. But the _echinus_ is only partly visible, since it is
encroached upon by the main feature of the capital, a fillet that passes
across the face and at the sides winds inward upon itself, forming a
_volute_, which projects beyond the _echinus_. Above this was a low
_abacus_, enriched with ornament, on which set the _architrave_.

In some instances, as in the =Erechtheion=, the fillet forms a looping
curve, the volute is enriched with intermediate fillets and the necking
is decorated with the _anthemion_ ornament.

The Ionic capital presented awkward features which the ingenuity of the
architects never quite succeeded in disguising. In the first place the
abacus projected beyond the face of the architrave which from the side
view offered an unsightly appearance. Secondly arose the problem of
treating the volutes of the corner columns, so that the effect might be
symmetrical on both sides of the building. This was solved by converting
the side end of the capital into another face, the adjacent volutes at
the corner being brought out at an angle of forty-five degrees. This
results in an awkward arrangement at the back where two half-volutes
intersect each other at right angles.

The Ionic architrave consists of two or more _fasciæ_, or vertical
faces, projecting one over the other. This recalls the original wooden
construction and suggests that the Ionians used planks, while the
Dorians used a single beam. It was crowned with small mouldings,
frequently enriched with ornament.

Above this was the frieze, sometimes left plain, at other times enriched
with sculptured reliefs. It was joined by a moulding to the cornice.

The latter, in the simpler form adopted by the Athenians, consisted of a
plain corona, a fillet of _bead-and-spool_ ornament, a row of
_egg-and-dart_ moulding, and the cymatium or gutter, which was often
embellished with lion heads.

In Asiatic-Ionic examples, however, the cornice was more elaborate: a
row of narrow blocks or _dentils_, crowned with a carved fillet, being
inserted beneath the corona, while, further, the cymatium was
embellished with a repeat of the _anthemion_ decoration. This style is
distinguished by the term Ornamented Ionic.

The origin of the dentil may probably be traced to the Lycian Tombs,
where they are represented by the ends of the beams of the roof or
gable. The volute appears as a decorative feature on the façade of the
so-called =Tomb of Midas= in =Phrygia=. It also occurs as a decorative
feature in Assyrian art and is found in the capitals of the small
columns of a pavilion represented in the reliefs at Khorsabad. The
motive of the spiral is also found in Mycenæan jewelry. Professor
William H. Goodyear in his “Grammar of the Lotus,” suggests that the
volute may have originated in successive variations of the Egyptian
lotus patterns.

The Doric and Ionic orders were sometimes combined in the same building,
as in the =Propylæa=.

=Corinthian Order.=--The Corinthian order represents a still further
advance in ornateness, which however by the Hellenic architects was
confined to the capital of the column. For the base and shaft of the
columns and the entablature followed the Ionic order. The embellishment
of the capital may have been derived from the old custom of attaching
metal ornaments or actual foliage to altars and pedestals; and it may be
possible to trace the growth of the Corinthian style from the Ionic in
the repeat of palmettes that occurs below the volutes in the capitals of
the east portico of the =Erechtheion=. On the other hand, the general
bell-form of the capital may have been derived from Egyptian lotus
capitals.

The Corinthian order was used by the Athenians only in their smaller
structures[2] and reached its most refined form in the =Choragic Monument=
of =Lysicrates= in =Athens=. Here the flutings of the shaft terminate at the
top in leaves that curve outward. Above them is a band that may have
been covered with a bronze collar, from which spring a row of small
lotus leaves. Then come eight beautiful acanthus leaves, between each of
which is an eight-petalled rosette, suggesting a lotus-flower. They are
surmounted at the corners by stalks of the acanthus, partly sheathed
with leaves, that turn over with a spiral and form scrolls to support
the abacus. The latter in the Corinthian order has concave sides.

The details vary so much in Hellenic examples of Corinthian capitals
that, as we have already noted, the type had not yet been developed into
an independent order. Its final development was worked out by the
Romans, to whom its magnificence especially appealed.

=Ornament.=--The _acanthus_ plant belongs to Southern Europe and the
warmer parts of Asia and Africa. The common species found throughout the
Mediterranean, has large, deeply cut, hairy leaves. As a decorative
motive the Greeks first reproduced it in metal and then carved it in
stone, using it with particularly fine effect on the upright form of
tombstone known as _stela_. While they conventionalised the leaves, they
preserved the character of vigorous and at the same time graceful
growth. They gave a sharpness to the tips of the leaves that
distinguishes their use of it from the Roman.

The _anthemion_ ornament is often called the “honeysuckle pattern” from
its resemblance to that flower. But it is supposed to be a
conventionalisation of the flower of the acanthus, while related as a
decorative motive with the forms of the Egyptian lotus and the Persian
palmette.

The _egg-and-dart_ border presents a repeat in which the form of an egg,
set in a concave oval, alternates with a vertical bar that may or may
not terminate below in a more or less pronounced arrow-tip. It permits
the most subtle treatment of the planes of the egg, and of the contrast
between the smooth surfaces and the sharpness of the other details.

The _bead-and-spool_ repeat explains itself. It shows a variation,
according as the conventionalisation was derived from a spool that is
wound or that is unwound.

The _heart-leaf_, also sometimes called the _lily-leaf_, is a remarkable
instance of the closeness with which the Greek artist studied nature and
of the imagination he displayed in simplifying the natural form into a
convention, while at the same time preserving the principles of its
construction.

=Projections.=--Unlike Egyptian architecture, the Hellenic is
distinguished by the number and importance of its projections; which may
be compared to the lines, angles, and curves which constitute the
features of a human face and give it expression. They are the means by
which the architect engraves upon his buildings expressive designs of
light and shade. We have already spoken of the projections involved in
the column and entablature, but may now specifically enumerate the
various types of moulding that these involve; noting at the same time
the particular ornament that was employed on each, if it were decorated.
For such was the logic and refinement of the Hellenic taste that it
adopted motives of ornament that corresponded to the planes of the
surfaces of the moulding.

Thus, when the moulding took the form of the _cyma recta_--a curve
outward growing into a curve inward--Hogarth’s “line of beauty”--the
decorative feature applied to it was the anthemion, whose curves have a
corresponding direction. On the other hand, for the reversed form of
moulding, known as the _cyma reversa_ where the inward precedes the
outward curve, they used the heart-leaf. Again, the moulding known as
_ovolo_, in which the contour of an egg is followed, is enriched with
the egg-and-dart.

The _fillet_, a small band used to separate the other mouldings, was
usually left plain; as also were the simple hollow, called _cavetto_,
and the deep hollow which separated the two _tori_ in the base of
columns. When the torus was embellished, the motives used on the
semicircular surface were the interweave or plait, known as guilloche,
or rows of leaves, tied with bands, so that the moulding resembled a
wreath. Another small, separating moulding was the _bead_, which in
contour approaches a circle, and, when decorated, received the
bead-and-spool enrichment.

The distinction of the Hellenic use of all these mouldings and
enrichments was the extreme delicacy of the cutting, which the hardness
of the marble permitted and the clear sunshine helped to reveal; so that
it has been said that “while the Hellenes built like Titans, they
finished like jewellers.” But this did not involve a finicking
precision, for it was but an instance of the feeling for proportion and
choice relation of parts to one another that embraced the whole
building.

=Organic Relations.=--The height of the building was thoughtfully
proportioned to the length and width; the height of the shaft of the
column was considered in relation to the diameter. Similar care was
expended on the proportions of the several members of the capitals and
entablature, and the intercolumniation bore relation to the lower
diameter of the shafts. In every particular, great or little, the effort
was to create a unified impression of organic harmony and rhythmical
relations.

Now the term organic is primarily used of the living bodies of animals
and plants, the parts of which are not only connected but perform
certain functions in relation to the well-being of the whole. And it is
an extension of this idea that the Hellenes applied to the geometrical
harmony on which their architecture was based. They considered the
functions of each part--the amount of support it gave or strain it had
to sustain and so forth; and having made provision for this as
constructors, they were consistent to the principle also in their
æsthetic consideration as artists. They modified the sculptural
decoration according to the function of the parts; giving least to those
whose function of support was most important and increasing the quantity
and the boldness of the curving as the structural strain diminished.

Thus the shaft of the column was free of any carving except the fluting,
which, however, served the purpose of channels to carry the rain water
and helped to preserve the mass from decay. The capital in the Doric
style was not enriched with ornament, and similarly plain, with very few
exceptions, was the architrave. Meanwhile, sculptured figures in high
relief were introduced into the metopes which originally had been
openings, while the _tympanum_ or flat surface of the pediment received
groups of figures in the round. This increased boldness of relief,
accompanied by foreshortening of the figures, was adopted to offset the
diminishing effect that their greater distance from the spectator’s eye
would otherwise have suggested. Moreover, in the sculptures, as in the
carving of the mouldings, the varying quantities of light were
considered. The mouldings on the outside of a temple in full sunlight
were differently planned from those in the interior; and the shadow cast
by the cornices was taken into account in graduating the relief of the
sculptures in the metopes and pediments.

Nor was the actual work done by artists, but under their supervision by
pupils and masons. From the records of payments made to the sculptors
who worked on the Erechtheion it appears that they were ordinary masons,
some of them not even citizens, who were paid for each figure the sum of
60 drachms, or 12 dollars!

Finally, the decoration of a Greek Temple comprised not only sculpture,
but also painting. A large part of every Doric temple was covered with
strong, bright colours, while certain prominent details were treated
with elaborate patterns. The figures of the sculpture also were painted
and relieved against a background of contrasted colour.

It has been discovered that the triglyphs were painted blue and the
metopes red and that the mouldings were decorated with ornament in red,
blue, green, and gold. The walls and the columns were probably stained
yellow or buff, perhaps by the use of wax melted on the surface
(_encaustic_).

=Asymmetries or Refinements.=--It might seem that, in the various
particulars we have noted, Hellenic intellect and feeling had exhausted
the possibilities of refinement. But there is yet another instance,
which was first revealed by the detailed measurements of Hellenic
temples made independently by two Englishmen, Francis Cranmer Penrose
and John Pennethorne, and by a German architect, Joseph Hoffer. The
results were published in 1838 and in 1851, and have been corroborated
by other students. They are known as architectural “refinements” or
“asymmetries.”

It had been assumed that, since the form of the temple type was
apparently symmetrical, it also involved absolute symmetry of details;
that geometrical regularity and mathematical accuracy were the necessary
and natural conditions of the architectural design. By those
investigators, however, it was discovered that though the principles of
geometry and mathematics were the foundation of the planning and
designing, regularity and accuracy were purposely avoided; and that so
far from the details being symmetrical they exhibit intentional
asymmetries.

One of these irregularities is the substitution of curved for straight
lines. We have already mentioned the entasis or swell in the vertical
contour of the column--a fact not observed by modern architects until
1810; but curvature is also found in the horizontal lines of the
stylobate and the architrave, frieze, and cornice, and in the gable
lines of the pediments. And since these were discovered other variations
of equal importance and significance have been found.

“In the =Parthenon=, for instance,” (the quotation is from the writings of
Professor William H. Goodyear) “surfaces or members which are set true
to perpendicular are most exceptional. Perhaps the end walls are the
only exception. All the columns lean inward about three inches in thirty
feet toward the centre of the building. The side walls lean inward. The
antæ, or flat pilasters at the angles of the ends of the walls, lean
forward one unit in eighty-two units. The faces of the architrave and
frieze lean backward, whereas the acroteria, the face of the cornice and
the face of the fillet between architrave and frieze lean forward.
Furthermore, the columns and capitals of the Parthenon are of unequal
size, and the widths of the metopes and the intercolumnar spacings are
also unequal.”

The discovery of these variations was pooh-poohed by architects who had
been trained to believe that “correct” architecture depended upon
geometrical regularity and mathematical accuracy. They dismissed them
lightly as “mason’s errors.” But this will not hold for three reasons.
Firstly, these asymmetries only occur in the finest examples, where the
design and the details are of superior refinement and the skill of the
masons most unmistakable. Secondly, the number of variations increases
_pro rata_ with the superiority of the design, reaching their maximum in
the =Parthenon=. And, thirdly, in cases which are unquestionably due to
mason’s errors the amount of the variation is practically negligible. Is
it likely, for example, that the masons who brought the two ends of the
Parthenon within one quarter of an inch of being exactly equal in width,
would have been so careless as to let the presumably horizontal lines
curve up four inches on the sides of the buildings and two inches at its
ends? Or, again, would they have committed so flagrant an error as
giving the stylobate a convex curve upward, since it necessitated a
corresponding curve to the base of each column, a most difficult and
delicate operation of cutting? The perfect adjustment of these two
curves, by the way, is one of many arguments against the theory that
these variations were caused by settlements in the foundations or, in
the case of the Parthenon, by the explosion which wrecked it in 1687,
when it was being used by the Turks as a powder magazine.

The fact having been established that these variations were intentional,
how are they to be explained? A generally accepted explanation of the
curvatures in place of straight lines has been that they were intended
to correct an optical effect of curvature in the opposite direction.
Thus, if the contour of a column shaft were a straight line, it would
appear to the eye to curve inward; similarly, the horizontal lines of
the stylobate and entablature would appear to sag downward. Accordingly,
the “refinements” were designed as optical corrections of optical
effects of irregularity; in other words, geometrical effect is supposed
to have been sought by departures from geometric fact.

This, however, would not explain the other variations that have been
noted. Moreover, it is contradicted even in the case of curvatures by a
discovery of Professor Giovannoni of Rome, that the façade of the =Temple=
at =Uri= has a curvature in _plan_.[3] The columns, that is to say, are
not set to a straight line but to a curve which is concave to the
exterior; consequently the entablature is correspondingly curved, the
effect of which to the eye as it looks up is the very one that it was
explained the architects strove to avoid--a sag downward from the ends.
In this case they deliberately designed the façade to produce the
effect.

This explanation of optical corrections, then, as well as others, have
been proved erroneous by Professor William H. Goodyear, who has made a
life-long study of the subject and carried his investigations also into
Gothic architecture, in which, as we shall see, he has discovered
numerous instances of refinements and asymmetries. His explanation,
supported by a wealth of conclusive evidence which is set forth in his
“Greek Refinements,” is that the motive was æsthetic. The refinements
were modulations designed to please the eye by avoiding the inartistic
effects produced by formal monotony. They were planned to do away with
the monotony and rigidity that result from geometrical regularity and
mathematical accuracy and to introduce a suggestion of elasticity. They
imparted to the structure something of the irregularity that
characterises organic growth. It is because, with rare exceptions, they
are not found in modern classical buildings, that the latter appear by
comparison so stiff and formal.

These asymmetries, in fact, were intended to offset the liability of the
beauty’s becoming “faultily faultless, icily regular, splendidly null,
dead perfection, no more.”

       *       *       *       *       *

With few exceptions the Hellenic temple was oriented; its four sides
facing exactly the four points of the compass, the principal entrance
being on the east. It opened into the cella which was usually divided
into what may be called a nave and side aisles by two rows of columns
which carried smaller columns that supported the pitch of the roof.
Where the cella was narrow, as in the =Temple of Apollo Epicurios= (“The
Helper”) at =Bassæ=, near Phigaleia, the rows of columns were replaced by
half-columns, attached to projections from side walls. The cella was
occupied by the statue of the deity, which in the case of the =Parthenon=
was the Athene Parthenos, the Maiden Athene, one of the most renowned
works of Phidias. The draped figure of the goddess was represented
standing, armed with helmet, spear and shield, supporting in one hand a
Wingèd Victory. The statue was about forty feet high and of the kind
known as “chryselephantine,” the draperies and accessories being of gold
plates, the flesh parts ivory, with precious stones inserted in the
eyes.

Behind this statue was the entrance to a small room, situated between
the cella and the opisthodomos, an exceptional feature from which the
name of the temple was derived. It was the Parthenon proper, or
Virgin’s Chamber, which seems to have been used as a treasury. Its
ceiling was supported by four Ionic columns.

The Ionic order in conjunction with the Doric was also employed in the
=Propylæa= or monumental gateway of the =Acropolis=. This masterpiece of
Mnesicles presents an irregularity of plan, exhibiting the Hellenic
architect’s readiness to adapt his design to the peculiarities of the
site. While Doric columns mark the exterior, Ionic were used in the
interior to dignify the central passageway. A similar use of this order
for interior embellishment was adopted by Ictinus, the chief architect
of the Parthenon, in his otherwise Doric design of the =Temple= of =Apollo
Epicurios=.

On the other hand, the Ionic order was employed on the exterior of the
=Erechtheion=, another work of Mnesicles also irregular in plan. It
occupies a sloping site on the Acropolis, where an older temple, burnt
by the Persians, had stood. Spoils of the Persian conquest were
preserved in it with other relics, held in special veneration. The
nucleus of the design is a cella without colonnades (apteral), the
sanctuary of Athena Polias (the City’s Guardian) and of Erechtheus (a
mythic hero of the Athenians) and the Ocean-god, Poseidon. The exterior
is distinguished by two Ionic porticoes, and by a third, a smaller one,
in which the columns are replaced by caryatides, six draped female
figures whose heads support the architrave. All these figures face
south, the three to the west resting their weight on the right legs; the
three eastern on the left--in each case the outer legs--thus giving to
the outer contour of their bodies the effect of entasis.

Another Ionic example on the Acropolis is the =Temple of Athene Nike=
(Victory), known as the Temple of =Nike= =Apteros=; the term “Wingless,”
however, not describing the statue of the goddess but, as used above,
the style of the design--without colonnades.


=Theatres.=--Only second in importance to the Hellenic temples were the
theatres. Both served as memorials of the ancient traditions of the race
and as an incentive to higher citizenship. For the drama, which had its
origin in religious observances, was a civic institution, maintained by
the state and free to all citizens.

The origin of the Greek drama is to be found in the primitive worship of
Dionysos, the god of productiveness, and to the last the Greek stage and
auditorium perpetuated in their form some trace of their religious
origin. The nucleus was an altar consecrated to Dionysos. In earliest
times each family may have erected its own altar, presided over by the
father of the family as priest. Later each community would have its
official priest, and on the god’s feast-day all the villagers would move
in procession to the common altar, headed by the priest and a choir of
singers, trained by him. The altar reached, the priest would mount the
pedestal, surrounded by the choir, while the body of worshippers
disposed themselves around the spot. The priest would recite the
greatness of the god and at intervals the choir of voices would chant
the dithyrambic song, moving around the altar and accompanying the song
with rhythmic movement of body and limbs.

From this root of a religious drama in time grew successive stems. The
prowess of some hero would be adopted as a theme. At first the priest,
or it may be some wandering poet, would narrate the story; later he
would treat it in the first person, impersonating the hero, sometimes
engaging in dialogue with the chorus. Still later, other personages in
the story would be separately impersonated, and so the scope of the
dramatic representation developed.

Meanwhile the affair still maintained a semi-religious character; the
place of presentation was still around the altar of Dionysos and the
chorus was retained, taking its part in the action with explanation and
comment, still delivered, however, in dithyrambic measure and with
accompaniments of rhythmic gesture. The platform of the altar being
limited in space, the dialogue was usually confined to two actors at a
time, though a third was sometimes allowed. If there were other
characters involved, these actors would often “double” the parts;
disguising themselves by change of costume, especially by the use of
masks. This demanded some kind of a screen behind which the actors could
change their costumes and also wait until their presence was required.
Skins hung upon poles would at first serve the purpose, or a _skene_ or
tent, from which we derive our word scene, might be used. Whichever it
were, it would interfere with the view of the action from the back and
so draw the audience to the “front.”

       *       *       *       *       *

The most important remains of Hellenic theatres are the =Theatre of
Dionysos=,[4] cut out of the side of the Acropolis, and the theatre at
=Epidauros=, in Argolis, Greece. The plan of the theatre of Dionysos is
that of a semi-circle, the ends of which are prolonged for a short
distance in a direction at right angles to the front of the skene.
Within the horseshoe was the circular orchestra, still whole at
=Epidauros=, in which the main action was carried on by actors and chorus.
A different plan is given by the Roman architect, Vitruvius. It is to be
noted, however, that Vitruvius lived in the reign of Augustus, by which
time what was pure Hellenic had become modified by foreign influences
into Hellenistic. He relates, for example, that in his time the height
of the _logeion_ or speaking platform--the stage of to-day--was from 10
to 12 feet. In earlier times, including probably the period of the
Classic drama, the logeion was the platform around the altar,
supplemented possibly by a platform two or three feet high extending
across the front of the _skene_, from which, at certain points in the
play, some, at least, of the actors spoke. This platform, being in front
of the scene and enclosed at the sides by projections of the latter, was
called the _proskenion_, from which is derived our word proscenium with
its different meaning.

By the time that the Hellenic theatre had evolved into a permanent
structure, the _skene_, originally a temporary screen, took the form of
an architectural background, some ten feet high, with a central door for
the entrances of the actors. But the idea of the original screen was
perhaps retained in the row of columns which stood a little in front of
the _skene_, and could be used, if needed, for the hanging of curtains
or even of painted cloths. Meanwhile, the roof of the portico, which
extended from the columns to the _skene_, could be utilised by the
actors at certain stages of the drama.[5]

The interest of the discussion raised by Vitruvius’ description
consists in the question how far the actors mingled with or were
separated from the chorus, which continued to occupy the _orchestra_ or
circle on the floor of the auditorium, corresponding to the place of the
orchestra stalls in a modern theatre. The orchestra of a Greek theatre
was originally the sole “stage,” but gradually, as the dramas involved
more complexity of scenes, the actors would vary their position between
the orchestra and the proscenium; and later, in Hellenistic times, as
the religious origin of the drama was forgotten and the use of a chorus
began to fall into abeyance, the use of the proscenium would increase.

Finally, when the Romans began to imitate the Greek drama, they dropped
the chorus; the acting was confined to the proscenium, and the orchestra
no longer needed for the play, became a part of the auditorium, reserved
for distinguished spectators. The Roman theatre, in fact, like our own,
represented the complete separation of the audience and the stage.

=Odeion.=--Supplementing the theatre was the Odeion or concert hall, which
was constructed on the same general lines but distinguished by the
addition of a roof for acoustic purposes. The oldest known is the =Skias=
at Sparta, so called from its roof resembling the top of a parasol. The
=Odeion of Pericles=, which served as a model for subsequent halls, was
built on the southeastern slope of the Acropolis, its roof being made in
imitation of the tent of Xerxes and constructed of the masts of Persian
vessels, captured at the battle of Salamis. The most magnificent
example, however, was erected <small>A.D.</small> 162 on the southwest slope, by a
wealthy citizen, =Herodes Atticus=, in memory of his wife. Its ceiling is
said to have been composed of beams of cedar, carved with ornament,
while decorations in the form of paintings and other works of art
embellished the interior, which had accommodation for eight thousand
persons.




CHAPTER III

ROMAN CIVILISATION


Such empire as Hellas achieved was succeeded by the Roman Empire. The
earlier, as we have seen, was an empire loosely founded on kinship of
race, ideals, and character, and on common interests of commerce. It was
an empire of individualism; preserving the individuality of cities and
their individual states, producing a few men of rare individuality and,
as it spread throughout the Mediterranean, planting colonies which
maintained their independence both against the Motherland of Hellas and
the people in their immediate surroundings. It was, from the first, an
empire of the spirit and, as such, survived its physical dissolution and
has maintained its dominion over the human mind even to the present
time.

On the contrary, the Roman Empire, in so far as it succeeded, was an
empire of constructive organisation. It grew, cell by cell, each added
cell becoming gradually impregnated with the life-principle of the
earliest one, so that every part of the unwieldy body was an organic
part of the whole. Thus, in time, each independent city and its
adjoining community, alien races and huge slices of foreign territory,
became gradually absorbed into the practical system of government that
originated with the little settlement of Latins which first occupied the
Palatine Hill and then extended its authority over the seven hills of
Rome. Part after part became absorbed into the system of the Lex Romana
and enjoyed the benefits of the Pax Romana. The Roman citizenship,
judiciously extended over the whole empire, carried with it substantial
rights and equally substantial duties. The provinces of the empire
contributed men of learning, generals, and statesmen to the central
government. In time some of the provinces, notably those of Spain and
Southern France, became more characteristically Roman than Rome herself.
They had absorbed her system and her culture, and, far removed from the
petty intrigues which convulsed the capital, reached a degree of
civilisation that represented the finest product of the Roman ideal; an
ideal that included individual uprightness, a sense of service and
self-sacrifice for the common weal, and a high regard for order. It was
a practical ideal, little concerned with abstractions, not devoted to
excessive refinement, but centred on the effectual accomplishment of the
individual and collective requirements of everyday life.

It is true that this ideal was never fully achieved. This is only to say
that the ideal was truly human and therefore at the mercy of human
chances and weaknesses. Moreover, that it was really an ideal; a
principle of life, that is to say, which by reason of its bigness was
only possible of partial achievement. And if the Romans failed in
achieving theirs, they failed nobly, and with sufficient success to have
left behind them a legacy of law and order and constructive principles
of government that, like the cultural ideals of the Hellenes, survive to
the present time.

And the Roman Empire played a part in the progress of the world, more
immediately necessary than that of Hellas. The latter’s Empire of Spirit
was in advance of its age. The world outside of the scattered outposts
of Hellas was too rude, too backward in the very necessaries of life, to
accept its message of beauty. Recognising this, the Hellenes called all
other races and nations barbarians and held aloof from them. The Romans,
on the contrary, absorbed the aliens, instilled into them the rudiments
of their own civilisation, while taking advantage of any good trait in
the people themselves, so that they helped them to rise out of
themselves to a higher plane of living. In a lawless world they became
the great exponents of order, the upbuilders and engineers of a system
of organised society, and so firmly did they lay the foundations and so
strongly did they build that, although subsequent hordes of barbarians
overthrew the dominion of the empire of Rome and laid waste many of the
visible signs of her building, the destroyers were gradually absorbed
into her system and became its continuers.

Therefore, when we consider the Romans specifically in relation to
architecture, we look back to them as tireless and prodigious builders,
constructors, and engineers, whose sense of beauty in architecture, as
well as their aspirations in all branches of higher culture, were
derived from the Hellenes. Their respect for the latter was such that so
long as possible they tried to treat them as an independent power, with
whom they could pursue the mutual advantages of commerce. Gradually,
however, the tangle of politics made absorption necessary, and after a
series of invasions Hellas herself became a province of the Roman
Empire.

War, in those days, as for centuries after, involved the barbarous
practice of looting, and the Romans, with their shrewd instinct for
acquiring what they most needed for their own development, bore back
home in increasing quantity the treasures of architectural and
sculptural art. Later, as the power of Hellas dwindled, Rome became the
centre to which Hellenic artists and scholars flocked.

The conquest of Hellas and gradual absorption of a part of her culture
occupied the second century before the Christian era and the earlier
years of the first. By this time, however, Rome herself had become a
prey to the rivalries of political factions, beginning with the
conspiracy of Sulla and ending with the civil war that followed upon the
assassination of Julius Cæsar. The latter’s great-nephew, Octavianus, in
conjunction with Marc Antony, conquered Brutus and Cassius at Philippi
in Macedonia and Octavianus assumed authority over the West, while
Antony established himself as ruler in the East. But his infatuation for
Cleopatra raised the suspicion in Rome that he intended to marry her and
make himself despot of an Oriental empire with Alexandria as its
capital. War was declared against him as a national enemy and he was
defeated at Actium, <small>B.C.</small> 31. The authority of Octavianus was now
supreme. Republicanism, as a practical form of government, was dead.
Conditions demanded one-man rule and Octavianus, in <small>B.C.</small> 27, resigned
his office as Triumvir and received from the Senate the title of
Augustus, which hitherto had been reserved for the gods.

During this period of struggle the Hellenic influence had been rapidly
growing. The sons of the ruling class had Greek tutors; many studied in
the schools of Athens and Rhodes, and Roman writers began to emulate the
Greek authors. Cæsar published his Commentaries on the Gallic War and on
the Civil War; Sallust wrote on the Conspiracy of Catiline and the
Jugurthine War and Cornelius Nepos compiled biographies of eminent men.
Cicero published under the name of “Philippics” the speeches which he
made against Antony in the Senate, as well as “Letters” to various
friends on the topics of the times, while Lucretius composed in verse a
treatise on the “Nature of the World” and Varro was the author of an
encyclopædic work relating to the history, geography, agriculture, law,
literature, philology, philosophy, and religion of the Romans. To Varro
also had been assigned by Julius Cæsar the collection of a public
Library of Greek and Roman writers.

The enthusiasm for literature was encouraged by Augustus and his
minister, Mycæenas, who saw in it a means of allaying the bitterness of
party strife. To this, the “Augustan” or “Golden Age,” as the writers
called it in flattery of their patron, belong Horace, Livy, and Virgil.

In an effort also to lead the people back to the honourable simplicity
of their forefathers, Augustus revived the ancient religious ceremonies
and restored the temples. He became chief pontiff and, being regarded as
the son of the deified Julius--in reality, his great-nephew--was treated
almost as a divinity in Rome and deified by the provincials who built
temples in his honour.

It was in the Augustan Age that Roman architecture virtually commenced
and its developments are associated with Imperial rule. Of the period
immediately preceding the new era Mommsen writes as follows: “There was
in the world as Cæsar found it much of the noble heritage of past
centuries and an infinite abundance of pomp and glory, but little
spirit, still less taste and least of all true delight in life. It was
indeed, an old world; and even the richly gifted patriotism of Cæsar
could not make it young again.”

Rome, the heart of the Empire, was corrupt. The ruling class coveted
pensions from the public exchequer to be spent on luxurious living;
while the mass of the populace clamoured for “panem et
circenses”--feeding and shows at the public charge. To satisfy their
hunger both classes would have taxed the provinces. But among the chief
duties of the emperors were the development of the resources of the
provinces and the protection of the frontiers; and, while the best of
the emperors performed these functions from high motives, even the worst
found it politic to court the growing power of the provinces. Thus, the
main vitality of the empire was in its extremities, and, although the
emperors beautified Rome, they also encouraged public works of utility
and beauty in the provinces. To this end a law was passed, permitting
municipalities to receive bequests and gifts from private individuals.
In the liberality with which wealthy provincials enriched their
communities, Dr. Ferrero, the latest historian of Rome, has seen a
parallel to the munificent public gifts of American millionaires.

Accordingly, this great era of Roman building left its impress not only
upon Italy, but in Greece and northward as far as the Danube, in Asia
Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, along the whole Northern coast of
Africa, and in Spain, France, and Great Britain as far as the Firth of
Forth. It was distinguished not only by the magnitude of the operations
but also by their character.

Whereas in Egypt the architectural works had consisted of temples and
tombs; and in Hellas these had been supplemented by theatres and odeia;
while Assyria and Persia left their memorials in palaces, those of the
Roman Empire embraced all of these types and many more. The Romans
applied architecture to the practical needs of everyday life, and
reinforced it with engineering. They overlaid the Empire with fine
trunk-roads, many of which survive to-day; constructed sewers; spanned
rivers with bridges; conveyed water in countless miles of aqueducts;
erected fora and market-places, triumphal arches, temples, palaces,
villas, baths, basilicas, theatres, and hippodromes; providing alike for
the necessities of life, the needs of government, and the amusements and
luxuries of living.

To accomplish so prodigious an amount of building the Romans
systematised the methods of construction in regard to both the labour
and the material. The labour was mainly of an unskilled kind, including
soldiers of the legions, slaves, and subjects liable through debt or
other causes to statute labour. This employment of unskilled labour was
made possible by the Roman habit of carrying the principle of repetition
of motives to its utmost limit, and also by the methods of construction
which they invented.

This was the extended use of concrete. During the Republic the Romans
had followed the Greek method of building with large blocks of stone,
unconnected with mortar. Their practical spirit, however, urged them to
make a more economical use of materials and instead of composing the
walls entirely of blocks of stone or marble, they used these or bricks
as a facing, filling in the thickness of the wall with small fragments
of stone mixed with lime or mortar.

They had been led to this practice by the existence of _pozzolana_, a
volcanic product of clean, sandy earth, found in Rome and in greater
quantities at Pozzuoli on the Bay of Naples, which, when mixed with
lime, formed a concrete of exceptional hardness, strength, and
durability. Material, approximating the properties of pozzolana and
lime, was procurable in all parts of the Empire. Accordingly the use of
this method of construction gave a similarity to Roman building
everywhere.

While the chief, and almost sole building material in Greece was marble,
the geological formation of Italy supplied stone as well as marble and
plentiful supplies of clay, which was converted into terra-cotta or
bricks. The bricks were of two shapes: either square, from 1 to 2 feet
in size and 2 inches thick or triangular in plan and of about 1½ inches
in thickness. The latter were especially used for the facing of the
walls, their pointed ends being driven into the concrete to form the
smooth surfaces, while at the corners the points projected. In Rome
itself the following materials were available: _travertine_, a hard
limestone from Tivoli; _tufa_, a volcanic substance of which the hills
of Rome are mainly composed; and _peperino_, a stone of volcanic origin
from Mount Albano.

       *       *       *       *       *

While Roman architecture was developed under the stimulus of Greek art
and culture it probably owes its origin to the example of the Etruscans.

The origin of this race is uncertain, but its own traditions ascribe it
to Lydia in Asia Minor, whence it may have passed during that general
migration from Hellas into Italy about <small>B.C.</small> 1000. It was for long the
dominant power in Italy, extending at various times over a territory
that reached from the Tiber to the Apennines, and southward into
Campania. This gave the Etruscans command of the Tyrrhenian Sea and made
them commercial rivals of the Carthagenians. Their enmity toward the
rising city of Rome would be natural and some authorities believe that
the reign of the Tarquin kings was a period of Etruscan domination. Then
the Romans expelled the tyrants, established a republic of their own,
and by degrees wore down the power of the Etruscans, who had become
enervated through increase of luxury. Their civilisation long antedated
that of the Romans. The earliest remains of art, found in Etruria, are
now believed to have been imported from Hellas; but the tombs have
revealed a quantity of later art objects which prove this people to have
been skilful in the modelling and colouring of terra-cotta, in mural
paintings, jewellery, and household adornments.

“The houses of the earliest period, to judge by the burial urns, known
from their shape as ‘hut-urns,’ were small single room constructions of
rectangular plan, similar to certain types of the _capanne_ used by the
shepherds to-day. Probably the walls were wattled and the roofs were
certainly thatched, for the urns show plainly the long beams fastened
together at the top and hanging from the ridge down each side.”
(Encyclopædia Britannica, “Etruria.”) Tombs erected even later than the
fifth century <small>B.C.</small> were cut in imitation of a most simple form of post
and beam construction. The elements of the decoration, such as capitals,
mouldings, rosettes, patterns, etc., were borrowed from Greece, Egypt,
and elsewhere.

The architectural remains comprise tombs, city walls, gateways, bridges,
and aqueducts, the walls of which are remarkable for their cyclopean
masonry, while the general character of the construction resembles the
early work of Tiryns and Mycenæ.

No example remains of Etruscan temples, but Vitruvius has described
them. The plan was nearly square and the cella was divided into three
chambers, since it was in groups of three that the Etruscans worshipped
their deities. The columns represented in rude form the Doric order, set
so far apart that it is concluded they were surmounted by beams of
timber. A further distinction of the Etruscan temple, adopted by the
Romans, was the replacing of the stylobate by a _podium_. This was a
continuous pedestal or low wall on which the columns were carried. It
was approached in front by a flight of steps, enclosed between the
prolongation of the side-walls of the podium. The most famous example
was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, dedicated <small>B.C.</small> 509,
which contained three chambers, for the statues of Jupiter, Minerva, and
Juno. It was destroyed by fire <small>B.C.</small> 83, and rebuilt by Sulla, who
brought over for the purpose some of the Corinthian columns from the
temple of Zeus Olympius in Athens. (See p. 122.)

Until recently the great sewer, or “Cloaca Maxima,” of Rome, constructed
about <small>B.C.</small> 578, has been attributed to the Etruscans and considered a
proof that they introduced the use of the arch to the Romans. But in
1903, when excavating the Forum, Commendatore Boni proved that the drain
was originally uncovered and that the arch, which consists of three
rings of voussoirs, each 2 feet 6 inches high, was added at the end of
the Republic. “Thus the honour, not of discovering the arch, for it was
known in the East, as we noted, but of popularising its use, does not
belong to the Etrurians, though they did use it at a comparatively late
time for city gates, as at Volterra.” (Encyclopædia Britannica,
“Etruria.”)

       *       *       *       *       *

Following Augustus, the emperors under whom Roman architecture chiefly
flourished were: Nero (<small>A.D.</small> 54-69), Vespasian (69-79), Trajan (98-117),
Hadrian (137-138), Septimus Severus (193-211), Caracalla (211-217), and
Diocletian (284-305). By Constantine (306-337) were inaugurated two
changes of policy, which affected the destinies of the world. For by
granting toleration to all religions he raised Christianity to equal
footing with paganism and thus paved the way for the power of the
Church; and in establishing his capital at Byzantium took the first step
in the partition of the Empire into East and West. Aided by his vigorous
efforts, architecture, which had declined, enjoyed a measure of revival,
in which, as we shall see later, the Church began to play a conspicuous
part.

With the commencement of the fifth century, <small>A.D.</small>, began the irruption of
Barbarians. Attila’s Huns swept like a scourge over Europe, while the
German tribes conquered the provinces in turn and occupied them. In 455
Rome was sacked by the Vandals. In 476 Odoacer was proclaimed by his
troops King of Italy, and thus the Western part of the Empire was
finally separated from the Eastern. This is the date selected to mark
the “Fall” of the Roman Empire. Meanwhile the steady decline of the
power of the emperors had been long in process and was accompanied by a
corresponding increase in the power of the Popes. Henceforth, during the
“Dark Ages” of civil confusion, the influence and authority of the
Church were the chief sources of social as well as religious
organisation.

       *       *       *       *       *

The Roman ideal of civilisation received its most characteristic
architectural expression in the several fora, beginning with the
oldest--the Forum Romanum. From ancient times it was the heart of the
city; the centre of civil activity; the scene of some of the most
stirring incidents in the growth of Rome; in later times the nucleus of
the pomp and pride of the Empire. Here at some time was erected a
cylindrical monument in three tiers, the Umbilicus or Navel of Rome, and
hard by it stood the Milliarium, a marble column, sheathed in bronze
and inscribed with the names and distances of the chief cities on the
great trunk-roads that radiated throughout the Empire from the
thirty-seven gates of Rome.

Between these two monuments extended a platform, decorated with the
bronze beaks of conquered vessels and hence called the Rostra, from
which any citizen could speak who had aught to say concerning the
commonweal. For it faced the Comitium or open space, which from earliest
times had been the meeting place of the General Assembly of the people.
It is true that the voice of the people was too often dominated by the
Patrician class whose Curia or Senate House overlooked the Comitium; but
the Comitium continued to represent, at least, the theory of Roman
Government and to be the veritable nucleus of the Roman Forum.

Since the Forum embodied the ideals and the progress of Rome, its
architectural aspects were continually changing throughout the more than
one thousand years of Rome’s vicissitudes. But without attempting to
follow these changes--many of which are shrouded in obscurity--let us
try to picture the Forum in its general aspects and particularly as the
embodiment of the Roman ideal.

The ancient citadel was the Capitoline Hill on which in early times had
been erected the temple already mentioned to the three divinities of
Male and Female Power and of Wisdom--Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. It
corresponded to the Acropolis of Athens and her Parthenon. But whereas
the Parthenon was the nucleus of the Hellenic ideal, as embodied in
architectural glory--the embodiment of an ideal, detached and lifted up
above the common life--the formal grandeur of Rome descended from the
Capitoline Hill and occupied the low ground that separated it from the
Palatine, so that it might identify itself with the practical, everyday
ideals of the city.

And, first, for the purely practical. The southern side of the Forum was
in early times bordered with the tabernæ or wooden booths of the
butchers and other produce merchants, while on the north were the shops
of the gold-and silversmiths, and money changers. The Forum, in fact,
was the central market of Rome and came to be its financial centre, and,
as a necessary result, the centre also of legal and judicial procedure.
In later times, as the volume and intricacies of business increased, the
tabernæ were replaced by basilicas, which included halls of justice and
of exchange for merchants. Meanwhile, let us try to picture the Forum as
the embodiment of Roman ideals.

It was bounded on both sides by the Via Sacra, or Sacred Way; the two
forks uniting near the foot of the Palatine Hill, around which the
Sacred Way continued to its junction with the Appian Way. Its stones
were sacred because they had been trod by the countless hosts of Rome’s
victorious armies, returning in triumphal procession to pay their homage
to the deities of Male and Female Power and of Wisdom upon the Capitol.

As the soldiers swept out of the Appian Way, they would skirt the spot,
where in later times arose the Colosseum, and the roadway was spanned by
the Arch of Constantine, and a little farther on by the Arch of Titus.
From this the road advanced in an easterly direction and then turned
north.

Then from earliest times two objects would greet the victors’ eyes. Upon
the right stood the arch of two-headed Janus, god of gates and doors. It
was all but a certainty that its two doors would be standing open; for,
although this army was returning victorious, there were others almost
continuously engaged on the frontiers of the empire. So the soldiers,
glutted with fighting and hungry for the sight of their loved ones,
would turn more eagerly to the left, where rose the circular temple of
Vesta, guardian of the home and hearth. It was the symbol of the ideal
of sane and simple home life, on which the greatness of Rome was
founded, and as the Vestal Virgins thronged the steps of their convent
or atrium, hard by the temple, the eagles would be lowered and every
bronzed warrior would salute the maiden priestesses, who, in their
absence, had kept perpetually alive the sacred fire.

Just beyond this spot in later times Cæsar Augustus erected a Triumphal
Arch. Meanwhile, from Rome’s early days the victorious hosts would next
defile past the Temple of Castor and Pollux, memorial of the victory
gained at Lake Regillus with the help of these twin gods. Close by it
came to be erected the Temple of Cæsar, in front of which the great
Julius caused a rostrum to be placed, from the steps of which the
oration over his dead body was spoken by Marc Antony.

At this spot the veterans would enter the Forum proper, welcomed by the
cheers of the merchants; in old times, from the fronts of their booths
and later from the porticoes of the Basilica Æmilia on the right and the
Basilica Julia on the left. Then, both early and late in Rome’s history,
would be reached the ancient Temple of Saturn, god of seed growing and
the bounties of the soil, a god of meaning to the soldiers, for many a
veteran had been left behind in distant lands, planted upon farms that
were to consolidate the power and prosperity of the Empire. Moreover,
in some of the chambers of the Temple, which formed the official
Treasury of Rome, a part of their spoils of war would be deposited.

The procession by this time is filing past the Comitium, filled with
enthusiastic crowds, while orators welcome it from the rostra and the
Senators are ranged in ranks upon the steps of the Curia. The roar of
welcome is still in the ears of the host as it begins the ascent of the
Capitol, passing under the Arch of Septimus Severus, if the date be
after <small>A.D.</small> 203. Midway of the ascent, it passes the Temple of Concord,
memorial of the termination of the internecine struggle between the
Patricians and the Plebs; skirts the Tabularium, wherein the archives of
the Empire were preserved, and finally reaches the summit of the
Capitol.

Let us take one glance back before the picture fades. The scene is
superb but not without confusion. The Romans paid no attention to
orientation; consequently there is little uniformity in the placing of
the several structures. They vary not only in size and design, but also
in the direction which they face. In the contracted space the various
edifices seem crowded. Indeed, the conjectured restoration of the Roman
Forum and vicinity suggests rather a medley of magnificence.

But even in this respect the character of this heart of Rome, lying
between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, symbolised the magnificent
variety of elements that composed the Empire. One may find some parallel
to Rome’s confusion of appearances in the variety and, for the most
part, lack of an organic lay-out in the modern London, the present
mother-city of an Empire, founded, like the Roman, upon commerce, and
like it in having grown, cell by cell, transcending it, however, not
only in size but in grandeur. For the policy of the British Empire has
gradually evolved beyond the Roman, substituting for the process of
absorption the principle of free, self-governing dominions.

[Illustration:

Courtesy A. S. Barnes & Co. from “A History of Art,” by William H. Goodyear

CONJECTURED RESTORATION OF THE FORUM ROMANUM

LOOKING N. E. TO THE CAPITOL. ON LEFT, TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX AND
THE BASILICA JULIA. RIGHT, THE CURIA. AT THE END, TEMPLE OF VESPASIAN]

[Illustration: MAISON CARRÉE: NÎMES

ENGAGED COLUMNS ON CELLA WALL (PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL) COLUMNS SURMOUNT THE
PODIUM. P. 169]

[Illustration: ARCH OF CONSTANTINE

ENTABLATURE, BROKEN ROUND COLUMNS. NOTE DECORATIVE USE OF LETTERING. P.
178]

[Illustration: PANTHEON, ROME

P. 171]

[Illustration: SECTION OF PANTHEON]

[Illustration: COLOSSEUM, ROME

P. 174]

[Illustration: SECTION OF COLOSSEUM

SHOWING THE SYSTEM OF VAULTING AND PIERS]

[Illustration: BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE

SHOWING THE BARREL-VAULTED CEILINGS. P. 178]

[Illustration: ROMAN VAULTING

FROM BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN. NOTE ABSENCE OF TRANSVERSE RIB AND DOMING. P.
166]

[Illustration: GOTHIC VAULTING

FROM SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. NOTE CURVE IN RIDGE BETWEEN GROINS. P. 272]

[Illustration: THEATRE OF ORANGE, FRANCE

CONJECTURED RESTORATION. NOTE RAISED STAGE, ARCHITECTURAL SCENE AND
CEILING ROOF, ORCHESTRA RESERVED FOR MAGISTRATES AND NOTABLES]

[Illustration: PLAN OF THEATRE OF ORANGE

CONJECTURED RESTORATION. P. 176]

[Illustration: PORTA AUREA

GOLDEN GATE, PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATO, DALMATIA. P. 180]

[Illustration: PONT-DU-GARD; AQUEDUCT NEAR NÎMES

P. 183]

[Illustration: PERISTYLE AND COURT OF THE HOUSE OF THE VETTII

WITH GARDEN AND SCULPTURED OBJECTS RESTORED TO THEIR ORIGINAL
ARRANGEMENT. P. 181]

[Illustration: WALL PAINTINGS IN THE HOUSE OF THE VETTII]




CHAPTER IV

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE


The Romans enlarged the scope of architecture in the direction of the
art of the engineer. While Hellenic architecture had been an expression
of the faculties of reasoning and of taste, co-operating in a singular
harmony, Roman architecture was the product of reasoning stimulated by a
practical sense and an extraordinary energy and audacity. In place of
excessive refinement and sense of proportion, it is distinguished by
variety, vastness of scale and exuberance of decorative detail. While
every part of a Greek temple was constructional, having its distinct
function in contributing to the stability as well as adornment of the
whole structure, the Romans, as we have noted, had a uniform system of
building in which they applied the structural details of the Greeks,
very largely in the way of added embellishment.

Their aptitude for borrowing and adapting is apparent in their orders of
columns and entablatures.

=Roman Orders.=--In the first place, they borrowed from the Etruscans the
so-called Tuscan order. This had a rudimentary Doric form; the column
being seven diameters in height; the shaft unfluted and tapering toward
the capital, while the entablature was simpler, having no triglyphs,
mutules, or guttæ.

In borrowing from the Hellenes, the Romans made little use of the Doric
order. When it is used, as in the form of engaged columns in the =Theatre
of Marcellus=, the height of the columns was increased in proportion to
their diameters; the shafts were either smooth or channelled with
semicircular, instead of the subtler, elliptic flutings, separated by
narrow fillets; a base was added and modifications were made in the
details of the capital. The architrave did not overhang the face of the
column and was reduced in height; the triglyphs were used in the frieze
only over the centre of the columns, even at the angles, while the
cornice was lighter, with dentils sometimes taking the place of mutules.
The Doric, in fact, did not appeal to the Roman taste for rich
decoration, and, in so far as it was used, was degraded in style.

The same is true of the Roman adaptation of the Ionic order. Simpler and
more commonplace curves replace the extreme refinement of the volutes
and the fillet of the latter was carried invariably across the top of
the echinus or cushion, while the ornamentation of the entablature was
more profuse. The best use of this order is found in the upper story of
the =Theatre of Marcellus=; the worst, on the eight remaining columns of
the =Temple of Saturn= in the Forum Romanum.

The Corinthian order, of which no type sufficiently definite to
constitute an order had been evolved by the Greeks, was fully worked out
by the Romans, with the assistance of Greek artists, and became the
favourite expression of their taste for richness. The shaft was either
smooth, as in the early example of the Pantheon (<small>B.C.</small> 27), or fluted as
in the great temple of Castor and Pollux; the heights in these two cases
being respectively 9¾ and 10 diameters. A special base was designed,
consisting of tori, scotia, and fillets, resting on a square plinth.

The inverted bell of the capital was surrounded by an upper and lower
row of acanthus leaves, which differ from the Hellenic forms in being
blunter at the tips. Above the rows of leaves projected the stalks, or
“caulicolæ,” which terminated in spirals, both in the centre of each
face and at the angles of the abacus. The four sides of the latter are
concave and decorated in the centre with a rosette. In the more
sumptuous examples further enrichment of ornament was added to the
capital, while the capitals of the =Temple= of =Castor and Pollux= present a
unique instance of the central spirals being interlaced.

The Corinthian architrave in Hellenic usage consisted, it will be
remembered, of three bands, as in the Ionic order. The Romans frequently
embellished the middle one with a version of the anthemion motive. They
also added enrichments to the bed mould beneath the frieze. The latter
was frequently carved with acanthus scrolls, grotesque figures, and
ox-skulls, and garlands. The cornice was also enriched with carved
ornament, of which the most characteristic were _modillions_ or
brackets, which appear to support the cornice.

The Composite order was an invention of the Romans and possibly
suggested by the capitals of the =Erechtheion= in =Athens=, where the Ionic
spirals appear above a necking carved with anthemion ornament. The
capital of the Composite order consisted in the upper part of Ionic
spirals, often richly decorated with foliage, and in the lower of two
rows of acanthus leaves, as in the Corinthian order, which was followed
also in the other details of the column and entablature.

The mouldings in Hellenic architecture are distinguished by the
refinement of the contours, in Roman by the richness of carved ornament.

The anta, which appears in Greek temples at the corners of the cella
walls was developed by the Romans into the _pilaster_. This was a
square pier, projecting about one-sixth of its width from the wall; used
either to divide up and decorate the wall surfaces, or to serve as a
“respond” to a column. It was frequently fluted and corresponded with
the column in its details.

=Arch-Vaulting.=--The Romans did not invent the arch, but generalised its
use and elaborated it into vaulting, thus introducing into architecture
an element of construction capable of endless application and lending
itself not only to utility but also to variety and magnificence. In
doing so they were assisted by their discovery of the use of concrete.
By means of supports and sheathings of rough timber, temporarily
erected, they were able to cast their arches or vaultings in any form
and practically of any size. The concrete “set” quickly and the arch or
vaulting thus became a solid mass, which exerted but little thrust and
covered the space with the rigidity of a lid or cup.

Such method of construction lessened the tendency of the arch or
vaulting to exert a lateral strain or _thrust_ which occurs when the
arch is composed of _voussoirs_ or, similarly, separate blocks of stone
or brick are used in the vault. It tended to concentrate the strain on
the vertical supports. Yet the Romans, though concentration of strains
was a chief principle of their building, took no chances in the matter
of stability and also distributed the strains. For example, the nave
vaulting of a basilica would be reinforced by aisle vaulting, which was
carried on walls that were either at right angles or parallel to the
nave. But owing to the method of concrete construction and to the
facility with which it could be employed, the Romans were able to erect
vaults over buildings of complex plan and spaces of great size.

The vaultings were of three kinds:

1. The _semicylindrical_ vault, called also the _wagon-headed_ vault or
_barrel_ vault.

2. The _cross_ or _groined_ vault.

3. The _dome_ or _semidome_.

The semicylindrical vault was a continuous arch spanning an oblong
space, a corridor, and sometimes a curved passageway.

The cross or groined vault was used over square spaces, its weight being
carried at the four angles. It was formed by the intersection at
right-angles of two semicylindrical vaults. When employed over long
apartments or corridors, the ceiling was divided into a series of square
compartments or _bays_, each covered by a cross-vault. Since the
vaulting in each case was carried upon the corner supports, these became
piers, and the wall spaces in between them, being thus relieved of the
pressure of the vaulting, could be utilised for the openings of doors
and windows. Moreover, a square space could be subdivided into bays,
rendering it possible to vault a large area with no interruption to the
floor-space except that of the piers.

The dome was used for covering circular spaces, and when the space is
small the covering is called a _cupola_ or little cup. Semidomes were
employed over recesses.

The finest existing example of a Roman dome is that of the =Pantheon=,
which, however, affords an exception to the usual method of
construction. For here, instead of being composed of concrete, thus
forming a solid shell, the dome, so far as it has been examined, is
found to be built of bricks, laid in almost horizontal courses.

It is to be noted that the so-called “pendentive” dome, supported by
arches over a space, _square in plan_, is not found in strictly Roman
buildings and was a development of the Byzantine architects.

The Romans also employed flat roofs and ceilings. In certain of the
baths so much iron has been found amid the debris, that it is supposed
the roofs were constructed with a framework of this material, fitted
together with T joints. Otherwise the ceilings were made of crossed
beams, dividing the space into _coffers_. The exterior of the roofs was
covered with a sheathing of terra-cotta tiles or, as in the original
roof of the Pantheon, of bronze gilded plates, which now are replaced by
lead.


=Vault and Wall Decoration.=--Sheathing was also applied to the exterior
and interior of the whole structure, forming, as it were, a garment of
decoration. In the case of vaulting, the interior decoration was
composed of stucco coffering; square, hexagonal, or octagonal panels,
inclosed within raised framework that was arranged in a geometrical
pattern. Sometimes the coffering was replaced by mosaics; which were of
two kinds.

1. _Opus tessellatum_ formed of tesseræ or cubes of marble or glass,
arranged in patterned designs that often included figures.

2. _Opus sectile_, in which the tesseræ were cut into various shapes, to
form the pattern, as in marquetrie. A rich kind, made of red and green
porphyry, was distinguished as _Opus Alexandrinum_.

At other times the vaulting and walls were covered with hard plaster,
wrought to a fine surface, which was polished and frequently embellished
with mural painting.

The walls were also overlaid with slabs of coloured marble, in the
selection and treatment of which the Romans took a notable pride.

Further, both the exterior and the interior walls were relieved with
carved decoration, which took the form of pilasters, arches, mouldings,
and panels, encrusted with arabesques. These and the other
embellishments could be so easily applied to the concrete shell, that
Roman decoration had a tendency to become profuse and over-elaborated.
Whereas in Hellenic architecture every decorative detail was an
intrinsic part of the structure, Roman decoration was something added
after the structure was completed. It was, in effect, like clothing,
fitted to the form of the body, and varying in design and sumptuousness
according to the taste and purse of the wearer. Since architecture
generally was an expression of pomp, pride, and power, it was inevitable
that the richness of decoration should frequently run to extravagance.

To the lay-student, at least, the actual forms of Roman architecture are
of less interest than the uses to which they were put. For the Roman
genius was displayed in practicalness; in the resourcefulness with which
it extended the scope of architecture to serve the necessities and
ideals of life. Hence the temple-form has ceased to occupy the chief
attention; the truly monumental character of Roman architecture is
distributed over a variety of achievements of magnificence and utility.

=Temple Plans.=--The plan of the Roman temple was circular, polygonal, or
rectangular; the last being the most usual type. The best preserved
example is the so-called “=Maison Carrée=” at =Nîmes= in Provence, which was
erected during the reign of Hadrian (<small>A.D.</small> 117-138). Its form is of the
favourite kind: pseudo-peripteral, that is to say, the columns which
surround the sides and end are not detached from but built into the
walls of the cella. The portico has a deep projection, supported by ten
detached columns. As usual in a Roman temple the stylobate is replaced
by a podium, in this case about twelve feet high, which projects in
front, enclosing the entrance steps. The columns are of the Corinthian
order, 32 feet in height, supporting an entablature which measures 8
feet to the lower angles of the pediment. The frieze is bored with
holes, in which it is supposed the letters of an inscription were fixed,
and the cornice is richly decorated.

Another very interesting example at =Nîmes= is the so-called =Temple of
Diana=, which probably was a _nymphæum_, or structure for flowers,
statuary, and fountains, attached to some _thermæ_. The plan shows a
central chamber, flanked by two passages; the exterior walls being
devoid of columns. Meanwhile, the interior walls of the central chamber
have a series of detached columns, supporting an entablature from which
spring the curves of the barrel-vaulted ceiling. The outward thrust of
the latter is offset by the continuous vaulting of the side-passages. It
is probable, as we shall see, that this arrangement furnished a type for
many of the Romanesque churches of Southern France.

Of the circular temples the best known examples are the =Temple of Mater
Matuta= in =Rome=, the =Temple of Vesta= at =Tivoli=, and the =Pantheon=. Nothing
but a few fragments remain of the =Temple of Vesta= in the =Forum Romanum=.
The first named, situated in the =Forum Boarium=, is peripteral,
consisting of a cylindrical cella, 28 feet in diameter surrounded by a
circular colonnade of 20 Corinthian columns, 34 feet 7 inches high; the
whole standing on a podium raised 6 feet from the ground. In the case of
the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli the Corinthian columns, 18 in number, are
11 feet lower. “The reason for this difference,” writes Professor
Banister-Fletcher, “is instructive. The Temple of Mater Matuta, placed
in a low, flat situation, has columns of slender proportion in order to
give it the required height; whereas the Tivoli example, placed on the
edge of a rocky prominence and thus provided with a lofty basement, has
columns of sturdier proportions.” A further difference is found in the
foliage decoration of the capitals of the two temples; those of the
=Temple of Mater Matuta= having pointed leaves of the Hellenic type of
acanthus, while in the Temple of Tivoli the Roman type is adhered to.

The most famous circular example, as well as the most impressive of
Roman temples to the modern mind, is the =Pantheon=. Investigation has
proved that the circular part or Rotunda occupies the site of an earlier
nymphæum, on the south side of which, in the reign of Augustus, <small>B.C.</small> 27,
Agrippa erected a temple, consecrated to the Divinities of the Julian
house under the name of Pantheum (“all-holy”). Hence the inscription on
the frieze of the present portico: “M. Agrippa L. F. Cos. tertium
fecit.” This temple, which, from Pliny’s account seems to have had a
dome, was destroyed in the great fire in <small>A.D.</small> 80.

The present edifice was built by Hadrian, <small>A.D.</small> 120-124. The Rotunda
occupies, as we have said, the site of an ancient nymphæum, the floor of
which, however, was raised 8 feet. Agrippa’s portico was removed from
the south to the north side and set up with a front of 8 columns instead
of 10. There are 16 in all. The portico is supported by 16 Corinthian
columns, each a granite monolith 42½ feet high, with marble Corinthian
capitals. The tympanum was originally filled with bronze reliefs,
representing a _gigantomachia_, or battle of the gods and giants.

The walls of the rotunda, which are of solid tufa concrete, faced with
thin bricks, are nearly twenty feet thick. This mass was partly to
support the dome and partly to admit of eight recesses, opening from the
interior. One forms the entrance, while three of the others are
semicircular in plan and the remaining four rectangular. The exterior
walls, carried far above the spring of the dome, was veneered with
porphyry and marble and enriched with Corinthian pilasters and
sculptured ornament, a considerable part of which still exists.

Meanwhile, it is the interior of the building that presents the chief
impressiveness. Here the walls, which originally were faced with
precious Oriental marbles, extend to a height of only two stories,
crowned by the vast dome, which in the interior has a height equal to
its diameter--one hundred forty-two and one-half feet. It is embellished
with coffers, which in order to assist the perspective effect are
foreshortened, diminishing in width as they ascend. Thus the gaze is
carried up with a sweep to the central aperture at the summit, an open
circle twenty-seven feet in diameter, the sole source of light to the
interior. “One great eye opening upon Heaven--by far the noblest
conception for lighting a building to be found in Europe.” It is as if
the soaring imagination of the architect could brook no limit to its
vision and must incorporate with his vault the firmament itself. In this
magnificent audacity men have seen a symbolic reference to the ancient
worship of Jupiter, the god of gods, beneath the open vault of heaven.
Meanwhile, the architect may have derived the idea from the old nymphæum
with its court open to the sky. And of the two, some will prefer to
believe the latter, seeing in it a beautiful illustration of how the
artist can and sometimes will use the requirements of practical
conditions as an inspiration to the creativeness of his own imagination.

       *       *       *       *       *

From structures circular in plan, we may pass to those in which the plan
had the form of an ellipse, or comprised as its chief feature portions
of a circle. In the first class belong the amphitheatres and to the
latter the various circuses and theatres.

The prototype of all these was the Hellenic Theatre, in the construction
of which the architect took advantage of a sloping site.

The Romans, on the other hand, with their general use of arch and
vaulting, were independent of natural assistance and usually built their
circuses and amphitheatres and theatres in the open.

=Circus.=--The Roman circus was an adaptation of the Hellenic Stadium,
which, however, was used chiefly for athletic games, while the Circus
was employed for horse and chariot races. The oldest was the =Circus
Maximus=, situated between the Palatine and Aventine; but the one of
which most remains have been preserved is the =Circus Maxentius=, near the
tomb of Cæcilia Metella on the Appian Way. Its plan presents a long
rectangle terminating at one end in a semicircle. Surrounding this were
tiers of marble seats, supported by raking vaults and an external wall
of concrete. At the square end were situated the _Carceres_ or stables
and down the centre of the rectangle ran a _spina_ or barricade, with a
_meta_ or post at each end to mark the turning points. “To graze the
meta” was a Roman saying for the taking of great chances. The course was
seven times round and on the top of the spina were oval objects, one of
which was removed on the completion of each lap of the race.

=Amphitheatre.=--The most magnificent of the amphitheatres was the
Flavian, known since the eighth century as the =Colosseum=, probably from
the colossal statue of Nero which once adorned it. Its plan is
elliptical, the main axis being about 615 feet and the shorter about 510
feet; while the arena, which is oval, is 281 feet long by 177 feet wide.
The number of spectators that it could accommodate has usually been
stated as 87,000; but the calculation is now said to have been based on
a misapprehension of the records and has been corrected to 45,000 seats
and standing room for 5000.

The exterior comprises four stories. The three lower are composed of
arches supported by intermediate piers which are ornamented with
columns, respectively, of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. The
fourth story, which, when the amphitheatre was completed in <small>A.D.</small> 82,
appears to have been of wood, presents a wall adorned with Corinthian
pilasters. Between these, projecting from the cornice, were corbels,
pierced to hold the poles that sustained the _velarium_ or awning. The
imposing character of the exterior is due not only to the structure’s
immense size, but to the difference in unity secured by the application
of the three orders, and to the magnificently sweeping lines of the
entablatures.

The interior shows the arena surrounded by a smooth wall, above which
the seats rise in concentric tiers to the height of two stories. Here
they are bounded by a wall, through which are entrances to the seats
while it also acted as a parapet to the upper gallery. The fourth story
formed a continuous peristyle. The whole area for spectators was called
the _cavea_.

The place of honour was the circle nearest to the arena, called the
podium, in which sat the Emperor, senators, principal magistrates,
Vestal Virgins, and the provider or “Editor” of the show. In the
amphitheatre at Nîmes seats in the podium were also assigned to the
various guilds, whose names are still inscribed upon the seats with the
number of places reserved for each.

The principle of construction adopted in the Colosseum, as may be seen
from the plan, is that of wedge-shaped piers, radiating from the arena
to the exterior. These were connected by vaults which ran downward
toward the centre and also in concentric rings, forming passageways to
all parts of the cavea. The system is one of concrete vaulting resting
on piers of the same material, the latter being reinforced by tufa where
the pressure was greater and in the parts of greatest strain by blocks
of travertine, four feet thick, sheathed with brick work. “The supports
have been calculated at one-sixth of the whole area of the building.”

=Theatre.=--The form of the Roman theatre grew directly out of that of the
Hellenic, but was modified to suit the change which had come over the
character of drama. The religious origin of the Hellenic drama had been
completely left behind. There was no longer any pretence of a chorus;
accordingly the circular space of the orchestra, which had been used by
it, was now filled with seats, reserved for persons of distinction. It
became, in fact, that part of the auditorium which we still distinguish
as the orchestra seats.

Already, in later Hellenic drama, the action of the principal players,
which originally had been confined to the orchestra, had extended more
and more to the slightly raised platform in front of the proskenion. It
was therefore but another step to limit the action to the platform,
which, now that the orchestra was filled with spectators, was raised
higher from the floor, and, to accommodate the players, was made
broader. The separation of the actors from the audience was complete.

The proscenium now became a background, built up to represent a façade
of several stories, embellished with pilasters and engaged arches and
with niches holding statues. The remains of such a permanent “scene” are
found in the =Theatre of Orange=, in Southern France, where what we now
call the stage is 203 feet wide and 45 feet deep, framed in at the ends
by return walls at right angles to the proscenium. Near the top of the
walls are two tiers of corbel stones, pierced to receive flag-staffs
that supported the velarium.

=Baths.=--Public baths, _thermæ_, were as necessary a feature of Roman
cities as the amphitheatre. Rich citizens, like Mæcenas and Agrippa, set
the fashion of building them, and it was followed by emperors seeking to
ingratiate themselves with the populace. For the charge for admission
was only a quarter of an =as=--about one quarter of a cent or half a
farthing; and even this was waived by certain emperors.

The principal =Thermæ= in Rome were those of =Agrippa=, =Nero=, =Titus=,
=Domitian=, =Commodus=, =Caracalla=, =Diocletian=, and =Constantine=. Many of them
assumed immense proportions; the ground plan of the =Baths of Caracalla=,
for example, occupying a square quarter of a mile. Besides the actual
bathing conveniences, which included hot water baths, vapor baths,
cooling chambers and plunges, there were rooms for ball-playing,
gymnasiums, colonnades, libraries, theatres, and open courts with shade
trees.

From two of the sides of the =Baths of Caracalla= projected long
_exhedras_, or semi-circular recesses, furnished with benches, which are
supposed to have been the meeting places for the discussion of
philosophy and poetry. In fact, the great thermæ were the clubs of the
period; the resort of all classes, offering cleanliness to the poor,
luxury to the rich, and healthful exercise and opportunity of cultured
intercourse between those who desired it. And the highest skill was
represented in making the walls of the various chambers and reservoirs
impervious to moisture, in conducting and heating the water, and in
providing flues for hot air.

=Basilica.=--Equally characteristic of Roman life were the _Basilicas_.
These structures seem to have been intended at first to relieve the
congestion of business in the various fora and to afford quiet as well
as protection from the weather, for the transaction of business. The
earliest in Rome was erected <small>B.C.</small> 184 by Porcius Cato; hence called the
=Basilica Porcia=. Then followed the =Basilica Fulvia=, =Basilica Æmilia=, and
=Basilica Julia=, the last being the largest of the five which existed
during the reign of Augustus. In <small>A.D.</small> 112, Trajan built the great
=Basilica Ulpia= in connection with his forum, and some two hundred years
later was erected the vaulted =Basilica of Maxentius= or =Constantine= on
the Via Sacra. In all there came to be some twenty basilicas in Rome
alone.

One great interest of the basilica halls consists in the fact that from
them were derived the plan and form of the early Christian churches. It
has been conjectured that the plan of a basilica was derived from that
of a Greek temple, the cella walls being replaced by ranges of columns,
opening into the peristyle where in turn the columns were replaced by
side walls. The colonnades thus became aisles to the central nave; the
vestibule being retained at one end and later to be called a _narthex_,
while at the opposite end an apse projected. Here in the Roman basilica
were the seats of the quæstor and his assessors, occupied in early
Christian basilica churches by the bishop and presbyters.

The interiors of the Roman basilicas present two types of treatment. In
the =Basilica of Constantine=, for example, the nave columns were attached
to great piers which supported groined vaults, the thrust of which was
sustained by walls at right angles to the piers. These walls divided
each aisle into three _bays_, corresponding to the three bays of the
nave, and over each aisle-bay was a barrel-vault, which, being at right
angles to the nave, served as extra support to the nave-vaults. Light
was admitted through windows in the side walls of the aisles and also
through windows in the upper part of the nave, above the aisle vaults.

On the other hand, in the interior of the =Basilica Ulpia= a range of
columns, supporting an entablature, took the place of the piers on each
side of the nave. On the entablature rested another range of columns,
surmounted by another entablature, above which walls, pierced with
windows, were carried up to carry the flat, coffered ceiling. Both tiers
of nave columns opened into the aisle, which correspondingly had two
stories, the upper crowned with a flat ceiling.

=Arches, Columns of Victory.=--The magnificence of Rome and other cities
was further displayed in the Triumphal Arches and Columns of Victory
erected in honour of emperors and conquerors. The arch was of two types:
the single arch and the three-arched. A famous example of the former is
the =Arch of Titus=, which commemorated the capture of Jerusalem, <small>A.D.</small> 70.
Examples of the three-arched type are those of =Septimus Severus=, and of
=Constantine= in =Rome=, and the =Arch at Orange=. The façades were adorned
with columns of the Corinthian or Composite orders, partially or wholly
detached, supporting a _broken_ entablature--one, in which the
uniformity of projection is interrupted by a projection over each
capital. Above it is a top-story, known as the _attic_. The soffit of
the arch was richly coffered and the wall spaces embellished with
low-reliefs, representing incidents of triumph, while the attic bore
upon its face an inscription and was surmounted by statues or a
four-horse triumphal chariot (_quadriga_).

The most famous of all the pillars of victory is =Trajan’s Column=,
erected in connection with his Basilica. It is a column of the Roman
Doric order, mounted upon a lofty pedestal, the height over all being
147 feet. The shaft, 12 feet in diameter at the base, encloses a spiral
staircase of marble, while its exterior is decorated with a spiral band,
800 feet long and 3½ feet wide, carved with reliefs, representing
incidents in Trajan’s victorious campaigns against the Dacians. It stood
originally in a court of the =Basilica Ulpia=, from the several galleries
of which the sculpture could be viewed. The statue of Trajan which
originally adorned the summit of the pillar has been replaced by a
bronze statue of St. Peter.

A special pillar of imperial times was the Rostral Column, erected in
commemoration of a naval victory and decorated with the bronze beaks or
prows taken from the enemy’s ships.

=Palaces.=--Augustus set the example of building himself a palace,
choosing the Palatine Hill, to which successive emperors, particularly
Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Domitian, and Septimus Severus, made additions
of increasing splendour. Nothing remains but ruins, which, however,
show that the principal apartments were as follows: the Tablinum or
throne-room; Basilica, or hall of justice; Peristylium or rectangular
garden-court, enclosed with colonnades; Triclinium, or Banquet Hall;
Lararium or domestic temple for the household gods and the Nymphæum.

A remarkable example is the =Palace of Diocletian at Spalato, Dalmatia=,
built <small>A.D.</small> 300. The plan, rectangular in shape and covering an area of
4½ acres, about the same, in fact, as that of the Escoriál in Spain,
seems to have been laid out on the lines of a Roman camp. A square tower
occupies each of the corners, while three of the sides were pierced with
entrances, flanked by octagonal towers, which were distinguished as the
“golden,” the “iron,” and the “bronze” gateways. From these extended
colonnaded roads which met in the centre, thus dividing the area into
two northern sections, probably used by the principal officers of the
household and the guests, and a large southern portion reserved for the
imperial palace, and two temples. One of these was dedicated to
=Æsculapius=; the other, circular in plan, to =Jupiter=.

The architecture was of a somewhat debased character, but offers certain
interesting features of transition to the later style of the Romanesque.
Thus, in the northern gateway an entablature is not employed, and the
arches rest directly on the capitals of the columns.

=Domestic Buildings.=--The domestic architecture comprised three forms:
the _domus_, or city residence of the well-to-do; the _insula_, or city
tenement house, and the rich man’s country house or _villa_.

The last term comprises the house and its accompaniments of beautifully
laid-out grounds and gardens. On a colossal scale of magnificence was
the =Villa of Hadrian= erected at =Tivoli=, where the whole area amounted
to seven square miles. It included, besides the usual palace apartments,
a gymnasium, thermæ and theatre, disposed amid terraced gardens,
peristyles, ornamental water-basins, and fountains.

Some idea in miniature of the luxurious villa of the Romans is to be
gained from the various villas excavated in the summer resort of
Pompeii, such as the =House of Pansa= and the =House of Vetius=. It
comprised a rectangle bounded on three sides by narrow streets and on
the fourth by the garden. The lower story contained shops, opening on to
the streets, as in the case of many modern hotels. The principal
entrance to the house itself was a portico through which the visitor
passed into an _oecus_ or reception room. On the right of this were the
quarters of the kitchen and on the left was the _triclinium_ or
dining-room for use in cold weather. The reception-room led into a
peristyle court open to the sky, with covered colonnades that afforded
protection from the sun, while the rain was caught in an _impluvium_ or
central cistern. On one side of the court extended a row of _cubicula_
or sleeping apartments, another row of which lined one side of the
_atrium_. This also was an open court, furnished with an impluvium, and
protected from the weather on its sides by the extended eaves of the
adjacent roofs. The atrium was the public reception place in which the
owner of the house interviewed his clients and transacted business.
Accordingly it had a separate entrance from the street.

The walls of the principal apartments were decorated with paintings,
many of which involved architectural features; the floors were laid with
mosaics and the timber ceilings were probably painted and gilded, their
roofs being constructed of terra-cotta. The blocks of dwellings, called
_insulæ_, seem to have anticipated our modern apartment and tenement
houses, for they were carried up through many stories and housed
numerous families. It is probable that they involved few conveniences,
as we understand them to-day; the important necessity of water, for
instance, being met by public fountains, which supplied drinking water,
and by the public baths that made provision for cleanliness and health.

=Bridges, Aqueducts.=--Among the great public works achieved by the Romans
were roads, aqueducts, and bridges; and, although these were, strictly
speaking, engineering masterpieces, the use of the arch in the last two
brings them within the scope of architectural grandeur. The visible
signs, and indeed the symbol of Roman civilisation, were the roads which
pushed their way forward to the limits of the Empire, as far as possible
with a directness that swerved aside from no obstacle, and with a
solidity of foundation that in many parts of the world survives to-day.
And a corresponding solidity allied with the dignity of simplicity of
design characterised the bridges. The best preserved in Italy is the
five-arched =Bridge of Rimini=, while impressive examples are found in the
favoured province of Spain; at =Cordova=, for instance, and =Toledo=.

The Romans were lavish users of water, for purposes of luxury as well as
necessity. They understood the simple hydraulic law that water will rise
in pipes to its own original level and applied the system in their
buildings. But since pipes of lead and bronze were costly and none too
durable, they dispensed as far as possible with their use, conveying the
water in lofty aqueducts, with a fall, as Vitruvius recommended, of 6
inches in 100 feet, so that the water was delivered from a height at
the spot it was needed. The channel, constructed of concrete, lined with
cement, was conducted upon a series of concrete arches, faced with
brick; the arches being of immense height and sometimes in several
tiers. The =Anio Novus=, constructed <small>A.D.</small> 38, was sixty-two miles in
length and entered =Rome= on arches carried over the =Aqua Claudia=, which
was erected at the same time and is still one of the water supplies of
Rome. The finest existing example, however, is the so-called
=Pont-du-Gard=, near =Nîmes=, which forms part of an aqueduct twenty-five
miles long. For a distance of about 900 feet it is composed of three
tiers of arches, crossing the valley 180 feet above the River Gard.

       *       *       *       *       *

In conclusion, the genius of the Roman architect consisted in his
faculty of organisation, which enabled him to take the principles of
Hellenic architecture and apply them to a great variety of requirements.
What his architecture lost in refinement, it more than gained in
flexibility and resourcefulness, while creating for itself a distinction
of structural grandeur. It refertilised the Hellenic which had
threatened to become a barren style and produced a style that not only
was richly competent to serve the needs of its own time, but has proved
capable of being further developed to new needs. It involved principles
that had their influence on Romanesque and consequently on Gothic
architecture, became the source from which Renaissance architecture was
evolved, and, even in our own day, are still capable of new and active
service.




BOOK IV

POST-CLASSIC PERIOD




CHAPTER I

EARLY CHRISTIAN CIVILISATION


As the power of Rome waned and the Empire became disintegrated, the
force of Christianity increased and spread and the organisation of the
Church became consolidated. The immediate followers of Christ looked for
their Lord’s reappearance as a Jewish Messiah. Paul, however, taught
that there was no distinction in the sight of Christ between Jew and
Gentile and treated Christianity as a philosophic system of ethics,
applicable to all races and conditions of rich and poor. His view
prevailed and Christianity became a great proselytising force.

Its idea of a universal brotherhood appealed especially to the
multitude, while men and women of the highest classes were attracted by
its ideals of better and purer living. For the period was one of social
unrest and of havoc of old faiths and standards of conduct. Profligacy
was sapping the vitals of the state and of society, and the need of new
moral ideals was insistent. “No one thing about Christianity commended
it to all, and to no one thing did it owe its victory, but to the fact
that it met a greater variety of needs and met them more satisfactorily
than any other movement of the Age.”

Its growth was further facilitated by the proselytising zeal of its
adherents. Christianity spread not only throughout the Roman Empire in
Europe, but also fastened upon Asia Minor and North Africa, taking firm
root especially in Egypt, the intellectual centre of the Empire, and
extending even to the Germanic tribes which were to become the
conquerors of Rome.

Its power, moreover, was strengthened by its organisation. In the
beginning each congregation had been independent. It had its officers,
deacons, who cared for its poor; elders or presbyters, who, as the
council of the church, looked after its interests; and its overseer,
episcopus, or bishop, the chief of the presbyters. In course of time, as
the church of a given city sent out branches to neighbouring towns and
rural districts, the bishop of the parent community came to have
authority over a group of congregations. In time the bishops of a
province learned to look for guidance to the highest religious officer
of the provincial capital, who acquired the high importance of a
“Metropolitan.” And above him in dignity were the “Patriarchs” of such
cities as Antioch and Alexandria, while the Bishop of Rome was acquiring
the greatest influence. “In brief, the government of the Church was
becoming a monarchy.” (Botsford.)

Constantine, recognising the advantage of allying himself with such an
organisation, issued in 313 the Edict of Milan, which placed all
religions on an equal footing. Furthermore, to set at rest the
dissensions which were threatening to disrupt the organisation of the
Church, he summoned a council of the representatives of all the great
branches of the Church to meet in Nicæa, to decide upon a creed which
should be acceptable to all.

For with the growth of the Church, Christianity had become encumbered
with doctrines that hardened into dogmas, and by this time a controversy
was raging over the rival dogmas upheld by two officers of the Church in
Egypt, Athanasius and Arius. Both held that Jesus Christ was the Son of
God, but Arius maintained that He had proceeded from the Father and was
therefore second to the latter, while Athanasius proclaimed the absolute
equality of the Father and the Son. The Council of Nicæa pronounced the
latter doctrine to be orthodox and branded the Arian as heresy. The
Nicene Creed, in which the orthodox was embodied, was accepted in the
West, but in the East, the Arian dogma continued to be held.

Apart, however, from its bearing on this question, the Council of Nicæa
was an event of profound importance. This first Œcumenical Council, or
Council representative of the whole Christian world, not only was an
object lesson of the widespread power of the Church, but also exalted
the clergy to a high position of spiritual authority amid the temporal
distractions of the time.

Constantine, upon his deathbed, accepted the Christian faith. Some fifty
years later Theodosius made Christianity the sole religion of the state
and the pagan temples were closed.

By degrees the spiritual power of the Church was reinforced by the
temporal. The beginning of this change is sometimes dated from the act
of the Frankish king, Pepin, to whom the Pope appealed to stem the
attack of the Lombards, then pushing south from their possessions in
Northern Italy and threatening Rome. Pepin drove them back and handed
over a considerable slice of territory to the Pope, to swell the
so-called “Patrimony of St. Peter.” The latter, from this time on,
became a source of increasing wealth, which enabled the Popes to
maintain armies and play the part of princes in the world of politics.

Meanwhile, the temporal power of the Western Church, centred in the
Papacy, had been helped by Constantine’s removal of the capital of the
Empire to Constantinople. Two circumstances contributed to the change.
By this time the Senate had lost even the semblance of authority, and
the real source of government was in the consent of the armies.
Secondly, the frontiers chiefly threatened were the eastern ones.
Constantine accordingly selected as the site of a Nova Roma, the ancient
Greek city of Byzantium. It, too, had its seven hills, occupying a
promontory between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmora, a spot
defended, as well as beautified, by nature and already an important
gateway of commerce, both by sea and land, between Europe and the East.
Constantine planned the new city of Constantinople on extensive lines
and set an example of magnificent building that was continued by his
successors; so that Constantinople continued for a thousand years to be
the Eastern bulwark of European civilisation, until it was conquered by
the Moslems in 1453.

Among the results of this change of the capital was, firstly, that the
Empire gradually separated into East and West; secondly, that
Constantinople became the centre of culture, and, as darkness settled
down upon the West, the almost sole refuge of learning and the arts. In
the beginning Roman architects directed the character of the new city,
but even then the artisans who executed the work were either Byzantines
or Greeks, attracted to the new city from various parts of Hellas and
Asia Minor. In consequence architecture and the other arts gradually
became impressed with a new character, which, for convenience’ sake, is
styled Byzantine. It represents, in the case of architecture, a mixture
of Roman, Greek, and Oriental; and involved, as we shall see, the
treatment of old principles in a new spirit of invention.

The change was encouraged by the contact of Byzantium with Eastern and
African civilisation. For as the Western Empire declined in power, the
Eastern grew; extending its sway in Asia, where it came into conflict
with the Parthians and Persians, and along the northern littoral of
Africa. The Metropolitan Bishop of Byzantium became to the Eastern
Churches what the Metropolitan Bishop of Rome was to the Western; and
exercised a spiritual headship over the Coptic Church in Alexandria, the
Syrian Church in Antioch, the Nestorian Church in Ctesiphon, and the
Armenian in Asia. Over this widely spread area religious art flourished,
coloured in each locality by racial influences, all of which influences
in a measure reacted upon the capital city of Byzantium.

Meanwhile, in the West, the Church was labouring to reorganise a settled
condition of society by assisting the consolidation of authority. A case
in point is the welding of the Frankish tribes into some semblance of a
nation. By 486 they had found a great leader in Clovis, who led them
across the Rhine, conquered the Romans at Soissons, and proceeded to
extend his sway over Gaul. To consolidate his power he married Clotilda,
a princess of the Burgundian Goths, and accepted her faith of
Christianity. It chanced that she professed the orthodox belief, unlike
the majority of the Burgundians and the other German tribes at this time
in Gaul, who were Arians. Consequently the Roman Church threw the weight
of its influence on the side of Clovis and helped him to found a
monarchy in France that endured under the title of Merovingian, so
called from Merovech, the grandfather of Clovis.

In time the vigour of the Merovingian kings declined, until the actual
power was wielded by the steward of the royal household, the Mayor of
the Palace. Gradually this office became hereditary in a dynasty of
rulers known as Carolingian or Charles Dynasty. The first great Charles
was Mayor Charles, surnamed Martel or the Hammer; the last, Charlemagne,
or Charles the Great. The former derived his name from the crushing
blows he inflicted upon his enemies, particularly the Saracens, the
followers of Mohammed, who by this time (732) had replaced the Vandals
along the north coast of Africa, conquered the Visigoths in Spain, and
were threatening France. Charles met them at Poictiers or Tours, and in
a complete victory saved Christianity to Europe.

Charles remained simply Mayor; but the title of King was assumed by his
son, Pepin, who was first elected by the Franks and then anointed by the
Church, thus ascending the throne with the consent of the Pope. We have
already noted how he repaid the debt. He was succeeded by his son
Charlemagne, whose dream was to found an empire upon the ruins of the
Roman. It was fulfilled to the point that he extended Frankish sway over
Germany, as far as the Elbe, and into Italy. In the last named country
he conquered the Lombards and signalised the completeness of the
conquest by assuming the iron crown of Lombardy. On Christmas Day, <small>A.D.</small>
800, as he was kneeling at prayer in the Church of St. Peter in Rome,
Pope Leo III crowned him Emperor of the Romans.

It was the aim of Charlemagne to establish his government on Roman
lines, to which end he reintroduced Roman laws and methods of
civilisation and ordained that Latin should be the official language.
The city selected as his capital was Aachen--Aix-la-Chapelle.

[Illustration: S. APOLLINARE NUOVO, RAVENNA

SHOWING CLASSICAL COLUMNS AND “IMPOST”: MOSAICS; ARCH OF TRIUMPH AND
APSE. P. 201]

[Illustration: S. APOLLINARE-IN-CLASSE, RAVENNA

EXTERIOR OF APSE. DETACHED CAMPANILE. P. 201]

[Illustration: CHURCH OF KALB-LAUZEH, SYRIA

SHOWING APSE, WOODEN ROOF, SUPPORTED BY SMALL COLUMNS ON CORBELS; ROUND
ARCHES ON PIERS. P. 200]

[Illustration: CHURCH OF TURMANIN, SYRIA

RUDIMENTS OF SUBSEQUENT ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC TREATMENT OF WEST FRONT.
P. 200]




CHAPTER II

EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE


When the “Peace of the Church” had been proclaimed by Constantine and
Christians were able to worship openly, the age of church-building
commenced, the Emperor himself setting a lead. After the edict of
Theodosius, making Christianity the State religion, many of the pagan
temples were adapted to the purposes of the Christian ritual, or their
columns and decorative features were appropriated for the building of
new churches. The former practice accounts for the preservation of the
Parthenon, Erechtheion, and the Temple of Theseus at Athens. An instance
of the method of conversion is to be traced in the =Cathedral of
Syracuse, Sicily=, which occupies the site of an ancient temple. Walls
were built between the Doric columns of the peristyle, while the walls
of the cella were pierced so as to communicate with the peristyle, which
thus served as aisles. Another instance is that of a temple in
=Aphrodisias=, in Caria, Asia Minor, where the walls of the cella were
entirely removed, and walls were built outside the peristyle to form
aisles, while to increase the length of the nave the front and rear
portico columns were set in line with the others.

=Basilican Plan.=--These changes coincided with the general adoption of
the basilica plan in the case of new buildings. For the early Christian
churches show very little regard for the appearance of the exterior.
Attention was concentrated on the interior, in fitting it for ritual
worship and in beautifying it, and to both these objects the basilica
plan most readily contributed.

The earliest example in Rome of a church so planned is that of =St. John
Lateran=, which, however, has been completely remodelled by subsequent
additions. The next in point of time was the =Cathedral Church of St.
Peter=, erected near the spot in which the saint was martyred in the
circus of Nero. It was torn down in 1506 to make room for the present
cathedral commenced by Julius II; but the appearance of its principal
façade is known from Raphael’s mural painting “Incendio del Borgo,” in
the stanze of the Vatican, and there is a record of its plan. The latter
shows that the basilica building was approached by an atrium, surrounded
by either colonnades or arcades, enclosing a rectangular space, open to
the sky and having a fountain in the centre. With the water the
worshippers sprinkled themselves, a symbol of purification still
preserved in the “holy-water” vessel, placed inside the entrance of
Roman Catholic churches.

The end arcade, abutting on the church proper, was used by penitents and
called the _narthex_. The body of the church was divided, as in the
basilica halls, into central nave and side aisles--the latter sometimes
double. Across the end of the nave extended the _bema_ or sanctuary,
corresponding to the space raised and enclosed for litigants and lawyers
in the basilica. Its ends projected beyond the line of the main
building, forming rudimentary transepts, which may have been used as
sacristies for the robing of the clergy and the preservation of the
sacred vessels and other ritual objects. The central part of the bema
was elevated and occupied by the altar which was surmounted by a
_baldachino_ or canopy, supported on four columns. Behind the altar was
the apse, lined with seats; those of the Roman assessors being now
occupied by the presbyters, while the centre one of the quæster or
praetor became the bishop’s throne. For the transference of the latter
to the side of the choir was of later date.

The officiating priest stood behind the altar, facing the congregation
and the east. For as yet the main façade was not the western, a fact of
interest when we recall that while the Hellenic architects built facing
the four points of the compass and made the chief entrance on the east,
the Romans were indifferent to the matter of orientation.

In certain instances as that of =S. Clemente=, in =Rome=, the accommodation
for the choir projected from the bema into the nave. It was enclosed
with low screen walls called _Cancelli_ (whence was derived the word
chancel); the side walls projecting to afford space for two reading
desks, or _ambones_; respectively, the Gospel _ambo_ and the Epistle
_ambo_.

=Treatment of Columns.=--There were two ways of treating the columns. In
the earlier type of churches, the aisles were spanned by arches, while
those of the nave supported an entablature. But this necessitated a
narrow intercolumniation, considerably obstructing the view.
Accordingly, the practice ensued of placing the columns further apart
and surmounting them with arches. The first example of this use of
_arcades_ in a nave is believed to occur in the northern gallery of the
=Palace of Diocletian= in =Spalato, Dalmatia=. Both methods continued to be
employed and were sometimes combined in the same building. Over the
entablature or arches, as the case might be, was a high stretch of wall,
rising above the level of the aisle roof, pierced with a row of
_clerestory_ windows. The nave and aisles terminated in arches, that of
the former, the principal entrance to the sanctuary, being called the
Arch of Triumph. The roofs were of timber; that of the nave rising to a
ridge and finishing at each end in a gable, while a slope from below the
clerestory covered the side aisles. The construction work of the roofs
was usually hidden in the interior by flat ceilings, beamed and
coffered.

The decoration of the interior included the use of antique columns,
which were sometimes adapted to their new place by cutting down or
removing the bases. The walls above the nave arcading or entablature
were adorned with mosaics, which also embellished the space above the
Arch of Triumph and the semi-dome of the apse. The floors were covered
with geometric patterns of marble sliced from columns and other antique
fragments.

The principal examples of basilican churches, still existing in =Rome=,
are =St. Paul-without-the-walls=, =S. Clemente= and =S. Maria Maggiore=. The
first named is of modern construction, completed in 1854, but preserves
the plan and dimensions of the older church which was destroyed by fire
in 1823. It had been begun in 380 by Theodosius, on a plan closely
following that of the old St. Peter’s, except that the transepts of the
bema project less and the atrium was abandoned, leaving only the
narthex. Its construction and embellishment were continued by other
emperors and by many popes, the munificence of the latter being
commemorated in a series of portrait medallions of the popes which
extends in a band above the arcade-arches on each side of the nave. The
wall space above them is veneered with rare marbles, enclosing panels
filled with paintings representing incidents in the life of St. Paul.
Amid the somewhat extreme sumptuousness of the interior a feeling of the
older character of a basilican church is preserved in the mosaics of the
fifth century which adorn the arch of triumph, and in those of the apse
which date from the early part of the thirteenth century.

=S. Maria Maggiore= presents an original basilican plan of nave and single
aisles, from each of which during the Renaissance was built out a square
side chapel, surmounted by domes, giving the plan the form of a cross.
But the interior of the nave dates from the time of Sixtus III in the
fourth century and shows on each side a series of Ionic columns,
supporting an entablature. Above this, as also over the arch of triumph,
are mosaics of the fifth century.

The =Church of S. Clemente= is notable for the retention of the atrium and
also for the termination of the aisles in apses, a feature which
suggests Byzantine influence.

=Circular and Polygonal Plans.=--In addition to the basilican buildings of
this period were some which involved a circular or polygonal plan,
suggested probably by the circular temples and tombs of the Romans. They
were applied in the early Christian era both to tombs, which in some
cases were afterward converted into churches, and to baptistries. The
latter were independent buildings, so called from their use at first
solely for the sacrament of baptism. In later times, however, it became
the custom to place the font inside the church; yet as late as the
eleventh century was erected the famous =Baptistry of Florence=, in which
even to this day every child born within the city is baptised.

The examples in Rome of circular or polygonal buildings are the
Baptistry which forms part of the group of buildings of =S. John Lateran=,
the =Tomb of S. Constanza=, the daughter of Constantine, which was
converted into a church in 1256, and the church of =S. Stefano Rotondo=.

The general character of the Roman tomb was a circular mass,
superimposed on a square podium. The cylindrical mass was sometimes
decorated with pilasters, supporting an entablature, and occasionally
was surrounded by a peristyle, while its roof was apt to be conical.

In early Christian architecture this principle of construction was
developed. The peristyle was enclosed by outer walls, and the lower part
of the walls of the cylindrical mass was replaced by columns. Thus, in
the =Baptistry of S. John=, which has been called the =Baptistry of
Constantine=, the conical roof is supported by a circle of eight columns,
in two stories.

The =Tomb of S. Constanza= has a dome which is supported on twelve pairs
of granite columns, while the wall of the circular aisle is inset with
sixteen recesses, alternately apsidal and rectangular in shape, one of
the latter being opened through to form the entrance. The sarcophagus of
the saint which formerly occupied one of the niches, is now in the
Vatican Museum. Its sides are carved with genii gathering grapes--a
motive which is also represented in the mosaics that adorn the vaulting
of the church’s circular aisle.

=S. Stefano Rotondo=, though much reduced from its original size, is said
to be still the largest circular church in existence. The wall of the
cylinder, surmounted by a wooden conical roof, is supported on a
circular entablature, carried by antique columns. It was surrounded,
when built by Simplicius in the fifth century, by double circular
aisles, covered by a sloping roof. The latter was supported by columns
and arches, while the external wall was decorated with pilasters. Traces
of these are still apparent; otherwise the outer aisle has disappeared
and the present exterior represents the walling up of the spaces between
the columns. This was done by Nicholas V in the fifteenth century, by
which time the edifice, once richly decorated with marble veneers and
mosaics, had fallen into decay. Its lateral walls are now covered with
horribly naturalistic scenes of martyrdom, executed at the end of the
seventeenth century.


=Syrian Examples.=--Syria has disclosed to explorers--of whom the late
Marquis of Vogüé and Dr. H. C. Butler of the American Archæological
Expedition have been the foremost--a number of interesting monuments,
both civic and religious, erected between the third and eighth
centuries. While details of moulding and ornament appear to have been
copied from those of Roman remains, the methods of construction were
worked out by the builders themselves. They seem to have retained the
Phœnician preference for using the largest stones that could be
quarried, transported, and put in place. Thus, arches were frequently
carved out of a single stone, and when voussoirs were used, they were
either few in number or, if numerous, of great height and depth. Large
slabs of stone were also employed for roofing, especially in houses. In
imitating antique details the architects appear to have had little if
any feeling for their constructional origin or meaning; the capital and
half the shaft of a column, for example, being carved out of one piece
of stone, while the remainder of the shaft and the base were cut out of
another. On the other hand, they developed for themselves certain fine
features of construction, as for instance, in the arcading of their
basilican churches, in which the columns were sometimes replaced by
large rectangular piers, carrying arches of great width. An example of
this impressive method is found in the interior of the =Church of
Kalb-Lauzeh=. This corresponds with the larger =Church of Turmanin=, the
western façade of which shows a very independent spirit of design. It
has a broad arched entrance, flanked by two square towers, connected
over the doorway by an open gallery, constructed with columns.

A corresponding inventiveness marked their use of the basilican plan. A
fine example is the large =Church of S. Simeon Stylites= at =Kalat-Seman=.
The nucleus of the plan is an octagonal court, open to the sky, in the
centre of which stood the pillar on which the saint spent thirty years
of his life. This court forms the intersection or crossing of four
rectangular wings, arranged in shape of a cross, each one of which has a
basilican form, the nave and aisles of the eastern one terminating in
apses.

Another very interesting plan occurs in the =Cathedral at Borah=. It
presents a circle inscribed in a square, in the angles of which are
apsidal recesses projecting from the circle. Moreover, from the east
side of the square project three short rectangles, terminating in apses,
which suggest the prolongation of the nave and aisles that have been
interrupted by the circle. Nothing but the foundations of this church
remain. Meanwhile, the =Church of S. George= at =Esrah= shows a similar plan
and is surmounted by a high elliptical dome. It is conjectured that
these two churches were the prototypes of =S. Sergius, Constantinople=,
and =S. Vitale= at =Ravenna=, which will be discussed later, and of many
corresponding churches of Byzantine architecture.

=Ravenna.=--In the development of early Christian architecture a very
interesting part was played by Ravenna. For this city, situated on the
Adriatic (though the sea has since receded to a distance of six miles),
was the chief port by which the trade of Constantinople or Byzantium
entered Italy. Accordingly some of the tombs and churches present a
fusion of Byzantine and Syrian influences with Roman. The change from
the basilican type is especially marked in the character of the plan and
by the adoption of domes.

Thus the =Baptistry of Ravenna= is an octagonal structure, surmounted by a
dome of hollow tiles. The =Tomb of Galla Placidia= is cruciform in plan
with a lantern raised over the crossing or intersection of the arms of
the cross. The lantern is pierced with four windows and surmounted by a
dome, supported on pendentives--a method of construction, peculiarly
Byzantine, which will be considered presently.

When Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostro-Goths and ruler of Northern
Italy, selected Ravenna as his capital, he built the =Church of S.
Apollinare Nuovo=, importing twenty-four marble columns from
Constantinople and employing Byzantine artists and artisans. The plan is
basilican, though the atrium and apse have been removed by subsequent
alterations, but the interior is richly embellished with Byzantine
mosaics. The latter also adorn the larger basilican =Church of S.
Apollinare-in-Classe=, so called from its being situated near the port.
Its columns also are distinguished by the peculiarly Byzantine feature
of the _impost block_, to be described later.

After the death of Theodoric in 536 the Emperor Justinian, having
through his general, Belisarius, routed the Goths from the country, made
Ravenna the political capital of Italy, under the authority of an
exarch. Then was built, probably as Court Church, the famous example of
Byzantine influence, the =Church of S. Vitale=. We will return to this
after a consideration of what is involved in the Byzantine style.

=Byzantine.=--The term Byzantine is applied to the style of architecture
gradually developed in Byzantium after Constantine, in <small>A.D.</small> 324,
transferred the capital of the Roman Empire to that city. Its
distinctive features are the use of brick and stone in place of
concrete; the use of imposts in connection with columns and arches; the
character of the carved ornament applied to surfaces and, most important
of all, a system of covering rectangular spaces with domes. It reached
its highest point of development under the Emperor Justinian, between
the years 527 and 565.

The style was the result of evolution; a product of the combination of
principles of construction derived from Roman, Early Christian and
Syrian architecture, and from the traditional methods of the Iran
builders of Assyria; affected in matters of decoration by the luxurious
taste of the Orient.

The favourite material of Byzantine builders was brickwork; the bricks
being one and one-half inches in thickness, like the Roman, and laid
between layers of mortar of similar thickness. In the case of cornices
the bricks were moulded to the required contours and when used for the
shafts of columns were circular in outline. The mortar was composed of
sand, lime, and crushed pottery, tiles, or bricks. Except in the case of
marble columns which were cut and put in place by masons, the whole of
the preliminary work was done by bricklayers who constructed the entire
“carcass” of the building. When this

[Illustration: FROM THE INTERIOR OF SAN VITALE, RAVENNA

SHOWING THE “IMPOST” ABOVE COLUMN, AND DECORATION.

Pp. 202-204, 207]

[Illustration: TOMB OF GALLA PLACIDIA, RAVENNA

P. 201]

[Illustration: SECTION OF SS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS, CONSTANTINOPLE

SHOWING FLUTED OR MELON-SHAPED DOME, SUPPORTED ON EIGHT ARCHES AND
“SQUINCHES.” NOTE LIGHTS ROUND DOME. P. 206]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM

SHOWING HOW THE PENDENTIVES, RESTING ON FOUR ANGLES OF A SQUARE, PROVIDE
A CIRCULAR BASE FOR THE DOME. P. 205]

[Illustration: SECTION OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE

SHOWING PENDENTIVE DOME. P. 207. SMALL DIAGRAM, AT RIGHT, SHOWS HOW A
DOME WAS MADE TO REST ON EIGHT PIERS ENCLOSING AN OCTAGON, BY NICHES OR
SQUINCHES.]

[Illustration: EXTERIOR OF S. SOPHIA

SHOWING THE IMMENSE BUTTRESSES THAT SUSTAIN THE THRUST OF THE DOME.
MINARETS ADDED LATER ARE OF CHARACTERISTICALLY TURKISH TYPE. P. 207]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF S. SOPHIA

SHOWING PENDENTIVES AND THREE OF THE DOME ARCHES (TWO OF WHICH ARE
CLOSED AND PIERCED WITH LIGHTS). NOTE ALSO RING OF LIGHTS ROUND NECK OF
DOME. PP. 202, 205, 207]

[Illustration: PLAN OF S. SOPHIA

P. 208]

[Illustration: PLAN OF S. MARK’S, VENICE

P. 209]

[Illustration: EXTERIOR OF S. MARK’S, VENICE

SHOWING GOTHIC DETAILS IMPOSED ON BYZANTINE DESIGN. P. 209]

had dried and settled, the masons and the decorators completed the work,
by overlaying the walls, domes, and pediments of the interior with
marble or mosaics.

The floors were paved with richly coloured marbles, in _opus sectile_ or
_opus Alexandrinum_. Marble, also, cut in thin veneers and arranged so
that their veining produced symmetrical designs, was applied to the
walls. Marble, again, but incised with carved ornament, covered the
soffits of the arches, the archivolts, and spandrels, while the vaulting
was resplendent with mosaics, composed of figures and ornaments,
executed in enamelled glass upon a background of gold or blue or, more
rarely, pale green.

Colour was pre-eminently the motive of the interior decoration and to
this end carved work was subordinated. The ornament was in very low
relief, spreading over the surface in intricate patterns, that suggest
the delicate enrichment of lace. Mouldings were replaced by bands of
mosaic or marble, carved or smooth. The chief motive of the carved
ornamentation was the mingling of the acanthus and anthemion. The
treatment of both was rather Hellenic than Roman; the foliage having
pointed ends; but it was deeply channelled and drilled with deep holes
at the springing of the leaves. In fact, the use of the drill as well as
the chisel was characteristic of Byzantine carving and emphasises the
suggestion of the ornament being raised rather than, as in Roman
decoration, applied. Corresponding to the general flatness of the
ornament is the constraint of the contours of the mouldings, suggestive
of Asiatic languor and in marked contrast to the vigorous profiles of
classic architecture. The impression, indeed, of the whole scheme of
decoration is rather one of soft richness, as carving melts into colour
and colour deepens and glows and finally passes into the gold or depths
of azure of the vaulting.

When the supply of antique columns was exhausted the Byzantine
architects began to imitate them, but soon departed from the classic
type. In certain cases the capital retained something of its derivation
from the Ionic or Corinthian styles; but gradually a new type was
evolved, which was distinguished by being convex to the outside rather
than concave. The motive appears to have been to give additional support
to the arch, for which purpose an _impost_ was, as the name implies,
“placed upon” the capital. It consists of a block, which projects beyond
the edges of the capital to fit the extra thickness of the wall and may
represent, as has been suggested, the survival of a part of the
architrave of the discarded entablature. In the decoration of the
capitals the foliage was sometimes enclosed in frames of interlace, or
the latter took the form of a basket, on which birds are perching.

=Pendentive Dome.=--We have now to consider the most characteristic
feature of Byzantine architecture--the Dome. Briefly, in the 200 years
that divided Justinian from Constantine the Byzantine architects
perfected a principle of dome construction by which they crowned a
square plan with the circle of a dome.

The Romans confined their domes to circular or polygonal buildings.
Meanwhile they had worked out the construction of groined vaulting upon
four supports. The Byzantine achievement was to make four supports carry
a dome. It was accomplished by developing the element of
construction--the _pendentive_.

We have already noted the bas-relief found at Koyunjik, which shows that
the Assyrians understood the crowning of small square buildings with
domes. While actual examples have perished, the tradition of this
construction seems to have survived in the East. For in the third
century <small>A.D.</small>, when the Persians established the Sassanian Empire under
the impulse of a movement that sought to restore the ideals and habits
of the old national life, the builders erected domes in the palaces of
Serbistan and Firuzabad.

The method they adopted was to bridge each angle of the square, at some
distance below the top, with a small arch. On these they erected two
small arches that projected beyond the face of the original arch and
accordingly extended the width of the bridge. They continued this
process of superimposing tier upon tier of arches, until the bridge was
level with the top of the square, by which time the latter was
transformed into an octagon. Then, by inserting a _corbel_ or bracket in
each angle of the octagon and taking advantage of the thickness of the
masonry, they were able to adjust a dome to the structure. This system
of dome-support, we shall find, was adopted in Gothic architecture,
where the arches are called _squinches_.

Another method of dome-support, found in the =Mosque of Damascus= and
frequently employed in the churches of Asia Minor, was to bridge the
angle with a semi-circular niche.

Meanwhile what the Byzantine architects developed was a geometrically
exact system of converting the square into a circle by means of concave
triangular members that are specifically called _pendentives_.

The character and function of a pendentive may be readily grasped by a
practical experiment. Cut an orange into two hemispheres. Lay the flat
of one on four reels, placed at the four angles of a square, inscribed
within the circle. These reels represent the piers on which the
pendentives are to be constructed. Now by four perpendicular incisions
of the knife cut off the segments of the hemisphere that project beyond
the square. The lateral spaces between the piers will now be spanned by
four arches. Finally, a trifle above the top of the arches, make a
horizontal cut, removing the upper part of the hemisphere. The rind
which remains represents the four pendentives. The flesh inside of it
may be likened to the timber centering used in the construction of the
pendentives and, now that the latter are completed, may be removed.
Remove also the flesh from inside the upper part of the hemisphere. It
will then be a hollow cap, which you can replace on the top of the
pendentives. You now have an instance of a dome and pendentives included
in a single hemisphere. More usually, however, the architect makes the
curve of the dome different from that of the pendentives. Frequently,
too, to give the dome superior distinction, he constructs a cylindrical
wall on the circle of the pendentives, and on this _drum_, as it is
called, elevates his dome.

Scientifically stated: “If a hemisphere be cut by five planes, four
perpendicular to its base and bounding a square inscribed therein, and
the fifth parallel to the base and tangent to the semi-circular
intersection made by the first four, there will remain of the original
surface only four triangular spaces bounded by arcs of circles. These
are called pendentives.” (Professor Hamlin.)

       *       *       *       *       *

The first church built by Justinian was =SS. Sergius and Bacchus= in
=Constantinople=. The part dedicated to the latter saint--a small
basilica--was destroyed by the Turks. The remainder presents the plan
of a rectangle enclosing an octagon on which rests a dome of a curious,
fluted, melon shape.

A few years later was erected the church of =S. Vitale= in =Ravenna=,
probably as the Court Church. Its plan is an octagon within an octagon;
the inner one being surmounted by a dome.

The domical arrangement of both these churches may have been originally
derived from the =Pantheon=, modified by the example in Rome, of what is
called the =Temple of Minerva Medica=, though it was probably a nymphæum.
This building is decagonal with niches projecting from nine of the
sides, while the tenth provides the entrance. The dome, of concrete
ribbed with tiles, is built over an inner decagon of ten piers carrying
ten arches. These in turn support a decagonal drum, pierced with
windows, the angles at the top being filled in with rudimentary
pendentives. The same principle of construction reappears in both =S.
Sergius= and =S. Vitale=; the dome of the latter being composed, for the
sake of lightness, of earthenware, amphora-shaped pots, the bottom of
one being fixed in the lip of another. It is sheathed on the outside
with a wooden roof.

This =Church of S. Vitale= became the model on which Charlemagne based his
domical church at =Aix-la-Chapelle=, which was built as a royal tomb, <small>A.D.</small>
796-814, and was afterward used as the crowning-place of the Emperors of
the West.

=S. Sophia.=--Finally, the pendentive system was fully developed in
Justinian’s church in Constantinople dedicated to the =Holy Wisdom--Hagia
Sophia=, called, though erroneously, =S. Sophia=. It marks the highest
development of the Byzantine genius for domical construction.

The architects were Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, who
began the work in 532 and finished it in 537. The plan shows four mighty
piers, 25 feet square, set at the angles of a square of 107 feet. These
support four arches and intermediate pendentives of noble height, the
apex of the dome being 175 feet from the pavement. For the original
dome, having collapsed in 555, was replaced by a higher one, lighted by
the introduction of forty circular-headed windows around the spring of
the curve; an arrangement not only excellent in admitting light to the
interior, but also as wonderfully impressive in its way as the single
eye of the =Pantheon=. Rows of small circular headed windows are also
pierced in the screens which fill in the north and south arches.

Abutting on the east and west arches of this central mass are
semi-domes, supported upon the central piers and two others. And from
these project, as in =S. Sergius= and =S. Vitale=, small semicircular domes,
sustained by an upper and lower story of arcades. Thus was created a
vast oval-ended hall, 267 feet long by 107, from every part of which the
summit of the dome is visible.

Outside this central feature are two side-aisles, each having two
stories, separated from the nave by arcading and formed of a series of
columns and vaulting. As in all Early Christian and Byzantine churches
which have upper and lower galleries, the former were occupied by women
worshippers. The outer walls on the north and south sides, as the plan
shows, are reinforced by immense buttresses, 25 feet wide and 75 long,
which appear on the outside of the buildings like huge pylons. On the
inside they are pierced with arches on each story. These buttresses
withstand the thrust of the dome which is reinforced on the east and
west by the semi-domes.

The edifice, which occupies practically a square, is approached on the
west side by a narthex of magnificent proportions, 200 feet long by 30
wide, which is divided like the aisles into an upper and lower story. So
far “the plan resembles that of =S. Sergius=, if the latter were cut in
half and a dome on pendentives inserted over the intervening square and
the whole doubled in size.” In front of the narthex, however, extends a
second one, opening, as in some of the basilican churches, into an
atrium.

The exterior walls are faced with alternate courses of brick and stone
and the domes, all of which are visible, are covered with a sheathing of
lead.

=S. Mark’s, Venice.=--=S. Sophia= is a marvel not only of construction but
also of unity of design. It is in this respect, among others, that it is
superior to =S. Mark’s= in =Venice=, which was erected by Byzantine builders
at the end of the eleventh century. Venice, like Ravenna, was in close
touch with Constantinople and when she determined to build a cathedral
to her patron saint, to replace an earlier basilican church destroyed by
fire, it was natural that she should look to that city for the character
of the design as well as for artists and artisans to execute it. The
actual model was the =Church= of the =Holy Apostles=, in Constantinople,
founded by Constantine, rebuilt by Justinian, and destroyed by the Turks
in 1463 to make room for the mosque of Sultan Mahomet II.

The plan is a Greek cross, that is to say, a cross with the four parts
of practically equal length, grouped around a central square. Each of
the five divisions is crowned by a dome, supported on pendentives and
reinforced by transverse barrel vaults. The transept and choir domes are
slightly smaller than the ones over the crossing and the nave, because
of the restrictions of space caused by the chapel of S. Isadore in the
north transept, the Ducal Palace on the south, and the retention of the
apse of the ancient basilica. Originally all the domes were sheathed
externally with lead, but at a later date were covered with the
lead-sheathed wooden lanterns now existing. With their high-pitched
curves and ornamental terminals they represent a serious deviation from
the true Byzantine style.

A similar departure from the latter is exhibited in the west façade.
This was completed in the fifteenth century and involves a curious
mixture of Orientalism and fanciful Gothic with features, such as the
clusters of columns in two tiers, flanking the five entrances, which
serve no structural purpose and have no architectural justification.
They are purely picturesque. But =S. Mark’s= was the city’s shrine, to
which each succeeding century added some embellishment and often with
more zeal than discretion.

It is the interior rather that commands our admiration. For
notwithstanding certain distractions, even here, of later debased styles
of mosaic, enough of the tenth and eleventh century embellishments
remain to dignify the decoration. And in no other building in the world
is there so marvellous an ensemble of coloured marbles, alabaster, and
glass mosaics; or such subtleties, delicacies, and complexities of light
and shadow.


=Greece and Russia.=--In Greece and Russia the Byzantine has continued to
be the official style of the Greek Church. In Russia, however, many
fantastic elements have been introduced, particularly the bulbous form
of the domes.

As an example of domestic Byzantine architecture may be mentioned the
=Monastery of Mount Athos= on a promontory of Saloniki, overlooking the
Ægean Sea.

“In Armenia are also interesting examples of late Armeno-Byzantine
architecture, showing applications to exterior carved detail of
elaborate interlaced ornament, looking like a re-echo of Celtic M.SS.
illumination, itself, no doubt, originating in Byzantine traditions.”
(Hamlin.)




CHAPTER III

MUHAMMEDAN, ALSO CALLED SARACENIC CIVILISATION


The introduction at this point of Muhammedan or Saracenic architecture
unfortunately breaks the continuity of the evolution of Early Christian
and Byzantine architecture into the Romanesque and thence into the
Gothic. Accordingly, some writers reserve this chapter until the end of
their book, treating it as an independent interlude.

That method, on the other hand, has the disadvantage of not giving the
subject its proper place in the sequence of history; and since an
important motive of the present volume is to represent the growth of
architecture as the product of changing conditions of civilisation, it
seems more in accordance with this aim to let the conditions govern the
order in which the architectural phases are presented. So, in the
inevitable choice between two evils of arrangement we will select that
which, from our point of view, seems to be the least.

For it is true that Muhammedan or Saracenic civilisation represents but
an interlude in the progress of Christian civilisation. What, however,
would have been the outcome, if Charles Martel, in 732, had not crushed
the advance of the Muhammedans into France? They might have fastened
upon the latter as they had upon Spain, the north of Africa, Egypt,
Syria. From France they might have descended upon Italy, and gradually
drawn tighter the circle of their conquest until the Western as well as
the Eastern Empire was entirely in their grasp. It needs but a little
effort of imagination to realise that on the issue of the battle of
Poictiers hung the fortunes of Europe; the survival of European
civilisation and possibly the continuance of Christianity.

In fact, what was trembling in the balance was the extension of a new
and vigorous power over a social order that, except in the Frankish
kingdom, had grown more and more disintegrated and feeble. For in the
decline of Rome even her conquerors had been involved; the various other
Gothic nations in adapting the decay of her system had been corrupted by
it. The only unifying and uplifting force that glimmered amid the
general prostration was that of the Church, which might have been
engulfed in Islamism if the Franks had not prevailed at Poictiers.

For in the present day we associate Islamism with the unprogressive
nations, whereas in the eighth century it was the symbol of
progressiveness. Its spiritual ideal was, at least, as high as that of
Christianity; while its intellectual and material ideals were superior
to those of Europe.

Shall we speak of Saracenic civilisation or Saracenic architecture as
some do, or follow the example of others who substitute the term
Muhammedan? The former word was probably derived from the Latin
_Saraceni_, which was employed by the Romans to designate the Bedouins
who roamed a part of the Syro-Arabian desert, and committed depredations
on the frontier of the Empire. In the Middle Ages Saracen came to be
used as a general term for Moslems, especially those who had penetrated
into Spain. This latter use is too narrow, while the general use conveys
no meaning.

Muhammedan, on the other hand, implies a follower of Muhammed or
Mahomet, and it was the oneness of faith that first united the Arab
tribesmen and in time gave a uniformity of ideal to their spread of
conquest from the Pillars of Hercules to Northern India. While the
character of the civilisation varied throughout this vast empire, being
coloured by local and racial characteristics that reacted on the styles
of architecture, it was everywhere impregnated with one belief. There is
no god but Allah and Muhammed is his prophet.

Muhammed was born about 570 in Mecca, in the Arabian peninsula; a place
hitherto of little importance, which had a cube-shaped sanctuary, the
Kaaba, enshrining a Black Stone. It was the token or fetish of some god
of nature; for some kind of nature worship, including the worship of the
Sun, Moon, and Earth seems to have been the traditional religion of
Arabia. Meanwhile, Judaism had penetrated into the country and
Christianity had followed. Each figured in Muhammed’s imagination as a
world religion. Both professed one God. One had its prophets; the other,
its Messiah, and both its book of inspired revelation.

Accordingly, when the vision of Muhammed embraced the idea of founding
at once a new nation and a new religion, he borrowed from both Judaism
and Christianity and proclaimed himself the new prophet or Messiah of
the one God and made known the New Revelation, which was embodied in the
Koran. The faith of Islam, as preached by Muhammed and practised by him
and his followers, was essentially one of proselytising by force. “The
sword,” he taught, “is the key of Heaven and Hell. A drop of blood shed
in the cause of God, a night spent in arms, avails more than two months
of fasting and prayer. Whoso falls in battle his sins are forgiven. At
the Day of Judgment his wounds shall be resplendent with vermilion and
odoriferous as musk, and the loss of limbs shall be supplied by angels’
wings.”

Muhammed’s self-imposed task of subjugating and uniting Arabia for the
Arabians was begun after his flight from Mecca to Medina, the celebrated
_Hejira_ (Arab _hijra_) which occurred on the Jewish Day of Atonement,
Sept. 30, <small>A.D.</small> 622. The further work of conquering the countries on
which the Arab tribes had been dependent, Syria, Abyssinia, Persia, was
continued by his followers.

Of great importance in the history of architecture was the conquest of
Persia (632-651), for here the Muhammedan influence developed a style
that was distinguished by fine structural as well as aesthetic qualities
and generally developed a beautiful revival of the various arts of
decorative design. And it was Persian Muhammedan that strongly
influenced the architecture of India, where Muhammedan conquest was
established about <small>A.D.</small> 1000.

Meanwhile, the Arabic Muhammedans had founded a dynasty under the
Ommayads with its capital in Damascus and a later one under the
Abassids, whose most celebrated caliph was Haroun-el-Raschid of Bagdad,
made famous by the “Thousand and One Nights.” Conquest was extended
westward, gradually comprising Egypt, the north of Africa, Sicily, and
Spain.

In 1453 the Crescent displaced the Cross in Constantinople.

Yet, notwithstanding the divisions of the Muhammedans and the immense
distances separating them, a unity not only religious but also
intellectual was maintained. The Muhammedans learned rapidly from the
peoples they conquered and established for the diffusion of learning a
sort of university system of travelling scholarships. Aided by Arabic as
the universal language of learning, students journeyed from teacher to
teacher, from the Atlantic to Samarcand, gathering hundreds of
certificates. The education was designed to turn out theologians and
lawyers; but theology included studies in metaphysics and logic, and the
canon law required a knowledge of arithmetic, mensuration, and practical
astronomy.

Technical education was maintained by gilds who perpetuated the
“mysteries” of the craft through a system of apprenticeships. And it is
to be noted that there was no distinction made between so-called arts
and so-called crafts. The gild-system covered all kinds of constructive
work from engineering to the making of a needle, and if the work
permitted elements of beauty and decoration these were, as a matter of
course, included. Hence the proficiency and inventiveness and exquisite
perfection of workmanship displayed by the Muhammedan craftsmen.

But their Koran enjoined a literal obedience to the Mosaic law against
“the making of any graven image, or the likeness of anything that is in
Heaven above or in the earth beneath or in the waters under the earth.”
Accordingly, there were no sculptors or painters in the full sense of
the term; only decorators of moulded, engraved, or coloured ornament,
the motives of which were confined to conventionalised flower and leaf
forms and to geometric designs of practically endless variations of the
straight line and curve, in meander, interlace, and fret, into which
they often wove texts from the Koran or the sacred name of Allah. It is
to these designs by Arab artists, influenced to some extent by
Byzantine, that the term _arabesque_ was first applied.

Meanwhile it was the practice of Muhammedanism to absorb as far as
possible the traditions of each nation it conquered. Gradually,
therefore, the strictness of its orthodoxy was modified. In Persia, for
example, the representation of animals was permitted in the arts of
design, and the representation of human beings followed.

Similarly, the architectural style of each locality was affected by the
previously existing architecture. The examples which remain are chiefly
of mosques, tombs, houses, and palaces.

The word mosque comes to us through the French mosquée; the Spanish
equivalent is mesquita, while the Arabs call the “place of
prostration”--_masjid_. The nucleus of every one is the _mihrab_ or
niche in a wall, indicating the _kibleh_ or direction of the Great
Mosque at Mecca, with its shrine, the Kaaba. Beside the mihrab was a
pulpit, _mimbar_, for preaching, and sometimes in front of it, for the
reading of the Koran, stood a _dikka_ or platform raised upon columns.
Shelter for the worshippers was provided by arcades, which in the
immediate vicinity of the mihrab were often enclosed with lattice work,
thus forming a prayer-chamber--_maksura_. The size of the mosque was
indefinitely enlarged by the addition of more arcades, surrounding
usually an open court, in the centre of which, as in the atrium of the
Early Christian basilicas, was a fountain for ritual ablution.

The tomb was usually distinguished by a dome and during the lifetime of
its founder served the purpose of a pleasure-house; corresponding
somewhat to the Roman nymphæum, and, as in the case of the Taj Mahal,
set in the midst of a beautiful system of gardens, water-basins, and
terraces.

In his house also the Muhammedan jealously guarded his domestic privacy.
He followed the Romans in leaving the exterior of his house plain,
while centering all its luxury and comfort around an open interior
court. Special quarters were provided for the women and the seclusion of
their lives within the harem led to two features which are
characteristic of Oriental houses, the balcony and the screen. That the
occupants might take the air, balconies were built out from the walls
both of the court and the exterior; and screened with lattice work, on
the designs of which great skill and beauty were expended.

The palaces represented the extension of the house-plan by the addition
of halls of ceremony. Sometimes, as in the case of the Alhambra, they
combined the character of a citadel, and were always generously supplied
with water, as well for the ablutions enjoined in the Koran, as for
purposes of beauty. The Arabs, in fact, readily learned the Roman
methods of engineering and hydraulics and in their houses and cities and
in the irrigation of land carried the system to a high degree of
perfection.

The system by which learning and culture circulated throughout the
Muhammedan world was illustrated in the spread of the arts of design.
Persia, for example, was a centre of the ceramic art, and wherever the
Muhammedan civilisation spread, the art of pottery was revived and took
on new and distinctive splendour. Enamel colours of the purest tones and
finest translucence were developed and the glazes were distinguished by
extraordinary lustre. They were lavished not only on vessels of
practical service but also on tiles for the decoration of walls.

With equal originality the Muhammedan artists developed the metal crafts
both in the direction of tempering the metal and in its decoration;
introducing and carrying to a wonderful pitch of perfection the
engraving, encrusting and inlaying of the surfaces with ornamental
designs; a process known as damascening, since Damascus was the earliest
important centre of the craft.

Further, in weaving they developed a corresponding skill and feeling for
design. Rugs and carpets, laid on the floor or spread over doorways,
were the chief furnishing of a Muhammedan home, while a small rug was
carried by the worshipper or his servant to the Mosque to protect his
bare feet while he prayed. These “prayer rugs” were frequently
embellished with a representation of a mihrab, enclosed in borders
bearing Koran texts, and were of silk of finest weave; that is to say,
with an extraordinary number of knots to the square inch. There is a
fragment of silk weave in the Altman collection at the Metropolitan
Museum, of Indian craftsmanship, each square inch of which embraces 2500
knots.

In a way, however, the very exquisiteness of Muhammedan craftsmanship
prepared the way for its decay. It originated in the limitation of
motives permitted to the decorator, who in consequence had to satisfy
his love of perfection by resort to delicacies and intricacies of design
beyond which there was no further possibility of creative invention.




CHAPTER IV

MUHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE


The Koran prescribed that every believer when praying should face toward
Mecca. This could be done as readily in the open desert as in a
building, so the early mosques were probably of little importance. It
was only as the Arab tribesmen extended their conquests to the
neighbouring civilisations and came in touch with the temples of
antiquity and the churches of the present, that they began to raise
handsome places of worship for their own religion.

As Muhammedanism spread eastward through Syria to Persia and later to
India and westward into Egypt, along the northern shore of Africa into
Spain and finally occupied Constantinople and Turkey, it absorbed much
of the civilisation of each country and employed the constructive
methods, the workmen, and the materials which it found ready to hand.
Consequently, the architectural expression of Muhammedanism, while
retaining everywhere certain essential characteristics, varies locally.
It offers notable distinctions according as it is found in Syria,
Persia, India, Egypt, Spain, and Turkey.

=Mosque of Mecca.=--The =Great Mosque of Mecca=, called by Moslems the Haram
El Masjid el Haram, or Baisullahi el Haram, the “House of God, the
Prohibited,” represents a succession of additions, extending from early
Muhammedan times to the middle of the sixteenth century. It comprises an
enclosure, 300 yards square, the walls of which are pierced with
nineteen gateways and

[Illustration: MOSQUE OF EL AZHAR, CAIRO

SHOWING EGYPTIAN TYPES OF MINARETS]

[Illustration: SULIEMANIYEH OR MOSQUE OF SULIEMAN

FOLLOWS STYLE OF S. SOPHIA. NOTE THE SURROUNDING CLOISTERS AND TYPE OF
MINARETS. P. 228]

[Illustration: ARCADES OF THE MOSQUE, NOW CATHEDRAL, OF CORDOVA, SPAIN

NOTE EXTENSIONS OF COLUMNS TO SUPPORT UPPER ARCHES. PP. 221, 224]

[Illustration: COURT OF THE LIONS, ALHAMBRA]

[Illustration: CONJECTURED RESTORATION OF THE PAVILION OF MIRRORS, AND
GARDENS

OF THE PALACE OF ISPAHAN]

[Illustration: RESTORATION OF COLLEGE OF SHAH HUSSEIN: ISPAHAN

SHOWING ARCADED FRONT AND LOFTY CENTRAL GATEWAY; ALSO BULBOUS FORM OF
DOME. P. 229]

[Illustration: MOSQUE OF AKBUR, FUTTEHPORE-SIKRI

NOTE GATEWAY, ARCADES AND SERIES OF LITTLE DOMES. P. 230]

[Illustration: TAJ MAHAL, AGRA

ERECTED BY SHAH JEHAN AS A TOMB FOR HIS WIFE. IN DISTANCE THE “PEARL
MOSQUE”, ANOTHER OF HIS MONUMENTS. P. 230]

embellished with minarets. The chief sanctuary is the Kaaba, so called
from its resemblance to a cube, of about 40 feet measurement, to the
outside of which, on its southeast angle, is affixed the sacred Black
Stone, the chief object of veneration. The shrine is surrounded to a
depth of 20 yards by successions of colonnades with pointed arches.

=Arcades.=--These arcades, affording protection to the worshippers, are a
feature common to all mosques; the direction of the arcades being
usually at right angles, though occasionally parallel to, the wall of
the mihrab--the niche which points toward Mecca. For columns the early
Muhammedan builders relied upon what they found in the buildings which
they replaced or remodelled; mixing the styles Egyptian, Roman, and
Byzantine, and bringing their different sizes to conformity by setting
blocks upon the capitals. To resist the thrust of the arches, wooden
tie-beams were built into the masonry at the spring of the arches, and
utilised for the hanging of lamps and lanterns. As these became a
recognised feature of mosques, the beams were retained even after the
skill of the builders had made them unnecessary as ties.

=Domes.=--The roofs are flat, constructed of timber, and on the inside
coloured and gilded. A dome frequently crowns the _maksura_ or prayer
chamber, and the tomb of the saint, when the latter is included in the
sacred precincts. Almost always the dome surmounts a square plan and to
accommodate the latter to the circle the Muhammedan architects invented
a method of construction that corresponds to the Byzantine pendentive.
In principle it goes back to the ancient method of bridging over a space
by setting the stones on each side of it in layers that project over
one another until the two sides meet at the top. The Muhammedan builders
filled in the corners of the square with tiers of projecting brackets or
corbels with niches between them. At first they placed corbel above
corbel and niche above niche, but in time alternated them, so that the
niches in one tier were astride of the corbels in the tier below them.
This method of filling in the angles of the square, so as to bring the
latter to a circle, came to be known as “stalactite” work and from being
used as a constructive expedient was developed into a system of
decoration that was frequently extended over the whole ceiling of the
vault.

The exterior of the dome was seldom spherical, as in Byzantine
architecture, but took the form of the _pointed_, or the _ogee_, or the
_horseshoe_ arch. It was built, either of brickwork in horizontal
courses, covered inside and out with plaster; or, in later mosques, of
horizontal layers of stone, engraved on the exterior with horizontal
patterns. Windows were frequently ranged round the lower part. In some
old tombs of the thirteenth century, as that of =Sheik Omar=, inside the
East Gate of Bagdad, the dome is pineapple shaped.

The walls were built of local materials and decorated either with stone
or brick in alternate courses, or with plaster, inset with precious
stones or veneered with glazed tiles.

=Minarets.=--A distinctive feature of the mosque was the minaret, a lofty
tower of lighthouse form, from the balcony of which the muezzin summoned
the faithful to prayer. While the minarets show a general similarity of
character, the details vary in different countries. Thus, in Persia they
rise from a circular base and are crowned by a round cap; in
Constantinople the base is round, octagonal, or square and the top is
finished with a cone; while in Cairo the top is flat. The shafts vary
from circular to polygonal, and are usually divided into three tiers of
balconies--though the Persian is generally distinguished by one--carried
round the shaft and supported by corbels, which in some instance are
embellished with stalactite ornament.

During the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries the mosques
became an aggregation of buildings, including the tomb of the founder,
residences for priests, schools and hospitals. They correspond, in fact,
to mediæval monasteries, and the evolution of their styles presents a
certain parallel to the contemporary evolution of Gothic architecture.


=Syria.=--Among the existing mosques in Syria are those of =El-Aksah= on the
Temple platform at Jerusalem and of =El-Walid= in Damascus, both of which
are planned like a basilica. Also on the Temple platform is the =Dome of
the Rock=, misnamed the =Mosque of Omar=, the central feature of which is a
circular space, crowned by a dome, which was rebuilt by Saladin in 1189.


=Egypt.=--In Egypt one of the oldest is the =Mosque of Amru= in Cairo, in
which the square open court is surrounded by arcades, set at right
angles to the mihrab and supported by columns taken from Byzantine and
Roman buildings. Somewhat similar in plan is the =Mosque of Tulun=, where,
however, the arcades run parallel to the mihrab wall and the wide
pointed arches are supported upon massive piers.

Then follow, during the period that corresponds to the development of
Gothic architecture, the =Mosque of= =Kalaoom=; that of =Sultan Hassan=,
which is cruciform in plan; that of =Sultan Barbouk=, celebrated for its
minarets and the beauty of the dome over the founder’s tomb; and the
small but richly decorated =Mosque of Kait-Bey=. In the prayer-chamber
(maksura) of the last-named appears, besides the stalactite
embellishment of the mihrab, a distinctive decoration of the arches. In
one case the arches are composed of voussoirs alternating in colour; in
the other the alternation is still further emphasised by the
interlocking shapes into which the voussoirs are cut, so that they fit
together with the variety and the exactness of a Chinese puzzle.


=Spain.=--Spain offers a very favourable opportunity for the study of
Muhammedan architecture. The =Mosque of Cordova=, begun by the Caliph
Abd-el-Rahman in 786, was enlarged by successive additions, until it
presents the appearance of a forest of columns and arches, apparently of
unlimited extent. There are said to be 860. The arcades are in two
tiers, the upper arches being supported on posts which are placed on the
capitals of the lower ones and at the same time form abutments to the
lower arches. In most cases the arches are of horseshoe form; but
elsewhere, as in the vestibule to the mihrab chamber the upper horseshoe
arches surmount a tier of cinquefoil or five-scalloped ones, and the
posts on which they abut are faced with attached columns. A remarkable
additional feature is the interlacing between the upper and lower arches
of portions of multifoil arches; so arranged that they appear to bridge
over the space between the alternate lower column and at the same time
to spring over the capitals of the intermediate upper column. The
arrangement is a striking instance of the Arab invention in the use of
repetition of motive, a use, in this case, governed by constructive
reasonableness as well as imposed by the desire for subtlety of
elaboration.

The =Mosque of Cordova= is second in size to the =Great Mosque of Mecca=.
Though the superb adornments of mosaics and red and gold ceilings have
suffered from decay and restoration and its vista of arcades is blocked
in parts by the coro (choir), erected when the edifice was converted
into a cathedral, it is still a marvellous memorial of Cordova’s
supremacy as the most learned, cultured, and prosperous caliphate in
Islam.

In Toledo there is nothing approaching the magnificence of the Mosque of
Cordova. Among the remains are the churches of =S. Cristo de la Luz= and
=Santa Maria la Bianca=, which are mosques converted to the Catholic
ritual.

At Seville beside the much renowned =Alcazar= or Castle, is the celebrated
tower, =Giralda=, so named from the weather vane (giradillo), a figure of
Faith with a banner, some 305 feet from the ground. It surmounts the
Renaissance top of three stories, added in 1568 to the old tower, which,
as an altarpiece in the cathedral shows, originally terminated in
battlements. These suggest that the building was erected as a watch
tower or, may be, as a symbol of power. Its plan is a square of 45 feet,
the walls being about 8 feet thick, built of material from Roman and
probably Visigothic remains. Its surface is pierced by twenty windows,
many of which are subdivided by columnettes, and embellished with sunken
panels, enriched with arabesques. The =Giralda= is under the special
protection of SS. Justa and Rufina--a fact commemorated in the
above-mentioned picture and in another by Murillo, now in the Provincial
Museum. It was used as a model for the design of the tower of the
Madison Square Garden, New York.

The =Alhambra, Granada=, represents the best preserved as well as the most
perfect example of the Moorish-Arabic genius. It was a fortress-palace,
much of it built on the brink of the rock, the steep slopes of which
were used to construct the lower stories of baths, offices, and
guardrooms. The exterior has no impressiveness, though the original
grouping of walls and roofs must have been highly picturesque. Its
halls, chambers, and remains of a mosque are clustered about two
rectangular courts or patios, which are joined like the two parts of an
“L”--the “Court of the Alberca” and the “Court of the Lions.” From one
of the ends of the Alberca Court projects the “Hall of the Ambassadors”;
from the other the “Hall of the Tribunal,” while the long sides of the
Court of Lions open respectively into the “Hall of the Abencerrages” and
the “Hall of the Two Sisters.”

The “Court of the Lions” is so called from the fountain in its centre,
an immense marble basin supported upon twelve lions, which form a
remarkable exception to the Muhammedan rule against representing the
image of any living thing. Both these Courts are arcaded, the columns,
set singly or in pairs, or groups, exhibiting, as do all the columns in
the Alhambra, distinctive features in their capitals, which are
separated by a high necking from the shaft.

It is, however, in the interior of the halls that the decoration reaches
its finest pitch and nowhere more than in the “Hall of the Two Sisters,”
which formed the culminating feature of the harem quarters. The name is
supposed to have been derived from two slabs of marble in the pavement
but may well have been suggested by the window, which occupies a bay and
is divided by a small column and two arches into two lights. The walls,
above a high wainscot of lustred tiles, are encrusted with flat moulded
arabesques, representing a delicate lacelike tracery of leafy vines and
tendrils, still tinctured with the red, blue, and gold that formerly
enriched them. The arabesques melt into the stalactite embellishments
which completely cover the hollow of the dome; created, as it seems, by
giant bees, whose cells hang down like grape-clusters in an endless
profusion of exquisite intricacy. Time was when this unsurpassable
delicacy of magnificence glowed with gold touched into a thousandfold
diversity of tones, by the light of hanging lamps.

As an expression of the Arabic genius in the direction of subtlety this
represents finality. It embodies the culture of a race that in its
learning as in its art had been devoted to the exaltation of details;
and embodies also the latent instinct of a desert-wandering race whose
eye had been little habituated to varieties of form, but saturated with
colour and in the watches of the night had been long familiar with the
mystery of vaulted sky, sown with star-clusters and hung with the
jewelled lamps of planets. It was characteristic also of the Oriental
fondness of abstraction that revels in subtleties and loves to merge
itself in the contemplation of the infinite. It is the kind of
decoration that being denied the reinforcement of nature was bound to
evolve sterility.


=Turkish.=--When the Seljuk Turks, after occupying many parts of the
Byzantine Empire, finally took Constantinople, they converted =S. Sophia=
into a mosque, and more or less closely followed its style in the
mosques they themselves erected.

Thus the =Suleimaniyeh= or =Mosque of Suleiman= the Magnificent, repeats the
central dome and the two apses of the Christian building, preserving
also the flatness of the dome-form. It is approached by a fore-court,
surrounded on all its sides by cloisters, roofed with a succession of
smaller domes, and embellished at the angles with minarets. These have
circular shafts terminating in sharply pointed cones. In the garden of
the mosque are the octagonal, dome-crowned tombs of the founder and his
favourite wife, Roxelana.

The =Ahmedizeh=, or =Mosque of Ahmed= is square in plan, with a central
dome, flanked by four apses, the angles being filled in with four
smaller domes. The interior is lined with coloured tiles, while that of
the =Suleimaniyeh= is veneered with marble.

The public fountains are distinctive features of the city. In one near
S. Sophia, for example, the water-basin, octagonal in shape and covered
with a dome-like grille of ironwork, is enclosed in an octagon of arches
that support a sloping roof which extends in wide eaves and is
surmounted by a dome.


=Persia.=--In point of time Persia enters early into the Muhammedan
conquest, but we have reserved the consideration of it until later,
because she did not reach the height of her renewed splendour in the
arts until the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and then contributed
to the Muhammedan art of India.

When Muhammedanism extended to Persia, it came in touch with the
decaying Sassanian empire that from <small>A.D.</small> 226 to 641 had withstood the
power of Rome and extended its sway nearly to the gates of India. The
remains of its architecture consist chiefly of palaces such as those at
=Serbistan=, =Firuzabad=, and =Ctesiphon=. In these, with an inventiveness of
their own and on a great scale, the builders combined elements of
Assyrian and Roman architecture--square, domed chambers, barrel-vaulted
halls, and portals formed of huge arches, elliptical or horseshoe in
shape.

The direct evidence of this style on the earliest Muhammedan buildings
has disappeared owing to the devastation of the Mongol invasion under
Genghis Khan; but the Sassanian influence is conjectured from the later
architecture which grew up after <small>A.D.</small> 1200. Important examples are to be
found in =Bagdad=, =Teheran=, and =Ispahan=. Among the memorials in the last
named city is the =Great Mosque=, which has an open court, surrounded by
two-storied arcades. Its special features include portal-arches, rising
above the highest of the adjoining walls; vaulted aisles,
_bulbous-shaped_ domes, and minarets of peculiar elegance. The walls are
decorated with enamelled tiles.


=India.=--Persian-Muhammedan architecture, probably because of the
Sassanian influence, was superior to the Arabian-Muhammedan in
constructive elements and represents more fully a developed style. Many
of its elements reappear in Indian-Muhammedan architecture, which by the
beginning of the fifteenth century was developing a style distinguished
alike by the grandeur of the whole and the structural meaning of the
details. The finest example of this early period is the =Jama Musjil=
(Principal Mosque), at =Ahmedabad=, which Shah Ahmed reconstructed out of
a Hindu temple. The Hindu influence is still apparent in the massive
detached pillars that buttress the chief entrance.

The style reached its full development of structural logic, dignity, and
beauty under the Mogul dynasty (1526-1761). By this time the Muhammedan
architects had developed a method of dome support, different both from
the Byzantine and the Arabic pendentive, which combined corbels, ribs,
vaulting surfaces, and corner _squinches_. The last named are arches
placed diagonally at the angles to bring the square to an octagonal,
which was the favourite form of plan adopted for tombs. Of these the
most imposing is the =Tomb of Mahmud= at =Bijapur=.

A noble example of the earlier Mogul style is the =Mosque of Akbar= at
=Futtehpore-Sikri=. Especially noteworthy are the southern and western
gateways. They tower up with emphatic assertion and yet with a finely
proportioned relation to the flanking arcades. This is due in a great
measure to the arches of the arcades being repeated with more elaborate
detail in the recess of the gateway, where also an upper tier of arches
balances the architrave of the arcades. These tiers of arches, leading
up to the semi-dome of the ceiling give a contrast of grace to the
sterner lines of the exterior arch, and introduce gradations of
refinement into its monumental scale.

The later example, =Taj Mahal, Agra=, erected by Shah Jehan (1627-1658) is
distinguished by less force and a greater delicacy and refinement.
Though it is said to have been designed by a French or Italian
architect, it is regarded as the last word of beauty in
Indian-Muhammedan architecture and one of the most beautiful
architectural monuments in the world.

This royal tomb, used as a ceremonial hall during its founder’s
lifetime, stands upon a marble platform, 18 feet high and 313 feet
square, at the corners of which spire up minarets of circular, that is
to say, of Persian design. The building occupies a square plan of 181
feet, from which the corners have been removed; the façades being
composed of two tiers of deeply recessed arches, interrupted by four
monumental portals, which correspond, though with greater refinements of
proportion and detail, to those of the Mosque of Futtehpore-Sikri. The
central dome of bulb-form rises upon a lofty drum to a height of 80 feet
with 58 feet diameter, and is balanced by four small domes, supported on
columns. The material of the whole is white marble, enriched with
carvings and inlays of jasper, bloodstone, and agate. The =Taj Mahal=, as
exquisite as it is imposing, is set like an immense jewel in an
enchanting scheme of garden-planning that includes terraces, lakes,
fountains, and foliage.




CHAPTER V

EARLY MEDIÆVAL CIVILISATION


The period of architecture to which this chapter forms an introduction
is from <small>A.D.</small> 1000 to 1200. It is usually known as the Romanesque period
because the architecture in certain structural particulars represented a
return to Roman methods. But the application of the principles varied in
different parts of what had been the Roman Empire under the influence of
local conditions; according as the locality was Northern Italy, or
Northern or Southern France, or England, or the Rhine Provinces of
Germany.

On the other hand, when we come to consider the social and political
conditions, the word Romanesque is too narrow. It was, it is true, a
period of gradual reconstruction of order upon the ruins of the Roman
Empire and one of the forces that made for order was the partial revival
by Charlemagne of Roman Law. The latter became a model by which the slow
process of organising society anew could shape itself. So far, at least,
the social tendency of the period was Romanesque. But after all, this
was only a detail of the new order, and by no means the most
significant.

Indeed the attempt to revive an empire was in itself reactionary and
opposed to the spirit of the time. For the latter was groping toward the
organising of independent nationalities. The millions who had
overwhelmed the Roman Empire possessed a certain kinship of race and
language; but they were divided into tribal units which clung to their
separate identities, the more so as the difference of localities in
which they settled increased their separateness. Thus the movement of
the time was a slow change from tribal to national unity, and the
gradual construction of a social and political order, suited to their
racial instinct of independent freedom. The advance was much more rapid
in social than in political order. For centuries the independent and
adventurous spirit of the various peoples was to keep them embroiled in
constant warfare, postponing the settlement of national landmarks. Back
of this political chaos, however, was a steady and sure growth in social
order, which, indeed, was largely assisted by the necessity of
self-preservation.

While popes, emperors, kings, dukes, and counts were fighting in
colossal or petty rivalries, the “honest man,” as the saying is, “came
into his own.” The merchants grew in importance, the craft-gilds
consolidated their strength, and the cities became oases of comparative
order. It was an age distinguished by the growth of “communes”; that is
to say, of burgs, boroughs, and cities, possessing certain rights of
self-government and immunity from indiscriminate taxation. Not that
these privileges escaped infringement. The fight for them had to be
perpetually maintained and the fortunes of the commune varied from time
to time. Yet the seed of self-government was sown, to stay in the soil
of every Teutonic nation.

The rise of the commune was partly due to the Feudal system, which had
its origin in the “fee” or tenure in land. As the system came to be
worked out, the tenant held in fief from an overlord, who in turn held
from some more powerful overlord and so on up to the King. When the
latter went to war, the word was passed down and each overlord had to
bring his quota of men, which he made up from the levies of the
overlords below him. It thus became an automatic method of raising an
army, of which the lowest knight with his few followers was the unit. On
the other hand, the ease with which the method could be put in operation
and the need of constant preparation for it, maintained a condition of
warlike feeling, that in the absence of a great war broke out in
jealousy and strife among the several constituent parts of the system.

It was to guard against the inevitable miseries of this constant turmoil
that the merchants and artisans built their homes and shops around some
burg or castle, to the lord of which they looked for protection, walls
of defence being gradually built around the city, until it became
fortified with the castle as a citadel. The benefits were mutual.
Commerce and trade could be pursued in comparative peace, while the lord
in return for his protection would receive a portion of the profits to
finance his various expeditions or intrigues. To consolidate their
influence the merchants formed themselves into merchant gilds, while the
citizens established craft-gilds in the various trades.

Thus gradually both commerce and trade spun a network of peaceful
activity and comparative stability over the otherwise troubled world,
knitting together its remotest parts. For while the agricultural
population was tied to the soil, and passed with its transfer from one
owner to another, the condition of commerce and to some extent of trade
was fluent. Merchants travelled and had their agents in distant
countries; and even the artisan might move from place to place and
enroll himself for the time being in the local gild of his craft. And
the merchants became also the bankers of their time: those of Lombardy,
for example, loaning money to kings as well as to other merchants; the
memory of which is preserved in “Lombard Street,” in London’s financial
centre.

These merchants had become wealthy by trading in the merchandise from
the East and increased their wealth by distributing the merchandise
throughout the West. Milan, therefore, speedily grew in importance
because she commanded the roads leading over the passes of the Alps.
Thence the chief stream of commerce led at first through Provence.
Later, German cities like Augsburg and Nuremburg, became powerful and
prosperous on the road to such northern ports as Lübeck and Hamburg,
while the Rhine became the highway of commerce to Bruges, Ghent, and
Brussels.

The gilds perpetuated what came to be called the “mystery” of their
crafts by organisations which combined a system of apprenticeship with
what we know to-day as a trade-union. One of these was the gild of
masons from which Freemasonry derived. It included various grades from
the ordinary worker of stone and marble, through the men skilled in
carved work, up to the few who were capable of designing and supervising
the construction. And although the tradition that these mason-gilds
travelled from place to place has been discredited, it is still allowed
that some of these master-masons or architects, as we call them to-day,
must have acquired a fame which caused them to be engaged by other
cities than their own.

Meanwhile, there was another great influence operating in the interests
of social order--that of the Church. Many bishops occupied positions
corresponding to that of a feudal lord and some even went to war at the
head of their troops. The cathedrals, like the castles, became the
nuclei of cities. Moreover, the Religious Orders were increasing in
numbers and in influence, both spiritual and temporal. There had been a
widely held expectation that the end of the world was to come in 1000
<small>B.C.</small> After the fateful date had passed, people breathed more freely with
a fresh zest of life and thankfulness to Heaven; and the Church
generally and, in particular, the Religious Orders, put themselves at
the head of this great revival. They became the leaders of a great
popular religious and civic enthusiasm that found expression especially
in church and cathedral building.

The earliest Order, the Benedictine, had been founded by S. Benedict in
the sixth century and spread through the west of Europe, obtaining firm
hold in England. The Cluniac Order, with its headquarters in the Abbey
of Cluny in the Department of Saone et Loire, France, was established in
909 and in 1080 S. Bruno founded the Carthusian Order, whose chief
monastery in France was the Grande Chartreuse, near Grenoble. A little
later came the Cistercians, and the Augustinian Orders, while the
twelfth century saw the founding of the Dominican Order of Preaching
Friars and the following century the establishment of the mendicant
order of Franciscans. Nor does this summary complete the list. The
orders rivalled one another in the number and efficiency of their
monasteries, which were the centres not only of religion but also of
learning, art, and economic life, affording guest-houses for travellers
and serving as hospitals, schools, and colleges.

The monastery was usually erected around a square enclosure still
called in England a “close,” surrounded by cloisters. On one side of it
adjoined the Church or Minster which, if it were cruciform, extended its
transept along one side of the cloister, while the nave occupied
another. Along the opposite side of the enclosure ran the refectory, or
common feeding-room of the brotherhood, while the fourth side was
occupied with dormitories. Grouped around this plan were the abbot’s
lodging, guestrooms, school, and dispensary, the bake-house and
granaries, fishponds, gardens, and orchards. And in some quiet room
where the light was favourable, certain of the brothers plied the task
of scribes and illuminators. Happy the monastery that could boast a
master-miniaturist or one who was of surpassing merit as a master-mason.
Down to the thirteenth century “Architecture was practised largely by
the clergy and regarded as a sacred science.”

The influence of monkish architects may have had much to do with the
change of the cathedral or church plan from basilica to cruciform, which
is characteristic of this period. The clergy continued to be separated
from the laity and the extra accommodation needed for the monks of a
large monastery caused the apse to be replaced by a chancel, which was
raised by several steps from the level of the nave. It contained the
stalls for the monks and was divided from the nave by a screen
(cancellus), which was surmounted by a gallery or loft, in which the
rood (cross) stood.

This rood-loft could be utilised for sacred tableaux which were given
for the edification of the people at certain festivals. At Christmas,
for example, the choirboys, playing the part of angels, would sing from
it the chant of Peace and Good Will, while a representation of the
Manger and the Kneeling Shepherds was displayed upon the top of the
chancel steps. For the Church recognised the power of drama to affect
the imagination, and in time the tableaux developed into “Passion Plays”
and “Mystery Plays.” In fact the nave of the church or cathedral was
treated as the meeting place for the laity and was used for a variety of
secular purposes in connection with the life of the community, while the
towers could be used, if necessary, for watch towers and for the safe
storing of treasure.

Further among the circumstances that made a more ordered and more human
condition of society was the code of chivalry, demanding of all knights
or “fully armoured and mounted men,” a high sense of honour, gallantry
in battle and peace, and courtesy to women. Charlemagne had gathered
round him twelve “paladins” or paragons of knightly virtue, and the fame
of their example inspired to deeds not only of valour but of courtly
grace. Thus, in Provence, Spain, and Northern Italy there flourished the
graceful art of the Troubadour, which was paralleled in the Danube
provinces by that of the Minnesingers. The troubadours, originally of
noble birth, including princes in their ranks and one king, Richard the
Lion-Hearted, invented and sang songs to music of their own composing,
thus setting a model for the wandering troubadours and minstrels who
later travelled professionally from castle to castle, not overlooking,
we may be sure, audiences of people that might be gathered in the
churches.

Chivalry was turned to shrewd account by the Church. It could not curb
the instinct of fighting but could direct it and did so by enjoining
upon knightly penitents a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Such expeditions
grew in number and size, travelling armed for protection on the
journey, and out of them came the Crusades for the recovery of the Holy
Spots in Palestine from the Moslem. These were far from being unmixed
blessings to the people, but at least they diverted for a time the
turbulence and left the cities freer opportunity of growth. And many a
noble on returning home, would build the church or chapel that he had
vowed, determined, perhaps, that it should rival in beauty some example
he had seen upon his wanderings.

In view even of the few particulars summarised above, how is it possible
to relegate this period to “The Dark Ages” or even to dismiss it as
negligible, summing it all up as part of the Middle Ages, between the
fall of Rome and the revival of a knowledge of Classic learning and art
in the fifteenth century? It is to the Italians of the Renaissance that
we owe this distortion of history. Properly speaking there was no
Renaissance or Rebirth; but at least from the time of Charlemagne onward
a steady growth in civilisation, and how vigorous it was,
notwithstanding the many setbacks, due to the continuing confusion, may
be gathered from the architecture of the period.

It is well to bear in mind that after the death of Charlemagne his
empire gradually fell apart. A German empire extended from the Rhine to
the Danube and was in constant conflict with the Popes to exert its sway
over Northern Italy; the growth of the communes or free cities being
perpetually disturbed by siding with one or other of the
contestants--the Imperial or Ghibelline and the Papal or Guelph.

France, meanwhile, was not yet a united nation. The kings of the House
of Capet held only the so-called Ile de France or Royal Demesne,
extending from Paris to Orleans, and were surrounded on all sides by
independent Duchies and Countships, with which they were constantly at
war. The Duchy of Normandy had been established to the north by Rollo
and in 1066 his descendant, William, conquered England.

These distinctions of territory help to explain the variations of the
Romanesque architecture, as it grew up, respectively, in Northern Italy,
the Rhine Provinces, Ile de France, Southern France, Normandy, and
Norman England.

[Illustration: PISA CATHEDRAL, CAMPANILE AND BAPTISTRY

PP. 244, 247]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF PISA CATHEDRAL

SHOWING A GLIMPSE OF THE NECK OF THE DOME SUPPORTED ON CORNER ARCHES,
THAT TAKE THE PLACE OF PENDENTIVES. P. 246]

[Illustration: S. AMBROGIO, MILAN

EARLY EXAMPLE OF RIB-VAULTING. P.240]

[Illustration: S. MICHELE, PAVIA

SHOWING RUDIMENTARY DIVISION OF WEST FRONT AND USE OF ARCADING. P. 251]

[Illustration: THE CERTOSA, OR CHURCH OF THE CARTHUSIAN ORDER, PAVIA

ROMANESQUE WITH RENAISSANCE LANTERN AND WEST FAÇADE. P. 313]

[Illustration: CHURCH OF VÉZELAY, FRANCE

EARLY EXAMPLE OF GROIN-VAULTING REPLACING BARREL-VAULTING. P. 253]

[Illustration: CHURCH OF ABBAYE-AUX-DAMES, CAEN

EARLY EXAMPLE OF CLERESTORY AND OF SEXPARTITE VAULTING. P. 254]

[Illustration: REMAINS OF THE CHURCH OF CLUNY ABBEY

WHICH IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY WAS THE INTELLECTUAL CENTER OF EUROPE. PP.
236, 253]

[Illustration: DOORWAY OF SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL

SHOWING PART OF THE BEAUTIFUL DOME OVER THE CROSSING. P. 260]

[Illustration: CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES, COLOGNE

NOTE THE ARCADING EMBELLISHMENTS AND GROUPING OF THE TOWERS. P. 259]

[Illustration: ANGLO-SAXON TOWER

EARL’S BARTON, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. P. 255]

[Illustration: IFFLEY CHURCH, NEAR OXFORD

P. 257]

[Illustration: ST. JOHN’S CHAPEL, TOWER OF LONDON

P. 255]

[Illustration: NAVE OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL

NOTE THE GIRTH OF PIERS AND CHEVRON ORNAMENT. VAULTING, EARLIEST EXAMPLE
IN ENGLAND, COMPLETED 1133. P. 256]

[Illustration: PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL

P. 256]

[Illustration: ENGLISH ROMANESQUE DETAIL

BILLET MOULDING

CHEVRON MOULDING

BALL-FLOWER MOULDING

EASTON HAMPSHIRE

TOWER WINDOW, BUCKNELL, OXON

CASSINGTON, OXON

LATE NORMAN. ST. JOHN’S DEVIZES

STEETLEY DERBYSHIRE

GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL

EARLY NORMAN ARCH. WESTMINSTER HALL]




CHAPTER VI

EARLY MEDIÆVAL OR ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE


Romanesque is the term applied to the architectural style of the early
Middle Ages which prevailed from 1000 to 1200. It manifests considerable
variety, according to locality, but at the same time a distinct
character common to all branches, in that it embodied a return to
certain Roman principles of construction, modified more or less by early
Christian and Byzantine methods. It represents a stage in the evolution
of Gothic architecture.

In such localities as the North of Italy and Provence, where Roman
remains were plentiful, the Romanesque architecture made free use of
antique columns and details. But in the Rhine Provinces, the North of
France, and England, the lack of such materials and of skilful workmen
encouraged the substitution of the pier for the column and caused the
latter to be of simpler and in many cases ruder design. Necessity, in
fact, compelled the adoption of new forms. Moreover, the desire of the
Church to build permanently led to the use of stone in place of
inflammable timber, especially in the building of the roofs.
Accordingly, the use of vaulting was revived.

It was out of the application of these necessities of construction that
the Romanesque style was evolved.

=Chevêt.=--The basilica plan became gradually modified. The nave and
aisles were retained, but the chancel, with or without an apse, was
carried farther back and the length of the transepts prolonged, so that
in time the cruciform plan prevailed and acquired a symbolic
significance. A special feature, gradually introduced, was the _chevêt_
which formed an _ambulatory_ around the sides of the choir and the
semi-circle of the apse, and could be divided up into chapels dedicated
to individual saints.

=Vaulting.=--In the earlier examples the nave was covered with a
barrel-vault, the thrust of which was sustained in the first place by
strengthening the nave walls by the omission of clerestory windows and,
secondly, by the weight of barrel-vaults over the side aisles, their
thrust, in turn, being sustained by thickening the outer walls and
keeping the windows small. As a further reinforcement of the walls,
projecting piers of masonry were built into them, which in time became
features of the external decoration.

Gradually the barrel-vault was superseded by groin vaults; at first in
the aisles and later over the nave as well. The groin vaulting over the
aisles represented, as in Roman times, the intersection of two
semicircular vaults. But since the nave was usually twice the width of
the aisles, each of the nave bays would be oblong in plan. Accordingly
two of these were included in one square bay, which took in two of the
nave arches and corresponded to two aisle bays.

In some instances a shaft was carried up from the intervening pier on
each side of the nave, supporting an intermediate transverse arch, so
that the vaulting became sexpartite, or divided into six compartments.
Whether the bay were six part or four part, the curve of all the
groins--longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal--were semicircular.
Accordingly, since the diagonals had a longer diameter, their curves
rose above the others. This variation was met by giving a concave or
domelike surface to each of the compartments, so that the workmen were
able to adjust the stones to the differences of the curves.

=Rib-vaulting.=--While this was possible in the actual operation of
placing the stones, it would have needed exceedingly delicate
calculation to build timber centering adjusted in advance to these
domelike surfaces. Moreover, the ponderousness of the dome nave vaulting
had made the use of timber centering extremely costly, even where timber
was plentiful; while in districts sparsely supplied the cost had been
prohibitive. Consequently, the ingenuity of the builders devised a
system of construction that reduced the need of timber centering to a
minimum. This was the system known as rib-vaulting. Briefly, it
consisted in spanning the space--longitudinally, transversely, and
diagonally--with preliminary arches of masonry, thus forming a skeleton
frame composed of what are known as ribs. Each of these ribs, being
comparatively light, could be constructed on a single moveable and
expansible piece of centering, called a _cerce_. When the ribs had set,
they offered sufficient support to hold up the doming of the
compartments while it was being laid.

To some extent this method of construction had been anticipated by the
Romans who in certain instances built preliminary transverse ribs to act
as permanent centerings of the vault, in the masonry of which the ribs
were buried from sight. The reintroduction of this device and its
further development, as above described, originated with the Lombard
architects. This has been definitely determined by the English
architect, Arthur Kingsley Porter, who has proved that the adoption of
the system was prompted by the scarcity of wood in this locality. From
Italy it spread to France, where it made its appearance in the Ile de
France about 1100 or some 60 years after its adoption in Lombardy. It
was at first employed purely as a necessary constructive expedient.
Later its æsthetic possibilities came to be recognised, and the rib was
developed by the Gothic architects into an element of great beauty, one
of the characteristic features of the Gothic style.

Meanwhile, the use of vaulting by the Romanesque architects affected the
character of the exterior. Mention has already been made of the masonry
piers and the massive outside walls, pierced with small windows. For the
further support of the vaulting-thrust towers were freely used. While in
Italy the campanile was frequently detached from the main edifice, the
towers in western and northern Romanesque churches became elements of
prominence in the design. A pair frequently flanked the apse or four
rose in the angles of the transepts and choir, while another pair,
sometimes connected by a gallery, flanked the west end. A tower or dome
might also surmount the _crossing_ of the nave and transepts. The towers
were square, polygonal, or circular, divided into stories which were
pierced with windows or embellished with arcades. They were crowned,
like the nave and aisles, with an exterior sloping roof.

=Arcading.=--The arcading, which now became a favourite method of
embellishing walls, was of two kinds; either being _open_ and permitting
a passageway at the back of them, or with columns and arch mouldings
attached to the wall, in the manner known as _blind arcading_. Another
feature for strengthening as well as embellishing the wall was the use
of masonry piers, which, resting on a plinth, projected from the wall
only as far as the width of the cornice.

The exteriors, in fact, were no longer, as in early Christian churches,
plain and almost barn-like, but assumed a varied picturesqueness that,
however, was distinguished by a fine structural unity.

The arch, whether used in interior or exterior arcading or for the tops
of doors and windows, was round; usually semicircular but occasionally
_stilted_, the ends of the semicircle, that is to say, being raised on
perpendicular lines. The later introduction of the pointed arch, it may
be added, marks the transition from Romanesque to Gothic.

A characteristic development of the Romanesque style is the treatment of
the doors and windows. The jambs or sides were carried back in a series
of angular recesses, which were filled with small columns, whose abaci
frequently united in a continuous moulding. In many cases the angular
recesses of the jambs were prolonged around the arch.

The shafts of columns were decorated with fluting, which might be
perpendicular, spiral, or barred like trellis-work. The capitals, except
when antique Corinthian or Ionic columns were utilised, display a
variety of embellishments, sometimes influenced by Byzantine examples,
at other times representing an original working out of foliage motives,
often rude in treatment, but, especially in the German work, vigorously
decorative.

In the nave arcading, that is to say the series of arches on each side
of the nave, the supports consisted of square piers, to the faces of
which columns were attached. From two of them sprang the arches; a third
supported the vaulting of the aisles, while a fourth was run up to a
higher level to carry the vaulting of the nave.


=Italian Romanesque.=--Since the Romanesque style was coloured by the
locality in which it appeared, it is necessary to study examples of it
as they are found respectively in Italy, France, the Rhine Provinces,
Spain, and England.

The Italian examples are conveniently subdivided into those of Northern,
Central, and Southern Italy, or, more specifically, into the examples
found in the districts north of the River Po, between the Po and the
Tiber, and south of the latter. Of these the northern, to be considered
later, are the most important, since they show, as we have noted, a more
adventurous spirit in the matter of construction.

CENTRAL ITALY.--On the other hand, the builders of Central and Southern
Italy still followed the simple basilican plan and retained the wooden
roofs and, in consequence, clerestory windows. They raised, however, in
many cases the level of the choir and placed a crypt chamber beneath it;
which sometimes, as in =S. Miniato=, =Florence=, is open to the nave. But
their inventiveness was displayed rather in the details of decoration.
Central Italy being rich in marbles, the use of this material for
embellishing the exterior and the interior with bands and geometric
designs was carried to such a perfection as virtually to constitute a
style. The most beautiful example is that of =S. Miniato=, where, too, the
open woodwork of the roof has been restored to its original colouring of
gold, green, blue, and red.

Another notable example of this developed style of decoration is
presented at =Pisa=, in the group of buildings comprising the =Cathedral=,
=Campanile=, and =Baptistry=. Here the façades are embellished--one might
almost say composed, for the embellishment is applied so
constructionally--with tiers of blind arcades or of open arcades of red
and white marble. Those of the Baptistry received in the fifteenth
century additions of Gothic canopies and traceries, but the front of the
Cathedral and the circular Campanile retain their original character.
The Baptistry, also circular in plan, is crowned by an outer
hemispherical dome, through which penetrates a conical dome, which in
the interior is supported on four piers and eight columns. The influence
of Byzantine workmen is seen here as well as in the dome which crowns
the crossing of the Cathedral. The transepts of the latter are prolonged
beyond the basilica plan and terminate in apses.

The Campanile, which comprises eight stories embellished with arcading,
is known as “The Leaning Tower,” since it inclines from the
perpendicular about 13 feet in a height of 179, the greatest inclination
being in the ground story, after which there is a slight recovery toward
the perpendicular. It was begun in 1174 and completed in 1350. Vasari,
the historian of Italian artists, writing some 200 years later, ascribes
this lean to a settlement of the foundations. His explanation, though
occasionally disputed, had been generally accepted, until the
investigations of Professor William H. Goodyear, in 1910, established
the fact that the inclination was intentional and provided for from the
start of the work.

The tower is constructed of an exterior and an interior cylinder of
masonry, the space between them being occupied by a spiral staircase.
The steps of the latter were individually measured by Professor
Goodyear, who has set forth the results in a Bulletin of the Brooklyn
Institute of Arts and Sciences (Jan. 21, 1911). Briefly, they show that
the treads of the steps vary in height and that they incline sometimes
toward the inner wall, sometimes toward the outer. In this way they tend
to create a balance of strains on the whole structure, which is further
secured by increasing the strength of the inner walls, where the
inclination is inward. That the careful calculation involved in this was
not due to an afterthought or the necessity of remedying the effects of
a settlement is proved by the fact that the inclination begins at the
lowest step.

Why then was this design adopted? Professor Goodyear furnishes the
answer in two subsequent Bulletins. Reduced to briefest terms it is
this: The Pisan Baptistry also has an inclination from the normal, both
perpendicular and horizontal. Thus, in the south façade there is an
inclination in the horizontal lines of 2 feet 2 inches toward the choir.
Meanwhile, the vertical lines of the west façade are perpendicular to
this slope and, consequently, the front inclines inward toward the nave.
And these are only instances of a number of asymmetries that occur
throughout the cathedral, all of which are proved to have been
intentional in the original design.

Further, the asymmetries at Pisa bear a close analogy to the numberless
asymmetries that appear in S. Mark’s, Venice. The latter was built by
Byzantine workmen, who therein followed the Oriental and the Hellenic
dislike of formal mathematical regularity; and it is the Byzantine
tradition again which in this respect, as in other details of
decoration, domes and so forth, influenced the Romanesque group of
buildings at Pisa. The order in which they were erected is, the
Cathedral, Baptistry, and Campanile; so that in the Leaning Tower the
architects merely carried the principle of asymmetry to an extreme
pitch.

The influence of Pisa is found in =S. Michele= and =S. Martino= in =Lucca=,
and in the =Cathedral of Pistoia=.


=South Italy.=--The most important SOUTHERN examples are found in Sicily,
which in the tenth century was overrun by the Saracens, who in the
following century were routed by the Normans. Consequently, the
Saracenic influence is mingled with the Byzantine in the =Cathedral of
Monreale=, near =Palermo=. The plan is basilican, with apses at the eastern
ends of the nave and aisles. The choir is raised. The arches of the nave
are pointed but not recessed, and are supported on columns, with
Byzantine capitals. The aisle walls have a dado of white marble, twelve
feet high, inlaid with borders, composed of porphyry, while the arches
and clerestory of the nave are embellished with mosaics of biblical
subjects, framed in arabesque borders. Of a sombre richness of colour,
they display the Byzantine characteristic of severity of design, and
impart to the interior a solemn grandeur.


=North Italy.=--It is in NORTHERN Italy, particularly in the Lombard
churches, that the constructional development is most marked. For, while
the plan remained basilican, only occasionally showing well-defined
transepts, the architects devoted their energies to the problem of
vaulting. A notable instance is =San Ambrogio, Milan=, which is an early
example of the use of ribs in vaulting. The original church, erected in
the ninth century, had wooden roofs; but in the rebuilding the nave was
divided into four square bays, and immense piers were constructed to
carry the diagonal, transverse, and longitudinal ribs.[6] Of
corresponding massiveness are the transverse ribs, while to support the
strain on the longitudinal ribs intermediate piers were introduced with
an upper and a lower tier of double arches. These open into the two
stories of the groin-vaulted aisles, which are given this treatment in
order to act as buttresses to the thrust of the nave vaults. This
compelled the omission of clerestory windows, thus adding to the
sombreness of effect. Indeed the whole suggestion is one of
ponderousness. It is the work of men experimenting with a new method of
construction and intent for the present on achieving stability. The
combination of the latter with dignity of height and the grace of
lightness was yet to be developed in the Gothic treatment of the ribs.

The west end is approached by a narthex, opening into an arcaded atrium.

In the external decoration of the triple apse of the east end appears
the rudimentary principle of the open arcade. The walls above the
semi-dome and beneath the wooden exterior roof are crowned with a
cornice, composed of arches supported upon corbels, the space between
each being penetrated with a niche. This produces a series of deep
shadows, in contrast with which the actual construction of the corbels
assumes a lightness of effect. It was the preliminary step to the
substitution of small detached columns for the corbels and the
development of external arcading.

The open arcading in its full development appears in the west façade of
=S. Michele=, =Pavia=, where it serves its characteristic purpose of
constructively lightening the effect of the cornice of the roof. In this
instance, as in many of the Lombard façades, the nave and aisles are
included in a single gable, their interior separation being marked upon
the exterior by masonry piers. Into this façade also, as in the older
part of the exterior of =San Ambrogio=, are set pieces of earlier
sculptured ornament. These exhibit a strange mingling of grotesque
animals with Scandinavian interlaces and Byzantine features--a notable
fact, since they correspond with the sculptured ornament found on some
of the Rhenish churches. This suggests that Lombard workmen were
employed in Germany and that they brought back with them some of the
German taste for symbolism in ornament.

In the west front of the =Cathedral at Piacenza=, we find the same use of
single gable and masonry piers, but the cornice arcade is supplemented
by two horizontal bands, that mark the division of the aisles into two
stories. Moreover, each of the three entrances is embellished with a two
storied porch, supported on columns that rest on recumbent lions. Over
the nave porch the wall is penetrated by a characteristically Romanesque
feature--a _rose_ or _wheel_ window. A comparison of this façade with
the elaborate ones of Central Italy illustrates the preference of the
Lombard architects for organic disposition of decoration rather than
decoration for the sake of decoration.

An important feature of North Italy is the Campanile. Intended, it is
supposed, as a symbol of power, it is usually detached from the church,
and square in plan. The walls are simply treated, being reinforced
often with masonry piers, but interrupted with as few windows as
possible, while the top is marked by one or two stories of arcaded
windows and is crowned with a pyramidal or conical roof.


FRENCH ROMANESQUE

The map of France at the end of the tenth century shows the Royal
Domain, the Ile de France, a dense forest with Orleans, the city of
learning, at one end, and at the other, Paris, the city of the
future--hemmed in on all sides by counties and duchies over which the
Capetian King held little more than nominal suzerainty. For the purpose
of architectural study these territories may be divided into north and
south, on a line with the River Loire. Thus, to the north belong the Ile
de France, Normandy, and Brittany; to the south, Provence, Aquitaine,
Anjou, and Burgundy.

Everywhere the builders were intent upon the problem of vaulting; but
were influenced in the south by local conditions. In Provence, for
example, the seat of Roman civilisation, not only does classical
influence appear in the details, but the vaulting is of the old Roman
kind. =Notre Dame=, =Avignon=, is a well-known instance. And the
barrel-vaulting was continued throughout the neighbouring Duchy of
Aquitaine. Here, however, another influence intervened. The district had
close commercial relations with Venice, Ravenna, and Byzantium, and it
is reflected in the domical vaulting of many of the churches.

=S. Front=, =Perigeux=, for example, resembles S. Mark’s, Venice, in having
the plan of a Greek cross, surmounted by five pendentives. The arches,
however, are _pointed_; of great depth, resting on piers, pierced with
passages. In the =cathedral= of the neighbouring city, =Angoulême=, a Latin
cross is substituted for the Greek in plan. The aisleless nave is
surmounted by three stone domes, roofed on the exterior. Over the
crossing rises another dome, visible outside, which is raised upon a
drum that is pierced with pointed windows, disposed in pairs. The
southern transept is still crowned with a tower, its fellow to the north
having been destroyed in 1568.

This building served as a model for the =Abbey of Fontevrault= in =Anjou=.

In Burgundy the most renowned of the numerous monastic establishments
was the =Benedictine Abbey= of =Cluny=. Until the building of the present S.
Peter’s, its abbey church was the largest and most magnificent in
Christendom. The plan was a basilica with double aisles, the east end
terminating in a _chevêt_ (shě-vay´); that is to say, an apse surrounded
by a circular aisle, divided into chapels; in this case five in number.
The nave was arcaded with pointed arches and spanned by an immense
barrel vault. Groined vaulting, on the other hand, is supposed to have
covered the aisles.

Groined vaulting takes the place of barrel-vaulting in the nave of the
=Church of Vézelay=, and was also used in the ante-chapel, erected some
thirty years later. But by this time the builders, in order to reduce
the thrust, adopted a pointed section for the ribs--the first instance
in France of the pointed groined vault, which was successfully developed
later by the Gothic architects.

It is to be noted that the early vaulting, erected by the Clunisian
architects, compelled the abandonment of the clerestory windows. The
thrust of the great barrel vault of the nave was sustained either by
high side aisles with either transverse or groined vaults over the bays,
or by barrel vaults over the aisles, which in turn were supported by
the massive outer walls. For the use of the flying buttress had not yet
been adopted.

Meanwhile, the northern climate demanded the additional light provided
by a clerestory, and the architects of Normandy applied themselves to
the problem. It was to be solved later in Gothic architecture by the use
of pointed groin vaulting, but, pending this discovery, a method of
vaulting was employed which is known as sexpartite. For the square bay
was crossed in the centre by another transverse arch, which, when cut by
the two diagonals, produced a plan of six parts. This, however,
necessitated two narrow skew vaults, meeting in the centre, which was
awkward in appearance. The method is illustrated in =S. Etienne=, the
great church of the =Abbaye-aux-hommes= and =La Trinité= of the
=Abbaye-aux-Dames=, both in =Caen=. These and other churches of Normandy
such as the Abbey church of =Mont-St. Michel=, are characterised by an
adventurous spirit as well as logic of design, marking a distinct
progress toward the Gothic.


ENGLISH ROMANESQUE OR NORMAN

The audacity and resourcefulness of the Norman builders found extensive
opportunity after the conquest of England. But few remains survive of
Anglo-Saxon architecture, and they suggest that the buildings were of a
rude kind. They were constructed of rubble work, reinforced with engaged
piers and ashlar masonry at the corners, arranged in what is called
“long and short” courses. The columns were short, stumpy cylinders
crowned with one or two square blocks, and the details of doorways and
windows were roughly hewn with an axe, though in the case of certain
belfry windows, jambs of baluster shape, seem to have been turned upon
a lathe. The openings were either round-topped, suggesting a clumsy copy
of the Roman style or else triangular, as if perpetuating a form of
timber construction. The plan of the church appears to have been of the
simplest, representing an oblong nave, separated by an arch from the
smaller oblong of the chancel; the latter being lower than the nave and,
on the inside, approached by two or three descending steps. The
arrangement seems to have been derived from the example of the Celtic
churches, as also was the habit of erecting towers, which, however, are
not circular as in Ireland, but square without buttresses. One example
of such a tower exists at =Earl’s Barton=, =Northamptonshire=, in which
occur balustered windows.

The Normans, therefore, had a free field for their architectural
enterprise and, while they immediately commenced the erection of castles
to overawe the country, they also erected monasteries and cathedrals,
designed to surpass in size and magnificence the ones in Normandy. While
following the latter in a general way, the English examples were
characterised, on the one hand, by a more massive and picturesque
treatment, and, on the other, owing probably to the scarcity of skilled
labour, by simpler and less refined details.

The capitals of columns, for instance, were usually of the cubic-cushion
form, as may be seen in =S. John’s Chapel= in the =Tower of London=. The
piers were often round and frequently clustered with columns, the round
arches being recessed and framed with round mouldings. The latter, in
the case of doorways and windows, were enriched with ornament carved in
zig-zag, chevrons, billets, and beaked heads. The plan was apt to be
longer than that of the French churches, and the elevations were
proportionately lower. Vaulting was, for the present, confined to
smaller churches and the side aisles of the larger; but the nave walls
of the cathedrals were built sufficiently massive to support the
vaulting which in some cases was subsequently added. The clerestory
windows were set toward the outer part of the wall, the remaining space
being occupied by a passageway, which, in front of the windows was
screened from the nave by three arches.

While the Norman style, as the English-Romanesque is usually called in
England, appears in many cathedrals, the character of it has been
greatly modified by later additions. But the finest example still
existing is that of =Durham=; next to which come =Peterborough= and portions
of =Norwich=. The tower above the crossing, which became a distinction of
English cathedrals and is so imposing a feature of =Durham=, was added
much later. But the original nave (1096) is a remarkable example of
massive Norman construction, the round piers having a diameter nearly
equal to the span of the arches and being channelled with flutings and
spirals. The vaulting was completed in 1133 and is said to be the
earliest example of Norman vaulting in England. Another notable feature
of Durham Cathedral is the so-called Galilee chapel, which, in imitation
of the ante-chapel in Caen, takes the place of a porch at the west end.
It was used by penitents.

At =Peterborough= the nave, only second to Durham as an example of Norman
at its finest, is still covered with the original wooden ceiling,
divided into lozenge shapes and painted. It is believed to be the oldest
wooden roof in England. The Norman parts of =Norwich Cathedral= are the
long, narrow, aisleless nave, the transepts, and the choir with its
chevêt of chapels. =Ely=, again, has Norman nave and transepts; =Bristol=, a
Norman chapter house; =Oxford=, nave and choir; =Southwell=, Norman nave,
transepts, and towers; =Winchester=, transepts and towers; while =Worcester=
has a Norman crypt, transepts, and circular chapter house. The last
named is the only one of this design in England. Original Norman work is
also to be found in the transepts at =Canterbury=, while the narrowness of
its choir is due to the preservation of two Norman chapels.

In England the interior wall spaces and vaulting were decorated with
paintings, for in this branch of decorative work the Normans found no
scarcity of skill, since the Anglo-Saxon school of miniaturists,
originally started by Celtic missionaries, had attained a high degree of
proficiency, and now developed the principles of missal-painting into
the larger and freer scope of mural decoration.

A good example of the small Norman church is that of =Iffley=, near
Oxford. Especially interesting is the west front. In the larger examples
this feature underwent change with the introduction of the pointed arch;
but here is a distribution of the gabled end into three well defined and
excellently proportioned stories, pierced, respectively, with a doorway,
circular window, and an arcade of three windows. All are deeply recessed
and enriched with characteristic moulding, and the effect, while a
trifle barbaric, is vigorously decorative.


RHENISH ROMANESQUE

In the Rhenish Provinces is found the most fully developed Romanesque
style, characterised by the fewest local differences. When, during the
years 768-814, Charlemagne built his royal tomb-church, which with
subsequent Gothic additions is now the =Cathedral= of =Aix-le-Chapelle=, he
adopted the plan of S. Vitale in Ravenna and imported classic columns.
Moreover, the Rhine Provinces possessed many remains of Roman
architecture. Later they became closely allied by commerce with Northern
Italy and seem to have employed the services of Lombard architects.

All these circumstances tended to make Rhenish Romanesque resemble that
of Northern Italy. On the other hand, it developed a style more
constructively adventurous, vigorous, and picturesque; while at the same
time it was on the whole more systematically organised than the French.
It was, however, about fifty years behind the latter in its development
which began late and continued longer.

A typical example of the earlier period of Rhenish Romanesque is the
=Cathedral at Worms= (1110-1200). Its design shows features that are
characteristically Rhenish: an apse at both the west and east end,
flanked in each case by two towers; the use of transepts at the west end
as well as the east (the eastern ones being here omitted), the erection
of octagonal lanterns over both crossings, and entrances on the north
and south sides instead of the west.

The exterior exhibits a well-defined orderliness and picturesqueness.
The walls are reinforced with projecting piers and pierced with deeply
recessed, round-arch windows. Noticeable also is the effective use of
corbel arcades beneath the gable ends of the roofs and in various string
courses, while the richer emphasis of open arcades is applied with equal
discretion and effectiveness. Another noteworthy feature in the towers
is the use of dormers to embellish the conical or octagonal roof, which
in effect are rudimentary spires.

Other early representative cathedrals are those of =Spires=, =Treves=, and
=Mayence= while to the later period belongs the =Church of the Apostles=,
=Cologne= (1220-1250). It offers a varied application of the same features
in a singularly perfect design. The transepts and choir present a
cluster of three apses round a low, octagonal lantern. The nave is
short, twice the width of the side aisles and has western transepts and
a square western tower. Especially fine are the exterior embellishments
of the apses, consisting of two stories of blind arcading, surmounted by
open arcades beneath the roof, while a corresponding sense of
proportional dignity characterises the grouping of the eastern towers
and lantern and the solitary distinction of the western tower. Here, as
in three other examples of triapsal churches in =Cologne=--=S.
Maria-in-Capitol=, =S. Martin=, and =S. Cunibert=--the domical vaulting is
supported by squinches or pendentives.

The earliest example of nave vaulting is found in the =Cathedral of
Mayence=, closely followed in the Cathedrals of =Spires= and =Worms= and the
abbey church at =Laach=.


SPANISH ROMANESQUE

In Spain great impetus was given to cathedral building by the recapture
of Toledo from the Moors in 1085. In architecture, as in painting, the
Spaniards seem to have sought their artistic impulses from abroad, since
the most important example of their early Romanesque style--the
Cathedral of =Santiago de Compostello=--is a modified copy of =S. Sernin=,
at =Toulouse=, =Aquitaine=. The plan is a Latin cross with aisles not only
flanking the nave but also carried round the transepts and choir apse
in the manner of the French chevêt. The aisles are groin-vaulted, while
a lofty barrel vault covers the nave, and an octagonal lantern crowns
the crossing.

A special feature of Spanish Romanesque, also derived apparently from
Aquitaine, is the beauty of the dome, which covers the crossing, as in
the old =Cathedral of Salamanca=, the =Collegiate Church= at =Toro= and the
=Cathedral of Zamora=. They are circular in the interior and octagonal on
the outside with large turrets in the angles of the octagon. The
interior dome is carried upon pointed arches, between which and the
spring of the vault, in the case of Salamanca, are two tiers of arcaded
windows. For the admission of light the arrangement is excellent, while
the general character of these domes, covered on the outside with a low,
steeple-like roof of stone, is admirably monumental.

Another characteristic Spanish feature, met with in some churches, as
for example, that of =San Millan=, =Sagovia=, is an open cloister, on the
outside of the aisle, from which doors open into it.

Carved ornament was rather sparingly applied, and except in minute
details suggests no Moorish influence.




BOOK V

GOTHIC PERIOD




CHAPTER I

LATE MEDIÆVAL CIVILISATION


The change in architectural style, known as the Gothic, which began in
the twelfth century and reached its full development in the thirteenth,
represents so wonderful an expression not only of constructive genius
but also of spiritual aspiration that one would fain peer through the
mist of the past to discover the kind of civilisation that produced it.
The general conditions that shaped the civilisation we have already
noticed in the chapter on Early Mediæval Civilisation. There we
recognised the threefold influences of the power of the Church, the
extension and growing importance of Commerce, and the results of the
various Crusades. And these still continued to be the motive forces of
the later and fuller civilisation.

Prominent among the causes of the confused conditions in Western Europe
was the multiplicity of rival authorities; which it had been
Charlemagne’s dream to subordinate to a centralised authority, emulating
that of the Roman Empire. But, while his attempt at temporal domination
failed, the more spiritual dominion exercised by the Church proved to be
a unifying agency. Through the influence which she exerted over
conscience and consequently over the actions of men through the
Sacraments of Confession and Penitence, she was able in considerable
measure to curb the license of feudalism. Furthermore, by allying
herself with the growing power of the burgher classes in cities and
standing as the champion of the defencelessness of the lower classes in
cities and country, she became the great adjuster of the fearful social
inequalities of the period.

Her policy was one of checks and counter-checks. She could not subdue
the forces that made for disorder; but could and did restrain them. Thus
her support of the burghers built up a new force in the community that,
through trade and commerce, made for stability and set up the
constructive arts of peace as a make-weight against the destructive
conditions that the internecine strife of the nobility engendered. And
these last she further checked by utilising the enthusiasm for Crusades,
which had been first stirred by the missionary zeal of Peter the Hermit
in 1096. This first expedition, under Godfrey de Bouillon, resulted in
the capture of Jerusalem from the Arabs and the establishment of a
Christian Kingdom in Palestine. The six other Crusades, terminating with
the second expedition of Louis IX (St. Louis) of France in 1270, failed
to recover Jerusalem which had been recaptured by the Arabs. But in the
course of them a Latin kingdom had been established in Constantinople
under Count Baldwin of Flanders and a kingdom also had been formed in
Cyprus. It is unnecessary to attempt to follow these various expeditions
in detail, the more so that they represented only incidents in what had
become a perpetual progression of movement toward the East. It is the
effect of this that really concerns us here.

The effect may be studied in relation to the spirit that was stimulated,
and to the economic and educational influence involved. The Church
originally favoured the Crusades as a means both of diverting the
savagery of the fighting class from internecine strife to distant
warfare and of intensifying religious faith and feeling. While it was
not strong enough to crush the fighting spirit, it could consecrate it
to some kind of an ideal, and thereby succeeded in tempering the stupid
savagery of feudalism with the finer spirit of chivalry. An idealism of
knighthood was encouraged that reverenced women, protected the weak,
redressed the wrongs of the oppressed, and wedded to the courtesies of
life a fervour of religious faith. Amidst the ugliness of the times
there sprang up the blue flower of an ideal of beauty that affected in
some measure both the spiritual and the social life. How real and
intense was the spirituality of the times may be gathered from its
excesses, as evidenced in the cruelties of the Crusade against the
Albigenses for their heresies, and in the pathetic tragedies of the
Children’s Crusades. In 1212 a French shepherd boy, named Stephen,
induced thousands of boys to follow him to Marseilles, promising to lead
them dry-shod through the sea to Palestine, and a boy of Cologne, named
Nicolas, led an army of twenty thousand children toward Italy. Such of
the French children as reached Marseilles were kidnapped and sold to
slavery in Egypt, while the German host perished from privations,
leaving only a memory that is preserved in the legend of the Pied Piper
of Hamelin.

In the wake of military expeditions to the East there followed the
adventurers of commerce. Trade routes were opened up, the earliest of
which and for a long time the most important was by way of Venice, over
the Brunner Pass and up the Rhine to Bruges. And commercial relations
meant the continual passing backward and forward of persons in the
pursuits of peace and, in consequence, a growing intercourse between the
members of different nationalities. The old isolation of the western
and northern nations was gradually removed, and the individual’s narrow
horizon became broadened by travel, his restricted ideas of life
enlarged and enlightened by contact with the alien and superior culture
of the East. For it was in Constantinople and among the Arabs in Asia
Minor, Syria, and Egypt that secular learning at this period flourished.

Accordingly, as a result of the Crusades, Western Europe indulged a
taste for foreign travel, which stimulated a prodigious adventurousness
that operated in the things of the spirit and the intellect as well as
in the material conduct of life. Geography, for example, began to arouse
a practical interest. It changed the attitude of men’s minds to the
outside world, opening up new paths of travel by land and sea and,
equally, new conceptions of the possibilities of the world and of life.
The interest also in Crusades aroused the desire to record them and an
impetus was given to historical writings, which, partaking largely of
romance, led to a renewed interest in such old romances as those of the
Knights of the Round Table of the Arthurian Legend and of Charlemagne’s
Paladins.

A most significant testimony to the character of the civilisation of the
thirteenth century is afforded by the voluminous writings of Vincent of
Beauvais, who held the post of “reader” in the monastery of Royaumont,
on the Oise near Paris, which was founded by Louis IX. His work, written
in Latin and entitled the “Speculum Universale” or “Universal Mirror,”
is an encyclopædia of the knowledge of the Middle Ages; a mirror, in
fact, of the mind of the age of great cathedral building. It is divided
into three parts: the _Speculum_, respectively, _Naturale_,
_Doctrinale_, and _Historiale_; to which a _Speculum Morale_ was added
by another hand, being mainly a compilation from the works of Thomas
Aquinas and other contemporary writers.

The “Speculum Naturale” has been described as a gigantic commentary on
the first chapter of Genesis. It opens with an account of the Trinity,
and of the attributes and orders of angels; proceeds to discuss our own
world, light, colour, the four elements, and Lucifer and his fallen
angels. Then it proceeds to the phenomena of time, the motions of the
heavenly bodies, and the wonders of the sky in thunder, dew, rain, and
so forth. Thence it treats of dry land, seas, and rivers, agricultural
operations, precious stones, plants, fruits, not omitting their use in
medicine. Other chapters discuss birds, fishes; another domesticated and
wild animals, serpents, bees, and insects, the seasons, and the
calendar. Then man is dealt with, his anatomy, his organs, and five
senses, and the phenomena of sleep, dreams, ecstasy, memory, reason, and
so forth.

The “Speculum Doctrinale,” intended as a practical manual of knowledge,
covers the subjects of grammar, logic, rhetoric, including a Latin
vocabulary of some six thousand words; discusses the virtues and gives,
under the head of “economic art,” directions for building, gardening,
and agriculture, while under the head of “mechanical art,” it describes
the work of weavers, smiths, armourers, merchants, hunters, sailors, and
generals. Then, after prescribing rules for the preservation of health,
it proceeds to mathematics, under which it includes music, geometry,
astronomy, astrology, and weights and measures. And here it is
noteworthy that the author displays an acquaintance with the Arabic
numerals.

The “Speculum Historiale” begins with the creation of the world and
continues a sacred and secular narrative down to the conversion of
Constantine to Christianity. The “origines” of Britain are discussed and
the story carried on to Mahomet and Charlemagne, after which comes a
history of the First Crusade, a dissertation on the Tartars, and,
finally, a short narrative of the earlier Crusade of St. Louis. One
chapter is devoted to miracles. The history is largely composed of
quotations from a variety of available sources, sacred and secular,
which include Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic writers--known to the author
through popular Latin versions--Eusebius, Seneca, Cicero, Ovid, Julius
Cæsar, the Early Fathers of the Church, and the Mediæval writers,
Sigebert de Gembloux, a Belgian Chronicler (1030-1112), and William of
Malmesbury (1095-1142). The last named, an English monk of the Abbey of
Malmesbury, wrote “De Gestibus Regum Anglorum,” a history of the English
Kings, and a continuation, entitled “Historia Novella,” bringing the
story down to 1142--works which have formed the basis of subsequent
histories of England.

Mirrored in this compendium is the mind of the Middle Ages, that
realised its dreams and needs in the most imaginative, daring, and
grandly constructive type of building that the world had ever seen--that
of Gothic Architecture. It was a mind at once practical and
transcendental; grappling alike with the actualities of life and with
the mysteries of the universe; hungry for knowledge, uncritical in
appetite, accepting the miraculous as simply as it accepted the wonder
of the world that was opening out to its eager vision with an immensity
of promise. It was the mind of a giant youth, still exulting in the glow
of growth; audacious in courage, of vaulting imagination, with thews
and sinews that achieve prodigiously. In the pursuit of abstract
knowledge the age was prone to expend itself on subtleties, to entangle
itself in sophistries, to lose itself in merest speculation. But when it
grappled with the problems of building, this weakness was transformed
into strength. Then it displayed a faculty of reasoning, apt, direct,
and original, and a readiness in the practical application of
mathematical principles. Of these, however, it was not bent on giving a
scientific demonstration; it was satisfied to employ them in the pursuit
of beauty. And its feeling for beauty, as we shall see later, was of
extraordinary subtlety, expended upon relieving the structure of
formality and imparting to it the variety and elasticity of a living
growth.

Nor was it only in this indirect way that the “Speculum Universale” was
reflected in Gothic architecture. Its chapters were represented in
sculptured illustrations upon the exteriors of the cathedrals,
particularly around the portals, in order that all who came and went
might see and learn. The statues and reliefs at Chartres comprise some
two thousand figures, while Amiens presents another memorable example.

Thus the Gothic Cathedral was not only the House of God; it was also the
House of Man--the civic centre of his religious, social, moral, and
intellectual life.




CHAPTER II

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

I


The term Gothic, with the suggestion of “barbarian,” was applied by men
of the Renaissance to Mediæval Art. Unlike the term Romanesque, it is
not a name that defines. Hence an attempt has been made to substitute
the word, _ogival_, from the French ogive, which is applied to the curve
of the pointed arch--a distinguishing feature of the Gothic style. But
in our own language, at least, Gothic has become so embedded that it is
more convenient to preserve it.

We understand by it that style which was developed out of Romanesque
about 1150 and continued to flourish until the development and spread of
the Renaissance style.

The change which is represented in Gothic is due to several causes: (a)
development of vaulting ribs; (b) the general use of the pointed arch;
(c) reapplication of the Roman principle of concentration of vaulting
strains upon four points; (d) the development of a buttress system to
reinforce the main parts of the strain, and (e) the development of
window openings both as to their size and ornamentation.

=Periods of Gothic.=--The period of Gothic covers the thirteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. The variations which it presented
in these several centuries are often characterised by the changes in the
treatment of the windows. Thus, in France, they have been divided

[Illustration: SCULPTURED DETAIL

FROM DOORWAY OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. P. 269]

[Illustration: SKELETON STRUCTURE

SHOWING THE METHOD OF VAULTING, BY MEANS OF THE POINTED ARCH, AND THE
CONCENTRATION OF THRUSTS AND COUNTER THRUSTS. P. 273]

[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL.

EARLY ENGLISH HASELEY, OXFORDSHIRE

PERPENDICULAR CHRIST CHURCH CLOISTERS, OXFORD

DECORATED SANDHURST, KENT

EARLY HEREFORD CATHEDRAL

EARLY BYLAND ABBEY, YORKSHIRE

DECORATED HAMPTON POYLE, OXFORDSHIRE

DECORATED CHAPTER HOUSE, SOUTHWELL

PERPENDICULAR EWELME, OXON

DECORATED YORK MINSTER]

[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL

TOOTH ORNAMENT CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL

A CUSP PERPENDICULAR PERIOD

DIAPER OF FOUR-LEAFED FLOWER

A CUSP DECORATED PERIOD

EARLY ENGLISH WESTMINSTER ABBEY

A CUSP EARLY ENGLISH

NICHE OF DECORATED PERIOD

FINIAL KING’S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

ORIEL WINDOW]

[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL

FLAMBOYANT. DOORWAY HARFLEUR, NORMANDY

BAY WINDOW COMPTON WINYATE, WARWICKSHIRE

TRANSITION TO PERPENDICULAR HEADCORN, KENT

GATEWAY BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD]

[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL

DECORATED PRESTON, KENT

EARLY DECORATED DORCHESTER, OXFORDSHIRE

DECORATED CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD

FLAMBOYANT S. OUEN, ROUEN

EARLY ENGLISH JESUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE]

[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL

LATER PERPENDICULAR ST. MICHAEL’S, OXFORD

EARLY DECORATED PLATE TRACERY

LATER DECORATED PLATE TRACERY STONE, KENT

EARLY PERPENDICULAR KING’S SUTTON, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE]

[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL

ST. MARY’S CHURCH, DEVIZES, ENGLAND

A. KING POST
B. QUEEN POST
C. BRACE OR STRUTS
D. TIE-BEAMS
E. PRINCIPAL RAFTERS
F. RIDGE PIECES

G. PURLINS
H. COLLAR
J. COMMON RAFTERS
K. POLE-PLATE
L. WALL-PLATE

HALL OF WEARE GIFFORD, DEVONSHIRE, ENGLAND]

[Illustration: By Courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum of Arts

INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR VIEWS OF LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL

SHOWING THE NAVE WIDENING. THE PIERS ARE SET ON A STRAIGHT LINE, AND AT
EACH END OF THE NAVE ARE PERPENDICULAR UP TO THE CLERESTORY. MEANWHILE
THE PIERS IN BETWEEN LEAN OUTWARD WITH INCREASING INCLINATION TOWARD THE
CENTER OF THE NAVE. P. 280]

into: _Primary_, or Thirteenth Century style; _Secondary_, or Fourteenth
Century, often called _Rayonnant_ from the wheel tracery of the rose
windows; _Tertiary_, or Fifteenth Century, called _Flamboyant_ from the
flame-like shapes of the window spaces. On the other hand, in England,
the divisions are: Thirteenth century or _Early English_; Fourteenth
century or _Decorated_, because of the increased elaboration both of
window tracery and rib vaultings; Fifteenth century or _Perpendicular_,
owing to the predominance of vertical members in the tracery of the
windows.

The chief fountain-source of the early Gothic development was the Ile de
France, whence the new ideas were carried, largely by monastic activity
and especially that of the Cistercian order, to England, Germany, Italy,
and Spain. In each of these countries their application was coloured by
local conditions and England in particular produced a series of
buildings, characterised by originality of treatment and grandeur of
design. Nevertheless, it is recognised that French Gothic is
pre-eminent, not only for the logic and skill with which structural
problems were solved but also for sublimity of design, especially in the
interiors, and for the sense of proportion that distinguishes the best
examples. English Gothic, however, is a noble second.

Before enumerating some of the famous examples of French Gothic, we may
summarise the principles and devices more or less common to all Gothic.

Romanesque had substituted equilibrium in place of the inert stability
of the Roman architecture. The thirteenth century architects added to
equilibrium _elasticity_.

They achieved this by a development of the concentration of strains,
which the Romans had invented or applied in the support of
groin-vaulting on four piers, and the Romanesque architects had further
developed by the system of rib-vaulting.

=Pointed Arch.=--The Gothic was structurally evolved out of the rib
vaulting and the pointed arch. In the first place, while the Romanesque
architects used the rib system solely as a convenience of building, the
architects of the Ile de France, adopting it for the same purpose,
became conscious of its further possibilities in the direction both of
construction and of beauty. The rib, no longer a crude arch of masonry,
was constructed of mouldings that made it a feature of beauty, enhanced
by the increased height and the finer sweep of line that the skill and
taste of the French architects achieved.

In this they were helped by the substitution of the pointed for the
semi-circular arch. Not only are the curves of the pointed arch more
beautiful, but they lent themselves also to a more daring method of
building. By means of them the tops of the longitudinal and transverse
arches could be lifted to the level of the diagonal ones, so that the
filling in of the _massives_ or spaces between the ribs, was simplified.
Moreover, the strain of the pointed arch was more directly downward,
which brought the main pressure down upon the piers. Advantage was taken
of this by clustering small columns around the piers, so that each
column carried its own rib, bringing the ribs and columns into a
structural harmony and creating a continuous effect of soaring growth
from the floor up to the summit of the vaulting. And this effect could
be enhanced by the opportunity which the rib construction allowed of
lifting the vaulting higher, and so affording space for ample
clerestories.

=Buttresses.=--Meanwhile the lateral strain or thrust of the pointed arch,
though less than the vertical, had to be sustained, and this was done
by developing the buttress. These were of two kinds: abutting, as the
name implies, either on the nave wall or on the outer walls of the
aisles and chevêt. In both cases they were a development of the masonry
piers with which the Romanesque architects reinforced the walls. When
the buttresses were attached to the outer walls of the aisles and
chevêt, they were connected with the nave wall by arches which sprang
across the intervening space, and in consequence are known as _flying
buttresses_.

Sometimes these buttresses were practically vertical, at other times
they descended in offsets or steps, increasing in width toward the
ground. Further to increase their resistance they were frequently
surmounted by finials or pinnacles. The buttress, in fact, was not only
a structural member of great importance, but one of the characteristic
elements of beauty in the design.

=Concentration of Counter-thrusts.=--By the time these two principles--the
concentration of thrusts and the counter-thrusts--had been thoroughly
worked out, as they were in the thirteenth century, the Gothic
architects had extended to the whole edifice what the later Romanesque
architects had done for the vaulting. As the latter had been constructed
on a framework of ribs, so now the essential structure of the whole
edifice became a frame or skeleton, self-supporting, with its strains
distributed throughout, as in the muscular system of the human body, and
in the “steel cage” construction of modern buildings.

This enabled the Gothic architects to erect loftier and larger buildings
and at the same time lighter in appearance, compared with which the
Romanesque seem squat and heavy. The French showed a preference for
lofty interiors; the English for length of vista, the proportionate
loss of height being offset on the exterior by the extra height of the
towers and spires.

Another result of the framework system of structure was that the
intervening wall-spaces, relieved of strain, could be fully utilised for
openings, especially for windows, so important in the duller climate of
the north. The clerestory became an important feature of the Gothic
cathedral; so also the _triforium_, or gallery round the nave, which,
pierced in the thickness of the wall, separated the clerestory and
arcade arches. Further, the windows in all the outer walls took on a new
importance.

=Windows.=--The windows, in fact, became another of the distinguishing
characteristics of Gothic architecture and the variety in their
treatment marks the several centuries of its development. At first there
was the plain _lancet_ (spear-headed) window, the top of which was
composed of two segments of a circle meeting at one point. The segments
were inscribed about a triangle, which was either equilateral or
isosceles. In the case of the equilateral triangle, whose base was equal
to the sides, the distance of the point of the arch from the spring of
the curves was equal to the width of the window. On the other hand, in
the case of the isosceles triangle, if the base were longer than the
sides, the point of the arch dropped lower, while, if the base were
shorter, the arch was higher than its width--the true lancet.

Such plain openings, or _lights_, were used either singly or in pairs;
and in time two were included within one lancet opening, the space above
the heads of the lights being filled with a round or _quatrefoil_ light.
In this case the upper part or _tracery_ had the appearance of having
been cut out of one slab or plate of stone, and the pattern in
consequence was called _plate-tracery_. Later, when the number of
lights in a window was increased, the tracery above them was elaborated
into various geometric designs, technically known as _bar-tracery_.
Still later, when the architects had completely solved all the
structural problems and the only advance could be made in further
elaboration of details, the geometric forms were abandoned for more
flowing designs, which are called in French Gothic _Flamboyant_; in
English, _Decorated_.

It is to be noted that the change in the treatment of the windows was
reflected in the carved ornamental details of other parts of the
edifice; especially in the canopies over niches and the embellishment of
gables, doors, choir-screens, wall-panelling, finials, and spires. These
in the Flamboyant period (fifteenth century) reached a degree of
lace-like elaborateness, that, while beautiful in itself, tends to
obscure the actual structural elements; thereby marking the decadence of
the Gothic style.

This phase was represented in English Gothic by a gradual stiffening of
the tracery into rigid forms and barren repetitions. Because of the
insistence on rectangular motives it is known as _Perpendicular_.

The windows were decorated with stained glass, the most beautiful
remains of which are to be found in the Cathedral of Chartres. They show
a prevalence of blue and violet tones and are composed of small pieces
of glass, joined by leading. This French method was also imitated in
England, as in the early windows of Canterbury; but by degrees an
English style was adopted, in which the pieces of glass were much
larger, and the subject consisted of large figures beneath traceried
canopies, in imitation of the carved work of the sculptors.

In the decoration of =columns= the French long preserved the Corinthian
type, but in place of the acanthus, used foliage forms studied directly
from nature. The forms at first were freely conventionalised; but by
degrees, as the skill of the carver increased, became more and more
naturalistic and thereby less finely decorative. The corresponding
progress in England is from conventionalised nature to frankly
naturalistic imitation and thence to a somewhat dry and barren
conventionalism.

=Sculpture.=--A conspicuous feature of Gothic decoration is the figure
sculpture. It was used with profusion, especially in France, where the
monumental treatment of the west fronts gave freest scope for the
multiplication of niches, filled with statues. The deeply recessed
portals, for example, were flanked with tiers of figures, which were
also prolonged into the recessed planes of the arched top, while the
lunette, or half-moon space between the arch and the horizontal top of
the door, was filled with reliefs of the Saviour or Madonna. Meanwhile,
figures beneath canopies stretched in a band across the upper part of
the façade, or stood singly in niches that penetrated the surface of
buttresses; until, in time, every vantage point, whether within or
without the edifice, was enriched with statues. The noblest period of
this efflorescence was the thirteenth century, when the French
“imagers,” particularly, attained a remarkable balance between truth to
nature and decorative convention. The statues seem to have grown into
human shape out of the very material of the edifice and retain its
character. With increasing cleverness, this magnificent
conventionalisation passed into naturalistic imitation and the statues
seem to be something added for elaboration’s sake.

=Contrast to Classic.=--Gothic architecture, though it developed through
Romanesque and Early Christian out of Roman, presents an almost complete
contrast to Classic style. It is an expression of many individualities
rather than of conformity. Plans are more or less uniform; generally
basilican in France, cruciform in England. But the superstructure, while
embodying certain common features, exhibits the freedom of individual
treatment, as each city or monastery vied with others in a mighty effort
to excel.

A cathedral embodies such miracles of audacity and aspiration, that one
scarcely looks in it for that complete harmony of proportion which
distinguishes a Classic temple. The latter was the product of men who
had ceased to believe in the deities they professed to honour and had
made a religion, according as they were Hellenes or Romans, of abstract
perfection or of systematised order.

Gothic cathedrals, on the other hand, were the material and spiritual
expression of intense religious devotion and of civic pride and freedom.
They were the memorials, not of old nations in the decline of their
political and social ideals, but of young races, struggling toward
nationalism and fired with the splendour of dawning aspirations. No
level line of entablature, resting upon columns ever so stately, could
embody such elevated enthusiasm. It must mount into the sky, with
soaring lines and vaulting arches, spires and pinnacles, ever straining
upward; giving voice to the grandeur of concerted uplift. Some of the
cathedrals grew up from ground to ridge roof and towers under the
guiding mind of one architect; more represent the continuous growth of
the community; but in either case embody in their variety and organised
complexity the Soul of the Crowd.

For one must not think of them only as temples of worship. They embraced
also the functions now distributed in schools and libraries. They were
the shrines of the culture of their day, in which the truths of
religion, legends of saints, and the mysteries of belief were unfolded
in sculpture, paintings, and stained glass.


=Asymmetries or Refinements.=--In order to ensure their monopoly the gilds
of masons of the Middle Ages jealously preserved the secrets of their
art. Accordingly, there are no written treatises of the period.
Moreover, with the advent of the Renaissance the Gothic was held in
contempt and the indifference to it continued until about the middle of
the nineteenth century. Then, in the renewed enthusiasm for Mediæval
architecture, buildings were studied, measurements taken, and plans of
the old churches and cathedrals were drafted. But the surveyors, having
measured the distance between one pair of piers on opposite sides of the
nave and between two piers on one side, plotted the plan as if these
measurements were uniform throughout the whole nave. In this and in
other matters they assumed that the design was symmetrical. The
contrary, however, in the case of many churches and cathedrals, has been
proved by the recent researches of Professor William H. Goodyear, whose
work in connection with Hellenic, Byzantine, and Romanesque refinements
or asymmetries has been noted already.

His researches, which have covered most of the Gothic edifices of Italy,
many of the most important churches and cathedrals in France, and some
in England, prove that the “mysteries” of the Mediæval gilds included
asymmetrical refinements. The most important deviations from mechanical
formality are as follows:

1. _Widening of the Nave_ in a vertical direction. Where this occurs,
each side of the nave leans outward; three methods being employed,
though not more than one appears in a given church. In one case, there
is a continuous and absolutely straight outward inclination from floor
to vaulting. In another, the outward inclinations recede from floor to
vaulting in delicate vertical curves. In the third, the piers are
perpendicular up to the arcade capitals, where the inclination begins
and is continued in straight lines through the triforium and
clerestories. In this last case, the angle, formed by the two lines,
produces in the large scale of the building the effect of a curve.

The widening in all cases tends to offset the perspective illusion of
vertical lines converging toward the vaulting; but also appears to have
been preferred for other aesthetic reasons.

Instances of continuous widening in straight lines are found in the
=Cathedral= and =Church of St. Ouen=, in =Rouen=. Continuous widening combined
with vertical curvature occurs at =Canterbury=; while the perpendicular
pier, combined with inclined vaulting-shafts, triforium and clerestories
is found in =Amiens= and =Rheims=.

2. _Horizontal Curvature in Plan._ Where this occurs, one of five
methods is adopted.

In the first, the piers are set on parallel curves, which consequently
are convex to the nave on one side and concave to the nave on the other.
In the second, both curves are concave to the nave, which thus widens
slightly from both ends toward the centre. In the third, both curves are
convex to the centre. In the fourth, the curves are parallel, but
reverse their direction at or near the choir, in the form of an
attenuated S, or “Hogarth’s line of beauty.” In all the above instances
the curves start at the bases of the piers and continue in the
triforium, clerestory and roof parapets; in certain cases being also
repeated in the outer aisle walls.

The fifth system is connected with a special phase of the Widening. For,
in this case, the piers are set on a straight line and with the
triforium and clerestory are perpendicular from floor to ceiling. That
is to say, at the west end and the crossing; but, in between, from both
ends, the piers gradually lean outward with an increasing inclination
toward the centre of the nave. Thus result curves, concave to the
interior, which, however, since the bases of the piers are on straight
lines, are found only in the triforium, clerestory and parapet walls.
=Lichfield Cathedral= presents an example; =Rheims= another, but with a
difference. For while the widening in Lichfield begins at the pavement,
that of Rheims starts at the arcade capitals.

3. _So-called Perspective illusions._ These were intended to emphasise
the effect of the choir and generally to increase the suggestion of size
and distance. This was accomplished in three ways.

a. By making the nave arcade and the outside walls converge toward the
choir.

b. By lowering the height of the arches as they approach the choir.

c. By reducing the width of the arches as they approach the choir.

The result of all these asymmetries is to create an impression of
elasticity in place of rigidity; an impression, in fact, of life; of the
flexible, varied movement of organic growth.

[Illustration:

PLAN OF AMIENS                              PLAN OF NOTRE DAME
The Perfect Plan of French Gothic

BOTH PLANS ARE BASILICAN AND HAVE DOUBLE AISLES AND CHEVÊTS. BUT IN
AMIENS NOTE THE SERIES OF APSES AND THEIR COMPLICATED VAULTING. THE NAVE
VAULTING OF NOTRE DAME HAS SIX DIVISIONS IN EACH DOUBLE BAY; THAT OF
AMIENS IS TREATED IN A SINGLE BAY WITH FOUR DIVISIONS BY MEANS OF GROIN
RIBS AND POINTED ARCHES. P. 281]

[Illustration: NOTRE DAME, PARIS

EARLY TYPE]

[Illustration: AMIENS CATHEDRAL

TRANSITION TO RAYONNANT]

[Illustration: RHEIMS CATHEDRAL

UPPER PART MARKS TRANSITION TO FLAMBOYANT]

[Illustration: ROUEN CATHEDRAL

FLAMBOYANT]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF NOTRE DAME

NOTE THE CLASSIC CAPITALS. P. 281, ET SEQ.]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL

NOTE THE INCREASED SENSE OF ELASTICITY, GRACE AND SOARING. P. 281, ET
SEQ.]

[Illustration: HOTEL DE BOURGTHEROULDE, ROUEN

LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. NOTE HEXAGONAL TOWER]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL]

[Illustration: HOUSE OF JACQUES CŒUR

NOW THE PALAIS DE JUSTICE, BOURGES. P. 286]

[Illustration: SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS

OWING TO THE SIZE OF THE WINDOWS, THE WALL SPACES ARE VIRTUALLY PIERS,
SUPPORTING THE VAULTING. P. 285]




CHAPTER III

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE


The Early French Gothic dates from about 1150 to 1275. It is the period
in which most of the great cathedrals were created and in most instances
with money contributed by the laity. Roughly speaking it begins with
=Notre Dame=, in =Paris=, and ends with the =Cathedral of Amiens=.

=Notre Dame, Paris, and Amiens.=--The plan of Amiens is regarded as the
typical example of French cathedrals. Comparing it with that of Notre
Dame one observes that, while both are of the basilican type, the latter
is distinguished by having double side aisles enclosing the entire nave,
choir, and chevêt. The only other example of this is the =Cathedral of
Bourges=. In Notre Dame the transepts do not project beyond the aisles.
Further, in the vaulting of the nave the system is still one of square
bays, embracing two aisle bays, having six divisions in the vaulting. In
Amiens, however, the groin rib and pointed arch have taken the place of
the sexpartite plan and the bays are oblong. The elasticity of this
later system simplified the vaulting of the curved aisle of the chevêt,
whereas in Notre Dame the awkwardness of the rhomboidal spaces was
ingeniously evaded by dividing each into nearly equal triangles, which
could easily be vaulted. Note in both plans the disposition of the
buttresses in the outer walls. It is interesting to know that the area
of Notre Dame is about equal to that of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak,
while that of Amiens is smaller, but the height of its nave is 140 feet
as compared with 80 at Karnak.

=West Fronts.=--In all French cathedrals a special feature of the exterior
is the West Front, and a comparison of that of Notre Dame may well be
made with the façade of Amiens, which marks the transition to the second
style, the _Rayonnant_, and with that of Rheims, the upper part of which
marks the transition to the third style, _Flamboyant_. The design of all
three is constructively the same--a development of the Romanesque twin
towers, connected by an arcade, while a rose or wheel window is placed
above the central recessed door. The spires, which were intended to
crown the towers, were never built. How they would have affected the
appearance may be gathered from a comparison of the West Front of
=Cologne Cathedral=--a cathedral that is “completely French in plan,
uniting in one design the leading characteristics of the most notable
French Churches.” (Hamlin.)

It is in the West Front of =Notre Dame= that the structural purport of the
design is most definitely pronounced. When we study the vertical
elements of the design, we note the division of the façade into three
vertical masses corresponding with the interior divisions of nave and
double aisles. The division is made by the buttresses which sustain the
longitudinal strain of the interior arcades and the outer walls and
insure the stability of the towers. And this stability is also
associated with a suggestion of upward growth, due to the three setbacks
in the profile of the buttresses; which setbacks, it is to be noted,
correspond to the three main horizontal divisions of the façade.

The lowest is distinguished by massive simplicity; an effect of solid
masonry, the thickness of which is emphasised by the deeply recessed
door arches, while its simplicity is finely contrasted with the ordered
distribution of the sculptured enrichments. Greater diversity
characterises the second horizontal division. The openings present a
varied patterning of light and shade, while the arcading lends a
lightness of effect, echoing also the ordered repetition of the band of
figures below, and at the same time involving variety according as the
arcade is seen against the sky or is felt as a breastwork of the towers.
Lastly, there is a reassertion of the vertical direction in the masses
and coupled openings of the towers.

And if the contrast of these several divisions delights us, what is to
be said of the balance that correlates these vertical and horizontal
features, these various values of form, of plain and ornamental work, of
light and shade, into a harmonious unity? It is the product of
structural logic and grandeur of feeling; and compared with the reserve
of its nobility the west front of Amiens, even the still finer one of
Rheims, may seem less impressive. In these, it will be noted, the depth
of the door recesses is increased by a pronounced offset in the lower
story of the buttress, into which the sculptured jambs of the doorways
merge, while the projection thus contrived is crowned with a canopy in
the nature of a porch. How does the division at Amiens of the second
story into two compare with the simple unity of the one in Notre Dame?
Or how does the latter’s arcade compare with the corresponding band at
Rheims of figures in arcaded niches, surmounted by ornate canopies?

The answer will depend on one’s individual temperament; perhaps also on
one’s mood. It may seem to some that in Notre Dame the variety in unity
is worked out with more consciousness of the principles to be applied,
whereas in the other two façades there is a suggestion of freer and more
individual treatment.

So much for the exteriors of these cathedrals. It is, however, when we
compare the interior of Notre Dame with that of Amiens, that we see in
what direction French Gothic was travelling. In the case of Amiens, it
is as if some power had pulled the older form upward into a slenderer,
more elastic fabric; less massive, possibly less stately, but also less
inert, infinitely alive in its inspiring growth, with grace of movement
as well as dignity. Notre Dame is still, as it were, anchored to the
comparative ponderousness of the Romanesque style. The round columns
with capitals of the Corinthian type still follow the model, though not
the proportions, of the Roman. Their effect of dumpiness is further
increased by the projecting half-round pilaster column that supports the
main member of the vaulting shaft. On the other hand, the clustered
piers at Amiens are slender, loftier in proportion to width; while a
simple logic of structural purpose is apparent in the three-quarter
attached shafts which carry the arches and aisle-vaults, and the main
shaft of the nave vaulting rises uninterruptedly from the ground. The
pier, in fact, operates as an abutting support to the members, which
actually sustain the arch and vaulting, and their relation to the pier
is asserted by the continuous _abacus_ which binds all lightly but
firmly together. A corresponding logical simplicity distinguishes the
four-part nave vaulting at Amiens, where the pressure is concentrated
equally on all the columns in succession without the need of
intermediate ones to carry the added transverse rib.

Other great examples of the thirteenth century are the cathedrals of
=Laon=, =Chartres=, =Rouen=, =Beauvais=, =Auxerre=, =Bourges=, and =Le Mans=--the
last especially celebrated for its superb chevêt and flying
buttresses--and the =Collegiate Church= of =S. Quentin=.

=Sainte Chapelle.=--The problem of concentration of strains was most
triumphantly solved in the _Sainte Chapelle_ (1242-1247) or Royal
Chapel, in Paris, in which the Gothic system of construction may be said
to have reached complete maturity. Here the vaulting is carried on
buttress-piers, and the spaces between the latter are entirely filled
with windows, 15 feet wide and 50 high. The structure below the vaulting
is literally a framework, a lantern for the display of the stained
glass; “a great translucent tabernacle merely ribbed and braced with
stone.”

The influence of Sainte Chapelle affected French construction for half a
century and was developed to its furthest possible point in =S. Urban= at
=Troyes=, begun in 1260.

=Second Period.=--This cathedral represents the transition into the second
period of French Gothic, which may be roughly placed at 1275 to 1375.
The principles of construction could be carried no further and the style
began to turn in on itself, the designers expending their invention on
elaboration of ornament. This period is called in France the
_Rayonnant_, from the raylike traceries that were introduced into the
rose-windows and from the prevalence of circular forms in windows
generally. The façade of =Amiens= is one of the best examples of the
style.

=Third Period.=--By degrees the Rayonnant style passed into the so-called
_Flamboyant_, which lasted until the introduction of the Renaissance
style early in the sixteenth century. In it the principles of design
were gradually sacrificed to the multiplication of decorative details.
Constructive imagination disappeared in a maze of skilful elaboration.
The transition from Rayonnant to Flamboyant is shown in the upper part
of the west front of =Rheims=. Some of the finest memorials of this
period’s maturity are to be found in =Rouen=: namely the nave and central
tower of the =Church of S. Ouen=; the west portals of =S. Maclou= and the
façade of the =Cathedral=, the last being a late example in which the very
material of the stone seems to have dissolved into lace. Other instances
are the church of =S. Jacques= at =Dieppe=, =S. Wulfrand= at =Abbeville= and the
façade of the =Cathedral= of =Tours=.

=Secular Gothic.=--Gothic architecture was not confined to cathedrals and
churches. Monasteries, hospitals, civic buildings, houses, and castles
were erected in profusion, especially during the fifteenth century,
though few survive to the present day. But a strikingly picturesque
monument is the monastery of =Mont-St.-Michel=, of thirteenth century
design, which clusters around the base of the Abbey Church, which was
built in the eleventh century and remodelled in the sixteenth. Among the
hospitals is that of =Chartres=. Rouen possesses a fifteenth century
example of civic architecture in the =Palais de Justice=. The home of a
great merchant prince of the same century is preserved in the =House of
Jacques Cœur= at =Bourges=, while the east wing of the =Château de Blois=
represents military architecture at the commencement of the sixteenth
century.

[Illustration: SALISBURY CATHEDRAL

NOTE THE FOUR-PART RIB-VAULTING OF THE NAVE, AND THE LIERNES IN THE
VAULT AT THE CROSSING. P. 294]

[Illustration: NAVE OF NORWICH CATHEDRAL

ROMANESQUE UP TO THE VAULTING: THE LATTER AN EXAMPLE OF FAN-VAULTING. P.
295]

[Illustration: YORK MINSTER. WEST FAÇADE

THE FINEST IN ENGLAND. LOWER PART EARLY DECORATED; UPPER LATE DECORATED;
TOWERS, PERPENDICULAR. P. 298]

[Illustration: LINCOLN CATHEDRAL

NOTE SCREEN EFFECT OF WEST FAÇADE. WESTERN TOWERS ARE ROMANESQUE UP TO
RIDGE OF ROOF; PERPENDICULAR ABOVE. P. 298]

[Illustration: WEST FAÇADE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL

P. 298]

[Illustration: WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL

BEAUTIFULLY SITUATED IN ITS CLOSE. P. 288]

[Illustration: HENRY VII’S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER

EXAMPLE OF STELLAR AND PENDANT VAULTING. PP. 294, 295]

[Illustration: TIMBER ROOF, WESTMINSTER HALL

PP. 296, 297]




CHAPTER IV

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND WALES


The three periods of the Gothic style in Great Britain, corresponding
broadly to the Primary, Rayonnant, and Flamboyant, of France are the
Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular.

While the two later phases are distinguished, as in France, by the
character of the decorative details, they also involved in England a
certain development of constructive principles, particularly in the
matter of vaulting, and, as a result of this, in the shape of arched
openings.

=Periods.=--The Early English style, also known as Lancet, First Pointed,
Early Plantagenet, or Thirteenth Century, lasted approximately from 1189
to 1272, covering the reigns of Richard I, John, Henry III, and Edward
I.

The Decorated, also known as Geometrical or Curvilinear, Middle Pointed,
Later Plantagenet, or Fourteenth Century, comprises the reigns of Edward
II, Edward III, 1307-1377.

The Perpendicular, also called Rectangular, Late Pointed, or Fifteenth
Century, extends from 1377 to 1558, including the reigns of Richard III,
Henry VII, and Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary. It continued, that is to
say, through the period of the Reformation and Dissolution of
Monasteries, until it gradually became mixed with elements borrowed from
the Renaissance style. The style which prevailed from Henry VII to Mary
is sometimes specially designated Tudor.

Unlike the French cathedrals, which were mostly erected for the secular,
that is to say non-monastic, clergy with funds provided by the laity,
the English were frequently attached to a Benedictine or Augustine
monastery. In consequence they retain some of the features of a monastic
establishment, especially the cloisters and chapter-house, or room for
the transaction of business by the bishop’s or abbot’s chapter
(council).

According to the circumstances of their founding, the English cathedrals
are divided into three classes.

=Three Classes of Cathedrals.=--I. Thirteen cathedrals of the Old
Foundation, which being served by secular canons, underwent no change of
control at the Reformation. Though not attached to monastic buildings
they have chapter-houses and in some cases cloisters. They include: in
England, =Chichester=, =Exeter=, =Hereford=, =Lichfield=, =Lincoln=, =S. Paul=,
=London=, =Salisbury=, =Wells=, =York=; and, in Wales, =Bangor=, =Llandaff=, =St.
Asaph’s=, and =St. David’s=.

II. Cathedrals of monastic or New Foundation; so called because they
were originally attached to monasteries and at the dissolution of the
latter by Henry VIII were re-established under chapters of dean and
canons. They include seven, originally attached to Benedictine
Houses--=Canterbury=, =Durham=, =Ely=, =Norwich=, =Rochester=, =Winchester=,
=Worcester=, and one Augustine foundation--=Carlisle=. Further, they
comprise the following churches, converted into cathedrals by Henry
VIII--(Benedictine): =Chester=, =Gloucester=, =Peterborough=; (Augustine):
=Bristol= and =Oxford=.

III. Cathedrals of Modern Foundation, converted Churches, =Birmingham=,
=Liverpool=, =Manchester=, =Newcastle=, =Ripon=, =St. Albans=, =Southwark=,
=Southwell=, =Truro=, =Wakefield=.


=Comparison with French.=--The study of English cathedrals is more
complicated than that of French, owing to the long period over which
their construction extended. Additions were made as funds permitted and
to meet the growing needs of the community, or restorations replaced
earlier buildings that had collapsed, as some did, or had been destroyed
by fire. Accordingly, each example is more or less an epitome of all the
phases of the Gothic style; often combined with Norman (Romanesque) and
also with fragments of Anglo-Saxon architecture. They are in a very full
sense an expression of the nation’s growth.

English cathedrals differ from the French in being lower, longer, and
narrower. The extreme length of the plan is in France seldom more than
four times the width, whereas in England it sometimes reaches six times.
The square east end is characteristic; the transepts project further;
these are seldom double aisled and have few side chapels; the plan is
inclined to cruciform, and a prominent feature is a central tower over
the crossing, sometimes surmounted by a spire. The choir is
proportionately longer and occasionally projects into the crossing or
even a little way into the nave. At the east end of it is the
_presbytery_ or sanctuary; beyond which is a _retrochoir_, containing an
ambulatory or procession passage, one or more chapels to saints and a
_Lady Chapel_, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. The arcading is more
closely spaced than in French Cathedrals and generally the relation of
the parts is less large in character. The triforium in many cases is
highly elaborated; in some it is noticeably reduced and occasionally
omitted.

The doorways are often placed on the north and south sides and provided
with porches. The windows, in the Early English Period, are either of
simple lancet form, used singly or grouped in pairs or threes, united
over the top by tracery; or the lights terminate at the top in trefoils
or cinquefoils, a heading rare in France known as _cusps_. Plate tracery
is comparatively rare in England, and the tracery of the Decorated
Period is of a geometric character. Gradually the tracery becomes more
flowing, including lines of double curvature, which somewhat resembles
the French Flamboyant. Finally in the Perpendicular Period, the pointed
arch of the window becomes flattened until it reaches the slight curve
of the so-called four-centre arch. The window is divided up into many
lights (nine in =King’s College Chapel=, =Cambridge=) by vertical mullions,
which in the larger examples are reinforced by horizontal transoms, thus
producing parallel rows of cusped lights, surmounted in the heading by
small replicas of the latter in several tiers--an arrangement somewhat
rigid and monotonous.

The mouldings are generally richer and more varied than in French
cathedrals, and, owing to their being nearer to the eye, are wrought to
a greater refinement of finish.

=Ornament.=--The characteristic ornament of the Early period is the
“dog-tooth” used profusely in hollow mouldings. The foliage is
conventionalised, crisply carved in bold curving and curling masses,
known as “stiff-leaf foliage,” which in the case of capitals sometimes
projects beyond the abacus. The flat surfaces of the walls are often
diapered.

In the Decorated Period the characteristic ornament of hollow mouldings
is the “ball-flower”; but the “four-leaf flower” is frequently used. By
degrees other motives of ornament were drawn from ivy, oak, and vine
leaves; and the treatment grew more and more naturalistic.

In the Tudor period the special ornament is the Tudor rose, two
concentric layers of five petals, symbolising the union of the Houses of
York and Lancaster. Other frequent motives are the portcullis and, in
reference to the continued claim of the English kings to the throne of
France, the fleur-de-lys. The traceries of the windows were repeated in
the panelling of the walls and in the elaborate choir and chancel
screens, which were a special feature of the period.


=Stained Glass.=--Stained glass played a very important part in the
embellishment of cathedrals and churches. York Minster presents an
opportunity of studying the progress of the art through some four
centuries, as it was practised, not only in England, but throughout
Europe.

The early examples show the influence of the Byzantine enamellers. The
windows are filled with jewel-like patterns composed of small pieces of
glass, enclosed with lead-lines, like the “cloisons” in cloisonné
enamels. Gradually the figure subject becomes more pronounced; at first
in comparatively small medallions set in a frame of tracery, then
increasing in size until they become the leading motive. They are
surmounted by canopies, enriched with ornament, as in the sculptured
work of the period, and the character of the ornament reflects that of
the carving.

It is interesting to note that until the sixteenth century no use was
made of painted glass. The material was what is known as “pot-metal”;
that is to say, glass dyed with colour while in a condition of flux. The
quality of these pieces of glass was translucent, permitting the passage
of light, though not transparent. However, the deep red of ruby was so
dense that the practice was adopted of fusing a layer of ruby on a layer
of colourless glass and then of grinding away portions of the ruby, so
as to brighten the mass by the contrast of white. In time this method of
“flashing,” as it was called, was extended to other colours. Further,
about the beginning of the fourteenth century it was discovered that a
solution of silver applied to glass would under the action of the firing
impart to it a “yellow stain.” Thus it was possible to infuse a yellow
into the whole or parts of the colourless glass, and to introduce yellow
into the “flashed” parts of blue and ruby, while the stain applied to
greyish blue produced delicate tones of green.

Another process was developed; namely, the use of enamel paint. A
pigment composed of powdered coloured glass, mixed with some such binder
as glue, was applied with a brush, after which the glass was subjected
to a comparatively low degree of heat, sufficient to flux the pigment
and fuse it into the body of the material. At first the only colour
employed was brown, which being opaque in the firing was used for the
line of the drawing. It was even used for shading, the paint being
spread in gradations of thickness and, when dry, scraped off in parts
or reduced to a stipple of tiny dots, by the action of a stiff brush.
This process was also applied upon the yellow stain and comparatively
colourless glass (_grisaille_) to produce diapers of pattern and other
ornament.

Finally, about the beginning of the sixteenth century, enamel paints of
other colours were employed, and painting _upon_ glass marks the last
stage in the European technique of window glass. While the colours,
unlike the opaque brown, were translucent, they lacked the brilliance
and purity as well as the richness and depth of pot metal. But by this
time, as in other kinds of decoration, the designers were absorbed with
details. A favourite task enforced upon them was the insertion of
heraldic insignia in the windows, and brushwork was the only method that
could reproduce the complicated devices of “quartering” the coats of
arms. Window decoration, in fact, had ceased to be an art of glass work
and become confused with the art of painting. The end of glass
decoration was completed when the window was filled with rectangular
panes of white glass, on which the painter depicted figures of saints or
symbolical nymphs, as Sir Joshua Reynolds, for example, did in the
windows of the ante-chapel of =New College=, =Oxford=. This masterpiece of
the trivial is popular, but represents a debased taste, founded upon a
complete ignorance of the glass-technique, for Sir Joshua called in to
his assistance a china painter!

=Vaulting.=--The treatment of the roofing displays more variety in English
Gothic than in French. Wooden ceilings, which we will return to
presently, often replaced the vaulting and the latter also became
distinguished by elements that were only sparingly, if at all, employed
in France. The French, as we have noted, constructed the diagonal as
well as the longitudinal and transverse ribs with pointed profiles, so
that their vaults were domical. The English, on the contrary, frequently
used the half-circle for the diagonal ribs. Thus the vaults have level
tops or _ridges_, the latter being marked by ridge ribs.

=Tiercerons.=--In England, during the thirteenth century, as in France,
the plain four-part ribbed vault was used, as in the naves of =Salisbury=
and =Gloucester=, and the aisles of =Peterborough=. Toward the end of the
century, however, came in the use of subordinate ribs, called
_tiercerons_. These were introduced between the transverse and diagonal
ribs, as may be seen in the nave vaulting of =Westminster Abbey=. Their
purpose was to decrease the pressure on the main ribs, and for their own
further security a _ridge_ rib was employed for them to abut on at the
top.

=Liernes.=--During the Decorated Period of the fourteenth century a new
set of ribs were introduced, which were known as _Liernes_--holding or
binding ribs. The name was applied to any rib, other than the ridge rib,
that did not spring from an abacus. They were ornamental rather than
constructional and were freely employed to form a network of geometric
pattern over the vaulting. Meanwhile, although they increase the
apparent complexity of the vaulting, the actual constructive plan of the
latter is not affected and may be simply four part. Such multiplication
of ribs reduced the size of the intervening spaces or panels, whence
this kind of vaulting is sometimes called _rib and panel_. It is also
named _stellar_ vaulting from the star-shaped patterns produced by the
ribs. Examples are to be found in the choirs of =Gloucester=, =Wells=, =Ely=,
the nave of =Tewkesbury Abbey=, and the vaulting of =Winchester Cathedral=,
as rebuilt by William of Wykeham (1390).

=Fan Vaulting.=--The development of the Perpendicular Period or Fifteenth
Century is that of _Fan Vaulting_, examples of which occur in =Henry
VII’s Chapel=, =Westminster=; =Divinity Schools=, =Oxford=; =King’s College
Chapel=, =Cambridge=; the =retro-choir=, =Peterborough=; =Gloucester Cathedral=,
and =St. George’s Chapel=, =Windsor=. In this type of vaulting the ribs are
all of equal curvature, and separated from one another by equal angles,
terminating at the top in a circular ridge, which leaves a series of
flat lozenge-shaped spaces.

=Pendant Vaulting.=--A further development, often used in connection with
“Fan Vaulting,” as in Oxford Cathedral and Henry VII’s Chapel, is the
device known as _Pendant_ vaulting. It was at first adopted to sustain
the flat spaces of the vaulting and consisted of a stone support
suspended from an arch concealed above the vaulting. It was, in effect,
a prolonged keystone, and its lowest part formed a base from which to
build up. For by this time the old method of constructing ribs and
laying panels upon them had been abandoned, and the vaulting was
constructed of parts, interlocking like a Chinese puzzle.

A beautiful feature of English vaulting occurs in the polygonal Chapter
Houses, in which the ribs radiate from a central column to the sides and
angles of the polygon. “If these vaults are less majestic than domes of
the same diameter, they are far more decorative and picturesque, while
the Chapter Houses themselves were the most striking and original
products of English Gothic. Every feature was designed with strict
regard for the structural system determined by the admirable vaulting
and the Sainte Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of
Gothic principles.” (Hamlin.) Among the finest examples are those of
=Westminster=, =Wells=, =York=, =Lincoln=, and =Salisbury=.

=Open Wood Roofs.=--The Saxon use of timber construction survived as a
tradition and was developed by the Gothic builders, in the interior
roofs that sheathed the vaulting and with specially fine effect in the
ceiling-roofs of churches and halls. The simplest principle of it is the
so-called _tie-beam_ roof. In this, a succession of rafters slope up to
each side of a ridge beam and are prevented from spreading by beams that
tie them together at the foot. If the pitch of the roof were high, the
construction would be strengthened by a post supported on the centre of
the tie-beam, which is called a _King-post_. Instead of or in addition
to this, two posts might be erected between the centre and the ends of
the beams, known as _Queen-posts_. Each complete section of this
arrangement is called a _truss_. It might be further stiffened by
_struts_, that is to say cross pieces which, instead of tying the parts,
keep them from being drawn together.

The next principle is the _trussed-rafter_ or _single-framed_ roof.
Since the transverse beam might interfere with the vaulting, it was
replaced by one or more cross-beams near the upper angle of the roof
known as _collars_. These might be further stiffened by braces, fixed
diagonally from the under side of the beam to the rafter. Further, short
struts or upright posts might be added near the lower angles, connecting
the rafters with short, horizontal pieces, attached to the ends of the
rafters and resting on the wall. These were called _sole-pieces_ and
represent what would be left if the intermediate part of the tie-beam
were sawn away. Sometimes an arched profile was secured by curving
braces fixed to the rafters and collars. Or the collars were omitted and
the curved braces were carried up to the ridge-beam, forming the variety
of roof styled _arch-braced_. Frequently this style of roof was sheathed
on its under side with boards decorated with ribs and bosses.

The further development was the _hammer-beam_ roof, which came into
general use in the fifteenth century. The hammer-beam resulted from the
lengthening and thickening of the sole-piece and was supported by a
curved brace, connecting its under side with a vertical piece, attached
to the wall and hence called _the wallpiece_. The combination of this
construction with struts, collars, and curved braces produced the
magnificent effects to be seen in the roofs, for example, of =Westminster
Hall= and the =Hall= of the =Middle Temple=.

=Exteriors.=--Unlike the French cathedral, which is apt to be crowded upon
by other buildings, the English usually stands amid smooth lawns and
shade trees--a secluded spot known as the “close,” around which are the
houses and gardens of the dean and canons. Cloisters also frequently add
to the spirit of quiet. Durham is superbly set upon a steep bluff above
the River Wear. In harmony with the charm of the setting a noble
picturesqueness characterises the English cathedral. Flying buttresses,
it is true, are little in evidence, owing to the comparative lowness of
the structure and to the fact that they are often concealed in the
aisles, but the façades, because of length of transepts and additions
of Retrochoir, Lady Chapel, Chapter House, Cloisters, Chantries, and so
forth, are more irregular than in the French. There is greater variety
of points of view; frequent surprise of vistas, while from near and far
the great central towers are features of impressiveness and grandeur,
and the occasional spires, the most beautiful of which is =Salisbury’s=,
are singularly sublime.

On the other hand, the west fronts have not the special splendour of the
French cathedrals. Yet there are a few exceptions. That of =York Minster=,
for example, with its immense window and twin towers, is in respect of
size, decorativeness, and proportion a magnificent façade. Those, again,
of =Lichfield= and =Wells= are grand and beautiful, while the west fronts of
=Lincoln= and =Peterborough= are strikingly imposing and picturesque.

Both the latter are virtually screens pierced with deeply recessed
openings that include windows above doors. The designs are arresting and
boldly picturesque, but arbitrary in invention. For the façades, being
applied to the building and not growing out of its internal purpose,
lack the dignity of logical arrangement and, moreover, are deficient in
proportion of parts and harmonious unity.

=Interiors.=--Grand picturesqueness, also, rather than ordered grandeur,
characterises the English interiors. Lower and narrower than the French,
and longer, they have not their stately unity and sublime simplicity.
But their very length and the closer intercolumniation of the pillars
and the ampler size of the transepts present a greater variety of
vistas. And the picturesqueness is also increased by the variety and
superior elaboration of the vaulting and the profusion of decorative
features, the frequent use of black Purbeck marble in the cluster
columns, the number of fine mouldings on the arches, the richness and
variety of design in the triforium and clerestory, the wealth of carved
ornament in the wooden screens and choir-stalls, and the marble
enrichments of the numerous tombs. On the other hand, though an English
Cathedral is more decorative architecturally, it lacks the warmth and
colour that the embellishments of a Roman Catholic ritual impart to the
French examples.

=Secular Examples.=--The interest of English Gothic extends beyond
cathedrals to the profusion of edifices--chapels, churches, colleges,
hospitals, and almshouses--that stud the country. Oxford presents a mine
of study; Cambridge has its splendid examples; there are Royal Chapels
of magnificence, such as =St. George’s Chapel, Windsor=; and town churches
of extraordinary beauty, while scarce a village, however tiny and
remote, but has an architectural treasure in its little church,
sheltering the graves of its quiet “God’s Acre.”

The homes of the nobles, during the Norman Period, had been frankly
armed castles, including an outer “bailey” or court, an inner bailey,
and a donjon or keep, surrounded by a moat and ramparts. In the
fifteenth century the idea of domesticity increased, other buildings for
various uses clustered round the main ones and the hall became the
centre of the life of the inmates. At first there was a central
fireplace, where the logs were piled on dogs, the smoke escaping through
a flue or opening in the ceiling. The need of protecting this led
gradually to the erection on the roof of a lantern-like turret,
technically known as a _louver_, which became a characteristic feature
of the exterior of a hall, even after the central fireplace had been
moved to one of the walls and connected with a chimney. By this time
the fireplace had grown to be the distinctive feature of the hall,
embellished with a massive carved chimney-piece, around which the lord
and his lady and guests gathered, while the house-fool laboured at his
quips, or some wandering minstrel regaled the family with song or story,
while the retainers of the establishment sat in the outer ring on the
rush-strewn floor. For the hall was the common dining-room and
recreation centre of the whole establishment, and on a dais at one end
stood the high table at which the family and guests were served at
meals, the retainers occupying the body of the hall. A salt-cellar was
conspicuous in front of the lord, symbol of hospitality and also of
class distinction, since the persons of “inferior quality” were
entertained “below the salt.” In earlier times the hall also served as a
sleeping place for the retainers.

By degrees, however, as ideas of comfort and privacy increased, this
habit was abandoned. Withdrawing rooms or bowers opened from the dais of
the hall for the private use of the lord and lady, and bedroom
accommodation was improved. And the progress toward greater domesticity
was assisted by the discovery of gunpowder, which rendered the old
system of fortification useless for defensive purposes, so that the idea
of a castle was gradually superseded by that of a mansion.

[Illustration: RATISBON CATHEDRAL

P. 302]

[Illustration: STRASBURG CATHEDRAL

P. 302]

[Illustration: TOWN HALL OF MUNSTER

P. 305]

[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF S. GUDULE, BRUSSELS

P. 307]

[Illustration: COLOGNE CATHEDRAL

P. 302]

[Illustration: CLOTH HALL OF YPRES

OLDEST OF THE GUILD HALLS (1304). P. 307]

[Illustration: TOWN HALL, LOUVAIN

P. 307]

[Illustration: TOWN HALL, BRUSSELS

THE EARLIEST OF THE FLEMISH GOTHIC HALLS (1377). P. 307]

[Illustration: ANTWERP CATHEDRAL

P. 308]

[Illustration: MECHLIN CATHEDRAL]

[Illustration: TOLEDO CATHEDRAL

NOTE THE CORO, OCCUPYING THE THREE LAST BAYS OF THE NAVE, AND
OBSTRUCTING VIEW OF THE SANCTUARY BEYOND THE CROSSING. PP. 308, 309]

[Illustration: BURGOS CATHEDRAL

OPEN-WORK SPIRES RECALL COLOGNE. P. 308]




CHAPTER V

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN


In Germany the Romanesque style had been developed on lines so
monumental that the architects were slow to abandon it for the Gothic.
Accordingly, while the French and English worked out the constructive
principles that produced a new style, the Germans were content to borrow
its features, especially as represented in the French cathedrals. They
were drawn to this imitation through the commercial relations which
existed by way of Burgundy between the cities of Germany and Northern
France. For at the commencement of the thirteenth century the cities
played a most important rôle in the political as well as the economic
life of Germany.

Kings and emperors, recognising the value of their support, had
conferred special privileges upon them, which in times of confusion they
had themselves increased until they were practically self-governing.
Their power rivalled that of the duchies, countships, and other
governments which made up the fluctuating aggregation of authorities
comprised in the empire. Moreover, the cities had increased their power
by combinations. The most important of these were the Rhenish
Confederation and the Hanseatic League of German merchants, the latter
extending its activities to points outside of Germany, as far distant as
London and Novgorod.

Another phase of the prominence of cities lay in the fact that they
were frequently the sees of Archbishops, who were fiefs of the empire
and vied with other feudal lords in political importance. Meanwhile,
this period was marked by a revival of culture. “It was a period of
great men and great ideas, of dramatic contrasts of character; on the
one side a broad humanitarianism combined with a gay enjoyment of the
world and on the other an almost superhuman spirituality that sought its
ideal in a rejection of all the world could give.” It was the age of the
Minnesinger and of the rise of the Friars; an age, too, in which the
voice of the laity was raised on behalf of purity of religion and
religious tolerance. This higher spirit of the time found expression
both in literature and architecture, and, though in the latter field
some noble palaces and castles were created, the chief glory is to be
found in the cathedrals and town-halls--the embodiment of the religious
and civic life of the burghers.

The examples of German Gothic cathedrals are few as compared with those
in France and England. Of the three finest--=Strasburg=, =Ratisbon=,
=Cologne=--the last is the most magnificent and is also the largest of all
Mediæval cathedrals after =Seville= and =Milan=. Its plan is derived from
Amiens, while the edifice embraces the chief features of many French
cathedrals and is, in fact, an epitomised imitation of French Gothic.

=Cologne.=--Meanwhile, there is a German legend of the origin of the
design, which is interesting for the light it throws on the Mediæval
spirit. While the architect, bidden by the archbishop to build the
noblest shrine in Christendom, sat beside the river pondering, an old
man approached him and, having traced in the sand a plan, immediately
obliterated it. But the architect had seen enough to know that the plan
was the one that was dawning in his mind yet still eluded him. When the
old man consented to give it and moreover promised the master-builder a
life of fame and riches, demanding only his soul in recompense, the
master-builder’s eyes were opened and he cried “Get thee behind me,
Satan.” Then he told his confessor, who contrived a scheme whereby the
devil might be circumvented. Satan had promised to return, bringing the
plan. The master-builder kept the appointment and, snatching the
precious document with one hand, in the other brandished a fragment of
the True Cross. “I am vanquished!” exclaimed Satan; “but you shall reap
no benefit, through your treachery. Your name will be forgotten and your
work will never be completed.”

Time, however, discounted the Devil’s curse, for the cathedral was
completed during the nineteenth century. It had been begun in 1270 and
in all the additions subsequently made the original design was adhered
to. Hence =Cologne= presents a very remarkable example of structural
unity; and, by the same token, a rather chill precision, product of
imitation, instead of a growth which reflects the changing style of
successive centuries.

The plan, as at Amiens, includes double side-aisles and a chevêt of
seven apses and an ambulatory, but its transepts are extended by an
extra bay and one bay of the nave is included in the western entrance.
Here the German fondness for towers and spires, already noted in their
Romanesque architecture, finds expression in twin towers, crowned with
spires of openwork tracery. This last feature is a characteristic of
German Gothic. The transition from the tower to the spire is admirably
arranged so as to enforce the function and beauty of each; and the
effect should be compared with that of =S. Stephen, Vienna=. In the latter
the transition is more gradual, so that the spire seems to start from
the ground and, notwithstanding the splendour of the whole, “it lacks
the vigour and accent” that a better definition of tower and spire
produces.

=S. Stephen= is an example of the so-called “Hall Church,” in which the
nave and aisles are of equal height. This typically German feature, seen
also in =S. Lambert, Hildesheim=, =S. Quentin, Mainz=, and =S. Elizabeth,
Marburg=, abolishes the clerestory and triforium and thus dispenses with
flying buttresses. It reduces the importance of the nave and, while
giving the interior an impression of superior spaciousness, minimises
the variety and picturesqueness of the vistas. The nave and aisles are
covered on the exterior by a single roof of high pitch.

The German builders made up for their lack of originality by extreme
skill of handicraft, which tended to over-elaboration and a merely
mechanical excellence. This was displayed in the increasing intricacy of
the window traceries, which were more regarded than the proportions of
the window openings. Thus, an excessive height was given to the
clerestory windows and in many cases the opening is too narrow for its
height. A characteristic which often appears is the _double tracery_;
that is to say, the employment of tracery on both the outer and the
inner wall surfaces.

Piers usually take the place of columns and are treated as lofty posts
for the support of the vaulting, their surfaces being frequently
indented with niches bearing statues. The vaultings are quite often
distinguished by complicated ribs, which, however, are not employed so
constructively as in England, but rather as decorative details. The
mouldings show a steady growth away from simplicity toward increased
complexity, until in the fifteenth century occurs the characteristic
feature of “inter-penetration.” In this two separate sets of moulding
are interwoven, alternately appearing and disappearing in and out of the
same stone. Where foliage is thus used with intertwining branches the
forms are treated naturalistically; and this aptitude for exact
imitation led also to the occasional abandonment of the more formal
tracery of windows in favour of “branch tracery” or the representation
of branches of trees--another instance of preoccupation with technical
execution rather than with design.

While the stained glass is good, the iron-work is a special
characteristic of German ornamentation. Another typical feature is the
Tabernacle for enshrining the Host. It is a structure of stone or wood,
standing independent of the altar, rising to a considerable height in
the form of a tower and spire, richly decorated.

In the north, as at Lübeck and neighbouring cities in the valley of the
Elbe, the lack of stone led to the use of brick, and the substitution of
moulded and coloured brickwork for sculptured ornament.


=Secular Buildings.=--The most famous of the Gothic castles is =Marienburg=
in Prussia, including the chapel and chapter house and the Great Hall of
the Order of the German Knights. Other examples are =Heilsberg=, in =East
Prussia= and the =Albrechtsburg= at =Meissen= in Saxony. Among the finest of
the Town Halls are those of =Ratisbon=, =Brunswick=, =Halberstadt=,
=Hildesheim=, and =Munster=, and the brick examples of =Breslau= and =Lübeck=.
In domestic architecture the roofs were carried to a remarkable height,
consisting of several stories lighted by dormer windows; the space being
utilised for storage and the drying of linen in the monthly wash. And a
picturesque diversity is given to the character of the streets according
as these roofs run parallel to it or at right angles. In the latter case
the gables mount up with stepped outlines, and often are decorated with
frescoed paintings.


NETHERLANDISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

The Gothic architecture of the Netherlands appears at its finest in
Belgium, where it is distinguished by a mingling of French and German
influence. The latter is to be accounted for chiefly by the trade
relations which existed between the great commercial cities of Germany
by way of the Rhine, with such centres of commerce as Louvain, Brussels,
Ghent, Antwerp, Mechlin (Malines), Ypres, and Bruges. On the other hand,
the province of Flanders came under the French influence through the
marriage of Margaret of Flanders with the first Duke of the French royal
house of Valois, whose successors gradually brought the whole of Belgium
under their rule. Further, the Abbey of Noyon early established close
relations with that of Tournai, and in this way the religious
architecture of France penetrated Belgium. Owing to their pre-eminence
in weaving the Netherlandish cities became the most prosperous of the
period and this is reflected in the florid decoration of the later
ecclesiastical building, as well as in the magnificent Town, Trade, and
Guild Halls, which are the special distinction of Netherlandish
architecture.

=Guild Halls.=--They present a general similarity of character. The
façades mount in several stories, which are defined by bands of ornament
or string-courses and pierced with rows of pointed windows. These are
framed with rich traceries of carved work and separated by canopied
niches, designed for and often filled with statues. The façades
terminate at the spring of the roof in an adaptation of the Romanesque
arcaded eaves, which occasionally project like a continuous balcony,
while balconies with traceried parapets often decorate the gabled
fronts. The corners of the façade are occupied by towers, frequently
carried above the line of the eaves, in pinnacle-like structures, the
stories of which are marked by balconies. The roofs have a steep pitch
and are enriched with dormer windows and decorated chimneys.

The oldest of these beautiful edifices is the Cloth Hall of =Ypres=,
erected in 1304, while other notable examples are those of =Louvain=,
=Mechlin=, =Ghent=. The earliest of the Town Halls is the imposing one of
=Brussels= (1377), distinguished by its graceful tower and spire. The
right to attach a belfry or beffroi to a town hall was a special
privilege, granted by charter, and the bell-towers of Netherlandish
cities are among their most picturesque features. That of =Bruges=, which
forms the theme of one of Longfellow’s poems, is famous in the annals of
the city. It surmounts the central mass of a façade plainer than those
described above, offering more wall spaces and representing another type
of Gothic façade peculiar to the Netherlands.

=Ecclesiastical Buildings.=--The earliest example of Gothic work in
ecclesiastical buildings is said to be the choir of the =Cathedral of S.
Gudule in Brussels.= =Tournai Cathedral=, erected between 1146 and 1338,
illustrates three successive periods. The nave is Romanesque; the
apse-ended transepts mark the transition stage, and the choir, with its
complete chevêt, the fully developed Gothic. But the largest and most
magnificent cathedral of the Netherlands is that of =Antwerp=,
distinguished by three aisles of equal height on each side of the lofty
nave and by narrow aisleless transepts. The west front, flanked by
towers, one of which has been completed by a spire of extreme richness
and grace, belongs to that later period (1422-1518) when the taste for
decoration had become somewhat florid. Other notable =Cathedrals= are
those of =Ghent=, =Bruges=, =Ypres=, =Utrecht=, and of =Haarlem= and =Dordrecht= in
Holland.[7]


SPANISH GOTHIC

It was in the north of Spain, following the gradual destruction of the
Moorish rule and the replacing of the Crescent with the Cross, that
Gothic art took root. The time is the thirteenth century, when Ferdinand
(1217-1252), canonised as saint, united the kingdoms of Leon and
Castile, and James, called the Conqueror (1213-1276), carried the
conquest through to the east so that only Granada remained in the grip
of the Infidel.

While it is supposed that Moorish workmen were employed in the
cathedrals, the designs were derived from French examples, with certain
borrowings from the German. Thus the original of =Leon Cathedral= was
Amiens, from which, however, it differs in the larger area of its window
spaces; while Notre Dame was the model for the Cathedrals of =Toledo= and
=Barcelona=; and the west front of =Burgos=, with its openwork spires,
recalls Cologne.

Among the characteristic features of Spanish cathedrals are: the
occasional use of cloisters; the excess of width in proportion to the
length; the use of a _cimborio_ or lantern over the crossing; the
placing of the choir or _coro_ west of the chancel, so that it occupies
the centre of the edifice and with its high enclosures blocks the vistas
in all directions; an elaborate treatment of the vaulting, prompted by
decorative rather than structural considerations, and a general
tendency, especially in the later work, toward excessive embellishment.

The largest cathedral in Spain, the largest, indeed, of all mediæval
cathedrals, is =Seville=, which was erected on the site of a mosque. It
has four side aisles, each of which corresponds in height and width to
the nave of Westminster Abbey, yet the length of its nave is little more
than that of the latter’s. =Toledo=, again, has four aisles and a nave,
recalling the plan of Bourges, which it follows in length, though it is
wider by fifty feet.

=Retablos, Rejas.=--Among the distinctive features of the interior
decorations of a Spanish cathedral are the _retablo_ and _reja_. The
former, a reredos, erected behind the great altar, reaches immense
dimensions, often occupying the full width of the nave and rising as
high as the vaulting, embellished with sculpture. This is apt to be
grossly naturalistic and violently dramatic or sensational, representing
colossal figures, sprawling amid marble clouds and sunrays of gilded
metal. Far more beautiful are the _rejas_ or lofty grill-screens, upon
which the skill of Moorish metal-workers or the skill derived from their
traditions, is lavished with extraordinary fertility of design; a
special device being the enrichment of the vertical bars by the
insertion of canopied figures.




CHAPTER VI

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY


We have already noted that the rib-vault, which made possible the
development of Gothic architecture in the Ile de France, originated in
Lombardy. But the Italian builders used the rib solely as a structural
convenience, not recognising either its further structural or its
æsthetic possibilities. Accordingly, when the Gothic style appeared in
Italy, it was imported thither by northern, usually German, architects.

=General Character.=--Nor did the style, as employed in Italy, preserve
the grandeur or purity of the northern type. The sunny climate did not
invite the large openings that had become a distinction of the true
Gothic. The windows were small, with little tracery, while the walls,
being in consequence more solid, did not need the same enforcement with
buttresses. Structurally, therefore, the walls are uninteresting, and
are regarded as surfaces to be made attractive by applied decoration.
Further, the Italian builder was everywhere influenced by the classic
tradition. He clung to the round arch, even while he employed the
pointed; frequently resorted to the Roman acanthus and Corinthian
capital as decorative features; felt his columns as columns rather than
as piers logically connected by the shafting to the vaulting, and in the
vaulting confined his design to the main ribs, instead of enriching it
with minor ones. In fact, he used the style without the structural logic
and adventurous

[Illustration: SIENA CATHEDRAL

NOTE HALF COLUMNS ATTACHED TO THE PIERS. SEXAGOXAL DOME OVER THE
CROSSING; PULPIT BY THE PISANI--MARBLE PAVEMENT WITH GRAFFITO DESIGNS.]

[Illustration: MARBLE FAÇADE OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE

P. 246]

[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF FLORENCE AND CAMPANILE

BEHIND THE LATTER SHOWS THE BAPTISTRY. PP. 311, 312, 342]

[Illustration: DOGE’S PALACE, VENICE

P. 315]

[Illustration: WEST FAÇADE ORVIETO CATHEDRAL

MARBLE VENEER, MOSAICS AND SCULPTURE FORM SUPERB POLYCHROME DECORATION.
P. 311]


[Illustration: SIENA CATHEDRAL, CAMPANILE ATTACHED

FAÇADE RED, BLACK AND WHITE MARBLE, RICHLY SCULPTURED; MOSAICS MODERN.
P. 311]

[Illustration: MILAN CATHEDRAL

NOTE HOW THE FAÇADE SUGGESTS THE GERMAN USE OF INCLUDING NAVE AND AISLES
UNDER A SINGLE HIGH-PITCHED ROOF. P. 313]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF MILAN CATHEDRAL

SHOWING CANOPIED FIGURES ABOVE THE CAPITALS. P. 314]

enthusiasm of the truly Gothic architect. He treated the edifice as a
shell to be enriched with decoration.

In the interior, the walls and vaultings offered surfaces for painting.
When this was accomplished as, for example, in the frescoes by Cimabue,
Giotto, and others in the =Church of S. Francis= in =Assisi=, by Giotto in
the =Arena Chapel, Padua=, and the chapels of the =Perozzi= and =Bardi= in =S.
Croce, Florence=, and in =S. Maria Novella=, possibly by Taddeo Gaddi, or
at any rate by some painter of the school of Giotto, the effect is
incomparably resplendent. Where, however, as in the =Cathedral of
Florence=, frescoes are missing, the appearance is cold and barren;
redeemed somewhat, it is true, in this case by the colossal dimensions
and sense of spaciousness.

For the exteriors reliance was placed upon applied embellishments. The
side walls, for example, of =Florence= are veneered with marble; those of
=Siena= and =Orvieto= with horizontal stripes of black and white masonry.
But this colour decoration is a poor substitute for the structural
enrichments, the traceried windows, flying buttresses, and mounting
roofs of the true Gothic.

The Italians concentrated chief ornateness on the west façade; the most
celebrated examples being those of =Siena= (1243-1284) and =Orvieto= (1290).
They present elaborate compositions of vari-coloured marble, charmingly
diversified, nicely balanced, sumptuously elegant and graceful. But
compare, for example, Siena with, say, Rheims or Amiens, and how it
sinks into insignificance!

In the French examples the pointed door-arches start an upward movement
which is continued to the top in the organic relations of the parts to
one another and to the interior arrangement. But in the Siena façade,
the round arches hold the eye down; for their feeling is not repeated
in the upper part, which, notwithstanding the gables, turrets, finials,
and culminating gable, has no suggestion of growth-up, but is rather a
geometric design of curves and triangles, horizontals and verticals,
carried up to a height. It is not organically structural; it is a
built-up pattern. The designer was a sculptor--Giovanni Pisano.

=Campanile.=--The campanile is usually attached to the building. In place
of string courses and mouldings are alternate courses of black and white
masonry; the sole contrast being supplied by the rectangular window
openings, which, possibly to offset the diminishing effect of
perspective, increase in number upwards. The low spire is typically
Italian Romanesque.

Fine examples of the period are to be found in Verona, Mantua, and
Pistoia, while the most beautiful is that of =Florence=, designed and
begun by Giotto and completed after his death by Andrea Pisano. It is
distinguished from other bell-towers of the Italian Gothic by the
projections which mark its four stories and the bold cornice with
machicolated ornament. The surface is further varied with geometric
designs, composed of coloured marbles; while the windows are embellished
with tracery of an elementary design, corresponding to that of the
adjoining Cathedral windows. The sides of the lowest story, broken only
by a small light, are enriched with statues and bas-reliefs, some of
which were designed by Giotto and executed partly by him and partly by
Andrea Pisano, others being added later by Luca della Robbia. In
character of subjects they correspond to the selections at Amiens from
the Encyclopædia of Vincent of Beauvais. Ruskin says of this building
that it is the only one in the world, so far as he knows, in which the
characteristics of Power and Beauty exist “in their highest possible
relative degrees.” But power is a term that connotes varied qualities to
different minds; and still more different to various temperaments and
experiences is the term beauty. Perhaps if he had said that it combined
strength and grace, or stability and tenderness, it would be easier to
appreciate his judgment. For Giotto’s Campanile has an exquisiteness
allied to dignity which is characteristic of Italian Gothic at its best,
yet to the taste of many will ill compare with the vigour of the French
and English styles.

Suggestive of the persistence of the Romanesque style during the Gothic
period the most notable instance is the =Certosa=, or Church of the
Carthusian Order, in =Pavia=. The façade and lantern over the crossing are
Renaissance additions; otherwise this splendid edifice, constructed of
brick and terra-cotta, is, except for the Gothic refinement of the
rib-vaulting, purely Romanesque. A gift to the monastery by Duke Gian
Galeazzo Visconti, it was begun in 1396, nine years after this patron of
art and letters had begun to build =Milan Cathedral=, the most important
example in Italy of the Gothic style.

Yet =Milan= involves peculiarities that may be due to the dissensions of
the Italian architects with the German and French who were called in at
various times to collaborate in the work. So strong a German influence
is perceptible in both the character and details, that the main design
has been attributed to Heinrich of Grund. Constructed entirely of white
marble, the exterior is distinguished not so much by structural grandeur
as by decorative richness. The windows, said to be the largest in any
Gothic Cathedral, have intricate and lace-like tracery; the walls are
panelled with vertical string courses; the buttresses embellished with
canopied niches, holding statues; lace-like again is the enrichment of
the parapets of the roofs, while from them rises a forest of spiring
finials, surmounted by the marble spire which was designed in 1440 by
Brunelleschi.

And in the interior, also, organic relation is sacrificed to imposing
display and delight in embellishment. The dominating feature is the
avenue of nave columns, nine on each side. They are 12 feet in diameter,
over 100 feet high, and crowned above their capitals with a cluster of
canopied niches, containing statues--a German feature. The columns
isolate themselves in the design; count only as an avenue of columns,
while their immense size dwarfs the height of the vaulting, the more so
that the height of the side aisles made a triforium impossible, and
reduced the clerestory to insignificant proportions, with mean small
windows. And the impression of squatness in the vaulting is increased by
the rupture which the canopied niches make between the pier shafts and
vault ribs. Upward growth is arrested; organic relation violated by a
merely decorative intrusion. To realise fully the diminution of
structural impressiveness thereby produced, one may compare the Milan
interior with that of Amiens or St. Ouen in Rouen.

=Secular Gothic.=--It was in their secular architecture that the Italians
used the Gothic with the greatest freedom. The official buildings of
this period, when the government of the cities and communes still
preserved a popular form, comprised the city hall or _podesta_ and the
council hall, which was variously known as the _palazzo publico_,
_palazzo communale_ or _palazzo del consiglio_.

The most important example of a podesta is the =Palazzo Vecchio= in
=Florence=, which was designed, 1298, by Arnolfo di Cambio, the first
architect of the Cathedral. We shall study it later in comparison with
the beginnings of the Renaissance (p. 358). Opposite to it stands the
=Loggia dei Lanzi=, an example of the open-air tribunes erected for
popular ceremonies. Built in 1376 by the architects Benci di Cione and
Simone di Talenti, its design is rather Romanesque than Gothic. Its name
is derived from the fact that it was used as a guard house by the German
spearmen of Cosimo I, after he had usurped the government of Florence
and established his residence in the Palazzo Vecchio.

The finest examples of Gothic domestic architecture are to be found in
the northern cities, =Florence=, =Pisa=, =Siena=, =Bologna=, and particularly in
=Venice=, where the immunity from social disorder and outside attack,
combined with commercial prosperity, encouraged a more luxurious mode of
living. We shall refer to the =Ca d’Oro= as a type of the Gothic Venetian
palace of a merchant prince, in the chapter on the Early Renaissance (p.
360). Here let us study the =Ducal= or =Doge’s Palace=, which adjoins St.
Mark’s, the two buildings, one civil and the other religious,
representing in visible union, the mind and the soul of Venice.

=Doge’s Palace.=--Instead of preserving the suggestion of a mediæval
fortress as the Palazzo Vecchio does, the centre of Venetian authority
is a palace, designed to represent the grandeur of the city’s destiny
and to provide a setting for sumptuous civil functions and the
ceremonial entertainment of ambassadors and other distinguished guests.
The building, since it was founded in 800, thirty years before the
founding of St. Mark’s, has undergone many vicissitudes; five times
destroyed by fire and on each occasion rebuilt with greater
magnificence, so that the present design is a composite of Gothic and
Renaissance.

The Gothic is chiefly represented in the magnificent loggia, which
comprises two open arcades, ranging along two fronts, facing,
respectively, the Piazzetta and the Lagune. The lower arcade consists of
pointed arches, resting on circular columns, the shafts of which are of
stumpy proportions and rise directly from the pavement without bases.
The capitals, carved with foliage, figures, and animals, combine to an
unusual degree richness of design with delicacy of execution, while that
of the corner column, which is surmounted by a group of Adam and Eve, is
described by Ruskin in his “Stones of Venice” as being, in respect of
workmanship and the grouping of the foliage, the finest he knows in
Europe. The upper arcade is composed of twice the number of columns,
which again have circular shafts without bases, but are proportionately
taller and more graceful. They support trefoiled arches, whose ogee
curves slide up into a series of circles pierced with quatrefoils--a
combination of tracery characteristically Venetian; as indeed, is the
mingled massiveness and elegance of the whole design.

This double arcade must have presented a still finer effect in the
original design when it stood clear of the main façade. For the
advancing of the upper part to the arcade line, which dates from a
restoration after a fire in the fifteenth century, produces an effect of
top-heaviness. Moreover, its direct juxtaposition with the elaborateness
of the arcade accentuates the contrast, presented by the severe
simplicity of the surface, patterned with red, white, and black marbles,
and meagrely pierced with windows.




BOOK VI

THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD




CHAPTER I

RENAISSANCE CIVILISATION


In the early years of the fourteenth century a new spirit became
manifest in art. It showed itself, for example, in the sculpture that
embellishes Amiens and Chartres, in the bronze doors of the Baptistry of
Florence by Andrea Pisano, and in the painting and sculpture of Giotto.
It is supremely manifested in the poetry of Dante.

All of these works belong to the Gothic period. The soul in them is
still composed of the faith and knowledge of the Mediæval mind and
imagination; but the form in which the soul is enshrined has become less
generalised, abstract, and symbolical; it has become more
individualised, concrete, naturalistic. In a word, it has become more
humanised.

It represents a change of attitude toward life; a disposition to regard
the world, no longer exclusively or chiefly in relation to a future
existence, but as the scene of human endeavour, human aspirations, human
emotions. It represents a renewed consciousness on the part of Man of
his own Humanity. In a word, the thought of the world was gradually
evolving from the scholastic attitude of the Middle Ages to the
_Humanistic_ spirit, which was the breath of life of the Renaissance.

At first the movement groped. The thinker and the artist, while intent
upon the study of life, were ignorant of exact methods of study. These
were gradually learned through the rediscovery of the Greek and Roman
classics. The Rebirth, in fact, which is metaphorically suggested in
the term Renaissance, was the result of the spread of the humanistic
spirit and the “Revival of Learning”; and, in recognition of this,
Classic literature was called “Litteræ Humaniores,” the students of the
Classics were called Humanists, and Humanism is the term often applied
to the whole movement.

The movement was one that affected the whole fabric of civilisation, for
it involved no less than the self-emancipation of the human intellect
and will. The human will began to free itself from the shackles of
dogmatism and the domination of absolute authority, whether exercised by
the Church or by civil rulers. The human intellect gradually freed
itself from the subtleties and sophistries of the “Schoolmen,” ceased to
speculate on abstract questions, such as the language spoken by the
angels, and how many angelic beings could be supported on the point of a
pin, and began to apply itself to the exact study of what was actually
within the reach of human experience or research. And for this exactness
of study the Revival of Learning laid the foundation, because the
students of the Classics learned to collate the various manuscripts,
comparing them critically so as to discover the correct reading, and
were also obliged to compile grammars and dictionaries--in fact, to
construct from the ground up, a fabric of reliable knowledge and at the
same time a system of education. It was a process that encouraged both
exact and critical research.

Meanwhile, before the Revival of Learning could make itself a force,
there had been other influences which prepared the way for emancipation
from the despotism of authority. The Middle Ages had been dominated by
two authorities, the Church and the Holy Roman Empire. The former, as we
have seen in a previous chapter, was the sole agency to introduce
organisation into the chaos that succeeded the fall of the Roman Empire.
It gradually subdued the barbarian conquerors not only to a semblance of
religious fellowship but also to some degree of social order, and
further fostered the latter by throwing the weight of its influence on
the side of popular rights.

On the other hand, the attempt of Charlemagne to revive the magnificence
and the authority of a Roman Emperor had been directly to force upon the
various racial divisions of Europe the yoke of a political despotism,
under the sanction of the Church’s co-operation. The Holy Roman Empire
was an arbitrary and artificial union of unmixable elements and did not
survive the death of its founder. The central authority could not hold
in check the ambition and power of local authorities. The Frankish group
fell apart from the Germanic groups across the Rhine. The authority of
succeeding emperors was confined to the east of the Rhine and had to
meet the growing opposition of the Feudal system. The result was a
continual clash of authorities, in which all parties intrigued for the
assistance of the Church, so that the Papal authority also was drawn
into the struggle for civil power, thereby weakening its prestige in
religious and social directions.

The outcome of the prolonged embroilment was the gradual consolidation
of peoples into nationalities. France, England, and Germany emerged as
separate unities, each drawn into a whole by racial similarities and
local self-interest. The dream of a centralised and absolute authority,
whether civil or religious, was slowly replaced by the practical policy
of attempting to establish a balance of European powers.

And, while this gradual disintegration of the absoluteness of authority
was in process, other circumstances operated to undermine the old
traditional order. We have spoken of one of them--the spread of
Humanism. Meanwhile the use in warfare of gunpowder and guns hastened
the overthrow of the Feudal system. The introduction of the mariner’s
compass made possible the exploration of continents beyond the ocean.
The substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy
revolutionised men’s idea of the universe. Further, the growth in
nationality was accompanied by the development of separate languages,
and the diffusion of these, as well as of knowledge generally, was
increased by the invention of paper and printing.

Thus, from diverse directions light was breaking into the darkness of
life, dispersing the superstitions and terrors that had shackled the
human will, and illuminating positive pathways for the human intellect
to travel. Thought ceased to be involved in allegory; the study of
nature to be “perverted into grotesque and pious parables,” while
sorcery and magic no longer seemed to be the means of compassing control
over nature and obtaining insight into the mysteries surrounding human
life. The other world, with its imagined heaven and hell, loosened its
grip on the conscience, and the joys and possibilities of this world
began to occupy men’s minds. The beauty of the visible world and the
delights of sense ceased to be regarded as snares of the devil, and in
their growing independence and belief in themselves men turned to
mastering the resources of this world and to making it better for the
purpose of life. No wonder, that as the consciousness of this new and
fuller existence became confirmed, men spoke to one another of a
Rebirth!

How this movement, which was in ferment throughout Western Europe,
operated specifically in different countries, is now to be traced. The
leadership in it was taken by the Rinascimento, to use the Italian word,
of Italy.


ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

Ever since Charlemagne’s conquest of Lombardy the Emperors had held a
foot in Italy, contesting authority with the Pope. Meanwhile, the
successors of Roger, the Norman conqueror of Sicily, held sway over the
Kingdom of Naples, which occupied the southern part of the peninsula,
and at different times was joined to or independent of the Kingdom of
Sicily. Italy, in fact, had proved herself incapable of forming a united
nation or of establishing a national state. Like Hellas of old, she was
an agglomeration of communes and cities, capable of being inspired by a
common sentiment of race, but unable to merge their independence and
mutual jealousies and rivalries in a single political organisation. Even
the individual communes and cities were split into factions: the
Ghibellines, representing the aristocratic party, favouring the Emperor,
and the Guelphs, who comprised the popular party and were assisted by
the Popes.

The result of these conditions was to quicken the growth of local
feeling. Patriotism was replaced by intense civic pride, which centred
in the city or commune and made it vie with others in self-development.
And this self-centering resulted, firstly, in each nucleus of energy
developing an independent type of community and, secondly, in bringing
to the surface the personal force of individual citizens. The Duke who
had been elevated to or usurped the headship of the community, was
compelled to maintain his position by force of character and by acts
that would redound to the pride and power of the community. He needed
the assistance of other men of parts and employed their services, no
matter from what class of the community they had sprung. There was room
higher up for every citizen who could contribute something to the
community’s power and dignity. As one result of these conditions there
sprang into existence a class of professional soldiers, or condottieri,
who sold their services and those of their trained bands to the highest
bidder, and who, when occasion offered, lifted themselves, as in the
case of Colleoni and Gattamelata, to high military commands. Moreover,
the perpetual intriguing that the conditions of politics had developed
between cities and rival authorities, encouraged the employment of a
large body of secretaries and diplomatic go-betweens, men of education
and superior sharpness of wit. In fact, any one who by his brains or his
handiwork could furnish eminent service to the community was eagerly
sought after and promoted. Such men were held in high esteem and
regarded as an honour to the community.

In an environment such as this it followed that the Italian Rinascimento
was the product of men of powerful individuality and that the trend of
it led to the exaltation of individualism. The first great personality
associated with it is that of Petrarch.

Son of a man who had shared Dante’s exile, he himself emulated the poet
of Beatrice in _canzoniere_, composed to his ideal mistress, Laura. He
too helped to refine and vivify, as Boccaccio did a little later, the
Italian tongue; but he was filled with the pride of being a descendant
of the Roman People, and looked back to Latin literature as the
worthiest object of his study. In his zeal for collecting and collating
manuscripts and through the richness of his imagination and critical
judgment, joined to a tireless devotion, he became the pioneer in that
Italian scholarship which restored to Western Europe the knowledge of
the Classics and laid the foundation of modern thought.

For hitherto, although an acquaintance with Latin had survived, it was
chiefly in the monkish form, and the Latin authors were known only by
fragments, often mutilated in the process of copying. The knowledge of
the Greek tongue, while preserved in Byzantium, had all but entirely
disappeared from Western Europe, and Petrarch, realising the need of
recovering it, urged Boccaccio to begin the work. Accordingly the latter
took lessons of an adventurer, named Leone Pilato, a native of Calabria
who had resided in Thessaly, and succeeded also in having him appointed
professor of Greek language and literature in the University of
Florence. Boccaccio, like his friend Petrarch, was indefatigable in the
search for manuscripts among the libraries and, as often, the
lumber-rooms of the monasteries. And frequently he had to mourn their
mutilation, as on one occasion when he found the precious sheets of
vellum had been scraped clean of the classic text and inscribed with
psalms for the use of the choirboys, while the decorated margins had
been cut into bits and sold to women as amulets.

During the fifteenth century the pursuit of scholarship continued,
receiving a great advancement when Constantinople, in 1451, was
conquered by the Turks. For many of the Greek scholars found refuge in
Italy, where they were received with the highest enthusiasm in
universities and the palaces of princes. Thus for a century the keenest
spirits of what was then the most intellectually advanced people of
Europe, devoted themselves to classical erudition. The world’s debt to
them is incalculable, but the boon they conferred on others was not
without detriment to themselves. Preoccupation with scholarship produced
a certain affectation and pedantry of mind; led to an extravagant
valuation of the antique over everything modern and undermined
Christianity with Paganism. Nor was it the Stoic side of Paganism that
was emulated. The pleasures of life were pursued as an ideal, and with
no moral curb on conduct; freedom was confused with license and the
desire of the senses ousted the restraint of law. The organisation alike
of the Church and of society in time became honeycombed with corruption.

In such an intellectual and moral atmosphere the ego in man was
worshipped as divinity. Individualism, extolled to a fetish and
unbridled by any considerations of good and bad, engendered faculties of
glorious capabilities and also of monstrous depravity. Individualism, in
fact, ran its hot and heady course at the expense of everything that had
once counted for strength in communal and civic spirit. By the beginning
of the sixteenth century, the culmination of the Renaissance, a few
giants survived, but the Italian people, while intellectually in the
ascendant, had degenerated physically and morally and fell an easy prey
to foreign aggression.

The expedition which Charles VIII made to Naples in 1494 brought the
French into Italy. They were soon followed by the Spaniards, until Italy
became the cockpit of European rivalries. Political as well as moral
degradation was reached when, by the League of Cambrai, 1508, Pope
Julius II made alliance with Louis XII of France, the Emperor
Maximilian, and Ferdinand “The Catholic” of Spain for the partition of
the Venetian territories. Humiliation ensued sixteen years later, when
German and Spanish mercenaries, led by the renegade Constable Bourbon,
sacked Rome. Italy, after having led the van in the emancipation of
human intellect and will, had prostituted both. Even the
Counter-Reformation, instituted by the Church to reform her own abuses
as well as to resist the tide of Protestantism, could not save Italy to
the Italians. Three hundred and fifty years had to elapse before they
could recover their nationality and once more set themselves upon the
road of progress.


GERMAN RENAISSANCE

The influence of the Italian Renaissance was firstly and most directly
absorbed by France. But the consideration of this may conveniently be
postponed until after a review of its operation in Germany and Spain.
For in both these countries the Renaissance influence bred antagonisms:
in Germany the Reformation and in Spain the Counter-Reformation.

The Renaissance which the Italians had initiated as a thing of Beauty,
began to operate in Germany as a thing of Power; the emancipation of the
human intellect and will was supplemented by the emancipation of the
human conscience. The Italian indifference to the latter was more than a
source of decadence to themselves; for it cleft into two channels what
should have been united in a single stream of human endeavour; it forged
barriers between what should be component elements in human ideals. It
started that antagonism between Beauty and Morality, between Æsthetics
and Ethics by which even to this day civilisation is being retarded in
its richest and most beneficent possibilities of progress.

Germany was quick to absorb Italian erudition. Hebrew, Greek, and Latin
scholars, rivalling those of Italy, became numerous in German
universities and in the free cities of Nüremburg, Augsburg, Basel, and
Strassburg. But even students who attended the universities of Italy
escaped the Pagan influence. They returned to a homeland which was not
strewn with classic remains, and whose traditions were still deeply
rooted in mediævalism and expressed in the Gothic spirit. It was the
same with the artists. For example, the art of Schongauer, Dürer,
Holbein, and Cranach is untouched by that sense of beauty which their
Italian contemporaries had evolved from classic influence. Moreover, the
German mind was more penetrating, earnest, argumentative than the
Italian, more occupied with substantial than with abstract problems. The
German temperament also was more combative; incapable of the Italian
cynical toleration and at once deeper and narrower in its character.

Consequently the German erudition began to apply itself to concrete
problems, such as theological criticism and the absolute authority
claimed by the Church. The Bible was opened up to the Germans as a new
book. As the Classics had served to emancipate the Italian intellect and
will, so the Bible emancipated the German conscience. “The touch of the
new spirit which in Italy had evolved literature, art, and culture,
sufficed in Germany to recreate Christianity.” The sale of Indulgences
by Leo X and Luther’s protest but served to set the spark to the
explosion, which, long in preparation, split Teutonic and Latin
Christianity, and involved Western Europe for two centuries in
politico-religious strife.

For gradually it had become recognised that the new “heresy” threatened
the authority alike of monarchical government and the Papacy. Orthodoxy
and absolutism were the two sides of the same shield. The Church had
begun to realise that there was as much danger to its authority in the
Pagan revival of the Italian Renaissance as in Protestantism. Both papal
and imperial authority were threatened. Accordingly, Pope Clement VII
and Emperor Charles V entered into a compact at Bologna in 1530, to
maintain in its integrity the Catholic Faith. Thus began the
Counter-Reformation, which reformed many of the abuses that had crept
into the Church and renewed the fervour of the Catholic religion, but on
the other hand, arrayed the forces of conservatism against the march of
progress.


SPANISH RENAISSANCE

It was in Spain that the Counter-Reformation was most zealous. Although
the influence of the Italian Renaissance had reached her, she had
rejected its pagan aspects. On the one hand, her rulers jealously
guarded their title of “Catholic Majesty.” On the other hand, the
released energies of the country had been largely directed to the
commercial conquests, opened up by the discovery of America, which
encouraged that self-reliance and absorption in self that were
characteristic of the Spanish temperament. Spaniards had upheld the
Faith in their long contest with the Saracen intruders and still
considered themselves the Champions of Christendom. Meanwhile, the
intellectual activity inspired by the Renaissance gave them renewed
belief in themselves and established them in their interest in the
affairs of their own life.

Typical alike of the Spanish race and of the effect upon it of the
Renaissance is the “Don Quixote” of Cervantes, whom Symonds ranks with
Ariosto, Rabelais, and Shakespeare as the four supreme literary
exponents of the Renaissance. For each of these caught the spirit of the
Renaissance when it was at the first freshness of its vigour in their
respective countries and, instead of using it to imitate the past,
captured its imagination into the vernacular of his own language, making
it a most flexible and vital medium for the expression of the spirit of
his own time and country. In Cervantes’ case the racial humour punctured
with ridicule the affectations into which the old order of Chivalry had
degenerated.

That the new attitude toward life which it indirectly advocated, failed
to be realised by the Spaniards may be attributed to two causes. One is
the Counter-Reformation which rallied the forces of reactionism and the
other, the easily gotten wealth that poured into the country from the
New World. The one, associated with Monarchical absolutism, destroyed
political progress, while the other swamped initiative and the vigorous
handling of life, resulting in both moral and economical decadence.

Yet the inherent raciness of the Spanish people could not be entirely
suppressed. It declared itself especially in the prolific, versatile,
truly national drama of Lope de Vega and Calderon, which pictured the
life of the people with a variety and richness that have been surpassed
only by Shakespeare. Moreover, after an apprenticeship of the Spanish
painters to the works of Raphael and other Italians, the seventeenth
century produced the greatest of all naturalistic painters in the person
of Velasquez. Nevertheless, despite certain brilliant exceptions, it was
the tragedy of Spain that at the moment, when her Renaissance was
approaching fulfilment, it was strangled.


FRENCH RENAISSANCE

Very different was the part played by France. Her native genius had to
some extent anticipated the spirit of Humanism, so she embraced the
learning and culture of the Renaissance eagerly but with discrimination.
She utilised both, not in the way of imitation, but as enrichment to her
own self-expression; and, finally, as Italy declined, assumed the
leadership of European culture.

Already in the twelfth century Abelard had initiated the spirit of free
inquiry in theology; later, it was upon the love-songs of the
_trouveres_ or troubadours of Provence that Petrarch patterned his
_canzoniere_, and from the _fabliaux_, popular in France, that Boccaccio
derived the character and some of the themes of his Decameron.

While in the north France maintained close relations with Flanders, she
was drawn into commercial relations with Italy, directly, in the south,
and by way of the German cities and Burgundy on the east. Her political
relations began, as we have noted, with the expedition of Charles VII to
Naples, and were continued by the efforts of Louis XII and Francis I to
secure and hold possessions in Italy. Even the latter’s disastrous
defeat at Pavia did not discourage him from subsequent warlike
enterprises, but meanwhile his zeal for things Italian caused him to
invite many Italian artists to Fontainebleau. Henri II’s queen was
Catherine de Medici and her children, Charles IX and Henri III, were
brought up as Italianated Frenchmen.

Thus, during the sixteenth century the Court and nobility of France
became largely Italianised in manners, although the survival of the
Feudal system and the distinctly military character of the aristocracy
rendered France very different from Italy in many vital particulars.
For France was engaged in developing her nationality and these
disintegrating and aggressive elements had to be subdued to the central
authority--a process made more complex by the spread of the Reformation
under the leadership of Calvin, so that the struggle was one of
conscience as well as political power. But in the process France was
awakened to a real sense of nationalism. The Gallic spirit became aware
of itself and intent upon development and consolidation.

Consequently, the presence of such artists as Leonardo da Vinci, Del
Sarto, Primaticcio, and Benvenuto Cellini could not stifle the native
art. They left their impress on the decorations of Fontainebleau and
served as models of superior knowledge and refinement to French painters
and sculptors, yet did no more than modify the French originality of
inspiration. Painters like the Clouets and the unnamed painter of the
“Diana” of the Louvre and the sculptors Goujon and Pilon, despite some
debt to Italian influence, preserved unmistakably their Gallic spirit,
as we shall also find did the architects of the French _châteaux_.

It was the spirit that had created the miracles of Gothic architecture;
a spirit highly adventurous, yet logical, which overflowed with
enthusiasm for life, but was controlled by instinctive taste.

It suffered a clipping of its freedom when France was finally
consolidated as a State and Absolutism was enthroned in the person of
Louis XIV. Under the officialdom that he established French art was
compelled to sit at the feet of the Italians. Yet, even so, the native
genius shines through acquired affectations in the work of Poussin and
Claude, while the eighteenth century witnessed the reblossoming of the
Gallic spirit in the dainty fancies of Rococo decoration. On the other
hand, the sterner issues of the Renaissance, as they affected political
liberty, culminated after long delay in the Revolution.

That the Gallic genius has been and still remains a powerful factor in
the progress of civilisation is due to its blend of the intellectual and
the aesthetic faculties. It thinks clearly and feels subtly and adjusts
thought and feeling into an admirable accord by its tact of taste. It
approximates most closely to the quality of the old Greek genius. At its
best, under the impulse of a high spiritual purpose, it has expressed
itself in terms of Truth and Beauty that no modern nation has rivalled.
Even when its motive has been trivial, its manner of expression has
redeemed it from insignificance, the craftsmanship being in itself so
true and beautiful. Moreover, the French spirit is so agile and
responsive, that it has caught and reflected back the diverse thought
and feeling of other countries, and, further, has so marked a strain of
originality that it has preserved the faculty of creativeness.


NETHERLANDISH RENAISSANCE

The Netherlands, through their commercial intercourse with Italy, early
came in touch with the Renaissance. But the self-reliance of the people
was such that the earliest influence only improved their own way of
expressing their racial consciousness. For example, the town halls in
which the pride of their cities was enshrined, owed nothing to Italy
except some later refinements of decoration. The painting of the Van
Eycks was not only different from but technically superior to the
contemporary art of Italy and furnished the latter with the practical
processes of the oil medium. In time the mannerisms of Italian painting
made themselves felt in the work of Van Orley and others, but the
genuine reaction of the Flemish genius to the Italian Renaissance did
not develop until the seventeenth century, when it produced a
reinvigorated expression of itself in the genius of Rubens.

Political and religious causes, due to the grip of the Spanish rule, had
retarded the progress of the Flemish provinces, while, on the other
hand, it was the break away from this absolutism that started the
northern provinces of Holland on their Renaissance. The Holland
Renaissance of the seventeenth century, which moved step by step with
their struggle for political and religious liberty and their
consolidation into a united nation, represented a most remarkable blend
of Humanism and Revival of Learning. It was unique at its time and has
preserved its significance, because both these engines of activity were
devoted deliberately to national and individual betterment. The Dutch
zest of life stimulated them not only to obtain their liberty, but also
to improve in a multitude of practical ways the conditions of living. It
caused them to organise industry and commerce, to cultivate their land
intensively and to extend their explorations and trade over the seven
seas. Nor were the intellectual resources overlooked. The university of
Leyden became a great centre of human culture and its scholars and
scientists set the course of thought and research in the direction of
modern life.

Holland’s prosperity, however, proved her undoing. After defying and
withstanding the absolutism of Spain, she fell a victim to that of Louis
XIV. And less by direct conquest than by the insidious sapping of
French influences. She became inflated with the ambition of being a
world-power, while her citizens emulated the fashions of French society.
Losing at the same time political liberty and intellectual and artistic
initiative and independence, she followed the human sheep-trail that led
southward over the Alps and for more than a century became a clumsy
imitator of the past art of Italy.


ENGLISH RENAISSANCE

England’s insular position tended to delay her reception of the New
Spirit. When at length it reached her it came simultaneously in the form
of Italian influence and of the Reformation. Yet both had been
anticipated a century earlier; the Reformation in the teaching of
Wycliffe, the Renaissance in the poetry of Chaucer. But the harvest of
the new spirit had been deferred by the French wars, the Wars of the
Roses, and the persecution of the Lollards, so that it was not until
1536, when the King, Lords, and Commons by the Act of Supremacy
established the Reformed Faith as the State Religion, that England
entered definitely, says Symonds, on a career of intellectual activity
abreast with the foremost nations of the Continent.

By this time the latter had accomplished the work of collating and
printing the classic authors and had produced a varied mass of
literature in the modern languages; all of which became food for the
omnivorous appetite of the English. Assimilation, at first, was slow and
retarded by imitation. Wyatt and Surrey, for example, grafted the graces
of Italian poetry onto the native stock, introducing the forms of the
sonnet and blank verse; Sidney experimented with the classic metres,
while tragedies in the style of Seneca, rivalled the similarly pedantic
imitations of Italian and French dramatists. Gradually, however, the
vigour of English digestion accomplished a complete assimilation.

England, through her sympathy with Holland, had found herself involved
in the conflict of the Counter-Reformation. She broke the rival power of
Spain by the destruction of the Armada, and through the buccaneering
exploits of Raleigh, Drake, Frobisher, and Hawkins opened up the
beginnings of colonial expansion. She leaped at a bound into
consciousness of nationality and in the glow of her enthusiasm
discovered her own capacity of originality.

Shakespeare is at once the crown and symbol of the English Renaissance.
He drew the material of his plots from a variety of foreign sources, but
creatively impressed upon his plays either a new and a universal
significance or unmistakably the English spirit of his day. Meanwhile,
Spenser, while deriving his allegory from the Middle Ages and decorative
richness from the Italian Renaissance, added thereto a sweetness,
purity, and splendour of imagination peculiarly English. And by the side
of Spenser and Shakespeare, as representative of the creative
imagination of the English Renaissance, must be set Bacon, the expositor
of the modern scientific method.

This flowering of the English Renaissance, in which intellectual
brilliance walked hand in hand with beauty, was rudely interrupted,
firstly, when the spirit of the Counter-Reformation was revived by James
I and Charles I; secondly, by the resultant Puritan reaction, and the
equally resultant license of the Restoration. A cleavage between morals
and beauty was opened up that to this day has not been bridged. On the
other hand, the spirit, let loose by the Renaissance and the
Reformation, pushed forward persistently on the path of political
liberty, and England’s mightiest contribution to the civilisation of the
world has been the realisation, however imperfect, of the ideal of human
freedom. Meanwhile, in the realm of the arts, it is in the province of
Literature, rather than in those of the Fine Arts, that her Renaissance
has reaped its most abundant harvest.




CHAPTER II

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY


The foregoing summary of Renaissance culture anticipates three marked
characteristics of the architecture which responded to it.

Renaissance architecture was developed from the study of classical
antiquities and, to some extent, of classic literature. It was adapted
to conditions of society which became increasingly elegant and
luxurious. It was created, no longer by gilds of craftsmen, but by
individual designers, whose names are recorded and identified with their
respective works.

We are also prepared to find that as the study of classic examples lost
the freshness of its early inspiration, it led to a growing formalism in
the use of the classic details; and that, as the temper of the time
declined in taste and grew in grossness, the architectural style
reflected the decadence in increasing pretentiousness and extravagance
of forms.

The Renaissance proper, in so far as the term New-birth is justified,
occupies the fifteenth century, the period called by the Italians the
Quattrocento. To the first half of the sixteenth century, the
Cinquecento, belongs the more formally classic style, after which
appeared the decline of the latter half of the century, known as the
Baroque style, followed during the seventeenth century by the further
degeneration into the Rococo.

[Illustration: PAZZI CHAPEL

BY BRUNELLESCHI: IN S. CROCE, FLORENCE. P. 343]

[Illustration: SANTA MARIA NOVELLA, FLORENCE

BY ALBERTI. EARLIEST EXAMPLE OF FLARING CONSOLES. P. 345]

[Illustration: STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE

BY CRONACA. A FORTRESS TYPE OF CITY RESIDENCE. P. 345]

[Illustration: CAPRAROLA PALACE

BY VIGNOLA. EXAMPLE OF COUNTRY VILLA. P. 348]

[Illustration: GVIMANE PALACE, VENICE

BY SAMMICHELE. P. 355]

[Illustration: BASILICA VICENZA

BY PALLADIO. TWO-STORIED CLASSICAL ARCADES SURROUNDING THE OLD GOTHIC
EDIFICE. P. 351]

[Illustration: DOGE’S PALACE, VENICE

RENAISSANCE PORTAL ADJOINING THE GOTHIC ARCADES. BY GIOV. AND BART.
BUON. P. 353]

[Illustration: S. MARIA DELLA SALUTE, VENICE

BY BALDASSARE LONGHENA. P. 356]

The decline of taste may have been hastened by the fact that Renaissance
architecture involved no new principles of construction. It was
essentially a product of adaptation, and with less consideration for
structural problems than for external appearances. There was a change in
the status of the architect: he ceased to be pre-eminently the
master-builder; he became a designer, specifically interested in what
one may perhaps call, the pictorial aspects of his building. He was
occupied with the composition of his façade, as a painter is with the
composition of his picture. He designed it on paper, as an organised
arrangement of lines, masses, details, and patterning of light and
shade. The days of working out the structural problems in the course of
construction and of employing the co-operation of skilled craftsmen, to
create the details of decoration had ceased with the passing of the
mason-gilds. In their place were workmen, who followed implicitly the
drawings of the designer.

And the latter, as was characteristic of the time, had become an
individualist, stamping his design with the impress of his own
personality. It was revealed not only in the larger elements of the
composition but also in the exquisiteness of detailed decorations. Nor
was the actual creativeness, involved in this tireless pursuit of the
refinements of beauty, confined to the externals of buildings; it was
expended with prolific invention on the interior fittings. Thus,
churches and palaces alike became museums, enshrining endless objects of
beautiful craftsmanship in metal-work, marble, terra-cotta, ivory, and
textiles, as well as the mural decorations of the painter.

Museums, however, it is to be noted, which were not, as in our own day,
huge storehouses of objects, separated from their original environment
and use, but treasure houses of beautiful things that formed part of
the habitual life of the people, palaces for those of high degree,
churches and town halls for all classes of the community. We cannot
enter into the spirit of the Renaissance unless we realise that to all
classes of the Italians of the period beauty was a familiar and living
element in their lives.

=Classic Influences.=--The influence of the classic remains began to be
apparent in the sculpture of Nicolas Pisano, who died in 1278. It
continued in the work of his son and became more marked in that of the
latter’s pupil, Andrea Pisano. There are distinct traces of it in
Giotto’s painting, especially in the details of the buildings, which are
evidently rude imitations of Roman antiquities. That they are rude is
fortunate, a proof that imitation of the past was not Giotto’s chief
concern. Indeed, the vital thing in Giotto, which made him the leader of
a new school of painting, was his effort to bring the arts into closer
touch with human nature. It was his pursuit of natural representation
and expression which caused him to be a leader in an age that was
rediscovering an enthusiasm for human nature; and in this respect he set
the main course for the whole of the fifteenth century. The trend of
Quattrocento painting and sculpture was to relearn the principles of
correct drawing and perspective and to use the growing knowledge and
skill for the expression of subjects that, while they were suggested
both by the Christian religion and the classic mythology, were informed
with the naïve freshness and independence of the expanding Italian
spirit.

A corresponding freedom from subservience to antique forms and a truly
creative adaptiveness characterised the architecture of the period. It
was during the Quattrocento that what is most original in Renaissance
architecture was achieved, and the old methods of construction and old
details of decoration were successfully applied to the new problems
imposed by changed conditions of living and habits of thought. It is by
the actual creativeness with which the readjustment was accomplished, as
well as by the discretion and refinement of taste, exhibited in the
whole and every part of the design, that the architecture of this period
is distinguished.

The qualities which it exhibits are a direct reflection of the influence
of the classic literary revival. The latter encouraged mental qualities
of logic and orderliness and an appreciation for beauty that was
characterised by precise taste and exacting refinement. And, just as
Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Ariosto on their foundation of classic learning
built the beginnings of a literature in the native tongue--the first
natural expression of the Italian genius, liberated by the study of
antiquity to new ideals of their own modern life--so it was with the
artists. Having graduated from the school of the past, they applied what
they had learned to meeting the needs and conditions of their own day.

=Perfection of Detail.=--Again, just as Petrarch and Boccaccio and their
followers in literature devoted themselves to perfection of expression,
so the architects of the Renaissance were distinguished by the
exquisiteness of the details they introduced into their designs. They
were, in the first analysis, individualists, so that the great ones--and
they were numerous--created individual styles. But, further, they
brought the keenness of their Italian intellect and the consummate
refinement of their taste to the disposition and actual execution of the
details. It has been said--and one may believe the truth of it--that
“the layman is not capable of appreciating the refinements and the
clearness of their mouldings, and the vigour and strength their virile
natures put into their silhouettes.”

Individualism being the characteristic of the Italian architects of the
Renaissance, we will enumerate the most important personalities.


PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS OF THE FLORENTINE SCHOOL

=Brunelleschi.=--Among the first of these deliberate students of antiquity
was the architect Brunelleschi. He was born in Florence in 1379 and
displayed early a talent for mechanical construction. Accordingly his
father apprenticed him to the Gild of Goldsmiths. He quickly became a
skilled workman and acquired a knowledge of sculpture, perspective, and
geometry. During a visit of some five years to Rome, the chief
repository of classic remains, he made a profound study of architectural
construction, especially as illustrated in the dome of the Pantheon, the
vaulted chambers of the baths, and the use of successive orders of
columns in the exterior of the Colosseum.

Returning to Florence, he entered into deliberation with the city
council to erect the =Dome of the Cathedral=. It crowns, like his Milan
cathedral dome, an octagonal plan. A design for it, which is pictured in
a fresco in the Spanish Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria Novella, had
already been prepared by Arnolfo di Cambio, the first architect of the
cathedral and the designer of the Palazzo Vecchio. Brunelleschi deviated
from it by raising the dome upon an octagonal drum, pierced with
circular windows, thereby securing the impressiveness of additional
height, while preserving the lightness of effect. He undertook to erect
the dome without the great expense of timber centerings, and
accomplished the feat, it is said, by placing voussoirs one above
another with horizontal joints.

The dome is composed of an inner and an outer shell of brickwork,
reinforced by eight main and eight intermediate ribs. It is 138 feet
wide, with a height from the spring of the drum to the eye of the dome
of 135 feet. The lantern was added after Brunelleschi’s death, from the
design he had prepared. This dome is not only a monument to the genius
of its creator, but scarcely rivalled in beauty by any other work of the
Renaissance. That of St. Peter’s may be a prouder and more imposing
structure, but it is more sophisticated in its use of classic details
lacking the grand simplicity of Brunelleschi’s--the natural nobility, if
one may say so, of a thing that has grown to life. It may be less
stately, but is more companionable; less imposing, but more intimately
inspiring. The contrast between the two domes reveals in a remarkable
way the difference between the dawn of the Renaissance and its high
noon.

Brunelleschi’s churches in =Florence= include =S. Lorenzo= and =S. Spirito=,
both of which are on a basilican plan, with elevations that involve
modifications of Roman construction. The former is barrel vaulted in the
Roman manner, but the nave ceiling of S. Spirito is of wood and flat.
The dome of the latter is erected upon _pendentives_ which henceforth
were employed on all Renaissance domes. Brunelleschi’s choicest
ecclesiastical design, however, is the =Pazzi Chapel= in =S. Croce=--a dome
over a square compartment, entered through a colonnade. He introduced
columned arcades into cloisters and palace courts and used them also as
features of the arcade in the =Loggia S. Paolo= and the =Ospedale degli
Innocente= or Foundling Hospital.

The two lower stories of the main front of the Pitti Palace were
designed by Brunelleschi, who also carved the fine crucifix in the Santa
Maria Novella. He died in 1446 and was buried in the Cathedral of
Florence.


=Michelozzo.=--Michelozzo, born in Florence in 1391, was the son of a
tailor and became a pupil of Donatello. He worked in marble, bronze, and
silver, one of the examples of his sculpture being the young S. John
over the door of the cathedral. As an architect he enjoyed the
friendship and patronage of Cosimo de’ Medici, for whom he built the
=Riccardi Palace=, which was the earliest example of stately domestic
architecture in Florence and proved a model for subsequent Tuscan
palaces. During a temporary exile of his patron he accompanied him to
Venice, where he designed the =Library of San Giorgio=. When in 1437
Cosimo bestowed the =Monastery of San Marco= on the Dominican monks of
Fiesole, Michelozzo was employed to remodel it, erecting, among other
features, the beautiful arcaded cloisters, which no doubt inspired the
architectural details in Fra Angelico’s picture of “The Annunciation.”
At his death, which appears to have occurred in 1472, he was buried in
San Marco.


=Alberti.=--Even in a higher degree than the two already mentioned,
Alberti represented the versatility of the Renaissance, for besides
being an architect he was also a painter, poet, philosopher, and
musician. He was born in Venice in 1404 and at the age of twenty wrote a
comedy in Latin verse, which in later years the publisher, Aldus
Manutius II, printed under the impression that it was a genuine classic
work. Alberti was appointed to a canonry in the Cathedral of Florence
and there established a reputation for being the finest organist of his
time. He wrote works on sculpture and painting but is most celebrated
for his treatise on architecture, “De Re Ædificatoria,” which has been
translated from the Latin into Italian, French, Spanish, and English. He
was employed in Rome by Pope Nicholas V to restore the papal palace. At
=Rimini= he was commissioned by Sigismondo Malatesta to remodel the =Church
of S. Francisco=.

Its design, of which only the lower part of the façade was erected, was
based on the Roman arch in Rimini, and along the south side Alberti
constructed vaults to receive the bodies of his patron’s friends. Both
these elements of design were introduced into his church of =Sant’ Andrea=
in =Mantua=. Here the place of the side aisles is taken by successive
chapels, separated by massive piers, which sustain the barrel vault of
the nave. The piers are faced by coupled Corinthian pilasters, mounted
upon pedestals. The intersection of nave and transepts is crowned by a
dome, which was replaced by the present one in the eighteenth century.
The façade of this church also is based upon the character of a
triumphal arch, and =Sant’ Andrea= became a type that was followed in many
subsequent churches. In Florence Alberti designed the marble-encrusted
façade of =S. Maria Novella=, in which he connected the side aisles to the
nave by means of flaring consoles, a device that was unfortunately
imitated in later churches. He died in Rome in 1472.


=Cronaca.=--Cronaca is to be mentioned as the architect of the =Strozzi= and
=Guardagni= Palaces.


PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS OF THE ROMAN SCHOOL

The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in Rome may be dated from the
pontficate of Nicholas V (1447-1455), who vied with the Medici as a
patron of scholars and artists. Alberti--we have noted--was employed by
him, for as yet there was no Roman architect approaching the talent of
the Florentine. And the dearth continued until the accession of Julius
II in 1503, by which time Bramante had arrived in Rome and there began
the golden period of Roman architecture, identified particularly with
him and Raphael and Michelangelo.


=Bramante.=--Bramante was born in Urbino about 1444 and as a young man
studied painting as well as architecture, the latter presumably under
Alberti. He travelled through Umbria and Lombardy, studying Roman
antiquities and obtaining various commissions, and passed some years in
Milan, where his work included the enlargement of the abbey church of =S.
Maria della Grazie=, to which he added a choir, transepts, and dome, in a
style that represents the transition between the Gothic and Classic.
Then, settling in Rome, he was commissioned by Pope Alexander VI to
erect the =Cancellaria Palace=, and shortly afterwards prepared designs
for the =Palazzo Giraud=. In both of these the Classic tendency is
developed. It is even more pronounced in the beautiful little church of
=S. Pietro in Montorio=. Founded on the design of a small Roman circular
temple, it consists of a circle the interior diameter of which is only
fifteen feet, crowned by a dome and surrounded with a peristyle of
columns of the Doric order.

By the advice of Michelangelo Julius II entrusted Bramante with the
design of the new =S. Peter’s=, which the Pope intended as a mausoleum
for his own tomb. The work, which will be discussed later, was
interrupted by Bramante’s death, which occurred in 1514.

=Raphael.=--The continuation of =S. Peter’s= was officially assigned to
Bramante’s nephew and pupil, Raphael (1483-1520), who, however, under
the pressure of other engagements, did little to advance the work.
Raphael’s architectural designs in Rome include the =Façade of S. Lorenzo
in Miranda=, the =Villa Madama= with stucco decorations by his pupil Giulio
Romano, and the =Pandolfini Palace=, which was erected ten years after his
death.


=Giulio Romano.=--Giulio Romano (1492-1546) was the architect of buildings
in Mantua, his masterpiece being the =Palazzo del Te’=, at =Mantua=.

Meanwhile, Bramante’s other pupils were Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536),
and Antonio da Sangallo (1485-1546).


=Peruzzi.=--Peruzzi passed his early life in Siena, but while quite young
moved to Rome and studied architecture and painting. His reputation was
established when he built for the Sienese banker, Agostino Chigi, a
villa on the banks of the Tiber, which is now known as the =Farnesina=, a
design remarkable for its grace and the delicacy of its details. The
interior is famous for the frescoes, representing the myths of Psyche
and Galatea, executed by Raphael and his pupils, while Peruzzi himself
decorated a loggia with frescoes of the story of Medusa.

He was appointed architect of S. Peter’s, though his design for its
completion was never carried out. During the sack of Rome in 1527 by the
troops of the Constable Bourbon, Peruzzi fled to Siena, where he was
elected city architect, and, as the city was preparing to resist attack,
planned the fortifications which still in part exist. Returning to Rome,
he designed several villas, of which the most important is the =Massimi
Palace=. It is significant of the esteem in which Peruzzi was held by his
contemporaries that at his death in 1536 he was buried by the side of
Raphael in the Pantheon.


=Ant. da Sangallo.=--Antonio da Sangallo the Younger was one of the five
members of a Florentine family, distinguished variously in architecture,
engineering, sculpture, and painting. Coming to Rome when very young he
became a pupil of Bramante, whose style he closely followed. Among his
most notable works are the church of =S. Maria di Loreto=, near Trajan’s
Column, and the =Farnese Palace=. The latter, completed by Michelangelo by
the addition of a grand cornice, is regarded by some experts as the
finest example of a Roman palace.


=Vignola.=--Distinguished among the upholders of the purity of the Classic
style was Giacomo Barocchio or Barozzi, better known as Vignola, from
the name of the place in which he was born, in 1507. After practising
for some time in Bologna, Piacenza, Assisi, and Perugia, he was summoned
to Rome by Pope Julius III, and built the villa Pope Julius, which is
now the =Etruscan Museum=. But the principal example of his style is the
=Palace of Caprarola=, erected some thirty miles from Rome for the Pope’s
nephew, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. It has a pentagonal plan enclosing
a circular court. Above the ground story the façades consist of two
stories, which have rusticated quoins at the angles and are composed of
an order of Ionic, superimposed upon Doric. Situated on a craggy
projection, overlooking the little town of Caprarola and commanding wide
vistas that reach to the Volscian Hills and the Apennines, with the dome
of St. Peter’s in the middle distance, this palace is embellished with
beautiful gardens, the whole representing one of the most magnificent
palace-villas of the Renaissance.

Vignola was one of the artists invited to =Fontainebleau= by Francis I.
After the death of Michelangelo he was appointed architect of =S. Peter’s=
and erected the cupolas. He also furnished the design of =Il Gesu=, the
Jesuit church in Rome, which was one of many erected along the lines of
S. Peter’s. His fame further rests on his writings, which include “The
Five Orders of Architecture” and a work on perspective. He died in 1573.


=Michelangelo.=--At this date Michelangelo had been dead nine years, but
it is convenient to consider him as the last great architect of the
Roman School, for he introduced new elements of design, which in the
hands of smaller men contributed to the decadence of the Renaissance
style. Architecture played a relatively small part in his titanic and
tempestuous career, which through the political confusion of the times
and changes of popes, oscillated between Florence and Rome. In the
former city he designed, as additions to Brunelleschi’s Medici church of
S. Lorenzo, the =Laurentian Library= and the =New Sacristy= or Mausoleum
which contains the tombs of Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, and Lorenzo, Duke
of Urbino.

In Rome, as early as 1505, Julius II had entrusted Michelangelo with the
commission of erecting his tomb. The ambition of the patron and the
imagination of the artist united in a project so colossal that =S.
Peter’s= was to be rebuilt to serve as a mausoleum for it. Unfortunately
for Michelangelo and perhaps for art, the death of Julius interfered
with the project. His heirs desired a less expensive monument and
succeeding popes were interested only in the rebuilding of S. Peter’s.
After forty years all that had been accomplished of the tomb were the
statues of Moses and the “Bound Captives.” “My youth has been lost,”
cried the sore-afflicted artist, “bound hand and foot to this tomb.”

Even in the lifetime of Julius the planning of =S. Peter’s= had been taken
from Michelangelo and given to Bramante, and it was not until his
seventy-second year that Michelangelo was called in to supervise the
work. He adhered to Bramante’s plan and added the supreme feature of the
dome, which was completed after his death. Meanwhile, he finished, as we
have noted, the =Farnese Palace= and remodelled the =Palaces of the
Capitol=, the latter being his most characteristic work in architecture.

For in the novel design of these he introduced the so-called “one-order”
treatment, abandoning the horizontal lines that mark the stories and
carrying up through them a colossal order of pilasters. The effect lends
grandeur and unity to the design, but at the expense of a violation of
the principle of fitting the character of the exterior to the
constructive character of the interior. It was a sacrifice of parts to
the whole such as Michelangelo employed in sculpture and by his genius
justified. When, however, his example was followed by others who had not
his genius, it led to the degradation of style of the Baroque that alike
in sculpture and architecture resulted in pretentiousness and
extravagance.

The gradual decline from the purity of the Classic style to the showy
and meretricious magnificence of the so-called “Baroque” period, was
encouraged by the wealthy order of the Jesuits. It was characterised by
a growing lack of architectural propriety, an increasing use of heavy
and ill-applied ornament, and a general tendency to profusion of details
for the sake of display--seen in broken and distorted pediments, huge
scrolls, sham marble, excessive gilding, and a general riot of
sculpture, often hysterical in its excess of emotional expression. The
chief promoters of this decadence were =Carlo Maderna= (1556-1629), and
=Borromini= (1599-1667), although the latter was an architect, capable
also of finer achievement, as is proved by his colonnade enclosing the
=Piazza of S. Peter’s=.


=Palladio.=--In some degree a contributor to this decadence, through the
misuse of his example by others, was Andrea Palladio (1518-1580), a
native of =Vicenza=, where his most characteristic work is to be seen. In
youth he studied the writings of the Roman author, Vitruvius, and of
Alberti, and familiarised himself with the classic style by study in
Rome. His own work, “The Four Books of Architecture,” which contains
measured drawings of antique buildings many of which have since
disappeared, had a wide and great influence upon architectural
development throughout Europe. In England, for example, it was
translated and furnished with notes by Inigo Jones, whose own style was
largely based on Palladio’s.

The latter’s work is chiefly associated with =Vicenza=, where his most
important example, considered also his best, is seen in the
double-storied arcades, added to the =Mediæval Basilica=. In the lower
story he introduced the Doric order; in the upper, the Ionic; and, in
both instances, supported the arches on small columns, while large
engaged columns, acting as buttresses, occupy the centre of the spaces
between the arches. This treatment has been known since as the Palladian
motive. These imposing and beautiful arcades were executed in fine
stone, whereas through no fault, it is believed, of the architect, his
palaces in Vicenza are mostly of brick, with stucco front that has
suffered from decay. They include the =Palazzo Capitania= and the =Palazzo
Barbarano=, and the =Villa Rotonda= which was freely imitated by the
English amateur architect, Lord Burlington (1695-1753) in his villa at
Chiswick on the Thames. Palladio’s design of the Villa Rotonda is a
square building fronted on all four sides by a portico, surmounted by a
pediment, the roofing of the square sloping up to a low dome which
crowns the central rotunda. At the end of his life he designed the
=Teatro Olympico= of =Vicenza=, which was completed after his death by
Scamozzi. In this he followed the directions of Vitruvius, but
introduced features of his own, among which is the interesting one of an
architectural background to the stage, built in perspective. Palladio
executed work also in Venice, the churches of =Il Redentore= and =S.
Giorgio Maggiore= being from his design, though the façade of the latter
was by Scamozzi.


PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS OF THE VENETIAN RENAISSANCE.

The Venetians had developed a beautiful type of Gothic, touched, through
their relations with the East, by Byzantine influence. It was admirably
suited to the social requirements and taste of a community of merchant
princes and wealthy middle-class, comparatively removed by geographical
position from the confusion of the times. For the wars of Venice,
conducted on foreign soil, left her unscathed, and during the fifteenth
century she reached the zenith of her commercial glory. But the decline
set in, when her trade with the Levant was blocked by the Turkish
occupation of Constantinople in 1453, and it was confirmed by the
passing of her Eastern commerce to the Portuguese, following Vasco da
Gama’s discovery of the Cape of Good Hope route to India (1497-1503).
But during the sixteenth century, though menaced both by the Emperor
Charles V and the French king, Francis I, and engaged in almost
perpetual struggle with the Turks, Venice maintained a splendid
isolation and reached the height of her artistic development.

The gradual modification of the Gothic style was effected by the
introduction of Classic features, especially at first of a decorative
character. One of the earliest examples of this transition is the fine
=Portal= of the =Doge’s Palace=, adjoining S. Marco, which was erected by
=Giovanni= and =Bartolommeo Buon=, who share with the Lombardi the chief
place in the early Venetian Renaissance.


=The Lombardi.=--This celebrated family of architects became known in the
person of a certain Martino who had two sons, Moro and Pietro
(1435-1515), and two grandsons by the latter, Antonio and Tullio. To
Martino belongs the façade of =S. Zaccaria=, the design of which was
developed in Pietro’s treatment of the beautiful little church of =S.
Maria dei Miracoli=. Its plan is an oblong, terminating in a square
chancel which is elevated considerably above the nave and is crowned by
a dome. The façade is decorated with two stories of engaged columns,
dividing the surface into panels which are encrusted with coloured
marbles, while the whole is surmounted by a semicircular pediment. The
carved details are of exquisite refinement. This choiceness of
decorative treatment reappears in the façade of the =Scuolo de S. Marco=,
which was also by Pietro, who further proved himself to be the most
accomplished member of the Lombardi by his façade of the =Vendramini
Palace=.


=Sansovino.=--The full development of the Renaissance style in Venice is
chiefly associated with Jacopo Sansovino (1477-1570). A pupil of the
Florentine sculptor, Andrea Sansovino, from whom he took his name, he
was at first employed by Julius II to restore antique statues and also
to make the bronze reproduction of the Laocoön group, which is now in
the Uffizi. After working in Florence and again in Rome, from which city
he fled when it was sacked by the Germans, Sansovino reached Venice in
1527 and was welcomed by Titian and Pietro Aretino. Here from time to
time he still produced indifferent sculpture, but became distinguished
as an architect, his most important works being the =Library of S. Marco=,
the =Zecca= or Mint, the =Cornaro Palace=, and the =Church of S. Giorgio del
Greci=--the last-named, erected by the Greek residents, being a
remarkable evidence of the tolerant spirit of the Venetians in the
matter of religion. In 1545 the roof of Sansovino’s library collapsed
and he was fined, imprisoned, and deprived of his office of chief
architect of S. Marco. He was, however, reinstated through the
intercession of Titian, Aretino, and other powerful friends and in the
course of his duties reinforced the domes with bands of iron.

The free invention with which Sansovino used the Classic orders and the
vigour and richness of his façades set the fashion for a sumptuousness
of style that in his hands had an imposing magnificence, but in his
followers degenerated into excess.


=Sammichele.=--Since Michele Sammichele (1484-1559) designed the =Gvimane
Palace= in Venice, considered his masterpiece, and was also employed by
the Signoria to construct the fortifications of the Lido, he may be
mentioned here, but his chief work is associated with Verona. Born near
the latter city, in the village of San Michele, the son of an architect,
he was sent as a youth to Rome to study Classic sculpture and
architecture. Among his earliest works is the uncompleted =Cathedral of
Montefiascone=. His fame as a military architect was established when he
remodelled the fortifications of Verona, introducing the new system of
corner bastions and giving grandeur to the gateways by the use of
rusticated masonry--a feature which he used effectively in his palace
designs. The finest of these in his native city are the =Canossa=,
=Bevilacqua=, and =Pompeii Palaces=. He wrote a work on “The Five Orders of
Architecture.”


=Scamozzi.=--Scamozzi has already been mentioned as adding the façade to
Palladio’s =Church of S. Giorgio Maggiore=. That his name disappears from
Venetian architecture is due to the fact that he was one of the Italian
artists who carried the Renaissance into Bohemia, and designed parts of
the Hradschin palace in Prague.


=Longhena.=--One exception to the excessive mannerism of the Baroque,
which characterised the Venetian style of the seventeenth century, is
found in the designs of Baldassare Longhena. These include the palaces
=Pesaro= and =Rezzonico= and the church of =S. Maria della Salute=. The
palaces are overcharged with ornament, especially with sculptured
figures, yet as a whole they are dignified, with the imposing character
due to bold, rich contrasts of light and shade that recall the example
of Sansovino. S. Maria is built on the plan of a Greek cross, with a
central dome, rising above an octagonal drum that is supported by
curving buttresses. A secondary dome surmounts the chancel, while
adjoining it is a campanile. Situated at the entrance to the Grand
Canal, the whole mass, especially when viewed from a distance that
reduces the disturbance of the statue-ornaments, presents a mingling of
picturesqueness and stateliness that makes it one of the most beautiful
features of the city.

       *       *       *       *       *

To the latter part of the sixteenth century belong a number of imposing
palaces, erected in Genoa by the commercial princes, many of which were
designed by =Galeazzo Alessi= (1502-1572). They include the =Balbi=,
=Brignole=, =Durazzo=, =Doria-Tursi=, and =Pallavacini=.

[Illustration: RICCARDI PALACE, FLORENCE

BUILT FOR COSIMO I DE’ MEDICI, BY MICHELOZZO. EARLY RENAISSANCE. P. 358]

[Illustration: PALAZZO VECCHIO

OR MUNICIPAL PALACE OF FLORENCE; BY ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO. GOTHIC STYLE. P.
358]

[Illustration: CA D’ORO, VENICE

GOTHIC STYLE, BY GIOV. AND BART. BUON. P. 360]

[Illustration: VENDRAMINI PALACE, VENICE

RENAISSANCE STYLE, BY PIETRO LOMBARDO. P. 360]

[Illustration: FARNESE PALACE, ROME

BY SANGALLO; THE CORNICE BY MICHELANGELO. P. 363]

[Illustration: COURT OF THE FARNESE PALACE

CONSIDERED THE MOST IMPOSING IN ITALY. P. 363]

[Illustration: CAPITOL PALACES, ROME

BY MICHELANGELO. P. 363]

[Illustration: LIBRARY OF S. MARK, VENICE

BY SANSOVINO. P. 365]

[Illustration: S. ANDREA, MANTUA

BY ALBERTI. P. 367]

[Illustration: S. SPIRITO, FLORENCE

BY BRUNELLESCHI. P. 367]

[Illustration: S. PETER’S, ROME

SHOWING FAÇADE, PIAZZA AND COLONNADES. P. 370, ET SEQ.]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF S. PETER’S, ROME

P. 370, ET SEQ.]




CHAPTER III

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY--CONTINUED


The method that we have followed so far in this book has been to study
architecture in relation to problems of construction and to the
materials employed, and to think of a building as an organic growth
determined by plan, site, and the purposes for which it is intended--as
a structure in which all the parts are co-ordinated to the whole, each
directly functioning in the completed scheme. This is the architect’s
way of considering his problem. So we have followed it, in the desire to
avoid the error into which architects tell us that most laymen fall of
thinking only of the outside of a building--how it is decorated, whether
the design seems to be handsome or the reverse.

When, however, we come to the study of Italian Renaissance architecture,
some architects tell us that we must adopt another method of judgment.
These are the architects who are out-and-out advocates of the Italian
Renaissance style, considering its achievements to be “supreme.” They
admit that the Italian architects were less concerned with problems of
construction than with general beauty of design; hence they were
actuated not so much by logic as by feeling; and feeling especially for
detail. They displayed extraordinary genius for design, both in the
choice and disposition of the decorative effects and in the skill and
refinement of their execution. They were designers rather than
constructors.

This being the case, they should be judged accordingly. To estimate
their work by the test of constructive logic is arbitrary and unfair.
They should be judged by what they started out to accomplish; by the
character and quality of their designs.

In a word, as it may appear, these advocates would have us apply a
pictorial test; such a one, for example, as may serve in the case of the
great picture, “Marriage in Cana of Galilee,” by Paolo Veronese. We do
not trouble to consider the appropriateness of the architectural
setting, still less to explain the functions of its several parts; we
accept it without qualification as contributing to a monumental design.

Very possibly this actually represents the main attitude of the Italian
Renaissance artists toward architecture. They thought of it in its
pictorial aspect and practised it primarily as an art of design. With
them began the modern habit of conceiving a building primarily as a
design on paper. It is an effect of what we have already mentioned--the
separation of builder and designer that characterised the Italian
Renaissance.

Accordingly, while the following comparisons are based upon the
principles that we have been adopting throughout this book, the reader
should bear in mind the exception that has been taken to this method of
judgment.


=Palazzo Vecchio--Riccardi Palace.=--A good idea of the transition from
the Gothic to the Early Renaissance in Florentine Architecture may be
gained from a comparison of the =Palazzo Vecchio= and the =Riccardi Palace=.
The former was built by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1298, as the Municipal
Palace of the Podesta and Signoria. The Riccardi was erected in 1430 by
Michelozzo for Cosimo I de’ Medici. While the Republic still survived as
a name, he had usurped the actual power and occupied the Palazzo
Vecchio until the completion of his own mansion, which was thenceforth
to be the centre not only of the Medicean domination but also of its
courtly splendour and liberal patronage of literature and art.

Each edifice presents to the outside world a cubical mass, while the
interior includes a cortile or open court. But the Vecchio is the
severer in design, as befits Republican simplicity; it still has
something of the character of a mediæval fortress, due largely to the
heavy battlemented cornice that projects on massive corbels, with
machicolations or openings in the floor of the gallery, from which
defenders might drop missiles on an attacking force. A similar feature
surmounted the original tower (for the present superstructure was added
later)--a tower that was an additional source of defence as well as a
lookout for the detection of fires or other local disturbances. It still
served these purposes under the despotism of Cosimo; so that no tower
was needed for his house. Meanwhile, he and his successors had ever to
be on the watch against sudden alarms, so that it was admissible to
preserve somewhat of the fortress character--massive masonry, with door
and window openings, that might not be difficult to defend. On the other
hand, it would be impolitic either to make the purpose of protection too
apparent or to excite hostility by too lavish an appearance of grandeur
on the exterior. Moderation must be the keynote of the design, and the
facilities of luxurious living should be confined to the interior.

The result is a modification of the Palazzo Vecchio design by the
introduction of classic details. A classic cornice replaces the
machicolated; round arches supplant the pointed arches, the windows of
the upper stories, in place of trefoils, have round-top lights,
separated by a circular column. They are technically known as of the
_arcade_ type, while the windows of the ground floor are changed to
rectangular shapes and are of the _architrave_ type, that is to say set
in moulded frames, which are supported on consoles and surmounted by
classic pediments. Moreover in all these details, attention has been
paid to refinements of modelling; there is a choicer feeling of
proportion in the adjustment of the openings to the solid wall spaces
while the divisions of the stories have been distinguished by projecting
string courses and in such a way as to mark the importance of the second
story or _piano nobile_. A superior refinement and logic of arrangement
have regulated the whole design. The building, in fact, reflects the
changed social conditions and the new mental and æsthetic attitude
toward life produced by the study of classic literature and works of
art.


=Ca d’Oro--Vendramini.=--Now if we shift our glance to Venice and compare
the façades of the =Ca d’Oro= and =Vendramini Palaces=, we discover a great
difference between them and the Florentine examples. The Ca d’Oro was
erected by the Brothers Buon in the fifteenth century, a reminder of how
late the Gothic style was continued in Venice. The Vendramini, Pietro
Lombardo’s great achievement in domestic architecture, was completed in
1481. What a contrast both present to the Riccardi! It is an expression
of different habits of life. There is in both Venetian buildings the
suggestion of greater social security and a freer intercourse with the
outside world and less obstructed enjoyment of out of doors. The ample
windows of the Vendramini spread a welcome broadcast. And while the
arcaded loggia which distinguished the Ca d’Oro have been replaced in
the Vendramini by a balcony in the principal story and have disappeared
above, the change means a brighter lighting of the interior.

It is to be noted that the design of the Ca d’Oro is incomplete. One has
to imagine on the left a wing similar to that on the right. The massing
of the openings in the centre of the façade, instead of their even
distribution along the whole front, was peculiar to Venetian palaces. It
is apparent, although in a less pronounced manner, in the spacing of the
façade of the Vendramini. Another Venetian peculiarity is the limiting
of the beauty of the design to the main façade. Even when a side abutted
on another canal or a garden, the walls were finished in stucco instead
of marble; embellishments were omitted and, worst of all, not even was
the cornice continued. These limitations impair the integrity of the
design and seriously diminish its dignity. The fact is even more
apparent in the case of the Vendramini, for by this time the horizontal
members of the façade had acquired a definite constructive meaning, and
the failure to continue them around the sides betrays an indifference to
the logic of design.

The façade of the Vendramini is no longer _astylar_ (columnless), as,
with the exception of the window columns, is that of the Riccardi. The
adaptation of classic details has proceeded so far that pilasters are
introduced as decorative features in the ground story, and engaged
columns in the upper ones; an excuse for their appearance being
suggested by attaching their capitals to the string courses and cornice.
This device was drawn from the example of the Roman buildings, in which
the Greek relation of upright and horizontal members was diverted from
an element of construction into an element purely of design. Further,
while the windows of the Vendramini recall the character of the _arcade_
type, they have advanced to the _order_ type, the openings being framed
by pilasters or columns. Thus, this design embodies more or less all the
changes which the Early Renaissance brought about in secular buildings.

=Vendramini--Cancellaria.=--Comparing the =Vendramini=, however, with
Bramante’s adaptation of classic details as illustrated, for example, in
the =Palazzo della Cancellaria=, we can see how far removed it is in
feeling from the productions of the fully developed Renaissance. By the
latter time (1505) the nutriment derived from the antique had been
digested and assimilated. The antique not only contributed to, but, in
its revived form, was becoming a part of the spirit of the time.
Architecture was becoming identified with a culture that was fast losing
its fresh, Italian inspiration in an unqualified admiration and
imitation of what was antique and pagan.

Compared with the Vendramini or even the severer Riccardi, the
Cancellaria exhibits a precision of style that is rather close to
formalism. The design is less a product of inspired invention than of
scholarly adaptation. It may well strike one, especially at first sight,
as cold, lifeless, even pedantic; and it is not until one has studied
the design in some detail and become conscious of the refinement of
feeling and finesse of taste, involved in the relation of the parts to
the whole, that one is in a mood to recognise its claim to admiration.

The façade is constructed of blocks of travertine, taken from the
Colosseum--for notwithstanding their reverence for antiquity the
Italians of the Renaissance were prone to the vandalism of robbing Peter
to pay Paul. An order of Corinthian pilasters with strongly marked
cornices and string courses, embellishes the upper stories, in which
also is introduced the novel arrangement of alternately narrow and wide
spacings, the contrast being subtly balanced by the window openings.
Noticeable is the variety attained by the alternating of square and
round topped windows, and also their distribution to mark the relative
importance of the several stories. In the windows of the _piano nobile_
the effect of the round-top lights is heightened by a rectangular frame,
formed of pilasters, decorated with arabesques, while the upper part
includes spandrels relieved by a single large rosette and surmounted by
a delicately proportioned cornice.

=Cancellaria--Farnese.=--It is interesting to compare the official
=Cancellaria= with the famous domestic example, the =Palazzo Farnese=. The
latter dates from 1530 to 1546, when the façade designed by Sangallo,
some say with Vignola’s co-operation, was completed by Michelangelo. His
contribution was the cornice, which by its boldness of projection and
richness of detail redeems the comparative monotony of evenly spaced
windows and repeated framings. However, it is the court of this palace,
said to be the most imposing in Italy, that presents its finest claim to
distinction, and here the two lower stories, erected by Sangallo, are
superior in freedom of design, as well as dignity, to the more cramped
and crowded upper one that was added by Michelangelo.

=Capitol Palaces.=--The latter, a few years earlier, namely in 1540, had
begun the erection of the =Capitol Palaces=, a design that flanks three
sides of a square, the right and left of which are occupied
respectively, by the =Palazzo dei Conservatori= and the =Capitoline Museum=,
both completed in 1542, while the centre, finished in 1563, a year
before Michelangelo’s death, holds the =Palazzo dei Senatori=.

In these façades appears the innovation of pilasters, carried through
the two upper stories. This emphasis of the vertical lines contradicts
the internal division of the structure into stories and is at the
sacrifice of the horizontal lines of the façade. The latter are broken
up into balconies, while the interior division is only hinted at by the
windows. But Michelangelo with the audacity of genius rejected
proprieties of detail and even logic of structure, as he was prone to do
also in his sculpture--witness the recumbent figures on the Medici
tombs--for the sake, as we should say to-day, of a grander and more
impressive synthesis. In a word, he sacrificed the parts to the whole;
and to secure the impressiveness of the whole, ties the pilasters
together at the top with an entablature that comprises a boldly
projecting cornice and is additionally emphasised by the crowning
feature of a balustrade. Except that the cornice takes the place of
pediments the principle of design is virtually that of a Roman temple,
diverted from its purpose and brusquely made to accommodate itself to
novel conditions. In the hands of Michelangelo the end may be said to
justify the means, but this device of ignoring the interior necessities
of construction in favour of an arbitrary exterior design became a
precedent that contributed largely to the decadence of the Renaissance
style. Yet, after all, it was only carrying to a destructively logical
conclusion the use of the classic orders as elements not of constructive
but of purely decorative design.

We have already noted in the case of Gothic architecture that its
decadence was exhibited in a superabundance of decorative detail, and a
similar course appears in the Renaissance. Much of the responsibility
of the change is attributed to Sansovino. While Michelangelo magnified
the decorative, the Venetian architect elaborated it. His façade of the
=Library of San Marco= may be cited as an example.

=Capitol Palaces--Library of S. Mark.=--If we compare the Library with the
=Capitol Palaces= we discover several important differences. In the
Venetian building the divisions of the interior are indicated by the
emphatic horizontal features; and the latter, as well as the deep
openings of the arcade and of the windows, produce a depth of shadow
effects, which in combination with the lighted surfaces results in great
variety and richness. It is precisely these qualities, which are also
elements in the design of Hellenic and Roman temples, that Michelangelo
lost or discarded in his adaptation. Contrasted either with a temple or
with Sansovino’s Library, the Capitol Palaces, grandiose although they
are, seem tame and tight, lacking in structural vitality. Sansovino
introduced vigour into his design by increasing the projection of his
large and small columns and by using the latter in couples; also by
giving a corresponding projection to all the decorative details and by
introducing sculptured figures into the spandrels of the arches and the
frieze.

The principle of his design, stated in ordinary terms, was: If such and
such things are good, more of them will be better. It was a principle
that might well commend itself to the Venetians’ love of pageantry and
display. Sansovino had sufficient taste to know how far to carry the
elaboration; but in the hands of succeeding architects his restraint was
exchanged for license, variety degenerated into fussiness, and
elaboration became extravagance.

=Pesaro Palace.=--These faults are discernible in the Pesaro Palace
(1650-1680) by Longhena, a product of the Venetian Rococo spirit, and by
no means an extreme example. For it preserves a certain dignity of mass
notwithstanding that it is overcharged with ornament that gives it an
effect of trickiness and restlessness. And the latter, it is to be
noted, is partly due to the device, which for a long time had been
prevalent, of carrying the horizontal moulding around the projecting
capital of an engaged column or pilaster. Borrowed from Roman usage, it
represents an element of decoration that tends to convert the
contrasting quietness of the horizontal lines into a jiggety
disturbance. This palace, however, can lay claim to the distinction that
the superimposed orders are continued, with pilasters instead of
columns, along the façade that abuts on the side canal.


ECCLESIASTICAL BUILDINGS

We have now to trace the progress of the Renaissance style as it
affected Ecclesiastical architecture. It is maintained by enthusiastic
advocates of Gothic architecture, such as Ralph Adams Cram in his
inspired little book, “The Gothic Quest,” that whereas Gothic
architecture was evolved by the Church and laity through the impulse of
a common Faith, and was determined in all its essential particulars by
the symbolism of the Christian religion and the requirements of
Christian worship, the change effected by the Renaissance was a
reversion to the architectural types of Paganism. Renaissance
ecclesiastical architecture did not grow; it was formulated out of
precedents that were the direct antithesis of Christianity and Christian
worship; derived either from temples that were built after the belief
even in the Pagan religion had languished or died out, or from types of
secular architecture, such as baths, basilicas, and triumphal arches.
Therefore it was false in principle and illogical and insincere in fact.

It is difficult not to agree with this criticism; the more so, that it
is a matter of knowledge that the Renaissance style was developed by
ecclesiastics and laity who, while they tolerated the traditional
religion--“If we are not ourselves pious,” as Pope Julius II said, “why
should we prevent the people from being so?”--were in their own tastes,
convictions, and habits of life notoriously pagan. Accordingly, it is
not the aspiration of the soul, the ascending confidence of faith, the
yearning of the spirit beyond the confines of the flesh that are
embodied in Renaissance church architecture; but, increasingly, the
pride of intellect, the pride of life, and the satisfaction of the
senses in ceremonial display.

=S. Spirito--S. Andrea.=--We will compare first Brunelleschi’s Church of
=S. Spirito= in =Florence= (1476) with Alberti’s =S. Andrea= in =Mantua= (1512).
Professor Fletcher points out the close analogy between the former and
the Romanesque church of the Apostles, erected in Florence during the
ninth century. It represents, in effect, a reversion to the features of
the Tuscan Romanesque--vaulted aisles, a flat ceiling over the nave,
surmounting a high clerestory and aisles. For the support, however, of
the low dome over the crossing, Brunelleschi revived the Byzantine
system of pendentives, which henceforth were used in all the Renaissance
domes. Classic influence is chiefly apparent in the details of the
columns, which present probably the first example of fragments of
entablature placed upon the capitals to sustain the spring of the
arches.

Alberti’s design, on the other hand, is unqualifiably an adaptation of
Roman style, except in the case of the dome, which is supported by
pendentives and raised on a drum. But the latter assumes the classical
form of a peristyle of columns surmounted by an entablature. The roof of
the nave is barrel vaulted and coffered in the Roman manner and springs
directly from the entablature, which rests on piers that are decorated
with engaged pilasters of the Corinthian order. The façade of the porch
supplies the motive of the whole design, being an adaptation of the
Roman triumphal arch in Mantua. Accordingly, it is composed of four
Corinthian engaged columns, mounted on pedestals in the Roman manner,
supporting an entablature and pediment. The three intervening spaces are
occupied by doors, over each of the side ones being a window above a
window, while the central door is flanked by two columns, which support
a cornice and arch that frame a lunette. If the student will compare it
with the main portal of some Gothic or Romanesque church, he will
discover an instructive difference.

=Il Gesu--S. Giorgio Maggiore.=--Here is a further comparison of
Renaissance church-façades:--the Jesuit Church in Rome, =Il Gesu= (1568)
and =S. Giorgio Maggiore= in Venice (1560). The former is by Vignola; the
latter was erected by Scamozzi, the pupil of Palladio. But Palladio
designed the rest of the church and, since the façade was built during
his lifetime, may have had more or less to do with its design. It is at
any rate in the Palladian manner.

Both Palladio and Vignola were pronounced classicalists, and yet they
contributed to the decadence of the Renaissance style. It is true that
Palladio’s own style was characterised by a marked severity; note the
present façade which presents a severely formal application of columns,
entablatures, and pediments. But it involves a feature that readily lent
itself to extravagant exploitation; namely, the emphasis upon colossal
columns. Vignola’s design, on the other hand, is characterised by a
multiplication and elaboration of features, which his sense of classic
propriety has kept within ordered bounds but which a less refined taste
might easily degrade into exuberant pretentiousness.

And indeed a certain pretentiousness marks both these façades. They make
claim to being imposed by methods that are actually a pretence. For
neither design has grown out of the necessities and circumstances of the
building. Each represents the arbitrary importation of alien
ingredients, pieced together to conform to the principles of a style
that was evolved for other purposes and conditions. Each design is false
in motive and specious in its application of principles; and, since lies
breed lies, it must share responsibility for the flagrancy of specious
and pretentious shams that in time ensued from it.

And, already, in both these designs the imitation of the antique results
in cold and rigid formalism. Compare, for example, Vignola’s façade with
one of the Tuscan Romanesque, for instance, Pisa cathedral. The
architects of the latter borrowed from the Romans the use of applied
arcades of arches and columns; but used the device frankly as a
decorative sheathing, subordinated in scale to the constructive mass,
and maintained the rich simplicity of effect by repetition of the same
decorative motive.

Vignola, however, treated his sheathing as if it had actual constructive
meaning; and, moreover, multiplied the motives. Big, coupled columns,
mounted on pedestals, supported an entablature, the cornice of which
becomes the support of another series of big, coupled columns, which
make a great display of supporting a little pediment. Comparing this
Renaissance example with the Pisan, one may be reminded of a circus
incident. At first there enters a performer who with delightful agility
and grace keeps a number of balls moving lightly in the air. He is
followed by another, who, assuming the attitudes of an Atlas supporting
the world, labours with a cannon ball, which, when it is finally tossed
aside, proves to be no heavier than a football.

Scarcely less incongruous is the Palladian design, with its colossal
framework of columns, entablature and pediment, and the paltry scale of
its doorway and windows. And then the enormity of the broken pediment,
the two parts of which form the front of the series of side-chapels that
flank the interior of the nave. Of course there is a sort of callous
logic represented. The pediment is the end of a sloping roof; therefore,
if the roof be separated into two parts, why not separate the pediment?
But what about the taste which, as we have seen, always tempered the
logic of the Greeks? Could the Greek taste have tolerated the cleavage
in half of a little temple design and the swaggering intrusion between
them of a giant design and persuaded itself that the domination of the
latter produced a harmony of relations?


S. PETER’S

The culminating achievement of the Italian Renaissance was the new
Church of =S. Peter’s=, the erection of which, dating from 1506 to about
1626, covers the whole period of the rise and decline of the Classic
movement in Rome.

The original plan, as laid out by Bramante, was a Greek cross,
comprising, that is to say, four equal parts. On this he proposed to
design a building that should combine the three great barrel-vaulted
halls of the Basilica of Constantine with the dome of the Pantheon. In
1514, the year preceding Bramante’s death, Sangallo the Elder, Raphael,
and Fra Gioconda da Verona were associated with the work; but the
advanced age of the first and third and Raphael’s preoccupation with
painting and his early death caused little to be accomplished.

Meanwhile a difference of opinion had arisen as to whether the plan
should be a Greek or Latin cross. The construction was continued under
the directorship of Sangallo the Younger and Peruzzi, until in 1546
Michelangelo was appealed to. He rescued the ground plan of Bramante,
reinforced the piers which the latter had begun at the crossing, and
made drawings and a wooden model of the dome as far up as the lantern
and actually completed the erection of the drum.

He was succeeded by Vignola, who added the four cupolas around the dome.
The dome itself was completed from Michelangelo’s model, and finished
(1585-1590) with a lantern, by Giacomo della Porta and Fontana.

During 1605-1612, at the instance of Paul V, the nave was lengthened by
Carlo Maderna to form a Latin instead of a Greek cross and the façade
was erected.

Finally, between 1629 and 1667, Bernini constructed the brazen
baldachino and lavished sculpture on the interior, while completing the
exterior effect by the colonnades which enclose the Piazza.

Easily the largest church in the world, S. Peter’s compares with other
large churches as follows, the figures representing square yards of area
in round numbers: =S. Peter’s=, 18,000; =Seville=, 13,000; =Milan=, 10,000; =S.
Paul’s=, =London=, 9000; =S. Sophia=, 8000; =Cologne=, 7000. The interior
measurement of S. Peter’s is approximately 205 yards long; the nave
being 150 feet high and 87 feet wide (the same dimensions as those of
the great hall of the Constantine basilica). The dome from the pavement
to the summit of the lantern is 403 feet, the cross adding another 30;
while the diameter is 138 feet, about five feet less than the dome of
the Pantheon.

The prolongation of the nave by three bays has destroyed the symmetry of
mass, conceived by Bramante and Michelangelo, besides interfering with
the exterior view of the dome, which is visible only from a distance.
The east façade (for S. Peter’s reverses the usual orientation from west
to east) is, for all its magnitude, unimpressive. Its extension beyond
the actual edifice at each end still further accentuates the
comparatively mean scale of the portal. But scale is very generally
sacrificed both on the exterior and in the interior of S. Peter’s. This
is attributed by experts to the change of design introduced by
Michelangelo.

As arranged by Sangallo the Younger, the façades were to comprise the
superimposed orders; for which Michelangelo substituted his scheme of
the Capitol Palaces--a single colossal order, surmounted by an attic. He
thus gained dignity at the expense of scale; for although the huge
pilasters are eighty-seven feet high, they look much smaller, while the
windows between them, each twenty feet in height, give an impression to
the eye of about half that size. There is a similar apparent dwarfing of
size in the piers and engaged columns of the nave, which actually
measure to the top of the entablature one hundred feet. And this
necessitated a corresponding increase of the dimensions of the
sculptured figures in the spandrels, which are twenty feet high, thus
further overpowering the sense of height.

The noblest feature of the interior is the magnificent barrel vault of
the nave, while the surpassing grandeur of the whole edifice consists in
Michelangelo’s dome.

Like Brunelleschi’s it has an inner and an outer shell, and is
constructed on sixteen ribs, which, however, are all visible internally.
The chief difference is the elevation of the dome and drum upon a second
and loftier drum, composed of coupled Corinthian columns and intervening
windows. This design was an adaptation of those which had been made by
Bramante and Sangallo the Younger. The former had suggested a peristyle
of columns; the latter, two drums; and Michelangelo virtually combined
the two. But, in doing so he conceived new proportions between the
vertical parts of the drum and the curve of the dome, that give his
design not only a superior majesty but also a superior lightness and
airiness.

S. Peter’s indeed, notwithstanding much extravagant, tasteless, and
meretricious sumptuousness, due to Bernini and others, remains a
stupendous monument to the genius of Michelangelo and Bramante and to
the genius of the Italian Renaissance. It is the fit symbol of an age
that gradually lost touch of the finer things of the spirit and grew to
worship greatness, power, and pomp; that had all but discarded
Christianity for Paganism.

       *       *       *       *       *

Meanwhile the noblest trait of the Italian genius was its worship of
beauty as well as power. The creativeness of the Italians was revealed
in their extraordinary sensitiveness to all forms of beauty in the
visible world; and in the world of intellectual conception, and in their
marvellous aptitude for translating their impressions of beauty into
forms of equivalent refinement. Accordingly, the student of to-day
visits churches to enjoy the treasures of pictured altar-pieces,
sculptured tombs, pulpits, wonders of metal-work in screens and sacred
vessels, marvels of exquisite craftsmanship in objects too numerous to
mention. The =Sistine Chapel= draws him because of Michelangelo’s
frescoes, the =Stanze= apartments for Raphael’s, and the adjoining =Loggia=
for his pictured Bible. Again, it is Raphael’s frescoes that lead him to
the =Villa Farnesina=, while many another villa charms to-day by the
beauty of its gardens and terraces, fountains, cascades, and fish-ponds,
shaded alleys and grottos. In innumerable ways it is the accompaniments
of Italian Renaissance architecture, as well as the architecture itself,
that excite admiration and have their message for ourselves.

[Illustration: CHÂTEAU DE BLOIS

GOTHIC PART BUILT BY LOUIS XII. P. 379]

[Illustration: MAISON FRANÇOIS I. PARIS

BUILT IN 1527. NOTE UNUSUAL SIZE OF WINDOWS; ALSO RICHNESS OF
INTERVENING PILASTERS. P. 380]

[Illustration: CHÂTEAU DE BLOIS

PART ADDED BY FRANCIS I, SHOWING STAIRCASE TOWER. P. 380]

[Illustration: CHÂTEAU DE CHAMBORD

PERIOD FRANCIS I. P. 380]

[Illustration: LUXEMBOURG PALACE

ERECTED FOR MARIE DE MÉDICIS, WIFE OF HENRI IV; BY SALOMON DE BROSSE. P.
386]

[Illustration: PLAN SHOWING GROWTH OF LOUVRE

FROM THE ORIGINAL PART ERECTED BY PIERRE LESCOT--THE LEFT LOWER CORNER
OF THE DARK QUADRANGLE ON RIGHT OF PLAN. P. 382, ET SEQ.]

[Illustration: PAVILLON DE L’HORLOGE, LOUVRE

WING TO THE RIGHT, THE ORIGINAL PART BY PIERRE LESCOT. THE PAVILLON AND
LEFT WING BY LEMERCIER (LOUIS XIII). PP. 384, 385]




CHAPTER IV

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE


1. _Early Renaissance._ Reigns of Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I
(1483-1547).

2. _Advanced Renaissance._ Henri II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henri
III (1547-1589).

3. Classic Period. Henri IV, Louis XIII, and Louis XIV (1589-1715).

4. _Rococo._ The Regency and Louis XI (1715-1774).

       *       *       *       *       *

By the middle of the fifteenth century commercial relations with Italy
and the number of Italian ecclesiastics holding benefices in France, had
caused a steady influx of Italian influence, which became intensified by
the military interferences of Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I in
the politics of Italy. The practical issue of these otherwise disastrous
expeditions was the invasion of Italian culture into France.

=Italian Culture.=--It produced a new era of intellectual activity and
fostered a new refinement of taste and social conditions. Its earliest
results are typified in the career of Francis I. No French king before
his time had received so liberal an education. Under the enlightened
care of his mother, Louise of Savoy, he was early trained in Latin,
Italian, and Spanish, sharing the studies with his gifted sister,
Margaret, afterward Queen of Navarre, a patroness of literature and
herself the author of the “Heptameron,” a collection of stories,
supposed to extend over seven days in the telling and modelled on the
style of Boccaccio’s “Decameron.” Francis also played the rôle of
patron, surrounding himself with men of letters and artists; but while
he encouraged the visits of Italian artists he was no less eager to
encourage native talent. His patronage of Clement Marot, the first great
poet of the French Renaissance, is a case in point and, corresponding
with this _amour propre_ regarding native talent notwithstanding his
love for things Italian, was his employment of French architects, the
services of foreign artists being used chiefly in the way of sculptural
and painted decorations.

By the middle of the fifteenth century the great era of church building
had been exhausted. The needs of the population for places of worship
were fully satisfied; the profession of architect passed from the
clerics to laymen, who, so far as ecclesiastical work was concerned,
were busy embellishing existing churches with altar-furnishings,
screens, pulpits, fonts, tombs, and so forth, in which the novel skill
of the Italian craftsman was freely used.

=School of Tours.=--Thus, in consequence of Italian influence, a new
school of French sculpture grew up, which centered in Tours, a city at
this period specially favoured by the kings of France. The genius of
this “School of Tours” was Michel Colombe, whose art represented a blend
of Italian refinement and Gothic vigour; and it was precisely this
mingled quality that characterised the architecture of the Early French
Renaissance. It, too, was centered in Tours, and blossomed forth
throughout the Province of Touraine. For it was a distinction of the
French Court life of the period that it avoided cramped conditions of
city environment and spread itself luxuriantly in the pleasures of
country life. Accordingly, the architectural memorials of the Early
French Renaissance are mainly the royal and noble châteaux that stud
Touraine, especially along the banks of the rivers Loire and Cher.

=Châteaux.=--The conditions being so local and essentially an expression
of the French idea of living, the model of the Italian palace--a product
primarily of the needs and conditions of city life--could not be
directly applied, while the logic of the French genius, working at that
time freely, eschewed the attempt to make a compromise with imitation.
So the châteaux of the Early French Renaissance retain the structural
character of the Gothic Feudal castle but modify it in the way of
Italian refinements, passing from military offensive and defensive
purpose to that of elegant and luxurious living. Hence a distinction of
these French châteaux is their picturesqueness and the degree to which
they participate in the natural picture.

Instead of the unity of effect presented by an Italian palace,
completely enclosing its cortile, they retained the Gothic
characteristic of variety in unity; their extensive and differing
façades being grouped around a spacious courtyard, and composed so as to
furnish a variety of effects from different view-points of the
landscape.

One side of the court was occupied by a windowless screen wall along
which, upon the inside, ran a colonnade, while the centre was pierced by
a large covered gateway that afforded a _porte-cochère_. The sides of
the courtyard were flanked by buildings, devoted to the servants’
quarters and the various offices connected with the home-life and the
outdoor pastimes, while on the fourth side, facing the entrance,
extended the main edifice, designed for the occupation of the family
and the entertainment of guests. The chief architectural distinction of
this main part was reserved for its outer façade, where it abutted on a
terrace, which communicated with the alleys, parterres, and fish-ponds
of the formally laid out gardens and commanded views of the surrounding
park.

In this adaptation of the plan of a Gothic fortress to the conveniences
and pleasures of a country palace, some of the old architectural
features were preserved but modified to decorative purposes. Thus the
gateway was square and massive, recalling distantly the appearance of a
donjon keep; the more so that round towers, built, however, with squared
walls in the interior, projected from the angles. The angles also of the
outer façades were embellished with similar towers, that preserved a
picturesque contrast to the straight lines of the intervening masonry as
well as presenting from their windows a variety of views of the
surroundings. The actual machicolations that previously overhung the
walls were now reduced to a decorative motive of little arches upon
corbels, and the battlements gave way to balustrades. Further, the great
hall was replaced by state apartments which, as in an Italian palace,
occupied the second floor or _bel étage_.

Meanwhile, the crowning distinction of the Early Renaissance palaces was
the high-pitched roofs, surmounted in the case of the turrets with
lanterns or louvers, and everywhere enlivened with tall decorated
chimneys and recurring dormer windows, in frames of richly carved
tracery. It was, in fact, in the treatment of the roofs that the French
architects chiefly preserved the Gothic tendency to verticality; and,
correspondingly, it was in the gradual lowering of the roofs and the
emphasis of the horizontal features of the façades that they exhibited
their gradual conversion to Italian influences.

To-day, these _châteaux_ of Touraine, embosomed in the beauty of their
natural surroundings, quietly mirrored in the river’s surface, still
testify to the vigour and freshness of the Gallic genius in the
dayspring of its acceptance of Italian refinements. A little effort of
imagination, assisted, maybe, by pictures such as those of Eugène
Isabey, can reconstruct in fancy the splendour and vivacity of the
scene, when the terraces vied with the parterres in their blossoming of
colours, as courtly men and women in the bravery of imported Italian
velvets and brocades, lounged in elegant ease or gathered in a group to
listen to a poet’s latest _chanson_, while the activity of the
courtyard, with its constant coming and going of russet and green-clad
serving men, was stirred to a gayer aspect by the arrival or departure
of a brilliant cavalcade of hunters with hawk and hound.


=Château de Gaillon.=--One of the earliest of the castles that marked the
transition from Gothic to Renaissance was the =Château de Gaillon=, which
was built for a Tourainer, the Cardinal George of Amboise, not, however,
in Touraine, but in the neighbourhood of =Rouen=. Only fragments of it
remain which are now preserved in the École des Beaux Arts in Paris; but
in its day it was a masterpiece of the Rouen School, which preceded that
of Tours as a flourishing centre of art and letters. It much more nearly
resembled in its lay-out the character of a fortified castle, having
among other defensive details, a moat and drawbridge.

=Château de Blois.=--Meanwhile, a surviving example of the transition and
Early Renaissance, is the =Château de= =Blois=, the first of the Royal
Palaces, begun by Charles XII and completed by Francis I. The earlier
façade is still unmistakably Gothic; the arches of the colonnade are
flat segments, characteristic of the latest period; the shafts of the
columns are attached to piers that reinforce the upper walls and run
into the cornice; the windows still have stone mullions and transoms,
and the design and decorative detail of the dormer windows are purely
Gothic.

On the other hand, in the façade of Francis I, the ornament of the
dormer windows, as well as the decorative details elsewhere, are of
Italian design. The cornice has been given a more pronounced decorative
treatment; it has a bolder projection and, while the old machicolations
are represented they are converted into a purely decorative motive.
Further, although the square mullion windows still appear, they are
framed with pilasters and cornice and the intervening spaces of solid
wall are treated as panels and enriched with arabesques.

The finest feature of this wing is the staircase tower, which occupies
the centre of the façade on the side facing the court. Polygonal in
plan, it is constructed with four great piers, extending from the ground
to the cornice, to which are fitted the rising balustrades. The whole is
magnificently Gothic in its structural design as well as in the
character of the canopied niches; but the actual ornament is Renaissance
and was probably executed by Italian artists. In the pierced carving of
the balustrades the decorative motive is the King’s monogram, “_F_,”
intertwined with his emblem, the Salamander.

=Château de Chambord.=--Another famous staircase appears in the =Château de
Chambord=, a palace which in other respects also presents most
interesting features. It was erected by Francis I (1526), probably as a
hunting box, and the architect, Pierre C. Nepveu, has adhered more
closely than had been usual to the plan of a feudal fortress. For in
place of the gateway in the centre of the screen wall, a square
structure with corner towers, which are round outside but square in the
interior, projects into the courtyard, in the manner of a donjon-keep.
Yet its purpose was not for defence but for ceremonial entertainment,
since the interior contains four halls carried up to a great height and
covered with coffered barrel vaults, while the centre of the plan is
occupied by the staircase.

The latter, constructed in a stone cage, consists of a double spiral
stairway, respectively for ascent and descent. It communicates with
small rooms in the angles of the square and in the turrets, and finally
with the lantern, which commands a superb view of the surrounding
country. This lantern, octagonal in plan, the crowning feature of the
exterior design, rises above the surrounding roofs, dormer-windows, and
chimneys in two tiers of arcades, noticeably Italian in their system of
pilasters and entablatures. They are surmounted by a domed roof, which
supports an elaborate cupola. While the sky line thus presents a richly
picturesque confusion, the façades are comparatively severe and in the
ordered repetition of their details reflect the Italian influence. This
is especially perceptible in the orders of Corinthian pilasters, in the
general emphasis of the horizontal features, and in the use of round
arches in the arcades. Meanwhile, the uniformity of the façades are
relieved by the projecting angle-turrets, and by the admirably disposed
masses of solid masonry, which besides their decorative value serve the
practical use of backings to the interior fireplaces.

Other famous châteaux of =Touraine= are those of =Bury=, =Chenonceaux=,
=Azay-le-Rideau=, and =Amboise=. Then came the day when Francis moved his
court to Paris, thus shifting the scene of architectural activity. A
rural palace sprang into form at Fontainebleau, a royal château at St.
Germain-en-Laye, and a start was made with the city palace of the
Louvre.

=Palace of Fontainebleau.=--The =Palace of Fontainebleau= was begun in 1528
by the architect Gilles le Breton. It followed the plan of a convent
which it replaced, so that a remarkable irregularity distinguishes its
arrangement. The design of the façades was probably influenced by
Vignola and Serlio, who were among the artists invited from Italy by
Francis I. They included also the painters Niccolo dell’ Abbati, Il
Rosso, and Primaticcio, and the sculptor, Benvenuto Cellini, who were
employed upon the decoration of the interior. Indeed, it is for the
magnificence of the interior decoration, especially in the Galerie de
François I, and in the Salle des Fêtes, added by Henri II, and the
Galerie de Diane and Galerie des Cerfs of Henri IV, rather than for
architectural distinction, that Fontainebleau is celebrated.

=Louvre.=--The =Louvre= was commenced in 1546, the year preceding the death
of Francis I. The design was entrusted to the French architect, Pierre
Lescot, but is supposed to have been influenced by Serlio. It exhibits,
in fact, a noticeably Italian character and marks the beginning of the
advanced phase of the French Renaissance, associated with the reigns of
Henri II, Charles IX, and Henri III (1547-1589), while subsequent
additions, made during the reigns of Henri IV, Louis XIII, and Louis
XIV, record the progress of the matured Renaissance toward the period of
pronounced Classicalism. Accordingly the history of the Louvre is an
epitome of what this development involved.

The Palace was originally designed to cover the comparatively small
square plan which had been occupied by the Gothic, fortified palace of
Philippe Augustus, and the parts, executed by Lescot, comprise the west
and south façades. In the reign of Louis XIII the original square was
doubled in size, so as to enclose the present court of the, so-called,
“Old Louvre.” Meanwhile, under Charles IX, the adjacent palace of the
Tuilleries was erected by the architect, Philibert de l’Orme, for
Catherine de Medicis; and to connect it with the Louvre, a long gallery,
subsequently completed by Henri IV, was built along the bank of the
Seine. This was supplemented later by wings, forming three sides of the
larger Court of the =Place du Carrousel=, which was finished by Napoleon
I. Meanwhile, by Louis XIV a new front, bordering on the Seine, had been
added to the =Old Louvre=, and finally, under Napoleon III, two wings were
projected from the Old Louvre on the north and south of the Place du
Carrousel, forming what is now known as the =New Louvre=. At present the
only change from the plan thus gradually compiled, consists in the loss
of the =Tuilleries= which was burnt by the Commune mob in 1871.

=Old Louvre--Blois.=--Returning to the original façade by Pierre Lescot,
one may compare it profitably with both the earlier and the later
façades of Blois. The Louvre design, like the earlier Blois, consists of
three parts, but has become more unified. The arcade is replaced by
deeply set windows, under round arches; the _bel étage_ now presents a
regular recurrence of windows at closer intervals, and the dormer
windows have given way to a continuous attic with a consequent lowering
of the pitch of the roof. Again, when compared with the later façade of
Blois, one notes in that of the Louvre the disappearance of the mullion
divisions in the windows, their narrower and higher shape, and the
Italian detail of their pedimental tops. Particularly noticeable is the
more simplified and organic effect produced by compressing the four
stories of the older design into an appearance of three divisions, very
carefully balanced. Under this appearance, however, lies an actual
fourth story, introduced as a mezzanine floor between the first and
second. It is betrayed by the bull’s-eye window or _œil de bœuf_, a
characteristically French shape of window, and by a range of
semi-circular windows which at first sight may seem to be a part of the
windows below them. This exterior blending of the mezzanine with the
first story results in strengthening the character of the lower part, so
that it affords a resolute foundation for the _bel étage_, which in
itself is effectively emphasised by the special treatment of the
windows.

And this unity of design is further increased by the bold projection of
the entablatures and cornice. The suggestion of verticality has been
abandoned in the frank acceptance of the horizontal motive. Lest,
however, this should produce monotony, the Gallic preference for variety
relieved the flatness of the façades by doubling the width of the
window-bays at the ends and in the centre, and by giving them a slight
projection. Around this the entablatures are broken, while double
pilasters are employed and the summit terminates in segmental pediments,
which break into and relieve the continuous line of the cornice. When
further we note that in addition to the Corinthian and Composite
pilasters and other carved details of purely Italian design, there are
statues and much other enrichment, characterised by the free, vigorous
feeling of French sculpture, the work it is said of Jean Goujon, we
realise than even the advanced phase of French Renaissance, at least in
its early stage, reflects still a temperament noticeably Gallic.

When it was decided, in the reign of Louis XIII, to double the size of
the court of the Louvre, Jacques Lemercier, who was entrusted with the
work, erected as a central feature of the prolonged façade, the
“=Pavilion de l’Horloge=.” This was supplemented on the side facing west
by another pavilion called after the famous minister of Henri IV and
Louis XIII, the =Pavilion Sully=. The former occupies a width twice that
of the double, projecting bays, and, while it continues the sequence of
windows in the _bel étage_ and attic, introduces in the former a large
round-topped window. Further, the attic is surmounted by a clerestory of
three windows, framed with twin-figured caryatids by Jacques Sarrazin.
They support a pediment, above which rises a domical roof, divided by
four well-defined ribs and terminating in a balustraded crown--a
treatment of pavilions essentially French in character.

It is akin to that type of roof construction, which was called after the
architect, François Mansart or Mansard, who popularised its use. The
principle is the replacement of the continuous slope by a “hip” or
“curb”--namely, the meeting of an upper and a lower slope at an obtuse
angel; a form of construction which reduces the outward thrust on the
walls by directing much of the strain to the post that supports the
angle. When used upon pavilions, it gives them something of the effect
of towers.

=East Façade.=--Under Louis XIV the Old Louvre was completed by the
addition of the east façade. The work had been entrusted to Bernini, who
was a visitor at the court, but his project was rejected in favour of
one designed by the King’s physician, Dr. Perrault. This involved again
doubling the size of the plan by the continuation of the north and south
façades. In these the style of Lescot’s was fortunately preserved,
though another story was added to accommodate the extra height of the
east façade.

The latter represents the full acceptance of the classical style, which
reflects the taste of the time; and is such a design as an intelligent
student of the writings of Vignola might compile. Its main feature is a
colossal order of coupled Corinthian columns, forming a colonnade,
behind which the walls of the edifice are set back. The uniformity of
this front of six hundred feet is interrupted by projections at the ends
and in the centre, the predominance of the latter being asserted by a
pediment. The character of this façade is echoed on the south one,
overlooking the Seine, by an order of colossal pilasters.

=Luxembourg Palace.=--Before enumerating other examples of the Classicism
of Louis XIV, we must revert to a notable example of the advanced
Renaissance; namely, the =Luxembourg Palace=, which was erected in 1611 by
Salomon de Brosse for Marie de Médicis, the wife of Henri IV. In
conformity with her Florentine tastes the design was based upon that of
the garden front of the Pitti Palace, which is distinguished by its
orders of rusticated pilasters. But the French character prevails in the
plan, which presents a central main building or _corp_ _de logis_,
flanked by wings that extend back and form the sides of a courtyard,
which is separated from the street by a screen-wall with
_porte-cochère_. Moreover, the garden front is distinguishably French in
the picturesque variety obtained by the projecting portions that form
terminal and central pavilions, crowned with characteristic roofs. It is
a design of quietly elegant refinement.

A corresponding choiceness of quality was prolonged into the classical
régime in the =Château de Maisons=, near =St. Germain-en-Laye=, by François
Mansart and in the same architect’s domical church of =Val de Grace,
Paris=, in which he was assisted by Lemercier. Meanwhile, Mansart’s
nephew, Jules Hardouin Mansart, was associated with Levau in Louis XIV’s
special pride, =Versailles=.

=Versailles.=--This immense palace is representative at once of the
monarchical spirit of the time and of the sterility of classicism.
Colossally pretentious, for the total length of the garden façade is one
thousand three hundred and twenty feet, the design in its monotonous
repetition of orders, scarcely relieved by the tame projections, is also
monumentally dull. It fronts upon formal gardens, laid out with terraces
and fountains, that in their magnificence are a memorial to the genius
of Le Nôtre. The decorations of the interior of the palace exhibit the
unfortunate taste for prodigal display, represented in exuberant and
oppressively heavy relief work, executed in gilded _papier maché_, and
set off with prodigious canvases by Lebrun and his assistants.

J. H. Mansart also designed the =Place Vendome=, around the four sides of
which all the houses are treated with a uniform order of colossal
pilasters, out of scale with the size of the square and pretentiously
inappropriate. His, too, was the Veterans’ home, the =Hôtel des
Invalides=.

=Hôtel des Invalides.=--The latter is vast but truly barrack-like, with
tedious repetition of the orders; but is celebrated for the stately
grace of the dome. This surmounts the church that is in the form of a
Greek cross, the angles being filled with chapels, so as to make the
complete plan a square. The exterior design of the dome includes a high
drum, pierced with windows, between which project eight coupled columns
that form buttresses. These terminate in carved corbels, which reinforce
a smaller drum, with round topped lights. From this springs the dome;
the grace of its curve being echoed in the airy cupola whose roof
diminishes in concave curves to a soaring point.

The somewhat excessive height of the exterior needed on the inside very
considerable reduction, in order to bring it into proportion with the
rest of the interior. This the architect accomplished by erecting
beneath the wooden shell of the outer dome two interior ones, a middle
and a lower one, independently constructed. The lower, which rises
immediately above the lower drum, has a large circular opening, through
which is visible the decorations painted on the middle dome, which rests
upon the upper drum and is lighted by its windows. The whole structure
is supported upon four large piers, which, as in S. Paul’s, London, are
pierced by arched openings, leading, in the case of the Invalides, into
the four angle chapels.

Another instance of a triple dome occurs in the Church of =S. Geneviève=,
better known as the =Pantheon=, which we shall refer to later in
connection with the Classic revival, although its construction,
extending from 1755 to 1781, occupied a considerable part of the Rococo
period.

=Rococo.=--The Rococo is marked by a further decline into dry and
pedantic formality in the use of the orders, which, however, in time
produced a reaction toward a more intelligent, if uninspired, observance
of the principles of classic design. It appears in the façade added to
the Church of =S. Sulpice= in 1755 by the Italian, Servandoni. This
comprises a Doric portico, supporting an Ionic arcade, above which, at
the extremities, rise turrets in two tiers of orders. Other examples
which mark the end of the reign of Louis XV will be referred to in the
subsequent chapter on Classic Revival.

Meanwhile the style that is recognised as Rococo is characteristically
exhibited in the interior decorations. These reflect the change of
spirit that came over court life with the death of Louis XIV and the
succession of the Duke of Orleans as regent during the minority of Louis
XV. The old King under the control of Madame de Maintenon and his
confessor had become gloomily religious; the court spirit, punctilious
as ever, was ponderously dull. With the Regency it rebounded into
lightsomeness. Versailles was abandoned for the Luxembourg; the peruke
and stiff fashions gave way to powdered hair and elegance of costume;
rigid etiquette was replaced with gay wit and gallantry; all that was
lightest in the Gallic temperament bubbled sparkling to the surface. To
the call of this new spirit the decorators responded. The papier-maché
ornament was discarded for stucco; profusion still abounded, but it was
no longer heavy and oppressive; it wandered in light luxuriance over
walls, doors, and ceilings; exhibiting a fertility of decorative
invention in its combinations of curly-cues, scrolls, shells, foliage,
flowers, and rockwork. The last named motive (_rocca_ in Italian) is the
doubtful origin attributed to the term Rococo.

It was a style that characteristically avoided straight lines and, in
general, the formality of arrangement which distinguishes classic
ornament. Accordingly it fell under the ban of the Classical Revival and
is always condemned by those whose preferences are classical. And,
undoubtedly, its freedom often degenerated into license and its
profusion became excess, especially in the hands of German or Spanish
imitators. Yet, at its best, when considered as a setting to the
costumes and manners of the period and as an expression of the social
spirit, it represented something so vitally appropriate to the time and
place of its creation that it commands the consideration of the student.
Under an impulse infinitely inferior to that which inspired the
decorators of the Gothic and Early Renaissance, it yet represents the
same fecundity of Gallic creativeness.

[Illustration: CASTLE OF HEIDELBERG

ON RIGHT RUINS OF THE HEINRICHSBAU WING, ADJOINING REMAINS OF OLD GOTHIC
PORTION: ON EXTREME LEFT THE FRIEDRICHSBAU WING (1601). P. 394]

[Illustration: ANOTHER VIEW OF THE HEINRICHSBAU

P. 394]

[Illustration: BREMEN CITY HALL

NOTE GOTHIC WINDOWS, WITH RENAISSANCE PEDIMENTS, AND INTERVENING
“GAINES.” P. 395]

[Illustration: PELLERSHAUS, NÜREMBERG

RUSTICATED MASONRY. P. 395]

[Illustration: ANTWERP CITY HALL

P. 406]

[Illustration: LIEGE, COURT OF THE PALAIS DE JUSTICE

GOTHIC VAULTING AND OTHER DETAILS COMBINED WITH RENAISSANCE. NOTE
BALUSTER-SHAPED COLUMNS; CAPITALS COVERED WITH GROTESQUE MASKS, FIGURES
AND FOLIAGE. P. 406]

[Illustration: COLLEGE OF SANTA CRUZ, VALLADOLID

CHOICE EXAMPLE OF EARLY RENAISSANCE, BY ENRIQUE DE EGAS. P. 399]

[Illustration: COURT OF THE CASA DE ZAPORTA

NOTE ARCADE IN THE SECOND STORY. P. 400]

[Illustration: ELEVATION AND PLAN

OF THE UNCOMPLETED PALACE IN CLASSICAL STYLE, OF CHARLES V IN THE
ALHAMBRA GROUNDS. P. 402]

[Illustration: COURT OF THE COLLEGE OF ALCALA DE HEÑARES

BY ALONZO DE COVARRUBIAS. P. 400]

[Illustration: THE ESCORIÁL

A PALACE, MONASTERY AND MAUSOLEUM. P. 403]

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE ESCORIÁL

IMITATING THE GRIDIRON ON WHICH S. LAWRENCE WAS MARTYRED. P. 403]




CHAPTER V

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN


Notwithstanding the close commercial relations that cities such as
Augsburg and Nüremburg maintained with Northern Italy, especially with
Venice, the Renaissance influences did not make much impression on
German architecture until about the middle of the sixteenth century. It
had, however, appeared in the paintings and engravings of Dürer and
Burkmair and in the sculpture of Peter Vischer--as in his =Tomb of S.
Sebald= in =Nüremburg=. But even in architecture there had been symptoms of
the spread of Italian taste, Italian architects being employed on
castle-building, as in the case already mentioned, of the Venetian,
Scamozzi, in Prague. These, however, were only sporadic instances; for
two reasons conspired to defer a general movement: the deep-rooted
Gothic feeling and the political conditions.

Architecture depends largely upon conditions of social stability, making
for wealth and ease, and these had been disturbed by Charles V’s long
struggle to crush the nobility that upheld the Protestant faith. It was,
therefore, not until security had been established by the Peace of
Augsburg in 1555, that a widespread activity of architecture was
resumed. It lasted until the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War in 1618.
This covers the period of the Early and Later German Renaissance; the
remainder of the seventeenth century being marked by a gradual decline
into the extravagance of Rococo.

=Characteristics.=--Moreover, the German architects, after borrowing the
Gothic style, had so fitted it, especially in the way of decorative
details, to their own taste, that when at length they borrowed from the
Renaissance, they preserved, except in rare instances, much of the
Gothic feeling. The new style was employed chiefly in castles, domestic
buildings, city halls, gild and corporation houses. In these the German
love of irregularity, profusion, fantasticalness, and general
picturesqueness still prevailed. It was displayed in the continued
partiality for towers and turrets (octagonal, not circular, as in
France), often containing spiral staircases; high-pitched roofs and
decorated gables, carried up in steps; dormer windows, prolonged through
several stories up to the height of the roof and emulating the effect of
gables; oriel windows, curved or polygonal, projecting from the face of
the façade or from the angles upon corbel-supports.

The German taste also showed itself in the character and distribution of
the ornament. While this was apt to be spread freely over the façades
and was used profusely in the decoration of the windows and doors, it
was lavished especially on the gables and dormer gables, so that they
are the distinctive feature of the design. To some extent the details of
Italian ornament were introduced, but more generally the German carver
followed his own taste for bold and deeply cut designs, showing a
preference for rusticated masonry, including rusticated pilasters, and
drawing on his fancy for grotesques, caryatids and the half-length
figures, terminating in a pedestal, known as _gaines_. And the wood
carver vied with the sculptor, especially in the interior decoration of
ceilings and wall panelling, while the exteriors as well as the
interiors afforded scope for the fancy of the painter.

The ornamental tendency increased until the purpose seemed to be to
cover every available space with decoration; while as the latter grew
less and less organic, it became less original. The carver ceased to
invent his designs and was satisfied to copy them with tedious
repetitions from the pattern books which, compiled apparently in the
Netherlands--one of them by Cornelius de Vriendt--circulated through
Germany and, as we shall see, found their way to England. They comprised
a heterogeneous assortment of motives, for title pages and frontispieces
of books as well as for doorheads and other architectural details, and
introduced a variety of designs in bands and straps, borrowed from the
work of locksmiths and leather-workers. The degradation reached its
climax in the Rococo ornament of the early eighteenth century,
especially in the Zwinger Palace, Dresden, “the most terrible Rococo
work ever conceived, if we except some of the Churrigueresque work in
Spain.”

In the neighbourhood of the Hartz Mountains, where forests abounded,
timber was used with handsome effect in the design of the structure;
beams, doors and window frames, corbels, and so forth being richly
carved and often coloured. In the alluvial plain of the North, bounded
roughly by a line drawn east and west through Berlin, the absence of
stone and the abundance of clay encouraged the use of brick both for the
structure and its decoration, and developed a skill in the handling of
this material that could scarcely be surpassed. Elsewhere stone was
plentiful and the main walls were constructed either of masonry or
rubble covered with stucco.

=Castle of Heidelberg.=--Among the highest achievements of the German
Renaissance is reckoned the =Castle of Heidelberg=, which affords a
comparison of the early and later styles. For to the old Gothic fortress
was added, in 1556, the wing known as the =Heinrichsbau=, which was
supplemented in 1601 by the wing called =Friedrichsbau=. The latter is in
good repair and used as a museum, but the earlier is a roofless shell,
devastated, as was the Gothic part, by a fire which originated in a
stroke of lightning in 1764. Consequently, to-day we view the façade of
the Heinrichsbau without the dormer gables which are so marked a feature
of the later design. And the loss, no doubt, helps to emphasise the
horizontal character of the older façade. The design, in fact,
throughout suggests a struggle to apply Italian principles and adjust
them to German Gothic characteristics. Thus, orders of pilasters are
employed in all three stories, but these are rusticated and alternately
broken in upon by niches embellished with gaines. The windows have
double lights separated by sculptured mullions and, although they are
surmounted by pediments and cornices, the constructive simplicity of
these details is interfered with by ornamental accessories.

The general conflict of effects becomes more perceptible when one
compares this façade with that of the Friedrichsbau. Here the pilasters
and entablatures are of bolder projection; the windows are well set
back, their repetition is pleasantly varied by the traceried windows of
the first story; the pediments are undisturbed by accessory carving. The
walls present an agreeable balance between the horizontal and the
perpendicular features; and then, above the cornice, the perpendicular
asserts a final quiet predominance in the dormer gables. The whole
façade, indeed, suggests that the architect had thoroughly mastered the
principles of Italian design and could apply them freely; neither
yielding to them unduly nor muddling them with the Gothic motive, but
blending them flexibly in an ensemble that, while it has derived a
certain orderliness from the Italian, preserves the essential spirit of
German picturesqueness.

=City Halls.=--Out of the variety of City Halls space permits only a
comparison of two famous ones--those of =Cologne= and =Bremen=. Both are
Gothic buildings modified by Renaissance additions. In the case of
=Cologne= the two-storied porch was added in 1571. In style and detail, it
is more purely Italian than usual. So much so, that it presents a
somewhat incongruous addition. On the other hand, the Renaissance façade
of the =Bremen= Hall, is more in harmony with the original Gothic edifice.
It is true the arches of the arcades are pointed instead of round; but
the spacing, proportions, and treatment of the upper masonry are very
Italian in feeling. Again, while the windows are capped with pediments,
they retain the mullions and, which is more significant, the height of
the older, purely Gothic lights. Finally, the façade is crowned by a
cornice, markedly Italian in the depth of its projection, above which
appears the characteristically German roof and dormer gables. This
façade, in fact, erected in 1611, presents another example of
intelligent combination of the two styles.

=Domestic.=--As an example of domestic architecture we may study the
famous =Pellershaus=, of =Nüremburg=. The masonry of the wall is rusticated
throughout. The treatment of the first story with its arched doorway and
windows is as massively reposeful as that of a Florentine palace; while,
except for the corbels alternating with the pilasters in the support of
the entablature and the corbel-supported bay windows, the upper stories
present a quite Italian orderliness. It is only in the huge dormer gable
that the German feeling is allowed full play. The architect has utilised
Italian principles of design; but he has emphasised the projection of
the pilasters and of the entablatures that break around them; has
exercised his German taste in the details of the pilasters; retained the
German steps to the gable and embellished them with the characteristic
ornament of obelisks, but has also filled in the angles with curving
buttresses and, when he reached the summit, let himself go in the way of
enrichments, using German gaines, the French bull’s-eye, and Italian
pediment, on which, with a fine flourish of German independence, he
props a statue! Note also the pilasters and curved pediments of the
small dormer windows.

Here, as in most examples of the German Renaissance, the decorative
emphasis is lavished above the cornice in the treatment of the roof. And
the Pellershaus combines the two principles of German roof treatment.
For in some cases the roof ridge is parallel to the street and the
several stories into which the interior is divided are marked by tiers
of dormers, while elsewhere the roof runs at right angles to the street
and the gable-end is the imposing feature. In this instance, however,
while the ridge is parallel and two small dormers are introduced, the
main dormer feature is magnified to the importance of an actual gable,
and thus the picturesqueness of the two methods are united in one
effective design.

=Fountains.=--Among the smaller memorials of the Renaissance are the
fountains which abound in German cities: some of the finest examples
being those of =Tübingen=, =Hildesheim=, =Mainz=, =Rothenburg=, =Ulm=, and
=Nüremburg=.


SPANISH RENAISSANCE

The election in 1492, of the Spaniard, Roderigo Borgia, to the Papacy
under the title of Alexander VI, drew Spain into close relations with
Rome, while the absorption of the Kingdom of Naples into the Spanish
monarchy by Charles V in 1522 involved the country more and more in the
political intrigues of Italy. At the same time the immense wealth that
was flowing into Spain from her possessions in the New World gave an
impetus to her trade with Italy and fostered the enrichment of such
families as the Mendoza, Fonseca, Miranda, Ribera, and Velasco, who
rivalled the merchant princes of Genoa and Milan. Thus a new era of
splendour and of lavish expenditure was promoted in which the influence
of Italian art began to penetrate Spain. The date of this Spanish
Renaissance may be reckoned from the beginning of the sixteenth century.

In Spanish painting the example of the Flemish School was abandoned for
that of the Italian; especially for the Milanese School of Leonardo da
Vinci and the works of Raphael and Michelangelo. The sculptors absorbed
the Italian influence either through the example of Italian craftsmen
invited to Spain or by direct study in Italy, while architecture became
affected by the example first of Bramante and later of Michelangelo. But
the reaction to Italian influence of these three arts was different.

Painting needed reinforcement; it went to school with the Italians to
master principles of drawing, foreshortening, perspective, and
composition, as well as the art of fuller and more refined expression.
It had to serve an apprenticeship of imitation before it could develope
its own individually native strength in the seventeenth century. But it
was otherwise with architecture. The fundamentals of the art were
thoroughly understood by the Spaniards through Gothic tradition and,
when they came under the spell of the Italian, it was in the way only of
modifying the design, especially the character of the decorative
elements, in which they were assisted by their sculptors. In place of
the flamboyant decoration of the late Gothic there grew up a new style
of more refined ornament. And it was also a new style, both in its
character and in the use made of it; a style created by Spanish
architects and sculptors and confined to Spanish art, and known as
_estilo plateresco_ or silversmith’s style.

=Plateresque Style.=--The Spaniards had inherited from the Moors a
consummate skill in metal-craftsmanship; and now the inflow of silver
from the New World gave a stimulus to the craft of the silversmith. It
reached extraordinary development in the making of church plate,
particularly in the _custodias_ or tabernacles, designed to hold the
“Host,” which reached the magnitude of lofty structures, simulating
towers and decorated with a wealth of intricate ornament of the most
exuberant and yet delicate fancy. Foremost among these artists in silver
was the family of Arphe, consisting of Enrique de Arphe, his son
Antonio, and grandson Juan. Their work, which extended throughout the
sixteenth century, began by being Gothic in character, but gradually
reflected the Italian influence. It was so remarkable in its exuberant
creativeness and so widely spread throughout the country--in =Toledo=,
=Cordova=, =Santiago=, =Seville=, =Valladolid=--that its enormous effect upon
architectural decoration is quite comprehensible.

The plateresque style is a combination of several elements: the freedom
of the Gothic, the delicate profusion of Moorish ornament, and the
ordered refinement of Raphael’s arabesques, mingled into a new and
living medium of decorative expression by the vitality and fecundity of
the Spanish fancy. And a corresponding originality was displayed in the
manner of using it. It was massed chiefly around the doors and windows.
Its earliest appearance is in the decorated portals, added to the Gothic
cathedrals or to the newly erected secular buildings, of which a famous
example is the doorway of the west façade of the =University of
Salamanca=, in the province of Castile.

The earliest architect to apply this sculptural embellishment to the
façades of buildings is said to have been Enrique de Egas, a native of
Brussels, trained in the Gothic style, who was supervising architect of
the Cathedral of Toledo. Among the gems which he contributed to the
Early Spanish Renaissance are the =College of Santa Cruz= in Valladolid,
built for Bishop Mendoza, and the =Hospital= of the same name, erected by
Cardinal Pedro Mendoza in =Toledo=, which served as a model for the
=University of Salamanca=. All three of these edifices are celebrated for
the magnificent decoration of their principal portal: the one in
Salamanca being specially notable for the device adopted to offset the
effect of foreshortening in the ornament remote from the eye. For the
depth of the cutting is graduated from flat relief in the lowest panels
up to a bold enrichment of light and shade at the top. Another feature
of these buildings, particularly fine in the two earlier ones, is the
interior court or _patio_.

=Patio.=--The importance of the patio is a distinctive characteristic of
Spanish architecture, deriving, not from the _cortile_ of the Italian
palace, but from the _atrium_ of the Roman villa, preserved in the
courts of Moorish buildings. The patio is surrounded on all four sides
by colonnades of two stories into which all the rooms open, while
approach to the second floor is given by a handsome staircase. A
characteristic feature is the use of bracket columns, a well-known
example being in the patio of the =House of Miranda= in =Burgos=. Sometimes,
in the second story, an arcade is substituted for columns and
entablature, as in the =Casa de Zaporta=, also known as the Infantado
Palace, in =Guadalajara=.

Frequently the columns and surfaces of the patio are richly decorated
with plateresque ornament, for the patio was the centre of the life and
ceremony of the family. And this habit of domestic seclusion, inherited
apparently from Moorish times, reacted on the exterior of the buildings;
and, while the patio was luxuriantly decorated, a singular barrenness
characterised the façades.

Thus the chief feature of the latter was the entrance doorway; the
windows were few, small in size, and raised high above the level of the
street, while occasionally a portico was added under the roof, where the
inmates could take the air and view the outside life without themselves
being seen. A famous example of this is seen in the =college= erected for
=Cardinal Ximenes= in =Alcala de Henares= by the Castilian architect, Alonzo
de Covarrubias, son-in-law of Enrique de Egas. He also designed the
=Archbishop’s Palace= in the same city and the celebrated =Chapel of the
New Kings= in the =Toledo Cathedral=.

=Cathedrals.=--Another northern centre of the Early Spanish Renaissance
was =Burgos=. Here the master of the plateresque style was Diego de Siloe,
sculptor and architect, who built the celebrated =Golden Staircase= in
the Cathedral, to connect the higher levels of the old, thirteenth
century Puerta de la Coroneria, with the floor of the north transept by
a flight of 39 steps, which has a gilded balustrade, richly embellished
and bearing the arms of Bishop Fonseca.

In 1520 Siloe was summoned to =Granada= to superintend the building of the
=Cathedral= which had been designed in the Gothic style by Enrique de
Egas. This, the earliest and most remarkable of the Renaissance
cathedrals of Spain, represents an application of the Classic orders to
the piers which support the vaulting. But its most distinctive feature
is that the sanctuary or _capilla mayor_, instead of terminating in an
apse, is fully circular in plan and crowned by a lofty dome, under
which, in a flood of light, stands the high altar.

Two other important examples of Renaissance =Cathedrals= are those of =Jaen=
and =Valladolid=, while amongst the Gothic edifices that were embellished
with magnificent Renaissance portals may be mentioned the =Cathedrals= of
=Malaga= and =Salamanca= and the =Church of Santo Domingo= in the latter city
and of =Santa Engracia= in =Saragossa=. Also of the Early Renaissance period
are the octagonal lantern of =Burgos Cathedral=, designed by Vigarni,
called de Borgoña, because he was born in Burgundy, famous as a sculptor
even more than as an architect; and the towers of the =Cathedral del
Pilar= and of =La Seo= in =Saragossa=. The last named, octagonal in plan and
consisting of four stories, diminishing in size and crowned with a
lantern, bears some resemblance to the English steeples of Wren.


=Casa Lonja.=--The most splendid Municipal building of Spain is the =Casa
Lonja=, or Exchange for merchants, in Seville, which was built in
1583-1598 by Diego de Riano from a design, not closely adhered to, by
Juan de Herrera. The most highly decorated façade, which is on the side
removed from the Square, shows a more than usual following of the
Italian style in its system of pilasters and entablatures and the
repetition and treatment of the windows. Yet the style is used with a
decorative freedom, characteristically Spanish.

Thus the pilasters of the second story are of the baluster type,
emulating, that is to say, the forms which can be obtained in wood by
turning on a lathe; the ornament is lavishly expended over the whole
front in a rich encrustation, and, as in the case of Salamanca, already
alluded to, increases in boldness of relief toward the top. Moreover,
the vivacity is enhanced by the intricate mitreing of the courses of the
entablatures, broken round the projection of the pilasters. The handsome
patio is double-storied, respectively in the Doric and Corinthian
orders. The sumptuous marble staircase was added in the eighteenth
century, during the reign of Charles III.


=Classical Style.=--Even while the plateresque style was flourishing a
more direct invasion of Italian influence was in progress.

=Palace of Charles V.=--The earliest example of this is in the =Palace=
which Charles V began to build on the hill of the Alhambra. The work was
entrusted to Pedro Machucha, who, like Berruguete, his assistant in the
design, had studied in Rome. The plan is a square, enclosing a circular
court, and the style is Palladian. Each façade, measuring 207 feet in
length and 53 in height, is composed of rusticated masonry and pilasters
in the first story and, in the second, of an order of Ionic pilasters,
supporting a Doric cornice. In both stories occurs a mezzanine floor
lighted by circular windows. The circular court, nearly one hundred feet
in diameter, is surrounded by a lower and an upper open colonnade,
respectively of the Doric and the Ionic order. A tribute exacted from
the Moriscoes or survivors of the Moors, who were permitted to remain
after the expulsion of the majority, defrayed the cost; but their
insurrection in 1568 interfered with the work, which dragged on during
Philip II’s reign, until it was abandoned before completion. The roof
was never built; nor the octagonal chapel, crowned with a dome which, at
the northeast angle, was to dominate all the buildings of the Alhambra.
The unfinished building further suffers from the competition of the
Alhambra, which is the chief attraction to every visitor, so that
insufficient justice has been done to the grandeur and dignity of the
design.

=The Escoriál.=--Philip II’s cessation of work upon his father’s palace
may have been largely due to his preoccupation with the memorial to his
own memory--=the Escoriál=. By the terms of his inheritance he was bound
to erect a mausoleum for his father. He enlarged the scheme to be a
burial place also for himself and succeeding Catholic Kings and added a
church, a monastery, and palace.

Situated thirty-one miles from Madrid and overlooking the intermediate
landscape, this prodigious congeries of buildings occupies a rocky
plateau that juts out from the precipitous side of the Guadarrama Sierra
and is extended by immense foundations. Its plan, which tradition says
was to reproduce the gridiron on which St. Lawrence suffered martyrdom,
is a gigantic rectangle, 675 feet by 530, from which projects the
handle, a small rectangle. One enters on the mountain side, the Patio
of the Kings. Along the right extends the monastery, terminating in the
cloistered Patio of the Evangelists; while along the left is the
College, terminating in the Palace. But the chief feature is in front of
us, the vestibule of the church.

The latter is built over the mausoleum-crypt, in the form of a Greek
cross, after the original plan of S. Peter’s, Rome. Its Capilla Mayor
adjoins the small projecting annex, which contained the private
apartments of the royal family: the King’s small, cell-like bedroom,
commanding a view of the High Altar, so that, unseen, he could
participate in the service of the Mass.

The work was begun by Juan de Bautista and continued by Juan de Herrera.
But Philip himself perpetually supervised the design, which reflects his
character not only in the ambitiousness of its dimensions but also in
the grim plainness of the façades. Constructed of grey granite, cut in
large blocks, they are composed of five stories, the windows of which
are square headed, without dressing of any kind, and ranged in rows,
without any attempt at grouping, so that the façades present a bare and
barrack-like appearance. Meanwhile an effect of grandeur is produced by
the immense scale of the whole mass, while the sky-line is rendered
imposing by the towers, crowned with lanterns, which flank the façade of
the church, and by the noble dome and lantern, built entirely of stone,
on which rises in sequence a pyramid, a hollow ball, and a cross. The
interior of the church, designed in the Doric order with flattish
vaulting, is again of majestic scale and of extreme simplicity, which,
however, is contradicted by the extravagant paintings on the ceilings. A
feature of the church is the removal of the coro from the floor to a
gallery so that there is less interference than usual in a Spanish
church with the impressiveness of space.

The severely classical style of the Escoriál was a reaction from the
luxuriousness of the plateresque and the extravagance of the so-called
“Grotesque Style,” which Berruguete, a pupil of Michelangelo, introduced
into his sculptural decorations. The absence of embellishment and
reliance upon a strict use of the orders caused the classic style to be
known as _Griego-Romano_, though, as a matter of fact, it was in nowise
Greek.

=Churrigueresque Style.=--By the seventeenth century Spain, denuded of her
foreign possessions by Holland and England and impoverished with war and
corrupt government, had reached a condition of national exhaustion. In
consequence no new buildings of importance were created, and such
additions as were made to existing ones were chiefly in the nature of
sculptural embellishments, which reflected the prevailing taste for the
baroque. This, toward the end of the century, passed into the glaringly
ostentatious and vulgarly meretricious Churrigueresque style, called
after its principal perpetrator, the sculptor Churriguera.


FLEMISH AND HOLLAND RENAISSANCE TYPES

At the beginning of the sixteenth century the Netherlands, especially
the southern provinces now comprised in Belgium, entered upon a period
of enhanced commercial prosperity. Through their textile industries,
their overland trade with Italy and the East, and their sea traffic with
Cadiz and Lisbon, which tapped the trade routes to India and the New
World, they had become the richest country in Europe. They were the
favourite dominions of Charles V, who was born in Brussels, and, while
he allowed his “dear Netherlander” municipal self-government, taxed them
roundly for the privilege. It was inevitable that Netherlandish art
should become affected by the Italian influence.

It showed itself first in painting: Mabuse, Floris, Van Orley being
among those who sought inspiration in Rome, where Raphael’s and
Michelangelo’s fame was supreme. One can picture the sensation in
Brussels, in 1515 and 1516, while the former’s cartoons for the Sistine
Chapel were being executed in tapestry by Flemish weavers. Brussels
shared the glory of the achievement and her artists and decorators may
well have aspired to emulate the Italian manner. At any rate, it shortly
began to appear in the decorative treatment of certain buildings: the
superb chimney piece in the Council-Chamber of the =Palais de Justice=, in
=Bruges= (1529); the façade of the gild-house of the Fishmongers in
=Malines=, known as the =Salm= or =Salmon House= (1534), and the two courts of
the Archbishop’s Palace, now the =Palais de Justice=, in =Liège= (1533).
These courts, attributed to François Borset, are surrounded by vaulted
arcades, in which occur baluster columns, and capitals carved with
grotesque masks and fantastic figurines and foliage--features that
suggest a Spanish influence.

Then, about 1565, was built the =City Hall of Antwerp=, which represents
the most imposing example of the Renaissance in Belgium. It corresponds
to the importance which the city had now attained as the chief
commercial emporium of the Netherlands. For the supremacy of Bruges was
past: her harbours had been allowed to fill up with silt and in 1505 the
Fuggers, merchant princes of Augsburg, removed their affairs to Antwerp,
whither the “factories” of the Hanseatic League soon followed. By the
middle of the century a thousand foreign commercial firms were
represented there; her great fairs attracted merchants from all parts of
the world; the Scheldt was filled with shipping and over a hundred
vessels are said to have passed in and out of her harbour daily. She
surpassed in wealth and prosperity even Venice and Genoa.

The design is by the sculptor and architect, Cornelius de Vriendt, also
known as Cornelius Floris. The principal façade, over three hundred feet
long, consists of four stories; the first being of rusticated masonry,
forming an open arcade; the second and third embellished with pilasters
and entablatures, framing a regular repetition of mullioned windows,
while the fourth comprises, as occasionally in Spain, an arcaded loggia,
the shadowed effects of which correspond to those of an Italian cornice.
The roof has a slight _curb_ inward and is studded with two tiers of
small dormers. The monotony of the façade is somewhat relieved by the
projection in the centre. But, though this involves a change in the
shape of the windows, there is a new kind of repetition, while above the
third story the place of a dormer-gable is taken by an erection that has
no structural significance and is merely a piling up of ornamental
details to produce a colossal embellishment. It is instructive to
compare this pavilion with the Pavillon de l’Horloge of the Louvre,
which represents a logical as well as flexible and original application
of the Palladian style. Compared with it De Vriendt’s design exhibits a
formality which suggests that it had been copied from some work in the
Orders of Architecture, while the top part proclaims him a sculptor of
florid taste, rather than an architect.

The best examples, however, of Flemish Renaissance are to be found in
the gild houses and domestic buildings. Magnificent examples of the
former are the =Houses= of the =Brewers=, =Tanners=, =Archers=, and =Cordeliers=
or rope-makers, in =Antwerp=, and in =Brussels= those of the =Archers=,
=Butchers=, =Carpenters=, and =Skippers=; the gable-end of the last-named
representing the stern of a vessel with four protruding cannons.

=Musée Plantin.=--The most interesting example of domestic architecture is
the =Musée Plantin-Moretus=, originally the home, office, and printing
house of the great publisher, Charles Plantin, who obtained from Philip
II a monopoly in the printing of breviaries and missals for the
Netherlands and Spain. After his death the business was continued in the
family of his son-in-law, Moretus; and the building which had been
erected in 1549, received various additions down to the middle of the
seventeenth century. Meanwhile the interior presents a complete picture
of the combined residence and place of business of the period, since
there are still preserved the wainscots, Spanish wall-leather, panelled
ceilings, chimney-pieces, stained glass, and other furnishings, as well
as the fittings of the various departments of the shop, devoted to
composing, printing, proof-reading, binding, and display of goods.

=Carillons.=--An incidental feature of the Flemish Renaissance is the
Carillon, or set of bells, tuned to the chromatic scale and connected
with a manual keyboard, so that they can be played by hand. The most
famous of these is in the Cathedral Tower of =Malines= (=Mechlin=). It
comprises 45 bells, most of which were cast in the seventeenth century
by the great bell-founder, Hemong, of Amsterdam. They surpass in volume
and tone even the famous chimes of the Belfry of Bruges, which were set
up in 1743.


HOLLAND

The earliest Renaissance =City Hall= in Holland is that of =The Hague=.
Erected in 1564, it exhibits the picturesque features of stepped gables
and octagonal turrets that became characteristic of later examples, such
as the =City Hall= at =Leyden= (1597) and the Renaissance addition made to
that of =Haarlem= between 1620 and 1630. While the decorative details of
the façade are of stone, the walls are constructed of red brick. This
material is the distinctive feature of Holland domestic architecture,
and the combination of its red, blue, or buff tints, weathered by time,
with the green of foliage, reflected in the sleepy waters of the canals,
gives a colourful picturesqueness to the quaint street fronts that is
peculiarly fascinating.

=Weighing Houses.=--The best preserved buildings of the seventeenth
century are to be found in the South at =Dordrecht= and =Delft=, and in the
North in =Leyden=, =Haarlem=, =Alkmaar=, =Hoorn=, =Enkhuisen=, and, across the
Zuyder Zee, in =Leuwarden=, =Bolsward=, =Zwolle=, and =Kampen=. Of particular
interest are the =Waaghuisen=, or =Weighing Houses= for cheese, which are
often of imposing size and richly decorated.

During the latter part of the seventeenth and the following century
Holland architecture emulated the styles of Louis XIV and XV, though
without the refinement of the French models.




CHAPTER VI

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICAN COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE


=Transition.=--The direct effect of the Italian Renaissance did not reach
English architecture until the seventeenth century, when Inigo Jones
introduced the Palladian style. The so-called “Anglo-Classical” style
which then ensued had been preceded by a period of transition from the
Gothic, which is usually divided into “Elizabethan” and “Jacobean.”
These represent not so much styles as mannerisms. Just as, according to
Shakespeare, the Englishman derived the fashion of his clothes from
various foreign sources, so, at this time, he decked out what was left
of the Gothic style with details borrowed from Italian, French,
Netherland, and German models.

The debased form of Gothic, known as Perpendicular, involving the use of
the low, four-centered arch, emphasising vertical and horizontal lines,
and covering surfaces with mechanically repeated geometrical patterns,
lingered on into the sixteenth century. But conditions in England were
changing. The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485), waged by the nobles on one
another, had completed the break up of the Feudal System. Castles were
destroyed and the powerful families exterminated or represented mainly
by minors. Statesmanship passed into the hands of an intellectual middle
class whose power was advanced by the growing prosperity of trade and
commerce.

[Illustration: WOLLATON HALL, NOTTINGHAMSHIRE

BY ROBERT SMITHSON. ELIZABETHAN EXAMPLE OF GOTHIC COMBINED WITH
RENAISSANCE. NOTE THE GERMAN INFLUENCE IN THE STRAPWORK GABLES. P. 412]

[Illustration: BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL

BY INIGO JONES. P. 418]

[Illustration: HADDON HALL, DERBYSHIRE

GOTHIC EXTERIOR. P. 412]

[Illustration: HADDON HALL. THE LONG GALLERY

ELIZABETHAN-JACOBEAN. P. 412]

[Illustration: S. MARY-LE-BOW, CHEAPSIDE, LONDON

BY SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN. P. 423]

[Illustration: S. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, LONDON

BY SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN. P. 420]

[Illustration: OLD CHARLTON, KENT

JACOBEAN, RED BRICK AND STONE FACINGS]

[Illustration: GEORGIAN CHIMNEY PIECE AND OVERMANTEL

BY ROBERT ADAMS. P. 428]

=Italian Influence.=--This was augmented, as the century advanced, by the
foreign craftsmen who sought refuge in England from the religious
persecutions in the Netherlands and the Huguenot war in France. They
introduced not only superior skill of workmanship, but the French,
Dutch, and Flemish modes. Meanwhile Henry VIII, in surrounding himself
with a new kind of political advisers, had also welcomed foreign artists
to his court. Among them were Holbein, a versatile designer in various
mediums as well as a great portrait painter; Torrigiano, who executed
=Henry VII’s Tomb= in =Westminster Abbey= (1512); Giovanni da Majano, who
modelled the busts of the emperors in the terra-cotta medallions over
the entrance-gates of Hampton Court; Benedetto da Rovezzano, designer of
the Tomb of Cardinal Wolsey, which has perished, and a certain John of
Padua, who is supposed to have been the architect of =Longleat House= in
=Wiltshire=.

Henry’s partiality for Italian artists may well have been inspired by
the example of Francis I, whom he met in 1520 on the celebrated “Field
of the Cloth of Gold.” At any rate there are many examples of sculpture,
dating from the first half of the sixteenth century, represented in
tombs, choir-screens, and organ-screens, which were purely Italian in
their decorative design and of marked refinement. Terra-cotta
enrichments, of similarly pure Italian craftsmanship, are to be seen in
certain specimens of domestic architecture, such as =Sutton Place=, near
=Guildford=, Surrey, and the entrance tower of =Layer Marney, Essex=, both
of which were completed in 1525.

The suppression of the monasteries, 1536-1540, resulted in a revival of
architecture, for in many cases the buildings were bestowed upon laymen
who converted them into mansions, while a large part of the Church funds
was devoted by Henry VIII and Edward VI to the erection and endowment of
Grammar Schools.


ELIZABETHAN AND JACOBEAN PERIODS

Under Elizabeth England reached a hitherto unexampled prosperity and the
period is one of country-house building, in which especial attention
began to be paid to the allied art of landscape gardening. Among the
most famous are: =Burghley House= and =Kirby Hall=, =Northamptonshire=; =Knoll=
and =Penshurst=, in =Kent=; =Charlecote=, =Warwickshire=; =Longleat House= and
=Longford Castle=, =Wiltshire=; =Wollaton=, =Nottinghamshire=, and =Haddon Hall=,
=Derbyshire=.

Some of the mansions built during the reign of James I, the so-called
“Jacobean Period,” are =Holland House, Kensington=; =Bolsover Castle,
Derbyshire=; =Old Charlecote House, Kent=; =Audley End, Essex=; =Hatfield,
Hertfordshire=; =Ham House, Surrey=; =Bramshill, Hampshire=; =Bickling Hall,
Norfolk=; and =Aston Hall, Birmingham=, which was completed in the
following reign.

The houses mentioned in both these lists are constructed of stone or
brick; but timber construction was still employed, especially in
Cheshire, Lancashire, and Shropshire. To these periods also belong the
following Colleges. In Cambridge: =The Gate of Honour, Caius=; =Emmanuel=;
the courts of =Sidney Sussex= and =St. John’s=; the quadrangle, =Clare=, and
=Nevill Court=, =Trinity=. In Oxford, =Jesus=, =Wadham=, =Pembroke=, =Merton
Library=, and the =Gateway of the Schools=, now the =Bodleian Library=.

It is of little advantage to try to distinguish between the Elizabethan
and the Jacobean period. Both represent a progression from the Gothic in
the direction chiefly of superior conditions of comfortable living; but
they retain many of the Gothic characteristics, while the modifications,
more or less Renaissance, are in the manner of embellishments, and
applied not according to any structural principles but as opportunities
of imitation were available.

=Books of Design.=--There were books on the use of Classic Orders. The
first to reach England was the work of the Italian Serlio, who had
become domiciled in France. In 1567, John Shute, a painter and
architect, who had been sent to Italy by the Duke of Northumberland,
brought out his “Chief Groundes of Architecture,” the first work of its
kind published in England. In 1577 appeared the pattern book of Vredeman
de Vries of Antwerp, representing Italian details, debased by Flemish
and German ingenuity, which was responsible especially for the
prevalence of _strap-ornament_, that is to say, geometric designs of
flat bands, studded with knobs, as if they were metal or leather work,
attached to the wall by rivets.

The decorative inspiration, therefore, was purer at the beginning than
in its subsequent development. For example, the decorative use of the
orders is better in some of the earlier buildings than the later ones.
In fact, what chiefly distinguishes the Jacobean from the Elizabethan is
an increasing grossness of detail, apparent in the furniture and
fittings, as well as in the embellishment of the exteriors.

=Architect’s Function.=--These conditions were fostered by the
circumstances under which the building was conducted. There were
architects whose names survive, the earliest being John Thorpe, the
designer of Kirby, Burghley, Longford Castle, and Holland House. But the
custom of the time seems to have limited the architect’s function to the
supplying of a plan and design; probably more in the nature of a sketch
than of actual detailed drawings, after which the building was handed
over to the sole control of a master-mason, who worked out his details
from the pattern book. Naturally, such a divorce of construction and
design was little likely to result in the consistent development of an
architectural style.

=Plans.=--The square plan was retained from Gothic times in the case of
colleges and in some mansions. But usually, to secure more air and light
the fourth side was dispensed with, the gate-house, which had been its
central feature, becoming a separate building. And the tendency was to
prolong one side and shorten the wings, so as to produce the E plan, or
to lengthen the wings by projecting them on each side of the main
façade, thus forming a letter H. Or the wings are replaced by outlying
pavilions joined to the main building by corridors. Sometimes the plans
are irregular, representing the additions made to an original Gothic
house.

=Roofs.=--Many Gothic features were preserved. Oriel and bay windows were
frequent, and the windows retain their mullions and transoms, and
increase in size, being often carried up through several stories. Square
or octagonal towers abound, occasionally battlemented but generally
finishing in a parapet or cresting, the roof being concealed or rising
in a low cone or pyramid. Similarly, the main roofs vary; high, flat,
and low ones even occurring in the same design. They are covered with
lead or tiles, and surrounded by balustrades, formed of battlements,
successive arches, or pierced ornament. Gables are edged with
scroll-work, while dormer-gables, as in the Netherlands and Germany, are
stepped or carried up with variously curved outlines. The chimneys,
single or grouped in stacks, continue to be a prominent feature, their
decoration, occasionally, as at Kirby and Hatfield, involving a use of
orders.

=Use of Orders.=--The orders when applied to the façade, are treated with
little regard to purity of style and are often disfigured with strap
ornament. When used in interior decoration, the pilasters frequently
diminish in width toward the base, or swell out in bulbous curves; there
being little or no limit to the extravagance of form that columns and
pilasters alike assume in chimneypieces and furniture. Indeed, during
the Jacobean period the grotesqueness of ornament notably increased,
accompanied by a corresponding coarseness in the modelling. Moreover,
this characteristic invaded the gardens, where trees and hedges were
trimmed or “pleached” into the shape of birds, or beasts, or fantastic
designs.

However, although the mansions of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods
will not stand scrutiny on the score of architectural propriety, they
have besides their picturesqueness a quality that is aptly characterised
in Cowper’s phrase, “the stately homes of England.” They possess dignity
and, above all, are homelike. They bear the stamp, not of the
professional architect, but of the variegated family life that they have
fostered for successive generations.

=Interiors.=--And this is equally true of the interiors. Comfort is not
sacrificed to stateliness. The chief apartments may attain grand
proportions, but they do not give the impression of being reserved for
merely ceremonial purposes; they are centres of domestic life. The
Gothic feature of the Great Hall was preserved; and, in the early
examples, while the family and the retainers still took their meals
together, a dais occupied one end, the opposite end being separated from
the buttery or larder, and the kitchen by a richly decorated wooden
screen, above which was the minstrel gallery. The conspicuous feature of
the hall was the fireplace, with a chimneypiece on which the most
elaborate decoration was lavished, the rest of the walls being panelled
in wood to a height of eight or ten feet, leaving a space above for
trophies of the chase or family portraits. This type of hall is still
retained in all the dining halls of the Oxford and Cambridge colleges.

Adjoining the hall was a _solar_ for the intimate life of the family.
Gradually, as the taste for privacy increased, a separate room was used
for dining and other living-rooms were added until the hall came to be
more and more an entrance hall, and the main living apartments were
disposed as in Italian and French custom, on the second floor. This
caused the staircase to be treated as a prominent feature, which, as it
were, prolonged the spaciousness of the hall. Occasionally of marble or
stone, it was usually constructed of oak with massive newel-posts and
balustrade, richly decorated.

In the earlier examples, and even in some later ones, as Inigo Jones’s
design of =Chevening House=, the apartments are arranged on the
“thoroughfare” system, opening into one another en suite. But the
inconvenience of this in the entertaining of guests led to the adoption
of a corridor along one side. By degrees this was widened and developed
into what is the most distinctive feature of these old English
houses--the Long Gallery. Lit with tall windows, often with deep bays
that form attractive alcoves, it served as a pleasant sitting-room and
equally as a place for exercise in wet weather, while its inner wall
provided space for pictures. In fact, this room seems to have been the
origin of the term “_picture gallery_.”

Special care was bestowed upon the ceilings. Occasionally the beams were
exposed, but the usual practice by this time was to sheathe them with
lath and plaster, the surface of which was decorated with stucco relief
in geometrical designs. At times the flat of the ceiling was connected
with the walls by a concave member, called a _cove_. Often, when the
wainscot was not carried up to the level of this, the upper part or dado
also was decorated with stucco relief.

It is characteristic of the use of the pattern books that the motives of
decoration employed in the exterior and interior embellishment are used
also in the furniture of the period, which on the whole is distinguished
by its massiveness, exuberance of ornament, and the mechanical method of
the workmanship. For much of the ornament is either cut out of the flat
wood with a jig-saw or carved upon forms that have been turned upon a
lathe.


ANGLO-ITALIAN PERIOD

With the accession of Charles I commenced an era of more refined and
cultivated taste. The King, as a young man, escorted by the
pleasure-loving Duke of Buckingham, had visited the Court of Spain in
search of a wife, and had seen the wonderful array of Titians and
Rubens’s in the Royal Gallery. Later he had married Henrietta Maria,
daughter of Henri IV, who, under the inspiration of his wife, Marie de’
Medici, was introducing the classical style into French architecture.

=Inigo Jones.=--Charles himself had planned to erect a palace at Whitehall
that should surpass the Louvre in grandeur and found in Inigo Jones
(1573-1652) an architect fully qualified for the ambitious enterprise.
He had made a prolonged study of the Renaissance style in Italy,
spending much of the time in Vicenza, where he had become an ardent
admirer of Palladio’s work.

=Whitehall Palace.=--His plan of =Whitehall Palace= provided for an immense
rectangle, 1152 by 720 feet, surrounded by façades, three stories high.
The interior court was to be divided into three parts by two wings of
two stories, which were to be united to the main side-façades by
transverse wings, so that the plan would have embraced a large court and
six smaller courts, one being circular in plan. However, a scheme of
such magnificence was entirely beyond the King’s means and the only part
erected was a small portion of one of the interior wings--the =Banqueting
House=, which now abuts on the street that retains the name, Whitehall.

The façade that it presents to the latter is in the Paladian style and
of extreme purity. Constructed throughout of fine, rusticated masonry,
it consists, above the basement, of two stories, decorated,
respectively, with the Ionic and the Corinthian orders, while a
well-proportioned cornice, surmounted by a balustrade, defines the
sky-line. An admirable feature, apparently originated by Inigo Jones,
for it is not found in Italy, is the slight prominence given to the
central three window bays by substituting columns for pilasters and
breaking the entablature and cornice round them. The interior contains a
handsome vaulted hall, divided into three aisles.

Another design by Jones, which recalls Palladio’s Vicenza gates is the
=Water Gate=, now in the =Embankment= =Gardens=, which formerly was the water
entrance from the river to old York House, which has been destroyed. He
also built =S. Paul, Covent Garden= (1638), a severe but imposing design
that suffers from its proximity to the market, the arcades of which are
also his. His design for the river façade for =Greenwich Hospital=, in
which the two lower stories are included in one colossal Corinthian
order, was executed by his pupil, John Webb. Among the examples of
Jones’s domestic buildings are =Raynham Hall, Norfolk=; =Wilton House,
Wiltshire=; =Chevening House, Kent=; =Stoke Park, Northamptonshire=, and
=Coleshill, Berkshire=.

But the erection of country houses and indeed all architectural activity
were seriously interrupted by the Civil War and the consequent unsettled
conditions.

=Wren.=--More fortunate in opportunity was Sir Christopher Wren
(1632-1723), upon whom it devolved to repair some of the damage wrought
by the Great Fire of London, in 1666. He was never in Italy and his
foreign experience was limited to six months in Paris, where Bernini’s
design for the Louvre, fortunately never executed, was being commenced.
Consequently he did not possess the technical equipment of Inigo Jones
and was not always successful in the decorative sheathing which he
applied to the construction. It was on the constructive side that his
genius lay and in this he was assisted by his previous career as a
mathematician and professor of astronomy at Gresham College and the
University of Oxford.

Wren’s earliest architectural works, executed before he went to Paris,
were the =Library of Pembroke College, Cambridge= and the =Sheldonian
Theatre, Oxford=. His scientific knowledge was demonstrated in the
ceiling of the latter, which has a span of 68 feet. After the fire of
London he planned to lay out the devastated part of the city on new and
broader lines; but the reconstruction was defeated, as city replanning
is liable to be in our own day, by the opposition of property owners.
Meanwhile a plan he had previously made for the enlargement of S. Paul’s
was now superseded by the necessity of erecting an entirely new
building.

=S. Paul’s.=--The plan of S. Paul’s is a cross with short arms; both the
choir and nave, comprising three bays, flanked, like the transepts, with
aisles. The choir terminates in a small apse; the transepts in
semi-circular porticoes and the west end in a vestibule with lateral
chapels.

The internal piers are embellished with Corinthian pilasters, supporting
an entablature and attic, the latter containing clerestory windows,
which, however, though giving light to the interior, are not visible
from outside. The ceilings, throughout, are composed of repetitions of
flat, saucer-like domes.

But the dominant feature of the interior is the octagon at the crossing,
which comprises the width not only of the nave and choir but also of the
aisles. It permits four great arches, opening into the nave, choir, and
transepts, and four smaller and lower arches, connecting with the
ambulatory, which is formed by the aisles. This arrangement is somewhat
similar to the octagon of Ely Cathedral and may be compared with the
plan of the dome of the Invalides.

Surmounting the eight pendentives of St. Paul’s is a circular gallery,
known as the “Whispering Gallery,” above which rises a circular
peristyle. The latter’s entablature supports the interior dome, which
mounts to a height of 281 feet from the floor.

In recent years the barrenness of the interior has been considerably
relieved by glass mosaic decorations, designed by Sir William Richmond.

=The Façades= comprise two stories; the lower embellished with the
Corinthian order, the upper with the Composite; the line of division
being at the height of the aisles. Thus, on the north and south sides of
the building, the upper part of the façade is only a screen, carried up
for the purpose of composing with the mass of the dome. The flying
buttresses of the latter are concealed behind it, while light penetrates
through it to the clerestory windows. Admirable features of the lower
story of the side façades are the semi-circular porticoes, of beautiful
design, which project from the ends of the transepts. Excellently
proportioned, if somewhat bald, is the west façade, which is a double
storied portico of coupled columns, supporting a pediment. This is
flanked by two towers, which rise above the sky-line in diminishing
stories, terminating in bell-shaped cupolas. Not only are they fine
compositions in themselves, but they are also designed in fine relation
to the dominating feature of the dome.

=The Dome.=--The latter, in mass and outline and in the relation achieved
between its several parts, can lay claim to being the most majestic dome
of the Renaissance. Among the elements that enter into its
impressiveness is the emphasis given to the lowest course of masonry,
which well suggests the union of the nave, choir, and transepts and
forms a substantial stylobate to the peristyle. The latter, again, is
exceptionally fine in proportion. In appearance, relatively higher than
that of S. Peter’s and related with more freedom to the mass above, it
is formed of coupled columns attached to radiating buttress walls;
every fourth space between the columns being filled with solid masonry,
which is relieved in the way of light and shadow by a decorated niche.
The effect is at once strong, stately, and of airy lightness. Very fine
also, in its peculiar accent of effectiveness is the proportion of the
upper drum to the superincumbent mass of the dome, whose curve is lifted
to a culminating springiness by the height and freedom and sensitive
proportions of the lantern.

No less remarkable is the scientific knowledge expended in the
construction of this externally superb masterpiece. It is composed, like
the domes of the Invalides and the Panthéon in Paris, of three shells,
although the arrangement is different. For the intermediate shell
consists of a cone of brickwork, 18 inches thick. It springs from behind
the upper drum, and on it bears the stone lantern, ball, and cross; the
last being 365 feet above the ground level. It also helps to bear the
weight of the timber supports of the outer shell, which is constructed
entirely of wood, sheathed with lead. The inner dome, resting on the
peristyle, is of brickwork, and of the same thickness as the cone.

=Wren’s Churches.=--Between the years 1670 and 1711 were erected some
fifty-three London churches, in which Wren displayed remarkable
versatility in adapting Renaissance design, not only to the different
conditions which the crowded site involved but also to the requirements
of Protestant worship, which laid so much stress on preaching and needed
chiefly an auditorium. A famous example is that of =S. Stephen’s
Walbrook=, in which sixteen columns support a coffered ceiling,
interrupted by a pendentive dome. This is the predominating feature, for
its diameter is 43 feet in a total width of 60 feet.

Wren’s churches, however, are better and more characteristically known
by the variety of steeples, which may be considered an invention of his
own. From a square tower, which is treated as the main feature of the
front façade, they pass into circular or octagonal stories, diminishing
in diameter, clothed with Renaissance details, and terminating in a
slender spire. Their beauty consists in the variety and proportions
given to the several parts, achieving an ensemble of peculiar elegance.
Occasionally they suggest a certain mechanicalness of repetition; hence
the example which is considered the best is that of =S. Mary-le-Bow=. For
here the repetition of the orders is interrupted by a story composed of
inverted consoles, the effect of which is to vary not only the character
of the embellishment, but also, by introducing the contrast of a curve,
the regularity of successive steps. Wren’s inexhaustible activity is
represented also, among many other examples, by the =Monument= at =London
Bridge=; =The Fountain Court= and =Garden Façade= of =Hampton Court=; =Chelsea
Hospital=; =Marlborough House, Pall Mall=; and =Temple Bar=. The last,
forming the entrance gate to the City of London proper, has been removed
from its old site at the foot of Fleet Street, and set up in Theobald’s
Park, Northamptonshire.

He lies buried beneath the choir of his masterpiece, a tablet bidding
you, “Si monumentum requiris, circumspice.”

=Hawksmoor, Gibbs.=--The most notable of =Wren’s= pupils were Nicholas
Hawksmoor (1666-1763) and James Gibbs (1683-1754). The latter published
a book of his own designs, which, as we shall see, exercised a
considerable influence on the beginnings of architecture in the American
Colonies.


EIGHTEENTH CENTURY STYLES

ANGLO-CLASSICAL. QUEEN ANNE. GEORGIAN

This period comprises the reigns of Anne (1702-14) and of the three
Georges (1714-1820). In the case of large mansions it represents a
continuation of the “Anglo-Palladian” style, with an increased
importance given to the use of columns, especially in porticoes. Hence
it is sometimes called the “Anglo-Classical,” or more specifically, the
“Portico Style.”

In less pretentious houses the tendency was to avoid columns and
ornamental details and to rely upon the sterling character of plain
brick work. The so-called _Flemish bond_ was introduced, a method of
binding a wall into solidity by laying the bricks in courses of
alternate _stretchers_ and _headers_--bricks, that is to say, laid,
respectively lengthwise with and at right angles to the outer surface of
the walls. It differed from the _English bond_, in which stretchers and
headers were laid in alternate courses. A single projecting string
course might mark the division of the stories, while several, projecting
one over the other, would form a cornice under the eaves of the tiled
roof. Or this arrangement might be replaced by a wooden cornice.
Windows, owing to the tax upon them, were reduced in number and often
increased in size, especially in the direction of height.
Correspondingly, doors were heightened until they had an effect of
narrowness. In all these particulars, as also in the introduction of
pediment-shaped gables and wooden cornices under the eaves of the tiled
roofs, there was a disposition to follow the seventeenth century type of
Dutch and Flemish domestic architecture. This so-called “Queen Anne”
style--though it is more a manner than a style--involved a certain
primness of effect, quite in keeping with the somewhat pedantic attitude
of the time, but is characterised by simple refinement and suggestion of
comfortable domesticity.

By the time of George III--1760 and onward--certain modifications were
introduced into the Anglo-Classical style, which are sometimes
characterised by the distinction, “Georgian.”

=Anglo-Classical.=--The Anglo-Classical is frankly a style of ostentation
and magnificent pretension. So far as one man could be responsible for
what was in effect an expression of the temper of an age that was
amassing great wealth in the Indian and Chinese trade, the man was Sir
John Vanbrugh. But it is significant that he first became famous as a
writer of witty and spicy comedies. Then he “turned his attention to”
architecture and wrote to his friend Tonson, the publisher, for a
“Palladio.” With the aid of this he qualified himself as an
architectural designer and having already gained the favour of society
by his talents as a wit was readily accepted as an architect, enjoying
particularly the patronage of Queen Anne, who sent him abroad on a
special mission. His first important mansion was =Castle Howard= (1714),
followed a year later by =Blenheim Palace=.

In both of these he achieved what may be described as a scenic
impressiveness on a prodigious scale, but without much reference to
architectural logic or to internal convenience. The two plans have a
general similarity, consisting of a main block with an extensive garden
front, connected at the rear by two corridors with the kitchen block and
the stable block. These flank a great court, which at Blenheim is closed
by a screen wall and gateway in the manner of a French château. The
kitchen at Blenheim was some 400 feet distant from the dining room!
Windows in both designs were disposed for exterior effect and not for
proper lighting of the interior. In numberless particulars internal
convenience was sacrificed to palatial planning and display. As Voltaire
said, if the rooms had been as wide as the walls were thick the palace
would have been passably convenient. Amongst the new features,
introduced by Vanbrugh, was the converting of the ground story into a
kind of mimic cellar, with inconveniently small staircases to the floor
above, the main approach to which was on the outside of the building, by
a grand flight of steps leading up to a superb portico.

Notwithstanding the magnificence of scale, these designs have a chill
formality that makes their dignity rather dull.

Meanwhile they set a fashion exactly suited to the taste of the time,
which in literature also was disposed to substitute dilettantism for
culture, and, in its infatuation for what it called “style,” to attach
more importance to form than to subject-matter. It was the age of the
amateur. Lord Burlington, for example, a patron of art, designed a villa
at Chiswick in a free translation of the Villa Capra, Vicenza by
Palladio. Also, in conjunction with his protégé, Kent, he erected the
=Horse Guards= and =Devonshire House= in London and =Holkham Hall, Norfolk=;
the last-named presenting a central block connected by corridors with
four outlying pavilions. One of the shibboleths of this time that passed
for a principle was that to a style of this grandeur only one form of
roof was appropriate--a dome. Interior proprieties were sacrificed to
the securing of a dome, and where the exigencies of building
necessitated a flat or pointed roof it was hidden behind an attic or
balustrade.

=Pope’s Satire.=--The fatuities, however, of this craze for the monumental
did not escape contemporary satire. When Lord Burlington published the
designs of Inigo Jones and Palladio’s drawings of the “Antiquities of
Rome,” Pope referred to them in one of his epistles--

        “You show us, Rome was glorious, not profuse,
         And pompous buildings once were things of use.
         Yet shall, my Lord, your just, your noble rules,
         Fill half the land with imitating fools;
         Who random drawings from your sheets may take
         And of one beauty many blunders make;
         Load some vain church with old theatric state,
         Turn arcs of triumph to a garden gate:
         ....... “’tis very fine,
         But where d’ye sleep or where d’ye dine?
         I find by all you have been telling
         That ’tis a house, but not a dwelling.”

=Chambers.=--It was a reaction from this mania for magnificence that
encouraged, in the case of more modest houses, the so-called “Queen
Anne” style, and later, in large and small alike, the “Georgian.” The
change to the latter, moreover, was assisted by the influence of Sir
William Chambers, who acquired a real knowledge of architecture through
long study in Italy and in 1759 published his “Treatise on Civil
Architecture.” His most important work is the river front of =Somerset
House=. He, too, however, was responsible for a craze. In early life he
had visited China, where he made sketches of architecture, furniture,
and costumes, which formed the basis of his “Designs for Chinese
Architecture, Etc.” published in 1757. It led to an infatuation for the
socalled “Chinese Style” which survives directly in the Pagoda at Kew
Gardens and indirectly in the Chinese motives that Chippendale (d. 1779)
introduced with so much taste into his furniture designs.

=Adam.=--Meanwhile, the Georgian revival was due even more to the genius
of the Scotsman Robert Adam (1728-1792). Realising that the existing
knowledge of Roman architecture had been derived from public buildings,
he visited the only example known then of domestic architecture, the
ruins of Diocletian’s Palace at Spalato in Dalmatia. Here in
co-operation with the French architect, C. L. Clerisseau, and two
experienced draughtsmen, he made the measurements and drawings out of
which he projected a restoration of the building in a fine work entitled
“The Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian” (1764). To him belongs the
credit of inaugurating the modern idea, not yet sufficiently lived up
to, of using the monumental style for a number of separate buildings,
grouped in one design. His first achievement was on the banks of the
Thames just east of Buckingham Street, where the steep descent
necessitated a system of vaulted foundations that are said to be a
remarkable example of engineering skill. On this Adam erected the
dignified design, which, since his brother James co-operated with him,
was called after the Greek word _adelphoi_, brothers, =Adelphi Terrace=.
Other instances of his group designs are parts of =Fitzroy Square=, the
older portion of =Finsbury Circus= and =Portland Place=. Among his country
houses is =Keddleston Hall, Derbyshire=. Here he clung to the sprawling
plan, in which the offices are widely parted from the main block; but,
in the façades, employed large windows, finely grouped, and permitted
the sloping roofs to be a strong feature of the design.

[Illustration: HOME OF THE POET LONGFELLOW, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. P. 431]

[Illustration: CHRIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA P. 430]

[Illustration: WASHINGTON’S HOME AT MOUNT VERNON

REAR VIEW. EXAMPLE OF SOUTHERN COLONIAL. P. 432]

[Illustration: ANOTHER SOUTHERN COLONIAL EXAMPLE, MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA P.
432]

It was Adam’s idea that the architect should be responsible also for the
interior decorations and furniture, thus making each room and its
furnishings a unified design. Indeed, that everything outside as well as
inside the house, summer-houses, terraces and so-forth, should unite in
a single ensemble. In the style of furniture that has been associated
with his name he showed a rare taste in blending classical motives with
elements of his own fancy; exhibiting a particular skill in the graceful
use of curvilinear forms, in which he had a partiality for ovals, and in
modelling details that, while very delicate, were neither weak nor
petty. As the result of his influence the Georgian interior presented an
appropriately dainty setting to the costumes and manners of society,
which had abandoned the stiff ostentation of the earlier Georgian period
for the graceful elegance of the later mode.


AMERICAN COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE

Naturally it was from the Mother-Country that the American Colonies
derived the models of their earliest architecture. The date at which
increased population and prosperity encouraged buildings of a more
permanent character, distinguished by their appearance as well as by
their immediate utility, is placed at about 1725. From this time the
rigour of life in New England, and particularly in Massachusetts, began
to be considerably abated. The theocratic form of government, in which
the clergy were the arbiters of moral and social conventions, had given
way to the active participation of laymen in public affairs. The manners
as well as the costumes of society became elegant and the pleasures of
life were no longer frowned upon. The change which thus came over
social life is reflected in the contrast presented by Copley’s portraits
and those of his predecessor, Smibert.

A corresponding advance in the amenities of life was represented also in
New York and Philadelphia; while, as to the Southern States, which had
been colonised by Royalists rather than by Puritans, the tradition of
elegant life had always been maintained and the change at this period
was only in the increased opportunity of realising it.

=English Influences, Modified.=--The edifices which began to be erected
comprise churches and meeting-houses, mansions, and a few public halls;
the last being of historical rather than architectural interest. The
places of worship represent an adaptation of the Wren-Gibbs type, while
the domestic designs are based on Queen Anne and Georgian styles. In a
few cases the prototype was fairly reproduced; notable examples being
=Christ Church, Philadelphia= (1727-35); =Old South Church, Boston=, now
used as a museum (1730-82), and =S. Paul’s, New York= (1766). The last
named is one of the few instances of stone building at this period; the
usual material being either brick imported from England or, far more
usually, wood. This affected the use which was made of the drawings of
Gibbs, Adam, and others, from which the Colonial church-builders derived
their designs. Brick did not permit of carved enrichment. Mouldings
were, in consequence, of extreme simplicity and such embellishments as
columns, pediments, and cornices were constructed of wood. The character
of the design was still further modified in the New England States,
since wood was used also for the main structure.

=Colonial Style Developed.=--Thus there was developed a skill of design in
the use of wood alone and of wood in combination with brick that is
distinguishable as a distinct style, to which the term “Colonial” has
been applied. It is a style in no sense monumental, even when it
includes spires, columns and porticoes. On the contrary, it is
characterised by simplicity and reserve but is saved from insignificance
by the quiet dignity of the whole and the refinement of the details. The
wooden spires of the innumerable meeting-houses distributed over New
England, many of which were designed by the almost forgotten worthies,
Ascher Benjamin and Ithiel Town, present a type of their own,
distinguished by extreme sensitiveness of outline and aspiring grace and
airiness. These are veritable creations, growing logically out of the
wood construction. And even in the porticoes, although their columns are
structurally shams, being mere shells enclosing a post, the feeling of
woodwork is so frankly retained, that in association with the wooden
walls they seem quite reasonable.

A corresponding unity of effect is achieved in the best examples of
wooden domestic buildings, such as the =Craigie House=, Longfellow’s home
in =Cambridge=; the =Sherburn House, Portsmouth=, and innumerable other
examples throughout New England. They are characterised by the choice
proportions and distribution of the windows, by the pilasters running up
through two stories, to a well-designed cornice, broken in the centre by
a pediment that serves as a porch. The roofs vary. Some are flat; some
slope up from front and rear, with a gable at each end. In other cases,
the continuous slope is broken by a _gambrel_ into two slopes, forming
an obtuse angle, as in the Mansard roof. While again, the roof may be
_hipped_, sloping up, that is to say, from all four sides, the four
planes meeting in hips or ridges.

While similar styles of roofs and windows reappear in the Southern
Colonial type of house the latter is distinguished by the addition of a
verandah. It may take the form of a pedimented portico, composed of
colossal columns, carried up to the cornice, or of a colonnade extending
along the entire front and frequently consisting of two stories; the
floor beams of the upper one being let into the columns--a device that
violates structural propriety but may be overlooked in the comfortable
dignity of the whole design. The latter in some cases covers an
extended, symmetrical plan, as, for example, in Washington’s home, =Mount
Vernon=, where the main block is connected by curving colonnades with the
kitchen wing on one side and offices on the other, while the
slave-quarters were in detached buildings, separated by formal gardens
from the mansion. The comparative smallness of the latter emphasises the
suggestion of the patriarchal character of the best of the old Southern
life before the Civil War, while the quiet dignity of the exterior is
repeated in the spirit of refined and gentle breeding that pervades the
interior.

Both in Southern and Northern Colonial houses the wainscots, door-and
window-trims, the mantelpieces, cornices, and balustraded staircases
exhibit a choiceness of design, derived from the models of Adam and
Sheraton.




BOOK VII

POST-RENAISSANCE PERIOD




CHAPTER I

CLASSICAL AND GOTHIC REVIVALS


In the latter half of the eighteenth century commenced a Classical
Revival, which in the various countries that it affected lasted far on
into the nineteenth. In some directions it represented a reaction from
the debased Renaissance styles of the baroque and rococo; in all it was
largely promoted by a more accurate study of antiquities and by the
discovery of the distinction between Greek and Roman art. Its effect
upon architecture was but one phase of its influence, which penetrated
more or less the thought of the world and found expression in
literature. This revival belongs rather to a history of architecture
than to a study of fundamentals, such as this book has attempted.
Accordingly we must be satisfied here with a brief sketch of the
subjects. To continue the thread of the previous chapter let us start
with the appearance of the classical revival in Great Britain.


CLASSICAL REVIVAL IN GREAT BRITAIN

=English Exploration.=--The “Revival of Learning” had been followed in
England by a continuous fondness for Greek and Roman literature. Milton,
as late as 1654, was writing his political tracts in Latin; and,
although such use of the language was abandoned, a familiarity with
Latin and at least some acquaintance with Greek continued through the
rest of this century and the following one to be the ordinary mark of an
educated gentleman. In 1647 Dryden popularised the Æneid of Virgil by
translating it, and in 1720 Pope produced his translation of Homer’s
Iliad. For the promotion of arts and letters the Dilettanti Society was
founded in 1734; and some twenty years later financed the archæological
exploration of Stuart and Revett in Greece. Their work, “Antiquities of
Athens,” was published in 1762. One of the results of the interest it
created was the acquisition through Lord Elgin of the bulk of the
sculpture of the Parthenon and a caryatid and column from the
Erechtheion which were purchased by the Government (1801-1803). These in
turn prompted the researches of the architect, H. W. Inwood, who
published in 1831 his study of the “Erechtheion.”

=Winckelmann’s Critical Studies.=--Meanwhile in Germany Winckelmann had
given to the world in 1763, practically at the same time as the
appearance of the work of Stuart and Revett, his famous “History of
Art.” The product of thirteen years of study of the antique sculptures
in Rome, by one who was a profound classical scholar as well as a man of
remarkable independence and extraordinary critical faculty, this work,
for the first time, made exact distinction between Greek and Roman
examples, established a basis of sound criticism, and analysed the
characteristic quality of Greek art. This Winckelmann found to consist
in a relation between the whole and the parts, so completely harmonious
and so balanced and controlled by refined feeling that, if one quality
can be selected as typical of Greek work, it is _repose_.

The influence of Winckelmann’s work and that of Stuart and Revett was
reciprocal in the two countries. But that the functions of Greek
sculpture and Greek architecture were also reciprocal escaped
observation. Even

[Illustration: LA MADELEINE, PARIS

P. 443]

[Illustration: ST. GEORGE’S HALL, LIVERPOOL

P. 438]

[Illustration: PANTHEON, PARIS

BY J. J. SOUFFLOT. P. 442]

[Illustration: ARC DE L’ETOILE, PARIS

P. 443]

[Illustration: OPERA HOUSE, PARIS

BY CHARLES GARNIER. P. 444]

[Illustration:

© Detroit Photographing Co

STATE HOUSE, BOSTON

BY CHARLES BULFINCH. P. 448]

[Illustration: CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON

ORIGINAL CENTRAL PORTION BY WILLIAM THORNTON, ADVISED BY B. H. LATROBE
AND CHARLES BULFINCH. WINGS AND DOME ADDED 1851 TO 1865. P. 446]

[Illustration: CITY HALL, NEW YORK

BY MANGIN. LOUIS XVI STYLE. P. 448]

[Illustration:

Courtesy Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue

ST. THOMAS, NEW YORK

BY CRAM, GOODHUE AND FERGUSON. P. 453]

[Illustration: HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT

BY SIR CHARLES BARRY AND AUGUSTUS W. N. PUGIN. VICTORIA TOWER, LEFT;
CLOCK TOWER, RIGHT. IN THE DISTANCE, LEFT, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. P. 450]

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT

P. 451]

more than the combination of architecture and sculpture in a Gothic
cathedral, because more deliberately, as a result of reasoned logic as
well as of feeling, Greek sculpture and architecture were constituent
parts of one design. To divorce the architecture from its sculptural
enrichments, is to reduce the temperature of feeling in a building, to
make it cold and too severe in its refinement. Moreover, the exterior
design of a Greek building was so calculated to its plan, which was
usually that of a temple, that to attempt to adapt it to the different
needs of modern planning is not only a violation of its logic but also
an attenuation--a stretching out to thinness--of its expressiveness.

=Adaptation Limited.=--In fact, a Greek façade cannot be an integral part
of a modern building. Instead of growing out of the interior conditions
it is merely a screen, as arbitrary in its separation from what is
behind it, as was the old painted act-drop of a theatre. The realisation
of this has influenced architects to emulate or imitate, as the case may
be, the Roman rather than the Greek style. And, so far as Roman
architecture was an adaptation of Greek particulars to the new problems
of the basilica, palace, public bath, triumphal arch, amphitheatre and
so forth, the model may be judiciously followed. But, when the architect
essays to adapt the colossal orders of a Roman temple to the front of a
bank, library, museum, or railroad station he may display a feeling for
impressiveness that gives little proof of intelligent comprehension of
design. He commits the same error that he is fond of charging to the
layman, who, he says, thinks of the design of a building only as an
exterior effect and not also in relation to the plan and internal
structure. For, to take but one point, that of the lighting. Windows
are an essential of a modern building, while in a Roman temple they
played only a subordinate part; so that the pedimented, columned porch
at the entrance and the colonnades at the sides were not employed at any
sacrifice to the internal requirements.

=Greek Model.=--The window problem did not enter into the earliest example
of the Classical Revival in England--the Greek design of the =Bank of
England= (1788) by Sir John Soane. For, as the building was for the
safe-keeping of gold and securities, the walls behind the colonnades and
porch could appropriately be solid. Yet, even so, the character of the
principal façade is not carried round to the side of the building and
the design of the façade is merely a frontispiece. Still more so is the
Greek façade of the =British Museum=, erected (1823-47) by Soane’s pupil,
Sir Robert Smirke (1780-1867), which not only has no co-ordination with
the interior arrangement, but also obstructs the needed light.

George Basevi, another pupil of Soane’s, contrived a more appropriate
use of the Greek style in the =Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge=, because he
was able to avoid the incongruity of windows. H. W. Inwood (1794-1843)
applied the results of his study of the Erechtheion to the design of =S.
Pancras Church=; while among the examples of William Wilkins (1778-1839)
are the =University of London= and the =National Gallery=. The design of the
latter, which is very inferior to that of the University, was unhappily
fettered with conditions. Most fortunate of all the buildings of this
Classical revival in England is =St. George’s Hall=, Liverpool, by H. L.
Elmes (1815-1847). It is lifted well above the level on a
stylobate-terrace and the design presents a stately treatment of Greek
porticoes and colonnades; but the Greek is abandoned on the threshold,
the interior being an adaptation of the Roman thermæ.

The incongruity of the Greek style with modern requirements led to a
reaction in favour of astylar or columnless buildings; a return, in
fact, to Renaissance design, which was started by Sir Charles Barry,
whom we shall meet again in the Gothic Revival.


GERMAN CLASSICAL PERIOD

In Germany the classical revival in architecture was intimately related
to the thought-movement of the time, especially as it expressed itself
in literature. We have already noted the almost simultaneous publication
of Stuart and Revett’s “Antiquities of Athens” and Winckelmann’s
“History of Art,” and the welcome which the former received in Germany.
It was stimulated by the appearance in 1765 of Lessing’s “Laokoon,” a
critical treatise on painting, sculpture, and poetry. He based it upon
the Classic Canons; by which he meant not the canons of French
pseudo-classicalism, which had hitherto stood for classic in Germany,
but the Greek canons of art and literature as laid down by Aristotle.
Indeed, he affirmed that Shakespeare, despite the irregularities of his
style, was nearer to the spirit of Aristotle than Racine.

=Goethe’s Influence.=--Goethe, at the court of Weimar, where French
pseudo-classicalism was the vogue, espoused the new movement. He had
visited Italy and confirmed for himself the studies of Winckelmann and
Lessing’s attitude. Being director of the Ducal Theatre, he was able in
a large measure to control the dramatic taste of Germany, and encouraged
Schiller to write his classical dramas. The aim of both Goethe and
Schiller was to reconcile the cultural ideals of the eighteenth century
with the models of ancient Greece.

The zeal of this movement spread to architecture. The earliest example
is the =Brandenburg Gate= in =Berlin= (1784); but the actual revival did not
begin till some thirty years later, when its leaders were Friedrich
Schinkel (1781-1841) and Leo von Klenze (1784-1864). The scene of
Schinkel’s achievements is mainly Berlin, where he is responsible for
the fine design of the =Old Museum= and the =Royal Theatre=. The =New Museum=
of Berlin was erected later (1843-55) by Stühler.

Klenze’s opportunity came with the ambition of Louis I of Bavaria to
increase the architectural magnificence of Munich and make it the rival
of Berlin and Dresden as an artistic centre. Among the chief works of
Klenze are the =Glyptothek= (Sculpture Gallery), the =Pinacothek= (Picture
Gallery), and the =Propylæa=. Associated with him in the decoration of
these and other buildings were the painters Peter von Cornelius and
Wilhelm von Kaulbach and the sculptor, Ludwig Schwanthaler.

To this period belongs the =Parliament House= (Reichsrathgebande) at
=Vienna= (1843) by Theophil Hansen.


FRENCH CLASSICAL PERIOD

=Philosophic and Social Movement.=--In France also the Classical revival
was due to the momentum of writers and thinkers, impelled, however, in
the first place, not so much by æsthetic considerations as by
philosophic. It represented a revolution against the degradation of
individual and national life, the corruption of the ruling forces of
Church and State, the soulless frippery of courtiers and the abject
destitution of the masses of the proletariat. The last term was revived
from the vocabulary of Imperial Rome and designated the peasantry and
labourers of all kinds, whose duty was to labour for the benefit of the
privileged classes and whose sole right was that of propagating their
species.

The protest against this social rottenness was voiced by Jean Jacques
Rousseau in treatises on “The Inequality of Conditions” and “The Social
Contract” and by Diderot and the other Encyclopædists, who in the form
of a dictionary, the first volume of which appeared in 1751, not only
disseminated information but sought to guide thought, especially as to
the rights and duties of government and the governed. Notwithstanding
the effort of Church and State alike to strangle this intellectual and
social movement, its influence spread not alone in France but throughout
Europe and reached the American Colonies.

=Example of Rome.=--Gradually the traditions of Roman culture inherent in
the French led them to reason that, since the evils of the State had
grown out of the autocracy of Louis XIV, who emulated the authority and
magnificence of a Cæsar, alleviation was to be sought in a return to the
frugal living and high patriotic thinking of the Early Roman Republic.
Suddenly, while all thoughts were being directed to this model, the
young painter, Jacques Louis David, returned from Rome and exhibited at
the Salon of 1785 his “Oath of the Horatii.” The picture marked the
beginning of a new epoch. It gave concrete expression to the fluid
thought of the time. The austerity of the early Roman ideal became the
watchword and the aim of the many as well as of the few intellectuals.
Men began to address one another as _Citoyens_. When the Revolution
burst, David was made Minister of the Fine Arts and dictated the style
of fashions and furniture, based on Roman models. From their places in
the National Assembly the orators, clad in Roman togas, emulated the
oratory of Cicero in his attack on the corrupt Catiline.

Then came the victories of Napoleon, and the ideal of a united and
powerful France dictating policies to Europe took the place of the ideal
of “Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality.” David turning his coat and,
vying with the rest in acclaiming Napoleon Emperor, painted pictures of
Imperial magnificence and designed the so-called Empire furniture and
costumes to suit the new ideas of splendour. Napoleon himself emulated
the Roman Emperors by becoming a great constructor; on the one hand,
prescribing a codified system of law, based on that of Justinian, and on
the other patronising the construction of buildings of Imperial
grandeur.

In later years, when after an interregnum of the Bourbon Kings Napoleon
III snatched the crown, he too was ambitious to be the patron of great
building achievements.

Such, in sketch, was the background of the Classical Revival in France.

=Panthéon.=--The first notable example is that of the =Panthéon=, originally
dedicated to the patron saint of Paris, =S. Geneviève=. Erected (1755-81)
during the reign of Louis XV, by J. J. Soufflot, its plan is a Greek
cross, four halls surrounding a central one which is surmounted by a
dome. The latter is composed of three shells, the exterior presenting a
rare blend of grace and dignity, though the peristyle of Corinthian
columns which forms the drum is somewhat lacking in force because of the
absence of bases to attach the columns to the stylobate. The façades
are of monumental simplicity, consisting of solid masonry unbroken by
windows and crowned with a chaste but emphatic cornice; the sole
departure from the severity of design being a magnificent portico of
Corinthian columns. The vaulted halls have been decorated in recent
years by some of the foremost painters of France; but most of the work
is pictorial rather than mural, and serves to accentuate the superior
decorative quality of the panels by Puvis de Chavannes, which
commemorate incidents in the life of Ste. Geneviève.

=Imperial Period.=--This example of correct classicalism, designed in
protest against the rococo of its time, is also by its originality of
treatment in marked contrast to the great production of the imperial
period--the =Madeleine= (1804). Dedicated to Glory, it is a direct
imitation of a Roman Corinthian temple of vast size; the only deviation
from the antique model being the vaulting of the interior, which,
inclining toward the Byzantine method, consists of three flattish
pendentive domes, pierced with large eyes, the sole source of light to
the interior.

Another imitation of the Roman model is the =Arc de Triomphe= in the Place
du Carrousel, commemorating the victories of 1805 and intended as a
principal entrance to the Tuileries Palace. On the other hand, the =Arc
de l’Etoile=, largest of all triumphal arches, being 162 feet high by 147
feet wide, represents a free translation of the antique into an imposing
design, sufficiently modern to form a fitting background to the
passionate intensity of François Rude’s sculptured group of the
Volunteers of 1792, known as _La Marseillaise_. These, and other
classical structures, which were planned by Napoleon, were completed
after the restoration of the Bourbons.

Between 1830 and 1850 an echo of the Neo-Greek movement was heard in
France, but French logic repudiated the direct imitation of Greek forms
and strove to reflect the Greek spirit only in a superior refinement of
feeling. Its chief exponents were Duc, Duban, and Labrouste, who are
represented, respectively, by the remodelling of the =Palais de Justice=,
the =Library of the Ecole des Beaux Arts= and the =Library of Ste.
Geneviève=.

=Second Empire.=--Chief among the architectural memorials of the Second
Empire (1852-70) are the completion of the =Louvre= and the =Tuileries= by
Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel; and the =Paris Opera House= by Charles
Garnier. The Tuileries was destroyed by the Commune in 1871, but the two
wings of the New Louvre, which occupy the western corners of the Place
du Carrousel, worthily continue in a modern spirit the character of
Pierre Lescot’s Renaissance façade. They represent, in fact, not
Classicalism, but rather a reversion to Renaissance inspiration, as also
does Garnier’s masterpiece, which is a brilliant adaptation of the
Italian style to the sumptuous requirements of a modern ceremonial
theatre and to the extravagant ostentation and somewhat meretricious
taste of a society of _nouveaux riches_.

=Paris Re-planned.=--A memorable feature of this period is the extensive
replanning of Paris, projected under Baron Haussmann. It involved the
widening of streets, creation of new boulevards, and general
improvements of sanitation, as well as increased magnificence--a scheme
of such magnitude that it has been but recently completed. Meanwhile,
this gradual development of an organised plan, regulated in its progress
so as to reconcile the rights of private ownership with the interests of
the community, has been an object lesson in the proper course of city
reconstruction.


UNITED STATES CLASSICAL REVIVAL

The United States of America having won their independence as a nation,
there was an immediate need for Government buildings. That they should
be designed in the classical style naturally followed from the intimate
relations which had grown up between the New Republic and France. When
Washington had been selected as the seat of the National Government, it
was a Frenchman, Major Pierre Charles l’Enfant, who laid out the city on
a plan so convenient and ornamental, that it is strange no other city of
America, with a similar chance of starting forth from the beginning, has
emulated it. Instead, the general practice both with new cities and the
extension of older ones, has been to adopt the gridiron plan of a
repetition of parallel streets, cut at right angles by another
repetition of parallels; a deadly monotonous system and far from
convenient. For it makes no adequate provision for the gravitation of
government, finance, and so forth to certain centres, which in
consequence become inconveniently congested.

=Plan of Washington.=--The Washington plan, on the contrary, is logically
designed about two foci: the Legislative centre, the =Capitol=, and the
Executive centre, the Mansion of the President, =The White House=.

From these radiate broad avenues, called after the names of States,
which in turn are cut by a repetition of streets, running east and west,
and by another series, running north and south; the odd-shaped spaces,
formed by the intersection of these streets with the avenues, being
utilised as little public gardens. Thus Washington is a city of
beautiful breathing spaces, its gardens, parks, and tree-bordered
avenues comprising one-half of its total area.

The first official building was the =Treasury=, which was commenced in
1781 by Robert Mills, who held the position of United States Architect.
The design, as completed, presents an imposing rectangular mass, the
east side of which is masked with a colonnade of 38 Ionic columns, while
Ionic porticoes decorate the other three façades. In 1792 work was
started on the =White House= and a year later on the =Capitol=.

=White House.=--The Executive mansion, designed by James Hoban after the
model, it is said, of a seat of the Duke of Leinster near Dublin,
consisted of a two story house, surmounted by a balustrade and fronted
by an Ionic portico. Even with the additions, made in recent years to
serve as Executive offices, it is characterised by a dignified
simplicity, befitting the residence of “the first gentleman of the
land.”

=The Capitol.=--The Capitol is finely placed on a hill some 100 feet above
the level of the Potomac River. Its central portion was designed by
William Thornton with some modifications suggested by his collaborators,
B. H. Latrobe and Charles Bulfinch. The wings and dome were added 1851
to 1865. The main façade is on the east, where three imposing flights of
steps lead up to three Corinthian porticoes which indicate the special
functions of the building. That on the left, with allegorical sculpture
in the pediment by Thomas Crawford, forms the main entrance to the wing
occupied by the Senate Chamber, while that on the right, to which
sculpture by Paul W. Bartlett has just been added, distinguishes the
Hall of Representatives.

The curtain building that connects this south wing with the central
block, was formerly occupied by the Hall of Representatives, but now
contains the National Hall of Statuary, to which each State may
contribute two statues of her “chosen sons.” The corresponding building
on the north, which until 1859 housed the Senate, is now devoted to the
Supreme Court. The Central Portico is the ceremonial entrance to the
whole and here the outgoing President hands over his functions to his
successor. It leads into a rotunda which is decorated with the following
historical paintings: “Landing of Columbus” by John Vanderlyn; “De Sota
Discovering the Mississippi” by William Henry Powell; “Baptism of
Pocahontas” by John Gadsby Chapman; “Embarkation of the Pilgrims from
Delft Haven” by Robert Walter Weir; “Signing of the Declaration of
Independence” by John Trumbull, who also painted the remainder:
“Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga,” “Surrender of Cornwallis at
Yorktown” and “Washington resigning his Commission at Annapolis.”

The dome which forms a stately climax to the dignity of the whole design
was erected in iron by Thomas Ustic Walter. It rises to a height of 268½
feet and is crowned by a statue of Liberty, nearly 20 feet high, the
work of Thomas Crawford.

The organic fitness of the Capitol to the functions of Government has
been supplemented in recent years by additional buildings, connected by
subways: on the east, by the Congressional Library, primarily for the
use of the Legislature, but virtually a national library; and on the
northeast and southeast, by office-buildings, respectively, for the
Senate and the House of Representatives.

=Bulfinch.=--Mention has been already made of Charles Bulfinch
(1763-1844). The son of a wealthy physician in Boston, he graduated from
Harvard and spent some five years travelling and studying in Europe,
after which he settled in Boston and practised as an architect. He built
the old =Federal Street Theatre= (1793), the first playhouse erected in
New England, and in 1798 completed the work with which his name is most
associated, the =State House= on Beacon Hill. It has been overgrown with
additions but the original part, surmounted by a small,
well-proportioned dome, still testifies to its designer’s refinement of
taste and constructive sincerity.

An exception to the use at this time of the Classical style is the =New
York City Hall=, built 1803-12 by the Frenchman, Mangin. The design is
Renaissance, influenced by the manner of the Louis XVI period, and is
particularly choice in the refinement of its proportions and details.

Meanwhile, the =Sub-Treasury= and the =Old Custom House= in =New York= were
built in the Classical style; as also were the =Custom House= in =Boston=,
the =Mint= in =Philadelphia=, =Girard College= for Orphans in the same city;
Thomas Jefferson’s design for his new foundation, the =University of
Virginia=, and most of the National and State Buildings that were erected
before the Civil War.


GOTHIC REVIVAL

The Gothic Revival of the nineteenth century was chiefly confined to
England where it grew out of a revival of spiritual energy in the Church
itself. This spiritual Renaissance had begun in the last quarter of the
eighteenth century, as a protest against the rationalistic temper of the
age, its tendency to disregard the claims of faith and dogmatic
authority in favour of what appealed to reason.

=Religious Revivals.=--The Evangelical revival which ensued was an earnest
attempt to awaken the Church from the supine indifference into which it
had sunk, to kindle in the clergy a higher sense of their
responsibilities and generally to promote a spiritual regeneration. The
movement was reinforced both within the Church and on the part of the
State by the excesses of the French Revolution, which seemed to menace
all forms of authority. The revival grew apace during the early years of
the nineteenth century and in time was supplemented by another which is
known as the Oxford Movement.

For it originated in the University of Oxford with a group of men,
including Keble, Newman, and Pusey, who felt that the Church was in
danger of becoming merely a humanitarian institution. Accordingly they
held that the Church of England was a branch of the Catholic Church and
that its priesthood was in direct succession from Apostolic times; and
in accordance with this urged a return to the ritual and the rubrical
observances, enjoined in the First Prayer Book of Edward VI. This
movement, known also as the Tractarian movement, from the tracts issued
by its advocates, or Puseyite, from the name of its chief exponent, was
assailed by the parties in the Church, distinguished as Broad and Low in
opposition to the new party which came to be known as High.

The point of the controversy, as it concerns our study, is that the
religious revival on the one hand led to a general restoration of the
cathedrals and churches which had fallen into a condition of shameful
neglect and, on the other, laid stress upon mediæval church architecture
as the form which had been inspired by the fervour of the Catholic
faith and was alone suited to a Catholic ritual. Hence arose the study
and the revived use of Gothic architecture.

=Pugin.=--Early in the century John Britton and Thomas Rickman had
published an illustrated work on “Cathedral Antiquities and the Gothic
Style,” which went through many editions. They prepared the way for the
influence of Augustus W. N. Pugin (1812-1852), who stood forth as a
veritable apostle of the Gothic. For he supplied passion to the
movement, so that it represented no shallow fad but, for the time being,
a conviction that the characteristic tradition of the English must be
the mediæval style. And to the realisation of it he brought a knowledge
of detail and ornament, gained from many years spent in measurements and
drawings of Gothic buildings; while for the purpose of reproducing the
spirit of the originals he established and trained a school of
craftsmen. He was, in fact, the pioneer of the later Arts and Crafts
Movement. He became a convert to Roman Catholicism and his most
important ecclesiastical work was expended on Roman Catholic churches
and monasteries.

=Houses of Parliament.=--When the commission for the =New Houses of
Parliament= was given to Sir Charles Barry with the proviso that the
style must be Gothic, Pugin was associated with him as chief designer of
the exterior details and interior decorative work.

The style selected by the authorities, under the unfortunate impression
that it should correspond with the adjacent Henry VII’s Chapel, was the
Tudor Gothic, or late Perpendicular Style, so that the façades in their
lineal repetition present a certain stiffness and monotony. This effect,
however, is offset by the grandiose scale of the vast building and the
picturesque sky-line of towers and spires and turrets. Of these the two
dominating features are the lantern over the octagonal central hall, the
richly decorated Victoria Tower marking the ceremonial entrance of the
sovereign to the House of Lords, and the Clock Tower, which stands at
the Commons’ end, proclaiming its simple purpose as a clock tower and,
when the summit-light is burning, the fact that the House is sitting.

But the grandest feature of Barry’s conception is the plan, accommodated
to the site of the still-existing Westminster Hall. Notwithstanding the
cell-like complexity of its innumerable units, the whole presents an
organic completeness of comparative simplicity, so adapted to the
functions demanded, that it has served more or less closely as a model
for many other buildings, notably for the =Parliament House= in =Budapest=.

The merit both of the plan and of the façades is emphasised by contrast
with the =New Law Courts=, designed by G. E. Street (1824-1881). Here the
zeal for archæological revival ran ahead of reasonable adaptation. So
the exterior presents a congeries of mediæval details that have little
or no relation to the internal necessities, with the admitted result
that the interior is inconvenient, while its one fine feature, the great
vaulted Hall, is rendered useless by not being on the same floor as the
Courts.

Street was a pupil of Sir Gilbert Scott (1810-1877), under whose
influence the Gothic revival reached its full flood. He, too was an
archæological enthusiast, with a preference for the Early Decorated
style, and his numerous churches are frankly reproductions, as near as
possible, of Mediæval architecture.

On the other hand, a freer adaptation of the Gothic to modern needs and
feeling appears in William Butterfield (1814-1900); for example, in the
design of =Keble College, Oxford=, =All Saints, Margaret Street, London=,
and his little church at Babbacombe in Devonshire. Other independent
Gothicists were J. L. Pearson, architect of =Truro Cathedral= and eight
London churches; James Brooks, who successfully employed brick in
ecclesiastical design, and Alfred Waterhouse. The last has proved
himself a master of plan in adapting the Gothic to secular buildings,
two of his most important designs being the =Law Courts= and =Town Hall=,
=Manchester=.


FRANCE

A characteristically French independence distinguishes the few churches
in which the influence of the Gothic revival may be traced. The most
essentially Gothic church of the period is =S. Clotilde, Paris=, designed
by Theodore Ballin, who, however, in his later work, =La Trinité=,
exhibits a remarkably interesting blend of Renaissance details with
Gothic feeling. But the tendency in French ecclesiastical architecture
was rather toward Byzantine, a movement which culminated in the great
church of =Sacré Cœur= on =Montmartre=, erected by Paul Abadia (1774-1812).


UNITED STATES

In the United States the Gothic Revival made its appearance as early as
1839-40, in the work of two English architects, Richard M. Upjohn and
James Renwick. The former was entrusted with the rebuilding of =Trinity
Church, New York= and later erected the =State Capitol= of =Connecticut=,
while Renwick is responsible for =Grace Church= and =S. Patrick’s
Cathedral=, New York.

With the advent, to be noted later, of architects trained in the Ecole
des Beaux Arts, the Gothic vogue declined. But in the past ten years it
has taken on a new life of remarkable achievement, under the leadership
of the New York and Boston firm of Cram, Goodhue and Ferguson, which
recently has been dissolved, the late partners now working
independently. The vitality which they have succeeded in giving to their
work in the number of examples distributed over the country may be
traced to two causes.

The first is revealed in a little book, “The Gothic Quest,” written by
Ralph Adams Cram. It breathes the passion of a Pugin; it is inspired
with such religious faith and devotion as the builders of the old
cathedrals and churches must have possessed. Hence its author’s
conviction that the architectural forms, evolved as an expression of
that faith and in accordance with the needs of the worship it inspired,
are the only fit embodiments for the continuance of that faith and
worship. To Mr. Cram, in fact, the Gothic does not represent merely a
style to be professionally employed; but a living concrete expression of
the soul. Furthermore, the thorough mastery of Gothic forms has been
directed, not as in the beginning of the Gothic Revival, to a
reproduction of old models, but to an application of the old principles
of Gothic design to the changed conditions of modern times. There is,
accordingly, in the designs of these architects no evidence of the “dead
hand.” They belong to and serve the present, while preserving a link of
tradition with the past. By few, indeed, if any, has the Gothic been
revived with so much material and spiritual vitality.




CHAPTER II

THE MODERN SITUATION


Following the trend of modern civilisation, architecture to-day, in so
far as it is not continuing to imitate the past, is becoming, on the one
hand, more cosmopolitan and, on the other, more individualistic. The
free-trade in ideas, encouraged by travel and through the interchange of
architectural magazines, is obliterating the distinctions of
nationality. Moreover, the immense variety and the newness of problems
that now confront the architect are tending toward a personal solution
of them. They demand invention on his part and stimulate him to
individual expression.

=The Student’s Attitude.=--Hitherto in this book we have studied the
historic styles of architecture, in their origins and revivals; but, if
it has served its purpose of awakening interest in the art, we shall for
the future think less of styles and acquire the habit of studying a
building very much as we study an individual. We do not estimate an
individual, in the first analysis, at any rate, by comparing him with
some worthy of history, but by his fitness to the present--the front he
presents to society at large and his value in the specific part that he
plays in the common life. Has he, for example, dignity and some other
charm of character? Are his motives sincere? Does he possess the
qualities that make his work not only well-intentioned but practically
efficient, and so forth?

Similarly, we shall estimate a building not as a thing

[Illustration:

Courtesy The Encyclopædia Britannica Company

SCOTLAND YARD, BY RICHARD NORMAN SHAW]

[Illustration:

Courtesy of Architect, Wm Harmon Beers

WOODBURN HALL

RESIDENCE OF MRS. COOPER HEWITT, NEW WINDSOR, N. Y. P. 468]

[Illustration:

© Detroit Publishing Co.

TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON

BY HENRY H. RICHARDSON. P. 462]

[Illustration:

© J. G. Bragdon, Pittsburgh, Pa.

COUNTY BUILDINGS, PITTSBURGH

BY HENRY H. RICHARDSON. P. 462]

[Illustration:

© Frank H Child Courtesy of Architect

THE BREAKERS, NEWPORT, R. I.

RESIDENCE OF CORNELIUS VANDERBILT, BY RICHARD MORRIS HUNT. P. 462]

[Illustration:

© The American Architect.   Courtesy Architects, Carrere & Hastings

DETAIL OF RESIDENCE OF MR. THOMAS HASTINGS

WESTBURY, LONG ISLAND. P. 468]

[Illustration: SCHILLER THEATRE BUILDING, CHICAGO

BY LOUIS H. SULLIVAN. A DESIGN THAT ASSERTS THE HEIGHT AND UPWARD GROWTH
OF THE STRUCTURE. ONLY CENTRAL PART CARRIED TO FULL HEIGHT, SO AN
ALL-AROUND CORNICE WAS POSSIBLE. P. 474]

[Illustration:

Courtesy of Thompson-Starrett Co

WOOLWORTH BUILDING

BY CASS GILBERT. FIFTY-ONE STORIES. PP. 471, 476]

[Illustration:

Courtesy of Thompson-Starrett Co.

STEEL CAGE CONSTRUCTION

SCENE IN LOWER NEW YORK; SPIRE OF TRINITY CHURCH IN THE FOREGROUND. P.
470]

apart from our lives, but as a product and expression of and a
contribution to, the living present. We shall think of it in terms of
life, as simulating the organic and functional qualities of a living
thing. It will be all but a living thing, both as it takes its place
amid the life of its surroundings and also as it serves the needs of
life in its specific capacity.

Already we have thought of buildings as organic, as structures that have
been built upon a well-considered plan, with parts that perform their
individual functions in the common purpose. We have also noted that the
character of the structure was affected by the actual methods of
building and the material employed. We have learned to be critical on
certain points. Was the plan a fit one for its purpose? Did the façades
conform to or confuse or contradict the character of the plan? Did the
design conform to the purpose of the building and the methods of
construction, or was it, however handsome, in effect a sham? Was it
overladen with arbitrary enrichments that had little or no relation to
structure and were mainly or only designed for display? Did it sacrifice
the necessities of the interior to merely æsthetic considerations?

And these processes of appreciation which we have acquired the habit of
applying to buildings of the past, we have but to bring to bear upon the
buildings of the present. For the architecture of to-day is true or
false, good or bad, reasonable and admirable, not because it does or
does not conform to such and such types, but because it succeeds or
fails in meeting the practical and æsthetic requirements of to-day.

=Need of Public Appreciation of the Art.=--Hence the need of an
intelligent appreciation of architecture on the part of the public. It
is requisite for their own sake as well as for that of the architect.
One of the great difficulties with which the latter has to contend is
the ignorance and indifference not only of the public but also of
official authorities. They do not give the sincere architect the
encouragement of intelligent praise; they exercise no restraint upon the
insincere and inefficient. They dismiss all responsibility for the
result by “putting it up” to the “expert.” Architecture, in consequence,
is liable to be regarded not as an art but merely as a profession. Thus
aid and encouragement are given to those architects who practise it
mainly or solely as a “business proposition.”

And in these days the responsibility of the public is more necessary
than it ever was. For the problems of architecture are so infinitely
more various and exacting, that they demand for their successful
solution the co-operation of the layman. But, although people profess
democratic ideas, they act in the matter of architecture as though they
were living in aristocratic times, when respect was paid to birth, and
not in times when we are trying to cultivate respect for common
humanity. To-day, if we are true to our professed ideals, the tenement
house of the worker is as important in the social scheme as the palace
of the rich or the country house of the well-to-do. And it should be a
subject of public concern.

Or, to consider another of the many new types demanded by modern
conditions--the factory. It must meet the need of the specific industry.
That is its utilitarian necessity. But there is also the humanitarian
necessity that it shall be a fit place for the men and women who spend
in it one-half of their waking lives. And, again, there is what we may
call the communal necessity, as it affects the outside lives of the
community, that the factory shall not be a thing of ugliness or drear
monotony, sordidly devastating the possible beauty of the locality. For
we have advanced little in civilisation if we are content to substitute
for the grim castle of the Middle Ages, surrounded by its huddle of
retainers’ huts, a grim fortress of industry, entrenched amid the mean
homes of men and women, not considered in their individual and
collective capacity as human beings, but massed under the mechanical
term--“operatives.”

And what is true of the factory is true of the retail shops and
department stores, city markets, warehouses, docks, and watersides, and
of the hundred and one varieties of need created by modern industry and
commerce. It is also as true of the provision for the cultural needs of
the community in churches, schools, colleges, libraries, and museums, as
well as for needs of recreation and health--theatres, concert halls,
moving picture houses, dance-halls, baths, hospitals and parks. But why
attempt to enumerate the innumerable problems that modern life presents
to the architect? The point is that all involve sociological
considerations, affecting intimately the lives of common humanity.
Architecture, in fact, when properly considered and practised, is the
great democratic art, which through co-operation of artist and layman,
may become one of the greatest means of human betterment. How essential,
therefore, that the understanding and appreciation of it should be
fostered by public education!

Since this is the purpose of the present book, which only incidentally
has suggested the history of the art, it is not possible or necessary to
attempt to cover the modern manifestation of it in all the countries. It
must suffice to allude briefly to those of Great Britain and the United
States, in which architectural activity has been conspicuous, though the
results are widely different.


MODERN MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN

In Great Britain the modern tendency has been especially marked in the
direction of independence and individuality. It began with certain
movements, which perhaps might be more correctly styled fashions. There
was the =Queen Anne= revival, which, although it involved much that was
tricky and much gerrymandering in construction, drew renewed attention
to the capabilities of brick and its suitability to the climate.
Further, from the fact that it gained the popularity of a fashion, it
encouraged the public to take some sort of interest in architecture. And
this interest was further stimulated by the “Morris Movement.”

=William Morris’s Movement.=--It was the limitation of William Morris,
that in his zeal for things Mediæval he had no toleration for any other
forms of decoration. Moreover, he assumed that the art of the Middle
Ages was created solely by craftsmen working in harmonious co-operation.
He refused to believe that their work was controlled by a master
designer and inveighed in general against architects as the cause of
everything that is objectionable in subsequent architecture. In both
respects, therefore, his influence was reactionary rather than helping
forward. But, on the other hand, it has lasted and borne valuable fruit
in promoting a regard for honest craftsmanship, on which he laid
essential stress, and in reviving a recognition of the parts played by
painting and sculpture and the decorative arts generally in alliance
with architecture. Accordingly, one indirect result of Morris’s
influence has been the increased attention given to the character and
quality of simple masonry, a refreshing and salutary reaction from the
notion that the interest of architecture depends on picturesque variety
of detail and ornament. There was even a group of young architects who,
inspired by Morris’s idea of craftsmanwork, sought to confine their
designs to the simplest elements of building. They would be first, last,
and all the time, builders; all precedents of architectural detail
should be disregarded; they would confine themselves to the simplest
abstractions of structural elements and out of these in time a new
decorative vernacular might be evolved.

It is interesting to note the analogy between this aim and that of
Matisse and others in painting. In both arts it represents a revolt
against the sophistication and mechanicalism that are apt to result from
the repetition of school-learned styles. It would dig away the surface
and get down to the sub-soil, in which elemental principles are rooted,
in order to encourage a growth that more nearly may conform to modern
needs and ideals.

On the other hand, there is the obvious objection, too obvious by the
way to be accepted as conclusive, that the past has so grown into the
present, the inheritance has become so integral a part of present
understanding and feeling, that one cannot eliminate it from one’s
consciousness by taking thought, as one can strip one’s body of clothes.
Meanwhile, although this argument seems plausible the fact remains that
in painting, at any rate, many artists, ignoring argument in favour of
actual doing, are clothing their ideas in new forms that are coming to
seem reasonable to an increasing number of people.

=“Free Classic” Movement.=--However, many architects, accepting the
inheritance of the past and yet themselves in revolt against the
scholastic reproduction of the styles, initiated a movement in favour of
what they called “Free Classic.” Their endeavour was to discover the
elementals in a given style and to use them with flexible understanding
and feeling and with free play, especially of decorative accessories.
The first to give practical evidence of this idea was R. Norman Shaw, R.
A., in the =New Zealand Chambers=, in Leadenhall Street, =London=, which
were erected as far back as 1873.

It was an artist’s essay in personal liberation; the work of a man who,
while he did not love the Classics less, loved life and his own
participation in it more, who claimed for himself the artist’s
birthright of personal expression and creativeness. Fortunately his
adventure aroused considerable interest in the intelligent public, while
other architects saw in it a promise of their own artistic deliverance.
The result has been for Great Britain a genuine rebirth of architecture
as a living and personal art. In no other country have the variety and
versatility of our modern life been more freely expressed in its
buildings. Not always happily, no doubt. The purist may point to some as
“awful examples,” and thus seek to justify his belief in safe mediocrity
rather than what he considers dangerous latitude. But the purist is not
an individualist and Great Britain is individualistic, even to a fault.
Therefore, what her architects are doing is racy of the country’s
temperament--a thing commendable in itself. Meanwhile, there is an
abundance of recent buildings in which reasonableness and adventure are
happily united and a sound regard for the utilities and for structural
logic are wedded to originality and taste.

In the past twenty-five years London, for example, has been transformed
into one of the most architecturally impressive cities of Europe. And
not in the way of aping in more or less perfunctory fashion the
splendours of imperial Rome; but in a spirit of artistic individual
enterprise, and with that courage even to make mistakes, provided the
end be liberty, that befits the Metropolis of self-governing Dominions.


MODERN MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES

Since the middle of the nineteenth century the United States has
experienced an extraordinary activity in building. An unprecedented
demand was created by the opening up of the West and the rapid increase
of population and wealth, as well as by the destruction wrought by the
great fires in Chicago and Boston. On the other hand, circumstances led
to the development of a new method of construction--that of the “steel
cage.” Meanwhile the new period discovered two architects--Richard
Morris Hunt (1828-1895) and Henry Hobson Richardson (1838-1886)--whose
influence had a marked effect upon the architectural development.

=Hunt and Richardson.=--The former, younger brother of W. M. Hunt, the
painter, was born at Brattleboro, Vermont, in 1828; while Richardson,
ten years his junior, was a native of Louisiana. Both received their
training in the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, and by their influence
established the vogue for that celebrated school which has so strongly
affected architectural progress in America. When they returned
home--Hunt in 1855 and Richardson in 1865--they brought back a
thoroughly scientific training, already reinforced by practical
experience in Paris. And the genius of the one complemented that of the
other; for while both had a personal force that commanded attention and
compelled respect, Hunt’s special faculty was executive and organising,
while Richardson’s was more specifically that of the artist. Thus
between them they established in the public mind the understanding of
architecture as, not merely a process of building, but one of the Fine
Arts, and also set the profession of architecture on a sound basis. For
in 1885 Hunt took a prominent part in founding the American Institute of
Architects, of which he was the first president.

Among his most important works are the =Theological Library= and =Marquand
Chapel= at =Princeton University=; the =Divinity College= and =Scroll and Key
House= at =Yale=; the =Lenox Library, New York=, since removed; the =New York
residences= of =W. K. Vanderbilt= and =Henry G. Marquand=; George W.
Vanderbilt’s country house at =Biltmore= and some of the palatial
“cottages” at =Newport=, including “=Marble House=” and “=The Breakers=.” He
also exhibited his genius for planning in the laying out of the
=Metropolitan Museum of Arts= in =New York=.

Richardson took as his model the Romanesque of Southern France, but used
it with so much freedom and adaptability that, it has been said, he came
very near creating a style of his own. It is seen to best advantage in
those examples in which he was unhindered by outside interference,
especially in the =County Buildings= in =Pittsburgh= and =Trinity Church,
Boston=. Both of these are distinguished by structural significance;
dignity of mass, fine correlation of parts to the whole and by a
decorative distinction that avoided alike the flamboyance of some of
his earlier embellishment and the baldness of simplicity that
characterised the work of some of his imitators. Other notable instances
of his art are: =Sever Hall= and =Austin Hall=, =Harvard=; the =City Halls= of
=Albany= and =Springfield=; the =Public Libraries= of =Woburn=, =North Easton=,
=Quincy=, =Maiden= and =Burlington= and the =Chamber of Commerce, Cincinnati=.

While Richardson’s artistic seriousness and refined taste left a lasting
impression, his selection of the Romanesque style, although it obtained
some following, was abandoned in favour of the Roman and the
Renaissance; the change being due to the way in which the subsequent
American students of the Ecole des Beaux Arts reacted to its teaching.

=Beaux Arts Training.=--The “Beaux Arts” training is based upon the study
of Greek, Roman, and Renaissance Styles. The Greek, within a limited
range of building types, exhibits the most perfected relation of plan to
elevation, of form to function; the most harmonious combination of mind
and feeling. The Roman represents a genius of constructive logic and
practical inventiveness in applying principles to a wide variety of
problems. The Renaissance replaced constructive logic by a logic of
taste and rehandled Roman details with a finesse of skill that was as
subtle as the Greek. Moreover, the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance are (to
use a modern word) _standardised_ styles; in which proportions have been
calculated and the principles reduced to certain recognised relations of
harmonious agreement. Thus they lend themselves to a more exactly
determined kind of study than is possible with the Gothic, which more
nearly corresponds to the free growths of nature, involving all the
principles of structure and the elements of beauty, but with a freedom
of application that makes formulation difficult.

Now the effects of this Beaux Arts training by no means always
corresponds with its aim. The aim of the School, responding to the
French aptitude for logical processes, is to teach the student to
reason, to cultivate the habit of applying to every problem an
independent and individual process of logic. He is taught to get down to
the bone of any problem and discover its cleanest and simplest solution.
The historic styles are treated not as models for imitation but rather
as a grammar of principles and applications, by means of which the
student may fit himself for original composition. The system, in a word,
encourages originality and not imitation.

=Effect of Beaux Arts Training.=--Meanwhile, among the many architects in
America whose names are associated with the “Beaux Arts,” only a
minority is composed of actual graduates of the school. The remainder
have availed themselves more or less of the courtesies that the school
extends to foreign students; but have not enjoyed the exhaustive
training in the direction of independent reasoning that it is the
school’s purpose to impart. The result is that many of them acquired the
habit, not of approaching the solution of each problem independently,
but of becoming more or less intelligent and tactful adapters of Roman
and Renaissance characteristics. In consequence of thus misrepresenting
the aim of the Beaux Arts, the latter has incurred in this country the
unjust charge of promoting imitation--the precise antithesis of what the
school actually stands for. Accordingly, there has arisen a reaction
against what is supposed to be the “Beaux Arts” influence.

In this reaction there is a possibility of less than justice being done
to some of these quasi-Beaux-Arts architects. Many of them have been men
of exceptionally fine taste. They raised the standard of taste in the
community, accustomed the public to consider beauty as well as utility,
and added greatly to the dignity and beauty of the externals of life.
They played not only an excellent part but a necessary one in the
evolution of architecture in America. They will be looked back to as the
men of the transition, who established the recognition of architecture
as an art, fostered higher standards of taste and compelled a public
that was chiefly interested in commercial expansion to begin to regard
art as an indispensable element in progress.

=Influence of Chicago Exposition.=--The opportunity of propagating these
ideas on a large scale was furnished by the International Exposition at
Chicago in 1892-93. Already the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in
1876 had awakened manufacturers to a need of artistic design, if their
products were to compete successfully with those of the older countries.
Moreover, innumerable persons had found their imaginations stimulated by
the varied display of the Department of Fine Arts. The ground was thus
prepared for the organised effort in the direction of an object lesson
in beauty, such as that of “The White City” at Chicago.

Here the Directors virtually gave free hand to the Committee of
Architects, in the lay-out of the grounds and the disposition of all the
buildings. The result was an ensemble on a scale, not only more
magnificent than ever had been attempted before for such a purpose, but
complete in its union of variety and harmony. It represented, on the one
hand, what could be accomplished by the co-operation of the allied arts
of landscape and garden design, architecture, sculpture, and painting,
and, on the other, an extraordinary lesson in the desirability of beauty
as a practical asset. The impression that it made was nation-wide.
Everywhere the dry bones of indifference to beauty began to quicken into
a living interest in beauty as the fit and natural expression of the
nation’s progress in civilisation. It has found abundant activity during
the past twenty-five years in Federal, State, Municipal, and commercial
buildings, in the development of parks and boulevards and, more
recently, in the increased attention given to the scientific and
artistic planning of cities.

And this movement, which has transformed the character of public
buildings, has worked as freely in the case of domestic buildings, and,
on the whole, with more originality. For the principle of the movement
has been _eclecticism_; the more or less intelligent adaptation of old
styles to new needs; the styles especially followed being the Roman and
the Italian Renaissance. The axiom of the body of men which had
controlled the movement has been that it is safer and better to follow
good models than to try to be original. And for the time being very
possibly they were right. But this has always been the plea of
eclectics, whenever and wherever they have occurred in the history of
all the arts; and such eclecticism has always marked a transition
period, leading up to a fresh outburst of original creativeness.

=Weakness of Imitation-Tendency.=--The immediate and great advantage to
the architects of thus following old models has been, to establish,
through the Roman, a familiarity with large problems of construction
and, through the Italian Renaissance, a refinement of taste in the
handling of details. Meanwhile, the disadvantage has been a tendency to
take an excess of interest in merely stylistic considerations. The
architect has often seemed more intent upon reproducing with taste an
old style than upon adapting it to the practical needs of the living
present.

It would be possible to point to libraries, for example, that have been
designed with a view to beautiful exteriors rather than to that of
storing and distributing books. The design has not grown out of the
practical needs but has been more or less arbitrarily adopted for its
own sake. The architectural principle of fitness has been violated.
Furthermore, this preoccupation with the faithful reproduction of an old
style has made a fetish of consistency. Everything in and out of the
building must be “in the style.” The architect, being an imitator,
compels all his co-operating artists to imitation. The painter must
imitate such and such a style of mural decoration; the sculptor, such
and such a style of sculptural embellishment. Sculptors and painters
alike have been trained to forget that they might be interpreters of the
life of the present and to work and feel in the manner of the past. The
manner--not the spirit--for the spirit of the old decorators was keenly
alive to the life of their own times. Hence these architects of the
transition have done much to find employment for painters and sculptors,
but practically nothing to promote the development of creative artists.
Indeed, their influence in this respect has been quite the other
way--retrogressive rather than progressive.

Possibly an even more flagrant illustration of this tendency is to be
found in the palatial residences, erected during this period in town and
country. So slavish was the insistence upon conformity, that the
furniture and fittings had to be either antiques or imitations of
antiques. The occupants of such houses were trained to be blind to the
beauty of anything that was not in the style of their surroundings; and
were forced to try to feel at home in surroundings of the past. Typical,
possibly, is the story of the millionaire, who fled from his stylistic
apartments to one of the attic bedrooms, provided for the servants, and
fitted it up to suit his own ideas of comfort.

The result of all this has been that the majority of the rich, who might
have been leaders of taste and played the part of Mycænas or Medici to
the artists of to-day, have been the victims of an obsession, imposed
upon them by architects, that has made them neglect and even discourage
the art of the present. They have put a premium on antiques and a
devastating discount on contemporary art. While bled by the speculators
in antiques and near-antiques, they have doled out patronage, for the
most part, only to those workers in metal, wood, and other fabrics who
were willing or compelled by necessity to imitate. The idea of
encouraging native art or of fostering the genius of some individual
creator has been all but entirely overlooked. Creative genius has been
stifled.

=Freer Tendency in Domestic Architecture.=--On the other hand, in the case
of domestic buildings, erected during say, the past ten years,
especially country houses, there are the evidences of a veritable
renaissance of architectural art. It is due in a great measure to the
improved taste of the community. A new generation has grown up which by
travel and study has familiarised itself to a more or less extent with
art and has come to think of art as an expression of life and,
therefore, has desired to embody its sense of beauty in the home. Such
people have co-operated with the architects who are no longer designing
merely for them but also with them. The result has been an increased
attention to the question of fitness; fitness of design to the character
of the locality; to the conditions of climate and to the various needs
and necessities arising out of the modern circumstances of living. To
cite but one example: the problem of domestic help in America is so
urgent that labour-saving considerations have affected the planning of
the homes, tending to concentration rather than diffusion in the
arrangement of rooms, service offices, staircases, and so-forth; and out
of this organic lay-out of the interior a suitable exterior treatment
has developed.

Thus, while the architect may still be adapting motives derived from old
styles, he is no longer doing so for the main purpose of reproducing a
given style; he has ceased to be a stylistic pedant. He adapts with
flexibility and freedom; using a style in so far as it conforms to the
character of his plan. The plan is his own creation and, if in the
development of his design he feels the fitness of adapting, he adapts
creatively. The result is that, since the domestic architecture of the
past has been made to contribute to the needs of the present, a new kind
of domestic architecture has been evolved in America, characterised by
variety of design, originality of treatment, and, more and more, by a
regard for that fitness to the special requirements of each problem,
which is the foundation of every true advance in architectural design.

=Office Buildings.=--Side by side with this progress toward originality in
domestic architecture has been a similar tendency in that of public
buildings, especially the office building. The office building is
distinctively a feature of American cities, because it grew out of
conditions in certain cities which imperatively demanded some such
expedient; and, having in these cases proved its fitness to business
situations, has been adopted elsewhere. Though the earliest of these
tall buildings, characteristically known as “sky-scrapers,” were erected
in Chicago, the spot which now contains the greatest aggregation of them
is Manhattan Island, the section of New York City bounded by the North,
East, and Harlem Rivers, in which the business of the city is
concentrated.

In the situation thus existing was an area, limited in size and
incapable of being enlarged, while the business demands upon it were
continually expanding, in the way both of increased accommodation and
adequate financial return upon the value and cost of the land. It was
impossible to meet these conditions by spreading out laterally; the only
alternative was to build skyward. By the time the necessity of this was
realised, two inventions made it practicable--an improved method of
rolling steel and the development of elevator connection. The problem of
accessibility was solved by the latter; that of economical and efficient
construction by the former. Accordingly, once again, as so often in the
history of architecture, practical expediency, methods of building, and
the material employed were operative in evolving a new kind of form.

=“Steel-Cage” Construction.=--The method of building is that of the
so-called “steel-cage” construction: a new application of the principle
of “post and beam” construction, in which the vertical and horizontal
members are composed of steel and riveted together. The foundation posts
are anchored to the ground, which in the case of Manhattan Island
mostly consists of a very hard species of rock. The posts are connected
at the top by cross beams, thus forming the skeleton frame of a complete
story, upon which other similar skeleton stories are erected, their
number varying up to the present extreme in the =Woolworth Building=, of
fifty-one stories. This mode of construction does away with the
necessity of external buttressing; the strain is one of tension on the
ground, the problem of wind pressure being met by the introduction of
interior cross-braces. By this system also the downward pressure is
distributed throughout the several stories, each carrying its own weight
of exterior and interior walls; so that, in the process of construction
it is not unusual to see some of the upper stories apparently completed,
while lower ones are still in a skeleton state, awaiting the arrival of
the material that is to sheathe them.

The character of the sheathing, representing the design of the building
from the outside, will be considered presently, for of primary and
essential importance is the character of the interior. Here is
manifested at its highest the creative originality of the American
architect in constructive adaptability to the needs and necessities of
the problem. These office buildings and their counterparts in domestic
life--the tall apartment-houses--represent the economic tendency of this
age in its progress through combination to possible co-operation. They
also embody the latest achievements of science and invention, applicable
to the requirements of convenience and health. They are thus in a
distinctively modern way, as well as with remarkable completeness,
organic architectural structures. In a singular degree, they are
self-efficient. Their cellular arrangement comprises an elaborate
aggregation of members, each having its special function; while the
whole is provided with its own system of power plants for the supply of
heat, air, light, and locomotion. They are in a way the equivalent of
the Roman basilica and insula, developed to that higher degree of
complexity that the modern age demands and modern progress in science
and invention has made possible. In their organic completeness one
discovers conspicuous evidence that architecture, after a long period of
revivals, has recovered its creativeness.

=Exterior Design of Office Buildings.=--It is in studying the exterior
design of these sky-scrapers that one finds the progress toward
originality has been more halting and uncertain. The explanation of this
cuts deep down to the fundamentals of all progress in art and life. It
is out of man’s needs and necessities, physical, intellectual,
emotional, and spiritual, that he is impelled to advance, and the
advance is most sure according as it most closely fits the
circumstances. In so far as the architects were dealing with the
practical problems of the interior of these buildings they conformed
consistently to the demands of fitness, and their advance was sure. But
when they approached the problem of the exterior, the necessities of
which are few and comparatively unexacting, the logic of fitness was apt
to be superseded by mere caprice of choice. They experimented, for the
most part rather aimlessly, with various historic styles of treatment;
clapping on to the façade embellishments derived from Roman, Italian,
Renaissance, Venetian Gothic, and so forth; treating the design mainly
as a matter of added ornamentation instead of something to be evolved
out of the special character of the structure.

We must remind ourselves that the façades of these buildings, whether
the material be stone or marble, brick, terra-cotta, or reinforced
concrete, are virtually only a sheathing to the actual organic structure
inside of them. They correspond to the clothes on a human body. There
are certain necessities to be served in the case of the building: on the
one hand, financial; on the other constructive. The investors demand a
certain return on the cost or value of the site, which determines the
aggregate of rentable floor space, and hence the height of the building
and the amount to be expended on the façades. Again, the lay-out of the
floors calls for a certain quantity of window-spaces and there is the
further constructive necessity that, while parts of the building may
under certain restrictions overhang the sidewalks, nothing may project
over adjoining property. Within these limitations the architect is
usually free to adopt such design for the exterior as he chooses.

In the early days of the sky-scraper, which coincided with the period of
more or less imitative reproduction of old models, the architect found
himself confronted with an entirely new problem in design. His classical
studies had familiarised him with buildings comparatively low and
characteristically horizontal in design. His experience of Italian
Renaissance had involved buildings, still inconsiderable in height
though they included several stories, and had led him to be pre-occupied
with details of design, especially with the effectiveness of a cornice.
On the other hand, the characteristic of the new problem was vertical
instead of horizontal, and on a scale that gave predominance to mass
over detail; while the specific detail of the crowning cornice could
only be fully adopted in the case of structures that did not abut on
adjoining property.

=Height--the Principle of the Design.=--But, for a time, the architect
failed to grasp the newness of his problem. He was confronted with
height, but did not start with it as a principle of design. Instead, he
tried to accommodate the old principles to the new conditions;
experimenting with various methods of embellishment near the ground and
at the top, and treating the main, intermediate part as merely a
repetition of floors.

Gradually, however, he realised the fact that the new buildings actually
presented a new problem which could only be solved by taking the
vertical principle as the basis of the design. So he bethought himself
of a precedent in the column. It is the vertical member in the Classic
design, and comprises three subdivisions: base, shaft and capital. The
base might be emulated in the treatment of the lower part of the façade,
which generally encloses a bank or some feature of special importance,
surmounted by a mezzanine floor. The counterpart of the column’s shaft
was the repetition of stories, while the effect of the capital could be
reproduced in some emphatic crowning treatment. And those architects who
most logically adopted the precedent of the column, recognising that the
beauty of a tall building must be evolved from its special
characteristic of height and that the beauty would be enhanced by a
suggestion of height growing up in its own strength, abandoned the mere
repetition of stories for a vertical treatment that would emphasise the
suggestion of upward growth.

In some cases they applied to the masonry between the windows continuous
bands of vertical ornament, projecting in the nature of shafting or
piers, which by their effect of light and shade carry the eye upward,
giving to the whole structure a suggestion of soaring. Or, in other
cases, they so proportioned the width of the windows to the width of the
masonry that the latter, especially at the angles of the building, gave
the suggestion of soaring piers. Meanwhile there still continued to be
architects who ignored these devices, treating the windows and masonry
solely as recurring horizontal features, with the result that their
repetition contradicts both the vertical feeling and that of upward
growth.

By degrees, however, as the principles of verticality and growth came to
be generally accepted, it was recognised that the analogy of a tall
building to a Classic column was fallacious, since the building should
involve a complete design, while the column is only a constituent member
of a structure and one, too, that is designed to support a horizontal
member. Possibly the realisation of this was assisted by the difficulty
of treating the top of the building. For the most frequent conditions
permitted the projection of a cornice only on one side, that of the
front side of the building, where it sticks out like a prodigious
mantelshelf. That architects should have persisted so long in
reproducing this futile expedient seems only to be explained by a habit
of seeing a design on the drawing board as an elevation to be viewed
from one fixed point, instead of as a structural composition, occupying
space and to be seen from a variety of directions. Moreover, it is a
fact that, as one walks along a street, it is the side of a building
that is chiefly and longest visible, while, by the time one is opposite
the front, the narrowness of the street and the height of the building
make it difficult to view the façade as a whole.

=Gothic Influence.=--Accordingly, in time, as the logic of the problem of
the tall building came to be more resolutely grasped, it was realised
that, if a precedent was to be adopted, it might be found in the Gothic
style. This is essentially the style of vertical design and upward
growth, and its characteristic profile has a tendency to set back from
the ground line instead of projecting over it. Furthermore, if you
choose to consider it, it was the style of the Northern nations as
contrasted with the horizontal styles of the Mediterranean nations; the
style of the races most represented in our population, evolved by them
as an expression of their adventurous and daring spirit. Even in
relation to inherited racial genius, as well as to fitness of design and
practicability of conditions of site, the Gothic is full of suggestion.

Its influence at first appeared in the character of detail of some of
the later sky-scrapers; but gradually more fundamentally, as the
architect began to give fuller attention to the masses of his
composition. Up to the present, the noblest example of this new movement
is the =Woolworth Building=, which is not only the tallest of the tall
buildings but a monument of arresting and persuasive dignity. The
repetition of ornamental detail may be somewhat dry and mechanical; but
from a short distance off this melts into the mass, which vies with
mediæval towers and spires in its splendid assertion of organic upward
growth.

Such a building supplies an uplift to the spirit, whereas the exteriors
of many sky-scrapers, conveying no suggestion of organic growth, being
only monstrous piles of masonry, produce instead an oppression of the
spirit. Nor is such an impression imaginary; it is a physical result of
the sunless, airless canyons into which these cliff-like walls have
transformed the narrow streets. Architects, in fact, realise that the
problem they present is one not only of construction and design but also
of relation to the general city plan. Various proposals have been made
to confine them to certain areas; to restrict their height on the street
line, while setting back the higher portions, which would rise like
towers above the rest of the building; to limit the number of such
towers in a given space, and so forth. Some such restrictions are
enforced in certain cities; but in New York, where the problem is
greatest and most urgent, the consideration of the question has not made
much headway against the general indifference to matters of large public
concern. Here, as in so many other instances, the welfare of the
community, as a collective whole, is not properly adjusted to
individualistic interests.

=Architect and Engineer.=--This and other matters of “city planning”--a
subject that is more and more engaging the attention of progressive
communities--demands the co-operation of the architect and engineer.
Indeed, the co-operation of their functions in all important works,
especially those of a public character, is one of the urgent needs of
the age. There is scarcely an architectural scheme that does not involve
problems of engineering; and many an engineering achievement would have
been of greater public utility if beauty of design had been considered.
For it is only a narrow view of utility that overlooks the utility of
beauty. It is in the power of an engineer to improve or mar the
appearance of a locality, and hence to add to or detract from the
happiness of the human lives which inhabit it.

Nor is the union of the functions of engineer and architect a new thing.
The only difference between the past and the present is, that in
Classic, Gothic, and Renaissance periods the functions were united in
one person, whereas with the advent of the age of iron, followed by
that of steel, they have been specialised in separate individuals.
Accordingly, to-day there is one school of Architecture, and another
school of Engineering; and the separation has caused each to disregard
the points at which their respective arts can and should unite. The
desirability, however, of some affiliation is being recognised and
certain schools of engineering now include a course in the principles of
architectonic design.

       *       *       *       *       *

Any termination of a book on Architecture is but an abrupt stop in the
telling of a story that is perpetually continuous. It will go on as long
as man applies his creative ability to the solution of new problems of
construction as they arise, and persists in stamping the work of his
hands with the evidence of his desire of beauty. This little book,
however imperfect, will add its mite to human progress if it has
awakened or stimulated in the reader a realisation of the rich and
varied humanness of the art of Architecture in its intimate relation to
the lives of individuals and the progress and welfare of the community.




GLOSSARY


     =Abacus=: the block that forms the uppermost member of the capital of
     a column. Usually a square block; but in Roman Ionic and
     Corinthian, the sides are concave, while in Gothic the block may
     also be circular, octagonal or clustered.

     =Abutment=: a member of solid masonry to sustain a lateral strain or
     thrust; e.g., that of an arch.

     =Acanthus=: a plant of the warmer regions of Europe, distinguished by
     large, handsome leaves, with indented and sharply pointed edges.
     Conventionalised as a decorative motive in Classic architecture:
     specially in the Corinthian capital.

     =Acropolis=: a hill within a city, converted into a citadel; often
     containing, as at Athens, the temples of the tutelary or guardian
     divinities.

     =Acroteria=: plinths or blocks, placed on the apex and ends of a
     =Pediment= (which see), for the support of a carved ornament.

     =Æsthetic=: of or pertaining to beauty. That quality in anything,
     especially a work of art, that stimulates the senses, emotions or
     imagination to an appreciation and love of the beautiful.

     =Aisles= (lit. “wings”): the lateral divisions of a church or
     cathedral, parallel to the nave and separated from it by columns.

     =Alcove=: a covered recess, opening from a room or corridor.

     =Ambo=: plural Ambones: raised pulpits from which the Epistles and
     Gospels, respectively, were read.

     =Ambulatory=: a space, usually covered, for walking in.

     =Amphi-prostyle=: used to designate a temple-plan that has a rear as
     well as a front portico. Compare =Prostyle=.

     =Anta=: plural Antæ (lit. opposite): specially in Classic
     architecture, the pilaster attached to the side of a temple,
     opposite a column. Generally, any pilaster opposite a column. For
     =In Antis= see =Portico=.

     =Antefixæ=: ornamental blocks placed along the lower edge of the roof
     of a temple, to cover the joints of the tiles.

     =Anthemion=: a decorative device, also called =Honeysuckle= or =Palmette=
     ornament, composed of flower forms or fronds, radiating from a
     single point. Used especially on the cyma recta moulding, round the
     necks of columns and on stele-heads and antefixæ.

     =Annula= or =Annulet=: a small fillet or flat band, encircling a Doric
     column below the =Echinus= (which see).

     =Apse=: originally, the semi-circular projection at one end of a
     basilica hall; later, the semi-circular or polygonal termination of
     a choir in a Continental Gothic cathedral, as contrasted with the
     square-ended choir of English Gothic.

     =Apsidal=: having the form of an Apse.

     =Apteral= (Gk. “without wings”): applied to a temple that has no
     colonnade on the sides.

     =Arabesque=: a fanciful, painted, modelled, or carved ornamentation,
     composed of plant forms, often combined with human, animal, and
     grotesque forms. Used by the Romans and revived by the Renaissance
     decorators. Also used by the Arabs--hence the name--for a flatly
     modelled and coloured ornament of intricate design, without human
     or, generally, animal forms.

     =Arcade=: a system or range of arches, supported on columns, e.g.,
     the range of arches and columns on each side of the nave of a
     cathedral or church. When used as an embellishment of exterior or
     interior walls, it is distinguished as Open or Blind Arcade,
     according as it is detached from or attached to the plane of the
     wall.

     =Arch=: generally, a structure supported at the sides or ends and
     composed of pieces, no one of which spans the whole interval.
     Specifically, a structure, involving one or more curves, supported
     at the sides, spanning an opening and capable of supporting weight.
     Distinguished according to the nature of the curve as, segmental,
     semi-circular, ogee, pointed, horseshoe, four-centred, trefoil,
     cinquefoil, and multifoil. Arches, involving straight lines as well
     as curved, are known as “shouldered.”

     =Architect= (pr. ar-ki-tect): lit. the master-builder.

     =Architectonic=: possessing an architectural, or organically
     constructive, character. See =Organic=.

     =Architecture=: the science and art of designing and constructing
     buildings, with a view to Utility and Beauty. See =Beauty=.

     =Architrave= (lit. “principal beam”): the lowest member of an
     =Entablature= (which see); hence applied to any beam that rests on
     columns and carries a superstructure; also to the moulded frame
     which bounds the sides as well as the head of a door or window
     opening.

     =Archivolt=: the mouldings around the face of an arch.

     =Arris=: the sharp edge at which meet two flutings of a Doric Column.

     =Ashlar=: applied to masonry of which the stones are squared and
     dressed with hammer or chisel.

     =Astragal=: a convex moulding with a profile semi-circular, like that
     of the Torus, only smaller in width. Often decorated with Bead and
     Spool ornament.

     =Astylar=: used of a façade, not treated with columns.

     =Asymmetries=: deviations from geometrical symmetry and precision;
     such as substituting a slight curve for horizontal and vertical
     straight lines; varying slightly the spaces between columns,
     setting columns on a curving instead of a straight line, and so
     forth. Refinements which Hellenic, Byzantine, and Gothic architects
     introduced to give flexibility and rhythm to their structures. See
     =Refinements=.

     =Atlantes=: See =Caryatid=.

     =Atrium=: in Roman houses an entrance court open to the sky, but
     surrounded by a covered ambulatory. In Early Christian
     architecture, a similar entrance court in front of churches.

     =Attic=: the upper story of a building, above the cornice.

     =Axis=: an imaginary line, about which an architect arranges the
     symmetry of his design. The main axis usually runs through the
     longest direction of the building and may be intersected at right
     angles by a second axis. See =Crossing=.

     =Baldachino=: or Baldachin: a canopy supported on uprights; used
     especially to surmount an altar.

     =Baluster=: a small ornamental pillar supporting a rail or coping;
     the whole structure being called a =Balustrade=.

     =Balustrade=: See =Baluster=.

     =Baroque=: fantastic, grotesque, applied to some of the heavily
     decorated architecture of the eighteenth century.

     =Barrel-vault=: also called Semi-circular or Wagon-headed vault: a
     continuous arched roof over an oblong space, resting on the side
     walls.

     =Barrow=: an artificial mound of earth, forming a prehistoric
     sepulchral monument.

     =Bar Tracery=: See =Tracery=.

     =Base=: the lower member of any structure; compare =Plinth=.

     =Basilica=: originally a building erected for business or legal
     procedure; specifically the large hall of such a building; later,
     in Christian times, a church that more or less retains the plan of
     such a hall.

     =Batter=: the upward, inward slope of a wall, affording greater
     resistance to =Thrust= (which see).

     =Battlement=: the termination of a =Parapet= (which see) in a series of
     indentations, called embrasures, while the intervening solid parts
     are called merlons.

     =Bay=: each of the principal compartments into which the vaulting of
     a roof is divided; also used of the space between any two columns
     of an =Arcade= (which see) of a Gothic church.

     =Bay-window=: a window of angular plan, that projects from the wall
     and reaches to the ground. Distinguished from an Oriel window that
     is supported on a bracket or =Corbel= (which see) and from a
     Bow-window which is curved in plan.

     =Bead=: a small convex moulding; often decorated with =Bead and Spool=
     ornament.

     =Bead and Spool=: an ornamental device of small halved spheres,
     alternating with halved spools; used on small convex mouldings.

     =Beauty=: as applied to Architecture, those qualities in a building
     that stimulate and gratify the æsthetic sense. They result from the
     architect having created an Organic structure according to the
     principles of =Fitness=, =Unity=, =Proportion=, =Harmony=, and =Rhythm= (see
     these terms).

     =Bel Étage=: French term for the principal story of a building.
     Compare Italian, =Piano Nobile=.

     =Belfry=: specifically, the part of a tower in which the bells are
     hung; hence, sometimes, the whole tower.

     =Bema=: a raised platform, reserved for the clergy in Early Christian
     churches.

     =Blind Arcades=: See =Arcade=.

     =Bond=: the method of laying bricks or stones to bind the masonry. In
     =English Bond=, the courses are composed alternately of =Headers= and
     =Stretchers= (which see); =in Flemish Bond= the Headers and Stretchers
     are laid alternately in each =Course= (which see).

     =Boss=: ornamental projection at the intersection of the ribs of
     vaults and ceilings.

     =Bow-window=: See =Bay-window=.

     =Branch Tracery=: See =Tracery=.

     =Broken Entablature=: one that projects over each column or pilaster
     instead of maintaining a single straight plane.

     =Broken Pediment=: where the triangular or curved form is broken into
     in the centre; an ornamental device adopted in the Renaissance.

     =Buttress=: a mass of masonry, projecting from the face of the wall
     to resist the thrust of an arch or vault. When the mass is
     separated from the wall and connected with it by an arch, the arch
     and mass form a =Flying Buttress=.

     =Byzantine=: the style evolved in Byzantium (Constantinople) in the
     fifth century, <small>A.D.</small>


     =Cairn=: an artificial heap of stones, sometimes piled about a
     corpse-chamber, which served as a prehistoric sepulchre and
     monument.

     =Campanile= (cam-pah-neé-la): Italian term for bell-tower.

     =Canopy=: specifically, the carved ornamentation that surmounts a
     niche, altar or tomb.

     =Capella Major=: the space in a Spanish cathedral, enclosed with
     screens or =Rejas= (which see) and containing the High Altar.

     =Capital=: the upper member of a column, pier, pillar or pilaster.

     =Carillon=: a set of stationary bells, played upon by a mechanical
     contrivance, regulated from a keyboard.

     =Caryatid=: plural Caryatides: sculptured female figures, used
     instead of columns or pilasters to support an entablature or
     cornice. Said to be so called after the women of Caria, who aided
     the Persians and were made slaves. Male figures, so used, are
     called =Atlantes=.

     =Caulicoli=: the eight stalks of the acanthus ornament, supporting
     the volutes of a Corinthian capital.

     =Cavetto=: a simple concave moulding.

     =Cavetto Cornice=: the hollow member that crowns a wall or door in
     Egyptian architecture.

     =Cella=: the portion of a temple enclosed by walls.

     =Cerce=: a mechanical supporting device used in the construction of
     vault ribs and light arches. Shaped like a bow, in sections that
     work telescopically, so that it can be adjusted to the width of the
     span.

     =Chamfer=: the edge produced by chamfering; that is to say cutting a
     square edge or corner to a flattened or grooved surface.

     =Chancel= (Lat. cancellus, a screen): See =Choir=.

     =Chapter-house=: originally the assembly place of the Chapter or
     fraternity of abbot and monks of a monastery, for the transaction
     of business. Now attached to English cathedrals for the
     transactions of the Chapter of bishop and canons.

     =Chevêt= (pr. shev-ay): term applied to the east end of a Romanesque
     or Gothic church, when it takes the form of a circular or polygonal
     apse, surrounded by an aisle which opens into chapels.

     =Chevron=: a decorative device, like a V, repeated either vertically
     or horizontally; forming in the latter case a zig-zag.

     =Chryselephantine= (Gk. “gold-ivory”): applied to a sculptured figure
     of wood, when the nude parts are covered with gold and the
     draperies with ivory.

     =Choir= or =Chancel=: the portion of the church or cathedral east of
     the nave, screened off for the use of the choir. See =Coro=.

     =Cimborio=: See =Lantern=.

     =Cinquecento=: Italian term for the period called in English the
     sixteenth century.

     =Cinque-foil=: See =Foil=.

     =Clerestory= or =Clearstory= (Fr. clair = light): the highest story of
     a nave immediately above the =Triforium= (which see), containing
     windows overlooking the roof of the aisles.

     =Cloison=: a partition; specifically, the metal bands dividing the
     pattern in _cloisonné_ enamel.

     =Cloisters= (lit. enclosed space): the covered ambulatory around the
     open court of a monastery; still retained as an adjunct of many
     English and Spanish cathedrals.

     =Close=: the precinct of an English cathedral; survival of the
     “Garth” or grassy enclosure of a monastery.

     =Coffer=: one of the sunken panels of geometrical design, used in the
     ornamentation of a ceiling, vault or dome.

     =Colonnade=: a system or range of columns, surmounted by an
     entablature. When it entirely surrounds a temple or court it is
     called a Peristyle. When it is attached to the front of a building
     it is known as a =Portico= (which see).

     =Column=: a vertical member, consisting of a =Shaft=, surmounted by a
     =Capital= and resting, usually, on a =Base=. Its function is to
     support, in Classic architecture, an entablature, and in Gothic, an
     arch.

     =Composite=: a Roman Order in which the capital is composed of the
     upper part of an Ionian Capital and the lower part of a Corinthian.

     =Concave=: curving, like the segment of a circle, inward, forming a
     hollow to the eye of the spectator.

     =Concentric=: having a common centre.

     =Console=: a supporting block, projecting from a wall, generally
     decorated; specifically the supports of the cornice over a door or
     window. See =Modillion=.

     =Conventionalisation=: the representing of something in a formal way,
     generally prescribed by custom. For example, it was neither
     ignorance nor lack of skill, but a custom, prescribed by the
     priesthood, that caused Egyptian artists to represent the human
     figure with head and legs in profile and trunk full front. In
     decorative design, based on natural objects, the best usage avoids
     naturalistic representation, and translates the form into a
     convention, which, however, reproduces and even emphasises the
     salient features of structure and of growth or movement. Thus, the
     Greek acanthus ornament actually suggests more energy of growth and
     more expressiveness of form than the natural plant.

     =Convex=: curving, like a segment of a circle, outward or toward the
     spectator.

     =Corbel=: a block of stone, often elaborately carved, which projects
     from a wall to sustain a weight, especially that of roof-beams, or
     vaulting shafts. See =Console=.

     =Corinthian=: latest order of Hellenic architecture, commenced by the
     Hellenic architects and fully developed by the Romans.

     =Cornice=: specifically, in Classic architecture, the crowning or
     uppermost member of an entablature; generally, the crowning feature
     of any wall construction, or doors and windows.

     =Coro=: the space screened off for the use of the choir in a Spanish
     cathedral, situated in the nave, west of the Crossing.

     =Corridor=: a wide gallery or passage within a building, usually with
     rooms opening into it.

     =Cortile=: Italian term for interior court, open to the sky and
     surrounded by arcades.

     =Course=: a continuous horizontal layer of stones or bricks. See
     =Bond=.

     =Cove=: specifically, the concave surface that may occur between the
     top of an interior wall and the flat of the ceiling.

     =Crenellated=: fortified with battlements.

     =Cromlech=: a prehistoric memorial, composed of stones of huge size,
     disposed in one or more circles; e.g., Stonehenge.

     =Cross=: adopted by the Church in the fourth century as the symbol of
     Christianity. The separation of the Eastern or Greek Church from
     the Western or Latin Church, was reflected in the shape of the
     Cross; the Greek having all its four members equal, while the lower
     member of the Latin is lengthened.

     =Crossing=: the space about the intersection of the two =Axes= (which
     see) of a church or cathedral, on which the nave, transepts, and
     chancel abut. Often surmounted by a dome or tower.

     =Cruciform=: used of the plan of a church that is based on the form
     of a cross. Where a Greek cross is followed the nave, choir, and
     transepts are of about equal length; while if the Roman is the
     model, the nave is lengthened. See =Cross=.

     =Crypt=: vaulted chambers beneath a building, especially beneath the
     chancel of a church, in which case often used for burial.

     =Cupola=: See =Dome=.

     =Cusps= (lit. points): one of the points forming the feathering or
     foliation of Gothic =Tracery=. Frequently ornamented with a carved
     termination.

     =Custodia=: See =Tabernacle=.

     =Cyclopean=: of colossal size; derived from Cyclops, a giant of Greek
     myth.

     =Cyma= (pr. Si-mah) (lit. “wave”): the rising and falling curve; a
     moulding, perfected by the Hellenic sculptors, whose profile
     combines a convex and a concave curve. When the curve begins in
     convex and flows into concave, it is known as =Cyma Recta= (Hogarth’s
     “Line of Beauty”). When the concave precedes the convex, the
     profile is called =Cyma Reversa=. The latter is also called =Ogee=.

     =Cymatium=: the crowning member of a Classic cornice, so called
     because its profile is a =Cyma Recta= (which see).


     =Dado=: the surface of an interior wall, between the base moulding
     and an upper moulding, placed some distance from the ceiling.

     =Decastyle=: See =Portico=.

     =Decorated=: used to distinguish the second period of English Gothic
     (fourteenth century), owing to increased richness of window
     traceries and other ornamentation. Compare =Rayonnant=.

     =Dentil=: one of a series of square, so-called tooth-like, blocks
     that ornament the cornice in the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.

     =Diagonal=: specifically applied to the arches or ribs of a vaulting
     that are diagonal to the main axis. Compare =Longitudinal=,
     =Transverse=.

     =Dipteral= (lit. “double-winged”): designating a temple that has a
     double range of columns on each side of the cella. Compare
     =Pseudo-dipteral=.

     =Dolmen=: a prehistoric megalithic monument, composed of single
     stones set on end or on edge and crowned with a single slab;
     forming a sepulchral chamber, often embedded in a mound. See
     =Mastaba=.

     =Dome=: a spherical roof, over a circular, square or polygonal space
     rising like an inverted cup. Hence, when the structure is small,
     called a =Cupola=.

     =Doric=: the earliest and simplest =Order= (which see) of architecture
     developed on the mainland of Hellas.

     =Dormer= (lit. “sleeping”): a window in a roof, usually of a bedroom,
     often projecting with a gable end.

     =Drum=: specifically a cylindrical wall, supporting a dome; used also
     of a section of the shaft of a column.


     =Early English=: first period of English Gothic, evolved during the
     thirteenth century.

     =Eaves=: the edge of a roof projecting beyond the wall.

     =Eclecticism=: the practice of combining various elements of style,
     derived from various sources.

     =Echinus=: the cushion-shaped member of the Doric capital, just
     beneath the =Abacus= (which see). It has an ovolo or egg-shaped
     profile. Also used of the =Egg and Dart= moulding (which see).

     =Egg and Dart=: an ornamental device, composed of an alternate
     repetition of an egg-shaped form, halved vertically, and a spear
     head. Used especially on mouldings that have an ovolo or egg-shaped
     profile.

     =Embrasure=: the sloping or bevelling of an opening in a wall, so as
     to enlarge its interior profile. See also =Battlements=.

     =Enamel=: a material composed of pigment and glass, fused and applied
     in melted state to surfaces of metal, porcelain or pottery, for
     decorative purposes. See =Mosaics=.

     =Encaustic=: a process of painting in which the pigments are
     dissolved in melted bees-wax and applied hot.

     =Engaged Column=: a column that does not stand clear of the wall at
     the back of it.

     =Entablature=: the horizontal member of a classic or columnar order.
     It rests upon the =Abacus= of the column and consists of a lower,
     middle, and upper member--the =Architrave=, =Frieze=, and =Cornice=.

     =Entasis= (Gk. “Stretching”): a curved deviation from the straight
     line; specifically, the swell in the profile of the shaft of a
     Classic column.

     =Epinaos=: See =Naos=.

     =Exhedra=: a curved recess, usually containing a seat; hence a curved
     seat of marble or stone.


     =Façade=: the outside view or elevation of a building that faces the
     spectator.

     =Fan Vaulting=: See =Rib=.

     =Fascia=: one of the flat, vertical faces into which the Architrave
     of an Ionic or Corinthian Entablature is divided.

     =Fenestration= (lat. _fenestra_, window): the distribution of windows
     and openings in an architectural composition.

     =Fillet=: a small flat band, used especially to separate one moulding
     from another.

     =Finial=: the finishing part or top, frequently decorated, of a
     spire, pinnacle or bench-end. See =Pinnacle=.

     =Fitness=: a principle of beauty; that the design of a work of art
     shall conform to the necessary requirements of its purpose,
     material and method of making.

     =Flamboyant= (“flaming”): used to distinguish the third period of
     French Gothic (fifteenth century), from the encreased elaboration
     of the window traceries.

     =Fleche=: specifically, a wooden spire surmounting a roof.

     =Fluting=: the vertical grooving, used to enrich the shaft of a
     column or pilaster.

     =Flying Buttress=: See =Buttress=.

     =Foil=: a leaf-like division in carved ornamentation; especially in
     the tracery of a Gothic window or the panelling of walls and
     bench-ends. According to the number of foils included, the design
     is distinguished as trefoil, quatrefoil, cinquefoil, etc.

     =Formeret=: See =Rib=.

     =Fresco= (lit. fresh or damp): see =Secco= and =Tempera=; terms used in
     =Mural Painting= (which see). After the wall had thoroughly dried
     out, a portion, such as the artist could cover in one day was
     spread with a thin layer of fine, quick-drying plaster. While the
     latter was still fresh or damp, the artist, having prepared his
     drawing or “cartoon,” laid it in place and went over the lines with
     a blunt instrument, which left the design grooved in the plaster.
     Then he applied the tempera colours, finishing as he proceeded, for
     the colour sank into the plaster and rapidly dried with it, so that
     subsequent touchings up or alterations could only be applied by
     painting in Secco. As long as the surface of the wall remains
     intact, the colours are imperishable and retain their vivacity and
     transparence. They have, too, the appearance of being part of the
     actual fabric of the wall, as the bloom of colour upon fruit. Thus
     =Fresco= is the fittest and most beautiful process of mural painted
     decoration.

     =Frieze=: specifically, the middle division of an Entablature,
     between the Architrave and the Cornice (which see). Also the
     continuous band of painted or sculptured decoration that crowns an
     exterior or interior wall.


     =Gable=: the upper part of the wall of a building, above the eaves;
     triangular in shape, conforming to the slope of the roof. Compare
     the Classic =Pediment=. If the edge of the gable rises in tiers it is
     distinguished as =Stepped=.

     =Gaine= (lit. a sheath): a sculptured decoration of a half-figure,
     terminating below in a sheath-like pedestal.

     =Galilee=: a porch or chapel, sometimes attached to an English Gothic
     cathedral, usually at the west end. For the use perhaps of
     penitents. Compare =Narthex=.

     =Gambrel=: applied to a roof, the slope of which is bent into an
     obtuse angle.

     =Gesso-work=: a decorative design in =Relief= (which see) executed in
     fine, hard plaster.

     =Gothic= (lit. of, or pertaining to the Goths): a term applied to
     Mediæval architecture by the Italians of the Renaissance to mark
     their contempt for what was non-Classic. The term without reproach
     has been continued to designate the architectural style between the
     Romanesque and Renaissance, during the thirteenth, fourteenth and
     fifteenth centuries. The French have tried to substitute the term,
     =Ogival=. See =Ogee=.

     =Grille=: a wrought metal screen of openwork design.

     =Grisaille=: a style of painting in greyish tones, in imitation of
     bas-relief.

     =Groin=: the angle or edge at which the surfaces of a cross or
     groined vault meet. See =Vault=.

     =Groined Vault=: See =Vault=.

     =Guilloche= (=pr.= =Gil-losh=): an ornament composed of the repeated
     intertwining of two or more bands; frequently used to decorate a
     =Torus= (which see).

     =Gutta= (lit. “drop”): one of the small truncated cones, attached to
     the underside of a =Regula= (which see) and the =Mutules= (which see)
     of a Doric =Entablature=.


     =Half-Timbered=: when the construction has a timbered frame, the
     interstices of which are filled in with masonry or concrete.

     =Hammer-beam roof=: late form of timber roof construction, without
     continuous =Tie Beams= (which see).

     =Harmony=: a principle of Beauty, that governs the variety in unity
     of a work of art, relating all the parts in an accord of feeling.

     =Header=: in masonry, a brick or stone, laid across the thickness of
     the wall. See =Bond=, =Stretcher=.

     =Heart-leaf and Dart=: an ornament composed of a heart-or leaf-shaped
     form and a dart or tongue. Used specifically on Cyma Reversa
     mouldings.

     =Hexastyle=: See =Portico=.

     =Hip-roof=: a roof that rises from all the wall-plates and,
     accordingly, has no gable.

     =Honeysuckle=: ornament. See =Anthemion=.

     =Hypæthral=: completely or partially open to the sky.

     =Hypostyle=: having the roof beams supported on columns.


     =Impluvium=: the cistern sunk in the =Atrium= (which see) of a Roman
     house to receive the rain water.

     =Impost=: the member above the capital of a column, on which the arch
     rests, usually composed of mouldings.

     =In Antis=: See =Portico=.

     =Ionic=: the order of architecture, developed by the Hellenes of Asia
     Minor and adjoining islands, and borrowed and modified by the
     mainland Hellenes.

     =Insula=: Roman term for a residential building, housing many
     families.

     =Intercolumniation=: specifically in Classic architecture, the space
     between any two columns, or between a column and the wall of the
     =Cella=.

     =Interlace=: in decoration, an ornament composed of interwoven bands
     or lines.


     =Jambs=: the side members of the openings of doors and windows.


     =Kaaba=: the cube-like shrine in the Mosque of Mecca.

     =Keystone=: the central stone of an arch.

     =King-Post=: in timber roof-construction; a central post, resting on
     one of the =Tie-beams= (which see) to support the ridge. See
     =Queen-Post=.


     =Lady-Chapel=: a chapel in an English cathedral, dedicated to the
     Virgin Mary, usually situated at the back of the altar.

     =Lancet=: applied to an arch or window that has a sharply pointed,
     lance-shaped opening.

     =Lantern=: a superstructure that rises above the roof level, open
     below and admitting light through its sides. Called in Spanish a
     =Cimborio=.

     =Lierne-rib=: See =Rib=.

     =Lintel=: the horizontal beam, supported on two uprights or posts,
     covering an opening and supporting weight, e.g., the top member of
     the frame of a doorway or window.

     =Loggia=: a covered gallery, open to the air on one or more sides.

     =Longitudinal=: parallel to the direction of the main axis.
     Specifically applied to the arches and ribs of the vaulting of a
     nave or aisle in the direction East or West. Compare =Diagonal= and
     =Transverse=.

     =Louver=: a lantern-like cupola on the roof of a mediæval building,
     originally the flue for smoke from the fire in the centre of the
     hall.

     =Lunette=: a space somewhat resembling a half-moon, with the curve
     uppermost. Especially the wall-space, enclosed by the ends of a
     barrel-vault; or by the wall-arch of a groined or rib vault.

     =Lych-Gate= (lit. “corpse-gate”): covered gateway at entrance to a
     churchyard, where the coffin rests during the first portion of the
     burial service.


     =Machicolation=: the opening between a wall and a parapet, when the
     latter is built out on =Corbels= (which see). Through it missiles or
     burning liquids could be showered upon assailants.

     =Mansard= or =Mansart=: applied to roofs which have a hip or
     angle--instead of a continuous slope--on all four sides. Named
     after the French architect who popularised, though he did not
     invent, it.

     =Mastaba=: an Egyptian tomb, so-called from its construction
     resembling the ordinary Egyptian bench, which is composed of a
     horizontal board, supported upon boards that slope inward toward
     the seat.

     =Mausoleum= (mō-so-lée-um): tomb of more than ordinary size and
     architectural pretensions. So called from the tomb erected at
     Halicarnassus in 325 <small>B.C.</small>, in memory of Mausolus, King of Caria, by
     his widow, Artemisia.

     =Megalith= (lit. huge stone): =Megalithic=, composed of such. See
     =Cyclopean=.

     =Megaron=: Homeric word for palace or large hall.

     =Member= (lit. limb): any component part of a structural design that
     has a specific function to perform.

     =Menhir=: a prehistoric monument, consisting of a single rough or
     rudely shaped stone, usually of large size (megalithic); perhaps
     originally connected with fetish worship, to ward off evil spirits;
     then as a memorial of a dead chieftain or a victory. The prototype
     of the =Obelisk=.

     =Merlons=: See =Battlements=.

     =Metope=: the space between any two of the =Triglyphs= (which see) of a
     Doric =Frieze=. Originally left open, later filled and often with
     sculptured relief.

     =Mezzanine=: a low story situated between two higher ones.

     =Mihrab=: a niche in the wall of a mosque that marks the “Kibleh,” or
     direction toward the =Kaaba= (which see) at Mecca.

     =Minaret=: the tall slender tower, attached to a Mosque, from a
     balcony of which the muezzin summons the people to prayer.

     =Modillions=: the decorated blocks ranged under the Cornice of a
     Corinthian or Composite =Entablature=.

     =Monolith= (lit. single stone): usually of large size. =Monolithic=,
     composed of such.

     =Mosaic= (lit. belonging to the muses, the goddesses of the arts):
     decorative designs composed of particles, usually cube-shaped, of
     marble, stone, glass or enamel, used to enrich the surfaces of
     vaults, walls and floors. See =Opus=.

     =Motive=: in decoration, the form on which the ornament is based;
     e.g., the acanthus motive.

     =Mullion=: one of the vertical stone bars dividing a Gothic window
     into two or more “lights.” Also one of the bars of a =Rose-Window=
     (which see). The horizontal bars are called =Transoms=.

     =Mural=: of or pertaining to a wall; e.g., a mural decoration. See
     =Secco=, =Fresco=.

     =Mutule=: one of a series of rectangular blocks under the =Cornice= of
     a Doric =Entablature=, studded on the underside with =Guttæ= (which
     see).


     =Naos=: the principal chamber of an Hellenic temple, containing the
     statue of the deity. Entered from the front through an unwalled
     vestibule, called the Pronaos and from the rear by a corresponding
     vestibule, called Epinaos or Opisthodomos.

     =Narthex=: the arcaded porch of a Christian basilica, where
     penitents, barred from full communion, worshipped. See =Galilee=.

     =Nave= (from =Naos=, which see): central division of a church or
     cathedral; usually west of the choir.

     =Necking=: the hollowed surface between the =Astragal= (which see) of
     the shaft and the commencement of the capital; specifically of a
     Roman Doric column.

     =Necropolis=: city of the dead: an assemblage of graves or tombs.

     =Newel Post=: the shaft around which a spiral staircase is
     constructed; also the principal post supporting the handrail of a
     staircase.

     =Norman=: the style in England, preceding Early English:
     corresponding to Romanesque on the Continent.

     =Nymphæum= (consecrated to the nymphs): a building containing
     ornamental water, plants and statuary.


     =Octastyle=: See =Portico=.

     =Ogee= (pr. O-jée): another term for the =Cyma Reversa=. See =Cyma=.

     =Ogival=: term applied to the Pointed Arch, because it is composed of
     two contrasted curves. Owing to this arch being characteristic of
     the Gothic style, the French have proposed to call the latter
     =Ogival=.

     =Open Arcades=: See =Arcades=.

     =Opisthodomos= (Gk. “room behind”): same as =Epinaos=. See =Naos=.

     =Opus reticulatum= (lit. “net work”): a veneering composed of equal
     square slabs, arranged so that their joints are diagonal and form a
     net-like mesh.

     =Opus Sectile= (lit. “Cut-work”): a mosaic ornament, composed of
     glass or marble, cut into various shapes to form a pattern. The
     richest variety of it is known as =Opus Alexandrinum=.

     =Opus Spicatum=: pavement composed of bricks laid in “herring-bone”
     fashion.

     =Opus tesselatum=: a mosaic ornament composed of tesseræ or square
     blocks of glass or marble.

     =Order=: specifically, in Classic architecture, the combination of
     =Column= and =Entablature=.

     =Organic=: primarily used of the structures of animals and plants;
     secondarily, of any organised, whole, composed of parts that
     perform definite functions; always in this book with an implication
     that the relation between the whole and its parts partakes of the
     nature of a living, as opposed to a mechanical, structure.

     =Oriel-window=: See =Bay-window=.

     =Orientation=: the construction of a temple or church on a main axis,
     regulated to the position of the sun or a star on some particular
     day or night; or to the points of the compass, usually an east and
     west axis.

     =Ovolo= (lit. “egg-like”): a Classic convex moulding--a quarter-round
     in Roman architecture; in Hellenic, the curve of conic section
     known as hyperbolic.


     =Palmette=: See =Anthemion=.

     =Papier-maché=: a tough plastic substance, formed of paper-pulp,
     mixed with glue, or of layers of paper, glued together; and
     modelled into ornamental forms.

     =Parapet=: specifically, the portion of the wall of a building above
     the eaves of the roof. Generally, a retaining wall, or enclosing
     wall, e.g., the walls of a bridge, above the roadway.

     =Patio=: the open, inner court of a Spanish or Spanish-American
     house.

     =Pavilion=: specifically, a section of a building that projects from
     the plane of the main façade and has a distinct roof treatment.

     =Pediment=: specifically, the triangular member surmounting the
     =Portico= of a Classic temple. It rests on the Entablature and
     terminates on each side in a raking Cornice, paralleling the slope
     of the roof. In Renaissance and later times, a triangular surface,
     framed by a horizontal and two sloping cornices, e.g., the
     embellishment surmounting windows and doors. The triangular space
     within the horizontal and raking cornices is called a =Tympanum= and
     is frequently decorated with sculptured figures or ornament.
     =Tympanum= is also used for the surface between a lintel and the
     _curved_ cornice over it.

     =Pendentive=: one of the four triangular, concave members that
     convert a square space into a circle for the support of a dome.
     Their apexes rest on the four piers at the angles of the square,
     and, as the triangles arch inward, their bases unite in a circle.

     =Peripteral= (lit. “winged-around”): designating a temple, when the
     cella is surrounded by a single range of columns. Compare
     =Pseudo-peripteral=.

     =Peristyle=: a system or range of Columns, specifically surrounding a
     temple or court. See =Colonnade=.

     =Piano nobile=: Italian term for the principal story of a building.
     Compare French =Bel Étage=.

     =Pier=: a vertical supporting member, other than a column or pillar.

     =Pilaster=: a square column, projecting about one-sixth of its width
     from the wall, and of the same proportions as the Order with which
     it is used.

     =Pinnacle=: a small turret-like termination; especially at the top of
     buttresses to increase their weight and capacity of lateral
     resistance.

     =Plate Tracery=: See =Tracery=.

     =Plinth=: specifically, a block, usually square, which forms the
     lowest member of the base of a column. Generally, the block on
     which a column, pedestal or statue rests.

     =Podium=: a wall supporting a row of columns; specifically, in Roman
     architecture, the temple platform that does not project beyond the
     line of the columns as does a =Stylobate= (which see).

     =Polygonal=: a figure composed of more than four angles, of equal
     size.

     =Porte-cochère= (pr. port´-co-share´): a covered entrance, under
     which a carriage can be driven.

     =Portico=: an open space or ambulatory covered by a roof, supported
     on columns, forming a porch. In Classic temples the front of the
     portico consists of =Columns=, =Entablature=, and =Pediment=, covered by
     the extension of the roof of the =Cella=. According as the =Portico=
     has four, six, eight or ten columns in front the temple is
     distinguished as Tetrastyle, Hexastyle, Octostyle or Decastyle.
     When the Portico is enclosed on the left and right by an extension
     of the sides of the Cella it is distinguished as “=In Antis=.”

     =Post=: an upright supporting member, as of a door. An element in the
     principle of construction known as Post and Beam.

     =Post= and =Beam=: generic term for the constructive principle of a
     horizontal member, supported upon vertical ones.

     =Posticum= (Latin for =Epinaos=): See =Naos=.

     =Pot Metal=: glass fused in a crucible.

     =Pozzolana=: a clean, sandy earth, of volcanic origin, used by the
     Romans in combination with lime to form concrete.

     =Profile=: specifically, the outer edge of the section of a moulding.

     =Projection=: a general term for any member that extends beyond the
     main planes of a structure, especially used of mouldings.

     =Pronaos=: See =Naos=.

     =Proportion=: a principle of Beauty, that regulates the quantity and
     quality of the parts of a work of art according to their functional
     importance in the organic unity of the whole.

     =Propylæa=: the entrance gate or vestibule to a group of buildings.

     =Proscenium= (lit. “before the scene” [skene]): in the Classic
     theatre a structure, occupying the open end of the horse-shoe plan,
     to screen from view the “skene” or actor’s dressing-place. It
     formed the background to the Drama.

     =Prostyle= (lit. “having columns in front”): used to describe a
     temple plan that has a =Portico= at only one of its ends. Compare
     =Amphi-prostyle=.

     =Prototype=: the primitive, rude, original form, out of which finer
     and more efficient types have been developed.

     =Pseudo-dipteral= (lit. “false-double-winged”): when the temple
     appears to have a double row of columns on the sides, but the inner
     range is omitted and the space between the columns and wall of the
     =Cella= is thereby double the usual =Intercolumniation= (which see).

     =Pseudo-peripteral= (lit. “false-winged-around”); when the columns on
     the sides of a temple, instead of standing free, are =Engaged= (which
     see) in the wall of the =Cella=.

     =Pteroma= (pr. ter-ō´-ma): pl. pteromata: term applied to the side
     walls of a Cella; hence, sometimes to the space between the latter
     and the columns of the Peristyle.

     =Pylon=: a doorway, flanked by two Truncated Pyramids with oblong
     bases. See =Pyramid=.

     =Pyramid=: a structure of =masonry=, generally with a square base, with
     triangular sides meeting at an apex. When the sides mount in steps
     it is distinguished as a =Stepped Pyramid=. When the sides end
     abruptly, before reaching the apex, it is called a =Truncated
     Pyramid=.


     =Quadriga=: a four horse chariot.

     =Quatrefoil=: See =Foil=.

     =Quatrocento=: Italian term for the period called in English the
     fifteenth century.

     =Queen-Post=: in timbered roof construction, one of the two posts
     resting on one of the =Tie-beams=, at equal distance from the centre,
     to reinforce the rafters. See =King-Post=.

     =Quoin=: specifically, one of the large, square stones at the =angle=
     (coign) of a building.


     =Ramp=: an inclined approach to a terrace or platform, usually
     parallel to the sustaining wall of the latter.

     =Rayonnant=: (“radiating”): used to distinguish the second period of
     French Gothic (Fourteenth Century); from the characteristic
     radiating or “wheel” tracery of the rose-windows. Compare
     “=Decorated=.”

     =Refinements=: a term applied to the instances in Hellenic,
     Byzantine, and Gothic architecture of deviations from geometrical
     symmetry, to secure a more flowing, rhythmic beauty. See
     =Asymmetries=.

     =Regula=: one of a series of short, flat fillets placed under the
     =Tenia= (which see) of a Doric =Architrave=, above each of the
     =Triglyphs= (which see); usually having six =Guttæ= (which see) on the
     under side.

     =Reja= (pr. rā-hah): Spanish term for an elaborate grille or screen
     of hammered and chiselled iron, characteristic of which were
     _repoussé_ figures set into or attached to the vertical bars.

     =Relief=: a design of ornament or figures _raised_ upon a surface
     that forms the background; distinguished, according to the extent
     of projection, as =High= or =Low=; in both cases distinguished from
     modelling or carving “in the round” where the design, is detached
     from the background; and from =Intaglio=, where the design is sunk
     below the surface.

     =Renaissance=: the period of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in
     which the Classic culture and the Classic forms were revived in
     Europe.

     =Reredos= (pr. rir´-dos): a screen behind an altar, usually of
     marble, decorated with sculptured ornament and figures. Called
     =Retablo= in Spain, where examples reach prodigious size and great
     elaboration.

     =Retablo=: Spanish for =Reredos= (which see).

     =Retrochoir=: the space, other than that of the Lady Chapel behind
     the altar.

     =Rhythm=: primarily used to describe the harmonious recurrence of
     certain sound-relations in musical and poetic compositions; a
     movement of sound characterised by recurrence of stress and accent.
     It is based on time, but eludes the measured repetition of the bar
     and metre. Hence a relation of lines and masses, characterised by
     harmonious recurrence of stress or accent. Not a repetition of
     measured intervals and identical parts, but of general
     similarities, involving variety, uniting in closest relationship
     the parts of an organic design to one another and to the whole.
     Rhythm is the subtlest element of artistic harmony and yet is
     nearest to the free growth and articulations of nature.

     =Rib=: a projecting band or moulding on a ceiling. Specifically, the
     projecting members of Gothic vaulting. These were first
     constructed--probably with the support of a =Cerce= (which see) as
     light arches, which then formed the support of the intervening
     masonry surfaces. The Ribs which parallel the axis of the nave are
     called =Longitudinal=, those which cross it from column to column at
     right angles are called =Transverse=, while those crossing the axis
     diagonally are called =Diagonal=. Sometimes, especially in English
     Gothic, to strengthen the vault, extra ribs, known as =Tiercerons=,
     were inserted between the main ribs. They spring from the =Impost=
     (which see) and abut on an extra ridge, projecting along the axial
     line, known as the =Ridge-Rib=. The vaulting, thus formed by the
     tiercerons radiating from the Impost is called =Fan Vaulting=.
     Sometimes, for additional strength and to increase the
     decorativeness, short intermediate ribs were introduced, which are
     known as =Liernes=, their distinction being that they do _not_
     connect with the Impost. When the geometrical pattern, made by the
     Liernes, resembles a star the vaulting is distinguished as =Stellar
     Vaulting=. Sometimes a vertical rib, known as a =Formeret=, was
     applied to the wall to separate one vault compartment from another.

     =Rib Vault=: See =Vault=.

     =Ridge=: the highest point or line of a roof.

     =Ridge Rib=: See =Rib=.

     =Rococo=: style of decoration, distinguished by rock-work, shells,
     scrolls, etc., which originated in France during the period of the
     Regency and Louis XV.

     =Rood-loft=: a gallery over the entrance to the chancel, in which
     stood a cross or rood. Used for reading portions of the service and
     also in the performance of miracle plays.

     =Rose-window= or =Wheel-window=: a circular window, whose =Mullions=
     (which see) converge toward the centre.

     =Rostral Column=: a column decorated with imitations of the prows
     (rostra) of vessels; used by the Romans to commemorate a naval
     victory.

     =Rubble=: Rubblework: masonry composed of irregularly shaped or
     broken stone, whether mixed or not with cement; also the fragments
     of stone, mixed with cement, used to fill in the thickness of a
     wall, between the two faces of dressed stone.

     =Rustication=: treatment of masonry with deeply recessed joints,
     grooved or beveled; the surface of the stone is sometimes made
     rough.


     =Scotia=: a concave moulding, frequently used in the base of Classic
     columns.

     =Screen=: a partition of wood, metal, marble, or stone, separating
     the choir from the nave. Latin _cancellus_; hence by corruption the
     English term, Chancel.

     =Secco= (lit. “dry”): as contrasted with =Fresco= (which see), “fresh
     or wet.” Terms used in connection with =Tempera= painting (which see)
     according as the surface of plaster be dry or freshly spread at the
     time the colour is applied.

     =Section=: a drawing showing a building or part of a building, as it
     would appear if it were cut through vertically, and the part
     between the plane of section and the spectator’s eye were removed.

     =Serdab=: the cell within an Egyptian tomb, in which images of the
     deceased were placed.

     =Sexpartite=: applied to vaults, divided into six compartments. In
     Romanesque churches, owing to the short intercolumniation, the bays
     were oblong. Hence for convenience of construction two were treated
     together as a square. Sometimes from the intermediate columns a
     transverse shafting was constructed, which together with the
     diagonals divided the square into six divisions.

     =Shaft=: the main member of a Column between the Capital and (where
     there is one) the Base.

     =Soffit=: the under side of an entablature, lintel, cornice, or arch.

     =Solar=: a private upper chamber for the use of the family, in a
     Mediæval Castle.

     =Spandril= or =Spandrel=: the triangular space on each side of an arch
     that is enclosed in a rectangle.

     =Sphinx=: a winged monster, combining human and animal forms.

     =Spire=: the pointed termination to a tower. See =Steeple=.

     =Squinch=: a small arch, set diagonally across the angle of a square
     space to transform the latter into an octagon.

     =Stalls=: the fixed seats in a chancel for the clergy and choir.

     =Stanza=: Italian for Chamber.

     =Steeple=: the combination of tower and Spire. See =Spire=.

     =Stele=: =Stela=: an upright tablet of stone or marble, often
     sculptured and engraved; serving as a tombstone, or boundary mark
     or milestone, etc.

     =Stellar Vaulting=: See =Rib=.

     =Stepped=: See =Gable=; =Pyramid=.

     =Stilted=: applied to an arch when its curve begins some distance
     above the impost and is connected to the latter by vertical
     sections of moulding.

     =Strap Ornament=: geometrical patterns formed of bands, that suggest
     straps of leather kept in place with studs.

     =Stretcher=: in masonry, a brick or stone, laid lengthwise of the
     course. See =Bond=, =Header=.

     =Stucco=: specifically, a plaster made of gypsum, powdered marble or
     fine sand, mixed with water; used for wall surfaces and raised
     ornament; generally, any plaster or cement used for external
     coating.

     =Stylobate= (lit. “column-stand”): in Classic Architecture, a
     continuous base supporting columns; specifically, the platform on
     which a Greek temple is raised. Compare =Podium=.


     =Tabernacle=: a structure to contain the “Host” or consecrated Bread;
     resembling a tower or spire and elaborately embellished with
     windows, mouldings, pinnacles, etc., often rising to a great
     height--90 feet in the Cathedral of Ulm. A feature of German
     decorative art. Appears in Spanish Gothic under the name of
     =Custodia=.

     =Temenos=: the sacred enclosure or precinct of a Greek temple or
     group of temples.

     =Tempera= painting or painting in distemper: the process of painting
     on a ground, usually prepared with a coat of fine plaster, with
     pigments that are mixed with yolk of egg or some other glutinous
     medium and are soluble in water. The method employed for all
     paintings before the development of the oil medium in the fifteenth
     century; and continued in use by the Italian mural decorators. See
     =Fresco=, =Secco=.

     =Tenia= or =Tænia=: the flat fillet or band, forming the upper member
     of a Doric =Architrave= (which see).

     =Terminal=: applied to posts, originally used to mark boundaries.
     Made of marble, with a head and bust or half figure, surmounting
     the pedestal, it is used as a garden ornament.

     =Terrace=: a raised level space or platform, sustained by walls or
     sloping banks, usually approached from below by a flight of steps
     or =Ramp= (which see).

     =Terra-cotta=: a species of hard clay, moulded and baked: especially
     used in ornamentation.

     =Tessera=: a cube of glass or marble used in =Mosaic= decoration (which
     see).

     =Tetrastyle=: See =Portico=.

     =Tholos=: a building of the beehive type, circular in plan, with a
     domed roof.

     =Thrust=: a strain that tends to push the downward pressure toward
     the sides; as in the case of an arch.

     =Tie-Beam=: in timber roof construction, the transverse beam that
     ties together the lower part of opposite rafters.

     =Tierceron-rib=: See =Rib=.

     =Tile=: a thin piece of terra-cotta, stone, or marble for the
     external covering of roofs.

     =Torus=: a large convex (usually semi-circular) moulding used
     especially in bases of columns. See =Astragal=.

     =Trabeated=: having a horizontal Beam or Entablature.

     =Tracery=: the pattern of stonework that fills the upper part of a
     Gothic window. Distinguished as =Plate Tracery=, where the tracery
     looks as if it were pierced in a single plate or slab of stone; =Bar
     Tracery=, when composed in an arrangement of geometric designs. The
     German imitation of branches is known as =Branch Tracery=.

     =Transepts=: the parts of a church or cathedral that project at right
     angles to the nave and choir, forming the arms of the Cross in a
     =Cruciform= (which see) plan.

     =Transom=: See =Mullion=.

     =Transverse=: at right angles to the main axis. Specifically applied
     to the arches and ribs of the vaulting of a nave or aisle that are
     in the directions of north and south. Compare =Longitudinal= and
     =Diagonal=.

     =Travertine=: a hard limestone found in Tivoli.

     =Trefoil=: See =Foil=.

     =Triclinium=: dining room of a Roman house.

     =Triforium=: the arcaded passage above the arches of the nave of a
     Gothic cathedral, opening into the space between the vaulting and
     roof of the aisle.

     =Truncated=: finishing abruptly instead of in a point. See =Pyramid=.

     =Tufa=: a volcanic substance of which the hills of Rome are largely
     composed.

     =Tumulus=: a prehistoric artificial mound, serving as a sepulchral
     monument.

     =Tympanum=: See =Pediment=.


     =Unity=: a principle of Beauty, that the work of art shall present an
     organic oneness and completeness.


     =Vault=: an arched covering of stone, brick or concrete over any
     space. =Barrel vault=: a continuous semicircular arched covering over
     an oblong space, supported on the side walls. =Groined vault=: a
     vault formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults, at right
     angles to each other, supported on four corner columns or piers.
     =Rib vault=: a development of the groin vault, the groins being
     replaced by ribs or profiled bands of masonry, which are erected
     first, the vaulting spaces being filled in subsequently.

     =Vestibule=: the walled space before the entrance to a Roman house;
     later an enclosed or partially enclosed entrance space beneath the
     roof of an early Christian church; generally, the entrance space of
     any building, especially, if used for public assemblage.

     =Volute=: the scroll or spiral feature occurring in a capital of the
     Ionic and Corinthian Orders.

     =Voussoir=: one of the wedge-shaped stones, composing the curve of an
     arch.


     =Wainscot=: the lining or panelling of an interior wall, skirting the
     floor and carried up to only a part of the height of the wall.

     =Wheel window=: See =Rose-window=.


     =Ziggurat=: (a “holy mountain”): the platform usually =Stepped= or
     rising in receding tiers, on which the Chaldæans erected a temple;
     they were also used for astronomical observations.




INDEX

(For the Compilation of which the author is indebted to CAROLINE CAFFIN)


A

Abacus (Gloss.), 42
  Corinthian, 132, 165
  Doric, 125
  English Gothic, 291, 294
  Ionic, 129
  at Mycenæ, 99
  Romanesque, 245

Abelard, 331

Abury, monument at, 17

Abutment (Gloss.), 284

Abydos, tomb at, 42
  Temple at, 53

Acanthus (Gloss.), in ornament, 132, 164, 165, 171

Achæan migrations, 91, 105

Acropolis (Gloss.):
  of Athens, 108, 119, 141
  Athene Nike, 141
  Erechtheion, 141
  Odeion of Herodes Atticus, 145
  Odeion of Pericles, 145
  the Parthenon, 119
  Propylæa, the, 141
  Theatre of Dionysos, 143
  Mycenæ, of, 100

Acroteria (Gloss.), 127
  on Parthenon, 137

Ægean, civilisation, 88 et seq.
  Islands of, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95

Æolian, migrations, 91, 105

Æsthetic (Gloss.), defined, 3, 4, 5

Africa, Mediterranean race in, 95
  Muhammedans in, 215, 220
  Romans, in, 150

Agrippa, erects Pantheon, 171

Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne’s capital, 192
  Cathedral at, 258
  Church at, 207

Akkadia, race, 56, 57, 58

Alberti, author of “De Re Ædificatoria,” 344, 345

Alcove (Gloss.), in English galleries, 417
  in temple of Hera, 118

Alexander the Great, in Egypt, 37
  in Macedonia, 109
  in Persia, 25, 76

Alhambra, 218, 226-7

Almshouses, 299

Altars, of the Dorians, 117
  Early Christian, 194-5
  Escoriál, Church in, 404
  Granada Cathedral, 401
  Greek drama, 142
  Minoan Palace, 101
  Persia, 81, 83
  Stonehenge, 16

Altun Obu, Sepulchre of, 14

Ambo (pl) ambones (Gloss.), 195

Ambulatory (Gloss.), 242
  Gothic, 289, 303
  S. Paul’s Cathedral, 420

Amenopheum, the, 45

American Institute of Architects, 462

Amphi-prostyle--stylar (Gloss.), 120

Amphitheatres, 173, 174, 175

Anglo-Classical, 435, 436

Anglo-Saxon architecture, 254, 255, 289

Annula (Gloss.), 125

Antæ (Gloss.) 120, 125, 165
  in Parthenon, 137

Ante-fixæ (Gloss.), 127

“Antiquities in Athens” by Stuart and Revett, 436, 439

Apse (Gloss.), origin of, 177
  replaced by Chancel, 237
  in Cathedrals of Granada, 401
    Monreale, Palermo, 249
    Pisa, 247
    S. Paul’s, 420
    Worms, 258
  Churches of
    The Apostles, Cologne, 259
    Early Christian Churches, 195, 198, 200, 201
    Romanesque churches, 244
    Santiago de Compostello, 260
    S. Cunibert, Cologne, 259
    S. Maria-in-Capitol, Cologne, 259
    S. Martin, Cologne, 259
    Turkish Mosques, 228

Apteral (Gloss.), 141

Aqueducts, 182
  Agua Claudia, 183
  Anio Novus, 183
  Pont du Gard, Nîmes, 183

Arab alliance with Moors, 226, 227

Arcades (Gloss.), in Akbar, mosque of, 230
  Alhambra, the, 226
  Amiens, cathedral of, 282-3
  Amru, Mosque of, 223
  Antwerp City Hall, 407
  Bremen City Hall, 395
  Brunelleschi’s, 343
  Chambord, 381
  Cordova, Mosque of, 224, 225
  Diocletian, Palace of, 195
  Doge’s Palace, 316
  English Gothic, 289
  Iffley Church, 257
  Ispahan, Great Mosque of, 229
  Library of S. Mark’s, 365
  Liège, Palais de Justice, 406
  Mecca, Great Mosque, 221
  Mosques, 217, 221-223
  Nôtre Dame, Paris, 282-3
  Palladian style, 352
  Patios, 400
  Pavia, S. Michele’s, 251
  Romanesque, 244, 245, 253
  S. Paul’s Covent Garden, 419
  S. Peter’s, 194
  S. Sophia’s 208
  S. Sulpice, 389
  Syria, Early Christian Churches, 200
  Worms, Cathedral, 258
    Asymmetries in, 280

Arcade, blind, 244, 247, 259

Arcades, type in windows, 360, 362

Arch (Gloss.):
  Anglo-Saxon use of, 255
  Assyrian use of, 69
  Basis of design, 202
  Bridges, use in, 182
  Byzantine use of, 202
  Delos, at, 15
  Domes, built on, 205-6
  Egypt, use in, 42
  English Renaissance, 420
  Etruria, use in, 156
  Four-centre arches, 290, 410
  Gothic, 270, 284
    English, 298
    Italian, 310
  Horseshoe, 229
  Mediæval, 252
  Muhammedan, 221, 224, 230
  Norman, 255-6
  Palace of Diocletian, in, 195
  Pointed, 272, 252
  Roman use of, 156, 166, 174
  Romanesque, use in, 245, 249, 250
    Spanish, 260
  Rudimentary arch, 14-15
  Single stone, 199
  Stilted, 245
  Triumphal, 5
    Arc de l’Étoile, 443
    Arc de Triomphe, 443
    Constantine, of, 159-178
    Early Christian churches, 196
    Janus, of, 159
    Mantua, at, 368
    Orange, at, 178
    Septimus Severus, of, 161, 178
    Temple Bar, 423
    Titus, 5, 159, 178

Architects (Gloss.):
  Abadie, Paul, 452
  Adam, James, 428
  Adam, Robert, 428, 429, 430
  Alberti, Leo Battista, 344, 345, 368
  Alessi, Galeazzo, 356
  Anthemius of Tralles, 208
  Arnolfo di Cambio, 315, 340, 355
  Ascher, Benjamin, 431
  Ballu, Theodore, 452
  Barry, Sir Charles, 439, 450, 451
  Basevi, George, 438
  Bautista, Juan da, 404
  Benci di Cione, 315
  Benedetto da Rovezzano, 411
  Bernini, Lorenzo, 371, 373, 386, 419
  Berruguete, Alonzo, 402, 405
  Boromini, Francesco, 351
  Borset, François, 406
  Brunelleschi, Filippo, 342-344, 367, 373
  Bulfinch, Charles, 446, 448
  Buon, Bartolommeo, 353, 360
  Buon, Giovanni, 353, 360
  Buonarotti, Michelangelo, 346, 349, 350, 363-365, 371-373, 397, 405
  Burlington, Lord, 352, 426
  Butterfield, William, 452
  Chambers, Sir William, 427
  Clerisseau, C. L., 428
  Colombe, Michel, 376
  Covarrubias, Alonso de, 400
  Cram, Ralph Adam, 366, 453
  Cram, Goodhue and Ferguson, 453
  Cronoca, 345
  De l’Orme, Philibert, 383
  De Vriendt, Cornelius, (Floris), 407
  Diego da Siloe, 400, 401
  Duban, Felix, 444
  Elmes, H. L., 438
  Enrique de Egas, 399, 400
  Fontana, Domenico, 371
  Garnier, Charles, 444
  Giacomo della Porta, 371
  Giacondo, Fra, 371
  Gibbs, James, 423, 430
  Giotto di Bondone, 312
  Giulio Romano, 347
  Hansen, Theophil, 440
  Hawksmoor, Nicholas, 423
  Herrera, Juan de, 402, 404
  Hoban, James, 446
  Hunt, Richard Morris, 461, 462
  Inwood, H. W., 436
  Isidorus of Miletus, 208
  John of Padua, 411
  Jones, Inigo, 416, 418, 427
  Klenze, Leo von, 440
  Labrouste, Henri, 444
  Latrobe, B. H., 446
  Le Breton, Gilles, 382
  Lefuel, Hector, 444
  Lemercier, Jacques, 385, 387
  L’Enfant, Pierre Charles, 445
  Le Nôtre, 387
  Lescot, Pierre, 382, 383, 386, 444
  Levau, 387
  Lombardi, Antonio, 353, 354
  Lombardi, Martino, 353
  Lombardi, Moro, 353
  Lombardi, Pietro, 353
  Lombardi, Tullio, 353
  Longhena, Baldassare, 355, 366
  Machuca, Pedro, 402
  Maderna, Carlo, 371
  Mangin, 448
  Mansart, François, 385, 387
  Mansart, Jules Hardouin, 387
  Michelozzi, Michelozzo, 344, 358
  Mills, Robert, 446
  Mnesicles, 141
  Nepveu, Pierre Le, 381
  Palladio, Andrea, 351, 368 and 369, 418, 426, 427
  Pearson, J. L., 452
  Perrault, Claude, 386
  Peruzzi, Baldassare, 347, 348, 371
  Pisano, Andrea, 312, 319, 340
  Pisano, Giovanni, 312
  Porter, Arthur Kingsley, 243
  Pugin, Augustus Wild, 450, 453
  Raphael, 346, 347, 348, 371
  Renwick, James, 452
  Richardson, Henry Hobson, 461, 462
  Sammichele, Michele, 355
  Sangallo, Antonio da, (the Elder), 371
  Sangallo, Antonio da (the Younger), 371-373, 347, 348
  Sansovino, Jacopo da, 354, 363, 365
  Scamozzi, Vicenzo, 352, 355
  Schinkel, Friederich, 440
  Scott, Sir, Gilbert, 451
  Serlio, 413
  Servandoni, 389
  Shaw, Norman, 460
  Shute, John, 413
  Smirke, Sir Robert, 438
  Soane, John, 438
  Soufflot, J. J., 442
  Street, G. E., 451
  Stühler, 440
  Talenti, Simone di, 315
  Thornton, William, 446
  Thorpe, John, 414
  Town, Ithiel, 431
  Vanbrugh, Sir John, 425
  Vigarni di Borgoña, 401
  Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da, 348, 368, 369
  Viollet-Le-Duc, E. M., 444
  Visconti, Louis, 444
  Waterhouse, Alfred, 452
  Wilkins, William, 438
  Wren, Sir Christopher, 401, 419-423

Architect and Engineer, 477

Architecture, defined, 5 (Gloss.):
  Influence of Monks on, 237
  Need of public appreciation, 455
  Opportunity at Chicago’s World Fair, 465
  Relation to life, 7, 9, 25, 456-9, 472, 478

Architrave (Gloss.), Asymmetries in, 137
  Byzantine impost, 204
  Corinthian entablature, in, 165
  Doric entablature, in, 126, 135
  Ionic entablature, in, 129 and 130
  Roman use of, 164
  Windows, 359-360

Archivolt (Gloss.), 203

Argolis, 88, 98

Ariosto, 329, 341

Aristotle, 439

Armada, Spanish, 336

Arris (Gloss.), 124

Artaxerxes II, III, 76
  tomb of, 82

Aryan race, the, 74

Assyria, Architecture, 65-73
  Astronomy and Astrology of, 64
  Asurbanipal, 61
  Civilisation of, 56, et seq.
  Conquest of Judea, 60
  Conquest by Nabopolassar, 61
  Culture, 63
  Growth of power, 59
  Junction with Babylonia, 59
  Records of, 57
  Tiglath-Pileser, 59

Astragal (Gloss.), 129

Astylar (Gloss.), 361, 439

Asymmetries (Gloss.), in Egyptian architecture, 43
  Gothic, 278-80
  Hellenic, 136, 137, 207
  Mason’s errors, not, 129
  Pisa, at, 247-9

Athena Polias, 141

Atrium (Gloss.), in S. Ambrogio, Milan, 250
  S. Paul-without-the-wall, 196
  S. Peter’s, 194
  S. Sophia, 209

Attic (Gloss.), 179
  Louvre, in, 384-5
  S. Peter’s, in, 372

Attica, Architectural remains in, 89

Augustine foundations including Cathedrals, 288

Avebury, _see_ Abury

Aztecs, structures of the, 19


B

Babylonia, Architecture, 65 _et. seq._
  Babylon described, 61
  Civilisation, 56 _et seq._
  Conquered by Assyrians, 59
  Empire joined to Assyrian, 61, 65
  Gardens, 62
  God Marduk, 59
  Records of, 57
  Sculpture, 63

Balconies, on Minarets, 222, 223
  Muhammedan use of, 218
  Netherlandish Gothic, 367
  Palaces of the Capitol, 365
  Vendramini Palaces, 361

Baldachino (Gloss.), in Early Christian churches, 194
  S. Peter’s, Rome, 371

Ball and Cross, Dome of Escoriál, 404
  S. Paul’s on, 422

Balustrade (Gloss.), 364
  Burgos, Golden Staircase, of, 400
  Château de Blois, in, 380
  English Renaissance, 414, 427

Bank of England, 438

Baptistries, of Florence, 197, 311
  Pisa, 247, 248
  Ravenna, 201
  S. John Lateran, 198

Baroque style (Gloss.), 338, 350-1, 355

Barrows (Gloss.), 13, 14, 16

Bar Tracery (Gloss.), 275, 354, 355

Base (Gloss.), of columns, 123
  Corinthian, 131
  Ionic, 128
  Minarets of, 222
  Parthenon, in, 442
  Roman use, 164

Basilicas (Gloss.), origin of, 159, 177
  Æmilia, of, 160, 177
  Amiens, at, 281
  Augustus’s, Palace, in, 179
  Byzantine, 205
  Cluny, in Benedictine Abbey of, 253
  Constantine, of, (or Maxentius), 177, 371, 372
  Early Christian churches, 193
  Florence, in, 343
  Fulvia, of, 177
  Italy, in Southern, 246
  Julia, of, 160, 177
  Mediæval, 352
  Monks develop plan to cruciform, 237-40
  Nôtre Dame, Paris, 281
  Porcia, of, 177
  S. Peter’s, Rome, 371
  Sicily, in, 249
  Ulpia, of, 177-8-9

Baths, of Agrippa, 176
  Brunelleschi, studied by, 342
  Caracalla, of, 176
  Commodus, of, 176
  Constantine, of, 176
  Diocletian, of, 176
  Domitian, of, 176
  Minoan, 93, 96-7-8, 101
  Nero, of, 176
  Roman, 176, 439
  Titus, of, 176
  Zeus, in temple of, 111

Batter (Gloss.), Assyria, in, 66, 68
  Egypt, 41, 47
  Giralda, in, 225
  Renaissance, in, 378, 414
  Sargon’s Castle, 68

Bays (Gloss.), in vaulting, 167, 178, 242, 250
  Front of buildings, 303, 372
  Windows, 417, 418

Bead and Spool ornament (Gloss.), 130, 132, 134

Beams, Cross, 296
  English Renaissance ceilings, in, 417
  German Renaissance, use in, 393
  Hammer, 297
  Tie, 221

Beautiful Arts, the, 3

Beauty (Gloss.), feeling for, 37, 95, 469
  Campanile in Florence, in, 313
  Chicago World’s Fair, 465, 466
  Difference between German and Italian, 328
  Domestic Architecture, in, 469
  Gallic, 333
  Hellenic, 112, 113
  Moorish and Saracenic, 226
  Renaissance, 373
  Roman, 113

Beaux Arts, École de, 379, 461-3-464, 465

Bee-hive construction, Tombs, 15, 89, 99
  Dwellings, 46

Bel étage (Gloss.), 383-4

Belfries (Gloss.), 254
  Netherlands, in, 307

Belgium, _see_ Netherlands

Bema (Gloss.), _see_ Sanctuary

Benedictine Foundations including Cathedrals, 288

Billets, Norman, decoration, in, 255

Bingham, Professor Hiram, ruins discovered by, 19

Black Stone, the, 214, 221

Boccaccio, 325, 331, 341, 376

Books of Design, in English Renaissance, 413, 414, 417
  “Antiquities of Rome,” Palladio, 427
  “Cathedral Antiquities,” John Britton and Thomas Rickman, 450
  “Chief Grounds of Architecture,” John Shute, 413
  “De Re Ædificatoria,” Alberti, 345
  “Designs for Chinese Architecture,” William Chambers, 427
  “Five orders of Architecture,” Vignola, 349
  “Five Orders of Architecture,” Sammichele, 355
  “Four Books of Architecture,” Palladio, 351
  “Gothic Quest, The,” Ralph Adams Cram, 300, 453
  “History of Art,” Winckelmann, 436
  “History of Art,” Stuart and Revett, 436
  James Gibbs’ Designs, 423, 430
  “Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian,” Adam, 428
  “Treatise on Civil Architecture,” William Chambers, 427

Brackets, _see_ Modillions

Boston, Decoration in Library, 98
  Trinity Church, 462

Botta, Paul Émile, discoveries of, 67

Brick, use of:
  Byzantine, 202, 209
  Chaldean, 65-66
  Colonial, 430, 431
  Domes, in, 167, 222, 343, 422
  Egyptian, 39, 47, 55
  English and Flemish bond, 424
  English Renaissance, 412
  German Gothic, 305
  German Renaissance, 393
  Hellenic, 117
  Holland Renaissance, 409
  Italian Gothic, 313, 352
  Mesopotamia, in, 65
  Persian, 85
  Queen Anne Style, 424, 458
  Roman, 172, 175
  S. Sophia, in, 209
  Steel Construction, in, 473
  Stretchers and Binders, 424
  Tiryns, in, 102

British Museum, Colossal Bulls, in, 69
  Cuneiform script, in, 61
  Rosetta Stone, 27
  Temple of Artemis, 128
  Tomb of Atreus, 99, 124

Brittany, primitive structures in, 17

Bronze Age, 19

Byzantine Architecture (Gloss.), 190, 193-5, 211
  Armenia, in, 211
  Basilicas, 193-6
  Brick, use of, 202
  Columns, 195, 202-4
  Decoration, 203
  Development of, 202
  Domes, 167, 204-7
  Domestic Architecture, 210-11
  Floors, 203
  Greece, in, 210
  Hagia Sophia, 207-9
  Influence on Mediæval architecture, 197, 200
    Romanesque, 212, 245, 248-9
  Mosaics, 203
  Russia, in, 210
  Venice, in, 252-3
    S. Mark’s, 209-10

Byzantium: site of, selected by Constantine as capital, 157, 190
  Link between Eastern and Western civilisation, 191


C

Cairn (Gloss ), 13

Calderon, Spanish dramatist, 330

Calvin, 332

Cambridge, 299
  Caius College, 412
  Emmanuel College, 412
  Gate of Honour, 412
  King’s College, 290
  King’s College Chapel, 295

Campaniles (Gloss.), Italian Gothic, 312
  Romanesque, 244, 247, 251

Canopies (Gloss.), Gothic, 247, 275, 276, 283, 307, 309
  Renaissance, 380
  Stained Glass, in, 309

Capilla Mayor (Gloss.), _see_ Sanctuary

Capitals (Gloss.), treatment of, 134
  Byzantine, 204
  Corinthian, 131, 132, 171
  Doric, 118, 123-4
  Egyptian, 51-2, 131, 164
  Etruscan, 155, 163
  Gothic, 275, 276, 279
  Gothic, asymmetries in, 279
  Gothic, English, 291
  Gothic, Italian, 314, 316
  Hellenic, 118
  Ionic, 129
  Muhammedan, 221, 224, 226
  Name of Crœsus inscribed on, 128
  Norman, 255
  Persian, 83, 86, 87
  Renaissance, French, 385
  Renaissance, Italian, 345, 367
  Renaissance, Netherlands, 406
  Roccoco, 366
  Roman, 164
  Romanesque, 245, 249

Capitoline Hill, 158, 159, 350, 363-364

Cardinal Mendoza, 399

Cardinal Wolsey, 411

Cardinal Ximenes, 400

Carillons, (Gloss.), 408, 409

Cartouche, 36

Caryatides (Gloss.), Erechtheion, in, 141, 436
  Louvre, in, 385

Castles:
  Albrechtsberg, 305
  Bolsover, 412
  Feudal type, 377
  Fifteenth Century, 299
  German, 305
  Gothic, 286
  Heidelburg, 394
  Heilsberg, 305
  Howard, 425
  Longford, 412, 414
  Marienburg, 305

Cathedrals, Place of, in Mediæval life, 236
  Aix-la-Chapelle, 192, 207, 258
  Amiens, 280, 281-4, 302, 308, 314
  Angoulême, 252-3
  Auxerre, 284
  Barcelona, 308
  Beauvais, 284
  Birmingham, 289
  Borah, 200
  Bourges, 281, 285, 309
  Bristol, 257, 288
  Bruges, 307, 308
  Burgos, 308, 401
  Canterbury, 257, 275, 288
  Carlisle, 288
  Chartres, 275, 284
  Chester, 288
  Chichester, 288
  Cologne, 302-4
  Del Pilar, 401
  Dordrecht, 308
  Durham, 256, 288, 297
  Ely, 257, 288, 295, 420
  Exeter, 288
  Ghent, 308
  Gloucester, 288, 294
  Gothic, described, 277-8
  Granada, 401
  Haarlem, 308
  Hereford, 288
  Jaen, 401
  Laon, 284
  La Seo, 401
  Leon, 308
  Lichfield, 288, 298
  Liverpool, 289
  Llandaff, 288
  Malaga, 401
  Malines, 408
  Manchester, 289
  Mayence, 259
  Milan, 302, 313, 371
  Monreale, 249
  Montefiascone, 355
  Newcastle, 289
  Norwich, 256, 288
  Nôtre Dame, Paris, 281-4, 308
  Orvieto, 311
  Oxford, 257, 288, 295
  Peterborough, 256, 288, 294
  Piacenza, 251
  Pisa, 247
  Pistoia, 249
  Ratisbon, 302
  Rheims, 279, 283, 286
  Rochester, 288
  Rouen, 280, 284, 286
  S. Albans, 289
  S. Asaph, 288
  S. David, 288
  S. Gudule, Brussels, 307
  S. Mark, Venice, 209-10, 248, 315
  S. Patrick, New York, 453
  S. Paul, London, 288, 371, 388, 420-2
  S. Peter, Rome, 346-7, 349, 350, 370-4, 404, 421
  Salamanca, 260, 401
  Salisbury, 288, 294, 296, 298
  Santiago de Compostello, 259
  Seville, 302, 309, 371
  Siena, 311
  Southwark, 289
  Southwell, 257, 289
  Spires, 259
  Strasburg, 302
  Syracuse, Sicily, 193
  Toledo, 308-9
  Tournai, 306-7
  Tours, 286
  Trêves, 259
  Truro, 289, 452
  Utrecht, 308
  Valladolid, 401
  Wakefield, 289
  Wells, 288, 294, 296, 298
  Westminster Abbey, 294, 296, 309
  Winchester, 257, 288, 295
  Worcester, 257, 288
  Worms, 258
  York, 288, 291, 296, 298
  Ypres, 308
  Zamora, 260

Cavea, 174

Cavetto (Gloss.), 47, 134

Carnac, Menhirs in, 17

Ceiling:
 Coffered, 178, 181, 196, 422
  Gothic, English, 293, 256
  Gothic, Italian, 348, 367
  Muhammedan, 225
  Musée Plantin-Moretus, 408
  Odeion of Herodes Atticus, 145
  Painted, in Escoriál, 404
  Renaissance, English, 417
  Renaissance, Netherlands, 408
  Sheldonian Theatre, 419-20

Cella (Gloss.), 53
  Hellenic Temples, in, 117, 118, 120-22
  Persian Tombs, 81
  Roman Temples, 169

Cellars, 426

Celtic, churches, 255
  Monuments, 16, 17
  Ornament, 18

Cervantes, 329

Chaldean, civilisation, 56 _et seq._ _See_ Assyrian

Chamfer (Gloss.), 126

Chancel (Gloss.), Anglo-Saxon, 255
  Early Christian, 195
  Mediæval, 257
  Renaissance, 355-6
  Romanesque, 341

Chapel, Ante, 253
  Arena, Padua, 311
  Capilla Mayor, Escoriál, 404
  English Cathedrals, 289
  Galilee, Durham, 256
  Henry VII, Westminster, 295, 450
  Hôtel des Invalides, 388
  King’s College, Cambridge, 290, 295
  Marienburg, 305
  Marquand, Princeton, 462
  New College, Oxford, 293
  New Kings, of the, 400
  Norman Cathedrals, in, 255
  Palace Charles V, 403
  Romanesque, 253
  Sainte Chapelle, 253, 296
  S. Croce, Florence, 311, 343
  S. George, Windsor, 299
  S. Isadore, 210
  S. John, Tower of London, 255
  S. Maria Maggiore, 197
  S. Paul’s, 420
  Sistine, 374

Chapter-Houses (Gloss.):
  English Gothic, 295
  Marienburg, 305
  Old Foundation Cathedrals, 288
  Worcester, 257

Charlemagne, 207, 238, 239, 258, 263, 266, 323

Châteaux, 377
  Amboise, 382
  Azay-le-Rideau, 382
  Blois, de, 379, 380, 383
  Bury, 382
  Chambord, de, 380-1
  Chenonceaux, 382
  Gaillon, 379
  Maisons, de, 387

Chevêt (Gloss.), 241-2, 253
  Amiens, 281
  Cologne, 303
  Le Mans, 285
  Norwich, 257
  Tournai, 307

Chimneys:
  Château de Chambord, 381
  Gothic, 299, 307
  Renaissance, 378, 415

Chimney pieces:
  Colonial, 432
  Gothic, 299
  Musée Plantin-Moretus, 408

Chivalry, age of, 238-9

Choir (Gloss.):
  Amiens, 281
  Asymmetries, in, 281
  Canterbury, 257
  Early Christian, 195, 196
  Escoriál, 404
  Gothic, 289, 295, 303, 309
  Renaissance, 346
  Romanesque, 244, 246, 249, 256
  S. Paul’s, 420-1

Choir Screens, _see_ Screens

Choir stalls, 299

Chryselephantine (Gloss.), 140

Church: form derived from basilica, 177
  Age of Church building, 193
  Authority questioned, 328
  Influence of, 263, 320
  Spanish loyalty to, 329

Churches:
  Abbey Church, Laach, 259
  Abbey of Fontevrault, 253
  Aix-la-Chapelle, 207, 258
  All Saints, London, 452
  Apostles, Cologne, 259
  Babbacombe, Devonshire, 452
  Benedictine Abbey, Cluny, 253
  Christ Church, Philadelphia, 430
  Collegiate Church, S. Quentin, 285
  Collegiate Church, Toro, 260
  Escoriál, 403-5
  Grace Church, New York, 453
  “Hall” Church, 304
  Holy Apostles, Constantinople, 209
  Hôtel des Invalides, 388
  Iffley Church, Oxfordshire, 257
  Il Gesu, Rome, 349, 368
  Il Redentore, Venice, 352
  Kalb Lauzeh, Syria, 200
  La Trinité, Paris, 452
  Nôtre Dame, Avignon, 252
  Old South Church, Boston, 430
  Sacré-Cœur, Paris, 452
  S. Ambrogio, Milan, 249, 251
  S. Andrea, Mantua, 345, 367
  S. Apollinare in Classe, 201
  S. Apollinare Nuovo, 201
  S. Certosa, Pavia, 313
  S. Clemente, Rome, 195, 196, 197
  S. Clotilde, Paris, 452
  S. Constanza, Rome, 198
  S. Cristo de la Luz, Toledo, 225
  S. Croce, Florence, 311
  S. Cunibert, Cologne, 259
  S. Domingo, Salamanca, 401
  S. Elizabeth, Marburg, 304
  S. Engracia, Saragossa, 401
  S. Francis, Assisi, 311
  S. Francisco, Rimini, 345
  S. Front, Perigeux, 252
  S. Genéviève, (Panthéon), 388, 442
  S. George, Esrah, 200
  S. Giorgio del Greci, Venice, 354
  S. Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, 352, 355, 368
  S. Jacque, Dieppe, 286
  S. John Lateran, Rome, 194, 198
  S. Lambert, Hildesheim, 304
  S. Lorenzo in Miranda, Rome, 347
  S. Maclou, Rouen, 286
  S. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice, 353
  S. Maria della Grazia, Milan, 346
  S. Maria della Salute, Venice, 356
  S. Maria di Loreto, Rome, 348
  S. Maria in Capitol, Rome, 259
  S. Maria la Bianca, Toledo, 225
  S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, 196-7
  S. Martin, Cologne, 259
  S. Martino, Lucca, 249
  S. Mary-le-bow, London, 423
  S. Michele, Lucca, 249
  S. Michele, Pavia, 251
  S. Millan, Sagovia, 260
  S. Miniato, Florence, 246
  S. Ouen, Rouen, 279, 286, 314
  S. Quentin, Mainz, 304
  S. Sergius and S. Bacchus, Constantinople, 206
  S. Sergius, Constantinople, 200, 207-9
  S. Sernin, Toulouse, 259
  S. Simon Stylites, Kalat Seman, 200
  S. Sophia, Constantinople, 207, 228
  S. Spirito, Florence, 343, 367
  S. Stefano Rotondo, Rome, 198
  S. Stephen, Vienna, 304
  S. Stephen, Walbrook, 422
  S. Sulpice, Paris, 389
  S. Urban, Troyes, 285
  S. Vitale, Ravenna, 200, 202, 207-8
  S. Wulfrand, Abbeville, 286
  S. Zaccaria, Venice, 353
  Tewkesbury Abbey, 295
  Trinity Church, Boston, 462
  Trinity Church, New York, 452
  Turmanin, Syria, 200
  Val-de-Grâce, Paris, 387
  Vézélay, 253

Chaldæa, civilisation, 56 _et seq._
  Architecture, _see_ Assyrian

China, 13, 427

Churrigueresque, style, 405

Cinquecento (Gloss.), 338

Cinquefoil (Gloss.), 291

Circular plan Buildings, 197-8
  Campanile, 247
  Chapter Houses, 257, 295

Circus Maxentius, 173
  Maximus, 173
  Nero, 194

City Planning, in America, 445
  London, Christopher Wren, 419
  Paris, by Baron Haussmann, 444
  Washington, Major Pierre Charles L’Enfant, 445

Civic Architecture:
  Casa Lonja, 401
  City Halls, Antwerp, 406
    Bremen, 395
    Cologne, 395
    Haarlem, 409
    Hague, The, 409
    Leyden, 409
    New York, 448
  County Buildings, Pittsburg, 462
  Doge’s Palace, 315
    Palais de Justice, Bruges, 406
    Palais de Justice, Liège, 406
    Palais de Justice, Rouen, 286
    Palais de Justice, Paris, 444
    Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, 315, 358-9
  Town Halls, Breslau, 305
    Brunswick, 305
    Brussels, 307
    Halberstadt, 305
    Hildesheim, 305
    Louvain, 307
    Lübeck, 305
    Manchester, 452
    Mechlin, 307
    Munster, 305
    Ratisbon, 305

Classic Architecture, 8
  Compared to Gothic, 276-7
  Hellenic, 116,
    _see_ Roman, 163
    Classic and classical, 113
  Influence on Byzantine, 203
    on Gothic, 310
    on Renaissance, 319, 320, 328, 338, 340, 342

Classic Literature, 325, 335, 341, 344
  France, 383

Classical Revival, 390, 401-5, 435, 439
  Books of Design of, 413
  Free-Classic, 460
  French Imperial, 443
  Neo-Greek, 444

Cleopatra’s Needles, 43

Clerestory, the (Gloss.):
  Asymmetries in, 279
  Egypt, use in, 49, 86, 122
  Gothic, use in, 272, 299, 304, 314, 367
  Norman use of, 256
  Romanesque, 242, 246, 250, 253
  S. Paul’s Cathedral, 420-1

Cloisonné (Gloss.), 291

Cloisters (Gloss.), 288
  Old Foundation Cathedrals, in, 288
  San Marco, Fiesole, 344
  Spanish arcades turned into, 343
  Spanish Gothic, 308
  Spanish Romanesque, 260

Close (Gloss.), The, 297

Cnossus, Architectural remains in, 89, 93
  Palace, 96 _et seq._

Coffers (Gloss.), 168, 196, 368

Colleges:
  Caius, Cambridge, 412
  Clare, Cambridge, 412
  Divinity College, Princeton, 462
  Divinity Schools, Oxford, 295, 299
  Emmanuel, Cambridge, 412
  Escoriál, of the, 404
  Girard, Philadelphia, 448
  Gresham, 419
  Jesus, Oxford, 412
  Keble, Oxford, 452
  King’s, Cambridge, 290, 295
  Merton, Oxford, 412
  Nevill Court, Cambridge, 412
  Pembroke, Oxford, 412
  S. Cruz, Valladolid, 399
  S. John, Cambridge, 412
  Scroll and Keys Hall, Yale, 462
  Sidney Sussex, 412
  Trinity, Cambridge, 412
  Wadham, Oxford, 412

Cologne, 259, 302-4, 395

Colonnades (Gloss.):
  Colonial, 432
  Early Christian Churches, 194
  Egyptian, 50
  English Classical, 438
  French Châteaux, 377, 380, 386
  Hellenic, 116, 120, 122, 141
  Minoan, 100, 101
  Muhammedan, 221
  Persian, 81
  Roman, 170, 180, 181
  S. George’s Hall, Liverpool, in, 438
  S. Peter’s, Rome, in, 371
  Spanish, 400, 403
  Treasury Building, Washington, 446
  Zeus, Temple of, 111

Colosseum, the, 159, 174-5, 342, 362

Colour as a motive:
  Byzantine, in, 203
  Egyptian, 33
  Muhammedan, 227

Column, a basis of sky-scraper design, 474

Columns (Gloss.):
  Anglo-Palladian, 424
  Anglo-Saxon, 254
  Assyrian, 70
  Baluster columns, 406
  Basilicas, in, 352
  Bracket columns, 400
  Byzantine, 202, 204, 208
  Colonial, 430, 431, 432
  Colosseum, in the, 174, 342
  Colour in, 136
  Doric, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 163
  Early Christian Churches, in, 195-6, 197, 198, 199, 200
  Egyptian, 42, 43, 44, 51, 52, 53
  Erechtheion, in, 141, 165, 436
  Gothic, 275-6, 295, 299, 314, 316, 343
  Hellenic, 116, 117, 118, 119, 124, 125, 126, 137, 140, 141, 144
  Ionic, 128
  Median, 80
  Minoan, 99, 101
  Monumental, 158, 179, 348
  Muhammedan, 221, 224, 226, 231
  Norman, 255, 272
  Pantheon, in, 442-3
  Persian, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87
  Renaissance, English, 365, 367, 368, 369
    French, 380, 386, 388
    Italian, 354, 365, 367, 368, 369
    Spanish, 400
  Rococo, 366
  Roman, 135, 158, 169, 170, 179, 180
  Romanesque, 241, 245, 249
  Rudimentary, 15
  S. Peter’s, Rome, in, 373

Composite Orders (Gloss.), 165

Concrete, use of:
  Byzantine, 202
  Reinforced, 473
  Romans, by, 153, 154, 166, 172, 173, 175, 183

Constantine, 188, 189, 193, 209

Constantinople, 190
  Ahmed, Mosque of, 228
  Fountains, 228
  Hagia-Sophia, 207-8
  Holy Apostles, Church of, 209
  Latin Kingdom, of, 264
  Mediæval centre of learning, 266-7
  Minarets in, 222
  Muhammedan occupation, 215, 220
  Suleiman, Mosque of, 228
  S. Sergius’ Church, 200
  SS. Sergius and Bacchus, 206
  S. Sophia, 209
  Turkish occupation, 325

Consoles (Gloss.), 345, 360, 423

Copernicus, 322

Corbels (Gloss.), 174, 205
  Minarets, of, 222
  Muhammedan domes, of, 222
  Renaissance, in, 359, 378, 388, 392, 395, 396
  Romanesque, 250, 258

Corinthian Order (Gloss.), 131
  Byzantine use of, 204
  Gothic use, 275-6, 310
  Maison Carrée, 169, 175
  Roman use of, 132, 158, 164-5
  Romanesque use, 245

Cornices (Gloss.), 42
  Asymmetries in, 68
  Assyrian use, 68
  Byzantine use, 202
  Cavetto cornice, 47, 49
  Colonial use, 430-1-2
  Corinthian, 165
  Doric, 126-7
  Gothic use, 312
  Minoan use, 99
  Persian use, 84
  Queen Anne, style, 424
  Renaissance, 361, 363, 364, 370, 395
  Roman use, 164
  Romanesque use, 250, 257

Coro, 405

Corona, 127, 130

Corridors (Gloss.), 414, 416, 425, 426

Cortiles, _see_ Court (Gloss.)

Costa Rica, ruins in, 20

Courts:
  Alhambra, of, 226-7
  Amru, Mosque of, 223
  Casa Lonja, 401
  Chambord, Château de, 381
  Cnossus, 96
  Egyptian, 51, 55
  Escoriál, Patio of, 404
  Fountain Court, Hampton Court, 423
  Ispahan, Great Mosque of, 229
  Italian and French compared, 376
  Louvre, of the, 383, 385
  Miranda, Patio in House of, 400
  Mosques, of, 217
  Muhammedan Houses, of, 218
  Palace of Caprarola, 348
    Charles V, 402-3
    Farnese, 363
    Infantado, 400
    Luxembourg, 386
    Palazzo Vecchio, 358-60
    Riccardi, 358-60
    Whitehall, 418
  Place du Carrousel, 383
  Palais de Justice, Liège, 406
  Roman Thermai, 176
  S. John’s College, 412
  S. Simon Stylites, 200
  Sidney Sussex College, 412
  Spanish Renaissance, 399
  Suleiman, Mosque of, 228
  Tiryns, at, 101-2
  Zaporta, 400

Coves, 417

Craftwork, 7, 89, 91
  Arts and Crafts Movement, 450, 458-9
  Corinthian, 110
  Etruscan, 155
  Gilds of, 233, 235, 338
  Muhammedan excellence in, 216, 217, 219
  Renaissance, 357, 411

Cram, Ralph Adams, 453

Cresting, 414

Cromlechs (Gloss.), 13, 16

Cross and Ball on domes, 404, 422

Crusades, 264-6

Crypt (Gloss.), 246
  Escoriál, in, 404
  S. Miniato, Florence, 246
  Worcester Cathedral, 257

Cuneiform, writing, 57, 61

Cupolas (Gloss.), of Château de Chambord, 381
  Hôtel des Invalides, 388
  S. Paul’s, 421
  S. Peter’s, 349, 421

Curb, _see_ Hip.

Curvilinear Gothic, _see_ Decorated

Cusps (Gloss.), 290

Custodia, _see_ Tabernacles

Cuzco, Inca ruins in, 19

Cyma Recta-Reversa (Gloss.), 133

Cymatium (Gloss.), 127, 130

Cyprus, ruins in, 89.
  Kingdom of, 264


D

Dado (Gloss.), 72

Damascus, 219

Dante, 324

Decastyle (Gloss.), 121

Decorated Style, 271, 275, 287, 290

Decorative Motives (Gloss.):
  Acanthus, 132, 164-5, 275, 310
  Anthemion, 132, 165, 203
  Arabesques, 216, 227, 363, 380, 399
  Armorial Bearings, as, 401
  Ball Flower, 291
  Bands and straps, 393, 413, 415
  Bead and Spool, 130, 132
  Caulicolæ, 165
  Celtic, 18
  Chevrons, 99, 124-125
  Diaper, 291
  Dog Tooth, 290
  Egg and Dart, 132
  Fleur de Lys, 291
  Four Leaf Flower, 211
  Grotesques, 165, 251, 406
  Guilloche, 69, 129
  Heart Leaf, 133
  Lotus, 84, 87, 131
  Mexican grotesque, 21
  Monograms, as, 380
  Portcullis, 291
  Rosettes, 72, 102, 131, 155, 363
  Scroll work, 415
  Spirals, 165, 179
  Stiff leaf-foliage, 291
  Tudor Rose, 291
  Volutes, 87, 129, 130, 131, 164

Delos, Arch at, 15

Dentils (Gloss.), 42, 130, 164

Department of Fine Arts, 442, 465

De Re Ædificatoria, 345

Dining rooms, 416, 426

Dionysos, 142-3;
  Festival of, 107

Dionysos Theatre of, 143

Dipteral (Gloss.), 120

Dolmen (Gloss.), 13, 14, 17

Domes (Gloss.), 15
  Alhambra, 227
  Anglo-Classical, 425-7
  Angoulême, Cathedral, 253
  Assyrian, 70
  Byzantine, 202
  Capitol, Washington, 446-7
  Escoriál, 404
  Granada, Cathedral, 401
  Hôtel des Invalides, 388, 420, 422
  Indian, 220, 231
  Madeleine, The, 443
  Muhammedan, 217, 221
  Palace of Charles V, 403
  Panthéon, Paris, 388, 422, 442
  Pantheon, Rome, 167, 171, 172, 207, 371, 372
  Pazzi Chapel, S. Croce, 343
  Pendentive, 204-6
  Persian, 229
  Pineapple, 222
  Pisa, at, 247
  Ravenna, at, 201
  Renaissance, 197
  Roman, 201
  Romanesque, 244
  Rudimentary, 15, 89
  S. Andrea, Mantua, 367
  S. Constanza, 198
  S. George, Esrah, 200
  S. Maria dei Miracoli, 353
  S. Maria della Salute, 346
  S. Mark’s, 209
  S. Paul’s, 420-2
  S. Peter’s, 343, 371-3, 421
  S. Pietro in Montano, 346
  S. Sophia, 207
  S. Spirito, Florence, 343, 367
  S. Stephen, Walbrook, 422
  S. Vitale, 207
  S. S. Sergius and Bacchus, 207
  Salamanca Cathedral, 260
  Semi-circular, 208
  Toro Collegiate Church, 260
  Turkish Mosques, 228
  Villa Rotonda, 352

Domestic Architecture:
  Apartment Houses, 471
  Aston Hall, 412
  Beehive Huts, 15, 46
  Bickling Hall, 412
  Biltmore, 462
  Bramshill, 412
  Breakers, The, 462
  Burghley House, 412
  Ca D’Oro, 315
  Chevening House, 416-7, 419
  Coleshill, 419
  Craigie House, Cambridge, 431
  Devonshire House, 426
  Doge’s Palace, 315-6
  Duke of Leinster’s House, 446
  English Renaissance, 411-15
  Haddon Hall, 412
  Ham House, 412
  Holkam Hall, 426
  Holland House, 412, 414
  Gothic, French, 286
    German, 305-6
    Italian, 315
  Jacques Cœur, House of, 286
  Keddleston Hall, 428
  Kirby Hall, 412, 414, 415
  Knoll House, 412
  Layer Marney, Essex, 411
  Longford, 412, 414
  Longleat House, 411
  Marble House, 462
  Marlborough House, 423
  Minoan Houses, 93
  Mount Vernon, 432
  Muhammedan Houses, 217
  Musée Plantin-Moretus, 408
  Old Charlecote House, 412
  Pellershaus, 395-6
  Penshurst, 412
  Primitive Houses, 15
  Raynham Hall, 419
  Renaissance, 392
  Roman, 180, 182, 472
  Sherburn House, 431
  Stoke Park, 419
  Vanderbilt House, 462
  Villa Madama, 347
  White House, 446
  Wilton House, 419
  Wollaton House, 412
  York House, 419

Doorways:
  Anglo-Saxon, 254-5
  Baptistry, Florence, 319
  Ca d’Oro, 360
  Colonial, 432
  Doge’s Palace, 353
  Gothic, 269, 275, 276
    English, 290
    French, 298
    Italian, 311
  Janus, 159
  Muhammedan, 229
  Norman, 255, 257
  Palazzo Riccardi, 359
    Vecchio, 359
    Vendramini, 360
  Palladian designs for, 370
  Queen Anne, 424
  Roman, 167
  Romanesque, 245
  Puerta de la Coroneria, 401
  Renaissance, German, 393, 395
    Spanish, 399, 400, 401
  Taj Mahal, 231
  Tiryns, at, 102
  S. Andrea, Mantua, 368
  S. Sophia, 210
  S. Peter’s, 372

Dorians, The, 91, 105, 118

Doric Order (Gloss.), 87, 99, 118, 123-124
  Corinth, temples at, 118
  Etruscan use of, 155
  Parthenon, in, 119
  Phœbus Apollo, Temple of, 118
  Propylæa, in, 141
  Renaissance use of, 346, 349, 352, 389, 403-4
  Roman use of, 164
  Syracuse, Cathedral of, 193
  Trajan’s Column, 179

Dormers (Gloss.) :
  Antwerp, City hall, 406
  Gothic, German, 306
    Netherlandish, 307
  Renaissance, French, 378, 381, 384
    German, 392, 394, 396
  Worms, Cathedral at, 258-9

Dörpfeld, discoveries by, 89, 100

Drama, Greek, 142-5, 175

Mediæval, 237-8

Renaissance, 330

Roman, 175

Drawbridge, 379

Drum of Dome (Gloss.), 206
  Angoulême, at, 252
  Florence, at, 342
  Hôtel des Invalides, 388
  Panthéon, Paris, 442
  S. Andrea, 368
  S. Maria della Salute, 356
  S. Paul’s, 422
  S. Peter’s, 371, 373

Dryden, 435


E

Early Christian Architecture, 193
  Basilicas, 193-4, 197
  Circular Plans, 197
  Columns, 195
  Influence in Arabia, 214
    on Byzantine Architecture, 202
    on Gothic, 276
  S. Peter’s, 194
  Syrian examples, 199, 200

Early Christian Civilisation, 187
  Byzantium becomes capital, 157, 190
  Carolingian Kings, 192
  Constantine accepts Faith, 189
  Council of Milan, 188
  Power of the Patriarchs, 157, 188
  Ravenna, 201
  Rise of the Frankish tribes, 191

Early English (Gloss.), 257, 271, 290

Eaves (Gloss.), 424

Eclecticism (Gloss.), 466

École des Beaux Arts, _see_ Beaux Arts

Echinus (Gloss.), 125, 129, 164

Egyptian civilisation, 25 _et seq._
  Agriculture, 31
  Clothing, 32
  Conquest by Assyria, 60
  Construction of the Pyramids, 35
  Decline, 37
  Dynasties, 26
  Geography, of, 28
  Hebrew Exodus, 36
  Hyksos Invasion, 35, 91
  Recreations, 31
  Religion, 32, 33
  Schools, 32
  Skill in engineering, 30
  Theban Monarchy, 35, 91

Egyptian Architecture:
  Abydos, Tomb at, 42, 53
  Columns, Treatment of, 52-3
  Deir-el-Bahri Temple-tomb, 44
  Domestic architecture, 54-5
  Elephantine, Temple at, 53
  Isis, Temples of, 54
  Karnak, Temple at, 44, 50
  Luxor, 51, 53
  Mastabas, 40-1, 42
  Middle Empire, architecture, 42-3
  Mycenæan remains in, 39
  New Empire, 44
  Obelisks, 43-4
  Palaces, 54
  Ptolemaic remains, 53
  Pyramids, 34, 39, 40
  Rosetta Stone, 27
  Sphinx, the Great, 38-9
    Avenues of, 48
    Temples, 41
  Temples, 8, 33-45, 46-54
  Tombs, 33, 34, 41, 42, 45, 83
  Towns, 54

Elevation, plans, 11, 255

Elgin, Lord, 436

Embankment, Thames, 418

Enamels (gloss.), 86, 218, 222

Encaustic (gloss.), 136

Engineering problems, 477

England, Architecture in:
  Anglo-Classical, 410, 424-5
  Anglo-Italian, 417
  Anglo-Saxon, 254-5
  Asymmetries, 279
  Cathedrals, 288
  Celtic Churches, 255
  Classical revival, 435-9
  Elizabethan architecture, 412
  Exteriors, Gothic, 297-8
  Free-classical movement, 460
  Gothic, 271-287
  Gothic Revival, 448
  Inigo Jones, 418
  Interiors, 415
  Jacobean architecture, 413
  Mansions, 412
  Morris, William, influence of, 458
  Orders, use of, 415
  Ornament, 290
  Queen Anne Style, 424
  Roofs, 296, 414
  S. Paul’s, 420-3
  Stained Glass, 291-3
  Stonehenge, 16
  Vaulting, 293
  Vistas, in Gothic, 273-4
  Whitehall, 418
  Wren, Christopher, 419

Entablature (Gloss.), 8
  Basilicas, in, 178
  Broken, 179, 180
  Corinthian, 131
  Doric, 126
  Early Christian, 195-7
  Gothic, contrasted, with, 277
  Hellenic, 116
  Ionic, 130
  Michelangelo, use by, 364
  Renaissance, 367, 370
  Renaissance, French, 381
    German, 394-6
    Netherlands, 407
    Spain, 402
  Roman, 164, 170, 198
  Rudimentary, 15
  S. Paul’s, in, 420
  Whitehall, in, 418

Entasis, (Gloss.), 43
  Caryatid in Erechtheion, 141
  Hellenic columns, in, 124-5
  Ionic use, 129
  Overlooked, 138

Epinaos, _see_ vestibule (Gloss.)

Erechtheion the, 121, 129, 141, 165

Escoriál, the 82, 180, 403-5

Etruscans, 154
  Arch, use of, 156
  Arts and civilisation, 155
  Burial urns, 155
  Dwellings, 155
  Temples, 156

Evans, Dr. A. J., discoveries by, 89, 90

Exhedras (Gloss.), 176


F

Façades (Gloss.), 11
  Bank of England, 438
  Caprarola Palace, 348
  Certosa, 313
  City Hall, Antwerp, 407
    Bremen, 395
    Haarlem, 409
  Darius Tomb, 83
  Doge’s Palace, 315
  Escoriál, the, 403
  French Châteaux, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 383-4
  Garden Façade, Hampton Court, 423
  Gothic Cathedrals, 277, 282, 286, 297, 298, 307-8
  Gothic, Italian, 311
  Greek, on modern buildings, 436
  Greenwich Hospital, 419
  Lombard, 258
  Louvre, of the, 383-6
  Museum, British, 438
  Palace of Charles V, 402
  Panthéon, Paris, 442
  Pesaro Palace, 366
  Pisa, Cathedral, 247
  Renaissance, English, 414, 415
    German, 392-4
    Netherlands, 406-9
    Spanish, 399, 400, 402
  S. Andrea, Mantua, 368
  S. Jacopo Sansovino, 354-5, 365
  S. Lorenzo, in Miranda, 347
  S. Maria Novella, 345
  S. Paul’s, 421
  S. Peter’s, 371-2
  Sky-scrapers, 474-5
  Steel construction, in, 472
  Taj Mahal, 231
  Versailles, 387
  Washington, Capitol at, 446
  Wren’s Churches, 423

Faience, 96

Fascia (Gloss.), 130

Ferrero, Dr., quoted, 152

Fetiches, 13, 92, 96, 98, 214

Feudal System, 233-4
  England, in, 410
  France, in, 331
  Germany, in, 302
  Overthrown, 322

Fillet (Gloss.):
  Doric entablature, in, 126
  Ionic entablature, in, 129, 130
  Roman use, 164

Fine Arts, The, 3, 337, 346

Finials, _see_ pinnacles (Gloss.)

Fireplaces, English Renaissance, 416
  French Châteaux, 382
  Mediæval Castles, 299, 416

First Pointed, _see_ Early English

Fitness, considerations of (Gloss.), 12, 87, 128

Flagstaffs, 176

Flamboyant (Gloss.), 271, 275, 282, 285, 287, 290

Fletcher, Professor Banister, 170, 367

Floors, Byzantine, 203
  Chaldæan, 72
  Early Mediæval, 196
  Roman, 181, 182

Florence, Architecture of the Renaissance, 342-345
  Baptistry, 197, 319
  Campanile, 312
  Cathedral, 311, 342-3
  Laurentian Library, 349
  Library of S. Giorgio, 344
  Loggia dei Lanzi, 315
    S. Paolo, 344
  New Sacristry, 346
  Ospedale degli Innocente, 344
  Palazzo Guardagni, 345
    Riccardi, 344, 358-61
    Strozzi, 345
    Vecchio, 315, 342, 358-60
  Pazzi Chapel, 343
  S. Croce, Church of, 311
  S. Lorenzo, Church of, 343
  S. Miniato, Church of, 246
  S. Spirito, Church of, 343, 367-8
  University, 325

Fluting (Gloss.), on Hellenic columns, 135
  Norman, 256
  Roman, 164

Fontainebleau, 332

Fortifications, 348, 355, 359, 379

Forum (pl. Fora), 157, 170

Fountains:
  Hildesheim, 397
  Mainz, 397
  Mosques, in, 217
  Nuremburg, 397
  Persian, 86
  Renaissance, 327
    German, 396
  Rothenburg, 397
  Taj Mahal, 231
  Temple of Diana, Nîmes, 170
  Tubingen, 396
  Ulm, 397
  Versailles, 387

Free Masonry, 235

French Civilisation after Charlemagne, 232
  Francis I, 375
  Louis XIV, 389
  Napoleon, 442
  Renaissance, 327
  Revolution, 441
  Second Empire, 444

French Architecture:
  Châteaux, 377-382
  Classic Period, 440-4
  Gallic Spirit, 332-3
  Gothic, 273, 281-9
    Asymmetries in, 278
    Influence on other countries, 306, 308, 310, 313
    Sculpture, 276
  Gothic Revival, 451
  Influence on modern architecture, 461-5
  Louvre, The, 382-6
  Renaissance, 331, 349, 375, _et seq._
  Renaissance influence on other countries, 413, 445
  Rib Vaulting, 243
  Rococo, 338, 375
  Romanesque, 170, 232, 240, 252-4
  Roman remains, in, 132, 169, 241
  School of Tours, 376-7
  Theatre of Orange, 176
  Versailles, 387

Frescoes (_see_ Gloss.)
  Cnossus, at, 123
  Cretan Palace, in, 96
  Gothic, German, 306
  Gothic, Italian, 311
  Sistine Chapel, 374
  Villa Farnesina, 347, 374

Frieze (Gloss.), Asymmetries in, 137
  Corinthian, 165
  Doric entablature, of, 126
  Ionic entablature, of, 130
  Library of S. Mark’s, 365
  Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 170
  Parthenon, of the, 137
  Roman use of, 164
  Tiryns, at, 102
  Xerxes Palace, of, 86

Furniture, Adam, 429, 432
  Chippendale, 428
  Empire, 442
  English Renaissance, in, 413, 415, 417
  Imitative influence in, 467-8
  Sheraton, 432


G

Gables (Gloss.)
  Colonial, 431
  Doric Temples, 121, 127, _see_ Pediments
  Early Christian architecture, 196
  Egypt, in, 40
  Gothic, 275
    German, 306
    Italian, 307, 312
  Minoan, 99, 130
  Persian, 81
  Primitive, 20
  Queen Anne, 424
  Renaissance, English, 415
    German, 392, 394, 395, 396
    Netherlands, 407, 408, 409
  Romanesque, 251, 257, 258
  Stepped Gables, 306

Gaines (Gloss.), 392, 394, 396

Galgal (Gloss.), 13, 14

Galilee (Gloss.), 256

Galleries:
  Byzantine, 208
  Fontainebleau, 382
  Glyptothek, 440
  Louvre, 383
  Mediæval, 237
  National, The, 438
  Palazzo Vecchio, 259
  Pinacothek, 440
  Renaissance, English, 416-7
  Romanesque, 244
  Whispering, 420

Gallic spirit, 332, 379, 384-5, 389

Gambrel (Gloss.), 431

Gardens, with architecture:
  Blenheim Palace, 424
  Castle Howard, 425
  Hanging, 20, 62
  Kew, 428
  Luxembourg, 386-7
  Renaissance, English, 412, 415
    French, 378
    Italian, 374
  Taj Mahal, 231
  Tampu Tocco, 19
  Thames Embankment, 418-9
  Versailles, 387
  Villa of Hadrian, 180
  Washington, 445-6

Gateways:
  Ahmedabad, 229
  Akbar, 230
  Blenheim, 426
  Brandenburg Gate, Berlin, 440
  Caius College, Gate of Honour, 412
  Châteaux, 377-8
  Darius’s Palace, 85
  Diocletian’s Palace, 180
  Etruscan, at Volterra, 156
  Janus, of, 159
  Lion Gateway, Mycenæ, 88, 98
  Mecca, Mosque, of, 220
  Propylæa, 121, 131, 141
  Propylæa, Munich, 440
  Renaissance, English, 414
  Sargon’s Castle, 68
  Schools, Oxford, gateway of, 412
  Tiryns, at, 101
  Water Gate, 418

Genoa, palaces:
  Balbi, 356
  Brignole, 356
  Doria-Tursi, 356
  Durazzo, 356
  Pallavacini, 356

German Architecture:
  Brick, use of, 305
  Classical Revival, 439
  Gables, 306
  Gothic, 301-306
    Cathedrals, 302-305
    Secular Buildings, 305-6
  Handicrafts, skill in, 304
  Influence on Belgium Gothic, 306
    Italian Gothic, 310, 313
    Spanish, 308
  Ornament, 251
  Renaissance, 391-7
    City Halls, 395
    Domestic, 395
  Romanesque, 232, 245, 301
  Roofs, 305-6
  Universities, 328
  Winckelmann’s influence, 436, 439

German Civilisation, 188, 232, 239
  After Charlemagne, 239
  Renaissance, 327
  Rise of the cities, 235, 301
  Struggle of Protestants, 391

Gesso work (Gloss.), 97

Gildhouses, 306
  Antwerp, 408
  Brussels, 408
  Ghent, 307
  Louvain, 307
  Malines, 406
  Mechlin, 307
  Ypres, 307

Gilds, trades, 233, 235, 278, 342, 406

Giotto, 319
  Bas-reliefs, by, 312
  Campanile designed by, 312
  Frescoes by, 311
  Paintings by, 340

Giovannoni, Professor, Asymmetries discovered by, 139

Gizeh, Sphinx at, 38
  Temple at, 41
  Wall paintings at, 48

Goethe, 439

Goodyear, Professor William H., Discoveries of asymmetries, 131, 137, 139, 247-8, 278-9
  “Grammar of the Lotus,” 131

Gothic Architecture (Gloss.), 49, 263, _et seq._
  Arches, 272, 290, 312
  Asymmetries in, 139, 278-80
  Buttresses, use of, 166, 272-3
  Cathedrals, 269, 277, 279, 281-2, 284-5, 288, 289
  Compared with Classic, 276
    Cnossus, 96
    Hellenic, 118
    Persian, 85
    Renaissance, 328, 364
  Decay of, 364
  Decorated Period, 271, 287, 291
  Early English Period, 271
  Flamboyant Period, 271
  France, in, 281-287
    Periods in, 285
    Secular buildings, 286
  Germany, in, 301
    Use of brick in, 305
  Great Britain, 287-301
    Exteriors in, 297
    Interiors in, 298
    Ornament in, 290
    Periods, 287
  Italy, in, 310-316
  Motives in architecture, 277
  Netherlands, in, 306-7
  Periods, 270-1, 285, 287
  Perpendicular, or Tudor, 275, 287, 295, 410, 450
  Rayonnant, 271, 282, 285-7
  Revival of, 439, 452-3
  Sculpture, 276
  Spanish, 308, 398
  Thrusts and counter-thrusts, 272-3
  Transition period, 310, 346, 358
  Vaulting, 284-5, 293-6, 310
  West Fronts, 282
  Windows, 274-5
  Wooden roofs, 296

“Gothic Quest,” R. A. Cram, 366, 453

Government Buildings:
  Capitol, Washington, 445-6
  Custom House Boston, 448
  Custom House, N. Y. C., 448
  Doge’s Palace, 315
  Horse Guards, London, 426
  Houses of Parliament, 450
  Law Courts, Manchester, 452
  Mint, Philadelphia, 448
  New Law Courts, London, 451
  Pantheon, Paris, 388
  Parliament House, Budapesth, 451
  Parliament House, Vienna, 440
  State Capitol, Conn., 452
  Sub-Treasury, 448
  Treasury, Washington, 446
  White House, the, 445-6

Greece, Mycenæan art in, 88, 89.
  _See_ Hellenes.

Greek-Asiatic, 82, 84, 89

Griego-Romano, 405

Grille (Gloss.), Turkish, 228

Grotefind, George Frederick, discoveries by, 57

Grotesque:
  Mexican primitive, 21
  Ornament, in, 165, 251, 255
  Palais de Justice, Liège, in, 406
  Style, 405

Guelphs and Ghibellines, 323

Guttae (Gloss.), 127


H

Hadrian, builder of Pantheon, 171
  Villa of, 180

Half-timbered (Gloss.), 412

Halls:
  Central Hall, Houses of Parliament, 451
  Châteaux, in, 378, 381, 382
  Darius’s Palace, in, 85
  Egyptian Temples, of, 34
  German Knights, Hall of the Order of, 305
  Hall Church, 304
  Hundred Columns, Hall of a, 85
  Hypostyle Hall, 49, 51
  Karnak, at, 51
  Median Palaces, of, 80
  Mediæval Castles, of, 300, 378, 416
  Middle Temple, of, 297
  National Hall of Statuary, Washington, 447
  Renaissance Palaces, in, 416
  S. George’s, Liverpool, 438
  Westminster, 297, 451
  Whitehall, 418

Hamlin, Professor, quoted, 206, 282

Hanseatic League, 301, 407

Harmony, Principle of (Gloss.), 11, 134

Haroun-el-Raschid, 215

Haussman, Baron, 444

Hawkins, Admiral, 336

Height, in design, 474

Hellenic Architecture, 116-146
  Asymmetries, 136-140
  Beauty, feeling for, 112
  Corinthian order, 131-2
  Dionysian Festival, the, 107
  Doric order, the 118, 126-7
  Entablature, the, 126-7
  Influence on Beaux Arts training, 463-5
  Influence on Etruscans, 155
  Influence on Germany, 439-40
  Ionic Order, the, 128-30
  Olympian Festival, 110
  Orders, the, 116-7, 123, 131
  Ornament, 132-4
  Parthenon, the, 119, 137-8, 140
  Projections, 133
  Propylæa, 141
  Temples, 116-124

Hellenic Civilisation, 105
  Conflict with Persians, 76
  Dorian supremacy, 106
  Origin of, 105
  Peloponnesian Wars, 109
  Persian invasion, 108
  Supplant Cretans, 91-2
  The Great Age, 107

Hemong, the bell-founder, 408

“Heptameron, The,” 375

Herodes Atticus, 145

Hexastyle (Gloss.), 121

Hieroglyphic writings, 27, 90

Hip roof (Gloss.), 385, 432

“History of Art,” Winckelmann, 436-439

Hogarth’s Line of Beauty, 133, 380

Holland:
  City Halls in,
    Alkmaar, 409
    Bolsward, 409
    Delft, 409
    Dordrecht, 409
    Enkhuisen, 409
    Hague, 409
    Hoorn, 409
    Kampen, 409
    Leuwarden, 409
    Leyden, 409
    Waaghuisen, 409
    Zwolle, 409
  Renaissance, 409
    Influence on English Renaissance, 424

Homer, 91, 107

Hospitals:
  Chartres, 286
  Gothic, 286, 299
  Greenwich, 419
  Ospedale degli Innocente, 344
  Santa Cruz, Toledo, 399

Humanism, 320, 331, 334

Hut construction, 36

Hypœthral (Gloss.), 122

Hypostyle Halls (Gloss.), 49, 51, 54, 80, 85


I

Ideograph writing, ideograms, 57

Île de France, 271-2, 310

Impluvium (Gloss.), 181

Impost Block (Gloss.), 201-204

In Antis (Gloss.), 82, 83, 120

Incas, structures of the, 19

India, 229
  Agra, 230
  Ahmedabad, 229
  Akbar, Mosque of, 230
  Mahmud, Tomb of, 230

Indians, North American, 18

Insula, pl. Insulæ (Gloss.), 180, 182

Intercolumniation (Gloss.):
  Dorian, 118, 125
  Early Christian use, 195
  Egyptian use, 86
  Gothic use, 298
  Hellenic, 134
  Ionic, 129
  Persian, 86

Interior, Designs of, 455
  Houses of Parliament, 451
  Office Buildings, 471

Ionic Islands, 89
  Culture, 109
  Luxury, 110, 128
  Migrations, 105

Ionic Order (Gloss.), 128-30
  Egypt, in, 128
  Lycia, columns in, 99
  Myra, columns in, 99
  Parthenon, in, 140
  Persian use of, 140
  Renaissance, in, 349, 352, 389, 402-3
  Roman use, 164, 165, 174
  Romanesque, 245
  Washington, 446

Iran, _see_ Persian

Ironwork Gothic in Germany, 305

Italian Architecture:
  Gesso work in, 97
  Gothic in, 271, 312
  Hellenic remains in, 89
  Influence on England, 335
    Ecclesiastical buildings, 366-74
    Florentine, 342, 345, 358-60
    France, 331, 376, 380
    Germany, 327
    Lombardy, 251, 258
    Netherlands, 333
    Renaissance, in, 323-337, 338-374
    Roman, 346-352, 363-5
    Spain, 329
    Venetian, 352-356, 360-3, 365
  Roman, _see_ Rome.
  Romanesque, 241, 313-315
    Central Italy, 246-9
    Northern Italy, 249-52
    Southern Italy, 249

Italian Civilisation:
  Byzantine, in, 194, 196-7, 209-10
  Classic Influence, 340
  Conflict with German Empire, 239
  Counter Reformation, 329
  Decline of culture, 331
  Etruscan, 154
  Power of the Dukes, 323-4
  Renaissance, 323, 338
  Rise of power of the Church, 189
  Sack of Rome, 327
  The Roman Empire, 147-157


J

Jambs (Gloss.), 245, 254, 283

Jars, clay, 93, 97

Jerusalem, 79, 223

Julius II, 346, 349, 367

Julius III, 348


K

Ka, 32, 33, 41

Kaaba, the (Gloss.), 214, 217, 221

Kahun, ruins at, 55

Karnak, 44, 50, 85, 86, 281

Keep, the Donjon, 378, 381

Keystones (Gloss.), 295

Khorsabad, 72, 131

Kibleh, the, 217

King-post, the (Gloss.), 296

Kitchens,
  Assyrian Palace, 73
  Blenheim, at, 426
  Châteaux, 377
  Colonial, 432
  English Mansions, 416

Koyunjik, bas-reliefs at, 71, 204
  library, 61
  mounds, 59


L

Labyrinth, at Cnossus, 93

Lake Dwellings, 13

Lancet windows (Gloss.), 274, 287, 290

Landscape design, 466

Lanterns (Gloss.):
  Burgos, Cathedral, 401
  Certosa, The, 313
  Château de Chambord, in, 381
  Church of the Apostles, Cologne, 259
  Escoriál, The, 404
  Florence Cathedral, 343
  Gothic, Spanish, 309
  Renaissance, French, 378
  Romanesque, 258
  S. Mark’s, 210
  S. Paul’s, 422
  S. Peter’s 371-2
  Santiago de Compostello, 260
  Tomb of Galla Placidia, 201
  Worms Cathedral, 258

“Laokoon” by Lessing, 439

Lassen, Christian, discoveries in cuneiform script, 57

Late Pointed Gothic, _see_ Perpendicular

Later Plantagenet, _see_ Decorated

Leading, in windows, 275

Libraries, of Asurbanipal, 61
  Babylon, at, 62
  Bodleian, 412
  Congressional, the, 447
  École des Beaux Arts, of, 444
  Laurentian, 349
  Lenox, N. Y. C., 462
  Merton, Oxford, 412
  Pembroke, Cambridge, 419
  S. Genéviève, 444
  S. Marco, 354, 365
  Theological, Princeton, 462
  Tiglath Pileser, of, 59
  Varro’s, 151

Lighting, of Greek temples, 123
  of Gothic churches, 274

Lintels (Gloss.), in Egypt, 48
  Persia, 84

Lions:
  Cathedral Porch, Piacenza, 251
  Court of, Alhambra, 226
  Decorative motive is, 100
  Gateway of, Mycenæ, 88, 92, 99, 100
  Heads of, in ornament, 130

Loggias (Gloss.), of Ca D’Oro, 360
  City Hall, Antwerp, of, 407
  Doge’s Palace, 316
  S. Paolo, 344
  Villa Farnesina, 347

Lombardy after Charlemagne, 323
  Merchants of, 235
  Rib vaulting in, 243-4, 310
  Romanesque in, 249, 250

London:
  Adelphi Terrace, 428
  All Saints Church, 452
  Bank of England, 438
  British Museum, 438
  Chelsea Hospital, 423
  Devonshire House, 426
  Finsbury Circus, 428
  Fitzroy Square, 428
  Greenwich Hospital, 419
  Holland House, 412, 414
  Houses of Parliament, 450
  Law Courts, New, 451
  Marlborough, 423
  Monument, the, 423
  New Zealand Chambers, 460
  Portland Place, 428
  S. Mary-le-Bow, 423
  S. Pancras, 438
  S. Paul’s Cathedral, 288, 371, 388, 420-3
  S. Paul’s Covent Garden, 419
  S. Stephen’s, 422
  Temple Bar, 423
  Thames Embankment, 418
  Westminster Hall, 297, 451
  Whitehall, 418
  York House, 419

Lotus, _see_ Decorative Motives

Louver (Gloss.), 299

Louvre, The, 382-6
  Façades, 383-4, 386
  New Louvre, 383
  Old Louvre, 383
  Pavilions, 385
  Roof, 385

Lunette (Gloss.), Gothic, 276
  Renaissance, 368

Luther, Martin, 328

Lycians, the, 83-4


M

Machicolations (Gloss.), 378, 380

Machu Picchu, 19, 20

Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 169-170

Maksura, 217, 221, 224

Manetho, Egyptian historian, 25

Mantelpieces, colonial, 432
  effect of in cornices, 475

Mantua, 345, 347

Marot, Clement, 376

Masonry, Ashlar, 254
  Batter, 41, 47
  Buttresses, in, 282
  Cyclopean, 15, 98, 100, 155
  Drafted, 81
  Egyptian, 40
  Gothic, Italian, 312, 358
  Greek and Roman compared, 154
  Leaning Tower, Pisa, in, 247
  Muhammedan domes, in, 222
  Primitive, 14, 20
  Renaissance, in English, 412, 418, 421-2
    French, 378, 382
    German, 393, 395
    Netherlands, 407
    Spanish, 402, 404
  Rib vaulting, in, 243, 272
  Romanesque, 242, 244, 245
  Romans, of, 153
  Rubble, 85, 254
  Rusticated, 292, 294, 348, 392, 407
  Sky scrapers, in, 474, 476
    Syrian, 199

Mastabas (Gloss.), 34, 38
  Sakkarah, at, 41
  Thy, of, 41

Mausoleum (Gloss.), 347, 404.
  _See_ Tombs

Mecca, 214, 220

Medes, 74, 75, 80. _See_ Persians

Mediæval, Early, Civilisation, 232-240
    Architecture, 241-260, _see_ Romanesque,
  Late, civilisation, 263-269
    Architecture, 270, _see_ Gothic

Medici, The, 344, 346, 358, 359, 386, 468

Medinet Abou, 54

Mediterranean races, 95

Megaron (Gloss.), 97, 98, 100, 102

Memnon, the Vocal, 46

Memphis, Obelisks, at, 43

Menes, ruler of Egypt, 25

Menhir (Gloss.), 13, 17, _see_ obelisk

Merchant families, England, 410
  Netherlands, 406
  Spain, 397
  Venice, 352-3

Mesopotamia, 56, _see_ Assyria

Metal work: in baldachinos, 371
  of Germans, 305
  of Moors, 309

Metope (Gloss.), Coloured, 136
  Hellenic, 126

Metropolitan Museum, 42, 219

Mexico, primitive remains in, 19, 20

Mezzanine floors (Gloss.), 384, 403

Mihrab, the (Gloss.), 217, 221, 224

Milton, John, 435

Mimbar, 217

Minarets (Gloss.), Great Mosque, Ispahan, 229
  Mosque of Mecca, 220, 221
  Mosque of Sultan Barbouk, 224
  Taj Mahal, 230

Miniaturists, the Anglo-Saxon, 257

Minnesingers, 302

Minoan Architecture, 95
  Lion Gate, 88
  Mycenæan remains, 98, 100
  Palaces 90, 92, 99
    of Cnossus, 91, 96-8
  Ruins in Phrygia, 99
  Tiryns, 100-102
  Wall paintings, 93

Minoan Civilisation, 88-94
  Confirmation of Greek legend of Crete, 90
  Early period, 90
  Middle and Late Periods, 91
  Rediscovery of, 88-9

Minotaur, Legend of, 93

Moat, 17, 379

Modillions (Gloss.), 165

Mommsen, Professor, quoted, 151

Monasteries:
  Dissolution of, 287, 411
  Escoriál, in, 403, 404
  Gothic, 286
  Mediæval, 236-7
  Mont Saint Michel, 254
  Mosques equivalent to, 223
  Mount Athos, 211
  Norman, 258
  San Marco, Fiesole, 344

Monoliths (Gloss.), 8, 15
  Cyrus’ Palace, 81
  Doorways at Tiryns, 102
  Memphis, at 43
  Sphinx Temples, in, 41

Monuments, at Abury, 17
  Choragic, of Lysicrates, 131
  Cleopatra’s Needles, 43
  Milliarium, 158
  Monument, The, London, 423
  Propylæa, 121, 131, 141
  Rostra, 158
  Temple Bar, 423
  Umbilicus, the, 157

Moors, influence of on Spanish Gothic, 308, 309
  On Spanish Renaissance, 400, 403
  Skill in metalwork, 398-9

Mosaics (Gloss.), Byzantine, 203
 Cathedral of Monreale, 249
  Early Christian, 197, 199
  Great Mosque of Mecca, 225
  Roman, 168, 181
  S. Mark’s, 210
  S. Paul’s, 421

Mosques: derivation, description of, name, 217
  Ahmedabad, of, 229
  Ahmedizeh, 228
  Akbar, 230
  Alhambra, of, 226
  Amru, Cairo, 223
  Bagdad, 229
  Cordova, 225
  Damascus, 205
  Dome of the Rock, _see_ Omar
  El-Aksah, Syria, 223
  El-Walid, Damascus, 223
  Great Mosque, Mecca, 217, 220
  Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, 207-210, 228, 372
  Ispahan, Great Mosque of, 229
  Kalaoom, Egypt, 224
  Omar, Great Mosque, Jerusalem, 223
  S. Cristo de la Luz, 225
  S. Maria la Bianca, 225
  S. Sophia, _see_ Hagia Sophia
  Suleimaniyeh, 228
  Sultan Barbouk, 224
  Sultan Hassan, 224
  Sultan Mahomet II, 209
  Teheran, Great Mosque of, 229

Mouldings:
  Bead (Gloss.), 134
  Cavetto, 47, 134
  Colonial, 430
  Cyma Recta, Reversa, 133
  Doric, 125
  Etruscan, 155
  Egyptian, 47
  Fillet, of, 134
  Gothic, 272, 290, 299, 305
  Guilloche, 129
  Hellenic treatment of, 135, 165
  Ionic, 128, 129
  Norman, 257
  Ovolo, 133
  Rococo, 366
  Roman, 165
  Romanesque, 244, 245
  Torus, of, 47, 134
  Wreath, 134

Muhammed, 214-216
  Learning encouraged by, 216, 218

Muhammedan Architecture, 220-231
  Alhambra, of, 218, 226-7
  Arcades, 221
  Ceramics, 218
  Cordova, at, 225
  Domes, 221
  Egypt, in, 223
  India, in, 229-31
  Minarets, 222
  Mosques, 217, 220-2
  Seville, in, 225-6
  Spain, 224-7
  Syria, 223
  Toledo, 225

Muhammedan Civilisation, 212 _et seq._

Mullions (Gloss.), 290
  Château de Blois, in, 380, 384
  City Hall, Antwerp, 407
  City Hall, Bremen, 395
  English Renaissance, 414
  Heidelberg, 394

Mural painting, _see_ Wall painting

Museums, 339-40
  British, 438
  Fitz-William, Cambridge, 438
  Friedrichsbau, 394
  Metropolitan, New York, 462
  New Museum, Berlin, 440
  Old Museum, Berlin, 440
  Pinacothek, 440
  Plantin-Moretus, 408

Mutule (Gloss.), 127, 164

Mycenæ, Architecture in, 14, 89-100
  Fortifications, 98
  Palaces, 89-102
  Similarity to Etruscan, 155
  Temples, 92, 101


N

Naos, _see_ Sanctuary (Gloss.)

Naples, Kingdom of, 323, 331

Narthex (Gloss.):
  Early Christian churches, in, 194, 196
  Roman temples, in, 177
  S. Sophia, of, 209
  San Ambrogio, of, 250

Nave (Gloss.):
  Anglo-Saxon churches, 255, 256
  Asymmetries in, 279
  Early Christian churches, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 200
  Gothic, churches, English, 289, 294
    French, 281
    German, 304
    Netherlands, 308
    Spanish, 309
  Lombard, 251
  Mediæval churches, 237
  Norman, 256, 259
  S. Mark’s, 209
  S. Paul’s, 420
  S. Peter’s, 194, 372, 373
  S. Sophia, 208
  Renaissance churches, 367
  Romanesque, 241, 245, 249
  Temples, Hellenic, 118, 140, 177-8

Nebuchadnezzar, 61

Netherland Architecture:
  Antwerp, in, 406, 408
  Bruges, 406
  Carillons, 408-9
  Ecclesiastical buildings, 307, 308
  Guild Halls, 306-7, 408
  Holland, 334, 409
  Liège, 406
  Malines, 406

Netherlands, History, of, 306
  Relations with France, 331
  Renaissance in, 333, 405-9

Newel post (Gloss.), 416

Niches (_see_ Mihrab):
  Gothic, 275, 276
    German, 304
    Italian, 314
    Netherlandish, 307
  Heidelberg, at, 394
  Muhammedan, 207, 222
  Rheims, at, 283
  Romanesque, 250
  S. Paul’s, 422

Nile, the, 28, 30, 90
  Inundated Temples of, 54
  Landscapes in paintings at Cnossus, 96

Nîmes, Amphitheatre at, 175
  Maison Carrée, 169
  Pont-du-Gard, 183
  Temple of Diana, 170

Nineveh, 59, 60, 61

Norman Architecture (Gloss.), 254-257

Nôtre Dame, Paris, 281-284

Nymphæum (Gloss.), 170
  Muhammedan adaptation of, 217
  Pantheon on site of, 171
  Temple of Diana, 170
  Temple of Minerva Medica, 207


O

Obelisks, 14
  Cleopatra’s Needles, 43
  Memphis, at, 43
  Pellershaus, Nuremburg, 395, 396
  Usertesen I, 43

Octastyle (Gloss.), 131

Odeion, the, 145
  Pericles, of, 145
  Skias, Sparta, 145

Œil-de-Bœuf, 384, 396

Office Buildings, 469-477
  Woolworth Building, 471, 476

Ogee, _see_ Cyma Reversa

Ogival (Gloss.), 270

Olympic Festival, 110, 112

Opisthodomos (Gloss.), 140

Opus Sectile, _see_ Mosaics (Gloss.)

Opus Tessellatum, _see_ Mosaics (Gloss.)

Orders, the (Gloss.), 116, 117
  Corinthian, 131
  Doric, 118
  Hellenic use of, 123
  Ionic, 128
  One Order Style, 350, 372
  Renaissance, English, 415
  Renaissance, French, 387, 388
  Rococo, 388-9
  Roman use of, 163
  Sansovino’s use of, 356
  Superimposed, 366, 372
  Tuscan, 163
  Wren’s steeples, on, 423

Organic growth (Gloss.), 11, 34, 140

Orientation (Gloss.):
  Christian churches, 194
  Mastabas, 41
  Muhammedan Mosques, 217
  Roman indifference to, 161
  S. Peter’s, 372
  Temples, Egyptian, 54
  Temples, Hellenic, 121
  Tombs at Abydos, 42

Ornament:
  Assyrian, 69, 72
  Baroque, 351
  Byzantine, 199, 202, 211
  Celtic, 18
  Chaldæan, 72
  Churrigueresque, 393, 405
  Egyptian, 48, 53
  Gothic, 275
    English, 290
    Italian, 312
  Hellenic, 129-133, 171, 203
  Italian Classic, 357, 393
  Minoan, 102
  Muhammedan, 216
  Norman, 255
  Oriental, 202-3
  Perpendicular, 410
  Persian, 84, 86, 87
  Pierced, 415
  Plateresque, 398-9, 400
  Primitive, 18
    in Mexico, 21
  Renaissance English, 410-11-12, 414, 415, 417
    German, 392-3
    Netherlands, 407
    Spanish, 402
  Rococo, 366, 388-9, 393
  Roman, 164-5, 168-9, 171, 203
  Romanesque, 251, 260
  Scandinavian, 251

Osirid piers, 53

Osiris, 50

Oxford, 257, 288, 293, 299, 419


P

Padan-Aram, 56

Pagan Revival, 325-328

Pagoda, The, 428

Painted Glass, 292

Painters:
  Aretino, 354
  Burkmair, 391
  Chapman, John Gadsby, 447
  Cimabue, 311
  Claude, 332
  Clouets, The, 332
  Cornelius, Peter von, 440
  David, Jacques Louis, 441-2
  Del Sarto, 332
  Dürer, 328, 391
  Fra Angelico, 344
  Hogarth, 133, 280
  Holbein, 328
  Isabey, Eugène, 379
  Kaulbach, Wilhelm von, 440
  Lebrun, 387
  Leonardo da Vinci, 332, 397
  Mabuse, 406
  Matisse, 459
  Michelangelo, 374, 397, 406
  Niccolo dell’ Abbati, 382
  Poussin, 332
  Powell, William Henry, 447
  Primaticcio, 332, 382
  Puvis de Chavannes, 443
  Raphael, 374, 397, 406
  Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 293
  Richmond, Sir William, 421
  Rosso, Il, 382
  Rubens, 417
  Smibert, 430
  Titian, 354, 417
  Trumbull, John, 447
  Vanderlyn, John, 447
  Van Eycks, 333
  Van Orley, 334, 406
  Velasquez, 330
  Weir, Robert Walter, 447

Palaces:
  Alcala de Heñares, 400
  Alcazar, the, 225
  Alhambra, the, 218, 226, 403
  Augustus’, Rome, 179
  Babylon, 61
  Balbi, 356
  Barbarano, 352
  Bevilacqua Palace, 355
  Blenheim, 425
  Brignole, 356
  Ca d’Oro, 360-1
  Cancellaria, 346, 362-4
  Canossa, 355
  Capitania, 352
  Capitol Palaces, 350, 363-5
  Caprarola, 348
  Charles V, Alhambra, 402-3
  Cnossus, 91, 96-8, 102
  Conservatore, 363
  Cornaro, 354
  Ctesiphon, 228-9
  Diocletian, Spalato, 180, 195, 428
  Doria-Tursi, 356
  Ducal, Venice, 210
  Durazzo, 356
  Ecbatana, at, 80
  Escoriál, 403-5
  Farnese, 348, 350, 363
  Firuzabad, 228-9
  Fontainebleau, 332, 382
  Giraud, 346
  Guardagni, 345
  Gvimane, 355
  Hagia Triada, 98
  Hampton Court, 411
  Hradschin, 355
  Karnak, 54
  Khorsabad, 60
  Louvre, 382-6, 407, 419, 444
  Luxembourg, 386
  Massimi, 348
  Medinet Abou, 54
  Muhammedan Palaces, 218
  Mycenæ, at, 89, 100
  Nimroud, at, 67
  Nineveh, at, 59
  Palazzo del Te’, 347
  Pallavacini, 356
  Pandolfini, 347
  Pasargadæ, 75, 81, 84
  Persepolis, Darius’ Palace, 76, 82-5
  Pesaro, 356, 366
  Phæstus, 91, 98
  Pitti, 344, 386
  Pompeii, 355
  Rezzonico, 356
  Riccardi, 344, 358-60
  Sargon’s Castle, 67
  Serbistan, 228-9
  Strozzi, 345
  Susa, 80, 86
  Tiryns, 91, 100-2
  Tuilleries, 383, 444
  Vecchio, Palazzo, 342, 358-60
  Vendramini, 354, 360-3
  Versailles, 387-9
  Whitehall, 418
  Xerxes II, 76, 85-7
  Zaporta, Casa de, 400
  Zwinger, Dresden, 393

Palatine Hill, 159

Paneling, Gothic, English, 291
    Italian, 314
  Renaissance, English, 416
    French, 380
    German, 393

Pansa, House of, 181

Pantheon, Rome, 171-3
  Burial place of Raphael, 348
  Columns in, 164
  Dome, 167
  Eye of, 172, 208
  Influence on Byzantine, 207
  Roof, 122, 168
  Studied by Brunelleschi, 342

Papier-maché ornament (Gloss.), 387-9

Parapets (Gloss.), 307
  English Renaissance, in, 414
  Italian Gothic, 314

Paris:
  Arc de l’Étoile, 443
  Arc de Triomphe, 443
  École des Beaux Arts, 444
  Fontainebleau, 322, 382
  Hôtel des Invalides, 387-8
  La Trinité, 452
  Library of S. Genéviève’s, 444
  Louvre, 382-6, 407, 418, 419, 444
  Luxembourg, 386
  Madeleine, 443
  Nôtre Dame, 281-4, 302
  Opera House, 444
  Palais de Justice, 444
  Panthéon, 388, 442-3
  Place du Carrousel, 383, 443-4
  Place Vendome, 387
  Replanned, 444
  Sacré-Cœur, 452
  Sainte Chapelle, 285, 296
  S. Clothilde, 452
  S. Genéviève, Panthéon, 388, 442-3
  Tuilleries, the, 383, 444
  Val-de-Grâce, 387
  Versailles, 387

Parthenon, the, 8, 119
  Asymmetries in, 137-8
  Columns, 124, 141
  Intercolumniation, 125
  Metope, 127
  Parthenon proper, 140-1
  Peristyle, 117
  Preservation of, 193
  Statue of Athene in, 140
  Turks destroy, 138

Pasargadæ, 75, 81, 84

Patio, _see_ Court (Gloss.)

Pavilions (Gloss.):
  Antwerp City Hall, 406
  de l’Horloge, 385, 407
  English Renaissance in, 414
  Holkam Hall, 426
  Luxembourg, of, 387
  Medinet Abou, of, 54
  Sully, 385

Pedestals, 127
  Greek Drama, use in, 142
  Renaissance, 369, 370

Pediment (Gloss.):
  Asymmetries in, 137
  Balustrade substituted for, 364
  Broken, 370
  Colonial wooden, 430-2
  Doric, 127
  Heidelberg, at, 394
  Louvre, in, 386
  Maison Carrée in, 170
  Minoan architecture, in, 100
  Palazzo Vecchio, in windows, 360
  Pellershaus in, 396
  Persian use of, 81
  Renaissance use of, 368-70, 384
  S. Maria dei Miracole, 353
  S. Paul’s, 421
  Sculpture in, 135
  Segmental Pediment, 384
  Villa Rotonda, in, 352

Peloponnesus, architecture in, 89-98

Pendentives (Gloss.), 167-8
  Domes, in, 204-6, 209
  Mogul use, 230
  Muhammedan use, 221
  Renaissance use, 343, 368, 420
  Romanesque, 252
  Vaults, in, 259

Pennethorne, John, Asymmetries, discovered by, 136

Penrose, Francis Cranmer, 136

Peripteral (Gloss.), 53, 120, 170

Peristyle (Gloss.):
  Colosseum, of, 174
  Early Christian tombs, of, 198
  Egyptian, 44, 50
  Hellenic, 117, 120, 122, 177
  Panthéon dome, in, 442
  Parthenon, 117
  Renaissance use, 346, 368
  S. Paul’s, of, 420-22
  S. Peter’s, 373
  Temple at Syracuse, 193

Perpendicular Gothic, 271, 275, 287, 290, 295

Persepolis, 76, 82-4

Persia:
  Alliance with Babylon, 75
  Civilisation, 74-9
  Conquered by Greeks, 108, 145
  Darius, 83-5
  Destruction by Alexander, 76, 77
  Zoroaster, 78
    by Muhammedans, 215, 220, 228

Persian Architecture, 80 _et seq._
  Minarets, 222
  Muhammedan palaces, 228-9
  Palace of Cyrus, 81
    Darius, 83-5
    Pasargadæ, at, 75, 81, 84
    Xerxes, of, 85-6
  Persepolis, buildings at, 82
  Pottery, 218
  Tombs, 75, 83

Peru, primitive ornament in, 18
  Inca remains in, 19

Petrarch, 324-5, 331, 341

Piano Nobile (Gloss.), 360, 363

Piazza, 351, 371

Pictures:
  English Renaissance Houses, in, 416
  Giralda, of, 225
  Gothic Cathedrals in, 278
  Provincial Museum, in, 226
  “Oath of the Horatii, The,” 441

Piers (Gloss.), Anglo-Saxon, 254
  Asymmetries in setting, 279-80
  Campanile, in, 252
  Château de Blois, in, 380
  Egyptian Temples, in, 41, 52-3
  Gothic use, 258, 272, 284-5, 304, 314, 345, 368
  Hagia Sophia, in, 208
  Hôtel des Invalides, in, 388
  Lombard Churches, in, 251
  Norman use, 255, 256, 257
  Provincial use, 252
  Osirid piers, 53
  Romanesque, 241, 242, 244, 245, 250, 273
  Roman use, 166-7, 175
  S. Paul’s, in, 420
  S. Peter’s, in, 371
  Suggestion in sky scrapers, 474

Pilasters (Gloss.):
  Colonial, 431
  Gothic, 284
  Renaissance, English, 415, 418
    French, 380, 381, 384-6
    German, 392, 394, 396
    Italy, 350, 361, 364, 366, 368, 372
    Netherlandish, 407
    Spanish, 402

Pillars, 92
  Cretan palaces, in, 96-8
  Hindu, 230
  S. Simon Stylites, of, 200

Pinnacles (Gloss.), 273, 312, 314

Pisa, 246-9

Plain of Shinar, 56

Plans: ground and floor, 10
  Alhambra, of, 226-7
  Anglo-Saxon, 255
  Basilicas, of, 177
  Benedictine Abbey, Cluny, 253
  Casa Lonja, 401-2
  Cathedral of Angoulême, 252-3
    Cologne, 303
  Château, de Blois, 380
    De Chambord, 381
  Circular, 197
  City Hall, Antwerp, 407
  Colosseum, 174
  Curvature of, 137-8
  Cyrus’ Palace, 82
  Darius’ Palace, 83, 85
  Diana, Temple of, 170
  Diocletian’s Palace Spalato, 180
  Egyptian, Palaces, 45-50
  English, 289
  Erechtheion, 141
  Escoriál, 403-4
  French Châteaux, 377
  Gothic, 277
  Hagia Sophia, 208
  Hellenic Theatres, 143-4
  Hôtel des Invalides, 388
  House of Pansa, 181
  Houses of Parliament, 451
  Howard Castle, 425
  Karnak, Temple at, 50
  Khorsabad, Palace, 72
  Louvre, The, 383
  Luxembourg, 386-7
  Maison Carrée, 169
  Mediæval Monasteries, 237
  Mosques, 217;
    of Akbar, 230
  Octagonal Plans, 121
  Palazzo, Ca d’Oro, 361
    Caprarola, 348
    Riccardi, 358-60
    Vecchio, 358-60
    Vendramini, 360-3
  Palace of Charles V, 402-3
  Panthéon, Paris, 442
  Polygonal plans, 197
  Propylæa, of, 141
  Renaissance, 414
  Roman forum, 159
  Roman temple, 169
  S. Andrea, Mantua, 368
  S. Francisco, Rimini, 345
  S. Front, 252-3
  S. Maria della Salute, 356
  S. Mark, Venice, 209
  S. Paul, London, 420
  S. Paul-without-the-wall, 196
  S. Peter’s, 370-1
  S. Simeon Stylites, 200
  S. Zaccaria, 353
  Santiago de Compostello, 259
  Sky-scrapers, 472
  Sphinx Temple, 41
  Taj Mahal, 231
  Tiryns, Palace at, 100
  Villa Rotondo, 352
  Whitehall, 418
  Wren’s plan of London, 420

Plate tracery, 274, 290

Platforms, 65, 66, 67
  Greek Theatre, of, 144
  Muhammedan mosque, of, 217
  Persian, 81, 85
  Roman forum, in, 158
  Stylobate, 122
  Taj Mahal, of, 231

Plateresque style, 398-400

Plinth (Gloss.), 52, 99, 129, 164, 245

Podium (Gloss.), _see_ Stylobate, 156, 169-70
  Colosseum, of, 174-5
  Roman Tombs, of, 198

Polished Stone Age, 17, 18, 19, 95

Pope, Alexander, quoted, 427, 436

Porch, at Abydos, 42
  Bank of England, 438
  Chartres, at, 269
  Cologne, City Hall, 395
  Colonial, 431
  Doric, 121
  English Gothic, 290

Portals, _see_ Doorways

Porticoes:
  Anglo-Palladian use, 424-426
  Capitol, Washington, 446
  Colonial use, 431-2
  Darius’ Palace, 83, 85
  Early Christian Churches, 193
  Ecbatana, at, 80
  Greek Theatre, of, 144
  Hellenic use, 116, 120-2, 131, 141
  Panthéon, Paris, 443
  Pasargadæ, 82
  Renaissance, 353, 365
    Spanish, 400-1
  Roman use, 169, 171, 181
  S. George’s Hall, Liverpool, 439
  Tiryns, at, 101
  Treasury Building, Washington, 446
  White House, 446
  Xerxes Palace, in, 86

Post and beam or lintel (Gloss.), 8, 14, 16

Pot Metal (Gloss.), 292

Pottery, 218
  Etruscan, 155
  Mycenæan, 97

Presbytery, 289

Primitive Ornament, 18
  Structures, 8, 12

Printing invented, 322

Projections (Gloss.), use of, 133, 179, 312, 365

Pro-naos, _see_ Vestibule (Gloss.)

Proportion (Gloss.), 11, 134

Propylæa (Gloss.), 85, 101, 121, 131, 141

Proscenium, or proskenion (Gloss.), 144, 145, 176

Prostylar (Gloss.), 120

Provence, 235, 238, 241, 252, 331

Ptolemaic period, 53

Pulpits, Muhammedan, 217

Puritan influence, 336, 430

Pylons (Gloss.), Assyrian, 68
  Byzantine, 208
  Egyptian, 48, 50

Pyramidal Dome, 404
  roof, 252, 414

Pyramids (Gloss.), 14
  Cheops, 34, 39
  Chephren, 34, 39
  Gizeh, 34, 39, 40
  Medun, 66, 67
  Menkara, 34, 39
  Nebo, 62, 67
  Primitive, 14
  Sakkarah, 34
  Truncated, 48


Q

Quadriga (Gloss.), 179

Quatrefoil (Gloss.), 316

Quattrocento (Gloss.), 338, 340

Queen post (Gloss.), 296

Quoins (Gloss.), 348


R

Ra, Egyptian deity, 30

Rabelais, 329

Racine, 439

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 336

Ramasseum, 46-50

Ramp (Gloss.), 66, 68, 85

Ravenna, 201
  Baptistry, 201
  Church of S. Apollinare-in-Classe, 201
    S. Apollinare Nuovo, 201
    S. Vitale, 202
  Tomb of Galla Placidia, 201

Rawlinson, Henry, translator of cuneiform script, 57

Rayonnant Gothic (Gloss.), 271, 282, 285-6, 287

Rectangular Gothic, _see_ Perpendicular

Refinements (Gloss.), 136, 140, _see_ Assymmetries

Reformation, The, 328, 332, 335, 337

Regula (Gloss.), 126

Reja, _see_ screen (Gloss.)

Religious Orders, growth of, 236

Renaissance, The (Gloss.):
  America, influence of, in, 429
  Anglo-classical style, 425
  Architects, importance of, 339
  Architecture derived from Rome, 183
  Baroque style, 351
  Beaux Arts training founded on, 463
  Bohemia, in, 355
  Châteaux, 377-88
  Churrigueresque style, 393, 405
  Classic influence, 340, 402
  Counter Reformation, 329, 330
  Elizabethan style, 410, 413
  Flamboyant style, 285-6
  Flemish, Renaissance, 405-9
  Florence, architects of, 342-4
  France, Renaissance in, 331
  Germany, in, 327, 391-6
  Giralda, Tower of, 225
  Gothic, compared to, 366
  Gothic despised by, 366
  Great Britain, in, 410-28
  Holland, in, 409
  Incongruities in, 360-70
  Interiors, 415
  Italy, in, 333, 338
  Jacobean style, 410, 412-13, 415
  Paganism of, 326
  Palazzo Vecchio, 315, 358
  Plateresque style, 398
  Point of view of artists, 357-9, 373-4
  Queen Anne style, 424
  Reaction from, 435
  Reformation, the, 328
  Reversion to, 444
  Roman Architecture, basis of, 346, 351
  Sky scrapers of Renaissance design, 473
  Spain in, 329, 397-405
  Tours, School of, 376
  Tuscan Romanesque, compared to, 369
  Venetian architects, 352

Retablos (Gloss.), 309

Retrochoir (Gloss.), 289, 295, 298

Revett and Stuart’s Classic exploration, 436

Revolution, French, 333

Rhenish Confederation, 331

Rhythm in architecture (Gloss.), 11, 134

Ribs:
  In vaulting (Gloss.), 242
  Diagonal, 250, 272, 294
  Lierne, 294
  Longitudinal, 294
  Louvre, in pavilion of, 385
  Tierceron, 294
  Transverse rib, 294
  S. Peter’s, in dome of, 373

Rococo style (Gloss.), 333, 389-90
  French, 375, 389-90
  German, 391, 393
  Venetian, 366

Roman Augustine Age, 151
  Attempt to revive Empire, 232
  Barbarian invasions, 157
  Christianity in, 157
  Citizenship, 147-8
  Civilisation, 147-162
  Etruscans, 156
  Exponents of order, 149
  Great era of building, 152, 156
  Holy Roman Empire, 321
  Provinces, 148, 152
  Renaissance, 323-7, 346-352
  Roman Writers, 150
  Sacked by Germans, 347, 354

Roman Architecture 163-183
  Amphitheatres, 174
  Aqueducts, 182
  Arch, the, 166
  Arch, Triumphal, 178
  Basilicas, 177
  Baths, 176
  Bridges, 182
  Circuses, 173
  Colosseum, 174
  Columns, 169, 170, 171, 178
  Composite order, use of, 165
  Concrete, use of, 153
  Corinthian order, 164
  Decoration of Walls, 168-9
  Domestic buildings, 180
  Influence on Byzantine, 202
    Persian, 152
    Romanesque, 170, 180, 183
  Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 169
  Masonry of, 153
  Mosaics, 168
  Nymphæum, 170
  Orders, the, 163-166
  Ornament, 169
  Palaces, 179
  Revival of influence, 437
  Rotundas, 170, 171, 198
  Temples, 169-173
  Theatres, 175-6
  Tombs, 198
  Training in, at Écoles des Beaux Arts, 463
  Vaulting, 167, 243
  Villas, 180-1

Romanesque Architecture, 241-260
  Arcading, 244-5, 307
  Arch, the, 245
  Chêvet, the, 241-2
  Doors, 245, 254
  England, in, 254
  Exteriors, 245
  France, in, 252
  Influence in French Gothic, 282
    Germany, 301
  Italy, in, 313, 315
    Central, 246-249
    Northern, 249-251
    Southern, 249
  Origin of, 170, 180, 183, 212
  Originates Gothic, 270, 271, 276
  Period of, 232
  Rhenish Provinces, in, 257, 307
  Rib Vaulting, 243
  Roman principles in, 241
  Spain, in, 259-60
  Tuscany, in, 367
  Variations in, 240
  Windows, 245, 251

Rome:
  Anio Novus Aqueduct, 183
  Aqua Claudia, 183
  Arch of Cæsar Augustus, 160
    Constantine, 159, 178
    Janus, 159
    Septimus Severus, 161, 178
    Titus, 159, 178
  Basilicas, Æmilia, 160, 177
    Fulvia, 177
    Julia, 160, 177
    Maxentius or Constantine, 177
    Porcia, 177
    Ulpia, 177
  Baths, of Agrippa, 176
    Caracalla, 176
    Commodus, 176
    Constantine, 176
    Diocletian, 176
    Domitian, 176
    Nero, 176
    Titus, 176
  Bridges, 182
  Capitoline Hill, 158
  Circus, Maxentius, 173
    Maximus, 173
  Colosseum, 174-5
  Columns of Victory, 178
  Comitium, 158
  Curia, 158
  Etruscan Museum, 348
  Forum Boarium, 170
    Romanum, 157-8, 170
  Il Gesu, 349
  Milliarium, 158
  Nymphæum, 170
  Palaces of Augustus, 179
    Cancellaria, 346
    Capitol, 350, 363-5
    Caprarola, 348
    Farnese, 348
    Massimi, 348
    Pandolfini, 347
  Pantheon, 122, 164, 167, 168, 170, 171, 348, 372
  Rotunda, The, 171
  S. Clemente, 195
  S. John Lateran, 194, 198
  S. Lorenzo in Miranda, 347
  S. Maria della Grazie, 346
  S. Paul-without-the-Walls, 196-7
  S. Peter’s, 194, 346-7, 349-50, 370-4
  S. Pietro in Montorio, 346
  S. Stefano Rotondo, 198
  Tabularium, the, 161
  Temples, 169
    Castor and Pollux, 160
    Circular, 176-7
    Divinities Male and Female, 158
    Mater Matuta, 170, 171
    Minerva Medica, 207
    Saturn, 160, 164
  Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, 173
    Constanza, 198
  Trajan’s Column, 179, 348
  Umbilicus, the, 157
  Villa Farnesina, 347
    Madama, 347

Roodloft (Gloss.), 237

Roofs, 46, 47, 53
  Arch-braced, 297
  Assyrian treatment of, 71
  Byzantine, 198
  Colonial, 431-2
  Decorative treatment of, 396
  Dome roofs, 71
  Etruscan, 155
  Gothic, in England, 293, 296-7, 299
    German, 304-5
    Italian, 314
    Netherlands, 307
  Hammer-beam, 297
  Hip roof, 385, 432
  Lombard, 252
  Louvre, of the, 384-5
  Luxembourg, of the, 387
  Mansard, 385-6, 431
  Mediæval, 196, 198, 241
  Muhammedan, 228
  Primitive, 14-15, 20
  Queen Anne Style, 424
  Renaissance, English, 414, 428
    German, 392, 395
    Netherlandish, 407, 408
    Spanish, 403
  Stone roof, 199
  Tie-beam, 296
  Trussed-rafter, 296
  Wooden roof, 196, 246, 256, 296

Rosetta Stone, 27

Rosettes, _see_ Decorative motives

Rose Windows (Gloss.), 271, 282

Rostra, the, 158

Rostrum of Julius Cæsar, 160

Rough Stone Age, 18

Rugs, Persian, 219

“Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian,” by Robert Adam, 428


S

Sanctuary of, Early Christian churches, 194, 196
  Egyptian Temples, 49, 50, 53
  Gothic Churches, 289
  Hellenic Temples, 120, 141
  Spanish Renaissance churches, 401

Saracenic, _see_ Muhammedan

Sardinia, Mycenæan remains in, 89, 90

Sargon, Akkadian King, 57, 58
  Assyrian King, 60

Sarzac, Professor de, discoveries by, 67

Sassanian Empire, 77, 205, 229

Schiller, 439

Schliemann, Dr., Mycenæan discoveries by, 88, 100

Schools, Divinity, Oxford, 295, 299
  École des Beaux Arts, 379, 444, 453
  Grammar, in England, 412
  Scuolo de S. Marco, 354

Scotia (Gloss.), 129, 164

Screens (Gloss.):
  Gothic Choir, 275, 291
    English, 291, 298
    Spanish, 309
  Mediæval Churches, 237
  Muhammedan, 218
  S. Sophia, 208
  Temples of Egypt, 54
  Temple of Hera, 118

Screen Walls, 377
  Blenheim, at, 425
  Château de Chambord at, 381
  S. Clemente, Rome, 195

Scrolls, _see_ Volutes

Sculptors:
  Bartlett, Paul W., 446
  Berruguete, 402, 405
  Borromini, The, 351
  Cellini, Benvenuto, 332, 382
  Churriguera, 405
  Crawford, Thomas, 446, 447
  Giotto, 312, 319
  Goujon, Jean, 332, 385
  Maderna, Carlo, 351
  Majano, Giovanni, 411
  Michelangelo, 349-51, 405
  Pheidas, 111, 140
  Pilon, 332
  Pisano, Andrea, 312, 319
  Praxiteles, 118
  Robbia, Lucca della, 312
  Rude, François, 443
  Sansovino, Andrea, 354
  Sansovino, Jacopo, 354
  Sarrazin, Jacques, 385
  Torrigiano, 411
  Vigarni de Borgoña, 401
  Vischer, Peter, 391
  Vriendt, Cornelius de, 407

Sculpture:
  Amenopheum, The, 45
  Assyria, in, 65
  Baroque, 351
  Bulls, Colossal, 69
  Egypt, of, 40, 41, 48, 75
  Gothic, 276, 278
    French, 269, 283
    German, 304
    Italian, 309, 312, 316
    Netherlands, 307
  Lombardy, in, 251
  Osirid, 50
  Pediment of Capitol, Washington, 446
  Phrygian, 99
  Relief, in Assyria, 71, 131
    Bronze, 171
    Byzantine use of, 203
    Chartres, at, 269
    Doric metope, in, 135
    Gothic, 276, 312
    Hellas, in, 127
    Ionic cornices, in, 130
    Medallion of Popes, 196
  Mycenæ, in, 98
  Tiryns, in, 102
  Trajan’s Column, on, 179
  Versailles, at, 387

Secondary Style, _see_ Rayonnant

Semiramis, Hanging gardens of, 62

Semitic races, 56, 58, 74

Serdab (Gloss.), 41

Seville: The Alcazar, 225
  Casa Lonja, 401-2
  Giralda, the, 225
  Plateresque in, 398

Sewers, 152.
  The Cloaca Maxima, Rome, 156

Shaft (Gloss.), of column, 123
  Corinthian treatment of, 131
  Doge’s palace columns, 316
  Fluted, 87, 124
  Greek treatment of, 124, 125
  Ionic treatment, 129
  Proportions of, 134, 135
  Romanesque, 245
  Roman treatment of, 164
  Sky-scraper, suggestions of, in, 474

Shakespeare, 330, 336, 410, 439

Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, 59, 60, 75

Sicily:
  Cathedral of, Monreale, Palermo, 249
  Cathedral of Syracuse, 193
  Muhammedan conquest of, 215
  Romanesque, in, 249

Sidney, Sir Philip, 336

Silversmiths:
  Antonio Arphe, 398
  Enrique Arphe, 398
  Juan Arphe, 398

Skene, the, 144

Sky-scrapers, 472-5

Soffit (Gloss.), 127

Solar (Gloss.), 416

Sole Piece, 297

Sophia, Hagia, (S.), 207, 209

South Sea Islands, ornament in, 18

Spandrel or Spandril (Gloss.):
  Cancellaria, of, 363
  Library of S. Mark’s, 365
  S. Peter’s, 373

Spain, Architecture in:
  Alcala de Heñares, 400
  Alcazar, Seville, 225,
  Alhambra, 218, 226-7, 403
  Bridge of Cordova, 182
  Bridge of Toledo, 182
  Burgos, 400-1
  Cordova, 182, 398
  Escoriál, 403-5
  Giralda, the, 225
  Gothic, 271
  Granada, 401
  Influence on Netherlands, 406
  Madrid, 403
  Malaga, 401
  Mosque of Cordova, 224, 225
  Muhammedan, 212, 215, 220, 224-7
  Mycenæan remains in, 89-90
  Plateresque style, 398-9
  Renaissance, 329, 398-405
  Romanesque, 259-60
  Salamanca, 401
  Santiago, 398
  Saragossa, 401
  Seville, 302, 309, 371, 398
  Toledo, 182, 308, 398
  Valladolid, 398, 401

Spain, History of, 212, 213, 326-7, 397

Sparta, 128

“Speculum Universale,” 266-8, 312

Spencer, 336

Sphinx (Gloss.), Avenue of, 51
  Temple, 41
  The Great, 38

Spires (Gloss.):
  Antwerp, 308
  Brussels Town Hall, 307
  Colonial, 431
  English, 274
  Gothic decorated, 275
    English, 289, 298
    French, 282
    German, 303
  Houses of Parliament, 451
  Woolworth Building, 476
  Worms, at, 259
  Wren’s Churches, 423

Spirals, 165, 179

Square, the, 85

Squinch (Gloss.), 230, 259

Stained Glass, 275-278
  Gothic, English, 291-2
    German, 305
  Methods of using, 291-2
  Musée Plantin-Moretus, 40S
  Sainte Chapelle, Paris, 285

Stairs:
  Capitol, Washington, 446
  Casa Lonja, 402
  Chaldæan, 66
  Château de Blois, 380
  Château de Chambord, 380-1
  Colonial, 432
  Doric Temples, 121
  Egyptian temples, 44
  Golden Staircase, the, 400-1
  Leaning Tower, Pisa, in, 247-8
  Machu Picchu, 20
  Persepolis, at, 85
  Pyramids, in, 39
  Queen Anne entrances, of, 426
  Renaissance, English, 416
    German, 392
    Spanish, 400
  Roman Podium, of, 156
  Sargon’s Castle, 68
  Trajan’s Column, 179

Stalactite work, 222, 224, 227

Stalls (Gloss.), of chancel, 237

Stanze Apartments, 374

Statues:
  Arches, on, 179
  Athene, in Parthenon, 140
  Baroque, 351
  Cella, in Hellenic, 140
  Chaldæan, 65
  Chartres Cathedral, on, 269
  Cheops, of, 40
  Coloured, 136
  Dome of Capitol, Washington, on, 447
  Giralda, S. Faith, 225
  Gothic Cathedrals, on, 276-8
    German, 304
    Italy, 312, 314
    Netherlands, 307
    Spain, 309
  Hermes of Praxiteles, 118
  Louvre, on, 385
  Marseillaise, La, 443
  Michelangelo, by, 350, 364
  Palace of Rezzonico, in, 356
  Renaissance, English, 411
    German, 392, 396
  S. John, by Michelangelo, 344
  S. Maria della Salute, of, 356
  S. Peter’s in, 372
  Temple of Diana, Nîmes, 170
  Trajan’s Column, on, 179
  Tympanum, in Hellenic, 135
  Zeus, of, 111

Steel Construction, 461, 470, 471, 473, 478

Steeples (Gloss.), 423

Stele (Gloss.), 14, 132

Stone, use of:
  Arches, single stone, 199
  Crosses, 18
  Cut stone of Persia, 81
  Egyptian use of large, 41
  Italy, in, 154
  Mediæval, in, 241
  Obelisks, 43
  Polished stone, 18, 19
  Primitive use of large, 8, 13, 14, 15, 20
  Pyramids, in, 40
  Rough Stone age, 18
  Sacrificial, 16, 20
  Steel construction, in, 473

Stonehenge, 8, 16, 100

Stories, division into:
  Arcades, in, 229
  Byzantine use, 208, 209
  Casa Lonja, in, 402
  Escoriál, in, 404
  Gothic, German, 306
    Italian, 312
    Netherlands, 307
  Michelangelo’s treatment of, 350
  Renaissance, English, 414, 418 421
    French, 354, 360, 363, 364
  Renaissance use, Netherlands, 407
  Sky scrapers, in, 474
  Temple of Nippur, in, 66
  Wren’s Steeples, in, 423

Strains, 15
  Carried by columns, 124
  Gothic, 271-2, 285
  Hellenic recognition of, 135
  Vaulting, in, 166, 270

Stretchers and headers (Gloss.), 424

String course:
  Gothic, Italian, 312, 314
    Netherlands, 306
  Palazzo Vecchio, 360
  Queen Anne style, 424
  Renaissance, Venetian, 361

Stuart and Revett, discoveries by 436

Stucco, use of (Gloss.):
  Doric Temples, in, 121
  Egypt, use in, 55
  Greek use of, 122
  Renaissance, 352
    English, 417
    German, 393
    Venetian, 361
  Rococo use of, 389
  Tiryns, in, 102

Styles:
  Anglo-Classical, 410, 424
  Chinese, 428
  Churrigueresque, 393, 405
  Colonial, 430
  Elizabethan, 410
  Georgian, 427, 430
  Jacobean, 410
  Palladian, 368, 370, 402, 418, 424
  Plateresque, 398-9, 400
  Portico, 424
  Queen Anne, 424, 427, 430
  Queen Anne Revival, 458

Stylobate (Gloss.):
  Asymmetries in, 137
  Doric, 122
  Ionic, 128
  Panthéon, Paris, 443
  Parthenon, 138
  S. George’s Hall, Liverpool, 438
  S. Paul’s, 421

Stylus, use of, 57

Subjective point of view, 4

Symonds, John Addington, 329

Syria, 199
  Architectural remains in, 199
  Cathedral of Borah, 200
  Churches, Kalb-Lauzeh, 200
    S. George, Esrah, 200
    Turmanin, 200
    S. Simeon Stylites, 200
  Conquered by Muhammedans, 215
  Influence on Byzantine, 202
  Mosques:
    Dome of the Rock, or, Mosque of Omar, 223
    El-Aksah, 223
    El-Walid, Damascus, 223


T

Tabernacles (Gloss.), German Gothic, 305
  Spanish Renaissance, 398

Tabernæ, in Rome, 159

Taconia, 126

Tampa Tocco, ruins at, 19

Tel-el-Amarna, Ruins at, 55

Temples:
  Abydos, at, 53
  Agrigentum, 119
  Ammon, 51
  Aphrodisias, Caria, 193
  Apollo at Bassæ, 123
    at Miletus, 122
    at Naucratis, 128
  Assos, at, 126
  Athene, at Ægina, 119
  Athene Nike, 119, 141-2
  Cæsar, 160
  Castor and Pollux, 160, 164
  Chons, 51
  Concord, of, 161
  Corinth, at, 118
  Costa Rica, ruins at, 20
  Deir-el-Bahri, 44
  Delos, in, 119
  Delphi, at, 119
  Diana, 170
  Diocletian’s Palace, in, 180
  Edfou, at, 54
  Egyptian, plans of, 46-50
  Erechtheion, The, 121, 129, 131, 136, 141, 165, 193, 436, 438
  Etruscan, 155
  Hellenic, plans of, Early, 119
    Later, 121-123
  Hera, of, 111, 117
  Hyperboreans, of the, 17
  Jerusalem, at, 79, 223
  Jupiter, Capitoline, 156, 158
  Karnak, at, 44, 50
  Luxor, at, 51, 53
  Madeleine, The, modelled on, 443
  Maison Carrée, 169
  Mater Matuta, 170, 171
  Medinct Abou, at, 139
  Mexico, in, 20
  Michelangelo’s adaptations of, 364-5
  Minerva Medica, 207
  Minoan, no temples, 92
  Nebo, at, 62, 67
  Nineveh, at, 60
  Nippur, at, 66
  Olympia, of, 119
  Pantheon, Rome, 122, 164, 167-8, 170-1, 348, 372
  Parthenon, the, 8, 119, 125, 127, 137, 138, 140, 436
  Pasargadæ, at, 75
  Philæ, at, 53
  Phœbus Apollo, of, 118
  Poseidon, of, 118, 119, 125
  Rameses II, of, 45
  Saturn, 160, 164
  Seti II, of, 51
  Sippar, at, 57
  Sphinx, The Great, 38, 41
  Tampu Tocco, 19
  Theseum, 119, 193
  Tholos, Epidauros, 121, 131
  Uri, at, 139
  Vesta, Rome, 160, 170
  Vesta, Tivoli, 170, 171
  Zeus, 111, 122
    at Agrigentum, 118, 119
    Olympian, 119, 120, 122
    Selinas, 119

Tænia (Gloss.), 126

Terraces (Gloss.):
  Babylon, Gardens of, 61
  Châteaux, of, 379
  Machu Picchu, of, 20
  Nippur, of, 66
  Pasargadæ, of, 81
  Persepolis, of, 85
  Renaissance examples, 374
  S. George’s Hall, Liverpool, 438
  Sargon’s Castle, of, 68
  Tampu Tocco, 19
  Tenochtitlan, of, 20
  Versailles, of, 387
  Xerxes’ Palace, of, 85

Terracotta (Gloss.):
  Etruscans, use by, 155
  Renaissance, in, 411
  Romans, use by, 168, 182
  Roof construction, use in, 122
  Steel construction, use in, 473

Tertiary Style, _see_ Flamboyant

Tessera (Gloss.), 168

Tetrastyle (Gloss.), 121

Thatched roofs, 155

Theatres:
  Dionysos, of, 143
  Ducal theatre, Weimar, 439
  Epidauros in Argolis, 143
  Federal Street Theatre, Boston, 448
  Hellenic Theatres, 142, 145, 173, 175
  Marcellus, of, 164
  Orange, at, 176
  Roman, 173
  Royal Theatre, Berlin, 440
  Sheldonian, Oxford, 419
  Teatro Olympico, 352
  Vitruvius’ description of, 144

Thermæ, _see_ Baths

Thessaly, remains at, 89

Thirteenth Century Gothic, _see_ Gothic, Primary

Thrust (Gloss.), 15
  Basilicas, in, 178
  Gothic, in, 273
  Mansard roof, in, 385
  Muhammedan arches, 221
  Roman arches, in, 166, 170
  Vaulting, in, 242, 244, 253

Tiglath-Pileser, Assyrian kings, 59, 60

Tiles (Gloss.):
  Alhambra, use in, 227
  Assyria, in, 68, 72, 97
  Chaldæan, 68
  Domes, in, 207
  Doric Temples, in, 121, 122, 123
  Early Christian churches, in, 201
  Greek use, 122
  Muhammedan use of, 222
  Persian use of, 86, 97, 218, 229
  Renaissance, English, 414
  Roman use of, 168
  Temple of Hera, roof of, 118
  Turkish use of, 228

Tiryns, Prehistoric civilisation of, 88
  Architecture, 98, 100-2
  Resemblance to Etruscan, 155

Tivoli, Temple of Vesta, in, 170-1
  Villa of Hadrian, 180-1

Tombs:
  Abydos, at, 42
  Agamemnon, of, 100
  Altun Obu, at, 14
  Amenopheum, the, 45
  Artaxerxes, of, 76, 82
  Atreus, of, 124
  Barrows, 13, 14
  Beehive, 15, 99
  Cæcilia Metella, of, 173
  Cassandra, of, 100
  Cathedrals, in, 299
  Constanza, of, 198
  Cyrus, of, 81
  Darius I, of, 82-4
  Darius II, of, 76, 82
  Dolmen, 14
  Egyptian Middle Empire, of, 42
  Escoriál, of the, 403
  Etruscan, 155
  Galla Placidia, Rome, 201
  Henry VII, Westminster, of, 411
  Lycia, in, 99, 130
  Mahmud Bijapur, of, 230
  Mastabas, 41
  Midas, of, 130
  Minoan, 90
  Muhammedan, 217, 222
  Mycenæan, 99
  Myra, at, 99
  Pasargadæ, at, 75, 81
  Persepolis, at, 76, 82
  Phrygia, at, 99
  Primitive, 14
  Queen Hatasu, of, 45
  Rameses III, of, 45
  Ramesseum, The, 45
  S. Sebald, of, 391
  Sheik Omar, of, 222
  Suleiman and Roxelana, of, 228
  Taj Mahal, the, 217, 230
  Theban Empire, of, 42
  Tholos, the, 99
  Wolsey, Cardinal, of, 411
  Wren, Sir Christopher, of, 423
  Xerxes, of, 82

Torus (Gloss.), pl. Tori, 47
  Cnossus, in fresco at, 123
  Corinthian, 164
  Doric, 124
  Ionic, 129

Tours, School of, 376

Towers:
  Anglo-Saxon, 254
  Angoulême, at, 253
  Antwerp Cathedral, 308
  Babel, 62
  Babylon, 61
  Cathedral del Pillar, 401
  Châteaux, 378
    de Blois, 380
    de Chambord, 381
  Church of Apostles, Cologne, 259
  Cologne Cathedral, 303
  Diocletian’s Palace, 180
  Durham Cathedral, 256
  Earl’s Barton Church, 255
  Escoriál, the, 404
  Giralda, The, 225
  Gothic, English, 274, 289, 298
    Netherlandish, 307
  Houses of Parliament, 451
  Layer Marney, Essex, 411
  Madison Square Garden, New York, 226
  Malines Cathedral, 408
  Nôtre Dame, Paris, 282
  Palazzo Vecchio, 359
  Renaissance, English, 414
  Renaissance, German, 392
  Rheims Cathedral, 282
  Romanesque, 244
  S. Ouen’s, 286
  S. Paul’s, 421
  Saragossa, La Seo, 401
  Sargon’s Castle, 67-8
  Town Hall, Brussels, 307
  Turmanin Church, 200
  Wind, of the, Athens, 121
  Woolworth Building, 476
  Worms Cathedral, 258
  Wren’s Churches, 423

Trabeated (Gloss.), 8

Tracery (Gloss.):
  Branch, 305
  Double, 304
  Early English, 290, 291
  Gothic, German, 303, 304
    Italian, 310, 312
    Netherlandish, 307
  Milan, in, 314
  Plate, 274-5
  Renaissance, French, 378

Transepts (Gloss.):
  Cathedrals, English, 289, 298
  Cologne Cathedral, 303
  Cologne, Church of Apostles, 259
  Early Christian Churches, 194
  Milan, S. Maria della Grazie, 346
  Norwich Cathedral, 246
  Nôtre Dame, Paris, 281
  S. Paul’s Cathedral, 420-1
  Pisa, Cathedral, 247
  Romanesque Churches, 241, 244
  Santiago de Compostello, 260
  Tournai, Cathedral, 307
  Worms Cathedral, 258

Transoms (Gloss.), 290
  Château de Blois, 380
  English Renaissance, 414

Transverse beams (Gloss.), 8

Travertine (Gloss.), use of, 154, 175, 362

“Treatise on Civil Architecture,” (Sir William Chambers), 427

Trefoils, 290, 316

Triada, Palace at, 98

Triclinium (Gloss.), 181

Triforium (Gloss.), 290, 299, 304, 314

Triglyphs (Gloss.):
  Coloured, 136
  Doric entablature, in, 126
  Roman, 164

Triumphant Arches, _see_ Arch

Troubadours, 238, 331

Truss, 296

Tudor Gothic, 288

Tufa (Gloss.), 154, _see_ concrete

Tumuli (Gloss.), 13, 17

Turkish Architecture, 227

Turrets, Gothic, Italian, 312
  Château de Chambord, 381
  Houses of Parliament, 451
  Renaissance, French, 378
    German, 392
    Holland, 409
  Romanesque, Spanish, 260
  S. Sulpice, Church of, 389

Tuscan Orders, 155, 174

Tympanum (Gloss.), 135, 171


U

Uffizi, 354

United States, The:
  Beaux Arts Training, influence, 463, 464
  Capitol, Washington, 446
  Chicago Exposition, influence of, 465
  Christ Church, Philadelphia, 430
  Classical revival, 445
  Colonial architecture, 423, 429, 431
  Craigie House, 431
  Domestic Architecture, 468-9
  Engineering problems, 477
  English influence, 430
  French influence, 441, 445
  Gothic Revival, 452-3
  Imitative tendency, 466-8
  Office Buildings, 469, 475
  Old South Church, 430
  S. Paul’s, New York, 430
  Sherburn House, 431
  Steel Construction, 461, 470-7
  Trinity Church, New York, 452
  White House, The, 446
  Woolworth Building, 471, 476

Unity of design (Gloss.), 11, 174, 209, 245

“Universal Mirror,” _see_ “Speculum Universale”

Universities:
  Augsburg, 328
  Basel, 328
  Cambridge, 290, 295, 299
  Constantinople, 266
  Leyden, 334
  London, 438
  Nuremburg, 328
  Oxford, 257, 288, 293, 295, 299
  Salamanca, 399
  Strasburg, 328
  Virginia, 448

Urbino, 346

Urn, Burial, 155

Usertesen, Obelisk of, 43


V

Vases, Minoan, 90, 91, 97

Mycenæan, 89

Vatican:
  Borgia Apartments, 97
  Museum, 198
  Sistine Chapel, 374
  Stanze Apartments, 374

Vault (Gloss.), Vaulting:
  Amiens, at, 281, 284
  Asymmetries in, 69, 70
  Barrel vaults, 42, 70-1, 209, 242, 253, 260, 373
  Basilicas, in, 177
  Byzantine use of, 204, 208
  Certosa, The, in, 313
  Chaldæan, 71
  Cross Groined, 167, 178, 242, 250, 253, 271-2
  Decorated, 168
  Dome or semidome, 167
  Egyptian use of, 53
  Escoriál, in, 404
  Fan Vaults, 295
  Gothic, 270
    English, 287, 293, 298
    French, 252
    German, 304
    Italian, 314
    Lombard, 310
    Spanish, 309
  Groin, 178, 242, 250, 253
  Hindu use of, 230
  Liernes, 294
  Madeleine, in the, 443
  Muhammedan use of, 222, 229
  Norman use of, 256
  Nôtre Dame, 281
  Palais de Justice, Liège, 406
  Pendentive Vaults, 295
  Persian use of, 229
  Pointed Groin Vault, 253
  Renaissance, Spanish, 401
  Rib and panel, 294
  Rib Vault, 243, 249, 272
  Romanesque, 241-2
    Rhenish, 259
    Spanish, 260
  Roman use of, 166-7, 173, 175
  Rudimentary, 15
  S. Andrea, Mantua, 345, 368
  S. Lorenzo, Florence, 343
  S. Mark’s, Venice, 209
  S. Spirito, Florence, 367
  Sainte Chapelle, in, 285
  Semicylindrical, vaulting, 167
  Sexpartite, 254
  Skew Vault, 254
  Stellar vaulting, 294
  Temple of Diana, Nîmes, 170
  Tiercerons, 294

Vaults:
  Foundations of Adelphi Terrace, 428
  S. Francisco, Rimini, in, 345

Vega, Lope de, 330

Velarium, 174, 176

Veneer:
  Byzantine use of, 203
  Italian Gothic exterior, in, 311
  Muhammedan use of, 222
  Roman use of, 168
  S. Stefano Rotondo, in, 199
  Sphinx Temple, in, 41
  Turkish Mosques, in, 228

Venice:
  Byzantine Influence in, 352
  Ca d’Oro, 360
  Cornaro Palace, 354
  Doge’s Palace, 210, 315
  Gothic architecture, 315-16
  Gvimane Palace, 355
  Il Redentore, Church of, 352
  Library of San Giorgio, 344
  Library of San Marco, 354, 365
  Lido, Fortifications at, 355
  Renaissance in, 352-6
  S. Giorgio dei Greci, 354
  S. Giorgio Maggiore, 352
  S. Maria della Salute, 356
  S. Maria dei Miracoli, 353
  S. Mark’s, 209, 210, 248, 252
  S. Zaccaria, 353
  Scuolo di S. Marco, 354
  Trade centre, a, 265, 353
  Vendramini Palace, 354, 360
  Zecca, The, 354

Verandah, 432

Verona:
  Bevilacqua Palace, 355
  Canossa Palace, 355
  Pompeii Palace, 355

Vesta, Temple of, 160

Vestibules (Gloss.), 101, 102, 120

Vicenza, 351
  Mediæval Basilica, 352
  Palazzo Barbarano, 352
  Palazzo Capitania, 352

Villa Rotonda, 352

Villas:
  Chiswick on Thames, 352, 426
  Farnesina, the, 347
  House of Pansa, 181
  Pompeii, at, 181
  Pope Julius III, of, 348
  Roman Villas, 181, 400
  Villa Capra, 426
  Villa Madama, 347
  Villa of Hadrian, Tivoli, 180
  Villa Rotonda, 352

Vincent of Beauvais, writings of, 266, 312

Virgil, 436

Vitruvius, descriptions of, 122, 144, 155, 182, 351, 352

Vogüé, Marquis of, Explorations in Syria, 199

Volutes (Gloss.), 131
  Assyrian ornament, in, 131
  Ionic ornament, in, 130
  Persian ornament, in, 87
  Roman ornament, in, 164

Voussoirs (Gloss.):
  Cloaca Maxima, in, 156
  Concrete construction compared, 166
  Dome of Cathedral, Florence, in, 343
  Mosque of Kait Bey, in, 224

Vriendt, Cornelius de, book of ornament, 393


W

Wainscots (Gloss.):
  Alhambra, in, 227
  Colonial use, 432
  English Renaissance, in, 417
  Musée Plantin-Moretus, 408

Wall Decoration in marble:
  Chaldæan, 71-2
  Early Christian churches, 196
  Egyptian, 41, 48
  Florence, S. Maria Novella, 345
  Italian Gothic, 311, 316
  Renaissance use, 354, 393
  Romanesque use, 246, 249
  Roman use, 168, 172
  Turkish, 228
  Venetian use, 354

Wall Painting:
  Assyrian use of, 72
  Capitol, Washington, 447
  Cnossus, at, 93, 96, 97, 102, 123
  Egyptian use of, 45, 48
  English-Norman, 257
  Etruscan, 155
  Hellenic, 136
  Italian-Gothic, 311
  Minoan, 91
  Odeion of Herodes Atticus, 146
  Panthéon, Paris, 443
  Pyramid of Onas, 40
  Raphael’s Stanze, Vatican, 194,374
  Renaissance, in, 339
  Romans, use by, 168, 181
  S. Paul’s-without-the-walls, 197
  S. Stefano Rotondo, in, 199
  Tiryns, in, 102

Walter, Thomas Ustic, 447

Water, use of:
  Assyrian, 56
  Early Christian Churches, 194
  Egyptian, 30
  Minoan, 93, 97, 98, 101
  Muhammedan, 217, 218
  Persian, 86
  Roman, 176, 181, 182-3

Weighing Houses of Holland, 409

Winckelmann’s critical studies, 436

Windows:
  Alhambra, of, 226-7
  Anglo-Saxon, 254
  Angoulême, Cathedral of, 253
  Arcade type, 362
  Assyria, 70
  Blenheim Castle, of, 426
  Ca d’Oro, 360
  Campanile, of, 252
  Cancellaria, of, 363
  Casa Lonja, 402
  Château de Blois, 380
  Château de Chambord, 381
  Clerestory, 49
  Colonial, 431-2
  Crete, in, 93
  Cyrus’s Palace, 83
  Doge’s Palace, 316
  Doric Temple, 122, 126
  Egyptian use, 47, 50, 55
  Escoriál, the, 404
  Giralda, of the, 225
  Gothic, 274-276
    English, 290, 291
    German, 304, 316
    Italian, 310, 312
    Netherlandish, 307
  Hôtel des Invalides, of, 388
  Iffley Church, of, 257
  Lantern of Galla Placidia, 201
  Louvre, of the, 383, 384, 385
  Milan Cathedral, in, 313
  Modern necessity for, 438
  Muhammedan, 222
  Norman, 255
  Order type, 362
  Oriel, 414
  Palace of Charles V, in, 403
  Palace of Diocletian, in, 196
  Palazzo Riccardi, in, 359-60
    Vecchio, 359-60
    Vendramini, 360
  Palladian design, 370
  Perpendicular style, 271
  Primitive, 20
  Queen Anne Style, 424
  Renaissance, English, 414, 417
    French, 378
    German, 392-3, 395-6
    Spanish, 399, 400
  Romanesque treatment of, 242, 244, 245
    Spanish, 260
  Roman treatment of, 172, 178
  Rose or wheel, 251, 271
  S. Peter’s, of, 372
  S. Sophia’s, of, 208
  Sainte Chapelle, of, 285
  Sky-scrapers, of, 475
  Tampu Tocco, at, 19
  Tiryns, at, 101
  Venetian Renaissance, of, 362
  Whitehall Palace, of, 418
  Worms, Cathedral, of, 258
  Xerxes, Palace, of, 86
  York Minster, of, 298

Wings:
  Capitol, Washington, in, 446-7
  English Renaissance houses, in, 414
  Friedrichsbau, in, 394
  Heinrichsbau, in, 394
  Louvre, of the, 383, 444
  Luxembourg, of the, 387
  Whitehall, of, 418

Wyatt, 335

Wycliffe, 335


X

Xerxes I, of Persia, 76
  Invades Hellenic States, 108
  Palace, 85 _et seq._
  Tent, in Odeion of Pericles, 145


Z

Zecca (the mint), Venice, 354

Zeus, 101, 128
  Temple of, 111, 122

Ziggurat (Gloss.), 66-67, 73

Zoroaster, 78

Zoroastrianism, 78, 81




BIBLIOGRAPHY


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EGYPTIAN.

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FOOTNOTES:

[1] An exception occurs in a temple at =Assos=, where the architrave is
decorated.

[2] It was sometimes used in connection with the Doric order, as in the
case of the =Tholos at Epidauros=, where the internal circle of columns
is of the Corinthian order.

[3] A corresponding curvature in plan has also been discovered in
Egyptian architecture, for example, in the Second Temple Court at
=Medinct Abou=.

[4] Erected eighty years after the death of Euripides, whose plays,
like those of Æschylus and Sophocles, were performed in temporary
theatres.

[5] Note the similarity of this portico to the projection from the back
of an Elizabethan stage.

[6] The reader may be reminded that longitudinal is in the direction
of the nave from west to east, transverse, across the nave, at right
angles, while the “diagonals” span the bay obliquely.

[7] The above was written before the revolting desecration of Belgium
by the German invasion.








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