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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a669b23 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60710 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60710) diff --git a/old/60710-0.txt b/old/60710-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fa9cc33..0000000 --- a/old/60710-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1103 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of Groton State Forest, by -Robert A. Christman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Geology of Groton State Forest - -Author: Robert A. Christman - -Release Date: November 16, 2019 [EBook #60710] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GEOLOGY OF GROTON STATE FOREST *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Lisa Corcoran and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - [Illustration: Cover: Looking southward along Groton Pond from near - Stillwater Brook.] - - - - - THE GEOLOGY OF - GROTON STATE FOREST - - - _By_ - ROBERT A. CHRISTMAN - - - DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND PARKS - Perry H. Merrill, _Director_ - - VERMONT DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION - - VERMONT GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - Charles G. Doll, _State Geologist_ - - - 1956 - - - - - GEOLOGY OF GROTON STATE FOREST - - - _By_ - ROBERT A. CHRISTMAN - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -Geology is the study of the history of the earth as recorded in its -rocks. This study explains why certain types of rocks and minerals occur -at one place and not another, why the forms of the land differ from one -region to another, and why particular animal and plant remains are -sometimes preserved as fossils in certain kinds of rocks. The -professional geologist makes these studies his business; the amateur -finds these studies a fascinating hobby; but the uninitiated person -misses much of the pleasure of travel. Anyone who notices the difference -between rocks or terrains and wonders “why?”, has a potential for -geology. Many fall into this class and it is for them that this booklet -has been written. It is hoped that with its aid, the traveler or -vacationer may come to know something about the geology of Groton State -Forest. The author is confident that those who come into the habit of -observing nature and the world around them will find more meaning in -life itself. In any case, those traveling with children may find answers -to some of their questions about minerals, rocks and mountains. - -Groton State Forest is not a geologist’s paradise—as compared to -Yellowstone Park or the Grand Canyon—but it does contain interesting -rocks and land forms which can be explained geologically. In keeping -with the calm, subdued and mature atmosphere of the Vermont countryside, -the geology is unobtrusive. There are few jutting cliffs or bare rock -exposures; all is mantled with vegetation. If this vegetation could be -stripped away—admittedly, a postulation that would destroy the -wilderness and charm that belongs to Groton—boulders and gravelly -glacial deposits would be seen to fill the valleys. If in turn these -boulders and the soil could be stripped away, a continuous floor of rock -would be exposed. This would be a geologist’s paradise—square miles of -bare rock would be available for study. However, lacking the magic wand -to perform this feat, we must be satisfied to glean what information we -can from the existing rock exposures. - -To use a pun, it can be said that almost all the rocks found at Groton -State Forest can be taken for granite. As well as has been determined, -all the underlying rock is _granite_[1] and most of the boulders -deposited by glaciers of the last ice age are the same type of granite. -To avoid confusion in describing these rocks, the discussion has been -divided into two parts: the first deals with the granite of the bedrock, -and the second deals with the glaciation of the area and the deposits -resulting from it. A third section describes the geology in some of the -nearby areas. - - - - - GRANITE AND RELATED ROCKS - - -_Occurrence of the granite_ - -Ledges of light-colored granite occur at the summits of most of the -mountains and hills in the State Forest area and are found occasionally -at lower elevations. They are conspicuous on Owlshead, Silver Ledge, -Little Deer, Big Deer, Niggerhead and Spicer Mountains; smaller ledges -also occur on Kettle, and Little Spruce mountains, Hardwood Ridge and -the low hills east of Groton Pond. At lower elevations, granite is found -at the outlet of Groton Pond, along the railroad tracks west of Groton -Pond and at Stillwater Brook, along Osmore brook and at several other -minor locations. These locations are shown diagrammatically on the map -by a black dot. These dots indicate where the granite occurs but nothing -about the extent of the exposure. If every location of exposed rock were -marked with a dot, certain parts of the map, for instance, the west side -of Niggerhead, would be solid black and the contour lines which show the -elevation would be obscured completely. - -All these rocks are presumably part of one large mass of granite which -extends deep below the surface of the earth. Most of this body of -granite is hidden by the soil and bouldery glacial deposits, so that its -exact areal extent is not known. It appears likely that it extends to -the southwest to the vicinity of East Barre. - - -_Description of the granite_ - -The granite found at Groton State Forest is a gray to white, -medium-grained rock with the mineral grains all about the same size. -Surfaces exposed to weathering are generally darker in color and -frequently are covered with scales of dark colored lichen. If the rock -is broken to reveal an unaltered surface close examination will disclose -individual mineral grains of mica, feldspar and quartz. _Mica_ occurs as -very small plates which appear either white or colorless, called -_muscovite_, or as black shiny plates called _biotite_. The _feldspar_, -which is the most abundant mineral in the granite, has a chalky white -appearance and may occur as tabular grains which reflect light from -their flat surfaces when held in the proper position. _Quartz_, which -contains only silicon and oxygen, the two most common elements in the -earth’s crust, is a transparent, glassy mineral which has no flat -surfaces. It may appear gray because one can look down into the glassy -mineral where there is no light source. - -A specimen of granite from Owlshead was studied with a microscope after -it had been cut and ground to a thickness of only 0.03 millimeters. Many -minerals, which ordinarily appear to be opaque, are transparent when -ground this thin. By their various optical properties, the different -minerals can be identified and the composition of the rock can be -determined. Figure 1 shows a photograph, taken through a microscope, of -one of these thin sections of granite. By careful examination of the -thin section and by measuring the areal extent of the different minerals -present, the rock was determined to contain, by volume, 35 percent -quartz, 60 percent feldspar (in proportions of 25 percent _microcline_ -feldspar, KAlSi₃O₈ and 35 percent _plagioclase_ feldspar, NaAlSi₃O₈) and -5 percent mica (in proportions of 4 percent biotite and 1 percent -muscovite). Although it is a member of the granite family, this rock -should, in strict terminology, be called a quartz monzonite rather than -a granite to indicate more precisely the mineral composition. Because of -slight differences in composition, granite from the same body may -elsewhere be correctly called granodiorite, quartz diorite or granite -proper, depending on the relative amounts of the two feldspars and -quartz. In this report these close distinctions have not been made and -the rock is simply called granite. - - -_Cracks in the granite_ - -Two kinds of natural breaks, or cracks, occur in the granite in the -State Forest area. _Joints_ are breaks which occur along plane surfaces -and _exfoliation_ is the name given to the breakage along curved -surfaces related to the exposure of the rock. Granite, as contrasted -with other rocks, is characterized by its uniformity of texture and -massiveness, so that any cracks present are conspicuous. - - [Illustration: Figure 1. Photomicrograph of a thin section of - granite from Owlshead Mountain. The mineral with the grid pattern - (upper left) is a feldspar named microcline which has the - composition of KAlSi₃O₈. The one with the indistinct striped pattern - (lower center) is a feldspar named plagioclase, variety oligoclase, - which has the composition of approximately NaAlSi₃O₈. The patterns - for these minerals result from different portions of the same - mineral grain having different orientations, called twinning, so as - to give a different optical appearance. The clear white mineral - (right center) is quartz. The dark gray mineral with the fine lines - (upper center) is biotite and the smaller, lighter-colored, elongate - mineral to the right of the biotite is muscovite. The other minerals - are feldspar and quartz in different orientations. The actual - diameter of the clear white quartz grain (right center) is about - four-tenths of a millimeter so that the photograph is a - magnification of about one hundred.] - -Joints are more conspicuous of the two types, and typically belong to a -general system so that at a given location they tend to be parallel. On -top of Owlshead, for example, the most prominent joints trend N.25°W. -(read: North twenty-five degrees to the west) with dips[2] that are -vertical or dipping steeply to the southwest. Another set of joints -trends N.10°E. with dips that are vertical or dipping steeply to the -southwest. Joints represent the breakage of the rock due to stress and -strain. Some joints result from tensional forces set up within the rock -itself by contraction due to cooling of the originally hot solidified -rock. Other joints result from larger-scale forces within the earth’s -crust which cause earthquakes and general movement of land masses. An -exhaustive study of all the rocks in a large area would be required to -determine conclusively the origin of the joints on Owlshead. - -In addition to the nearly vertical joints, a third set of nearly -horizontal joints may be observed on cliffs. These joints are called -_sheeting_ and apparently are related to the depth from a former -topographic surface which existed at the time the sheeting originated. -The vertical joints and sheeting are important qualities of a rock to be -considered in choosing a rock for commercial quarrying. Not only do -these factors effect the ease of quarrying, but they also determine the -amount of waste material which would have to be removed and discarded -because of poor size and shape. - -Exfoliation is the term for breakage due to the disintegration caused by -decomposition of the rock on surfaces exposed to the weather. It is -characterized by the scaling off of concentric shells of altered rock to -produce a convex surface. Rocks showing exfoliation surfaces are not -common at Groton. One of the best developed exfoliation surfaces, -illustrated in Figure 2, occurs at the base of the cliffs on the south -side of Owlshead Mountain. - -Once joints have formed, they are enlarged by weathering. In particular, -rocks are pushed apart by a “frost wedging.” When water freezes it -expands by about one-tenth of its volume. If it is confined it may exert -a pressure of as much as 138 tons per square foot. In this manner, huge -blocks may be pushed apart. If they are at the edge of a cliff, or part -of the cliff itself, they may eventually break off and fall to the slope -below. The accumulation of broken rock at the base of a cliff is called -_talus_. - - -_Origin and age of the granite_ - -The granite originated in the interior of the earth many million years -ago as a molten mass, called _magma_. This magma moved upward through -the earth’s crust by a process of melting the pre-existing rock or by -forcefully pushing it aside. When it reached its present position it -became cooler and minerals began to crystallize out. However, as is -shown in Figure 3, it is important to understand that the surface of the -land was not in its present position and that the magma actually cooled -beneath a considerable thickness of other rocks. These overlying rocks, -now gone, acted as an insulator and prevented the magma from cooling too -quickly. If the magma had risen through these rocks and reached their -upper surface, it would have formed a lava flow similar to those of -present-day volcanoes and would have cooled much more rapidly. Rocks -formed near the surface are characterized either by being fine-grained -without visible crystals or by having a few large crystals in a -fine-grained matrix; they never have a uniformly, -medium-to-coarse-grained texture. Thus, the texture of the granite at -Groton State Forest proves that it cooled slowly and indicates that, at -the time of cooling, the granite was not at the surface. This is a -reasonable postulation because studies of the regional geology indicate -that a large amount of rock has been removed from this area by erosion -through the long periods of geologic time. - - [Illustration: Figure 2. Exfoliation surface on the south side of - Owlshead Mountain. Joints, of the sheeting type, are visible in the - granite cliff. The decomposition of the granite by weathering in the - niches has resulted in small patches of soil. The boy in the upper - right gives the scale.] - - [Illustration: Figure 3. Sequence of events at Groton State Forest - shown diagrammatically.] - - [Illustration: A. The Waits River Formation and other younger - formations are deposited from a shallow sea during Ordovician time.] - - YOUNGER FORMATIONS - WAITS RIVER FORMATION - - [Illustration: B. The sedimentary rocks are folded and metamorphosed - and the granite is intruded into the older rocks and crystallizes - during Devonian time.] - - WAITS RIVER FORMATION - GRANITE - - [Illustration: C. Erosion removes much of the rock from the area.] - - GRANITE - - [Illustration: D. During the ice age, continental glaciers move over - the land and erosion by the ice forms Owlshead Mountain and the - basin for Groton Pond.] - - ICE - GRANITE - - [Illustration: E. Present topography, exaggerated.] - - OWLSHEAD MOUNTAIN - RICKER MILLS - -Evidence that the granite was emplaced into the older rocks of the -earth’s crust can be seen at certain locations outside of the State -Forest. At Ricker Mills, for example, narrow bodies of granite can be -seen cross cutting the older rocks. A fuller description of the geology -at Ricker Mills is given in a later section of this report. Another type -of evidence showing that the granite came into older rocks is found in -the occurrence of fragments of older rock incorporated into the granite. -These are called _inclusions_ and represent broken pieces of older rock -which were enveloped by the granite. Inclusions are like peach slices in -jello in that the surrounding material solidified after they were -dropped in. Inclusions were observed in rocks on top of Kettle and Jerry -Lund Mountains. - -Near the covered picnic shelter at Ricker Pond, one of the large granite -boulders deposited by the glacier contains inclusions. Although this -boulder has been moved from its original occurrence, it probably has not -moved far as it is composed of the white granite which is typical of the -area. It is cut by several pegmatitic dikes. The most interesting -feature is the occurrence of inclusions of elongate, layered bands of -older rocks of gray to dark gray _schist_.[3] These relations are shown -in the sketch of this boulder in Figure 4. A careful examination of the -schist inclusions reveals that they contain small plates of biotite in a -fine matrix of quartz and more mica. The contact between the schist and -granite is gradational at places because when the rock was formed the -hot molten granite was in the process of melting the solid schist. The -schist resembles the rock which occurred in this area before the granite -was intruded and which occurs in nearby areas where no granite is -exposed. Older rocks of somewhat similar appearance can be seen at -Ricker Mills and on top of Jerry Lund Mountain. - -The composition of the granite at Groton State Forest is nearly the same -as that which occurs throughout this region of Vermont. Incomplete -mapping suggests that the granite at Groton is part of a large mass -which extends to the southwest to the vicinity of East Barre. -Undoubtedly all the granitic rocks of this region are related although -they are not continuous at the surface. They were all emplaced at about -the same time following a mountain-building episode in which the older -rocks were folded and metamorphosed. On the geologic time scale, the -granites were emplaced near the end of the Devonian period which is -estimated to be more than 300 million years ago. - - [Illustration: Figure 4. Sketch of boulder of granite containing - pegmatite band and schist inclusions at picnic area at Ricker Pond.] - - GRANITE - PEGMATITE - SCHIST - - -_Aplite and pegmatite_ - -Two other types of igneous rocks called aplite and pegmatite occur -sparingly in Groton State Forest. Both of these are productions of -crystallization of residual fluids or late stage magma related to the -granite. These were emplaced along cracks or planes of weakness in the -granite after the granite had solidified. When viewed from the surface -the aplite or pegmatite generally appear as bands cutting through the -granite. However, when the third-dimension is considered it is easily -realized that they are tabular or sheet-like in shape. Igneous rock -masses having these dimensions are called _dikes_. At Groton most of the -dikes are nearly vertical with a thickness ranging from less than an -inch to more than several feet and extending for considerable distances. -On Owlshead, one of these dikes is nearly three feet thick. The extent -of these dikes is not known because they are only partly exposed, in -that they extend beyond the limited areas of rock exposure. - - [Illustration: GROTON STATE FOREST] - - DREW MTN - NIGGERHEAD MTN - BLAKE HILL - NIGGERHEAD BROOK - KETTLE MTN - SPICER MTN - OWLSHEAD MTN - KETTLE POND - STILLWATER BK. - HARDWOOD RIDGE - BEAVER BROOK - SILVER LEDGE - LITTLE SPRUCE MTN - PEACHAM POND - DEER MTN - DEVIL’S HILL - PEACHAM BOG - LITTLE DEER MTN - OSMORE BK. - COLDWATER BK. - GROTON POND - JERRY LUND MTN - RICKER POND - RICKER MILLS - EXPLANATION - GRANITE EXPOSURES - SCHIST EXPOSURES - TRAIL - RAILROAD - SWAMPY AREAS - CONTOUR LINE WITH ELEVATION - CONTOUR INTERVAL IS 100 FEET - TOPOGRAPHY FROM U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MAPS - BY ROBERT CHRISTMAN - -The _pegmatite_ dikes are coarse-grained, in some cases consisting of -individual mineral grains as much as two to four inches in diameter. The -mineral composition of the pegmatites is nearly the same as the granite, -except that biotite is usually absent. Because of their larger grain -size, the minerals can be recognized more easily in pegmatites than in -either granite or aplite. Quartz is glassy and breaks with smooth curved -fractures. Feldspar is chalky white, or pink, and may occur as tabular -crystals with straight-line contacts. It tends to break along definite -intersecting planes which can be seen in their reflecting position. -Muscovite occurs as “books” of semi-transparent leaves. The large -“books” of muscovite are particularly interesting because of the -fascinating fact that a mineral sheet can be split along a given planar -direction into thinner and thinner sheets until they are too thin to -handle. Theoretically the mineral might be split into sheets only as -thick as one layer of atoms. The ability of a mineral to break along -definite planes is related to its atomic structure and is called -_cleavage_. The cleavage in mica is perfect, whereas the cleavage in -feldspar is only poorly developed, and quartz does not possess cleavage -at all. - -The _aplite_ dikes are composed of nearly the same minerals as granite -except that the average grain size is smaller. They are characterized by -the absence of dark minerals and muscovite and by a high quartz content -which gives the rock a “sugary” appearance. Most of the aplite dikes are -less than six inches thick. - -Inasmuch as the pegmatite and aplite dikes both cut through the granite, -they both must be younger in age than the granite. As is shown by the -relations between these two types on Owlshead (reproduced in Figure 5), -the pegmatite dike is younger because it cuts across the aplite dike. -This is the general age relationship for these dikes in this age. - - [Illustration: Figure 5. Sketch showing aplite and pegmatite dikes - in the granite on Owlshead Mountain. The cross cutting relations - show that the pegmatite is youngest and that aplite is younger than - the granite but older than the pegmatite. In the distance is Kettle - Pond and Kettle Mountain.] - - GRANITE - APLITE - PEGMATITE - - - - - GLACIATION - - -Although the causes of the ice ages remain a matter for conjecture, the -fact is established that the northern part of North America was covered -by a thick sheet of moving ice several different times beginning about a -million years ago. As the effect of the last glaciation erased much of -the evidence of previous glaciations, the present topography can be -related to that last one. Rather accurate dating by measuring the -radioactive decay of Carbon 14, indicates that the ice of the last -glaciation retreated from the area about 12,000 years ago. Because the -climates between the four glaciations were as warm, if not warmer, than -our present-day climate, geologists have speculated that the world may -now be in a warm period and that another ice age is scheduled to occur -some time in the distant future. - -The effect of continental glaciation upon a land mass is twofold. First, -the glaciation acts as an erosive agent which tends to scoop out the -areas of softer rock and wear down the areas of more resistant rock. -Secondly, when the glacier begins to melt, it drops large quantities of -gravel and boulders which had become incorporated within the glacier. -Most of this material is picked up by the glacier as it moves over the -land; some falls onto the glacier where it occupies a valley. Some of -the sand, gravel and boulder deposits left by the glacier are -distinctive in form and composition and others are characterized by -their complete lack of distinctive shapes, and the utterly chaotic -nature of the material deposited. The deposits at Groton State Forest -seem to be the latter type. - - -_Erosion and deposition by the glacier_ - -The shape of Spicer, Owlshead, Little Deer and Big Deer mountains are -primarily the result of the erosive action of the glacier as it -continually moved southward over the land for a great number of years -during the last glaciation. When a continental glacier encounters a hill -or mountain of resistant rock, it tends to scour the rock on the up-ice -side of the hill and to “pluck out” the rocks on the leeward side. For -this reason these mountains have broad gentle slopes on the side from -which the glacier came and they drop off sharply on the side from which -material was removed by plucking action. The last part of Figure 3 -illustrates how these mountains may have been formed. Such prominent -rock exposures which have been subjected to glacial erosion originally -showed deep scratches, called _glacial striae_, cut by cobbles dragged -along the bottom of the glacier. Unfortunately, on most prominences in -Groton State Forest exfoliation of the rock has erased these markings; -but it is possible that striae may be found on recently uncovered rock -exposures. - -The depressions in which Groton and Osmore ponds are located probably -represent areas in which the glacier scooped out material to a greater -depth than elsewhere either because of channeling of bottom flow between -topographically prominent features, or because of subtle differences in -rock hardness. - -When the glacier retreated, that is when it was melting faster than it -was advancing, it dropped material in a helter-skelter manner. _End -moraines_, which are ridges of gravel formed where the front of the -glacier was stationary because of a close balance between rates of -movement and melting, are not evident in Groton State Forest. As far as -can be determined, the material was deposited irregularly over the -entire area, so that boulders dropped by the glacier are found -everywhere. These are particularly noticeable around the lakes where the -fine material has been removed and the soil and forest cover does not -hide the boulders. - -Almost all of the boulders deposited by the glacier are composed of -white granite similar to the rock which underlies the entire area. This -indicates that most of the boulders have not been transported very far. -However, occasionally boulders are found which are not characteristic of -the area and represent rocks brought in from the north. Such boulders -which are foreign to the area in which they are found are called -_erratics_. Most erratics in this area are dark-colored metamorphosed -rocks in which the minerals are oriented to give the rock a layered -pattern. These are called either _gneisses_ or _schists_ depending on -whether the layering is coarse or fine. Deposits of the glacier are -exposed in two gravel or sand pits near the Stillwater Camp site. These -deposits are composed principally of sand but contain scattered boulders -of different sizes. A few erratics are found in these -deposits—particularly a variety of rock which weathers to a soft, brown -porous mass resembling decayed wood. These sandy deposits probably were -plastered onto the ground from the sole of the creeping glacier or were -simply let down as the glacier wasted away. - -Because of the irregular manner in which the glacier may deposit its -load of sand and gravel, the topography in such areas is uneven and -characterized by poor drainage. At a number of places in Groton swampy -areas occur at higher elevation which might normally be expected to be -well-drained. Some of these areas have become the sites of beaver dams -because they are ideal for damming up the water. - - - - - GEOLOGY OF NEARBY AREAS - - -_Ricker Mills_ - -Just south of the park at Ricker Mills some of the oldest rocks in the -area are exposed in the railroad cut just north of the highway crossing. -These rocks belong to a thick sequence of similar rocks which are -collectively called the _Waits River formation_. Studies in other areas -indicate that these rocks belong to the portion of geologic time called -the Ordovician period which was more than 350 million years ago. - -The Waits River formation represents a series of sediments which -accumulated at the bottom of a shallow sea during Ordovician time. These -sediments included both limy and sandy beds, and fossils may originally -have been preserved in some of the beds. Sediments of other types later -accumulated over the Waits River formation during a long period of -geologic time, so that eventually the formation became deeply buried. -(See Figure 3.) The sea retreated and the rocks were subjected to high -pressure and temperatures during a period of mountain-building. The -rocks which had been sedimentary were folded and converted to -_metamorphic rocks_ by partial melting and recrystallization of the -components. As a result the rocks became schists or marbles. Any fossils -which may have been present were destroyed or badly altered in the -process. This is unfortunate because valuable geologic information as -the age of the rocks can be determined from the type of fossils present. - -The rocks of the Waits River formation at Ricker Mills are dominantly -mica schists with layers containing limy material. These are too impure -to be considered marble but enough lime is present so that they react -strongly with acid, a test for detecting the presence of lime. The -schists principally contain quartz, biotite, calcite (lime) with lesser -amounts of muscovite, feldspar and impurities. The rocks weather to dark -colors; the gray limy beds are particularly susceptible to weathering -and turn dark brown to black on the surface. When more lime is present, -the rock weathers to a deep brown porous rock which resembles decayed -wood. Some boulders of these altered limestones are found in the glacial -deposits in the State Forest. - -An additional factor which makes the rocks in the railroad cut at Ricker -Mills look “messy” is the iron and manganese staining and the formation -of mineral crusts on the surface of the rocks through the action of -ground water. Rain water falling on the hills above passes through the -soils, dissolving minerals, and precipitating them where the water seeps -out and evaporates at the lower level of the railroad tracks. - -The schists trend about N.80°W. and dip about 30° to the northeast. -Along the length of the rock exposures it can be seen that this dip is -not constant but varies from 10 to 30°. The variation in dip gives the -schists a wavy appearance. - -At two places along the railroad cut, the schist has been intruded by -granite. As is shown in Figure 6, which is a sketch of the rocks exposed -on the east side of the railroad, the granite forms vertical dikes. As -the schist ends abruptly at the contact of the granite, this indicates -that the granite formed after the schist. The granite is nearly the same -as the granite in Groton State Forest except that the mica is muscovite -rather than biotite. For this reason the granite is lighter in color on -fresh surfaces. In general the exterior is dark in color due to the -staining of iron from weathering of the mineral pyrite, an iron sulfide, -which occurs in small amounts in the granite. - - -_Jerry Lund Mountain_ - -On top of Jerry Lund Mountain occur other outcrops of the Waits River -formation and granite. Their exact relationships cannot be seen easily -because of the thick vegetation. The Waits River formation on Jerry Lund -Mountain is composed principally of quartz mica schist. - - - - - TRIPS TO TAKE - - -_Hiking in the State Forest_ - -The hike from the end of the road to the top of Owlshead Mountain takes -only ten to fifteen minutes. A splendid view of the surrounding area, -particularly Groton and Kettle ponds, is obtained from here. If -possible, everyone who visits the park should take this short walk. The -granite is well-exposed at the summit and dikes of aplite and pegmatite -may be seen. - -The more venturesome park visitor will want to make other trips away -from the “beaten path” into the wilderness of the Vermont woods. The -principal difficulty arises in that the wilderness is so real a person -may well become lost if he strays too far from the trails. Some of the -trails have become overgrown so that they are difficult to follow and -portions of others have been destroyed by the damming up of brooks by -the beavers. It is suggested that in planning hikes information be -obtained from the park superintendent about the condition of the various -trails. - - [Illustration: Figure 6. Diagrammatic sketch showing the relations - between the schist of the Waits River formation and the granite on - the east side of the railroad cut, at Ricker Mills.] - - GRANITE - WAITS RIVER FORMATION - -An interesting hike can be made from Osmore Pond to Deer Mountain but as -the trail is poorly marked, one must maintain a sense of direction. From -the Osmore picnic area walk south near the shore of the pond to its -outlet into Osmore Brook. At this point turn left to the northeast and -follow the trail which parallels a wire marking the edge of the game -preserve. About three-fourths of a mile from Osmore Brook the trail -meets another trail at right angles. To the left the trail follows the -game preserve boundary northwestward. The trail to the right leads -directly to the top of Deer Mountain where a view may be obtained on the -south side of the summit. As an alternate route for returning, follow -the trail along the game preserve to the northwest. Some distance beyond -a shelter-lean-to the trail divides several times with the main trail -leading to Blake Hill and other trails to the left leading to the Osmore -Pond road. - -A hike along the trail on the north side of Kettle Pond to the -shelter-lean-tos makes a pleasant trip along the water. Also, the trail -from Owlshead Mountain to Osmore Pond is convenient for a short hike -through the woods, if the trail can be found. - - -_Quarries at East Barre_ - -The granite quarries at East Barre are in nearly the same type of rock -as that which occurs at Groton State Forest. The quarry operations are -interesting and educational and the quarries afford a good opportunity -of seeing fresh, unaltered specimens of granite. Guide service is -offered at some of the quarries. - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]_Granite_ is a type of igneous rock consisting of large interlocking - grains of light-colored minerals. Rocks are classified as being - either igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. _Igneous_ rocks form by - the solidification of molten material; _sedimentary_ rocks form by - the accumulation of sediments derived from older rocks; and - _metamorphic_ rocks form by the recrystallization of older rocks - under conditions of high temperatures and pressures. - -[2]_Dip_ is the inclination of a surface as, for example, a joint - surface described above. - -[3]_Schist_ is the name given to rocks in which the minerals have a - parallel alignment due to reorganization of the rock constituents - during a condition of high temperature and pressure. The platy - minerals, like mica, form at right angles to the pressure so that - the resulting rock may have a “bedded” appearance. - - - [Illustration: Looking northwest over Groton Pond toward Owlshead - Mountain] - - [Illustration: Looking north over Groton Pond toward Little Deer - Mountain] - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of Groton State Forest, by -Robert A. 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Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/60710-0.zip b/old/60710-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0bc002a..0000000 --- a/old/60710-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/60710-8.txt b/old/60710-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 79b7002..0000000 --- a/old/60710-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1103 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of Groton State Forest, by -Robert A. Christman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Geology of Groton State Forest - -Author: Robert A. Christman - -Release Date: November 16, 2019 [EBook #60710] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GEOLOGY OF GROTON STATE FOREST *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Lisa Corcoran and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - [Illustration: Cover: Looking southward along Groton Pond from near - Stillwater Brook.] - - - - - THE GEOLOGY OF - GROTON STATE FOREST - - - _By_ - ROBERT A. CHRISTMAN - - - DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND PARKS - Perry H. Merrill, _Director_ - - VERMONT DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION - - VERMONT GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - Charles G. Doll, _State Geologist_ - - - 1956 - - - - - GEOLOGY OF GROTON STATE FOREST - - - _By_ - ROBERT A. CHRISTMAN - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -Geology is the study of the history of the earth as recorded in its -rocks. This study explains why certain types of rocks and minerals occur -at one place and not another, why the forms of the land differ from one -region to another, and why particular animal and plant remains are -sometimes preserved as fossils in certain kinds of rocks. The -professional geologist makes these studies his business; the amateur -finds these studies a fascinating hobby; but the uninitiated person -misses much of the pleasure of travel. Anyone who notices the difference -between rocks or terrains and wonders "why?", has a potential for -geology. Many fall into this class and it is for them that this booklet -has been written. It is hoped that with its aid, the traveler or -vacationer may come to know something about the geology of Groton State -Forest. The author is confident that those who come into the habit of -observing nature and the world around them will find more meaning in -life itself. In any case, those traveling with children may find answers -to some of their questions about minerals, rocks and mountains. - -Groton State Forest is not a geologist's paradise--as compared to -Yellowstone Park or the Grand Canyon--but it does contain interesting -rocks and land forms which can be explained geologically. In keeping -with the calm, subdued and mature atmosphere of the Vermont countryside, -the geology is unobtrusive. There are few jutting cliffs or bare rock -exposures; all is mantled with vegetation. If this vegetation could be -stripped away--admittedly, a postulation that would destroy the -wilderness and charm that belongs to Groton--boulders and gravelly -glacial deposits would be seen to fill the valleys. If in turn these -boulders and the soil could be stripped away, a continuous floor of rock -would be exposed. This would be a geologist's paradise--square miles of -bare rock would be available for study. However, lacking the magic wand -to perform this feat, we must be satisfied to glean what information we -can from the existing rock exposures. - -To use a pun, it can be said that almost all the rocks found at Groton -State Forest can be taken for granite. As well as has been determined, -all the underlying rock is _granite_[1] and most of the boulders -deposited by glaciers of the last ice age are the same type of granite. -To avoid confusion in describing these rocks, the discussion has been -divided into two parts: the first deals with the granite of the bedrock, -and the second deals with the glaciation of the area and the deposits -resulting from it. A third section describes the geology in some of the -nearby areas. - - - - - GRANITE AND RELATED ROCKS - - -_Occurrence of the granite_ - -Ledges of light-colored granite occur at the summits of most of the -mountains and hills in the State Forest area and are found occasionally -at lower elevations. They are conspicuous on Owlshead, Silver Ledge, -Little Deer, Big Deer, Niggerhead and Spicer Mountains; smaller ledges -also occur on Kettle, and Little Spruce mountains, Hardwood Ridge and -the low hills east of Groton Pond. At lower elevations, granite is found -at the outlet of Groton Pond, along the railroad tracks west of Groton -Pond and at Stillwater Brook, along Osmore brook and at several other -minor locations. These locations are shown diagrammatically on the map -by a black dot. These dots indicate where the granite occurs but nothing -about the extent of the exposure. If every location of exposed rock were -marked with a dot, certain parts of the map, for instance, the west side -of Niggerhead, would be solid black and the contour lines which show the -elevation would be obscured completely. - -All these rocks are presumably part of one large mass of granite which -extends deep below the surface of the earth. Most of this body of -granite is hidden by the soil and bouldery glacial deposits, so that its -exact areal extent is not known. It appears likely that it extends to -the southwest to the vicinity of East Barre. - - -_Description of the granite_ - -The granite found at Groton State Forest is a gray to white, -medium-grained rock with the mineral grains all about the same size. -Surfaces exposed to weathering are generally darker in color and -frequently are covered with scales of dark colored lichen. If the rock -is broken to reveal an unaltered surface close examination will disclose -individual mineral grains of mica, feldspar and quartz. _Mica_ occurs as -very small plates which appear either white or colorless, called -_muscovite_, or as black shiny plates called _biotite_. The _feldspar_, -which is the most abundant mineral in the granite, has a chalky white -appearance and may occur as tabular grains which reflect light from -their flat surfaces when held in the proper position. _Quartz_, which -contains only silicon and oxygen, the two most common elements in the -earth's crust, is a transparent, glassy mineral which has no flat -surfaces. It may appear gray because one can look down into the glassy -mineral where there is no light source. - -A specimen of granite from Owlshead was studied with a microscope after -it had been cut and ground to a thickness of only 0.03 millimeters. Many -minerals, which ordinarily appear to be opaque, are transparent when -ground this thin. By their various optical properties, the different -minerals can be identified and the composition of the rock can be -determined. Figure 1 shows a photograph, taken through a microscope, of -one of these thin sections of granite. By careful examination of the -thin section and by measuring the areal extent of the different minerals -present, the rock was determined to contain, by volume, 35 percent -quartz, 60 percent feldspar (in proportions of 25 percent _microcline_ -feldspar, KAlSi_3O_8 and 35 percent _plagioclase_ feldspar, NaAlSi_3O_8) -and 5 percent mica (in proportions of 4 percent biotite and 1 percent -muscovite). Although it is a member of the granite family, this rock -should, in strict terminology, be called a quartz monzonite rather than -a granite to indicate more precisely the mineral composition. Because of -slight differences in composition, granite from the same body may -elsewhere be correctly called granodiorite, quartz diorite or granite -proper, depending on the relative amounts of the two feldspars and -quartz. In this report these close distinctions have not been made and -the rock is simply called granite. - - -_Cracks in the granite_ - -Two kinds of natural breaks, or cracks, occur in the granite in the -State Forest area. _Joints_ are breaks which occur along plane surfaces -and _exfoliation_ is the name given to the breakage along curved -surfaces related to the exposure of the rock. Granite, as contrasted -with other rocks, is characterized by its uniformity of texture and -massiveness, so that any cracks present are conspicuous. - - [Illustration: Figure 1. Photomicrograph of a thin section of - granite from Owlshead Mountain. The mineral with the grid pattern - (upper left) is a feldspar named microcline which has the - composition of KAlSi_3O_8. The one with the indistinct striped - pattern (lower center) is a feldspar named plagioclase, variety - oligoclase, which has the composition of approximately NaAlSi_3O_8. - The patterns for these minerals result from different portions of - the same mineral grain having different orientations, called - twinning, so as to give a different optical appearance. The clear - white mineral (right center) is quartz. The dark gray mineral with - the fine lines (upper center) is biotite and the smaller, - lighter-colored, elongate mineral to the right of the biotite is - muscovite. The other minerals are feldspar and quartz in different - orientations. The actual diameter of the clear white quartz grain - (right center) is about four-tenths of a millimeter so that the - photograph is a magnification of about one hundred.] - -Joints are more conspicuous of the two types, and typically belong to a -general system so that at a given location they tend to be parallel. On -top of Owlshead, for example, the most prominent joints trend N.25W. -(read: North twenty-five degrees to the west) with dips[2] that are -vertical or dipping steeply to the southwest. Another set of joints -trends N.10E. with dips that are vertical or dipping steeply to the -southwest. Joints represent the breakage of the rock due to stress and -strain. Some joints result from tensional forces set up within the rock -itself by contraction due to cooling of the originally hot solidified -rock. Other joints result from larger-scale forces within the earth's -crust which cause earthquakes and general movement of land masses. An -exhaustive study of all the rocks in a large area would be required to -determine conclusively the origin of the joints on Owlshead. - -In addition to the nearly vertical joints, a third set of nearly -horizontal joints may be observed on cliffs. These joints are called -_sheeting_ and apparently are related to the depth from a former -topographic surface which existed at the time the sheeting originated. -The vertical joints and sheeting are important qualities of a rock to be -considered in choosing a rock for commercial quarrying. Not only do -these factors effect the ease of quarrying, but they also determine the -amount of waste material which would have to be removed and discarded -because of poor size and shape. - -Exfoliation is the term for breakage due to the disintegration caused by -decomposition of the rock on surfaces exposed to the weather. It is -characterized by the scaling off of concentric shells of altered rock to -produce a convex surface. Rocks showing exfoliation surfaces are not -common at Groton. One of the best developed exfoliation surfaces, -illustrated in Figure 2, occurs at the base of the cliffs on the south -side of Owlshead Mountain. - -Once joints have formed, they are enlarged by weathering. In particular, -rocks are pushed apart by a "frost wedging." When water freezes it -expands by about one-tenth of its volume. If it is confined it may exert -a pressure of as much as 138 tons per square foot. In this manner, huge -blocks may be pushed apart. If they are at the edge of a cliff, or part -of the cliff itself, they may eventually break off and fall to the slope -below. The accumulation of broken rock at the base of a cliff is called -_talus_. - - -_Origin and age of the granite_ - -The granite originated in the interior of the earth many million years -ago as a molten mass, called _magma_. This magma moved upward through -the earth's crust by a process of melting the pre-existing rock or by -forcefully pushing it aside. When it reached its present position it -became cooler and minerals began to crystallize out. However, as is -shown in Figure 3, it is important to understand that the surface of the -land was not in its present position and that the magma actually cooled -beneath a considerable thickness of other rocks. These overlying rocks, -now gone, acted as an insulator and prevented the magma from cooling too -quickly. If the magma had risen through these rocks and reached their -upper surface, it would have formed a lava flow similar to those of -present-day volcanoes and would have cooled much more rapidly. Rocks -formed near the surface are characterized either by being fine-grained -without visible crystals or by having a few large crystals in a -fine-grained matrix; they never have a uniformly, -medium-to-coarse-grained texture. Thus, the texture of the granite at -Groton State Forest proves that it cooled slowly and indicates that, at -the time of cooling, the granite was not at the surface. This is a -reasonable postulation because studies of the regional geology indicate -that a large amount of rock has been removed from this area by erosion -through the long periods of geologic time. - - [Illustration: Figure 2. Exfoliation surface on the south side of - Owlshead Mountain. Joints, of the sheeting type, are visible in the - granite cliff. The decomposition of the granite by weathering in the - niches has resulted in small patches of soil. The boy in the upper - right gives the scale.] - - [Illustration: Figure 3. Sequence of events at Groton State Forest - shown diagrammatically.] - - [Illustration: A. The Waits River Formation and other younger - formations are deposited from a shallow sea during Ordovician time.] - - YOUNGER FORMATIONS - WAITS RIVER FORMATION - - [Illustration: B. The sedimentary rocks are folded and metamorphosed - and the granite is intruded into the older rocks and crystallizes - during Devonian time.] - - WAITS RIVER FORMATION - GRANITE - - [Illustration: C. Erosion removes much of the rock from the area.] - - GRANITE - - [Illustration: D. During the ice age, continental glaciers move over - the land and erosion by the ice forms Owlshead Mountain and the - basin for Groton Pond.] - - ICE - GRANITE - - [Illustration: E. Present topography, exaggerated.] - - OWLSHEAD MOUNTAIN - RICKER MILLS - -Evidence that the granite was emplaced into the older rocks of the -earth's crust can be seen at certain locations outside of the State -Forest. At Ricker Mills, for example, narrow bodies of granite can be -seen cross cutting the older rocks. A fuller description of the geology -at Ricker Mills is given in a later section of this report. Another type -of evidence showing that the granite came into older rocks is found in -the occurrence of fragments of older rock incorporated into the granite. -These are called _inclusions_ and represent broken pieces of older rock -which were enveloped by the granite. Inclusions are like peach slices in -jello in that the surrounding material solidified after they were -dropped in. Inclusions were observed in rocks on top of Kettle and Jerry -Lund Mountains. - -Near the covered picnic shelter at Ricker Pond, one of the large granite -boulders deposited by the glacier contains inclusions. Although this -boulder has been moved from its original occurrence, it probably has not -moved far as it is composed of the white granite which is typical of the -area. It is cut by several pegmatitic dikes. The most interesting -feature is the occurrence of inclusions of elongate, layered bands of -older rocks of gray to dark gray _schist_.[3] These relations are shown -in the sketch of this boulder in Figure 4. A careful examination of the -schist inclusions reveals that they contain small plates of biotite in a -fine matrix of quartz and more mica. The contact between the schist and -granite is gradational at places because when the rock was formed the -hot molten granite was in the process of melting the solid schist. The -schist resembles the rock which occurred in this area before the granite -was intruded and which occurs in nearby areas where no granite is -exposed. Older rocks of somewhat similar appearance can be seen at -Ricker Mills and on top of Jerry Lund Mountain. - -The composition of the granite at Groton State Forest is nearly the same -as that which occurs throughout this region of Vermont. Incomplete -mapping suggests that the granite at Groton is part of a large mass -which extends to the southwest to the vicinity of East Barre. -Undoubtedly all the granitic rocks of this region are related although -they are not continuous at the surface. They were all emplaced at about -the same time following a mountain-building episode in which the older -rocks were folded and metamorphosed. On the geologic time scale, the -granites were emplaced near the end of the Devonian period which is -estimated to be more than 300 million years ago. - - [Illustration: Figure 4. Sketch of boulder of granite containing - pegmatite band and schist inclusions at picnic area at Ricker Pond.] - - GRANITE - PEGMATITE - SCHIST - - -_Aplite and pegmatite_ - -Two other types of igneous rocks called aplite and pegmatite occur -sparingly in Groton State Forest. Both of these are productions of -crystallization of residual fluids or late stage magma related to the -granite. These were emplaced along cracks or planes of weakness in the -granite after the granite had solidified. When viewed from the surface -the aplite or pegmatite generally appear as bands cutting through the -granite. However, when the third-dimension is considered it is easily -realized that they are tabular or sheet-like in shape. Igneous rock -masses having these dimensions are called _dikes_. At Groton most of the -dikes are nearly vertical with a thickness ranging from less than an -inch to more than several feet and extending for considerable distances. -On Owlshead, one of these dikes is nearly three feet thick. The extent -of these dikes is not known because they are only partly exposed, in -that they extend beyond the limited areas of rock exposure. - - [Illustration: GROTON STATE FOREST] - - DREW MTN - NIGGERHEAD MTN - BLAKE HILL - NIGGERHEAD BROOK - KETTLE MTN - SPICER MTN - OWLSHEAD MTN - KETTLE POND - STILLWATER BK. - HARDWOOD RIDGE - BEAVER BROOK - SILVER LEDGE - LITTLE SPRUCE MTN - PEACHAM POND - DEER MTN - DEVIL'S HILL - PEACHAM BOG - LITTLE DEER MTN - OSMORE BK. - COLDWATER BK. - GROTON POND - JERRY LUND MTN - RICKER POND - RICKER MILLS - EXPLANATION - GRANITE EXPOSURES - SCHIST EXPOSURES - TRAIL - RAILROAD - SWAMPY AREAS - CONTOUR LINE WITH ELEVATION - CONTOUR INTERVAL IS 100 FEET - TOPOGRAPHY FROM U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MAPS - BY ROBERT CHRISTMAN - -The _pegmatite_ dikes are coarse-grained, in some cases consisting of -individual mineral grains as much as two to four inches in diameter. The -mineral composition of the pegmatites is nearly the same as the granite, -except that biotite is usually absent. Because of their larger grain -size, the minerals can be recognized more easily in pegmatites than in -either granite or aplite. Quartz is glassy and breaks with smooth curved -fractures. Feldspar is chalky white, or pink, and may occur as tabular -crystals with straight-line contacts. It tends to break along definite -intersecting planes which can be seen in their reflecting position. -Muscovite occurs as "books" of semi-transparent leaves. The large -"books" of muscovite are particularly interesting because of the -fascinating fact that a mineral sheet can be split along a given planar -direction into thinner and thinner sheets until they are too thin to -handle. Theoretically the mineral might be split into sheets only as -thick as one layer of atoms. The ability of a mineral to break along -definite planes is related to its atomic structure and is called -_cleavage_. The cleavage in mica is perfect, whereas the cleavage in -feldspar is only poorly developed, and quartz does not possess cleavage -at all. - -The _aplite_ dikes are composed of nearly the same minerals as granite -except that the average grain size is smaller. They are characterized by -the absence of dark minerals and muscovite and by a high quartz content -which gives the rock a "sugary" appearance. Most of the aplite dikes are -less than six inches thick. - -Inasmuch as the pegmatite and aplite dikes both cut through the granite, -they both must be younger in age than the granite. As is shown by the -relations between these two types on Owlshead (reproduced in Figure 5), -the pegmatite dike is younger because it cuts across the aplite dike. -This is the general age relationship for these dikes in this age. - - [Illustration: Figure 5. Sketch showing aplite and pegmatite dikes - in the granite on Owlshead Mountain. The cross cutting relations - show that the pegmatite is youngest and that aplite is younger than - the granite but older than the pegmatite. In the distance is Kettle - Pond and Kettle Mountain.] - - GRANITE - APLITE - PEGMATITE - - - - - GLACIATION - - -Although the causes of the ice ages remain a matter for conjecture, the -fact is established that the northern part of North America was covered -by a thick sheet of moving ice several different times beginning about a -million years ago. As the effect of the last glaciation erased much of -the evidence of previous glaciations, the present topography can be -related to that last one. Rather accurate dating by measuring the -radioactive decay of Carbon 14, indicates that the ice of the last -glaciation retreated from the area about 12,000 years ago. Because the -climates between the four glaciations were as warm, if not warmer, than -our present-day climate, geologists have speculated that the world may -now be in a warm period and that another ice age is scheduled to occur -some time in the distant future. - -The effect of continental glaciation upon a land mass is twofold. First, -the glaciation acts as an erosive agent which tends to scoop out the -areas of softer rock and wear down the areas of more resistant rock. -Secondly, when the glacier begins to melt, it drops large quantities of -gravel and boulders which had become incorporated within the glacier. -Most of this material is picked up by the glacier as it moves over the -land; some falls onto the glacier where it occupies a valley. Some of -the sand, gravel and boulder deposits left by the glacier are -distinctive in form and composition and others are characterized by -their complete lack of distinctive shapes, and the utterly chaotic -nature of the material deposited. The deposits at Groton State Forest -seem to be the latter type. - - -_Erosion and deposition by the glacier_ - -The shape of Spicer, Owlshead, Little Deer and Big Deer mountains are -primarily the result of the erosive action of the glacier as it -continually moved southward over the land for a great number of years -during the last glaciation. When a continental glacier encounters a hill -or mountain of resistant rock, it tends to scour the rock on the up-ice -side of the hill and to "pluck out" the rocks on the leeward side. For -this reason these mountains have broad gentle slopes on the side from -which the glacier came and they drop off sharply on the side from which -material was removed by plucking action. The last part of Figure 3 -illustrates how these mountains may have been formed. Such prominent -rock exposures which have been subjected to glacial erosion originally -showed deep scratches, called _glacial striae_, cut by cobbles dragged -along the bottom of the glacier. Unfortunately, on most prominences in -Groton State Forest exfoliation of the rock has erased these markings; -but it is possible that striae may be found on recently uncovered rock -exposures. - -The depressions in which Groton and Osmore ponds are located probably -represent areas in which the glacier scooped out material to a greater -depth than elsewhere either because of channeling of bottom flow between -topographically prominent features, or because of subtle differences in -rock hardness. - -When the glacier retreated, that is when it was melting faster than it -was advancing, it dropped material in a helter-skelter manner. _End -moraines_, which are ridges of gravel formed where the front of the -glacier was stationary because of a close balance between rates of -movement and melting, are not evident in Groton State Forest. As far as -can be determined, the material was deposited irregularly over the -entire area, so that boulders dropped by the glacier are found -everywhere. These are particularly noticeable around the lakes where the -fine material has been removed and the soil and forest cover does not -hide the boulders. - -Almost all of the boulders deposited by the glacier are composed of -white granite similar to the rock which underlies the entire area. This -indicates that most of the boulders have not been transported very far. -However, occasionally boulders are found which are not characteristic of -the area and represent rocks brought in from the north. Such boulders -which are foreign to the area in which they are found are called -_erratics_. Most erratics in this area are dark-colored metamorphosed -rocks in which the minerals are oriented to give the rock a layered -pattern. These are called either _gneisses_ or _schists_ depending on -whether the layering is coarse or fine. Deposits of the glacier are -exposed in two gravel or sand pits near the Stillwater Camp site. These -deposits are composed principally of sand but contain scattered boulders -of different sizes. A few erratics are found in these -deposits--particularly a variety of rock which weathers to a soft, brown -porous mass resembling decayed wood. These sandy deposits probably were -plastered onto the ground from the sole of the creeping glacier or were -simply let down as the glacier wasted away. - -Because of the irregular manner in which the glacier may deposit its -load of sand and gravel, the topography in such areas is uneven and -characterized by poor drainage. At a number of places in Groton swampy -areas occur at higher elevation which might normally be expected to be -well-drained. Some of these areas have become the sites of beaver dams -because they are ideal for damming up the water. - - - - - GEOLOGY OF NEARBY AREAS - - -_Ricker Mills_ - -Just south of the park at Ricker Mills some of the oldest rocks in the -area are exposed in the railroad cut just north of the highway crossing. -These rocks belong to a thick sequence of similar rocks which are -collectively called the _Waits River formation_. Studies in other areas -indicate that these rocks belong to the portion of geologic time called -the Ordovician period which was more than 350 million years ago. - -The Waits River formation represents a series of sediments which -accumulated at the bottom of a shallow sea during Ordovician time. These -sediments included both limy and sandy beds, and fossils may originally -have been preserved in some of the beds. Sediments of other types later -accumulated over the Waits River formation during a long period of -geologic time, so that eventually the formation became deeply buried. -(See Figure 3.) The sea retreated and the rocks were subjected to high -pressure and temperatures during a period of mountain-building. The -rocks which had been sedimentary were folded and converted to -_metamorphic rocks_ by partial melting and recrystallization of the -components. As a result the rocks became schists or marbles. Any fossils -which may have been present were destroyed or badly altered in the -process. This is unfortunate because valuable geologic information as -the age of the rocks can be determined from the type of fossils present. - -The rocks of the Waits River formation at Ricker Mills are dominantly -mica schists with layers containing limy material. These are too impure -to be considered marble but enough lime is present so that they react -strongly with acid, a test for detecting the presence of lime. The -schists principally contain quartz, biotite, calcite (lime) with lesser -amounts of muscovite, feldspar and impurities. The rocks weather to dark -colors; the gray limy beds are particularly susceptible to weathering -and turn dark brown to black on the surface. When more lime is present, -the rock weathers to a deep brown porous rock which resembles decayed -wood. Some boulders of these altered limestones are found in the glacial -deposits in the State Forest. - -An additional factor which makes the rocks in the railroad cut at Ricker -Mills look "messy" is the iron and manganese staining and the formation -of mineral crusts on the surface of the rocks through the action of -ground water. Rain water falling on the hills above passes through the -soils, dissolving minerals, and precipitating them where the water seeps -out and evaporates at the lower level of the railroad tracks. - -The schists trend about N.80W. and dip about 30 to the northeast. -Along the length of the rock exposures it can be seen that this dip is -not constant but varies from 10 to 30. The variation in dip gives the -schists a wavy appearance. - -At two places along the railroad cut, the schist has been intruded by -granite. As is shown in Figure 6, which is a sketch of the rocks exposed -on the east side of the railroad, the granite forms vertical dikes. As -the schist ends abruptly at the contact of the granite, this indicates -that the granite formed after the schist. The granite is nearly the same -as the granite in Groton State Forest except that the mica is muscovite -rather than biotite. For this reason the granite is lighter in color on -fresh surfaces. In general the exterior is dark in color due to the -staining of iron from weathering of the mineral pyrite, an iron sulfide, -which occurs in small amounts in the granite. - - -_Jerry Lund Mountain_ - -On top of Jerry Lund Mountain occur other outcrops of the Waits River -formation and granite. Their exact relationships cannot be seen easily -because of the thick vegetation. The Waits River formation on Jerry Lund -Mountain is composed principally of quartz mica schist. - - - - - TRIPS TO TAKE - - -_Hiking in the State Forest_ - -The hike from the end of the road to the top of Owlshead Mountain takes -only ten to fifteen minutes. A splendid view of the surrounding area, -particularly Groton and Kettle ponds, is obtained from here. If -possible, everyone who visits the park should take this short walk. The -granite is well-exposed at the summit and dikes of aplite and pegmatite -may be seen. - -The more venturesome park visitor will want to make other trips away -from the "beaten path" into the wilderness of the Vermont woods. The -principal difficulty arises in that the wilderness is so real a person -may well become lost if he strays too far from the trails. Some of the -trails have become overgrown so that they are difficult to follow and -portions of others have been destroyed by the damming up of brooks by -the beavers. It is suggested that in planning hikes information be -obtained from the park superintendent about the condition of the various -trails. - - [Illustration: Figure 6. Diagrammatic sketch showing the relations - between the schist of the Waits River formation and the granite on - the east side of the railroad cut, at Ricker Mills.] - - GRANITE - WAITS RIVER FORMATION - -An interesting hike can be made from Osmore Pond to Deer Mountain but as -the trail is poorly marked, one must maintain a sense of direction. From -the Osmore picnic area walk south near the shore of the pond to its -outlet into Osmore Brook. At this point turn left to the northeast and -follow the trail which parallels a wire marking the edge of the game -preserve. About three-fourths of a mile from Osmore Brook the trail -meets another trail at right angles. To the left the trail follows the -game preserve boundary northwestward. The trail to the right leads -directly to the top of Deer Mountain where a view may be obtained on the -south side of the summit. As an alternate route for returning, follow -the trail along the game preserve to the northwest. Some distance beyond -a shelter-lean-to the trail divides several times with the main trail -leading to Blake Hill and other trails to the left leading to the Osmore -Pond road. - -A hike along the trail on the north side of Kettle Pond to the -shelter-lean-tos makes a pleasant trip along the water. Also, the trail -from Owlshead Mountain to Osmore Pond is convenient for a short hike -through the woods, if the trail can be found. - - -_Quarries at East Barre_ - -The granite quarries at East Barre are in nearly the same type of rock -as that which occurs at Groton State Forest. The quarry operations are -interesting and educational and the quarries afford a good opportunity -of seeing fresh, unaltered specimens of granite. Guide service is -offered at some of the quarries. - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]_Granite_ is a type of igneous rock consisting of large interlocking - grains of light-colored minerals. Rocks are classified as being - either igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. _Igneous_ rocks form by - the solidification of molten material; _sedimentary_ rocks form by - the accumulation of sediments derived from older rocks; and - _metamorphic_ rocks form by the recrystallization of older rocks - under conditions of high temperatures and pressures. - -[2]_Dip_ is the inclination of a surface as, for example, a joint - surface described above. - -[3]_Schist_ is the name given to rocks in which the minerals have a - parallel alignment due to reorganization of the rock constituents - during a condition of high temperature and pressure. The platy - minerals, like mica, form at right angles to the pressure so that - the resulting rock may have a "bedded" appearance. - - - [Illustration: Looking northwest over Groton Pond toward Owlshead - Mountain] - - [Illustration: Looking north over Groton Pond toward Little Deer - Mountain] - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Silently corrected a few typos. - ---Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - ---In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of Groton State Forest, by -Robert A. 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text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-right:2em; text-align:justify; margin-top:0; font-size:90%; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -dl.pcap { margin-left:4em; font-family:sans-serif; font-size: 90%; margin-top:0; } -dl.pcap dd { font-size:90%; } -span.attr { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of Groton State Forest, by -Robert A. Christman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Geology of Groton State Forest - -Author: Robert A. Christman - -Release Date: November 16, 2019 [EBook #60710] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GEOLOGY OF GROTON STATE FOREST *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Lisa Corcoran and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Geology of Groton State Forest" width="500" height="757" /> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p00.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="621" /> -<p class="pcap">Cover: Looking southward along Groton -Pond from near Stillwater Brook.</p> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1>THE GEOLOGY OF -<br />GROTON STATE FOREST</h1> -<p class="tbcenter"><i>By</i> -<br />ROBERT A. CHRISTMAN</p> -<p class="tbcenter">DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND PARKS -<br /><span class="sc">Perry H. Merrill</span>, <i>Director</i></p> -<p class="center">VERMONT DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION</p> -<p class="center">VERMONT GEOLOGICAL SURVEY -<br /><span class="sc">Charles G. Doll</span>, <i>State Geologist</i></p> -<p class="tbcenter">1956</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div> -<h1 title="">GEOLOGY OF GROTON STATE FOREST</h1> -<p class="center"><i>By</i> -<br />ROBERT A. CHRISTMAN</p> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">INTRODUCTION</span></h2> -<p>Geology is the study of the history of the earth as recorded in its -rocks. This study explains why certain types of rocks and minerals occur -at one place and not another, why the forms of the land differ from one -region to another, and why particular animal and plant remains are -sometimes preserved as fossils in certain kinds of rocks. The professional -geologist makes these studies his business; the amateur finds these studies -a fascinating hobby; but the uninitiated person misses much of the -pleasure of travel. Anyone who notices the difference between rocks or -terrains and wonders “why?”, has a potential for geology. Many fall into -this class and it is for them that this booklet has been written. It is -hoped that with its aid, the traveler or vacationer may come to know -something about the geology of Groton State Forest. The author is confident -that those who come into the habit of observing nature and the -world around them will find more meaning in life itself. In any case, -those traveling with children may find answers to some of their questions -about minerals, rocks and mountains.</p> -<p>Groton State Forest is not a geologist’s paradise—as compared to -Yellowstone Park or the Grand Canyon—but it does contain interesting -rocks and land forms which can be explained geologically. In keeping -with the calm, subdued and mature atmosphere of the Vermont countryside, -the geology is unobtrusive. There are few jutting cliffs or bare rock -exposures; all is mantled with vegetation. If this vegetation could be -stripped away—admittedly, a postulation that would destroy the -wilderness and charm that belongs to Groton—boulders and gravelly -glacial deposits would be seen to fill the valleys. If in turn these boulders -and the soil could be stripped away, a continuous floor of rock would be -exposed. This would be a geologist’s paradise—square miles of bare rock -would be available for study. However, lacking the magic wand to perform -this feat, we must be satisfied to glean what information we can -from the existing rock exposures.</p> -<p>To use a pun, it can be said that almost all the rocks found at Groton -State Forest can be taken for granite. As well as has been determined, -<span class="pb" id="Page_4">4</span> -all the underlying rock is <i>granite</i><a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a> and most of the boulders deposited by -glaciers of the last ice age are the same type of granite. To avoid confusion -in describing these rocks, the discussion has been divided into two -parts: the first deals with the granite of the bedrock, and the second -deals with the glaciation of the area and the deposits resulting from it. A -third section describes the geology in some of the nearby areas.</p> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">GRANITE AND RELATED ROCKS</span></h2> -<h3 id="c3"><i>Occurrence of the granite</i></h3> -<p>Ledges of light-colored granite occur at the summits of most of the -mountains and hills in the State Forest area and are found occasionally -at lower elevations. They are conspicuous on Owlshead, Silver Ledge, -Little Deer, Big Deer, Niggerhead and Spicer Mountains; smaller ledges -also occur on Kettle, and Little Spruce mountains, Hardwood Ridge and -the low hills east of Groton Pond. At lower elevations, granite is found -at the outlet of Groton Pond, along the railroad tracks west of Groton -Pond and at Stillwater Brook, along Osmore brook and at several other -minor locations. These locations are shown diagrammatically on the -map by a black dot. These dots indicate where the granite occurs but -nothing about the extent of the exposure. If every location of exposed -rock were marked with a dot, certain parts of the map, for instance, the -west side of Niggerhead, would be solid black and the contour lines -which show the elevation would be obscured completely.</p> -<p>All these rocks are presumably part of one large mass of granite which -extends deep below the surface of the earth. Most of this body of granite -is hidden by the soil and bouldery glacial deposits, so that its exact areal -extent is not known. It appears likely that it extends to the southwest -to the vicinity of East Barre.</p> -<h3 id="c4"><i>Description of the granite</i></h3> -<p>The granite found at Groton State Forest is a gray to white, medium-grained -rock with the mineral grains all about the same size. Surfaces -exposed to weathering are generally darker in color and frequently are -<span class="pb" id="Page_5">5</span> -covered with scales of dark colored lichen. If the rock is broken to reveal -an unaltered surface close examination will disclose individual mineral -grains of mica, feldspar and quartz. <i>Mica</i> occurs as very small plates -which appear either white or colorless, called <i>muscovite</i>, or as black shiny -plates called <i>biotite</i>. The <i>feldspar</i>, which is the most abundant mineral -in the granite, has a chalky white appearance and may occur as tabular -grains which reflect light from their flat surfaces when held in the proper -position. <i>Quartz</i>, which contains only silicon and oxygen, the two most -common elements in the earth’s crust, is a transparent, glassy mineral -which has no flat surfaces. It may appear gray because one can look down -into the glassy mineral where there is no light source.</p> -<p>A specimen of granite from Owlshead was studied with a microscope -after it had been cut and ground to a thickness of only 0.03 millimeters. -Many minerals, which ordinarily appear to be opaque, are transparent -when ground this thin. By their various optical properties, the different -minerals can be identified and the composition of the rock can be determined. -<a href="#fig1">Figure 1</a> shows a photograph, taken through a microscope, of one -of these thin sections of granite. By careful examination of the thin -section and by measuring the areal extent of the different minerals -present, the rock was determined to contain, by volume, 35 percent -quartz, 60 percent feldspar (in proportions of 25 percent <i>microcline</i> -feldspar, KAlSi₃O₈ and 35 percent <i>plagioclase</i> feldspar, NaAlSi₃O₈) -and 5 percent mica (in proportions of 4 percent biotite and 1 percent -muscovite). Although it is a member of the granite family, this rock -should, in strict terminology, be called a quartz monzonite rather than a -granite to indicate more precisely the mineral composition. Because of -slight differences in composition, granite from the same body may elsewhere -be correctly called granodiorite, quartz diorite or granite proper, -depending on the relative amounts of the two feldspars and quartz. In -this report these close distinctions have not been made and the rock is -simply called granite.</p> -<h3 id="c5"><i>Cracks in the granite</i></h3> -<p>Two kinds of natural breaks, or cracks, occur in the granite in the -State Forest area. <i>Joints</i> are breaks which occur along plane surfaces and -<i>exfoliation</i> is the name given to the breakage along curved surfaces -related to the exposure of the rock. Granite, as contrasted with other -rocks, is characterized by its uniformity of texture and massiveness, so -that any cracks present are conspicuous.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p01.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="602" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 1. Photomicrograph of a thin section of granite from Owlshead Mountain. The -mineral with the grid pattern (upper left) is a feldspar named microcline which has -the composition of KAlSi₃O₈. The one with the indistinct striped pattern (lower -center) is a feldspar named plagioclase, variety oligoclase, which has the composition -of approximately NaAlSi₃O₈. The patterns for these minerals result from different -portions of the same mineral grain having different orientations, called twinning, so -as to give a different optical appearance. The clear white mineral (right center) is -quartz. The dark gray mineral with the fine lines (upper center) is biotite and the -smaller, lighter-colored, elongate mineral to the right of the biotite is muscovite. The -other minerals are feldspar and quartz in different orientations. The actual diameter -of the clear white quartz grain (right center) is about four-tenths of a millimeter so -that the photograph is a magnification of about one hundred.</p> -</div> -<p>Joints are more conspicuous of the two types, and typically belong -to a general system so that at a given location they tend to be parallel. -On top of Owlshead, for example, the most prominent joints trend -N.25°W. (read: North twenty-five degrees to the west) with -dips<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a> that -are vertical or dipping steeply to the southwest. Another set of joints -trends N.10°E. with dips that are vertical or dipping steeply to the southwest. -Joints represent the breakage of the rock due to stress and strain. -Some joints result from tensional forces set up within the rock itself by -contraction due to cooling of the originally hot solidified rock. Other -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -joints result from larger-scale forces within the earth’s crust which cause -earthquakes and general movement of land masses. An exhaustive study -of all the rocks in a large area would be required to determine conclusively -the origin of the joints on Owlshead.</p> -<p>In addition to the nearly vertical joints, a third set of nearly horizontal -joints may be observed on cliffs. These joints are called <i>sheeting</i> and apparently -are related to the depth from a former topographic surface -which existed at the time the sheeting originated. The vertical joints and -sheeting are important qualities of a rock to be considered in choosing -a rock for commercial quarrying. Not only do these factors effect the ease -of quarrying, but they also determine the amount of waste material -which would have to be removed and discarded because of poor size and -shape.</p> -<p>Exfoliation is the term for breakage due to the disintegration caused -by decomposition of the rock on surfaces exposed to the weather. It is -characterized by the scaling off of concentric shells of altered rock to -produce a convex surface. Rocks showing exfoliation surfaces are not -common at Groton. One of the best developed exfoliation surfaces, illustrated -in <a href="#fig2">Figure 2</a>, occurs at the base of the cliffs on the south side of -Owlshead Mountain.</p> -<p>Once joints have formed, they are enlarged by weathering. In particular, -rocks are pushed apart by a “frost wedging.” When water freezes it -expands by about one-tenth of its volume. If it is confined it may exert -a pressure of as much as 138 tons per square foot. In this manner, huge -blocks may be pushed apart. If they are at the edge of a cliff, or part of -the cliff itself, they may eventually break off and fall to the slope below. -The accumulation of broken rock at the base of a cliff is called <i>talus</i>.</p> -<h3 id="c6"><i>Origin and age of the granite</i></h3> -<p>The granite originated in the interior of the earth many million years -ago as a molten mass, called <i>magma</i>. This magma moved upward -through the earth’s crust by a process of melting the pre-existing rock -or by forcefully pushing it aside. When it reached its present position it -became cooler and minerals began to crystallize out. However, as is -shown in <a href="#fig3">Figure 3</a>, it is important to understand that the surface of the -land was not in its present position and that the magma actually cooled -beneath a considerable thickness of other rocks. These overlying rocks, -now gone, acted as an insulator and prevented the magma from cooling -too quickly. If the magma had risen through these rocks and reached -<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span> -their upper surface, it would have formed a lava flow similar to those of -present-day volcanoes and would have cooled much more rapidly. Rocks -formed near the surface are characterized either by being fine-grained -without visible crystals or by having a few large crystals in a fine-grained -matrix; they never have a uniformly, medium-to-coarse-grained texture. -Thus, the texture of the granite at Groton State Forest proves that it -cooled slowly and indicates that, at the time of cooling, the granite was -not at the surface. This is a reasonable postulation because studies of -the regional geology indicate that a large amount of rock has been -removed from this area by erosion through the long periods of geologic -time.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="535" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 2. Exfoliation surface on the south side of Owlshead Mountain. Joints, of the -sheeting type, are visible in the granite cliff. The decomposition of the granite by -weathering in the niches has resulted in small patches of soil. The boy in the upper -right gives the scale.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<p class="pcap">Figure 3. Sequence of events at Groton State Forest shown diagrammatically.</p> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p02a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="260" /> -<p class="pcap">A. The Waits River Formation and other younger formations are deposited from a -shallow sea during Ordovician time.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>YOUNGER FORMATIONS</dt> -<dt>WAITS RIVER FORMATION</dt></dl> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p02b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="269" /> -<p class="pcap">B. The sedimentary rocks are folded and metamorphosed and the granite is intruded -into the older rocks and crystallizes during Devonian time.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>WAITS RIVER FORMATION</dt> -<dt>GRANITE</dt></dl> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p02c.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="239" /> -<p class="pcap">C. Erosion removes much of the rock from the area.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>GRANITE</dt></dl> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p02d.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="206" /> -<p class="pcap">D. During the ice age, continental glaciers move over the land and erosion by the ice -forms Owlshead Mountain and the basin for Groton Pond.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>ICE</dt> -<dt>GRANITE</dt></dl> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p02e.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="189" /> -<p class="pcap">E. Present topography, exaggerated.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>OWLSHEAD MOUNTAIN</dt> -<dt>RICKER MILLS</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<p>Evidence that the granite was emplaced into the older rocks of the -earth’s crust can be seen at certain locations outside of the State Forest. -At Ricker Mills, for example, narrow bodies of granite can be seen cross -cutting the older rocks. A fuller description of the geology at Ricker -Mills is given in a later section of this report. Another type of evidence -showing that the granite came into older rocks is found in the occurrence -of fragments of older rock incorporated into the granite. These are called -<i>inclusions</i> and represent broken pieces of older rock which were enveloped -by the granite. Inclusions are like peach slices in jello in that the surrounding -material solidified after they were dropped in. Inclusions were -observed in rocks on top of Kettle and Jerry Lund Mountains.</p> -<p>Near the covered picnic shelter at Ricker Pond, one of the large -granite boulders deposited by the glacier contains inclusions. Although -this boulder has been moved from its original occurrence, it probably -has not moved far as it is composed of the white granite which is typical -of the area. It is cut by several pegmatitic dikes. The most interesting -feature is the occurrence of inclusions of elongate, layered bands of older -rocks of gray to dark gray <i>schist</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_3" href="#fn_3">[3]</a> -These relations are shown in the sketch -of this boulder in <a href="#fig4">Figure 4</a>. A careful examination of the schist inclusions -reveals that they contain small plates of biotite in a fine matrix of quartz -and more mica. The contact between the schist and granite is gradational -at places because when the rock was formed the hot molten granite was -in the process of melting the solid schist. The schist resembles the rock -which occurred in this area before the granite was intruded and which -occurs in nearby areas where no granite is exposed. Older rocks of somewhat -similar appearance can be seen at Ricker Mills and on top of Jerry -Lund Mountain.</p> -<p>The composition of the granite at Groton State Forest is nearly the -same as that which occurs throughout this region of Vermont. Incomplete -mapping suggests that the granite at Groton is part of a large mass -which extends to the southwest to the vicinity of East Barre. Undoubtedly -all the granitic rocks of this region are related although they -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span> -are not continuous at the surface. They were all emplaced at about the -same time following a mountain-building episode in which the older -rocks were folded and metamorphosed. On the geologic time scale, the -granites were emplaced near the end of the Devonian period which is -estimated to be more than 300 million years ago.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="634" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 4. Sketch of boulder of granite containing pegmatite band and schist inclusions -at picnic area at Ricker Pond.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>GRANITE</dt> -<dt>PEGMATITE</dt> -<dt>SCHIST</dt></dl> -<h3 id="c7"><i>Aplite and pegmatite</i></h3> -<p>Two other types of igneous rocks called aplite and pegmatite occur -sparingly in Groton State Forest. Both of these are productions of -crystallization of residual fluids or late stage magma related to the -granite. These were emplaced along cracks or planes of weakness in the -granite after the granite had solidified. When viewed from the surface -the aplite or pegmatite generally appear as bands cutting through the -granite. However, when the third-dimension is considered it is easily -realized that they are tabular or sheet-like in shape. Igneous rock masses -having these dimensions are called <i>dikes</i>. At Groton most of the dikes -are nearly vertical with a thickness ranging from less than an inch to -more than several feet and extending for considerable distances. On -Owlshead, one of these dikes is nearly three feet thick. The extent of -these dikes is not known because they are only partly exposed, in that -they extend beyond the limited areas of rock exposure.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div> -<div class="img" id="map1"> -<img src="images/map_lr.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="868" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="center"><span class="ss b large">GROTON STATE FOREST</span></span></p><p class="center"><a class="ab1" href="images/map_hr.jpg">High-resolution Version</a></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dd>DREW MTN</dd> -<dd>NIGGERHEAD MTN</dd> -<dd>BLAKE HILL</dd> -<dd>NIGGERHEAD BROOK</dd> -<dd>KETTLE MTN</dd> -<dd>SPICER MTN</dd> -<dd>OWLSHEAD MTN</dd> -<dd>KETTLE POND</dd> -<dd>STILLWATER BK.</dd> -<dd>HARDWOOD RIDGE</dd> -<dd>BEAVER BROOK</dd> -<dd>SILVER LEDGE</dd> -<dd>LITTLE SPRUCE MTN</dd> -<dd>PEACHAM POND</dd> -<dd>DEER MTN</dd> -<dd>DEVIL’S HILL</dd> -<dd>PEACHAM BOG</dd> -<dd>LITTLE DEER MTN</dd> -<dd>OSMORE BK.</dd> -<dd>COLDWATER BK.</dd> -<dd>GROTON POND</dd> -<dd>JERRY LUND MTN</dd> -<dd>RICKER POND</dd> -<dd>RICKER MILLS</dd> -<dt>EXPLANATION</dt> -<dd>GRANITE EXPOSURES</dd> -<dd>SCHIST EXPOSURES</dd> -<dd>TRAIL</dd> -<dd>RAILROAD</dd> -<dd>SWAMPY AREAS</dd> -<dd>CONTOUR LINE WITH ELEVATION</dd> -<dd>CONTOUR INTERVAL IS 100 FEET</dd> -<dd class="t">TOPOGRAPHY FROM U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MAPS</dd> -<dd class="t">BY ROBERT CHRISTMAN</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<p>The <i>pegmatite</i> dikes are coarse-grained, in some cases consisting of -individual mineral grains as much as two to four inches in diameter. The -mineral composition of the pegmatites is nearly the same as the granite, -except that biotite is usually absent. Because of their larger grain size, -the minerals can be recognized more easily in pegmatites than in either -granite or aplite. Quartz is glassy and breaks with smooth curved fractures. -Feldspar is chalky white, or pink, and may occur as tabular crystals -with straight-line contacts. It tends to break along definite intersecting -planes which can be seen in their reflecting position. Muscovite occurs as -“books” of semi-transparent leaves. The large “books” of muscovite are -particularly interesting because of the fascinating fact that a mineral -sheet can be split along a given planar direction into thinner and thinner -sheets until they are too thin to handle. Theoretically the mineral might -be split into sheets only as thick as one layer of atoms. The ability of a -mineral to break along definite planes is related to its atomic structure -and is called <i>cleavage</i>. The cleavage in mica is perfect, whereas the -cleavage in feldspar is only poorly developed, and quartz does not possess -cleavage at all.</p> -<p>The <i>aplite</i> dikes are composed of nearly the same minerals as granite -except that the average grain size is smaller. They are characterized by -the absence of dark minerals and muscovite and by a high quartz content -which gives the rock a “sugary” appearance. Most of the aplite dikes are -less than six inches thick.</p> -<p>Inasmuch as the pegmatite and aplite dikes both cut through the -granite, they both must be younger in age than the granite. As is shown -by the relations between these two types on Owlshead (reproduced in -<a href="#fig5">Figure 5</a>), the pegmatite dike is younger because it cuts across the aplite -dike. This is the general age relationship for these dikes in this age.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="845" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 5. Sketch showing aplite and pegmatite dikes in the granite on Owlshead -Mountain. The cross cutting relations show that the pegmatite is youngest and that -aplite is younger than the granite but older than the pegmatite. In the distance is -Kettle Pond and Kettle Mountain.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>GRANITE</dt> -<dt>APLITE</dt> -<dt>PEGMATITE</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div> -<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">GLACIATION</span></h2> -<p>Although the causes of the ice ages remain a matter for conjecture, the -fact is established that the northern part of North America was covered -by a thick sheet of moving ice several different times beginning about a -million years ago. As the effect of the last glaciation erased much of the -evidence of previous glaciations, the present topography can be related -to that last one. Rather accurate dating by measuring the radioactive -decay of Carbon 14, indicates that the ice of the last glaciation retreated -from the area about 12,000 years ago. Because the climates between the -four glaciations were as warm, if not warmer, than our present-day -climate, geologists have speculated that the world may now be in a warm -period and that another ice age is scheduled to occur some time in the -distant future.</p> -<p>The effect of continental glaciation upon a land mass is twofold. First, -the glaciation acts as an erosive agent which tends to scoop out the areas -of softer rock and wear down the areas of more resistant rock. Secondly, -when the glacier begins to melt, it drops large quantities of gravel and -boulders which had become incorporated within the glacier. Most of this -material is picked up by the glacier as it moves over the land; some falls -onto the glacier where it occupies a valley. Some of the sand, gravel and -boulder deposits left by the glacier are distinctive in form and composition -and others are characterized by their complete lack of distinctive -shapes, and the utterly chaotic nature of the material deposited. The -deposits at Groton State Forest seem to be the latter type.</p> -<h3 id="c9"><i>Erosion and deposition by the glacier</i></h3> -<p>The shape of Spicer, Owlshead, Little Deer and Big Deer mountains -are primarily the result of the erosive action of the glacier as it continually -moved southward over the land for a great number of years -during the last glaciation. When a continental glacier encounters a hill -or mountain of resistant rock, it tends to scour the rock on the up-ice -side of the hill and to “pluck out” the rocks on the leeward side. For this -reason these mountains have broad gentle slopes on the side from which -the glacier came and they drop off sharply on the side from which material -was removed by plucking action. The last part of <a href="#fig3">Figure 3</a> illustrates -how these mountains may have been formed. Such prominent rock -exposures which have been subjected to glacial erosion originally showed -deep scratches, called <i>glacial striae</i>, cut by cobbles dragged along the -bottom of the glacier. Unfortunately, on most prominences in Groton -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -State Forest exfoliation of the rock has erased these markings; but it is -possible that striae may be found on recently uncovered rock exposures.</p> -<p>The depressions in which Groton and Osmore ponds are located -probably represent areas in which the glacier scooped out material to -a greater depth than elsewhere either because of channeling of bottom -flow between topographically prominent features, or because of subtle -differences in rock hardness.</p> -<p>When the glacier retreated, that is when it was melting faster than it -was advancing, it dropped material in a helter-skelter manner. <i>End -moraines</i>, which are ridges of gravel formed where the front of the glacier -was stationary because of a close balance between rates of movement and -melting, are not evident in Groton State Forest. As far as can be determined, -the material was deposited irregularly over the entire area, so -that boulders dropped by the glacier are found everywhere. These are -particularly noticeable around the lakes where the fine material has been -removed and the soil and forest cover does not hide the boulders.</p> -<p>Almost all of the boulders deposited by the glacier are composed of -white granite similar to the rock which underlies the entire area. This -indicates that most of the boulders have not been transported very far. -However, occasionally boulders are found which are not characteristic -of the area and represent rocks brought in from the north. Such boulders -which are foreign to the area in which they are found are called <i>erratics</i>. -Most erratics in this area are dark-colored metamorphosed rocks in -which the minerals are oriented to give the rock a layered pattern. These -are called either <i>gneisses</i> or <i>schists</i> depending on whether the layering is -coarse or fine. Deposits of the glacier are exposed in two gravel or sand -pits near the Stillwater Camp site. These deposits are composed principally -of sand but contain scattered boulders of different sizes. A few -erratics are found in these deposits—particularly a variety of rock which -weathers to a soft, brown porous mass resembling decayed wood. These -sandy deposits probably were plastered onto the ground from the sole -of the creeping glacier or were simply let down as the glacier wasted -away.</p> -<p>Because of the irregular manner in which the glacier may deposit its -load of sand and gravel, the topography in such areas is uneven and -characterized by poor drainage. At a number of places in Groton swampy -areas occur at higher elevation which might normally be expected to be -well-drained. Some of these areas have become the sites of beaver dams -because they are ideal for damming up the water.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">GEOLOGY OF NEARBY AREAS</span></h2> -<h3 id="c11"><i>Ricker Mills</i></h3> -<p>Just south of the park at Ricker Mills some of the oldest rocks in the -area are exposed in the railroad cut just north of the highway crossing. -These rocks belong to a thick sequence of similar rocks which are collectively -called the <i>Waits River formation</i>. Studies in other areas indicate -that these rocks belong to the portion of geologic time called the Ordovician -period which was more than 350 million years ago.</p> -<p>The Waits River formation represents a series of sediments which -accumulated at the bottom of a shallow sea during Ordovician time. -These sediments included both limy and sandy beds, and fossils may -originally have been preserved in some of the beds. Sediments of other -types later accumulated over the Waits River formation during a long -period of geologic time, so that eventually the formation became deeply -buried. (See <a href="#fig3">Figure 3</a>.) The sea retreated and the rocks were subjected -to high pressure and temperatures during a period of mountain-building. -The rocks which had been sedimentary were folded and converted to -<i>metamorphic rocks</i> by partial melting and recrystallization of the components. -As a result the rocks became schists or marbles. Any fossils -which may have been present were destroyed or badly altered in the -process. This is unfortunate because valuable geologic information as -the age of the rocks can be determined from the type of fossils present.</p> -<p>The rocks of the Waits River formation at Ricker Mills are dominantly -mica schists with layers containing limy material. These are too impure -to be considered marble but enough lime is present so that they react -strongly with acid, a test for detecting the presence of lime. The schists -principally contain quartz, biotite, calcite (lime) with lesser amounts of -muscovite, feldspar and impurities. The rocks weather to dark colors; -the gray limy beds are particularly susceptible to weathering and turn -dark brown to black on the surface. When more lime is present, the rock -weathers to a deep brown porous rock which resembles decayed wood. -Some boulders of these altered limestones are found in the glacial deposits -in the State Forest.</p> -<p>An additional factor which makes the rocks in the railroad cut at -Ricker Mills look “messy” is the iron and manganese staining and the -formation of mineral crusts on the surface of the rocks through the action -of ground water. Rain water falling on the hills above passes through the -soils, dissolving minerals, and precipitating them where the water seeps -out and evaporates at the lower level of the railroad tracks.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<p>The schists trend about N.80°W. and dip about 30° to the northeast. -Along the length of the rock exposures it can be seen that this dip -is not constant but varies from 10 to 30°. The variation in dip gives the -schists a wavy appearance.</p> -<p>At two places along the railroad cut, the schist has been intruded by -granite. As is shown in <a href="#fig6">Figure 6</a>, which is a sketch of the rocks exposed -on the east side of the railroad, the granite forms vertical dikes. As the -schist ends abruptly at the contact of the granite, this indicates that the -granite formed after the schist. The granite is nearly the same as the -granite in Groton State Forest except that the mica is muscovite rather -than biotite. For this reason the granite is lighter in color on fresh -surfaces. In general the exterior is dark in color due to the staining of -iron from weathering of the mineral pyrite, an iron sulfide, which occurs -in small amounts in the granite.</p> -<h3 id="c12"><i>Jerry Lund Mountain</i></h3> -<p>On top of Jerry Lund Mountain occur other outcrops of the Waits -River formation and granite. Their exact relationships cannot be seen -easily because of the thick vegetation. The Waits River formation on -Jerry Lund Mountain is composed principally of quartz mica schist.</p> -<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">TRIPS TO TAKE</span></h2> -<h3 id="c14"><i>Hiking in the State Forest</i></h3> -<p>The hike from the end of the road to the top of Owlshead Mountain -takes only ten to fifteen minutes. A splendid view of the surrounding -area, particularly Groton and Kettle ponds, is obtained from here. If -possible, everyone who visits the park should take this short walk. The -granite is well-exposed at the summit and dikes of aplite and pegmatite -may be seen.</p> -<p>The more venturesome park visitor will want to make other trips -away from the “beaten path” into the wilderness of the Vermont woods. -The principal difficulty arises in that the wilderness is so real a person -may well become lost if he strays too far from the trails. Some of the -trails have become overgrown so that they are difficult to follow and -portions of others have been destroyed by the damming up of brooks by -the beavers. It is suggested that in planning hikes information be obtained -from the park superintendent about the condition of the various -trails.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="265" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 6. Diagrammatic sketch showing the relations between the schist of the Waits River formation and the granite on the -east side of the railroad cut, at Ricker Mills.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>GRANITE</dt> -<dt>WAITS RIVER FORMATION</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<p>An interesting hike can be made from Osmore Pond to Deer Mountain -but as the trail is poorly marked, one must maintain a sense of direction. -From the Osmore picnic area walk south near the shore of the pond to -its outlet into Osmore Brook. At this point turn left to the northeast and -follow the trail which parallels a wire marking the edge of the game -preserve. About three-fourths of a mile from Osmore Brook the trail -meets another trail at right angles. To the left the trail follows the game -preserve boundary northwestward. The trail to the right leads directly -to the top of Deer Mountain where a view may be obtained on the south -side of the summit. As an alternate route for returning, follow the trail -along the game preserve to the northwest. Some distance beyond a -shelter-lean-to the trail divides several times with the main trail leading -to Blake Hill and other trails to the left leading to the Osmore Pond road.</p> -<p>A hike along the trail on the north side of Kettle Pond to the shelter-lean-tos -makes a pleasant trip along the water. Also, the trail from Owlshead -Mountain to Osmore Pond is convenient for a short hike through -the woods, if the trail can be found.</p> -<h3 id="c15"><i>Quarries at East Barre</i></h3> -<p>The granite quarries at East Barre are in nearly the same type of -rock as that which occurs at Groton State Forest. The quarry operations -are interesting and educational and the quarries afford a good opportunity -of seeing fresh, unaltered specimens of granite. Guide service is -offered at some of the quarries.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">FOOTNOTES</span></h2> -<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a><i>Granite</i> is a type of igneous rock consisting of large interlocking grains of light-colored -minerals. Rocks are classified as being either igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. -<i>Igneous</i> rocks form by the solidification of molten material; <i>sedimentary</i> -rocks form by the accumulation of sediments derived from older rocks; and <i>metamorphic</i> -rocks form by the recrystallization of older rocks under conditions of high -temperatures and pressures. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a><i>Dip</i> is the inclination of a surface as, for example, a joint surface described above. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_3" href="#fr_3">[3]</a><i>Schist</i> is the name -given to rocks in which the minerals have a parallel alignment -due to reorganization of the rock constituents during a condition of high temperature -and pressure. The platy minerals, like mica, form at right angles to the pressure so -that the resulting rock may have a “bedded” appearance. -</div> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="557" /> -<p class="pcap">Looking northwest over Groton Pond toward Owlshead Mountain</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p07a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="555" /> -<p class="pcap">Looking north over Groton Pond toward Little Deer Mountain</p> -</div> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of Groton State Forest, by -Robert A. 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