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font-size: small;} - -.poetry {display: inline-block; text-align: left; line-height: 1.4em;} - -.poetry .verseq {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 2.6em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} - -.poetry .verse0 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -.poetry .verse2 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 4em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -.poetry .verse16 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 16em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} - -@media handheld { - .poetry {display: block; margin-left: 4.5em;} -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size: 90%; - padding: 0.5em; - margin-top: 5em; - margin-bottom: 5em; -} - -.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} - -/* custom cover.jpg */ -.customcover {visibility: hidden; display: none;} -@media handheld { - .customcover {visibility: visible; display: block;} -} - - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's The Battles of the World, by J. Douglas Borthwick - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Battles of the World - or, cyclopedia of battles, sieges, and important military events - -Author: J. Douglas Borthwick - -Release Date: November 8, 2019 [EBook #60652] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BATTLES OF THE WORLD *** - - - - -Produced by Brian Coe, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by the Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions -(www.canadiana.org)(and Hathi, for some replacement pages.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, and the footnotes have been -placed at the end of the alphabetical ‘CYCLOPÆDIA’ section, and the ‘APPENDIX’ section.</p> - -<p class="customcover">The cover image was created by the transcriber -and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -<p>Minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a></p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="tpage"> - -<h1><span class="fs50">THE</span><br /> - -BATTLES OF THE WORLD;</h1> - -<p class="fs60">OR, CYCLOPÆDIA OF</p> - -<p>BATTLES, SIEGES, AND IMPORTANT MILITARY EVENTS,</p> - -<p class="fs90 antiqua">The Origin and Institution of Military Titles, &c. &c.,</p> - -<p class="fs60">ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED,</p> - -<p class="fs70 lsp2 wsp">WITH AN APPENDIX,</p> - -<p class="fs60">CONTAINING</p> - -<p class="fs150">A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE,</p> - -<p class="fs60">FROM THE CREATION TO THE PRESENT DAY.</p> -</div> - -<div> -<br /><hr class="r20a" /> -<p class="pfs70">DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO GENERAL SIR JOHN MICHEL.</p> -<hr class="r20a" /><br /> - -<p class="pfs60">BY</p> - -<p class="pfs90 wsp">REV. J. DOUGLAS BORTHWICK,</p> - -<p class="pfs60">AUTHOR OF “CYCLOPÆDIA OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY,” “THE BRITISH AMERICAN -READER,” AND “THE HARP OF CANAAN.”</p> - -<p class="p2" /> -<hr class="r20a" /> -<p class="p2" /> - -<p class="pfs90 antiqua">Montreal:</p> -<p class="pfs70">PUBLISHED BY JOHN MUIR; AND PRINTED BY JOHN LOVELL,</p> -<p class="pfs60">ST. NICHOLAS STREET.</p> -<p class="pfs90">1866.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p6" /> - -<hr class="full" /> -<p class="fs80 negin2">Entered, according to Act of Provincial Parliament, in the year one thousand -eight hundred and sixty-six, by <span class="smcap">John Muir</span>, in the Office of the Registrar -of the Province of Canada.</p> -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="p6" /> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p4" /> - -<div class="antiqua"> -<p class="pfs90">To</p> - -<p class="pfs120 lsp">General Sir John Michel, K.C.B.,</p> - -<p class="pfs90">Commanding the Forces</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs80">in</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs100 lsp">British North America,</p> -</div> - -<p class="p2 fs70 lht noindent">As a small mark of respect to the highest Military Authority in these Provinces, and -a token of esteem for one of the Generals of that glorious army which has fought and -conquered in every age of its country’s history, and in almost every clime,—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry fs80"> -<p class="verse0">Whose flag has braved a thousand years</p> -<p class="verse2">The battle and the breeze;</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="p1 fs70 lht noindent">And whose actions constitute <span class="fs70">NOT</span> a small portion of the “Battles of the World,”</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs100 antiqua">This work is dedicated</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs60 pad20pc">BY</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs70 pad40pc">THE AUTHOR.</p> - -<p class="fs70"><span class="smcap">Montreal</span>, August 1866.</p> -<p class="p4" /> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p4" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p> - -<h2 class="no-brk fs120"><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> -<hr class="r10" /> - - -<p class="noindent">Within the last decade of the history of Great Britain, some -very important books have been added to her literature, and especially -to that particular division which treats of her wars and -splendid victories, during the same period. “The Fifteen Decisive -Battles of the World,” by Sir E. S. Creasy, Chief Justice of -Ceylon; “The Twelve Great Battles of England,” inscribed to -the British Volunteers of 1860; “England’s Battles by Sea and -Land,” “Russell’s Crimea and India,” “Emerson’s Sebastopol,” &c., -are valuable in themselves, as describing those victories which have -raised “Dear Old England” to the <em>very first</em> rank among the -nations. But the object of the present publication embraces a -larger and more extended field of research. It embraces the whole -of the principal battles, by land and sea, that have <span class="fs70">EVER</span> taken -place, from the earliest recorded action of which we have in history -any distinct and reliable information, to the very last event of -military importance which has transpired previous to going to press.</p> - -<p>I need scarcely say here that that event is the unprecedented and -unheard of invasion of our country, by a band of lawless brigands -and filibusters, from the neighbouring Republic, ycleped Fenians, -who have shed blood, and wantonly invaded the territory of a friendly -power. It gives me much pleasure to insert in the “Cyclopædia -of Battles” some account of how they were met by our brave -Volunteers, at Ridgeway and Pigeon Hill; for it proves that the -Volunteers of Canada will compare favorably with those of the -Mother Country: and let it be borne in mind that one-half of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> -men who greatly contributed to the Victory of Waterloo were -recruits—raw troops—drafts from the militia—soldiers who had -never been engaged before; and the same indomitable pluck—the -same unconquered spirit—the same manly virtue of England’s -offshoot sons, was seen in the attack at Ridgeway.</p> - -<p>In the first general engagement in the Great Rebellion of the -United States—which was fought at Bull Run—American Volunteers -<em>were also for the first time under fire</em>, but what was the result? A -total pell-mell rout—a scattered army hurrying on—cavalry, artillery, -and infantry—in one mighty, confused mass—treading down -and overthrowing each other, in their eagerness to escape from the -manly chivalry of the South. <span class="smcap">Our</span> brave Volunteers charged with -the “Spirit of their fathers,” and gained the day.</p> - -<p>It has been said that Canada was neither a military nor a literary -colony. The events of the last few weeks fully proves to the -contrary, regarding her military ardor. Her sons nobly responded -to the government call; and had necessity required, as fair and fully -equipped an army would have trod the battle-field as ever stood -arrayed before an enemy;—and these sons of hers were scions of -all stocks—from the son of the learnèd divine or lawyer, to the -peasant’s only boy. As regards her literary fame she has produced -works which will compare favorably with sister colonies, and may -rank side by side with the Mother Country. To refute the assertion, -too, may be here remarked, what an agent for some of the largest -publishers both of England and the United States said not long -ago; “In the last three months he had sold twenty complete copies -of one of the largest and best Encyclopædias, and nearly double -that number in parts,” added to the hundreds of other publications -which are being scattered broadcast over the country, prove that -the Canadians are cultivating their minds as well as their “broad -acres.” For my own individual part, I can bear ample testimony<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> -to the generous patronage given to my publications. The first, -published some years ago was rapidly sold. The second issued, -was accepted by the <em>unanimous</em> voice and vote of the Council of -Public Instruction as the standard School Reader for Lower -Canada, and received the approval of the Government. The whole -edition of the third, issued last Christmas, was sold in two weeks. -The present work bids fair to receive as large if not a larger -circulation.</p> - -<p>To the people of Canada who have advanced and are advancing -literature, by subscribing to and supporting literary institutions -and productions, I tender my sincere thanks for all the patronage -hitherto bestowed upon my humble endeavours to elevate the -literature of this, my adopted country, and to perpetuate, in book -form, among the “Battles of the World,” <span class="smcap">Canada’s Engagements</span> -with foreign foes—<span class="fs70">HER BATTLES BY LAND AND SEA</span>.</p> - -<p class="right smcap">J. Douglas Borthwick.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Montreal</span>, 24th July 1866.</p> - - -<p class="p2 fs80"><span class="smcap">Postscript.</span>—Since the above Preface has been in type events which were -looked for, have transpired in Europe and by the accounts received some -battles have already been fought on Continental soil. As far as practicable, -insertion will be given to those of which we have received reliable information -as regarding statistics, &c.</p> - -<p class="right fs80">J. D. B.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> - -<h2 class="no-brk fs120"><a name="CYCLOPAEDIA" id="CYCLOPAEDIA"></a>CYCLOPÆDIA<br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs50 lsp0">OF THE</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs120 lsp0">BATTLES OF THE WORLD.</span></h2> - - -<hr class="r30" /> -<h3><a name="A" id="A"></a>A.</h3> - - -<p>ABDICATION OF KINGS.—Numerous in ancient history. -The following are those of the most remarkable character and greatest -political importance:</p> - -<div class="fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Henry IV. of Germany</td><td class="tdl fs80">A.D.</td><td class="tdl">1080</td><td class="tdl pad2">Napoleon</td><td class="tdl">April 5,</td><td class="tdl">1814</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Baliol of Scotland</td><td class="tdl"> “</td><td class="tdl">1306</td><td class="tdl pad2">Charles X. of France</td><td class="tdl">Aug. 2,</td><td class="tdl">1830</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Charles V. of Germany</td><td class="tdl"> “</td><td class="tdl">1556</td><td class="tdl pad2">Louis Philippe “</td><td class="tdl">Feb. 24,</td><td class="tdl">1848</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">James II. of England</td><td class="tdl"> “</td><td class="tdl">1688</td><td class="tdl pad2">Ferdinand of Austria.</td><td class="tdl">Dec. 2,</td><td class="tdl">1848</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Philip V. of Spain</td><td class="tdl"> “</td><td class="tdl">1724</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>ABOUKIR.—Commonly called the Battle of the Nile. Fought between -the French and English fleets August 1st, 1798. (See <a href="#NIL"><span class="smcap">Nile</span></a>.)</p> - - -<p>ABRAHAM, HEIGHTS OF.—Commonly called the Taking of -Quebec, or the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Fought September -13th, 1759. (See <a href="#QUE"><span class="smcap">Quebec</span></a>.)</p> - - -<p>ACAPULCO SHIP.—This was the celebrated prize. A Spanish -galleon, from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares, and estimated -by some annalists at £1,000,000 sterling and upwards, taken by Lord -Anson, who had previously acquired in his memorable voyage booty -amounting to £600,000. Admiral Anson arrived at Spithead, in the -<em>Centurion</em>, with his immense gains, after having circumnavigated the -globe, June 15th, 1744.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> - - -<p>ACRE, ST. JEAN D’—anciently <em>Ptolemais</em>. This city was taken -by Richard I and other Crusaders in 1192, after a siege of two years, with -the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 -soldiers. It was retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 Christians perished, -<span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1291. Acre was attacked by Bonaparte, in July, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1798, -and was relieved by Sir Sidney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts -during the memorable siege of the French, between March 1st, and May -27th, 1799, when, baffled by the British squadron on the water, and the -Turks on shore, Bonaparte relinquished his object and retreated. St. -Jean d’Acre is a pachalic, subject to the Porte, seized upon by Ibrahim -Pacha, who had revolted, July 2nd, 1832. It became a point in the -Syrian war in 1840. It was stormed by the British fleet under Sir -Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours—the -Egyptians losing upwards of 2,000 in killed and wounded, and 3,000 -prisoners; while the British had but 12 killed, and 42 wounded, -November 3, 1840.</p> - - -<p>ACTIUM.—This battle was fought September 2nd, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 31, between -the fleets of Octavianus Cæsar on the one side, and of Marc Antony and -Cleopatra on the other. The victory of Octavianus which followed, procured -him the name of Augustus, the Venerable, bestowed on him by -the Senate, and the commencement of the Roman Empire is commonly -dated from this year.</p> - - -<p>ADRIANOPLE.—This battle, by which Constantine the Great procured -the Roman Empire, was fought July 3rd, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 323. Adrianople -was afterwards taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks, in 1360, and -continued to be the seat of the Turkish Empire till the capture of Constantinople -in 1453. Mahomet II, one of the most distinguished of the -Sultans, and the one who took Constantinople, was born here in 1430. -Adrianople was taken by the Russians, who entered it, August 20th, 1829, -but was restored to the Sultan at the close of the war, September 14th, -the same year.</p> - - -<p>ADJUTANT.—This name is given to the officer, generally a lieutenant, -whose business it is to assist the superior officers, by receiving and -communicating orders.</p> - - -<p>ADMIRAL.—This, the highest title in the navy, does not appear to -have been adopted till about 1300. This title was first given in England<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -to William de Leybourne, by Edward I, in 1297. The first Lord High -Admiral of England was created by Richard II in 1388. It is an office -which has seldom been trusted to single hands. Prince George of Denmark, -consort to Queen Anne, was Lord High Admiral in her reign. -Since that time (1708) the duties were uninterruptedly executed by -Lords Commissioners until 1827, when the Duke of Clarence, afterwards -William IV, was appointed. He resigned August 12th, 1828, and the -office has ever since been vested in the Lords of the Admiralty.</p> - - -<p>AEGOS POTAMOS.—This place is famous for the victory of Lysander -over the Athenian fleet, on the 13th December, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 405, in the last -year of the Peloponnesian war. All the triremes of the Athenians, 180 in -number, were either lost or captured, without the loss of a single ship on -the side of Lysander.</p> - - -<p>AFGHAN WAR.—A fierce rebellion broke out on November 2nd, -1842, at Cabul; Burnes and Macnaughten, the British ministers, with -other civil and military officers, were successively murdered, and the -whole country rose in arms under the treacherous Akbar Khan, the son -of the deposed king, Dost Mohammed, who determined on the massacre -of the whole British force. Pusillanimity and indecision in the councils -of the general-in-chief, led to an immediate evacuation of the country. -4,500 fighting men, together with about 12,000 camp followers, besides -women and children, set forward, through ice and snow, on their lamentable -retreat; and no sooner had they cleared out of their cantonments, -than the blood-thirsty Afghans began to plunder the baggage, and fire -upon the soldiery; they continued without ceasing their revengeful -assaults upon the bewildered and desponding multitude, till there was -nothing left to plunder, and none left to kill. Out of a host of about -26,000 human beings, only a few hundreds were rescued from death by -captivity. The ladies and the wounded had been given up to the enemy -early in the march, and Dr. Brydon was the only officer who made good -his retreat. In the following year, however, on the appointment of Lord -Ellenborough to the governor-generalship of India in the place of Lord -Auckland, the British national character was repaired, the honour of -their arms retrieved, and the unfortunate prisoners rescued. General -Pollock was despatched into Afghanistan with an invading army; he -advanced on Cabul with all possible rapidity; while, on the other side, -General Nott, who had held out at Candahar during the recent difficulties, -brought his forces also to bear on the capital. Victory everywhere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -attended the British arms; and the British officers and ladies, who had -been taken prisoners, were also rescued, at Bameean, on the road to -Turkistan. These disgraces having been so gloriously redeemed, it was -determined to evacuate a country which ought never to have been entered; -the fortifications and other works of Cabul having been destroyed, -the British troops set forward, on their return home, and, after a march of -about ten weeks, arrived safely on the banks of the Sutlej, December 17th, -1842.</p> - - -<p>AGINCOURT.—Fought on the 25th of October, 1415, between the -English and French. When all his preparations were completed, King -Henry V embarked at Southampton with a gallant army of 30,000 men, -and landing at the mouth of the river Seine, invested the town of Harfleur. -After a brave resistance of five months’ duration, the town surrendered; -the inhabitants were expelled like those of Calais, and an -English garrison occupied it. To his mortification, Henry, at the end of -the siege, found his army no longer in a condition for active operations; -for it had suffered so severely from dysentery, that when the sick and -wounded had been sent home, it did not count more than one half of its -original number. In spite however, of the remonstrances of his council, -Henry resolved to march with his diminished force to Calais. He -reached unopposed the ford by which Edward III had crossed the Somme, -but found it secured by lines of palisades, behind which troops were -posted. All the other fords were secured in like manner, and the bridges -were broken. At length finding a ford unguarded, the English passed -over. The constable of France, who commanded the French army, fell -back towards Calais, and having received orders from his court to fight -without delay, he sent heralds to King Henry to ask which way he -intended to march. Henry replied, by that which led straight to Calais, -and dismissed the heralds with a present of 100 crowns.</p> - -<p>As the English were advancing, the Duke of York, having ascended -an eminence, descried the masses of the enemy. The troops were -instantly formed in line of battle, but the French would not advance to -attack them, the experience of Cressy and Poitiers having inspired them -with a dread of the cloth-yard arrows of the English. But as their army -presented an array of 50,000 horsemen, they had no doubt whatever of -the victory; and though the night was dark and rainy, they assembled -round their banners revelling and discussing the events of the coming -day; and such was their confidence that they even fixed the ransoms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -King Henry and his barons. English, on the contrary, made their -wills, and passed the night in devotion. Sickness, famine, and the smallness -of their numbers, depressed their spirits; but their courage rose -when they thought on Cressy and other victories, and on the gallant spirit -of their king. Henry himself visited all their quarters, and he ordered -bands of music to play all through the night to cheer their drooping -spirits.</p> - -<p>Before sunrise, on the 25th of October, 1415, being St. Crispin’s day, -the English army, having heard mass, stood in order of battle. The -king, wearing a helmet of polished steel, wreathed with a crown of sparkling -stones, rode on a grey pony from rank to rank, inspecting and -encouraging them. Hearing an officer say to another that he wished a -miracle would transfer thither some of the good knights who were sitting -idle at home, he declared aloud that “he would not have a single man -more, as if God gave them the victory, it would be plainly due to His -goodness; if he did not, the fewer that fell, the less the loss to their country.” -Three French knights now came, summoning them to surrender. -The king ordered them off and cried out, “Banners, advance.” The -archers fell on their knees on the ground, then rose and ran on with a -shout. They halted, and poured their hail of arrows on the first division -of the French; and when they had thrown it into some confusion, they -slung their bows behind their backs, and grasping their swords and battle-axes, -killed the constable and his principal officers, and routed the -whole division. They then advanced to attack the second division, led -by the Duke of Alençon. Here the resistance was obstinate. Alençon -forced his way to the royal standard, killed the Duke of York, and cleft -the crown in the helmet of the king; but he was slain, and the division -turned and fled. Henry was advancing to attack the third division, -when word came that a large force was falling on the rear. The king -gave hasty orders to put the prisoners to death, and numbers had perished -before it was discovered that it was a false alarm, caused by an attempt -of some peasantry to plunder the baggage. The slaughter was then -stopped, but this cruel act tarnished the victory which was already won, -for the third division offered but a slight resistance.</p> - -<p>When Montjoy, the French king-at-arms, appeared, “To whom,” said -Henry, “doth the victory belong?” “To you, sir.” “And what castle -is that I see at a distance?” “It is called the castle of Agincourt.” -“Then,” said the king, “be this battle known to posterity by the name -of the battle of Agincourt.” The prime nobility of France were taken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -or slain, and 8000 knights and gentlemen lay dead on the field. The -loss of the English was only the Duke of York, the Earl of Suffolk, and -about 600 men.</p> - - -<p>AGRA.—This celebrated city is called the Key of Hindostan. It -was surrendered, in the war of the Mahrattas, to the British forces, -October 17th, 1803. The great Mogul frequently, before its surrender, -resided here. It now exhibits the most magnificent ruins.</p> - - -<p>AIDE-DE-CAMP.—(<em>From the French</em>.) An officer whose duty is -to receive and communicate the orders of a general or superior officer.</p> - - -<p>AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, PEACE OF.—The first treaty signed -here was between France and Spain, May 2nd, 1668. The second, or the -<em>celebrated</em> treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, -Spain and Geneva, October 7th, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of -Austria, Prussia and Russia, assisted by ministers from England and -France, met here, October 9th, 1818, and signed a convention. The sum -settled by this convention as due by France to the Allies, was 265,000,000 -francs.</p> - - -<p>ALBUERA <span class="fs70">OR</span> ALBUHERA.—This battle was fought May 16th, -1811, between the English and French. The English and Anglo-Spanish -army was commanded by Marshal, now Lord Beresford, and the -French by Marshal Soult. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, -the allies obtained the victory, one of the most brilliant achievements of the -Peninsular War. The French loss exceeded 7000 men, previously to their -retreat; but the allies lost an equal number. On the side of the allies -the chief brunt of the battle fell on the British. “Colonel Inglis, 22 officers, -and more than 400 men, out of 570, who had mounted a hill, fell in the -57th regiment alone; the other regiments were scarcely better off, not one-third -being left standing; 1800 unwounded men, the remnant of 6000 -unconquerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal hill.”</p> - - -<p>ALDERNEY, RACE OF.—Through this strait the French made -their escape after their defeat at the battle of La Hogue, by Admiral -Rooke, in 1692. It is celebrated for two memorable and melancholy -events: 1st. Here the only son of Henry I of England was shipwrecked -and drowned, with 140 youths of the highest families in England and -France in 1119. 2nd. The British man-of-war Victory, of 110 guns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -and 1100 men, was also wrecked here October 8th, 1744, when the -Admiral, Sir John Balchan, and his crew, perished on the rocks.</p> - - -<p>ALEMANNI <span class="fs70">OR</span> ALL MEN (<em>i.e.</em> Men of all Nations).—A body -of Suevi, who were defeated by Caracalla, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 214. On one occasion -300,000 of this warlike people are said to have been vanquished in a -battle, near Milan, by Gallienus, at the head of 10,000 Romans.</p> - - -<p>ALESSANDRIA.—This battle was fought, May 17th, 1799, between -the Austro-Russian army, under Suwarrow, and the French under Moreau, -when the latter were defeated with the loss of 4000 men. The French -had possessed themselves of Alessandria the year before, but they were -now driven out. It was again delivered up to them after the battle of -Marengo in 1800. The village and battlefield of Marengo lie east of this -town.</p> - - -<p>ALEXANDRIA.—The battle of Alexandria was fought, March 21st, -1801, between the English and the French, the latter being commanded -by Menou, and the former by Sir Ralph Abercrombie. It resulted in the -defeat of the French, but the British general was mortally wounded, and -after the retreat of Menou, he was carried to the admiral’s ship, and died -on the 28th. The command devolved on Major-General Hutchinson, -who baffled all the schemes of Menou, and obliged him to surrender, September -2nd, following, the victor guaranteeing the conveyance of the -French, exceeding 10,000, to a French port in the Mediterranean.</p> - - -<p>ALFORD.—This battle was fought, July 2nd, 1645, between a large -body of Covenanters, under General Bailie, and the troops under the -Marquis of Montrose. There was discovered some years since, in one of -the mosses near this place, a man in armour, on horseback, supposed to -have been drowned in attempting to escape from this battle.</p> - - -<p>ALGESIRAS, <span class="fs70">OR</span> OLD GIBRALTAR.—By this city the Moors -entered Spain <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 713, and it was not recovered from them till 1344. -An engagement was fought here between a British squadron, under Sir -James Saumurez, and several French and Spanish ships of war, which -closed in the destruction of two Spanish ships, each of 112 guns, and -the capture of the <i>St. Antonio</i>, of 74 guns, July 12th, 1801.</p> - - -<div><a name="ALG" id="ALG"></a></div> -<p>ALGIERS.—The British fleet, under Lord Exmouth, anchoring off -Algiers, bombarded the town, which returned the fire; but all the fortifications<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -and houses towards the sea were soon reduced to ashes, and the -fleet in the harbour entirely destroyed, August 27th, 1816. The Dey was -compelled to conclude a treaty by which he set the Christian captives free, -and engaged to cease, in future, from reducing Christians to slaves—a -stipulation which, however, he did not afterwards strictly observe; so that -the French took possession of the country and made it a colony with a -governor, bearing the title of Regent of Algeria. This country is famous -for the celebrated French soldiers, the Zouaves, of the late wars.</p> - - -<p>ALIWAL, <em>India</em>.—This battle was fought, January 28th, 1846, -between the British under Sir H. Smith, with 1200 men and 32 guns, and -the Sikh army, under Sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 26,000 strong, -supported by 68 pieces of cannon. The contest was obstinate, but ended -in the defeat of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed, or drowned, in -attempting to recross the Sutlej. This battle was named after the village -of Aliwal, in the Indian language, <em>Ulleewal</em>, near which it was fought.</p> - - -<p>ALLIA.—This memorable battle, in the history of Rome, was fought -on the 18th July, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 390, between the Romans and the celebrated -Brennus, king of the Gauls; 40,000 of the Romans fell, and Brennus took -and burnt the city of Rome. This day was always marked unlucky in -the Roman calendar, and called Alliensis.</p> - - -<p>ALLIANCE, TREATIES OF.—Between the greatest European -powers, which are most commonly referred to:</p> - -<div class="fs90"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Alliance of Leipsic</td><td class="tdr">April 9,</td><td class="tdl">1631.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“</td><td class="tdl"> “ Vienna</td><td class="tdr">May 27,</td><td class="tdl">1657.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“</td><td class="tdl">The Triple</td><td class="tdr">Jan. 28,</td><td class="tdl">1668.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“</td><td class="tdl">The Grand</td><td class="tdr">May 12,</td><td class="tdl">1689.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“</td><td class="tdl">The Hague</td><td class="tdr">Jan. 4,</td><td class="tdl">1717.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“</td><td class="tdl">The Quadruple</td><td class="tdr">Aug. 2,</td><td class="tdl">1718.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“</td><td class="tdl">The Germanic</td><td class="tdr">July 23,</td><td class="tdl">1785.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“</td><td class="tdl">The Paris</td><td class="tdr">May 16,</td><td class="tdl">1795.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Austrian Alliance</td><td class="tdr">March 14,</td><td class="tdl">1812.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Alliance of Toplitz</td><td class="tdr">Sept. 9,</td><td class="tdl">1813.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Holy Alliance</td><td class="tdr">Sept. 26,</td><td class="tdl">1815.</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>ALMA, BATTLE OF THE.—Fought, September 20th, 1854. -“Lord Raglan waited patiently for the development of the French attack. -At length an aide-de-camp came to him and reported that the French had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -crossed the Alma, but that they had not established themselves sufficiently -to justify our advancing. The infantry were, therefore, ordered -to lie down, and the army for a short time was quite passive, only that -our artillery poured forth an unceasing fire of shell, rockets, and round -shot, which ploughed through the Russians, and caused them great loss. -They did not waver, however, and replied to our artillery manfully, their -shot falling among our men as they lay, and carrying off legs and arms at -every round. Lord Raglan at last became weary of this inactivity—his -spirit was up—he looked around and saw by his side men on whom he -knew he might stake the honour and fate of Great Britain, and anticipating -a little, in military point of view, the crisis of action, he gave orders -for our whole line to advance. Up rose those serried masses, and passing -through a fearful shower of round shot, case shot, and shell, they dashed -into the Alma, and floundered through its waters, which were literally -torn into foam by the deadly hail. At the other side of the river were a -number of vineyards, and to our surprise they were occupied by Russian -riflemen. Three of the staff were here shot down, but led by Lord -Raglan in person, they advanced, cheering on the men.</p> - -<p>And now came the turning-point of the battle, ... Lord Raglan -dashed over the bridge, followed by his staff. From the road over it, -under the Russian guns, he saw the state of action. The British line, -which he had ordered to advance, was struggling through the river and -up to the heights in masses, firm indeed, but mowed down by the murderous -fire of the batteries, and by grape, round shot, shell, canister, case -shot, and musketry, from some of the guns of the central battery, and -from an immense and compact mass of Russian infantry. Then commenced -one of the most bloody and determined struggles in the annals of -war. The Second Division, led by Sir De Lacy Evans in the most dashing -manner, crossed the stream on the right. The 7th Fusiliers, led by -Colonel Yea, were swept down by fifties. The 55th, 30th, and 95th, led -by Brigadier Pennefather, who was in the thickest of the fight, cheering -on his men, again and again were checked indeed, but never drew back -in their onward progress, which was marked by a fierce roll of Minié -musketry; and Brigadier Adams, with the 41st, 47th, and 49th, bravely -charged up the hill, and aided them in the battle. Sir George Brown, -conspicuous on a grey horse, rode in front of his Light Division, urging -them with voice and gesture. Gallant fellows! they were worthy of such -a gallant chief. The 7th, diminished by one-half, fell back to re-form -their columns lost for the time: the 23rd, with eight officers dead and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -four wounded, were still rushing to the front, aided by the 15th, 33d, -77th, and 88th. Down went Sir George in a cloud of dust in front of -the battery. He was soon up, and shouted, “23d, I’m all right! Be -sure I’ll remember this day,” and led them on again; but in the shock -produced by the fall of their chief, the gallant regiment suffered terribly, -while paralysed for a moment.</p> - -<p>Meantime the Guards on the right of the Light Division, and the -brigade of Highlanders, were storming the heights on the left. Their -line was almost as regular as though they were in Hyde Park. Suddenly -a tornado of round and grape, rushed through from the terrible battery, -and a roar of musketry from behind thinned their front ranks by dozens. -It was evident that we were just able to contend against the Russians, -favoured as they were by a great position. At this very time an immense -mass of Russian infantry were seen moving down towards the battery. -They halted. It was the crisis of the day. Sharp, angular, and solid, -they looked as if they were cut out of the solid rock. It was beyond all -doubt that if our infantry, harassed and thinned as they were, got into -the battery, they would have to encounter again a formidable fire, which -they were but ill calculated to bear. Lord Raglan saw the difficulties of -the situation. He asked if it would be possible to get a couple of guns to -bear on these masses. The reply was “Yes;” and an artillery officer, -whose name I do not know, brought up two guns to fire on the Russian -squares. The first shot missed, but the next, and the next, and the -next, cut through the ranks so cleanly, and so keenly, that a clear lane -could be seen for a moment through the square. After a few rounds, -the columns of the square became broken, wavered to and fro, broke, and -fled over the brow of the hill, leaving behind them six or seven distinct -lines of dead, lying as close as possible to each other, marking the -passage of the fatal messengers. This act relieved our infantry of a -deadly incubus, and they continued their magnificent and fearful progress -up the hill. The Duke encouraged his men by voice and example, and -proved himself worthy of his proud command and of the royal race from -which he comes. “Highlanders,” said Sir Colin Campbell, ere they -came to the charge, “I am going to ask a favour of you: it is, that you -will act so as to justify me in asking permission of the Queen for you to -wear a bonnet! Don’t pull a trigger till you are within a yard of the -Russians!” They charged, and well they obeyed their chieftain’s wish; -Sir Colin had his horse shot under him, but his men took the battery at -a bound. The Russians rushed out, and left multitudes of dead behind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -them. The Guards had stormed the right of the battery ere the Highlanders -got into the left, and it is said the Scots Fusilier Guards were -the first to enter. The Second and Light Division crowned the heights. -The French turned the guns on the hill against the flying masses, which -the cavalry in vain tried to cover. A few faint struggles from the -scattered infantry, a few rounds of cannon and musketry, and the enemy -fled to the south-east, leaving three generals, three guns, 700 prisoners, -and 4000 wounded behind them. The battle of the Alma was won. It -was won with a loss of nearly 3000 killed and wounded on our side. The -Russians’ retreat was covered by their cavalry, but if we had had an -adequate force, we could have captured many guns and multitudes of -prisoners.”</p> - -<p>The following graphic account is taken from <cite>Emerson’s Sebastopol</cite>:</p> - -<p>“On the 19th September the march commenced. Proceeding southward, -the French army, under the command of Marshal St. Arnaud, with Caurobert -and Bosquet as generals of divisions, keeping the coast line; the -English on their left. The fleets accompanied the march, close to the -shore, ready to render assistance should circumstances render it necessary.</p> - -<p>The English army comprised about 25,000 men, and was composed of -the following regiments, led as under:—</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, LORD RAGLAN.</p> - -<p><em>Light Division.</em>—Lieut.-General Sir G. Brown. Generals of Brigade, -Colonels Airey and Buller. 7th, 19th, 23rd (Welsh Fusiliers), 33rd, -77th, and 88th Infantry.</p> - -<p><em>First Division.</em>—Lieut.-General H.R.H. the Duke of Cambridge. -Generals of Brigade, Major-General Bentinck and Major-General Sir -Colin Campbell. Battalions, Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards, -Scots Fusiliers; 42nd, 79th, and 93rd Highlanders.</p> - -<p><em>Second Division.</em>—Lieut.-General Sir De Lacy Evans. Generals of -Brigade, Major-Generals Pennefather and Adams. 30th, 41st, 47th, -49th, 55th, and 95th Infantry.</p> - -<p><em>Third Division.</em>—Major-General Sir Richard England. Generals of -Brigade, Colonels Sir J. Campbell and Eyre. 1st, 4th, 28th, 38th, 44th, -50th, and 63rd Infantry.</p> - -<p><em>Fourth Division.</em>—Lieut.-General Sir George Cathcart. Generals of -Brigade, Generals Goldie and Torrens. 20th, 21st, 57th, and 63rd -Infantry; 1st Battalion Rifle Brigade.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Cavalry Division.</em>—Lieut.-General the Earl of Lucan. Generals of -Brigade, the Earl of Cardigan and Major-General Scarlett. 8th and 11th -Dragoons; 17th Lancers.</p> - -<p>[The Scots Greys, the Enniskillens, the 1st Royals, and the 4th and -5th Dragoon Guards, forming the Heavy Brigade, under General Scarlett, -did not land with the remainder of the army, but joined it after the -battle of Alma.]</p> - -<p><em>Artillery.</em>—General Strangways.</p> - -<p><em>Engineers.</em>—General Tylden.</p> - -<p>On the evening of the 19th, the first actual encounter with the enemy -occurred. A strong body of Cossacks hovered about our line of march, -and two or three guns opened fire upon our little force of cavalry from -the heights on the river Bouljanak, the first stream we had to cross. The -Earl of Cardigan gallantly charged the hostile troop, who evaded actual -contact, and retreated until they had led our men within the range of the -guns. Four of our dragoons were killed and six wounded in this -skirmish. Two or three of our guns were speedily brought to bear upon -the enemy, and Cossacks, gunners, and all were soon dispersed.</p> - -<p>Another dreary bivouac on the wet ground prepared the armies for the -great contest which awaited them. At day break on the morning of the -20th of September—a day destined to receive an undying fame in our -military annals,—the troops resumed their march. As they approached -the river Alma, and mounted the heights to the north of that once obscure -but now renowned stream, they saw the preparations which the Russians -had made to repel the invaders of their territory. The Alma is a small -river, rising in the mountains in the east of the peninsula, and falling -into the sea about twelve miles to the north of Sebastopol. The southern -bank is formed of almost precipitous hills intersected by deep ravines. -At the mouth of the river the cliffs are several hundred feet high, and -almost perpendicular towards the sea. A large conical hill was the centre -of the enemy’s position, and here enormous batteries and entrenchments -had been formed, while the crown of the hills was occupied by dense -masses of infantry. On the side facing the Allies, a huge redoubt was -constructed with two faces, mounting thirteen large guns, and commanding -the approaches to the summit and the passage of the river. Each side -of the ravines enfilading the hill had powerful batteries, mounting altogether -twenty-five guns, and on the cliffs towards the sea an unfinished -redoubt was placed, and a large force of infantry and artillery held the -position. It was presumed by the Russian commanders that the precipitous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -character of the hill was a sufficient defence to their left flank. In -this expectation they were doomed to bitter disappointment, as the sequel -will show. The immediate banks of the river were covered with vineyards -and plantations, affording excellent shelter for the Russian riflemen, -who were stationed there in strong force. The bridge carrying the main -road across the river was destroyed, and the village of Burliuk, at its -northern extremity, was in flames, to prevent its being made a point of -attack by the Allies.</p> - -<p>The effect on our men was almost miraculous. The sight of the foe -strongly entrenched, and determined to wait their attack, stimulated them -in an extraordinary degree. Fatigued as they were by the labours they -had undergone,—despondent from their five nights’ melancholy bivouac -on the wet earth, it seemed as if a new life were suddenly infused into -them. Diarrhœa and dysentery had not quite departed from their ranks, -and many had returned to the vessels, unable to accompany the march. -But when they stood on the hill-tops on that memorable morn, and saw -the tents of the Russian army, not a man but felt the strength of a giant, -and burned with a fierce desire to cross bayonets with the enemy. Many -a brave fellow, who had staggered thus far leaning on a comrade’s arm, -and ready to drop behind and perish by the wayside, begged for a draught -of brandy, and then, forgetting his weakness, and deriving new strength -from the occasion, shouldered his musket, took his wonted position among -his comrades, and marched bravely to the encounter.</p> - -<p>Although the spot where they had bivouacked was only three miles -distant from the river, it was mid-day by the time the allied armies had -reached its banks, and were drawn up in battle array. It had been -arranged by the generals that the French should commence the attack, -and they occupied the extreme right of the extended line. The division -commanded by General Bosquet, including those renowned warriors, the -African Zouaves, rested upon the sea, and the left of their army consisted -of Prince Napoleon’s division. Joining this wing of our allies, -the veteran Sir De Lacy Evans was posted with the Second Division, -supported by the Third Division under Sir Richard England. Sir George -Brown’s Light Division came next; and the Duke of Cambridge led his -magnificent body of Guards and Highlanders to the extreme left, as a -support to Sir George Brown. Sir George Cathcart had the important -but less showy duty of acting as a reserve, and, in conjunction with the -cavalry under the Earl of Cardigan, guarding the attacking forces from -any sudden <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup</i> by the Cossacks, who were hovering in suspicious proximity -to our rear.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p> - -<p>Such was the army, composed of the choicest troops, and led by the -most experienced commanders of France and England, which stood prepared -to attempt the dislodgment of the Russians from their strongly-fortified -position. Prince Menschikoff, the Russian commander,—the -same who, in his character of diplomatist, had been the agent through -whom the first insult had been offered to Turkey,—now, by a singular -destiny, was the first general upon whom it devolved to measure swords -with the military champions whom that insult had called into the field. -His army numbered about 54,000 men, so that numerically the opposing -forces were very nearly matched; but the Russians had the advantage -of their almost impregnable position, to approach which a river must be -forded, broken ground crossed, and steep hills ascended. In addition, -they were abundantly provided with guns, which were so positioned as -to sweep the ground over which the attacking force must pass, while the -Allies had but a small force of artillery. So confident was Menschikoff -in his advantages, that he did not scruple to boast his ability to hold his -position for at least three weeks against any force that could be brought -against him. A number of ladies and civilians from Sebastopol had also -assembled on the heights to witness the defeat and utter rout of the -invaders.</p> - -<p>The plan of the allied commanders was that the French should make -a vigorous attack upon the Russian left, and when they had succeeded -in driving them in upon the main body, the English, taking advantage -of the confusion, were to cross the river, and endeavour to force the -centre of the position. The enemy, we have already said, had considered -that their left was sufficiently protected by the precipitous nature of the -cliffs, which rendered them almost inaccessible; but it appears they had -not calculated on the activity of the troops to whom they were opposed. -The steamers of the allied fleets, shortly before ten o’clock, commenced a -vigorous shelling of these heights, and soon drove back the small force -of the enemy which occupied them. The mouth of the river was very -narrow, and Captain Peel had moored a boat across the stream, which -materially facilitated the passage of the French soldiers. The Zouaves, -thoroughly seasoned and trained to the emergencies of guerilla warfare -in Algeria, stealthily crossed the river, and commenced the ascent of the -almost perpendicular cliffs, clinging like goats to the rocks, and finding -a precarious foothold where probably no other soldiers in the world -could have maintained their position. While they were thus approaching -the plateau, the main body of the French army dashed through the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -river, exposed to a galling fire from the Russian riflemen,—who were -hidden in the vineyards and plantations,—and desperately fighting, -struggled up the hills. Meanwhile, the gallant Zouaves had reached -the top of the cliffs, and, rapidly forming into line, charged the Russians, -paralyzed by their sudden appearance, and drove them back. But in -achieving this desperate feat, they had separated themselves from the -main body, and cut off the possibility of retreat. The unfinished -redoubt, which we have already mentioned, now opened a deadly fire on -their ranks; and had it not been for the timely arrival of General Bosquet -and the remainder of the division, who had succeeded in reaching -the plateau, scarcely a Zouave would have remained to tell the tale of -that gallant achievement. Prince Napoleon, too, had by this time -crossed the stream, and arrived at the scene of action, and the indefatigable -French artillerists had succeeded, with immense difficulty, in -dragging a few guns up the steep hill-side.</p> - -<p>Animated by these reinforcements, the brave Zouaves gallantly charged -the Russian lines, now concentrated nearer the main body, and advanced -towards the redoubt whose guns had inflicted such loss in their ranks. -Two of their number, Lieutenant Poitevin and a sergeant, rushed in -advance of their comrades, and leaping upon the works, planted the -French flag on the redoubt. But they paid dearly for their temerity. -The shouts of the French soldiers, hailing this gallant deed, had scarcely -reached their ears, when they fell mortally wounded beneath the flag -they had raised.</p> - -<p>Taken by surprise by this desperate assault upon his left wing, -Prince Menschikoff hastily detached considerable reinforcements from his -main body to the succour of the embarrassed regiments yielding to the -prowess of their French antagonists. Then the battle waged fiercely: -the French, with all the chivalry of their race, gallantly charged the -Russian masses, and at the bayonet’s point forced them to retreat. The -enemy’s artillery, however, poured a tremendous fire into the ranks of our -allies, and for a time the issue of the contest seemed doubtful. Some -French regiments of the line were driven back, so deadly was the fire to -which they were exposed; and nothing but the unflinching gallantry of -the troops who were enabled to hold their ground, prevented them from -being ignominiously precipitated from the cliffs they had so adventurously -scaled.</p> - -<p>Marshal St. Arnaud, alarmed for the safety of his soldiers, hundreds of -whom were lying dead around him, so fatal were the volleys from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -Russian guns and so sure the aim of the riflemen, hastily despatched -an aide-de-camp to the English commander, calling upon him to bring -his troops into action without a moment’s delay. “We are massacred,” -was the message—certainly not the words which Napoleon, or Murat, or -Ney, would have used when attacking an enemy considerably less in -force than themselves; for, be it remembered, Menschikoff still held the -centre of the position with the main body of the army, which had not -yet been brought into action. At half-past one o’clock the order to -advance was given to the English army. The soldiers, who had been -lying down, so as not to expose themselves unnecessarily to the fire of -the enemy, sprang to their feet, and rapidly formed into line. Sir G. -Brown’s Light Division, and the Second Division, under Sir De Lacy -Evans, were the first to dash into the stream, and through a perfect -shower of balls from the riflemen concealed in the gardens, and heavier -missiles from the batteries above, reached the opposite bank.</p> - -<p>Since the commencement of the French attack, our artillery had been -throwing shot into the Russian redoubts, and under cover of this cannonade, -and the accurate fire of the Rifle Brigade, which protected our -advance, the two leading divisions succeeded in crossing the stream, -though not without great loss. The Russians had previously marked out -the range of their guns, so that they were enabled to pour their volleys -into our brigades, as they advanced to the stream, with fatal precision. -The burning village of Burliuk, in front of the position occupied by Sir -De Lacy Evans, necessitated the separation of his division. General -Pennefather led the First Brigade and a portion of the Second across the -river to the right of the village; the remainder, under General Adams, -crossing to the left. The Light Division struggled manfully up the bank, -which was rugged and precipitous. The ford was deep and dangerous, -and as the men, drenched with water, scrambled up the banks, scores of -their number fell back into the stream pierced by the fatal rifle bullet. -But the blood of the gallant fellows was flowing hotly in their veins; -those who, in other times, had borne the shock of battles, felt renewed the -old spirit which had made them conquerors at Vimiera and at Waterloo; -those who for the first time trod the fatal field felt an indescribable and -fierce courage, which the sight of danger and of death infuses into most -men. Six months of inaction and passive suffering were about to be consummated -by a glorious victory, which should crown them as conquering -heroes or immortalize their death. They had stood long “like greyhounds -on the slips, straining upon the start;” now “the game was afoot,”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -and the old fire of English chivalry was rekindled, and burnt with as -glowing a flame as of yore.</p> - -<p>Quickly forming into line, and opening a sharp fire of musketry, the -gallant Light Division rapidly advanced towards the conical hill opposite -to which they had crossed, and immediately beneath the guns of the great -redoubt. As they passed through the vineyards, the soldiers plucked and -eagerly ate large bunches of the luscious Crimean grapes, which allayed -their burning thirst, and somewhat cooled the mad fever of their excitement. -Sir George Brown gallantly led the charge, and, mounted on a -white horse, was a conspicuous mark for the enemy. The 7th Royal -Fusiliers and the 23rd Welsh Fusiliers were among the first in the mad -career. “Hurrah for the Royal Welsh! Well done! I will remember -you!” shouted Sir George Brown; and animated by his voice and -example, the gallant regiment dashed up the hill. Then there opened a -sheet of fire, and when the smoke lifted, the 7th was broken, and a long -line of dead marked the path of the fatal missiles. For a moment the -brave soldiers struggled onwards, and then, blinded and confused, fell -back to re-form. The Welsh Fusiliers, regardless of the fierce volleys, -still pressed onwards. Once they paused, as Sir George Brown fell at -their head, and rolled heavily on the blood-stained ground. In an instant -he was up again unhurt, and cheering the men to the charge. His horse -had fallen, pierced by eleven shots, but he was unhurt! They had reached -the first stockade, had even planted their flag upon the works, when a -shout was heard—“Cease firing; the French are in front!” Their -gallant chief, Colonel Chester, rushing to the front, exclaimed, “No! no! -on, lads!” As he spoke he fell mortally wounded. Then the regiment, -confused by the contrary orders, and disheartened, <em>did</em> fall back; and the -Russians, returning to the guns from which the brave fellows had driven -them, opened a fire which left a long line of dead through their -columns. Nine officers and about one hundred men were stretched upon -the field. The other regiments of the Light Brigade, the 19th, 33rd, 77th, -and 88th, emulated the courage of the gallant Welshmen, who, after a -moment’s breathing-time, re-formed, and joined once more in the heroic -assault.</p> - -<p>Onward swept that magnificent charge, officers and men vying with -each other who should be foremost to avenge their comrades’ death. But -before they reached the guns, Prince Menschikoff had formed a compact -mass of Russian infantry on the summit of the hill, which now advanced -with level bayonets against our exhausted battalions. Breathless from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -their rapid charge up the hill, diminished in numbers, and fatigued from -their almost superhuman exertions, they were unable to resist the shock, -and, desperately contesting every inch of ground, slowly yielded to the -enormous weight of the Russian columns. The gallant 33rd, the Duke -of Wellington’s regiment, displayed a prowess excelled by none. Their -colours were borne proudly to the last, and ever in the spot of the greatest -danger. The Queen’s colours, when the fight was over, showed fourteen -bullet-holes, and the regimental colours eleven. Nineteen sergeants fell -around their standards, defending to the last the honour of their regiment, -and preserving the fame so identified with the career of the departed -warrior whose name it bore.</p> - -<p>While the heroes of the Light Division were thus nobly performing their -part, Sir De Lacy Evans and General England were gallantly bringing -their divisions into action. They had forced a passage, with great difficulty, -and exposed to a most destructive fire, somewhat to the left of their -compatriots of Sir George Brown’s division, and, breaking through the -obstacles which awaited them on the bank, rapidly advanced up the -hill. The 55th and 95th encountered a tremendous fire, which they -returned with vigour from their muskets, while our artillery did good -service by an energetic discharge of shot and shell into the enemy’s -lines. Major Rose, Captains Butler and Scham, fell to rise no more, and -many other officers were severely wounded; 123 killed and wounded were -the contribution of this regiment to the day’s slaughter.</p> - -<p>As the 95th charged up the hill, one of the most affecting episodes of -that fierce encounter—so full of incidents, of unsurpassed courage, and -pathetic scenes—occurred. Early in the charge, Captain Eddington, a -young officer, fell wounded, a ball passing through his chest. The regiment, -unable to stand against the scathing fire to which they were -exposed, fell back to re-form, and left the wounded officer on the ground. -In full view of the regiment, a Russian rifleman advanced, and kneeling -by his side, appeared to be about to offer his canteen to his lips. A -thrill passed through the ranks, at the spectacle of a soldier exposing his -own life thus for the purpose of alleviating the sufferings of a dying -enemy. No gun would have been pointed against that man, no bayonet -levelled at his life. It seemed one of those incidents that show the better -feelings of humanity are not quite extinguished by the breath of war. -But what was their horror when the rifleman, laying aside his canteen, -levelled his piece and deliberately blew out the brains of the dying man! -Among those who witnessed this cowardly assassination was a younger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -brother of the captain who had recently exchanged into the regiment, -that he might share death and danger with his brother, whom he tenderly -loved. Maddened by the spectacle of his brother’s murder, the -young lieutenant sprang forward, shouting with frantic energy to the -men to follow and avenge the deed. One loud yell of execration burst -from the lips of the soldiers, and bounding onwards, they rushed after -their leader. Waving his sword above his head, the gallant young man -was a conspicuous mark, and in another moment fell headlong, pierced -by a dozen bullets. Thus the two brothers, so fondly attached in life, -mingled their blood on that fatal hillside—among thousands of the slain -perhaps the most generally and deeply mourned.</p> - -<p>At length Sir De Lacy Evans, who had received a severe contusion on -his shoulder, rallied his men, and led them victors to the summit of the -hill, silencing one of the batteries which had done such execution upon -the gallant fellows of the Light Division. Sir Richard England’s division -had fought—to use the language of one who shared in that charge—“like -devils,” and surmounting every impediment, though not without -dreadful loss, joined their gallant comrades. Everywhere the Russians -were driven back by the irresistible bayonets of the British, and the conquerors -literally marched through paths of blood to victory.</p> - -<p>As yet we have not detailed the part borne by the magnificent First -Division,—the very flower of the British army. The Duke of Cambridge -had led his Guards and Highlanders across the Alma, to the left of the -Light Division, and rapidly advanced to its assistance. As they ascended -the hill, they encountered Sir George Brown’s regiments slowly yielding -to the immense impetus of the Russian charge. Opening their ranks, -they allowed their comrades to pass and re-form in their rear, and then the -enemy for the first time was confronted with the most redoubtable infantry -soldiers in the world. Then began the most desperate hand-to-hand -conflict yet witnessed. The Scots Fusiliers had hurried to the rescue -without waiting to form properly, and for a brief space were confused. -But the individual courage of the members of that distinguished corps -never for an instant was found deficient. Surrounded by the enemy, -they fought with undaunted valour. Viscount Chewton, a distinguished -young captain, who had gained renown in both services, having been -originally a midshipman, and having borne an honourable part in the -Indian campaign, dashed forward, and, waving his bearskin, shouted to -them to advance. Thirteen other officers, with reckless bravery, followed -his example, and in a few minutes eleven of their number were wounded.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -The gallant Chewton had his leg broken by a ball, and fell within fifty -yards of the redoubt. Before he could be rescued, several Russians -attacked the fallen man, and beat him savagely with the butt-ends of -their muskets, others stabbing him at the same time with their bayonets. -A strong man, he struggled desperately; and when at length rescued and -borne from the field, his body was found to be almost covered with -wounds. He lingered for a few days, and then expired. Two young -officers, Lieutenants Lindsay and Thistlethwayte, who bore the colours, -were surrounded by the enemy, and, except the four colour-sergeants, -isolated from their comrades. The sergeants were one by one struck -down; and then these gallant young men, back to back, kept the foe at -bay, and, almost miraculously escaping unhurt, cut their way through -and carried their colours safely to the top of the hill.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the Light Division had re-formed their lines, and now -returned to the charge, in the footsteps of the dauntless Guards. In -vain broad sheets of fire poured through the ranks—no man flinched. -The flag which the Fusiliers had planted on the redoubt was still there, -and pointed out the path they were to tread. Their royal leader proved -himself worthy of his charge, and encouraged by his example the valour -of his men. The Russians quailed before the tremendous onset; and -when the Highlanders, who had reserved their fire, came dashing up to -the front, and, after discharging a tremendous volley, charged at the -bayonet’s point, the rout was complete. Thu enemy fled terror-stricken, -and the Guards and Highlanders together leaped into the redoubt, the -gunners precipitately hastening after their flying comrades.</p> - -<p>At the summit of the hill a brief stand was made, and it seemed as if -the contest were about to be renewed; but the Highlanders, levelling -their bayonets, advanced at a rapid pace, and the enemy, dashing -down their accoutrements and arms, fled, like frightened sheep, down the -declivity.</p> - -<p>Meantime the French had driven back the Russian left wing upon the -main body, and now brought to bear, with deadly effect, their guns upon -the retreating foe; and the second and third divisions of our army arrived -upon the scene. The victory was complete: a great army, in a position -of immense strength, had been ignominiously defeated, in less than three -hours, by the sheer valour of English and French soldiers. True, we -had paid dearly for our victory; but the annals of the British army do -not record a nobler achievement.</p> - -<p>We were unable to pursue the fugitives—our cavalry was too weak in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -numbers to be detached from the main body of the army: had we been -stronger in that branch of the service, the victory of the Alma might -have been equivalent to the conquest of the Crimea. We afterwards -ascertained that Sebastopol was emptied of its garrison to strengthen the -army, and had we been in a position to follow the retreating forces, we -might have inflicted a blow on Russian strength from which it would not -in all probability have soon recovered; as it was, the Allies remained masters -of the field, and the defeated Menschikoff fled towards Baktchi-Serai, -leaving behind him, according to his own admission, 1,762 dead, and -2,720 wounded. Russian assertions are not the most trustworthy, especially -when the circumstances are unfavourable to themselves, and the -probability is that the loss was really much greater. The English had -353 killed, and 1,612 wounded, many of whom afterwards died of their -injuries. Our allies lost 256 killed, and 1,087 wounded.</p> - -<p>On the bloody field reposed the victors when that day’s dreadful work -was done: amid the dead and dying—the lifebreath painfully passing -from the lips of wounded friend and foe—some of our bravo fellows, pillowed -on their knapsacks, slept a fitful sleep; some crept among the heaps -of dying, searching for friend or brother, and some supported the drooping -head and administered a draught of water to the fevered lips of -wounded comrade or dying enemy. The fight was over, the lust of blood -satisfied, and all the better qualities of manhood, mercy and forgiveness, -appeared beneath that setting sun. Sometimes, as they stooped to assist a -dying enemy, the Muscovite, trained to treachery, with a final effort, -would discharge a pistol at their heads; and then the old war spirit was -once more aroused, and with clubbed musket, or deadly bayonet, the malevolent -Russian was sent to his account. The sailors, who had watched -the progress of the battle from the ships, when they saw that victory was -ours, swarmed ashore, and hurried to the scene of strife. There they -bore the wounded to the surgeon’s quarters, and to the ships, with the -tenderness of women. Little drummer-boys might be seen among the -prostrate heroes, comforting and rendering assistance with a care and zeal -beyond their years. A fatigue party was ordered on service to bury the -dead; and the surgeons, with bare arms and splashed with blood, strove -by their skill and energy to alleviate the sufferings and save the lives of -the poor fellows brought to them.</p> - -<p>A frightful spectacle was that hill-side of the Alma, on the evening of -the renowned 20th of September, 1854. England’s best and bravest lay -dead, their pale faces lit by the setting sun: some retained the expression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -of that intense energy which bore them fearlessly to the mouths of the -Russian guns; some, with faces calm and beautiful as an infant’s, seemed -peacefully sleeping, and smiling as they slept: others, with limbs contracted, -and features frightfully distorted, bore witness to the fierce -agonies of the death-struggle. Russian and English and French lay -commingled, as they fell in the deadly struggle; and among the heaps of -corpses, many in whom the spark of life yet lingered, lay miserably groaning, -or faintly crawled with shattered limbs, in search of help. Some of -the bodies were headless, the brains scattered around the bloody trunk: -and others were so frightfully mutilated that it was difficult to recognize -any trace of humanity. While some of our men helped to bear the -wounded from the field, and bury the corpses of the slain, others hovered -about, and plundered the dead of clothes, arms and such matters as could -be carried away; the sailors especially were active in securing trophies of -war. Russian orders and crosses, Russian arms, and even the black -bread from the soldiers’ knapsacks, were eagerly sought; the boots were -real prizes, and the seamen, who would heartily lend a hand to succour a -wounded comrade, or even a foe, had no delicacy in appropriating the -clothing of the dead. An expeditious mode of measurement, by which -they secured the articles which would best fit, caused some amusement, -even at such a time. Jack, seating himself at the feet of a dead Russian, -placed the sole of his foot against that of the corpse; if they agreed in -size, the boots were at once appropriated; if otherwise, the critical mariner -proceeded to another selection.</p> - -<p>For two days the armies remained upon the field; had they marched -at once, it is more than probable, nay, almost certain, they might have -entered Sebastopol with but little resistance. Marshal St. Arnaud wished -to make an immediate advance; but Lord Raglan refused to leave his -wounded untended on the field. Though possibly we ultimately lost by -this delay, we can scarcely blame a general who showed such a fine humanity -even among the horrors of warfare. Our English courage is of the -old chivalric sort—we fight as men, for great principles, not for the lust -of conquest: our soldiers are every one a treasure of immense value, -rightly used, not to be cast away to perish when their first use is passed. -Human life is to Englishmen intensely sacred: we cheerfully lay it down -when demanded, and in proportion do we honour and cherish those who -have perilled it in our cause. A single life wilfully sacrificed for a mere -strategical advantage would have been a stain on our English honour, -which we should not speedily have forgiven.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> - -<p>At early morning, on the 23rd of September, the Allies turned their -backs on the memorable heights. Two men, strong and unwounded, -remained upon the field, and watched their departure; and in all that -proud array, flushed with victory, there were none who bore more heroic -hearts. Upwards of 200 wounded Russians still lay upon the field; and -Dr. Thompson, surgeon of the 44th regiment, and his servant, volunteered -to remain, and administer to their wants. Every moment increased -their loneliness and their danger; for predatory bands of Cossack horsemen -still hovered around the scene, against whose revengeful lances the plea -of mercy and Christian charity would have been but an ineffectual shield; -and yet these two brave men quailed not in their mission, and many a -dying foe had his last pangs soothed, and parting agonies alleviated, by -the ministrations of these good Samaritans of peace.”</p> - - -<p>ALMANZA.—This battle was fought, April 4th, 1707, between the -confederate forces under the Earl of Galway, and the French and -Spaniards, commanded by James Fitzjames, Duke of Berwick, the -illegitimate son of James II of England, when most of the English -were killed or made prisoners of war, having been abandoned by the -Portuguese at the first charge.</p> - - -<p>ALMEIDA.—This was an important position, as a frontier town -of Portugal, in the Peninsular war. Massena laid siege to it August -15th, 1810, and the governor capitulated August 27th following. The -French crossed into Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, blockaded by -the British, April 6th, 1811. It was evacuated by the French, May -11th, of the same year. In the end Wellington compelled Massena to -retire from Portugal, but the route of the French was tracked by horrid -desolation.</p> - - -<p>ALNEY.—This was rather a single combat than a battle, between -Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, in sight of their armies. The -latter was wounded, when he proposed a division of the kingdom, the -south part falling to Edmund, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1016; but this prince having been -murdered at Oxford, shortly after the treaty, according to some by the -treachery of Aldric Streon, Canute was left in the peaceable possession -of the whole kingdom, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1017.</p> - - -<p>AMBOYNA.—This place is celebrated for the memorable massacre -of the English factors by the Dutch, February 17th, 1623; they were -cruelly tortured and put to death on an accusation of a conspiracy to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -expel the Dutch from the island, where the two nations resided and -jointly shared in the pepper trade of Java. Amboyna was seized by the -English, February 16th, 1796, but was restored by the treaty of Amiens -in 1802. It was again seized by the British, February 17th, 1810, and -was restored at the peace of 1814.</p> - - -<p>AMHERSTBURG.—Fought between the Canadians and Americans. -In July, 1812, the American General Hull, with a force of 2500 men, -crossed over from Detroit, and entered the Western district, where he -issued a proclamation inviting the inhabitants to join his standard. At -this time the British force on the frontier was merely nominal, and could -offer little resistance. As soon as General Brock heard of this invasion, -he prorogued the Parliament, then sitting at Toronto, and proceeded -westward. He arrived on the 12th of August at Amherstburg, where -he mustered about 330 regulars, and 400 militia and six hundred -Indians. Hull, whose force, weakened by sickness and sending away -two detachments, is said at this time not to have exceeded 800 effective -men, retreated across the river, withdrawing the cannon prepared for the -siege of Amherstburg, and shut himself up in Detroit. General Brock, -instantly crossing over, advanced upon the fort and prepared for an -immediate assault. A white flag, however, appeared from the walls, and -a capitulation was signed, by which the whole American force, including -the detachments, were made prisoners and sent to Montreal. Loud and -just complaints were made by the Americans against the conduct of -Hull, who was afterwards tried and condemned to be shot, but was -spared on account of his age and former services.</p> - - -<p>AMIENS, PEACE OF.—Between Great Britain, Holland, France -and Spain, signed March 27th, 1801.</p> - - -<p>AMSTERDAM.—Capital of Holland, surrendered to the King of -Prussia, when he invaded Holland in favor of the Stadtholder in 1737. -The French were admitted, without resistance, January 18th, 1795. -The ancient government restored in November, 1813.</p> - - -<p>ANDRÉ, MAJOR.—An adjutant general of the British army, taken -prisoner by the Americans whilst returning in disguise from a secret -expedition to the American General Arnold; hanged October 2nd, 1780.</p> - - -<p>ANGRIA.—A pirate’s fort on the coast of Malabar, invested by -Admiral Watson, and destroyed 1756.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> - - -<p>ANHOLT, ISLAND OF.—Owing to the injury done by the Danish -cruisers to British commerce, this island was taken possession of by -England. The Danes made an attempt to regain it with a force of -4000, but were gallantly repulsed. The British force opposed to them -did not amount to more than 150 men, yet triumphed in a close and -desperate engagement, March 14th, 1811.</p> - - -<p>ANJOU, <span class="fs70">OR</span> BLAUGÉ.—This battle was fought between the English -and French armies April 3rd, 1421. The French were commanded by -the Dauphin of France, who defeated the English, on whose side the -Duke of Clarence and 1500 men perished on the field; the Duke was -slain by Sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, who commanded a company -at arms; and the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken -prisoners. This was the first battle that turned the tide of success -against the English in their first wars with France.</p> - - -<p>ANTOIGN.—This battle was fought between the central army of the -French and the Allies, August 13th, 1792, in which 4500 Austrians -and Prussians were killed, 3,500 taken prisoners, and 600 emigrants -shut up in Longwy; 900 French were killed in the action; 30 pieces -of battering cannon and howitzers, with all the baggage of the combined -army, were captured.</p> - - -<p>AQUILEIA.—In the first battle fought there, Constantine II was -slain by Constans towards the close of March, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 340. In the second, -Maximus was defeated and slain by Theodosius, July 28th. <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 388. -In the third, Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogastes, the Gaul, -and remained sole emperor of the Roman world, September 6th, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> -394. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, -mortified by his overthrow.</p> - - -<p>ARBELA.—The third and decisive battle fought between Alexander -the Great and Darius Codomanus, king of Persia, which decided the -fate of Persia, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 331. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of -foot and 100,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 -foot and 7,000 horse. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, -Babylon, and Persepolis, which fell into the hands of Alexander, after -this victory, amounted to £30,000,000, and the jewels and other precious -spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 -camels. At the battle of Arbela, the Persians lost 300,000, or as some,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -with greater probability, say 40,000, whilst the Macedonians had only -500 slain. Darius betook himself to flight, and was slain by Bessus, -Governor of Bactria, who was punished for his perfidy in the following -manner:—He was taken and bound naked, hand and foot, and four trees -having been by main force bent down to the ground, and one of the -criminal’s limbs tied to each of them, the trees, as they were suffered to -return to their natural position, flew back with prodigious violence, each -carrying with it one of the limbs.</p> - - -<p>ARCOLA.—This battle was fought between the French, under -General Bonaparte, and the Austrians, under Field-Marshal Alvinzy, -November 19th, 1796. The result of this bloody conflict, which was -fought for eight successive days, was the loss on the part of the Austrians of -12,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, with 4 flags and 18 guns.</p> - - -<p>ARGENTARIA.—This battle was one of the most renowned of its -times. It was fought <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 378, in Alsace, between the Allemanni and -the Romans, the former being defeated by the latter, with the loss of -more than 35,000 men, out of their whole army of 40,000.</p> - - -<p>ARKLOW.—This battle was fought June 10th, 1798, between the -insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, -which signally defeated them.</p> - - -<p>ARMADA.—Philip, king of Spain, after some years of preparation -in all the ports of his extensive dominions, had assembled in the river -Tagus a fleet of 130 large vessels, carrying nearly 30,000 men, and -the Prince of Parma had collected, in the ports of the Netherlands, -ships and boats for the embarkation of an equal number of his veteran -troops. To resist these formidable preparations, Elizabeth had only a -navy of 34 ships, but the nobility and the seaports fitted out such a -number of vessels at their own expense, that there soon was at sea a fleet -of 180 vessels of all kinds, large and small. The chief command was committed -to Howard of Effingham, Lord High-Admiral of England, and -Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher held commands under him. The fleet -was stationed at Plymouth. A land army of 30,000 men was posted at -Tilbury, in Essex, under the command of Lord Leicester, for the protection -of the city of London, while another of equal strength was destined -for the guard of the Queen’s person.</p> - -<p>On the 29th of May, 1588, the Invincible Armada (i.e. <em>Fleet</em>), as it -was proudly styled, sailed from the Tagus, but owing to a storm which it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -encountered, it did not appear off the coast of England till the 19th of -July. On that day it was descried near the Lizard point, in Cornwall, -by a Scottish pirate, who made all the sail he could to convey the intelligence -to Plymouth, and the Admiral got his fleet out to sea with as little -delay as possible.</p> - -<p>As the Spanish Admiral had orders not to engage in hostilities till he -should have seen the Prince of Parma’s army landed in England, he took -no notice of the English fleet, but steadily directed his course up the -Channel. The Armada sailed in the form of a crescent, of which the -horns were seven miles asunder. Its motion was slow, though every sail -was spread; “The winds,” says the historian, “being as it were tired with -carrying the ships, and the ocean groaning beneath their weight.” The -English ships, which were smaller and more active than those of the -Armada, followed to harass it and cut off stragglers, and during the six -days which it took to reach Calais, it suffered considerably from their -persevering attacks. At Calais the Admiral learned that the Prince could -not embark his troops for want of stores and sailors, and while he waited, -the Armada narrowly escaped destruction from fire-ships sent into it by -the English. A violent tempest succeeded, which drove it among the -shoals on the coast of Zealand; and a council of war determined that, as -it was now in too shattered a condition to attempt anything against the -enemy, it were best to return to Spain without delay; but as the passage -down the Channel was so full of hazard, it was resolved to sail round Scotland -and Ireland. The Armada, therefore, set sail; the English pursued -it as far as Flamborough-head, where want of ammunition forced -them to give over the chase. Storms, however, assailed the Armada, and -several of the vessels were cast away on the coast of Ireland, where the -crews were butchered by the barbarous natives. The total loss was 30 -large ships and 10,000 men. Philip received the intelligence with great -tranquillity, and ordered public thanks to God and the saints for the -calamity not having been greater.</p> - -<p>In this great danger of herself and kingdom, Elizabeth had shown the -spirit of a heroine. She visited the camp at Tilbury, rode along the lines -mounted on a white palfrey, and cheered the soldiers by her animated -language. When the danger was over she went in state to St. Paul’s, -and publicly returned thanks to Heaven. She granted pensions to the -disabled seamen, created the Admiral, Earl of Nottingham, and bestowed -honours and rewards on his officers. The sudden death of Leicester, -shortly after he had disbanded his army, intercepted the favours she -might have designed for him.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> - - -<p>ARMED NEUTRALITY.—A confederacy of the Northern powers -against England, commenced by the Empress of Russia, in 1780. It -resulted in the destruction of the Danish fleet before Copenhagen, April, -1801. This gave England the acknowledged claim to the empire of the -sea. The neutrality was soon after dissolved.</p> - - -<p>ARMAGH.—This battle was fought <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1318, against Edward -Bruce, who was defeated, taken, and beheaded at Dundalk, and with -him 6200 Scots lost their lives.</p> - - -<p>ARMISTICES, CELEBRATED.—The most celebrated armistices -recorded in Modern History are the following:—That of Leobon, in 1797, -was signed a few days after the victory of Tagliamento, gained by Napoleon -I over Prince Charles. It was Bonaparte himself who proposed -it. This armistice was followed by the preliminaries of Leobon -and the treaty of Campo-Formio. The armistice of Stayer, concluded on -the 25th December, 1800, took place after the battle of Hohenlinden. It -was signed by Moreau, on the 16th January, 1801. Brune signed the -armistice of Treviso, which delivered into the hands of the French the -fortified places of Ferrara, Peschiera and Porto-Legnano. He was -reproached with not having demanded Mantua. In 1805, Murat concluded -an armistice at Hollebrun, which saved the Russian army, and -was the cause of a severe letter written to him by the Emperor. On the -very evening of the battle of Austerlitz, the Emperor of Austria demanded -and obtained an armistice, which was preliminary to the peace of Presburg. -Another armistice, also celebrated, was signed after the battle of -Friedland, and led to the peace of Tilsit. At Wagram took place the -armistice of Zoaim, which was the prelude to the peace of Vienna, 1809. -Lastly, on the 4th of June, 1813, after Bautzen, was signed the armistice -of Pleiswitz, which the Emperor Napoleon I himself considered a -fault.</p> - - -<p>ARTILLERY.—The first piece was invented by Schwartz, a German -Cordelier monk, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. First -used by the English by Edward III at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, -when that king had 4 pieces of cannon, which greatly aided in his gaining -the battle. Brass cannon, first used 1635—improvements made by -Browne in 1728, and have continued ever since.</p> - - -<p>ASCALON.—This battle was fought <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1192. Richard I of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -England, commanding the Christian army, met and defeated the Sultan -Saladin’s army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels. No less than 40,000 -of the enemy were left dead on the field of battle, and the victorious -Richard marched to Jerusalem.</p> - - -<p>ASPERNE.—This battle was fought between the Austrian army -under the archduke Charles, and the French, on the 21st of May, 1809, -and two following days. In this most sanguinary fight the loss of the former -army exceeded 20,000 men, and the loss of the French was more than -30,000; it ended in the defeat of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, -and was the severest check he had yet received. The bridge of the Danube -was destroyed and his retreat endangered; but the success of the Austrians -had no beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war.</p> - - -<p>ASSAYE.—Fought September 23rd, 1803, between the Duke of Wellington -(then General Arthur Wellesley) and Scindiah and the Rajah of -Berar. This was Wellington’s <em>first</em> great battle in which he opposed a force -fully ten times greater than his own. In Stocqueler’s Life of the “Iron -Duke” we have the following account of this battle: “Scindiah’s army -having changed its position, occupied the whole space between the Kaitna -and Assaye, with a great number of guns in front, and commenced a murderous -cannonade. The small number of British guns was quite incapable -of coping with this vast battery. General Wellesley, therefore, directed -his infantry to advance with the bayonet.</p> - -<p>With the determined courage which had given them victory at -Seringapatam, in the actions with Dhoondia Waugh, and on the walls of -Ahmednuggur, the line dashed forward, carried the guns on the right, -and approached Assaye. At this moment a cloud of Mahratta horse -had stolen round the village, and fell upon them—sabre to bayonet—with -characteristic fury. The 74th regiment wavered—the charge -was too much for them.</p> - -<p>Colonel Maxwell of the 19th Light Dragoons saw that the critical -moment had arrived, <em>Forward!</em> was the word. Falling upon the Mahratta -cavalry, the Dragoons gave the British infantry time to rally, cut up the -Mahratta horse, pushed through the Scindiah’s left, and threw the whole -of that part of the army into confusion. In the meantime the enemy’s -centre, which had remained untouched, closed in upon the ground before -occupied by their left wing, and uniting with such of their infantry and -artillery as had been passed over unhurt by the British cavalry, formed -itself into a kind of crescent, with its right horn resting on the river<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -Jouah, and its left on the village of Assaye; thus presenting themselves -in a fresh position on the flank of our infantry, on which, having collected -a considerable number of guns, they recommenced a heavy fire. The battle -was now to be fought over again, with this difference, that the contending -forces had changed sides, and had the enemy’s horse behaved with the -least spirit, while our cavalry was absent in pursuit of their broken battalions, -there is no guessing what the consequences might have been; but, -happily for General Wellesley, they kept aloof. To oppose the enemy in -their new position, the Sepoy battalion on the right was immediately -advanced against them, but without effect, being obliged to retire. Another -was brought forward and equally repulsed. The cavalry, having by this -time returned from the pursuit, and formed on the left, and the enemy’s -horse having disappeared before them, the General ordered the 78th regiment -and the 7th cavalry up, to head a fresh attack against the enemy’s -infantry and guns, which still defended their position with obstinacy. No -sooner, however, had he formed the 78th regiment in line, in directing -which his horse’s leg was carried off by a cannon shot, than the enemy -without waiting an attack, commenced their retreat across the Jouah, -which they passed in tolerable order before our troops could come up with -them. Previously to this last attack Colonel Maxwell had requested and -obtained permission to charge a considerable body of infantry and guns, -which having formed part of the reserve, were seen retiring in good order, -along the right bank of the Jouah.</p> - -<p>The 19th Dragoons were not long in coming up with the enemy, who -having formed with their left to the Jouah, steadily waited their approach. -The charge was sounded. The Dragoons advanced with rapidity, amidst -a shower of musketry and grape, and had already got almost within -reach of the bayonets of the enemy, who still gallantly stood their ground.</p> - -<p>“At this moment,” writes an officer engaged in the charge, “instead -of dashing among their ranks, I suddenly found my horse swept round as -it were by an eddy torrent. Away we galloped right shoulders forward, -along the whole of the enemy’s line, receiving their fire as we passed, till -having turned our backs on them, we took to our heels manfully; every -one called out <em>Halt! Halt!</em> while nobody would set the example! till at -last a trumpet having sounded, we pulled up, but in complete disorder, -dragoons and native cavalry, pell-mell. On this occasion Colonel Maxwell -fell, pierced by a grape-shot. He was gallantly leading the charge when -he received his death blow. Having involuntarily checked his horse and -thrown his arm back, when he received his wound, the soldiers immediately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -behind him, not knowing the cause, mistook the gesture for a signal -to retire, and did so accordingly. At least this was the reason afterwards -assigned for the failure, and if true, shows how the fate of armies, and -even of nations, may depend on the direction of a single shot.” Recovering -from their disorder, the Dragoons renewed the charge with terrible -effect, and the enemy gave way in every direction.</p> - -<p>Thus closed this memorable battle, one of the most bloody on record -to the victors. Out of about 4500 men in action, upwards of 2000 were -either killed or wounded, the former amounting to more than one-third -of the whole number.”</p> - - -<p>ASSYRIANS <span class="fs70">AND</span> JEWS.—the Battles, &c., between—<span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 710. -These battles resulted in the total destruction of the army of Sennacharib, -so graphically described by the Sacred penman—and afterwards in the -destruction of Jerusalem, the overthrow of Solomon’s Temple, and the -exile of the Jews to Babylon, for 70 years.</p> - - -<p>ATHLONE.—The English army under General Ginckel stormed -Athlone, then a town of prodigious strength—crossing the Shannon in -the face of the Irish army, yet not losing more than 50 men. This bold -and successful enterprise procured for Ginckel the title of Earl of -Athlone, 1691. <em>See <a href="#AUG">Aughrim</a>.</em></p> - - -<p>ATTILA.—Surnamed <em>The Scourge of God</em>, ravaged all Europe, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> -447. He invaded the Roman empire with an army of 500,000 Huns, and -laid waste all the provinces at Chalons-sur-Marne. Aetius, the Roman -prefect, met him, and defeated him with the loss of 200,000 men. -Afterwards he was as signally defeated by Thorismond, King of the -Goths, and died in the midst of his career.</p> - - -<p>AUERSTADT, BATTLE OF.—In this most sanguinary conflict, -between the French and Prussian armies, October 14th, 1806, the -Prussians were routed on every side, having lost 200 pieces of cannon, -30 standards, and 28,000 prisoners, and leaving 30,000 slain on the -battle field. Both the King of Prussia and Napoleon commanded at this -engagement. The French Emperor immediately afterwards entered -Berlin, from which city he issued his memorable Berlin Decrees.</p> - - -<div><a name="AUG" id="AUG"></a></div> -<p>AUGHRIM, BATTLE OF.—Near Athlone, in Ireland. This -battle was fought, July 12th, 1691, between the Irish, headed by the -French General St. Ruth, and the English under General Ginckel, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -the former lost 7000 men; the latter only 600 killed and 960 wounded. -St. Ruth was slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the -interests of James II in Ireland, Ginckel was immediately created Earl -of Athlone; the ball by which St. Ruth was killed is still preserved suspended -in the choir of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Dublin.</p> - - -<p>AUGSBURG, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the Imperialists -and the French army, the latter commanded by Moreau; who obtained -so complete a victory, that Augsburg and Munich were opened to him. -It was fought August 26th, 1796; Moreau, September 2nd following, -again defeated the Austrians on the Jun, and again, September 7th, at -Mainburg.</p> - - -<p>AUSTERLITZ, BATTLE OF.—Fought December 2nd, 1805, -between the French and Austrian armies; gained by the former. Three -Emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Russia, Francis of -Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded -40,000 on the side of the Allies, who lost besides, 40 standards, 150 pieces -of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive victory of -the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed December -26th same year.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="B" id="B"></a>B.</h3> - - -<p>BABYLON.—This city was first taken by Ninus, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 2059, then -by Esar-haddon, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 680. Both Darius and Cyrus took the city, the -first through the fidelity of his officer Zopyrus, who having cut off his nose -and ears fled to the Babylonians, and was admitted within the walls, and -found means shortly afterwards to betray the city—the other by turning -the course of the river Euphrates, and marching his soldiers up the dry -bed into the city.</p> - - -<p>BADAJOS, SIEGE OF.—This important frontier fortress had surrendered -to the French, March 11th, 1811, and was invested by the -British under Lord Wellington, on March 16th, 1812; and stormed and -taken on April following. The siege is one of the most important in the -annals of warfare; for the victory was not only a glorious military -achievement in itself, but it obliged the French, who had entered Portugal -for the purpose of plunder, to commence a precipitate retreat from -that kingdom. For particulars, see Life of Wellington, and Napier’s Peninsular -War.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> - - -<p>BADEN, TREATY OF.—Between France and the Emperor, September -7th, 1814. It was erected into a grand duchy of the Rhenish -Confederation in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions, by its alliance with -France, was guaranteed by the Vienna Congress of 1815.</p> - - -<p>BALAKLAVA, BATTLE OF.—Fought October 25th, 1854. If -the exhibition of the most brilliant valour, of the excess of courage, -and of a daring which would have reflected lustre on the best days of -chivalry can afford full consolation for the disaster of to-day, we can -have no reason to regret the melancholy loss which we sustained in a -contest with a savage and barbarous enemy.</p> - -<p>I shall proceed to describe, to the best of my power, what occurred -under my own eyes, and to state the facts which I have heard from men -whose veracity is unimpeachable, reserving to myself the exercise of the -right of private judgment in making public and in suppressing the details -of what occurred on this memorable day. Before I proceed to my narrative, -I must premise that a certain feeling existed in some quarters that -our cavalry had not been properly handled since they landed in the -Crimea, and that they had lost golden opportunities from the indecision -and excessive caution of their leaders. It was said that our cavalry ought -to have been manœuvred at Bouljanak in one way or in another, according -to the fancy of the critic. It was affirmed, too, that the Light Cavalry -were utterly useless in the performance of one of their most important -duties—the collection of supplies for the army—that they were “above -their business, and too fine gentlemen for their work;” that our horse -should have pushed on after the flying enemy after the battle of the Alma, -to their utter confusion, and with the certainty of taking many guns and -prisoners; and, above all, that at Mackenzie’s farm first, and at the gorge -near Inkermann, subsequently, they had been improperly restrained from -charging, and had failed in gaining great successes, which would have -entitled them to a full share of the laurels of the campaign, solely owing to -the timidity of the officer in command. The existence of this feeling was -known to many of our cavalry, and they were indignant and exasperated -that the faintest shade of suspicion should rest on any of their corps. With -the justice of these aspersions they seemed to think they had nothing to -do, and perhaps the prominent thought in their minds was that they -would give such an example of courage to the world, if the chance offered -itself, as would shame their detractors for ever.</p> - -<p>In my last I mentioned that several battalions of Russian infantry had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -crossed the Tchernaya, and that they threatened the rear of our position -and our communication with Balaklava. Their bands could be heard -playing at night by the travellers along the Balaklava road to the camp, -but they “showed” but little during the day, and kept up among the -gorges and mountain passes through which the roads to Inkermann, Simpheropol, -and the south-east, of the Crimea wind towards the interior. -The position we occupied, in reference to Balaklava was supposed by most -people to be very strong—even impregnable. Our lines were formed by -natural mountain slopes in the rear, along which the French had made -very formidable entrenchments. Below those entrenchments, and very -nearly in a right line across the valley beneath, are four conical hillocks, -one rising above the other as they recede from our lines; the furthest, -which joins the chain of mountains opposite to our ridges being named -Canrobert’s Hill, from the meeting there of that General with Lord -Raglan after the march to Balaklava. On the top of each of these hills -the Turks had thrown up earthen redoubts, defended by 250 men each, -and armed with two or three guns—some heavy ship guns—lent by us -to them, with one artilleryman in each redoubt to look after them. These -hills cross the valley of Balaklava at the distance of about two and a half -miles from the town. Supposing the spectator, then, to take his stand -on one of the heights forming the rear of our camp before Sebastopol, he -would see the town of Balaklava, with its scanty shipping, its narrow strip -of water, and its old forts on his right hand; immediately below he would -behold the valley and plain of coarse meadow land, occupied by our cavalry -tents, and stretching from the base of the ridge on which he stood to -the foot of the formidable heights at the other side; he would see the -French trenches lined with Zouaves a few feet beneath, and distant from -him, on the slope of the hill; a Turkish redoubt lower down, then another -in the valley, then, in a line with it, some angular earthworks, then, in -succession, the other two redoubts up to Canrobert’s Hill. At the distance -of two or two and a half miles across the valley there is an abrupt -rocky mountain range of most irregular and picturesque formation, -covered with scanty brushwood here and there, or rising into barren pinnacles -and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">plateaux</i> of rock. In outline and appearance this portion of -the landscape is wonderfully like the Trosachs. A patch of blue sea is -caught in between the overhanging cliff’s of Balaklava as they close in the -entrance to the harbour on the right. The camp of the Marines, pitched -on the hill sides more than 1000 feet above the level of the sea, is opposite -to you as your back is turned to Sebastopol and your right side towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -Balaklava. On the road leading up the valley, close to the entrance of -the town, and beneath these hills, is the encampment of the 93rd Highlanders.</p> - -<p>The cavalry lines are nearer to you below, and are some way in advance -of the Highlanders, but nearer to the town than the Turkish redoubts. The -valley is crossed here and there by small waves of land. On your left the -hills and rocky mountain ranges gradually close in towards the course of -the Tchernaya, till at three or four miles’ distance from Balaklava, the -valley is swallowed up in a mountain gorge and deep ravines, above which -rise tiers after tiers of desolate whitish rock, garnished now and then by -bits of scanty herbage, and spreading away towards the east and south, -where they attain the Alpine dimensions of the Tschatir Dugh. It is very -easy for an enemy at the Belbek, or in command of the road of Mackenzies’s -farm, Inkermann, Simpheropol, or Bakshiserai, to debouch through -these gorges at any time upon this plain from the neck of the valley, or -to march from Sebastopol by the Tchernaya, and to advance along it -towards Balaklava, till checked by the Turkish redoubts on the southern -side, or by the fire from the French works on the northern side—<em>i.e.</em>, -the side which, in relation to the valley to Balaklava, forms the rear of -our position. It was evident enough that Menschikoff and Gortschakoff -had been feeling their way along this route for several days past, and very probably -at night the Cossacks had crept up close to our picquets, which are -not always as watchful as might be desired, and had observed the weakness -of a position far too extended for our army to defend, and occupied -by their despised enemy, the Turks.</p> - -<p>At half-past seven o’clock this morning, an orderly came galloping in -to the head-quarters camp from Balaklava, with the news, that at dawn a -strong corps of Russian horse, supported by guns and battalions of infantry -had marched into the valley, and had already nearly dispossessed the -Turks of the redoubt No 1, (that on Canrobert’ Hill, which is farthest -from our lines), and that they were opening fire on the redoubts Nos. 2, -3, and 4, which would speedily be in their hands unless the Turks offered -a stouter resistance than they had done already.</p> - -<p>Orders were despatched to Sir George Cathcart, and to H.R.H. the -Duke of Cambridge, to put their respective divisions, the Fourth and -the First, in motion for the scene of action; and intelligence of the -advance of the Russians was also furnished to General Canrobert. -Immediately on receipt of the news, the General commanded General -Bosquet to get the Third Division under arms, and sent a strong body<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -of artillery and some 200 <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chasseurs d’Afrique</span> to assist us in holding -the valley. Sir Colin Campbell, who was in command of Balaklava, had -drawn up the 93rd Highlanders a little in front of the road to the town, -at the first news of the advance of the enemy. The Marines on the -heights got under arms; the seamen’s batteries and Marines’ batteries, -on the heights close to the town, were manned, and the French artillerymen -and the Zouaves prepared for action along their lines. Lord Lucan’s -little camp was the scene of great excitement. The men had not had -time to water their horses; they had not broken their fast from the -evening of the day before, and had barely saddled at the first blast of the -trumpet, when they were drawn up on the slope behind the redoubts in -front of their camp to operate on the enemy’s squadrons. It was soon -evident that no reliance was to be placed on the Turkish infantry or -artillerymen. All the stories we had heard about their bravery behind -stone walls and earthworks proved how differently the same or similar -people fight under different circumstances. When the Russians advanced, -the Turks fired a few rounds at them, got frightened at the distance of -their supports in the rear, looked round, received a few shots and shell, -and then “bolted,” and fled with an agility quite at variance with common-place -notions of Oriental deportment on the battle-field. But Turks -on the Danube are very different beings from Turks in the Crimea, as -it appears that the Russians of Sebastopol are not at all like the Russians -of Silistria.</p> - -<p>Soon after eight o’clock, Lord Raglan and his staff turned out and -cantered towards the rear of our position. The booming of the artillery, -the spattering roll of musketry, were heard rising from the valley, drowning -the roar of the siege guns in front before Sebastopol. As I rode in -the direction of the firing, over the thistles and large stones which cover -the undulating plain that stretches away towards Balaklava, on a level -with the summit of the ridges above it, I observed a French light infantry -regiment (the 27th, I think) advancing with admirable care and celerity -from our right towards the ridge near the telegraph-house, which was -already lined by companies of French infantry, while mounted officers -scampered along its broken outline in every direction.</p> - -<p>General Bosquet, a stout soldierlike-looking man, who reminds one of -the old <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">genre</i> of French Generals as depicted at Versailles, followed, with -his staff and a small escort of Hussars, at a gallop. Faint white clouds -rose here and there above the hill from the cannonade below. Never did -the painter’s eye rest on a more beautiful scene than I beheld from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -ridge. The fleecy vapours still hung around the mountain tops, and -mingled with the ascending volumes of smoke; the patch of sea sparkled -freshly in the rays of the morning sun, but its light was eclipsed by the -flashes which gleamed from the massess of armed men below.</p> - -<p>Looking to the left towards the gorge, we beheld six compact masses of -Russian infantry, which had just debouched from the mountain passes near -Tchernaya, and were slowly advancing with solemn stateliness up the -valley. Immediately in their front was a regular line of artillery, of at -least twenty pieces strong. Two batteries of light guns were already a -mile in advance of them, and were playing with energy on the redoubts, -from which feeble puffs of smoke came at long intervals. Behind these -guns, in front of the infantry, were enormous bodies of cavalry. They -were in six compact squares, three on each flank, moving down <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en échelon</i> -towards us, and the valley was lit up with the blaze of their sabres, and -lance points, and gay accoutrements. In their front, and extending along -the intervals between each battery of guns, were clouds of mounted skirmishers, -wheeling and whirling in the front of their march like autumn -leaves tossed by the wind. The Zouaves close to us were lying like tigers -at the spring, with ready rifles in hand, hidden chin deep by the earthworks -which run along the line of these ridges on our rear, but the quick-eyed -Russians were manœuvring on the other side of the valley, and did -not expose their columns to attack. Below the Zouaves we could see the -Turkish gunners in the redoubts, all in confusion as the shells burst over -them. Just as I came up, the Russians had carried No. 1 redoubt, the -farthest and most elevated of all, and their horsemen were chasing the -Turks across the interval which lay between it and redoubt No. 2. At -that moment the cavalry, under Lord Lucan, were formed in glittering -masses—the Light Brigade, under Lord Cardigan, in advance; the -Heavy Brigade, under Brigadier-General Scarlet, in reserve. They -were drawn up just in front of their encampment, and were concealed from -the view of the enemy by a slight “wave” in the plain. Considerably -to the rear of their right, the 93rd Highlanders were drawn up in line, -in front of the approach to Balaklava. Above and behind them, on the -heights, the Marines were visible through the glass, drawn up under -arms, and the gunners could be seen ready in the earthworks, in which -were placed the heavy ships’ guns. The 93rd had originally been -advanced somewhat more into the plain, but the instant the Russians got -possession of the first redoubt they opened fire on them from our own -guns which inflicted some injury, and Sir Colin Campbell “retired” his -men to a better position. Meantime the enemy advanced his cavalry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -rapidly. To our inexpressible disgust we saw the Turks in redoubt No. -2 fly at their approach. They ran in scattered groups across towards -redoubt No. 3, and towards Balaklava, but the horse-hoof of the Cossack -was too quick for them, and sword and lance were busily plied among the -retreating herd. The yells of the pursuers and pursued were plainly -audible. As the Lancers and Light Cavalry of the Russians advanced -they gathered up their skirmishers with great speed and in excellent -order—the shifting trails of men, which played all over the valley like -moonlight on the water, contracted, gathered up, and the little <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">peloton</i> -in a few moments became a solid column. Then up came their guns, in -rushed their gunners to the abandoned redoubt, and the guns of No. 2 -redoubt soon played with deadly effect upon the dispirited defenders of -No. 3 redoubt. Two or three shots in return from the earthworks, and -all is silent. The Turks swarm over the earthworks, and run in confusion -towards the town, firing their muskets at the enemy as they run. Again -the solid column of cavalry opens like a fan, and resolves itself into a -“Long spray” of skirmishers. It laps the flying Turks, steel flashes in -the air, and down go the poor Moslem quivering on the plain, split -through fez and musket-guard to the chin and breast-belt. There is no -support for them. It is evident the Russians have been too quick for us. -The Turks have been too quick also, for they have not held their redoubts -long enough to enable us to bring them help. In vain the Turkish gunners -in the earthen batteries which are placed along the French entrenchments -strive to protect their flying countrymen; their shot fly wide and -short of the swarming masses. The Turks betake themselves towards the -Highlanders, where they check their flight and form into companies on the -flanks of the Highlanders. As the Russian cavalry on the left of their line -crown the hill across the valley, they perceive the Highlanders drawn up at -the distance of some half mile, calmly awaiting their approach. They halt, -and squadron after squadron flies up from the rear, till they have a body -of some 1500 men along the ridge—Lancers, and Dragoons, and Hussars. -Then they move <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en échelon</i> in two bodies, with another in reserve. -The cavalry who have been pursuing the Turks on the right are coming up -to the ridge beneath us, which conceals our cavalry from view. The heavy -brigade in advance is drawn up in two lines. The first line consists of -the Scots Greys, and of their old companions in glory, the Enniskillens; -the second of the 4th Royal Irish, of the 5th Dragoon Guards, and of the -1st Royal Dragoons. The Light Cavalry Brigade is on their left, in two -lines also. The silence is oppressive; between the cannon bursts one can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -hear the champing of bits and the clink of sabres in the valley below. The -Russians on their left drew breath for a moment, and then in one grand -line charged in towards Balaklava. The ground flies beneath their horses’ -feet; gathering speed at every stride, they dash on towards that <em>thin red -streak topped with a line of steel</em>. The Turks fire a volley at eight -hundred yards and run. As the Russians come within six hundred -yards, down goes that line of steel in front, and out rings a rolling volley -of Minié musketry. The distance is too great; the Russians are not -checked, but still sweep onwards through the smoke, with the whole force -of horse and man, here and there knocked over by the shot of our batteries -above. With breathless suspense every one awaits the bursting of the -wave upon the line of Gaelic rock; but ere they come within two hundred -and fifty yards, another deadly volley flashes from the levelled rifle, and -carries terror into the Russians. They wheel about, open files right and -left, and fly back faster than they came. “Bravo Highlanders! well -done!” shout the excited spectators; but events thicken. The Highlanders -and their splendid front are soon forgotten, men scarcely have a -moment to think of this fact, that the 93rd never altered their formation -to receive that tide of horsemen. “No,” said Sir Colin Campbell, “I -did not think it worth while to form them even four deep!” The ordinary -British line, two deep, was quite sufficient to repel the attack of these -Muscovite cavaliers. Our eyes were, however, turned in a moment on -our own cavalry. We saw Brigadier-General Scarlett ride along in front -of his massive squadrons. The Russians—evidently <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">corps d’elite</i>—their -light blue jackets embroidered with silver lace, were advancing on their -left, at an easy gallop, towards the brow of the hill. A forest of lances -glistened in their rear, and several squadrons of grey-coated dragoons -moved up quickly to support them as they reached the summit. The -instant they came in sight the trumpets of our cavalry gave out the -warning blast which told us all that in another moment we should see -the shock of battle beneath our very eyes. Lord Raglan, all his staff -and escort, and groups of officers, the Zouaves, French generals and -officers, and bodies of French infantry on the height, were spectators of -the scene as though they were looking on the stage from the boxes of a -theatre. Nearly every one dismounted and sat down, and not a word -was said. The Russians advanced down the hill at a slow canter, which -they changed to a trot, and at last nearly halted. Their first line was at -least double the length of ours—it was three times as deep. Behind -them was a similar line, equally strong and compact. They evidently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -despised their insignificant looking enemy, but their time was come. The -trumpets rang out again through the valley, and the Greys and Enniskilleners -went right at the centre of the Russian cavalry. The space -between them was only a few hundred yards; it was scarce enough to let -the horses “gather away,” nor had the men quite space sufficient for the -full play of their sword arms. The Russian line brings forward each -wing as our cavalry advance, and threatens to annihilate them as they -pass on. Turning a little to their left, so as to meet the Russian right, -the Greys rush on with a cheer that thrills to every heart—the wild shout -of the Enniskilleners rises through the air at the same instant. As lightning -flashes through a cloud, the Greys and Enniskilleners pierced -through the dark masses of Russians. The shock was but for a moment. -There was a clash of steel and a light play of swordblades in the air, and -then the Greys and the redcoats disappear in the midst of the shaken -and quivering columns. In another moment we see them emerging and -dashing on with diminished numbers, and in broken order, against the -second line, which is advancing against them as fast as it can to retrieve -the fortune of the charge. It was a terrible moment. “God help them! -they are lost” was the exclamation of more than one man, and the -thought of many. With unabated fire the noble hearts dashed at their -enemy. It was a fight of heroes. The first line of Russians, which had -been smashed utterly by our charge, and had fled off at one flank and -towards the centre, were coming back to swallow up our handful of men. -By sheer steel and sheer courage Enniskillener and Scot were winning -their desperate way right through the enemy’s squadrons, and already -grey horses and red coats had appeared right at the rear of the second -mass, when, with irresistible force, like one bolt from a bow, the 1st -Royals, the 4th Dragoon Guards, and the 5th Dragoon Guards rushed at -the remnants of the first line of the enemy, went through it as though it -were made of pasteboard, and dashing on the second body of Russians -as they were still disordered by the terrible assault of the Greys and their -companions, put them to utter rout. The Russian Horse in less than -five minutes after it met our dragoons was flying with all its speed before -a force certainly not half its strength. A cheer burst from every lip—in -the enthusiasm, officers and men took off their caps and shouted with -delight, and thus keeping up the scenic character of their position, they -clapped their hands again and again. Lord Raglan at once despatched -Lieutenant Curzon, Aide-de-Camp, to convey his congratulations to -Brigadier-General Scarlett, and to say “Well done.” The gallant old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -officer’s face beamed with pleasure when he received the message. “I -beg to thank his Lordship very sincerely,” was his reply. The cavalry -did not long pursue their enemy. Their loss was very slight, about -thirty-five killed and wounded in both affairs. There were not more than -four or five men killed outright, and our most material loss was from the -cannon playing on our heavy dragoons afterwards, when covering the -retreat of our light cavalry.</p> - -<p>In the Royal Horse Artillery we had a severe, but I am glad to say a -temporary loss. Captain Maude, who directed the service of his guns -with his usual devotedness and dauntless courage, was struck in the arm -by a shell which burst at his saddle bow and killed his horse. To the joy -of all the army, it is ascertained that he is doing well on board ship. -After the charge, Captain the Hon. Arthur Hardinge came galloping up -to Lord Raglan with the news of what the cavalry had done.</p> - -<p>At ten o’clock the Guards and Highlanders of the First Division were -seen moving towards the plains from their camp. The Duke of Cambridge -came up to Lord Raglan for orders, and his Lordship, ready to -give the honour of the day to Sir Colin Campbell, who commands at -Balaklava, told his Royal Highness to place himself under the direction -of the Brigadier. At forty minutes after ten, the Fourth Division also -took up their position in advance of Balaklava. The cavalry were then -on the left front of our position, facing the enemy; the Light Cavalry -Brigade was on the left flank forward; the Heavy Cavalry Brigade <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en -échelon</i> in reserve, with guns on the right; the 4th Dragoons and 5th -Dragoons and Greys on the left of the brigade, the Enniskillens and 3rd -Dragoons on the right. The Fourth Division took up ground in the -centre; the Guards and Highlanders filed off towards the extreme right, -and faced the redoubts, from which the Russians opened on them with -such guns as had not been spiked.</p> - -<p>At fifty minutes after ten, General Canrobert, attended by his staff -and Brigadier-General Rose, rode up to Lord Raglan, and the staffs of -the two Generals and their escorts mingled together in praise of the magnificent -charge of our cavalry, while the chiefs apart conversed over the -operations of the day, which promised to be one of battle. The Russian -cavalry, followed by our shot, had retired in confusion, leaving the -ground covered with horses and men. In carrying an order early in the -day Mr. Blunt, Lord Lucan’s interpreter, and son of our Consul in Thessaly, -had a narrow escape. His horse was killed, he seized a Russian -charger as it galloped past riderless, but the horse carried him almost into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -the Russian cavalry, and he only saved himself by leaping into a redoubt -among a number of frightened Turks who were praying to Allah on -their bellies. At fifty-five minutes after ten, a body of Cavalry, the Chasseurs -d’Afrique, passed down to the plain, and were loudly cheered by -our men. They took up ground in advance of the ridges on our left.</p> - -<p>And now occurred the melancholy catastrophe which fills us all with -sorrow. It appears that the Quartermaster-General, Brigadier Airey, -thinking that the Light Cavalry had not gone far enough in front when -the enemy’s horse had fled, gave an order in writing to Captain Nolan, -15th Hussars, to take to Lord Lucan, directing his Lordship “to -advance” his cavalry nearer to the enemy. A braver soldier than Captain -Nolan the army did not possess. He was known to all his arm of the -service for his entire devotion to his profession, and his name must be -familiar to all who take interest in our cavalry for his excellent work, -published a year ago, on our drill and system of remount and breaking -horses. I had the pleasure of his acquaintance, and I know he entertained -the most exalted opinions respecting the capabilities of the English -horse soldier. Properly led, the British Hussar and Dragoon could -in his mind break square, take batteries, ride over columns of infantry, -and pierce any other cavalry in the world as if they were made of straw. -He thought that they had not had the opportunity of doing all that was -in their power, and that they had missed even such chances as they had -offered to them,—that, in fact, they were in some measure disgraced. A -matchless horseman and a first-rate swordsman, he held in contempt, I -am afraid, even grape and canister. He rode off with his orders to Lord -Lucan. He is now dead and gone. God forbid I should cast a shade -on the brightness of his honour, but I am bound to state what I am told -occurred when he reached his Lordship. I should premise that as the -Russian cavalry retired, their infantry fell back towards the head of the -valley, leaving men in three of the redoubts they had taken, and abandoning -the fourth. They had also placed some guns on the heights over their -position on the left of the gorge. Their cavalry joined the reserve, and -drew up in six solid divisions, in an oblique line across the entrance to the -gorge. Six battalions of infantry were placed behind them, and about -thirty guns were drawn up along their line, while masses of infantry -were also collected on the hills behind the redoubts on our right. Our -cavalry had moved up to the ridge across the valley, on our left, as the -ground was broken in front, and had halted in the order I have already -mentioned. When Lord Lucan received the order from Captain Nolan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -and had read it, he asked, we are told, “Where are we to advance to?” -Captain Nolan pointed with his finger to the line of the Russians, and -said, “There are the enemy, and there are the guns, sir, before them; it -is your duty to take them,” or words to that effect, according to the -statements made since his death. Lord Lucan, with reluctance, gave -the order to Lord Cardigan to advance upon the guns, conceiving that -his orders compelled him to do so. The noble Earl, though he did not -shrink, also saw the fearful odds against him. Don Quixote in his tilt -against the windmill was not near so rash and reckless as the gallant fellows -who prepared without a thought to rush on almost certain death. -It is a maxim of war, that “cavalry never act without a support,” that -“infantry should be close at hand when cavalry carry guns, as the effect -is only instantaneous, and that it is necessary to have on the flank of a -line of cavalry some squadrons in column, the attack on the flank being -most dangerous. The only support our light cavalry had was the reserve -of heavy cavalry at a great distance behind them, the infantry and guns -being far in the rear. There were no squadrons in column at all, and -there was a plain to charge over, before the enemy’s guns were reached, -of a mile and a half in length.</p> - -<p>At ten minutes past eleven, our Light Cavalry brigade advanced. -The whole brigade scarcely made one effective regiment, according to the -numbers of continental armies; and yet it was more than we could spare. -As they rushed towards the front, the Russians opened on them from the -guns in the redoubt on the right, with volleys of musketry and rifles. -They swept proudly past, glittering in the morning sun in all the pride -and splendour of war. We could scarcely believe the evidence of our -senses! Surely that handful of men are not going to charge an army in -position? Alas! it was but too true—their desperate valour knew no -bounds, and far indeed was it removed from its so-called better part—discretion. -They advanced in two lines, quickening their pace as they -closed towards the enemy. A more fearful spectacle was never witnessed -than by those who, without the power to aid, beheld their heroic countrymen -rushing to the arms of death. At the distance of 1200 yards the -whole line of the enemy belched forth, from thirty iron mouths, a flood -of smoke and flame, through which hissed the deadly balls. Their -flight was marked by instant gaps in our ranks, by dead men and horses, -by steeds flying wounded or riderless across the plain. The first line is -broken, it is joined by the second, they never halt or check their speed -an instant; with diminished ranks, thinned by those thirty guns, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -the Russians had laid with the most deadly accuracy, with a halo of -flashing steel above their heads, and with a cheer which was many a -noble fellow’s death-cry, they flew into the smoke of the batteries, but -ere they were lost from view the plain was strewed with their bodies and -with the carcasses of horses. They were exposed to an oblique fire from -the batteries on the hills on both sides, as well as to a direct fire of musketry. -Through the clouds of smoke we could see their sabres flashing -as they rode up to the guns and dashed between them, cutting down the -gunners as they stood. We saw them riding through the guns, as I -have said; to our delight we saw them returning, after breaking through -a column of Russian infantry, and scattering them like chaff, when the -flank fire of the battery on the hill swept them down, scattered and broken -as they were. Wounded men and dismounted troopers flying towards us -told the sad tale—demi-gods could not have done what we had failed to do. -At the very moment when they were about to retreat an enormous mass -of Lancers was hurled on their flank. Colonel Shewell, of the 8th Hussars, -saw the danger, and rode his few men straight at them, cutting his -way through with fearful loss. The other regiments turned and engaged -in a desperate encounter. With courage too great almost for credence, -they were breaking their way through the columns which enveloped them, -when there took place an act of atrocity without parallel in the modern -warfare of civilized nations. The Russian gunners, when the storm of -cavalry passed, returned to their guns. They saw their own cavalry -mingled with the troopers who had just ridden over them, and, to the -eternal disgrace of the Russian name, the miscreants poured a murderous -volley of grape and canister on the mass of struggling men and horses, -mingling friend and foe in one common ruin. It was as much as our -Heavy Cavalry brigade could do to cover the retreat of the miserable -remnants of that band of heroes as they returned to the place they had -so lately quitted in all the pride of life. At thirty-five minutes past -eleven not a British soldier, except the dead and dying, was left in front -of these bloody Muscovite guns.</p> - -<p>Captain Nolan was killed by the first shot fired, as he rode in advance -of the Hussars, cheering them on. Lord Lucan was slightly wounded. -Lord Cardigan received a lance thrust through his clothes. Major -Halkett, of the 4th Light Dragoons, was killed. Lord Fitzgibbon of the -8th Hussars, was desperately wounded, and has since, I fear, died.</p> - -<p>In our cavalry fight we had 13 officers killed or missing, 156 men -killed or missing: total 169; 21 officers wounded, 197 men wounded;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -total 218. Total killed, wounded, and missing, 387. Horses killed or -missing, 394; horses wounded 126; total 520.</p> - - -<p>BALKAN, PASSAGE OF THE.—This adventurous experiment -was deemed impracticable by a hostile army, until effected by the Russian -army under Diebitsch, whose march through the Balkan mountains -is a memorable achievement of the late great Russian and Turkish war. -The passage was completed July 26th, 1829. An armistice was the -consequence; and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople in September -following.</p> - - -<p>BALLINAHINCH, BATTLE OF.—This sanguinary engagement -was fought, June 13th, 1798, between the Earl of Moira, afterwards -Marquis of Hastings, and a large body of insurgent Irish. In this -battle a large part of the town was destroyed and the royal army suffered -very severely.</p> - - -<p>BALTIC EXPEDITIONS.—There were three—1st, under Lord -Nelson and Admiral Patton, April 2nd, 1801, when Copenhagen was bombarded -and 28 Danish ships taken or destroyed. 2nd, under Admiral -Gambier and Lord Cathcart, July 27th, 1807, where 18 sail of the line, -15 frigates, and 31 brigs and gunboats surrendered to the British. 3rd, -during the Crimean war, under Admiral Sir Charles Napier, accompanied -by a French fleet, the bombardment of Bummersund and burning Abo -were some of the more important actions of the expedition.</p> - - -<p>BALTIMORE, BATTLE OF.—Fought September 12th, 1814, -between the British army, under General Ross, and the Americans; the -British in making an attack upon the town were unsuccessful, and after a -desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss. The gallant General -who led the enterprise was killed.</p> - - -<p>BANGALORE, SIEGE OF.—This siege was commenced by the -British, under Lord Cornwallis, March 6th, and the town was taken -March 21st, 1791. Bangalore was restored to Tippoo, in 1792, when he -destroyed the strong fort, deemed the “Bulwark of Mysore.”</p> - - -<p>BANNOCKBURN, BATTLE OF.—This battle is called the -“Marathon of Scotland.” It was fought June 25th, 1314, between -King Robert Bruce of Scotland and Edward II, of England. The army<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, that of Edward consisted of 100,000 -English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet -to the attack, and Bruce having dug deep pits, which he afterwards covered, -the English cavalry fell into them and were thrown into confusion. The -rout was complete—the king narrowly escaped being taken, and 50,000 -English were killed or taken prisoners.</p> - - -<p>BANTRY BAY.—A French fleet, with succors to the adherents of -James II, was in this bay attacked by Admiral Herbert, May, 1689. -Here a French squadron anchored for a few days, in December, 1796. -The mutiny of Bantry Bay is famous in naval history—17 of the -mutineers were condemned to death, and 11 executed afterwards at -Portsmouth, January, 1802.</p> - - -<p>BAREILLY.—India.—This place is famous in the great Indian -Mutiny.—The following is a description of the attack on the British -troops, by a body of Ghazees, or Fanatics, May 5th, 1859, from Dr. -Russell’s correspondence.</p> - -<p>“As soon as the Sikhs got into the houses, they were exposed to a -heavy fire from a large body of matchlockmen concealed around them. -They either retired of their own accord, or were ordered to do so; at all -events, they fell back with rapidity and disorder upon the advancing -Highlanders. And now occurred a most extraordinary scene. Among -the matchlockmen, who, to the number of seven or eight hundred, were -lying behind the walls of the houses, was a body of Ghazees, or Mussulman -fanatics, who, like the Roman Decii, devote their lives with solemn -oaths to their country or their faith. Uttering loud cries, ‘Bismillah, -Allah, deen, deen!’ one hundred and thirty of these fanatics, sword in -hand, with small circular bucklers on the left arm, and green cummerbungs, -rushed out after the Sikhs, and dashed at the left of the right -wing of the Highlanders. With bodies bent and heads low, waving their -tulwars with a circular motion in the air, they came on with astonishing -rapidity. At first they were mistaken for Sikhs, whose passage had -already somewhat disordered our ranks. Fortunately Sir Colin Campbell -was close up with the 42nd; his keen, quick eye detected the case at -once. “Steady, men, steady; close up the ranks. Bayonet them as they -come on.” It was just in time; for these madmen, furious with bang, -were already among us, and a body of them sweeping around the left of -the right wing, got into the rear of the regiment. The struggle was -short, but sanguinary. Three of them dashed so suddenly at Colonel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -Cameron, that they pulled him off his horse ere he could defend himself. -His sword fell out of its sheath, and he would have been hacked to pieces -in another moment, but for the gallant promptitude of Colour Sergeant -Gardiner, who, stepping out of the ranks, drove his bayonet through two -of them in the twinkling of an eye. The third was shot by one of the -42nd. Brigadier Walpole had a similar escape; he was seized by two -or three of the Ghazees, who sought to pull him off his horse, while others -cut at him with their tulwars. He received two cuts on the hand, but -he was delivered from the enemy by the quick bayonets of the 42nd. -In a few minutes the dead bodies of one hundred and thirty-three of -these Ghazees, and some eighteen or twenty wounded men of ours, were -all the tokens left of the struggle.”</p> - - -<p>BARNET, BATTLE OF.—This battle was fought between the -houses of York and Lancaster, when Edward IV gained a decisive and -memorable victory over the Earl of Warwick, on Easter day, April 14th, -1471. The Earl of Warwick, who has been styled in history “The -King Maker,” his brother, the Marquess of Montacute, and 10,000 of his -army were slain. At the moment Warwick fell, he was leading a chosen -body of troops into the thickest of the slaughter, and his body was -found covered with wounds after the battle.</p> - - -<p>BARRACKS.—This word is not found in our early dictionaries. -In the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionaire de l’Académie</cite>, it is thus defined, “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Baraque—Hutte -que font les soldats en campagne pour se mettre à couvert.</i>”</p> - - -<p>BARROSA <span class="fs70">OR</span> BAROSSA, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the -British army, commanded by Major General Graham, afterwards Lord -Lynedoch, and the French, under Marshal Victor. After a long conflict, -the British achieved one of the most glorious triumphs of the Peninsular -war. Although they fought to great disadvantage, they compelled the -enemy to retreat, leaving nearly 3000 dead, 6 pieces of cannon and an -eagle, the first that the British had taken. The loss of the British was -1169 men in killed and wounded.</p> - - -<p>BASQUE ROADS.—This was the place of a heroic achievement by -the British. Four French ships of the line were, while riding at anchor, -attacked by Lord Gambier and Lord Cochrane, and all, with a number -of merchant ships, destroyed, April 12th, 1809.</p> - - -<p>BATAVIA.—Capital of Java.—Fortified by the Dutch in 1618—12,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -Chinese massacred here in one day, 1740.—Taken by the English -January, 1782.—Again by the British under General Sir S. Auchmuty, -August 8th, 1811.</p> - - -<p>BATTERIES.—Introduced, after the use of cannon, by the English -along the coasts. Perhaps the most celebrated batteries on record are -those of the French at the siege of Gibraltar, September, 1782.</p> - - -<p>BATTERING-RAM.—This was the instrument by which the ancient -Romans levelled the walls of cities. It consisted of a long beam with a -head of iron, like that of a ram, hence the name, and sometimes it was so -ponderous that 150 or 200 men at once worked it.</p> - - -<p>BATTLE-AXE.—A weapon of the Celtae.—The battle-axe guards, -or beaufetiers, who are vulgarly called beef-eaters, and whose arms are a -sword and lance, were first raised by Henry VII, in 1482.</p> - - -<p>BATTLEFIELD, BATTLE OF.—Near Shrewsbury, England.—This -engagement was fought between Henry IV and Percy, surnamed -Hotspur. The victory was gained by Henry, whose usurpation of the -throne had laid the foundation of the factions of the houses of York and -Lancaster, and the civil wars that ensued. It was fought July 21st, 1403.</p> - - -<p>BAUTZEN, BATTLE OF.—Between the allied army, under the -Sovereigns of Russia and Prussia, and the French, commanded by -Napoleon; the allies were defeated, and this battle, followed by that of -Wurtzchen, compelled them to pass the Oder, and led to armistice, -which, however, did not produce peace. Fought May 20th, 1813.</p> - - -<p>BAYLEN, BATTLE OF.—The French, consisting of 14,000 men, -commanded by Generals Dupont and Wedel, were defeated by the -Spaniards under Pena, Compigny and other Generals, whose forces -amounted to 25,000. The French had nearly 3000 killed and wounded, -and the division of Dupont, which consisted of about 8000 men, was -made prisoners of war. Fought July 19th, 1808.</p> - - -<p>BAYONNE.—In the neighbourhood of this town there was much -desperate fighting between the French and English armies, December 10th, -11th, and 13th, 1813. Bayonne was invested by the British, January -14th, 1814, during which the French made a sally and attacked the -English with success, but were at length driven back. The loss of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -British was considerable, and Lieut.-General Sir John Hope was wounded -and taken prisoner. It was here that the bayonet was first made, in or -about <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1670. According to the Abbé Langlet, it was first used by -the French in battle, 1693, “with great success against an enemy -unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty.” Adopted -by the British, September 26th, 1693.</p> - - -<p>BEACHY HEAD, ENGAGEMENT OF.—Memorable for the -defeat of the British and Dutch combined fleet, by the French. The -British, whose ships were commanded by the Earl of Torrington, suffered -very severely in the unequal contest, June 30th, 1690. The Dutch -lost two Admirals and 500 men, the English two ships and 400 men. -Several of the Dutch ships were sunk to prevent them from falling into -the hands of the enemy. The Admirals on both sides were blamed; on -the English side for not fighting, on the French, for not pursuing the -victory.</p> - - -<p>BEAGUE, BATTLE OF.—<em>In Anjou, France.</em>—Fought April 3rd, -1421, between the English and French.—The former commanded by -the Duke of Clarence, the latter by the Dauphin of France, who was -aided by a body of 7000 Scots, under the Earl of Buchan. The English -were defeated with the loss of 1500 men killed, and the Duke himself -was killed by a Scotch Knight.</p> - - -<p>BELGRADE, BATTLE OF.—Fought in 1456, between the German -and Turkish armies, in which the latter was defeated with the loss -of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by Solyman, 1522, and retaken by -the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in -1690. Again taken by Prince Eugene, in 1717, and kept till 1739, when -it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been demolished. -It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, -1790. The Servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806. The most -memorable siege which it sustained was undertaken in May, 1717, by -Prince Eugene. On August 5th of that year, the Turkish army, 200,000 -strong, approached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle was fought, in -which the Turks lost 20,000; after the battle Belgrade surrendered. -This city is called “<em>The Key of Eastern Christendom</em>,” and “<em>The -Bulwark of Christian Europe</em>.”</p> - - -<p>BELLAIR, BATTLE OF.—In America.—This town was attacked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -by the British forces, under command of Sir Peter Parker; but after an -obstinate engagement, in which the result was a long time doubtful, they -were repulsed with considerable loss, and their gallant commander was -killed. August 30th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>BENDER.—Is memorable as the asylum of Charles XII of Sweden, -after his defeat at Pultowa, by the Czar Peter the Great, July 8th, 1709. -The celebrated peace of Bender was concluded 1711. It was taken by -storm by the Russians in 1770, and again in 1789.—Restored by the -peace of Jassey, but retained at the peace of 1812.</p> - - -<p>BERESINA, BATTLE OF.—Fought November 28th, 1812, and -resulted in the total defeat of the French main army, by the Russians, -on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of it -when escaping out of Russia. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men -in this battle, and in their retreat, which was attended by the greatest -difficulty, calamity and suffering, the career of their glory was closed in -that campaign.</p> - - -<p>BERGEN, BATTLES OF.—Between the French and allies; the latter -defeated April 14th, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French, with -great loss, September, 1799. In another battle, fought October 2nd, same -year, the allies lost 4000 men, and on the 6th, they were again defeated -before Alkmaer, losing 5000 men. On the 20th, the Duke of York -entered into a convention, by which he exchanged his army for 6,000 -French and Dutch prisoners in England.</p> - - -<p>BERGEN-OP-ZOOM.—This place, the works of which were deemed -impregnable, was taken by the French, September 10th, 1747, and again -in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was made by the British under General -Sir T. Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch) to carry the fortress by -storm, but it was defeated. After forcing an entrance, their retreat was -cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued; nearly all were cut to pieces -or made prisoners. March 8th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>BERLIN DEGREE.—A memorable interdict against the commerce -of England. It declared the British Isles in a state of blockade, and all -Englishmen found in countries occupied by French troops were to be -taken prisoners of war. It was issued by Napoleon from the court of the -Prussian King, shortly after the battle of Jena, November 21st, 1806.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> - - -<div><a name="BER" id="BER"></a></div> -<p>BERWICK.—Many bloody contests, were fought here between the -English and Scots. It surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards -to General Monk.</p> - - -<p>BEYROOT.—This place is celebrated for the total defeat of the -Egyptian army, by the allied English, Austrian and Turkish forces. The -Egyptians lost 7000 in killed, wounded and prisoners, and 20 cannons. -Fought October 10th, 1840.</p> - - -<p>BHURTPORE.—<em>India.</em>—Besieged by the British, January 3rd, -1805, and attacked five times up to March 21st, without success. The -fortress was taken by General Lake, after a desperate engagement with -Holkar, April 2nd, 1805. The defeat of Holkar led to a treaty by which -the Rajah of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, and ceded -the territories that had been granted to him by a former treaty, delivering -up his son as a hostage, April 10th, 1805. This city was taken by -storm, by Lord Combermere, January 18th, 1826.</p> - - -<p>BIDASSOA, PASSAGE OF THE.—The allied army, under Lord -Wellington, effected the passage of this river, October 7th, 1813; and the -illustrious British chieftain, having thus completed his glorious career in -Spain and Portugal, pursued the enemy into France.</p> - - -<p>BILBOA, BATTLE OF.—This place, which had been invested by -the Carlists under Villareal, and was in considerable danger, was delivered -by the defeat of the besiegers by Espartero, assisted by British -naval co-operation. Espartero entered Bilboa in triumph next day, -Christmas day, December 25th, 1836.</p> - - -<p>BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA.—Surajah Doulah declared war -against the English, from motives of personal resentment; and, levying a -numerous army, laid siege to Calcutta—one of the principal British forts -in India—but which was not in a state of strength to defend itself against -the attack even of barbarians. The fort was taken, having been deserted -by the commander; and the garrison, to the number of 146 persons, were -made prisoners.</p> - -<p>They expected the usual treatment of prisoners of war, and were therefore -the less vigorous in their defence; but they soon found what mercy -was to be expected from a savage conqueror. They were all crowded -together into a narrow prison, called the Black Hole, of about 18 feet -square, and received air only by two small windows to the west, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -by no means afforded a sufficient circulation. It is terrible to reflect on -the situation of these unfortunate men, shut up in this narrow place, in -the burning climate of the East, and suffocating each other. Their first -efforts, upon perceiving the effects of their horrid confinement, were to -break open the door of the prison; but, as it opened inwards, they soon -found that impossible. They next endeavoured to excite the compassion -or the avarice of the guard by offering him a large sum of money for his -assistance in removing them into separate prisons; but with this he was -not able to comply, as the viceroy was asleep, and no person dared to -disturb him. They were now, therefore, left to die without hopes of -relief; and the whole prison was filled with groans, shrieks, contest, and -despair. This turbulence, however, soon after sunk into a calm still more -hideous! Their efforts of strength and courage were over, and an expiring -languor succeeded. In the morning, June 20th, 1750, when the keepers -came to visit the prison, all was horror, silence, and desolation. Of 146 -who had entered alive, 23 only survived, and of these the greatest part -died of putrid fevers upon being set free.</p> - - -<p>BLENHEIM, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the English and -confederates, commanded by the Duke of Marlborough, and the French -and Bavarians, under Marshal Tallard and the Elector of Bavaria, whom -the Duke totally defeated, with the loss of 27,000 men, in killed, and -13,000 prisoners—Tallard being among the number of the latter; the -Electorate of Bavaria became a prize of the conquerors. The nation testified -its gratitude to the Duke of Marlborough by the gifts of the honour -of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the -finest seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. -This great battle was fought on the 2nd of August, 1704.</p> - - -<p>BOIS-LE-DUC, BATTLE OF.—Between the British and the French -Republican army, in which the former were defeated, September 14th, -1794. Captured by the French, October 6th, following, and surrendered -to the Prussian army under Bulow, 1814.</p> - - -<p>BOLOGNA.—Taken by the French in 1796; by the Austrians in -1799; again by the French, after Marengo, in 1800; and restored to -the Pope, in 1815.</p> - - -<p>BOMBS.—Invented at Venlo in 1495; came into general use in 1634. -The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls and a lighted fuse to make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -it explode before it reaches the enemy. A thirteen inch bomb-shell weighs -198 lbs.</p> - - -<div><a name="BOM" id="BOM"></a></div> -<p>BOMBARDMENT OF SEBASTOPOL.—<em>First Attempt.</em>—“At -half-past six o’clock, on the morning of 17th October, a gun from the -English batteries boomed ominously upon the ears of the Russians in -Sebastopol. It was the signal for the commencement of the bombardment. -It had been announced, on the previous evening, that the morrow -was to initiate the combat; and already groups of expectant gazers thronged -every spot which promised to afford a view of the warlike spectacle. -For a moment after the signal-gun had despatched its messenger of death, -a breathless expectation held the spectators in suspense; and then, from -the whole line of attack, from the Quarantine on the far left to the Inkerman -battery on the extreme right, a sheet of fire belched forth, and a -volley of shot and shell was hurled upon the town. By this time the -Russian gunners were at their post, and bravely responded to the challenge. -As far as the eye could reach, a dense volume of smoke hung -suspended in the air; and when it lifted, another and yet another streak -of flame poured from the black earthworks, and lit up the white churches -and houses of the town. The earth literally shook with the concussion of -the mighty conflict. Distinct amid the roar, a sharp whizzing sound, -swelling as it approached into a crashing rush, like a railway train at -inexpressible speed, was heard, and a heavy blow upon the solid earthworks -told where had fallen the ball of the renowned Lancaster gun. In -a couple of hours it was evident that the Round Tower, the most formidable -of the Russian works, was seriously damaged. But little impression, -however, appeared to have been made on the mass of the enemy’s works. -Their fire was splendid, and it was abundantly apparent that the victory -was not to be easily achieved. About ten o’clock, a shell fell into one of the -French magazines, which exploded, killing and injuring more than fifty -men. This was a serious blow; and from that time the guns of our allies -were evidently feebly served, and inadequate to bear their part effectually. -For two hours more the terrific cannonade continued, spreading destruction -in the ranks alike of the Russians and the Allies; and then, at mid-day, -the fleets approached the scene of action, and prepared to take their -share in the dangers and glories of the day. The French was the first to -take up their position. It had been arranged between the Admirals, with -the hearty concurrence of the land forces, that the French should engage -the forts on the south of the harbour, while the English should attack<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -Fort Constantine, and the batteries on the north. A semicircular line, -enclosing the mouth of the harbour, would represent the position occupied -by the allied fleets. The <i>Vautour</i>, a French frigate, had the honour of -opening the fire, and very shortly afterwards the <i>Charlemagne</i>, <i>Montebello</i>, -<i>Jean Bart</i>, and others, joined in the fray. The sight from the -land side now was of the most stupendous character, and the roar deafening -and incessant. Enormous volleys from hundreds of guns of the largest -size rolled with never-ceasing impetuosity; and the air was loaded with a -dense smoke that hid from the anxious gazers the effects of the fire. Occasionally -a breeze lifted the murky canopy, and then the eye could catch -the prospect beyond the frowning earthworks of shattered buildings, and -not unfrequently a bright flame where the explosion of a shell had fired a -roof, soon to be extinguished by the active enemy. Then, in the far distance, -rose the grim outlines of the massive forts, pointing seawards their -deadly array of guns; and further yet, a line of noble vessels rapidly forming -into order of attack, finished the picture. But such glimpses were but -momentary. Again the crimson volleys thundered forth, a light smoke -poured from the sides of the French steamers, and the reply of the forts -sent forth a vaporous veil, which, mingling with the smoke from the -earthworks, once more enveloped in obscurity alike the attack and the -defence.</p> - -<p>It was arranged that the English sailing-vessels should be taken into -position by the smaller steamers lashed to their sides. In this manner -they drew up before the forts: the <i>Queen</i>, <i>Britannia</i>, <i>Trafalgar</i>, <i>Vengeance</i>, -<i>Rodney</i>, and <i>Bellerophon</i>, with the <i>Vesuvius</i>, <i>Furious</i>, <i>Retribution</i>, -<i>Highflyer</i>, <i>Spitfire</i>, <i>Spiteful</i>, and <i>Cyclops</i> alongside, arrived at their -appointed positions about an hour after the French had commenced firing. -The ships in advance were the magnificent steamer the <i>Agamemnon</i>, -bearing the flag of Sir Edmund Lyons, the brave second in command; -the <i>Sanspareil</i>, <i>Sampson</i>, <i>Tribune</i>, <i>Terrible</i>, <i>Sphynx</i>, and <i>Lynx</i>, and -the <i>Arrow</i> gun-boat, accompanied by the sailing vessels, <i>Albion</i>, <i>London</i>, -and <i>Arethusa</i>, towed by the <i>Firebrand</i>, <i>Niger</i>, and <i>Triton</i>.</p> - -<p>Preceding this imposing force, a little steam-tug, the <i>Circassia</i>, commanded -by Mr. Ball, led the way, carefully sounding as it went, and -marking out the position for the larger ships. Sir Edmund Lyons had -already settled the share he was determined to take in the day’s adventure, -and had selected the enormous fort of Constantine as the object of -his special attention. The <i>Terrible</i> and <i>Sampson</i>, dashing through the -storm of fire from the casemates of Constantine, anchored opposite two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -very mischievous little batteries, one of which the sailors named the Wasp, -from its power of annoyance in comparison with its size, and the other -the Telegraph, from its proximity to the signal station. In a few moments -a vigorous shelling was opened upon these two batteries, which briskly -replied. The <i>Agamemnon</i> now opened fire, and never was a cannonade -more briskly sustained, or exhibited greater precision of fire. Sir Edmund -had anchored his vessel at the very edge of the shoal, which extended -about 900 yards from the fort. At this distance the Russian fire was -most severe. For four hours the gallant crew bore the galling shower of -missiles which cut through the rigging, pierced the hull, and sent many -a brave fellow to his last account. The <i>Albion</i> and <i>London</i> boldly came -within range, but so deadly was the fire, that they soon withdrew, terribly -crippled. The <i>Sanspareil</i> admirably seconded the efforts of the -<i>Agamemnon</i>, and maintained a telling fire upon the fort. At length that -too withdrew, and the dauntless Sir Edmund was left to bear the brunt of -the concentrated fire of the Russian guns. His ship was riddled with shot, -the sails and rigging hanging in shreds, yet, with a bull-dog pertinacity, -he clung to his opponent. Despatching his lieutenant in an open boat, he -summoned the <i>Bellerophon</i> to his aid. His message was characteristically -pithy: “Tell them to come in; these forts will sink me, and I’m d——d -if I leave this.” The <i>Bellerophon</i> quickly responded; and throwing a -volley into the big fort, passed on to where the Wasp and Telegraph forts -were showering their missiles on the gallant <i>Agamemnon</i>. The Wasp -was soon silenced by the vigorous shelling of the <i>Bellerophon</i>; and Sir -Edmund, freed from the annoyance it had caused, with unabated courage -hurled his fire at his huge antagonist. The <i>Bellerophon</i>, however, suffered -fearfully. A shell from the Russian batteries exploded in the fore part -of the ship, and set fire to the lower deck. For a few moments it seemed -as if unavoidable destruction was the fate of the gallant crew. The firing -was suspended, and all hands rushed forward to endeavour to extinguish -the flames. In this endeavour they were successful; but then a new -mischance awaited them. The anchor had dragged on the bottom, and -they were fast drifting towards the shoals beneath the forts, where they -would have lain a helpless target for the Russian guns. In this emergency, -the <i>Spitfire</i>, seeing the critical position of the larger vessel, dashed -in, took her in tow, and safely brought her, though much damaged, out -of the action.</p> - -<p>The “saucy <i>Arethusa</i>,” and her little companion in arms, the <i>Triton</i> -steamer, which, lashed to the larger vessel, had boldly entered into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -thick of the fight, bore a full share of the damage done that day. As -they arrived within the range of the fire, the small steamer, which was -then exposed, received a volley. Then, hauling round, the broadside of -the frigate was presented to the forts, and the <i>Triton</i> was, to some degree, -sheltered by the larger hull of her consort. The sailors from the steamer -hastened on board the <i>Arethusa</i>, to assist in manning her guns, and a glorious -broadside was hurled at the Russian fort. Every shot vibrated -through the <i>Triton</i>, so great was the recoil of the frigate’s guns. Broadside -after broadside was gallantly delivered, and as promptly replied to -by the cannon of the fort. Down went the rigging of the <i>Arethusa</i>, ropes -hanging in tangled masses from her yards, and not unfrequent shots -striking her hull. Some passed beyond the frigate, and soon the <i>Triton’s</i> -gear aloft, and fallen gaffs, stays, and shrouds attested the severity of the -enemy’s fire. Two shots struck the paddle-wheel, and the commander and -carpenter’s mate were wounded by a shell while examining the extent of -damage done. At length the <i>Arethusa</i>, nearly sinking, her decks covered -with fallen rigging, her cockpit crowded with bleeding men, was compelled -to relinquish the contest. The <i>Triton</i> gallantly towed her out of range, -but in the act, a raking fire of shells was poured upon the deck, killing -and wounding all within range of their explosion. With twenty-two holes -in her funnel, she contrived to tow the frigate to Constantinople, to be -docked for repairs, so extensive were her injuries.</p> - -<p>The <i>Labrador</i> steamer had a narrow escape from entire destruction. -Towards four o’clock a shell burst in the captain’s cabin, adjoining the -powder magazine, and set fire to some ropes. A cry of “fire” was raised, -the pumps set to work, and enormous quantities of water poured into the -magazine. The fire was fortunately extinguished in time to save the -vessel. She was, of course, compelled to withdraw from the attack, her -powder being rendered useless.</p> - -<p>Admiral Dundas’s flag-ship, the <i>Britannia</i>, which fired from a longer -range than the ones we have mentioned, received less damage, though she -did not escape quite scatheless. The enemy’s shot ploughed up the water -around, and occasionally a shell or round-shot fell upon the deck or -crashed through the rigging. Fortunately, however, only two men were -wounded on board this ship.</p> - -<p>The French vessels gallantly performed their part in the bombardment. -Our allies had adopted the same plan as the English, and lashed small -steamers to the large sailing-vessels to bring them into action. Two splendid -steamers, the <i>Pluton</i> and the <i>Charlemagne</i>, proudly led the way in,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -followed by the <i>Montebello</i>, the <i>Jean Bart</i>, and the rest of the squadron. -The enemy at Fort Alexander maintained an unflinching resistance, and -inflicted severe punishment on the attacking vessels.</p> - -<p>Those who witnessed this tremendous bombardment, whether from -land or sea, will probably never forget the spectacle. No imaginative description -could approach the mingled sublimity and horror of the scene. -A fleet of noble vessels, powerfully armed, poured forth sheets of flame -from every port-hole on the attacking side; and the ponderous forts, from -hundreds of embrasures, vomited a death-dealing reply. The thunder of -artillery was deafening, and the sky darkened with the smoke. Thousands -of grim and fierce-looking men, their faces blackened with gunpowder -and sweat, moved about the decks, and pointed the guns, amid -the crash of falling spars and the groans of their wounded messmates. -Beyond the town, a sullen roar was heard, which might have been the -echo of the sea-battle, but which the sailors well knew was the voice of -the guns on land, many manned by seamen from the fleets, and responded -to by a thousand of the enemy’s pieces. The awful boom of the guns -grew in intensity as some fresh ship arrived on the scene, and contributed -her broadside to the attack.</p> - -<p>On the land side the combat was an equal one. Volley replied to volley, -and no symptoms appeared to induce the belief that either party was -the stronger. Suddenly, about four o’clock, a mighty explosion occurred -in the Russian lines, which, for a moment, seemed to quell and subdue -the roar of the thundering cannon. The earth shook, and volumes of fire -sprang upwards and cast a lurid glare on every object. The very artillery -was paused, awe-struck by the catastrophe; and the spectators watched -the result in breathless excitement. It seemed as if a subterranean fire -had forced its way through the surface of the earth to annihilate the -presumption of competing man. Then the flame sank, the frightful -shock was passed, and a pillar of dust and rubbish took the place of the -mingled fire and smoke. The magazine in the centre of the Redan had -exploded, and for a brief space not a gun from that great work replied -to our volleys. Then the fire re-opened, and the Russian gunners, nothing -daunted, again hurled their shower of missiles against our works. Shortly -afterwards, a small powder-waggon, belonging to the English, was struck -by a shell and exploded, fortunately injuring none.</p> - -<p>At length twilight warned the combatants to cease. At about six o’clock -the fleets drew off, and shortly afterwards the batteries suspended their -fire. The naval attack, so far as damage to the enemy was concerned, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -a failure. Many Russian artillerymen were, doubtless, victims to the -accuracy of our aim, and the undaunted pertinacity of our seamen. Nothing, -indeed, could exceed the brilliancy of the fire; and our gallant -sailors of all ranks nobly maintained their reputation. But when the -morrow came, the forts were found to be almost uninjured. Not a gun -the less frowned from their embrasures, not a stone seemed to be displaced. -The blackened mouths of the casemates, and a multitude of -scars, as it were, where the fierce storm of iron had splintered the surface -of the granite, were all the evidence afforded of that desperate assault. -The question between wood and granite had been fairly tried, and granite -was the victor. The forts were essentially unhurt; but scarcely a ship -had escaped without serious damage to masts, sails, and rigging. The -<i>Albion</i> and <i>Arethusa</i> were compelled to proceed to Constantinople to be -docked; the <i>Rodney</i> got fast upon the reef, and her masts were soon -shattered by the Russian shell and shot—the little steamer <i>Spiteful</i> gallantly -towing her off, with considerable damage to herself and loss of men; -and the <i>Bellerophon</i> had about fifteen shots in her hull, and her wheel -knocked away. Throughout the English fleet, 44 men were killed, and -266 wounded. The French loss was even greater. The Turkish vessels, -which occupied the centre of the line, were too far removed from the -intensity of the action to sustain any serious injury to the ships or loss to -the crew.”</p> - - -<p>BOMBARDMENT OF SEBASTOPOL.—<em>Final Attempt</em>.—“Generals -Pelissier and Simpson had arranged to commence the assault at -noon on Saturday. Thu French were to commence by an attack on the -Malakoff tower. If they established themselves in that work, the English -were to throw themselves upon the Great Redan, while simultaneous -assaults were to be made on the right on the Little Redan, towards -Careening Bay, and on the extreme left on the Central Bastion and -Flagstaff Battery. General Bosquet was entrusted with the direction of -the Malakoff attack, which was to be approached on the left flank by -General MacMahon, with a powerful corps of Zouaves, Chasseurs, and -regiments of the line; the right attack on the Little Redan was to be led -by General Dulac, who had a strong body of Chasseurs, and four line regiments, -with another powerful force in reserve. General De la Motterouge, -with five regiments, was to assault the middle of the curtain connecting -these two works. General De la Salles conducted the assault on -the extreme left. Five regiments, composing Levaillant’s division, were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -in front of the Central Bastion and its lunettes; while to its right, General -D’Autemarre, with Niel’s and Breton’s brigades, were to penetrate in -the track of Levaillant’s division, and seize the Mast Bastion. The Sardinians, -anxious to share in the honors of the day, contributed a brigade -under the orders of General Cialdini, which was to attack in conjunction -with D’Autemare’s division. Finally, ten regiments, under the command -of Generals Bouat and Pate, with some troops from Kamiesch, were held -in reserve, ready for immediate action. On each attack a competent number -of sappers were provided with materials to form bridges, and handy -tools; and the gunners had abundant implements for the spiking of -guns; field artillery was also posted in commanding positions to render -any assistance the fortunes of the day might render necessary.</p> - -<p>The English storming party was comprised of detachments from the -Light and Second Divisions. General Codrington, of the Light Division, -assisted by General Markham, commanding the Second, had the direction -of the assault. The first stormers, 1000 men, were selected in equal -numbers from each division, Colonels Unett and Windham leading. The -Highland brigade and Guards were ordered up to the post as a reserve. -General Herbillon, commanding the French <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">corps d’armée</i> on the Tchernaya, -had made every preparation to meet any attack which might be -made by the Russian army of observation; but the enemy had experienced -the prowess of the Allies in the open field too bitterly again to -attempt defeat.</p> - -<p>Early in the morning, squadrons of cavalry took position on the roads -leading from Balaklava and Kadikoi to the camp, to prevent, stragglers -and spectators from crowding to the front, and impeding the movements -of the troops engaged in the assault. Every precaution, too, was observed -to prevent the enemy from having any intimation of the movements -of the soldiers. Parapets were heightened, and the regiments, -French and English, moved up before daylight, with such promptness -and secrecy that many even in the camp were unaware of the nature of -the contemplated operations.</p> - -<p>The plan of attack had originally included the co-operation of the -fleet, but a brisk gale from the north-west forbade them to leave their -anchorage; and except some French and English gunboats, which did -good service in throwing shells and rockets into the forts, the sailors -were unwillingly mere spectators of the fray.</p> - -<p>Precisely at twelve o’clock General MacMahon’s division left the -French trenches, which were within a few yards of the Malakoff tower,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -and advanced rapidly up the rugged and steep ascent. It proved that -very great damage had been inflicted on the tower, and nearly all the -guns dismounted. In a few minutes, with the loss of only one man, the -French had leaped into the work, and the tricolor waved triumphantly on -the summit of this great fort—the key to the town. The Russians contested -their ground with great bravery, renewing again and again their -attacks, but every time repulsed with enormous loss. General Bosquet -was early wounded, and retired from the field.</p> - -<p>The signal was now given by General Pelissier for the commencement -of the English assault on the Redan; and the first stormers, led by Major -Welsford of the 97th, and Captain Grove of the 90th, dashed from the -trenches, followed by the remainder of the troops. The great work was -distant about 250 yards, and the ground was so broken that it was impossible -to preserve order. The enemy, who had been taken by surprise -by the suddenness of the French attack upon the Malakoff, were now -thoroughly aroused and manned every gun. Showers of grape and shell -poured among our men as they struggled across the open space; General -Shirley, the brigadier of the Light Division, was compelled to retire, and -hundreds were shot down. When the foremost men reached the Redan, -the ladders were too short to reach the breach; but spite of every obstacle -our brave fellows climbed the broken walls, and poured into the salient -angle of the work. Major Welsford was shot down as he entered the -Redan. Colonel Windham, with his brigade of the Second Division, followed -quickly after, and in a few moments the triangular apex of the work -was thronged with men. Then a now obstacle presented itself. An inner -work commanded the position, and a terrible array of embrasures frowned -upon the assailers. For the first time English troops quailed before an -enemy’s fire, and notwithstanding the daring courage of Colonel Windham -and the other officers, retreated to such cover as they could obtain, maintaining -an ineffective fire from their muskets. In vain Colonel Windham -hurried from side to side, crossing with amazing courage the line of -fire, and endeavored to form his men for another assault. The few who -answered his appeal were swept away by the terrible fire of the enemy. -For nearly two hours was the little band exposed to such a fearful risk; -and from some unaccountable remissness no reinforcements were sent. -Three messengers were sent by Colonel Windham, but all were wounded -in the attempt to reach General Codrington. At length the dauntless -Colonel resolved to go himself; and passing across the open space, succeeded -in obtaining the desired help. It was too late; the men inside<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -the work, unable longer to hold their position, were in full retreat; and -the Russians, pouring out of their cover, charged them with the bayonet, -till the ditch was filled with the bodies of the English soldiers.</p> - -<p>While the English attack was thus disastrous, the French assaults on -the Little Redan and the Central Bastions were equally unsuccessful. -The division of Dulac and De la Motterouge three times carried the -works to which they were exposed, only to be repulsed by the heavy fire -of the inner defences, and of the steamers, which ran up, and poured -their broadsides into the ranks. General De la Salles, on the extreme -left, attacked with great energy the Central Bastion; but the intense fire -to which his division was exposed, daunted his men, many of whom were -fresh troops, unused to the stern realities of battle; and after a sanguinary -struggle, he was forced to abandon the attempt. General Pelissier -having obtained possession of the Malakoff, suspended farther attacks; -and, at length, night closed in, leaving the armies in anxious expectation -of the events of the morrow.</p> - -<p>It was the intention of General Simpson to renew the assault on the -Redan with the Highlanders and Guards on the next morning. When -daylight broke, a few soldiers crept forward to seek for wounded comrades, -and found the work was deserted! In a brief space, flames arose -from every quarter of the town; and long lines of troops could be seen -passing to the north forts. Then tremendous explosions rent the air—the -great forts on the south side were exploded; and, covered by a conflagration -which effectually prevented pursuit, Prince Gortschakoff evacuated -the town. A few hours later, and the ships in the harbor—the -steamers excepted (and a few days afterwards they, too, shared the same -fate)—burst into flames, or were scuttled, and sank slowly beneath the -waters of the once crowded inlet of the sea, where had ridden the fleet -with which Russia hoped to rule the Euxine, and from which had darted -forth the murderers of Sinopé.</p> - -<p>In this final assault the English lost no fewer than 29 officers and 356 -men killed, and 124 officers and 1762 men wounded; 1 officer and 175 -men were missing; total of casualties, 2447. The French suffered a -loss of 5 generals killed, 4 wounded, and 6 hurt; 24 superior officers -killed, 20 wounded, and 2 missing; 116 subaltern officers killed, 224 -wounded, and 8 missing; 1489 sub-officers and soldiers killed, 4259 -wounded, and 1400 missing; total, 7551. The Russians admit a loss -on the last day of the assault of 2684 killed, 7263 wounded, and 1754 -missing. Between the battle of the Tehernaya and the opening of the -final bombardment, they lost 18,000 men.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus did Sebastopol fall! The strongest fortress in the world, garrisoned -by the most colossal military power, after a siege unexampled in -modern history had succumbed to the efforts of the armies of the Western -Powers. Three great battles had been fought beneath its walls, and -four bombardments of hitherto unknown fierceness had been directed -against its bastions. The siege occupied very nearly twelve months; and -more than 100,000 men must have perished by wounds and disease in -and before its walls.</p> - -<p>The besieging army had, in its different attacks, about 800 guns -mounted, which fired more than 1,600,000 rounds, and the approaches, -dug during 336 days, of open trenches through a rocky ground, to an extent -of fifty-four English miles, were made under the constant fire of the -place, and with incessant combats by day and night. During the siege -we employed no less than 80,000 gabions, 60,000 fascines, and nearly -1,000,000 earth bags.</p> - -<p>To the French unquestionably is due the honor of its capture; but -who can forget the courage which the English exhibited, the fortitude -they displayed, or the sufferings they endured? The first victories of -that eventful year are claimed by British valour, and if, at the last, they -failed, let us remember there are some tasks no ability can execute, some -difficulties no skill can surmount, and some opposition no valour can -subdue.”</p> - - -<p>BORODINO, <span class="fs70">OR</span> MOSKWA, BATTLE OF.—This battle is one of -the most sanguinary in the annals of the world. It was fought September -7th, 1812, between the French and Russians, commanded on the one side -by Napoleon and on the other by Kutusoff, 240,000 men being engaged -in the battle. Each party claimed the victory, because the loss of the -others was so immense, but it was rather in favour of Napoleon, for the -Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. Among the -principal persons of the Russians who fell on this sanguinary field, may -be mentioned Prince Bagration and General Touczkoff. Many Russian -generals were wounded. Their loss amounted to the awful sum total of -15,000 men killed and more than 30,000 wounded. The French were -supposed to have at least 10,000 men killed and 20,000 wounded; of -these last few recovered. There were 8 French generals slain, the most -distinguished of whom were Montbrun and Caulaimcourt, whose brother -was the grand equerry to Napoleon Bonaparte.</p> - - -<p>BOROUGH BRIDGE, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the Earls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -of Hertford and Lancaster and Edward II. The king, at the head of -30,000 men, pressed Lancaster so closely that he was taken, and executed, -1322.</p> - - -<p>BOSCOBEL.—Here Charles II concealed himself in an oak tree after -the fatal battle of Worcester, September 3rd, 1651. The whole army -of the Prince was either killed or taken prisoners by Cromwell, and -Charles ultimately escaped with great difficulty.</p> - - -<p>BOSTON.—Here the first resistance was made to the British authority -by the American Colonies, in 1773. Besieged by the British next year, -and two houses destroyed. In June 1775, the scene of a battle between -the royal and the independent troops. Finally evacuated by the King’s -troops, April, 1776.—<em>See</em> <span class="smcap">Bunker’s Hill</span>.</p> - - -<p>BOSWORTH, BATTLE OF.—This battle was the thirteenth and last, -between the houses of York and Lancaster.—Fought August 22nd, 1485. -The crown of Richard III was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain -where the battle was fought, and so eager was Henry of Richmond to be -crowned, that he had the ceremony performed on the very spot, with that -very crown. “Richard advanced to meet his rival as far us the town of Bosworth. -Henry, who had been joined by some of the Stanleys, and whose -army now counted six thousand men, had reached the neighbouring town -of Atherton. Next morning, the 22nd of August, 1485, both armies were -set in battle-array on the moor called Redmore. Richard was dismayed -when he saw the Stanleys opposed to him; but he soon displayed his -wonted courage. Observing part of his troops inactive and others wavering, -he resolved to make one desperate effort and conquer or fall, and -crying out “Treason, treason!” and giving his horse the spurs, he rushed -to where he saw Richmond. He killed his standard-bearer and made a -furious stroke at Henry himself, which was warded off by Sir William -Stanley, and Richard was thrown from his horse and slain. Lord Stanley -taking up the crown which he wore, placed it on the head of Richmond, -and shouts of “Long live King Henry!” were instantly raised all over -the field. The loss on Richard’s side in this decisive battle was three -hundred, that on Henry’s only one hundred men. The body of Richard -was stripped, and being thrown across a horse, was conveyed to Leicester -and there interred, and many years after his coffin could be seen used as -a horse-trough.” “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sic transit gloria mundi.</i>”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> - - -<p>BOULOGNE.—<em>France.</em>—Taken by the British in 1542, restored 1550—attacked -by Lord Nelson, who disabled ten vessels and sunk five, -August 3rd, 1801. In another attempt he was repulsed with great loss, -August 18th, following. The flotilla of Boulogne consisted of 160,000 -men and 10,000 horses, with 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors. Napoleon -attempted by it to invade England, but could not succeed, and at last gave -up the idea.</p> - - -<p>BOXTEL, BATTLE OF.—Fought September 17th, 1794, between -the British and allied army, commanded by the Duke of York, and the -army of the French Republic. The latter attacked the allies and obtained -the victory after an obstinate engagement, taking 2000 prisoners and 8 -pieces of cannon, and the Duke retreated across the Meuse.</p> - - -<p>BOYNE, BATTLE OF THE.—Fought July 1st, 1689, between -the Prince of Orange, afterwards William III of England, and James II -of England. James was defeated. “Early next morning, the 1st of -July, 1689, the English prepared to pass the river in three divisions. -The right forced the passage at the ford of Slane; the centre led by -the old warrior Duke Schomberg, passed opposite the Irish camp; it was -vigorously opposed, but it finally forced the Irish to fall back to the -village of Donóre, where James stood viewing the battle. William, -meantime, had passed at the head of the third division, composed -of cavalry, and driven off the enemy’s horse. The French General -Lausun immediately urged James to set out with all speed for Dublin, -lest he should be surrounded. He forthwith quitted the field; the Irish -army poured through the pass of Duleék and formed at the other side, and -then retreated in good order. Its loss had been 1500 men, that of the -victors was about 500, among whom were Duke Schomberg, and Walker, -the brave Governor of Derry.”</p> - - -<p>BRECHIN.—<em>Scotland.</em>—Edward III besieged it in 1333. A battle -was fought here between the forces of the Earls of Huntly and Crawford. -The latter defeated in 1452.</p> - - -<p>BREDA.—Taken by Prince Maurice in 1590. By the Spaniards in -1625. By the Dutch in 1637. By the French 1793, and again by the -Dutch in the same year.</p> - - -<p>BREST.—Besieged by Julius Cæsar <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 54. Possessed by the -English, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1378. Given up 1391. Lord Berkely and a British<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -force repulsed here, with terrible loss, in 1694. Here was the French -fleet rendezvous, which was afterwards defeated by Lord Howe, 1st June, -1794.</p> - - -<p>BRETIGNY, PEACE OF.—Between France and England, ending -in the release of King John, who was then a prisoner in London, May -8th, 1360.</p> - - -<p>BRIAR’S CREEK, BATTLE OF.—One of the battles between -the revolted Americans and the British, in 1779. The former, under -General Ashe, 2000 strong, were totally defeated by the English, under -General Prevost, March 16th, 1779. Again, 3rd May following, another -defeat happened to the Americans.</p> - - -<p>BRANDYWINE, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the British -royalist forces and the revolted Americans, in which the latter (after a -fight, sometimes of doubtful result, and which continued the entire day) -were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell into the possession of -the victors, September 11th, 1777.</p> - - -<p>BRESLAU, BATTLE OF.—Between the Austrians and Prussians, -the latter under Prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement -was most bloody on both sides; fought November 22nd, 1757. Breslau -was taken, but was regained the same year. This city was besieged by -the French and surrendered to them January 5th, 1807, and again in -1813.</p> - - -<p>BRIENNE, BATTLE OF.—Fought February 1st and 2nd, 1814, -between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia and the French. The -allies were defeated with great loss; this was one of the last battles in -which the French achieved victory previous to the fall of Napoleon.</p> - - -<p>BRIDGE OF BOATS OF XERXES.—This bridge was connected -from shore to shore in the following manner: They connected -vessels of different kinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, others three banked -galleys, to the number of 360 on the side of the Euxine sea, and thirteen on -that of the Hellespont. When these vessels were firmly fixed together they -were secured by anchors of great length on the upper side, because of -the winds which set in from the Euxine; on the lower toward the Ægean -sea, on account of the south and south-east winds. They left openings -in three places, sufficient to afford a passage for light vessels which might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -have occasion to sail into the Euxine or from it—having performed this -they extended cables from the shore stretching them on large capstans of -wood. Then they sawed out rafters of wood making their length equal -to that space required for the bridge—these they laid in order across the -extended cables and then bound all fast together. Then they placed -unwrought wood regularly upon the rafters; over all they threw earth, and -fenced both sides in, that the horses and other animals might not be -frightened by looking down into the sea.</p> - - -<p>BRIGADE.—A party or division of troops or soldiers, whether cavalry -or infantry—regular, volunteer or militia, commanded by a brigadier. A -brigade of artillery consists of six pieces, with usually about 140 men; -a brigade of sappers consists of eight men.</p> - - -<p>BRIGADIER.—A general officer who commands a brigade, whether -of horse or foot, and ranks next to a major-general—commonly called a -brigadier-general.</p> - - -<p>BRUSSELS.—Bombarded by Marshal Villeroy, in 1695—taken by the -French 1746. Again by Dumouriez, in 1792; near it is the celebrated -field of Waterloo.</p> - - -<p>BUCHAREST, TREATY OF.—A treaty of peace between Russia -and Turkey, signed May 28th, 1812.</p> - - -<p>BUDA.—Once called the <em>Key of Christendom</em>. It was taken by -Soleyman II at the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian -King Louis was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects carried away as slaves, -1526. Buda was sacked a second time, and Hungary annexed to the -Ottoman Umpire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperialists, and the Mohammedans -delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1626.</p> - - -<p>BUENOS AYRES, BRITISH DESCENTS UPON.—A British -fleet and army, under Sir Home Popham and General Beresford, took the -city, with slight resistance, in 1806, but it was retaken August 12th, after -six weeks’ possession. Monte-Video was taken by storm by Sir Samuel -Auchmuty, February 3rd, 1807, but evacuated July 7th following. The -British suffered a dreadful repulse here in an expedition of 8000 men, -under general Whitelock (who was disgraced) July 6th, 1807. On entering -the town they were attacked by a superior force with musketry and -grape from every quarter, and perished in great numbers, but at last they -were allowed to re-embark in their vessels.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> - - -<p>BULL RUN.—This battle was fought between the Northern States of -America and the Confederate States of the South, July 21st, 1861. The -Union army was signally defeated, and fell back on Washington in confusion. -Their loss amounted to 481 killed, 1011 wounded, and 700 prisoners. -The rebel or Southern loss was 269 killed and 1483 wounded.</p> - - -<p>BUNKER’S HILL, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the English -and her revolted colonists, June 16th, 1775. On the evening of that -day, 1000 men, under the command of Colonel Prescott, of Massachusetts, -Colonel Stark, from New-Hampshire, and Captain Knowlton, -from Connecticut, were despatched on this service. They were conducted, -by mistake, to Breed’s Hill, which was nearer to the water and to Boston, -than Bunker’s. At twelve o’clock they began to throw up entrenchments, -and by dawn of day had completed a redoubt eight rods square. As soon -as they were discovered, they were fired upon from a ship of war and -several floating batteries lying near, and from a fortification in Boston -opposite the redoubt. The Americans, nevertheless, encouraged by -General Putnam, who often visited them on the hill, continued to labor -until they had finished a slight breastwork extending from the redoubt -eastward to the water. And in the morning they received a reinforcement -of 500 men.</p> - -<p>The temerity of the provincials astonished and incensed General Gage, -and he determined to drive them immediately from their position. About -noon, a body of 3000 regulars, commanded by General Howe, left Boston -in boats, and landed in Charlestown, at the extreme point of the peninsula. -Generals Clinton and Burgoyne took their station on an eminence -in Boston, commanding a distinct view of the hill. The spires of the -churches, the roofs of the houses, and all the heights in the neighborhood, -were covered with people, waiting, in dreadful anxiety, to witness the -approaching battle.</p> - -<p>The regulars forming at the place of landing, marched slowly up the -hill, halting frequently to allow time to the artillery to demolish the -works. While advancing, the village of Charlestown, containing about -400 houses, was set on fire by order of General Gage. The flames ascended -to a lofty height, presenting a sublime and magnificent spectacle. The -Americans reserved their fire until the British were within 10 rods of -the redoubt; then taking a steady aim, they began a furious discharge. -Entire ranks of the assailants fell. The enemy halted and returned the -fire; but that from the redoubt continuing incessant and doing great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -execution, they retreated in haste and disorder down the hill, some even -taking refuge in their boats.</p> - -<p>The officers were seen running hither and thither, collecting, arranging -and addressing their men, who were at length induced again to ascend the -hill. The Americans now reserved their fire until the enemy had approached -even nearer than before, when a tremendous volley was at once poured -upon them. Terrified by the carnage around them, they again retreated -with precipitation, and such was the panic, that General Howe was left -almost alone on the hillside, his troops having deserted him, and nearly -every officer around him being killed.</p> - -<p>At this moment, General Clinton, who had observed from Boston the -progress of the battle, feeling that British honor was at stake, hastened -with a reinforcement to the assistance of his countrymen. By his exertions, -the troops were a third time rallied, and were compelled by the -officers, who marched behind them with drawn swords, to advance again -towards the Americans. The fire from the ships and batteries was -redoubled, and a few pieces of cannon had been so placed as to rake the -interior of the breastwork from end to end.</p> - -<p>The provincials, having expended their ammunition, awaited in silence -the approach of the regulars. The latter entered the redoubt. The former, -having no bayonets, defended themselves, for a short time, with the butt-end -of their muskets. From this unequal contest they were soon compelled -to retire. As they retreated over Charleston Neck, the fire from -the floating batteries was incessant; but a few only were killed. The -enemy had sustained too much injury to think of pursuit.</p> - -<p>In this desperate and bloody conflict, the royal forces consisted, as has -been stated, of 3000 men, and the provincials of 1500. Of the former, -1054 were killed and wounded; of the latter 453. This disparity of loss, -the steadiness and bravery displayed by their recent undisciplined levies, -occasioned among the Americans the highest exultation, and, in their -view, more than counterbalanced the loss of position.</p> - - -<p>BURGOS, SIEGE OF.—Lord Wellington entered Burgos after the -battle of Salamanca (fought July 22nd, 1812), on September 19th. The -castle was besieged by the British and Allies, and several attempts were -made to carry it by assault, but the siege was abandoned, October 21st, -the same year; the castle and fortifications were blown up by the French, -June 12th, 1813.</p> - - -<p>BURMESE WAR.—The first dispute with the Burmese took place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -in 1795, but it was amicably settled by General Erskine. Hostilities were -commenced in 1824, when the British took Rangoon. After some time -peace was declared, February 24th, 1826, when the British received Arracan -as a compensation. A naval force arrived before Rangoon, October -29th, 1851, and after the non compliance of certain British demands by -the viceroy, war was declared. On the 5th April, 1852, Martaban was -stormed by the British Indian army, and on the 14th of the same month -Rangoon itself fell into their hands. Then followed the storming of Bassein, -May 19th, 1852, and the capture of Pegu, June 4th, 1852. On the 28th -December following, Pegu was annexed to the Indian Government by a -proclamation of the Governor-General.</p> - - -<p>BURLINGTON HEIGHTS, BATTLE OF.—Between the British -and the United States’ forces—an obstinate and memorable engagement, -contested with great valour on both sides. The Americans were routed, -and the British carried the heights, June 6th, 1813.</p> - - -<p>BUSACO <span class="fs70">OR</span> BUZACO, BATTLE OF.—This sanguinary engagement -was fought, September 27th, 1810, between the British, under Lord -Wellington, and the French army, commanded by Massena. The latter -was repulsed with great slaughter, losing one general, and 1000 men killed, -two generals and about 3000 men wounded, and several hundred prisoners; -the loss of the British and their allies did not exceed 1300 in the -whole. The British subsequently retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, -which were too strong for Massena to attempt to force, and the two -armies remained in sight of each other to the end of the year.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="C" id="C"></a>C.</h3> - - -<p>CABUL.—The following is succinct account of this expedition.</p> - -<p>“Every preparation was now completed for our march, and on the -12th of October, 1842, our force, divided into three brigades, left Cabul, -the first under General Pollock, the second under General McCaskill, -and the rear under General Nott. We had not proceeded more than -four miles, when we heard the explosion of the mines, which left the -renowned Cabul a vast region of ruins; and the Affghans to judge the -spirit of the British as an avenging one. Cabul lies under the Hindoo -Koosh, and is bordered on the one side by the Himalaya, and the rivers -Attock and Rozee: the people are robust and healthy; their manners -amount to insolence and cruelty; they are continually at war with each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -other; and are divided into tribes. Trade seemed to have abounded -greatly, and the country is generally in a flourishing state: the cities of -Cabul, Ghuznee, and Candahar, are the principal ones of Affghanistan; -the Persians form a considerable portion of the inhabitants of Cabul, -and the traffic with that country is somewhat extensive.</p> - -<p>The divisions made a general move at daybreak, on the 12th October, -to Thag Bakh, about six miles distant from Cabul; and on the entrance -to the Koord Cabul Pass, Her Majesty’s 9th and 13th Regiments, together -with six Native Corps of the 1st Division, manned the hills commanding -the pass, to enable those in the valley below to move on unmolested. -On the morning of the 13th the troops entered the Pass which -led to Tezeen, about nine miles. The mountains were high and craggy, -and very dark, rendering the road extremely gloomy and sad; a torrent -ran in a serpentine direction from side to side, which reminded me of the -Bolun; it had to be crossed twenty-eight times during about six miles. -We had scarcely got well into the jaws of this awful scene of romantic -vastness, whose hollow crags seemed to echo defiance to our intruding -tread, when a number of the enemy made their appearance in the rear, -but were kept in check. The very great height of the mountains, of a -dark, reddish colour, struck one with awe, and silence seemed to reign -over all; the mind was totally occupied in contemplating this fearful -sight of hidden deeds; horror struck the feeling heart, when the eye fell -on the skeletons of our departed comrades, who lay in most agonizing -positions, indicative of their last struggle for life. Here a spot would be -strewed with a few crouched up in a corner, where they had evidently -fled to cover themselves by some detached rock, from the overpowering -cruelty of their foe, and had been rivetted by death. There couples were -lying who had died in each other’s arms, locked as it were in the last embrace -of despair: numbers lay in every direction, devoid of every particle -of clothes; some with the greater part of the flesh putrefied on their -bleaching bones—others were clean from having been devoured by the -vast number of carrion birds and beasts inhabiting these terrible regions. -I at first attempted to count the number of frames as I went along, -but found them so numerous that I could not find time, and my inclination -sickened from the awfulness of the scene. The pass was no more -than thirty feet wide at this part, and so numerous were the mouldering -frames of these whose lives had been sacrificed during the last winter, -that they literally covered the road—and, in consequence, the artillery -and other wheeled carriages had to pass over them—and it was indeed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -horrible to hear the wheels cracking the bones of our unburied comrades. -It was quite easy to discover the Europeans by the hair on the skulls, -which still remained fresh. After a tedious, and indeed a painful march, -we reached Tezeen, which opens from the narrow Pass into a much wider -part, sufficient to enable us to pitch our camp. Here was a sad scene of -recent strife—scarce a tent could be pitched but a skeleton or two had -to be removed, just kicked aside as though it were a stump of a tree, in -order to leave clear the place for the interior of the tent, and there -remained unnoticed. It has often been a subject of deep reflection to me, -to think how utterly reckless man can be made by habit: so used were -we to these sights, that it became a mere commonplace matter to see such -relics of devastation and massacre. I remember walking with a friend -down the centre of the camp, and we had often to stride over skeletons, -without the least observation, further than I could not help heaving a -sigh, and reflecting in silence on their unfortunate end.</p> - -<p>The next day took us thirteen miles on a road of extreme barrenness; -the high, wild, rugged mountains, hemmed in the narrow defile; the skeletons -of the massacred force still strewed the road in every direction; no -signs of vegetation, or aught to relieve the eye from wildness—the numerous -hollow crags, as we passed, seemed to ring with echoing despair, and -afforded most formidable positions for the treacherous Affghan to use his -jezail or matchlock, without fear of opposition. The enemy, finding we -had now entered the Pass, hovered about, and succeeded in murdering -an officer, and a few men of Pollock’s force. The divisions marched one -day a-head of each other, and thus kept up a continued line of communication. -I, with General Nott’s, arrived at this ground on the 14th; -the road was equally extremely harassing the next day, as indeed, ever -since our entrance to the Pass. The ascents and descents are so numerous, -coupled with having to cross the water so often, and there being no -hold for the feet, on the loose flinty stones, made it very trying for both -man and beast. Upwards of twenty times had the gushing torrent, -dashing from side to side of the valley, to be waded through, and numbers -of bleaching frames of the victims of Akbar’s treachery, lay exposed -in the midst of the rolling stream. In one part of this day’s march we -came to a place fifty yards in length, crowded with dead bodies of men, -horses, and camels, which were those of a troop of irregular cavalry, who -had all been cut up on this spot. About a mile from Sah Baba, our next -ground, stands a round tower, the ruins of an old fort; it was now used -as a bone house, and was crammed to the ceiling, with skulls, legs, arms,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -and shattered frames, and numbers were heaped outside the door, and -round it,—placed there by the enemy, to form a glaring spectacle of their -bitter revenge. A large body of Affghans were now seen covering the -hills in our rear, and opened a fire into the dreary abyss, on our rear -guards and baggage as they passed. The column had moved on some few -miles, but were halted, and those of our troops in possession of the -heights commenced an attack, and succeeded in repelling them, and -forcing them to retreat, and we reached camp with little loss. This place -is said to be the burial place of Lamech, the father of Noah, and if we -may judge from its wild, dreary, stony, barren appearance, which looked -as if it had been washed up into a heap after the deluge, and so void of -all chances of fertility, that one could scarcely doubt the tradition.</p> - -<p>Our next day led on to Kutta Sang, and of all the roads I had ever -seen or traversed, as yet, this was the worst. The route led from hill -to hill, the ascents being difficult and stony, and the descents in addition -being very dangerous, as a fearful precipice presented itself should -you happen to fall. These unwelcome views were many in number, and -coupled with the tedious progress of the cattle and baggage, and the difficulty -experienced in dragging the guns and loads up these many steep -hills, and nothing but a dreary road to travel onward, made the march -bad indeed. After the main body reached camp, the rear guard was -attacked; a reinforcement was despatched, and a smart skirmish ensued; -the Affghans seemed to delight in annoying us, and from their hidden -positions most peremptorily carried their plan into effect; we lost -few men compared with them, and the whole reached camp about -midnight. Still the poor soldier found misery destined for him in -every direction. On arriving at a new ground, two regiments had to -mount duty on the summits of the hills bordering the route, which -had to be ascended after the day’s harassing march, thus forming a -second, much more so. The scanty, coarse meal, being nothing more -than a quantity of meat and broth made from an allowance of a scarcely -lifeless carcass, of the hard-driven, skeletonized bullock, and this of times -not prepared before the dead hour of night; and then carried up to the -men cold and tasteless. The bread or cake made of coarse, hand-ground -flour, full of grit and small straw, half-baked and calculated to produce -disease by its use; and ere this was well eaten, the rouse would sound, -and the weary instrument of Britain’s safety would be wending his way -through the dreary and unknown regions, ’mid almost perpendicular rocks, -and perilous tracks. Such was the road of the next day’s march, to Jugdulluk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -Pass: this is by no means the most difficult one to explore—the -sides not being near so high as those already traversed; it had some -appearance of fertility, being studded with many small bushes. There were -innumerable small caves, or recesses in the rocks, and it was from those -dark-dens, forming cover for the enemy, that they succeeded so well in cutting -off our unfortunate brethren, whose skeletons here were very numerously -strewed about the path, and thus rendered the Pass more horrible -than it would have been; for the light shone brighter here than we had -it for some time. Nay, so stupendous were the mountains, hemming the -ravines we had passed, that it would be often far advanced in the day -before the sun would be seen by those beneath.</p> - -<p>The unfortunate 44th made a somewhat successful stand in the -Jugdulluk Pass, and succeeded, ere they were overpowered, in slaying -many of their foes. The pass was narrow, and the Affghans, who -had preceded us some hours, with a view to intercept and baffle us, had -formed breastworks across the road; and, would it be believed, that these -breastworks were formed of skeletons of our own men and horses? -Not less than 100 frames could have been here piled up, which had -to be removed before we could pass on. About 600 of the enemy made -their appearance here, and in the first onset did considerable damage,—but -a detachment from the main body soon dislodged them, and put -them to the rout; it was common to see, lying on the road, bodies of murdered -Sepoys and couriers; and in fact to attempt to enumerate the acts -of treachery practised on us, would be next to impossible. We at length -reached Soorkab. At this ground was a cluster of fine tall trees, which -relieved the eye, and led us to hope we were approaching a land of the -living; the camp was bordered by the celebrated Red River, a most beautiful -crystal stream, rolling most musically over a stony bottom, and -under the ridge of an immense mountain; the continued buzz kept up by -the murmuring torrent echoing from the fearful crags, lulled the weary -travellers in camp to sleep. Across this river is a most splendid bridge of -one gigantic arch, which led by a declivitous route from this Pass to another; -on the right of this bridge, which was erected by Alexander, issued -a cataract roaring and dashing from the hills, which fed the stream, and -formed a most beautiful picture. It was on this bridge that a number of -the 44th—from the extreme inclemency of the weather, and the bitterness of -the frost—were so benumbed with cold that they were unable to use their -arms when attacked on their retreat. Oh! when reflection is but called -up, and the miserable condition of these poor, oppressed creatures, considered,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -it cannot but call forth a sigh of deep regret,—bereft of every -chance of escape, or wherewithal to exist,—as they were. When we -consider that some of our nearest and dearest relatives or friends were -amongst the number—surely, if there is one spark of sympathy left, it -will be kindled for those whose last struggle was for their country’s -cause.</p> - -<p>Our next route led across the bridge through the defile already -described, and on the road were lying the bodies of two murdered Sepoys. -The ascents and descents were as usual; and from the summit of these -intersecting hills, the eye would carry itself upon range after range of never -ending cliffs and walls of mountains; the dark aspect of the distant horizon -carried with it a volume of thoughts, wondering when the back would -be once more turned on such dreariness. The moving mass below would -be seen winding its serpentine length along the Pass, which from its narrowness, -being obstructed by huge masses of detached rock having fallen -from the heights, and impassable by other than taking a circuitous route, -were truly harassing to the men and cattle. I may as well here mention -the great trials and difficulties experienced in dragging along the heavy -portions of the baggage, more particularly the celebrated Somnauth gates, -which it will doubtless be remembered, were taken by direction of the -Governor General, from the tomb of Sultan Mahomed at Ghuznee. These -gates, it will doubtless also be remembered, were the idolatrous trophy of -the Hindoos in the Guzerat Peninsula. The General directed a guard -of not less than the wing of a regiment to mount over these gates, which -were placed upon two platform carts, and drawn by six bullocks each. -The other castes of the native Sepoys would not go near them, and the -Hindoos were comparatively few, and insufficient to perform the duty, -and as these gates were to be taken to the provinces for the purpose of -being restored to that race, so great was the care taken of them that they -were placed next to the main body of the army on the march, and nothing -was permitted to go before them. The consequence was, that oftentimes, -owing to the bullocks growing stubborn, the whole in the rear have been -delayed; and the gates have had to be dragged by fatigue parties of the -Europeans—night has set in—the enemy have taken advantage of our -position, and have succeeded in cutting off numbers who otherwise would -have been safe in camp. The badness of the roads and darkness of the -night, together with the incessant fatigue and consequent loss occasioned -by the protection of these idolatrous baubles, have caused much well-grounded -controversy, and involved much discredit on the authorities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> -Many are the lives which have been lost by this—and for what? to restore -to a tribe of idolaters, an idol, that they might worship with the greater -vehemence, as it had been recaptured for them; and all this, too, by -the representative of a Christian people. I need say nothing farther, -except that, owing to the great question raised relative to their restoration, -in our Parliament in 1843 and 1844, and since the recall of Lord -Ellenborough, they remain like so much lumber stored in one of the -stations in Bengal.</p> - -<p>But to proceed to the march. A short distance from our camp, which -was Gundamuck, stands a small hill, where the remnant of the 44th -Regiment, about 300, made their last stand, and fought most desperately -whilst their ammunition lasted, and were at length annihilated: their -skeletons strewed the hill sides and summit; about 250 soldiers, and -upwards of 30 officers, I believe, fell on this hill, and a deplorable sight it -presented. We soon reached the camp, where Generals Pollock and -McCaskill had halted; this place had been formed into a <em>dépôt</em> for grain -and forage (only chopped straw), on Pollock’s advance on Cabul; the -Passes from Peshawur, as he passed through, had been kept by our troops; -thus in a great measure securing our route. We now refreshed ourselves -with a day’s rest, and our cattle with a feast of forage, such as it was; -and also in comparative confidence, as we were now but a couple of day’s -stage from Jellalabad. The mails from Europe for the army were -despatched from Calcutta and met us at this place, so that all in all it was -quite a day of pleasure, receiving news from that dear place Home, -“which never was so sweetly felt as in such times as these,”—conjunction -of the Divisions, and recognition of old comrades who had escaped the -perils of the few past days, and such like,—made the whole feel refreshed, -and filled us with the utmost cheerfulness.”</p> - - -<p>CAIRO, <span class="fs70">OR</span> GRAND CAIRO.—Burnt to prevent its occupation -by the Crusaders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian -sultans, and their empire subdued, 1517. Taken by the French under -Bonaparte, July 23rd, 1798. Taken by the British and Turks, when -6000 French capitulated, June 27th, 1801.</p> - - -<div><a name="CAL" id="CAL"></a></div> -<p>CALAIS.—Taken by Edward III, after a year’s siege, August -4th, 1347, and held by England 210 years. It was retaken by Mary, -January 7th, 1558, and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the Queen’s -heart, historians say it occasioned her death. Calais was bombarded by -the English, 1694.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p> - - -<p>CALVI, SIEGE OF.—Besieged by the British, June 12th, 1744, -and after a close investment of 59 days, surrendered on August 10th -following. The garrison then marched out with the honors of war, and -were conveyed to Toulon. It surrendered to the French in 1796.</p> - - -<p>CAMBRAY.—Taken by the Spaniards in 1595. It was invested -by the Austrians, August 8th, 1793, and the Republican General Declay -replied to the Imperial summons to surrender, that “he knew not how -to do <em>that</em>, but his soldiers knew how to fight.” The French here were -defeated by the Duke of York, April 23rd, 1794. It was then seized -by the British, by Sir Charles Colville, June 24th, 1815. This was one -of the fortresses occupied by the allied armies for five years after the fall -of Napoleon.</p> - - -<p>CAMDEN, BATTLES OF.—The first battle fought here was -between General Gates and Lord Cornwallis. The Americans were -defeated August 16th, 1780. The second battle was fought between -the revolted Americans and the British, the former commanded by -General Greene, and the latter by Lord Rawdon. The Americans were -again defeated, April 25th, 1781. Camden was evacuated and burnt by -the British, May 13th, 1781.</p> - - -<p>CAMPERDOWN, BATTLE OF.—This was a memorable engagement, -off Camperdown, between the British fleet, under Admiral Duncan, -and the Dutch fleet, commanded by Admiral De Winter. The Dutch -lost 15 ships, which were either taken or sunk. It was fought October -11th, 1797. This victory obtained the brave and good Admiral a -peerage.</p> - - -<p>CAMPO FORMIO, TREATY OF.—Concluded between France -and Austria. This memorable and humiliating treaty took place on the -17th October, 1797. By this treaty Austria had to yield the low countries -and the Ionian Islands to France; and Milan &c., to the Cisalpine -Republic.</p> - - -<p>CANNAE, BATTLE OF.—This battle, one of the most celebrated -in ancient history, was fought between the Romans and Hannibal. The -forces of the Africans amounted to 50,000, while those of the Romans -were equal to 88,000, of whom 40,000 were slain. The victor sent -3 bushels of gold rings as a present to the Carthagenian ladies, which -he had taken off the fingers of the Roman knights slain in this memorable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -engagement. So contested was the fight that neither side perceived -an earthquake, which happened during the battle. The place is now -called “The Field of Blood.” Fought 21st May, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 216.</p> - - -<p>CANNON.—They are said to have been used as early as 1338. First -used by the English at the siege of Calais, 1347. Used by the English -first in battle, that of Crecy, in 1346.</p> - - -<p>CAPE BRETON.—Discovered by the English 1584. Taken by -the French in 1632. Restored and again taken in 1745, and retaken -in 1748. Finally possessed by the English, when 5000 men were made -prisoners of war, and 11 ships destroyed, 1758. Ceded to England at -the peace of 1783.</p> - - -<p>CAPE ST. VINCENT.—<em>1st Battle.</em>—Admiral Rooke, with 20 ships -of war, and the Turkish fleet under his convoy, was attacked by -Admiral Tourville with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. -Vincent, when 12 English and Dutch men of war and 80 merchantmen -were captured or destroyed by the French. It was fought June 15th, -1693.</p> - -<p><em>2nd Battle.</em>—This second battle was one of the most glorious of -the British navy. Sir John Jarvis, being in command of the Mediterranean -fleet of 15 sail, gave battle to the Spanish fleet of 27 ships of -the line, and signally defeated the enemy, nearly double in strength, -taking 4 ships and destroying several others. Fought February 14th, -1797. For this victory Sir John Jarvis was raised to the peerage under -the title of Earl St. Vincent.</p> - - -<p>CAPTAIN.—This title, derived from the French <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">capitaine</i>, literally -signifies a head or chief officer,—the officer who commands a company. -In Turkey, the Captain-Bashaw is the High Admiral.</p> - - -<p>CARLISLE.—The castle founded by William II, in 1092, was made -the prison of the unfortunate Queen of Scots, 1568. Taken by the -Parliamentary forces in 1645, and by the Pretender in 1745.</p> - - -<p>CARRICKFERGUS.—This town surrendered to the Duke of -Schomberg, August 28th, 1689. William III landed here June 14th, -1690, to reduce the adherents of James II. This place is memorable -for the expedition of the French Admiral Thurot, when its castle surrendered -to his force of 1000 men, in 1760.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> - - -<p>CARTHAGE.—Founded by Dido. Taken by the Roman General -Scipio, and burnt to the ground <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 146. The flames of the burning -city raged for 17 days, and thousands of the inhabitants perished in them -rather than survive the calamities of their country. Afterwards it was -rebuilt, but razed by the Saracens, and now no trace of the city appears.</p> - - -<p>CARTHAGENA.—<em>In Columbia</em>.—Was taken by Sir Francis Drake -in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of £1,200,000 in 1697. It -was bombarded by Admiral Vernon in 1740–1.</p> - -<p>“When the forces were landed at Carthagena, the commanders erected -a battery, with which they made a breach in the principal fort, while -Vernon, who commanded the fleet, sent a number of ships into the -harbor to divide the fire of the enemy, and to co-operate with the army -on shore. The breach being deemed practicable, a body of troops were -commanded to storm; but the Spaniards deserted the forts, which, if -possessed of courage, they might have defended with success. The -troops, upon gaining this advantage, were advanced a good deal nearer -the city; but there they met a much greater opposition than they had -expected. It was found, or at least asserted, that the fleet could not lie -near enough to batter the town, and that nothing remained but to -attempt one of the forts by scaling. The leaders of the fleet and the -army began mutually to accuse each other, each asserting the probability -of what the other denied. At length, Wentworth, stimulated by the -admiral’s reproach, resolved to try the dangerous experiment, and ordered -that fort St. Lazare should be attempted by scalade. Nothing could be -more unfortunate than this undertaking; the forces marching up to the -attack, the guides were slain, and they mistook their way. Instead of -attempting the weakest part of the fort, they advanced to where it was -the strongest, and where they were exposed to the fire of the town. -Colonel Grant, who commanded the grenadiers, was killed in the beginning. -Soon after it was found that their scaling ladders were too short; -the officers were perplexed for want of orders, and the troops stood -exposed to the whole fire of the enemy, without knowing how to proceed. -After bearing a dreadful fire for some hours with great intrepidity, they -at length retreated, leaving 600 men dead on the spot. The terrors of -the climate soon began to be more dreadful than those of war; the -rainy season came on with such violence, that it was impossible for the -troops to continue encamped; and the mortality of the season now began -to attack them in all its frightful varieties. To these calamities, sufficient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -to quell any enterprise, was added the dissension between the land -and sea commanders, who blamed each other for every failure, and -became frantic with mutual recrimination. They only, therefore, at -last, could be brought to agree in one mortifying measure, which was to -re-embark the troops, and withdraw them as quickly as possible from the -scene of slaughter and contagion.”</p> - - -<p>CASTIGLIONE, BATTLE OF.—One of the most brilliant victories -of the French arms under Napoleon against the Austrians, commanded -by General Wurmsex. The battle lasted 5 days, from the 2nd to the -6th July, 1796. The Austrians lost 70 field pieces, all their caissons, -and between 12,000 to 15,000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded.</p> - - -<p>CASTILLON, BATTLE OF.—<em>In France.</em>—Fought between the -armies of England (Henry VI) and those of France (Charles VII). -The English were signally defeated, July 7th, 1453,—Calais alone remaining -in their hands.</p> - - -<p>CASTLEBAR, BATTLE OF.—Fought between a body of French -troops and an insurgent Irish force, at Killala, on the one hand, and the -King’s royal forces on the other; the latter, after a short contest, being -obliged to retire, August 28th, 1798.</p> - - -<p>CATAMARANS.—Fire machines for destroying ships, invented and -tried on the Boulogne flotilla of Napoleon. Sir Sidney Smith attempted -to burn the flotilla, but failed, August 31st, 1805.</p> - - -<p>CATAPULTÆ.—Engines used by the ancient Romans for throwing -stones. Invented by Dionysius, the King of Syracuse, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 399.</p> - - -<p>CATEAU, PEACE OF.—Concluded between Henry II of France -and Philip II of Spain, in 1599. A battle was fought here between the -allies, under the Prince of Cobourg, and the French. The latter were -defeated with a loss of 5000 in killed and 5 pieces of cannon, March -28th, 1794.</p> - - -<div><a name="CAW" id="CAW"></a></div> -<p>CAWNPORE.—<em>In India.</em>—Famous in the Great Indian mutiny, -which is thus described:</p> - -<p>“At Cawnpore, a terrible disaster befell the British arms. Sir Hugh -Wheeler, a veteran officer of approved bravery, had entrenched himself -in the barracks with a force of less than 300 fighting men, and upwards -of 500 women and children, the wives and families of officers and civilians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -and of the Queen’s 32d regiment, then besieged at Lucknow. The -insurgents were commanded by Nena Sahib, or, rather, Dhandoo Pant, -Rajah of Bhitoor, the adopted son of the late Peishwah Bajee Raho. -This man, under the mask of kindly feeling toward the English, nurtured -a deadly hatred against the government, which had refused to acknowledge -his claims as the Peishwah’s successor. He had long been addicted -to the most revolting sensuality, and had lost all control over his passions. -Wearied and enraged by the desperate resistance of this handful of brave -men, he offered them a safe passage to Allahabad, if they would give up -their guns and treasure. The place, indeed, was no longer tenable; and -the survivors, diminished in number, were exhausted by constant vigils -and want of food. In an evil moment, then, they accepted the terms of -their perfidious enemy, marched down to the river, and embarked on -board the boats which had been prepared for them. Suddenly a masked -battery opened fire upon them, and crowds of horse and foot soldiers lined -either bank. Many were shot dead, still more were drowned, and about -150 taken prisoners; four only escaped by swimming. The men were -instantly put to death in cold blood; the women and children were -spared for a few days longer.</p> - -<p>“General Havelock, taking the command at Allahabad of the 78th -Highlanders, the Queen’s 64th, the 1st Madras Fusiliers, and the Ferozepore -regiment of Sikhs, had set out in the hope of arriving at Cawnpore in -time to release Sir Hugh Wheeler and his devoted comrades. After -marching 126 miles, fighting four actions, and capturing a number of guns -of heavy calibre, in eight days, and in the worst season of an Indian -climate, he was yet too late to avert the terrible catastrophe. The day -before he entered Cawnpore, Nena Sahib foully murdered the women and -children, who alone survived of the Cawnpore garrison, and caused them -to be flung, the dead and the dying, into a well of the courtyard of the -assembly rooms.”</p> - -<p>Another account says:—</p> - -<p>“General Havelock arrived before Cawnpore on the 18th July, and so -eager was he to rescue the garrison (for he was not yet aware of what -had happened), that he attacked the Sepoy position without delay. -Ordering a charge, his gallant band rushed to the onset. Not a word -was uttered until when within 100 yards of the rebels, <em>three deafening -cheers</em>,—cheers such as Englishmen only can give, rang out. Then came -the crash; a murderous volley of musketry and the crash of bayonets -soon drove the mutineers back, and Cawnpore was taken; 1000 British<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -troops and 300 Sikhs had put to flight 5000 of the flower of the native -soldiery, with a native chief in command.</p> - -<p>“When Havelock’s soldiers entered the assembly rooms, the blood -came up over their shoes. There they found clotted locks of hair, leaves -of religious books, and fragments of clothing in sickening array, while -into the well outside the bodies had been rudely thrown. The horrors -of that scene will never be fully known. A terrible retribution fell on -the mutineers. General Neil compelled the Brahmins to wipe out, on their -bended knees, the sanguinary traces of the outrages before he ordered -them to execution, and when the 78th Highlanders found the mutilated -remains of one of General Wheeler’s daughters, they divided the locks of -hair among them, pledging each other in solemn covenant, that for every -hair thus appropriated, a mutineer’s life and that alone could be the -atonement. The eldest daughter of Sir Hugh Wheeler is said to have -behaved in a most heroic manner; one of the natives testified that she shot -five <em>Sepoys</em> with a revolver, and then threw herself into the well.”</p> - - -<p>CAVALRY.—Of the ancients the Romans had the best cavalry. To -each legion there was attached 300 cavalry in ten turmae. The Persians -were famous for their horse troops—they had 10,000 horse at the battle of -Marathon, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 490, and 10,000 Persian cavalry at the battle of Issus, -<span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 333. Horse soldiers were early introduced into the British army. -During the wars of Napoleon the strength amounted to 31,000 men. The -British cavalry is divided into the household troops, dragoons, hussars -and lancers. Since 1840 the number has continued, with little variation, -to the present day, at about 10,000.</p> - - -<p>CEDAR RAPIDS, CANADA.—Occupied by the Americans as a -small fort in 1776. Taken by a detachment of the British army, and -500 Indians, under the celebrated Indian chief Brant, <em>without firing a -gun</em>. The Americans sent to its support were captured after a severe -engagement.</p> - - -<p>CENTURION.—From the Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centum</i> a hundred. An officer who -commanded 100 men in the Roman army. There were 6000 men in a -legion, and hence sixty centurions. He was distinguished from the others -by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand.</p> - - -<p>CEYLON.—Discovered by the Portuguese, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1505. Columbo, its -capital, taken by the Dutch, in 1603, recovered in 1621; again taken 1656. -Seized by the British 1795. Ceded to Great Britain by the Peace of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred or -imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, June 26th, 1803. The complete -sovereignty of the whole island taken by England in 1815.</p> - - -<p>CHÆRONEA, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the Athenians -and Bœotians, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 447. Another battle, and the great one of history, -was fought here between the confederate army of Greece of 30,000, and -that of the Macedonians, under Philip, amounting to 32,000, August 2nd, -338 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> Yet another battle was fought here between Archelaus, Lieutenant -of Mithridates and Sylla, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 86, when Archelaus was defeated and -110,000 Cappadocians slain.</p> - - -<p>CHAMBLY.—An important military post on the River Richelieu, -Canada. It was often attacked by the Iroquois Indians. In 1775 it -was captured by the Americans, but retaken in 1776. It is now a small -military station.</p> - - -<p>CHARLEROI, BATTLES OF.—Great battles in several wars have -been fought near this town; the chief in 1690 and 1794. (<em>See <a href="#FLE">Fleurus</a>.</em>) -Besieged by Prince of Orange in 1672, and again invested by the same -Prince, with 60,000 men, in 1677, but he was obliged to retire. Near to -the place is Ligny—(which see)—memorable at the battle of Waterloo.</p> - - -<p>CHARLESTOWN.—<em>Massachusetts.</em>—Burnt by the British forces -under General Gage, January 17th, 1775. English fleet here repulsed -with great loss, June 28th, 1776. Taken by the British, May 7th, 1779.</p> - - -<p>CHARLESTON.—<em>South Carolina</em>.—Besieged by the British troops -in March 1780, and surrendered in May 13th following, with 6000 -prisoners. Evacuated by the British, April 14th, 1783. Famous during -the wars of Secession. The South Carolina Convention assembled here, -March 26th, 1861. A battle was fought here, and the rebels or Confederates -defeated, August 19th, 1861, and after experiencing all the vicissitudes -of war, it was evacuated February 17th, 1865, and next day surrendered -to General Gilmore.</p> - - -<p>CHATEAUGUAY.—<em>Canada.</em>—To effect a junction with the army -of General Wilkinson, on October 26th, 1813, General Hampton, with -3500 men pushed forward from Lake Champlain towards Montreal. At -the junction of the Ontario and Chateauguay Rivers, he there met 400 -Canadians under Colonel de Salaberry, who most bravely disputed his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -advance. By skilful management and great bravery on the part of the -Canadian officers, Viger and Doucet, the Americans were compelled to -retreat towards Plattsburg. Their loss was considerable, while that of -the Canadians was only two men killed and sixteen wounded. Gen. -Hampton returned to Plattsburg, his army having dwindled away by -sickness and desertion.</p> - - -<p>CHATILLON, CONGRESS OF.—Held by the four powers allied -against France, February 5th, 1814, but the negociation for peace was -broken off, March 19th following.</p> - - -<p>CHAUMONT, TREATY OF.—Between Great Britain, Austria, -Russia and Prussia, March 1st, 1814. It was followed by the treaty of -Paris, by which Napoleon abdicated, April 11th following.</p> - - -<p>CHERBOURG.—Famous for an engagement between the English -and French fleets. French defeated; 21 of their ships burnt or destroyed -by Admirals Rooke and Russel, May 19th, 1692. The fort, etc., destroyed -by the British, who landed August, 1758. The works begun by Louis -XVI, and completed by Napoleon, are proof against any armament in -the world.</p> - - -<p>CHESAPEAKE, BATTLE OF THE.—Fought at the mouth of the -river of this name, between the British Admiral Greaves and the French -Admiral De Grasse, in the interest of the revolted States of America, -1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware, blockaded by the British in 1812. -The American frigate of this name surrendered to the Shannon, British -frigate, after a very severe action, June 2nd, 1813.</p> - - -<p>CHILLIANWALLAH, BATTLE OF.—<em>In India.</em>—This memorable -and sanguinary battle, between the Sikh forces and the British, was -fought January 13th, 1849. Lord Gough commanded. The Sikhs were -completely routed, but the British also suffered severely: 26 officers were -killed and 66 wounded, and 731 rank and file were killed and 1446 -wounded. The loss of the Sikhs was 3000 killed and 4000 wounded. This -battle was followed by the attack on the Sikh camp and the army under -Sheere Shing, in its position at Goojerat (which see) February 21st, 1849.</p> - - -<p>CHIPPEWA.—On the 5th July, 1814, General Ball with 2400 men -gave battle here to 4000 Americans. The British fought bravely, but -were obliged to retire to Lundy’s Lane, or Bridgewater, near the Falls -of Niagara.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> - - -<p>CHRYSLER’S FARM.—<em>Williamsburg, Canada.</em>—On the 11th November, -1813, the Americans, under General Wilkinson, in their passage -down the St. Lawrence to attack Montreal, being harassed by the Canadian -forces, resolved to land and disperse them. They were 2000 strong -and the Canadians 1000. After two hours of very hard fighting, in an -open field, the Americans were compelled to retire, with the loss of one -general, and 350 killed and wounded. Canadian loss 200. Medals were -granted to the victors of this battle by the British Government.</p> - - -<p>CHINA.—“The opening of the China trade to all British subjects, -by the abolition of the East India Company’s monopoly in 1833, gave -rise to a series of disputes with the native rulers, which at length led -to open hostilities. These disputes, relating at first mainly to the legal -rights and immunities to be enjoyed by the commercial superintendents -appointed by the British cabinet, came eventually to be merged in the -greater question touching the traffic in opium, which had all along been in -some measure declared contraband by the Imperial Government. It was -not, however, peremptorily prohibited till 1836; and even afterwards, -through the connivance of the inferior authorities, an active smuggling -trade continued to be carried on till 1839, when the Imperial Commissioner -Lin, determined on its forcible suppression, seized the persons of -the British merchants at Canton, and of Captain Elliot, the superintendent. -That functionary was then compelled, by threats of personal -violence to himself and his fellow-prisoners, to issue an order for the -surrender of all the opium on board the vessels in the vicinity of Canton, -which, to the value of above £2,000,000 sterling, was accordingly given -up to the Chinese, who destroyed it,—the superintendent at the same -time pledging the faith of the English government for compensation to -the merchants. After various fruitless attempts to obtain satisfaction for -this outrage, or even an accommodation by which the regular trade might -be resumed, the cabinet of London resolved on hostilities. These, which -were vigorously prosecuted, gave the Chinese a salutary lesson as to their -inferiority to Europeans in military science and discipline; and they -ended in a peace, signed August 29th, 1842, by which the Emperor agreed -to pay $21,000,000 by way of compensation, to open five of his principal -ports to our commerce, and to surrender the island of Hong-Kong to the -British crown for ever.”</p> - -<p>The following is a brief narrative from an English journal of the war -of 1860 in China:—“On the 25th of June, 1860, the arrival of Sir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -Hope Grant at Tahlien Bay completed the muster of the British -force in Northern China. General de Montauban reached Cheefoo at -the same time, but his tale of men was not full; and as the Ambassadors -were not due for a fortnight, it was determined that our troops should -be landed. This was done, and horses and men benefited exceedingly by -their sojourn on the breezy slopes which look upon the northern and -southern sides of the grand harbor of Tahlien-wan, chosen for our -rendezvous; notwithstanding that the hottest month of the summer was -passed by the men in bell-tents, and by horses in the open.</p> - -<p>On the 1st August, a landing was effected at Pehtang without opposition, -much to our surprise and delight, for the only spot at which disembarkation -was practicable is distant only 2000 yards from the snug-looking -forts which appeared to protect the town; and even at this place -there was a mile of water at high tide, or of more difficult mud at low -water, to be traversed, before the troops could reach anything which -might, by courtesy or comparison, be termed dry ground.</p> - -<p>The 2nd brigade of 1st Division of British troops, and a French brigade, -formed the first landing party. A vigorous resistance had been -expected at this place; and had a fair proportion of the means lavished -on the defence of the Peiho been expended on the Pehtang river, we should -have had great trouble, for by nature that position is certainly the -stronger. The forts on either side, and the town which adjoins that on -the right bank, are built on two molecules of solid ground, which have -turned up, one does not know how, at a distance of five miles inland -from the bar, which closes the entrance of the river, to even the smallest -gunboats, save at high water. The town is surrounded by a sea of mud, -impassable to horse or man, inundated at high tide; it is connected with -the comparatively higher country bordering the Peiho by a narrow causeway, -which a determined and skilful enemy could hold against any force -whatever, until driven successively from positions which might be established -on the causeway at every hundred yards. We found, on the night -of the 1st August, that the forts were deserted, and that the guns with -which they bristled were but wooden “Quakers.” Next day we occupied -town and forts.</p> - -<p>Large bodies of cavalry having shown themselves in our front, a reconnaissance -was made on the 3rd August, covered, in the absence of cavalry, -not yet landed, by infantry and by two French 8-pounder guns, the only -artillery disembarked. We discovered that our polite enemy had left the -causeway unoccupied, and that his force held no position nearer than 8<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -miles from the town we were in. The Chinese pickets opened fire upon -our troops, but were speedily driven back. The reconnaissance effected, -our force returned to Pehtang unmolested.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the Admirals had set to work, landing troops, horses, guns, -materiel, and stores. The navy worked famously; and as everything had -to be brought into the river either in, or in tow of, the gunboats, whose -movements depended upon the tides, the work, under the active superintendence -of Captain Borlase, C.B., continued without regard to any -arbitrary distinction between day and night. During four or five of the -ten days spent in this tedious operation, the rain fell in torrents; and as -the interior of Pehtang is below high water-mark, the streets were knee-deep -in mud, composed, in addition to the usual impurities pertaining to -that substance, of flour, wardrobes, Tartar-hats, field rakes, coal, shutters, -oil-cake, chaff, china-cups, matting, beer-bottles, tin cans, and kittens, -being chiefly the contents of the dwellings of the townspeople, which were -successively turned out of windows to make room for our troops. The -cavalry and artillery horses were picketed in the streets, where alone space -was available; and how they and we and everybody escaped death from -typhus fever or plague, Heaven only knows. The sanitary officer was -outraged by the result. During this time, water for the use of the troops -was obtained in boats filled by the navy in the river above the influence -of the tide, and towed to Pehtang, where the contents were landed in -barrels for distribution.</p> - -<p>On the 12th August, after a delay of a day on account of the French, -who at first were unwilling to advance till the season changed, we moved -out to attack the enemy’s position; General Michel with the 1st Division -and the French, along the causeway against the enemy’s front, General -Napier, with the 2nd Division and cavalry, by a track which diverged -from the causeway to the right at a short distance from Pehtang, with -the view of turning the enemy’s left.</p> - -<p>It will not be easy for those who were not present to realise the -difficulties of this march, or to do justice to the troops who performed -it. The gun-waggons sank literally axle-deep, and their hinder parts had -to be left behind; the heavy cavalry were greatly distressed in struggling -through the mud, and it occupied the troops six hours to traverse four -miles, during which time the enemy remained in his position.</p> - -<p>Napier’s division having reached moderately firm ground, advanced -upon the open Tartar flank and rear; whilst the Allied left cannonaded -his front, which was covered by a formidable intrenchment. The Tartar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -cavalry came out in great numbers to meet Napier, who opened on them -with Armstrong guns. At first the Tartars seemed puzzled, but not disturbed; -presently, seeing they were losing men, they rapidly extended, -and in a few minutes the 2nd Division stood enveloped in a grand circle -of horsemen, advancing from all points towards the centre. Napier’s infantry -were speedily deployed, his cavalry let loose, and artillery kept -going; and though the heavy ground was rendered more difficult for our -cavalry by ditches broad and deep, whose passages were known to the -enemy alone, yet, within a quarter of an hour of their advance, the Tartar -force was everywhere in retreat. Not, however, till a body of their horsemen, -which had charged Sterling’s battery, had been gallantly met and -beaten by a party of Fane’s Horse, inferior in number, under Lieutenant -Macgregor, who was severely wounded.</p> - -<p>The Allied left then advanced along the causeway, and occupied the -lines of the intrenchments about Senho, which the enemy deserted on the -success of our right.</p> - -<p>Amongst some papers found after the action, was a copy of a report -from the Tartar General San-ko-lin-tzin to the Emperor, setting forth -that the physical difficulties in the way of our landing at Pehtang, and -of advancing thence across a country which never is dry, rendered it -unnecessary to dispute our disembarkation on that river; and even if a -landing should be effected, and our troops could be got under weigh, the -general considered that nothing would be easier than to destroy us with -his hordes of cavalry, so soon as we got entangled in the marshes.</p> - -<p>At Senho the Allied forces rested their right on the Peiho river. The -Taku Forts are about six miles lower down. Mid-way between Senho and -the northernmost or nearest fort on the left bank, stands the town of -Tungkoo, surrounded by a very long intrenchment, consisting of a formidable -rampart and a parapet, covered in all its length by a double wet -ditch.</p> - -<p>General de Montauban proposed to attack this town the afternoon we -reached Senho, but Sir Hope Grant would not consent to do so until he -had acquired some knowledge of the position.</p> - -<p>The French Commander-in-Chief thereon determined to take the place -at once without the aid of our troops. The French troops were led along -the causeway communicating between Senho and Tungkoo, which -appeared to be the only means of approach; but so considerable a fire was -developed from the ramparts as to deter our Allies from attempting a -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup-de-main</i>, and they returned to camp after cannonading the place for -half an hour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> - -<p>Means having been afterwards found of approaching Tungkoo with a -large front on firm ground, the 1st British Division and the French captured -the place on the 14th August. It was exclusively an affair of artillery; -the enemy’s guns in position on the ramparts were silenced by our -Armstrong and 9-pounder guns, and the rifled 24-pounder of the French, -gradually advanced, covered by infantry, to successive positions, as the -enemy’s fire became weaker. The Allies had forty-two guns in the field. -We found about fifty guns of all sorts in the ramparts, which the enemy, -abandoned as our infantry advanced under cover of the guns. The British -headed by the 60th Rifles, turned the right of the ditch, and entered the -works a quarter of an hour before the French, who made their entry at -the gate.</p> - -<p>After taking Tungkoo, the 1st Division (British) returned to its camp -in front of Senho, and the 2nd Division, which had been in reserve, -occupied the town.</p> - -<p>The view from General Napier’s house-top was not encouraging. As -far as the eye could reach, we were surrounded by salt marshes, intersected -by very numerous and wide canals, which carry sea-water into the salt-pans.</p> - -<p>It was in contemplation to attack the north and south forts simultaneously, -with a force operating on each side of the Peiho, and a bridge -of boats was in course of construction across the river at Senho. But as -all the materials of the bridge, save boats, had to be conveyed overland -from Pehtang, its progress could not be rapid. Meanwhile, by dint of -most laborious reconnaissance, General Napier had discovered that open -ground near the north fort could be reached by artillery, on the completion -of a line of causeway which he had commenced over the inundated -ground within the town of Tungkoo, and by establishing crossing-places -at certain points on five or six canals. He urged an immediate attack -on the north forts only; and, having obtained permission to throw out a -picket towards them, on the 19th, made so good a use of it, that in one -night the passages of the canals were completed, and the Commander-in-chief -was conducted next morning within five hundred yards of the nearest -fort. Seeing all obstacles to the approach of the forts overcome, Sir Hope -Grant frankly consented to General Napier’s scheme, and intrusted its -execution to his division. The French commander was very averse to the -plan proposed. He formally protested against it, but General Grant -maintained his determination; and, devoting the night of the 20th to -the construction of batteries, the attack was made upon the upper north<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -fort at daylight of the 21st August. The fire of thirty-one pieces of British -and six of French ordnance gradually subdued the enemy’s artillery; -their magazine was exploded by one of our shells; shortly before, that of -the further north fort, which supported it, was blown up by a shell from -one of the gunboats, which were rendering such assistance as they could -give at a range of two thousand yards, the distance imposed by the stakes -and booms which were laid across the river. On the advance of the infantry, -the French crossed the ditches, upon scaling-ladders laid flat. Our -engineers, who trusted to pontoons, were less successful, and the French -had reared their ladders against the ramparts for a quarter of an hour, -before our infantry, some by swimming and scrambling, others by following -the French, had struggled across the ditches and reached the berme. -But so active was the defence that no French soldier got into the place by -the ladders, though several bravo men mounted them; an entrance was -eventually made by both forces at the same time through embrasures, -which were reached by steps hewn out of the earthen rampart with axes, -bayonets, and swords.</p> - -<p>When the attack was delivered General de Montauban was absent from -the field, the French army being represented by General Collineau and -his brigade.</p> - -<p>It had been intended to breach the rampart near the gate, and so secure -an entrance to the fort actually taken by assault; but our gallant Commander-in-Chief -became impatient of the process, and the more speedy -means of escalade was resorted to. It is highly probable that the rapidity -of our success, and the tremendous loss inflicted on the garrison of the -first fort, who had no time for escape in any large numbers, conduced to -the surrender of the second fort and to the prompt abandonment of the -position. Our loss amounted to two hundred and three British killed and -wounded; the French loss was somewhat less. That of the Tartars was -estimated at two thousand men, large numbers of whom became inmates -of our hospitals.</p> - -<p>The attack was gallant, so was the defence, and the success was perfect. -The enemy immediately surrendered the further northern fort into our -hands, with two thousand prisoners; and before the evening the entire -position on the Peiho, covering an area of six square miles, and containing -upwards of six hundred guns, was abandoned by its defenders.</p> - -<p>The attack on the forts had only been deferred until provisions and -munitions of war could be drawn from Pehtang, which we had quitted on -the 12th August, in as light marching order as possible. Since our arrival<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -at Senho, our tents, packs, kits, ammunition, and baggage, had gradually -been brought through the mud to the front as speedily as the limited -means of transport would permit, but in the process many of the beasts of -burden perished. The state of the country would alone account for this; -but further, as none of the commissariat waggons were at this time disembarked, -it was necessary that everything should be carried upon the backs -of transport animals, many of which having just landed from Manilla, -Japan, and Bombay in sorry condition, were quite unfit for this service. -At this juncture the Chinese Coolie Corps, composed of men recruited at -Canton, became the only reliable means of transport. They were very hard -worked, but they performed their duty very cheerfully and well.</p> - -<p>From the first landing at Pehtang until after the capture of the forts, -the army was entirely dependent on sea-borne provisions, brought from -the fleet in gunboats and carried across from Pehtang; fresh meat rations -were therefore rare. No sooner were the forts surrendered than the -Chinese peasantry hastened to establish markets; and fruit, poultry, eggs -and sheep were offered for sale in profusion, at such moderate prices, that -on the march from Tungkoo to Tientsin, spatchcock fowls, savoury omeletes, -and stewed peaches became the staple food of the British soldier. -On the 22nd of August, the day after the forts were captured, Admiral -Hope, with a squadron of gunboats, had pushed up the Peiho river to -Tientsin. He met with no opposition, and the townspeople threw themselves -at his feet. The Ambassador, Commander-in-Chief, and a portion -of our troops, speedily followed in gunboats; the remainder of the force -by land, so soon as transport could be organized. The last of our regiments -reached Tientsin, distant thirty-five miles from Taku, on the 5th -of September.</p> - -<p>A convention for the cessation of hostilities was to be signed on the 7th, -and ground was actually taken for a review of all the troops, which was -to be held for the edification of the Commissioners, after they should have -signed the treaty.</p> - -<p>Suddenly the sky darkened: it was ascertained that “Kweiliang” and -his brother Commissioners were not armed with the powers they asserted, -and ultimately, instead of parading on the 8th in holiday pageant, a portion -of our forces began that day the march towards Pekin. The Ambassadors -left next day, in company with the Commanders-in-Chief; the -forces were advanced as far as carriage could be procured; but the means -of the commissariat were insufficient to move the whole army to such a -distance, and to carry the necessary supplies. The draught cattle furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -by the mandarins at Tientsin were spirited away at the first halting -place, and the 2nd division of the British army, which was to have -brought up the rear, had to devote its carriage to the assistance of the 1st -division, and remain behind.</p> - -<p>In this emergency the commissariat would have had the greatest difficulty -in feeding the troops in the front, but for the measures taken by -Sir Robert Napier, who remained in command at Tientsin. By inducing -persistent efforts to push boats up the river Peiho, which runs parallel to -the road nearly up to Pekin, but which had been pronounced unnavigable -by even the smallest craft, and by laying embargo on the traffic of Tientsin, -General Napier procured, and with the aid of the navy organised, -large means of water transport, which afforded invaluable assistance.</p> - -<p>As the Ambassadors advanced they were met by letters announcing -the appointment of “Tsai Prince of Ee” as Chief Commissioner to conclude -negotiations in lieu of Kweiliang, who was pronounced to have -proved himself incompetent; and on the 14th September, Messrs. Parkes -and Wade held a conference with the Commissioners at Tung-chow, -whereat, all preliminaries being settled, a letter was written to Lord -Elgin acceding in terms to all his demands.</p> - -<p>It was arranged that Lord Elgin was to meet the Commissioners in -the walled city of Tung-chow, eight miles short of Pekin, where he would -sign the convention, under escort of 1000 men; and that he should -immediately afterwards proceed to Pekin, there to exchange ratifications -of the Treaty of Tientsin (1858), under similar protection. Our armies -meanwhile were to encamp four miles below Tung-chow.</p> - -<p>Nothing remained but to settle details, and take up suitable quarters -for Lord Elgin at Tung-chow. For this purpose Mr. Parkes, accompanied -by Messrs. Loch (private secretary), De Norman (attached to -Shanghai mission), and Bowlby (<em>Times’</em> correspondent), with an escort -of Fane’s Horse, under Lieut. Anderson, went out on the 17th. Lieut.-Colonel -Beauchamp Walker accompanied the party, for the purpose of -inspecting the ground designated by the Chinese for our encampment, -and Mr. Thompson (Commissariat) was sent to guage the capabilities of -supply of the city of Tung-chow.</p> - -<p>On arrival they were well received; but in discussing affairs they were -surprised to find objections raised on several points to which the Chinese -Commissioners had before consented. However, after a discussion of five -or six hours, the Chinese negociators gave way; and having arranged -details, our party slept that night in the city, the guests of the Commissioners.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> - -<p>Next morning Colonel Walker, accompanied by Messrs. Parkes and -Loch, and attended by a Chinese officer deputed by the Commissioners, -proceeded to examine the ground on which the British army was to be -encamped, leaving the larger part of the escort at Tung-chow, where -Messrs. Bowlby and De Norman also remained, pending the return of -Parkes and Loch, who had yet to find a suitable residence for Lord Elgin -within the walls of Tung-chow. On the way out, the party found the -Tartar army in hurried movement in the direction of our forces, and on -reaching the ground proposed for encampment, discovered it to be entirely -commanded by the position which the Tartar forces, supported by a -numerous artillery, were then taking up.</p> - -<p>Seeing this, Parkes turned round and rode back to Tung-chow to -demand a cessation of these hostile movements. Loch went on into the -British camp with a couple of men to report progress, whilst Col. Walker, -Thompson, and half-a-dozen dragoons, remained in the Tartar position, at -Parkes’s request, until he should return. Having reported progress to -the Commander-in-Chief, whom he met advancing, about a mile from the -Tartar position, Loch returned towards the Tartars, accompanied by -Captain Brabazon, R. A., with orders to Parkes to come back at once.</p> - -<p>Mr. Parkes, on reaching Tung-chow, was rudely received by the Prince -of Ee, and was told that until the questions to which objections had been -made the day previous had been satisfactorily determined, peace could -not exist. Thereupon Parkes, with Bowlby, De Norman, and all our -people, left Tung-chow for the British camp. Mid-way they met Loch -and Brabazon, who turned homewards with them, and all went on -together, preceded by a flag of truce.</p> - -<p>Before they came in sight of Colonel Walker and his few men, Tartar -cavalry, blowing their matches, and making other hostile gestures, came -galloping along the high bank on either side of our people, who were in -a hollow way. Presently the party was summoned to halt; being surrounded, -and ignorant of the ground, it was deemed advisable to comply, -both to insist on the sanctity of the flag of truce, and to gain an opportunity -of discovering the best way out of their uncomfortable position. The -Tartar officer in command civilly told them, that as firing had commenced, -he was unable to let them pass, without orders from his General, -to whose presence he would conduct Mr. Parkes. Parkes, Loch, and one -Sikh rode away with the officer. Suddenly turning the angle of a field -of maize, they found themselves in the midst of a mob of infantry, whose -uplifted weapons their guide with difficulty put aside. Further on stood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -San-ko-lin-tzin, the Tartar General, of whom Parkes demanded a free -passage. He was answered with derision; and, after a brief parley, in -which San-ko-lin-tzin upbraided Parkes as the cause of all the disasters -which had befallen the empire, at a sign from the General our men were -tossed off from their horses, their faces rubbed in the dust, and their hands -tied behind them, and so, painfully bound, were placed upon carts, and -taken to Pekin. Orders, were, at the same time, sent to capture the escort, -which had been already surrounded by ever increasing numbers. Some -of the troopers suggested the propriety of cutting their way through, but -Anderson replied it would compromise the others, and refused to do what -his gallant heart desired.</p> - -<p>Soon, however, the whole party was disarmed, and taken to Pekin on -their horses without dishonor. Next day they were removed to the -Summer Palace of Yuen-Ming-Yuen, where they were severally bound. -Their hands and feet tied together behind their backs, they were thrown on -their chests, and kept in the open air exposed to the cold at night, and -the still considerable heat by day, without food or water, for three days -and nights. From the first their bonds were wetted to tighten them, and -if they attempted to turn or move to rest themselves, they were cruelly -kicked and beaten. On the third day poor Anderson’s fingers and nails -burst from the pressure of the cords, which were not even then relaxed. -The wrist bones became visible, and mortification ensued; the victim -became delirious, and thus mercifully made unconscious of the horror of -his position, this gallant soldier died. During his sufferings his men made -efforts to approach him and to gnaw his cords, but they were savagely -kicked away by his inhuman jailers. The condition of the survivors was -only ameliorated, after the lapse of three days, by the bonds on their -hands and feet being exchanged for heavy chains and irons. But, from -this time, they were regularly, though most scantily and miserably, fed.</p> - -<p>Poor Bowlby died the fifth day, in the same way as Anderson, then -De Norman and several of the men. All appear to have kept noble -hearts, and to have cheered and encouraged each other, but no less than -thirteen sank under the horrors of this captivity. Brabazon and a -French Abbé, who were taken with the escort, were, still unbound, seen -to leave the party, on the way to Pekin, saying they were going to the -Chinese Commander-in-Chief to procure the release of their companions. -Their mournful fate was, we rejoice to know, less horrible. They were -beheaded, by order of a Chinese General, on the 21st September, in -revenge for a wound he had received during the action of the day; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -their bodies being then thrown into the canal, were unhappily never -recovered.</p> - -<p>Parkes, Loch, and their Sikh orderly, had been taken off straight to -Pekin, and never saw anything of the rest of their party. Parkes was -known by sight and reputation, and his position and that of Loch was, -in a manner, recognised. Their cords were unbound after eight hours, -when they were heavily ironed, separated from each other, and each put -into ward with sixty prisoners—murderers and felons of the first class—with -whom they ate and slept and lived. By day they were allowed to -move about in their wards; at night their chains were fastened to staples -in the prison roof. They represent their fellow prisoners to have behaved -uniformly with kindness towards them, sharing with them any little -comforts they possessed, and carrying their chains when they moved. -But they were treated with extreme rigour, and their allowance of food -was scanty.</p> - -<p>After the 29th September a change of treatment was adopted. Parkes -and Loch were taken from prison, and confined together in a temple, -where they were treated with every consideration. Their dinner was -furnished by the Véry of Pekin, and mandarins visited them, bringing -little presents of fruit. During this time the diplomatists were trying to -turn Parkes to political account. They wrote to Lord Elgin to say that -the prisoners then in Pekin were very well, and that the basis of a treaty -was being arranged with Mr. Parkes, which would no doubt be satisfactory -to all parties. And thus matters went on until the joyful day came of -the prisoners’ release.</p> - -<p>The firing spoken of as the immediate cause of the detention of our -people, began thus: Colonel Walker and his party had been left in the -lines of the Tartars, who were at first rudely good-humoured, as he moved -about and observed how completely the guns, now in position behind a -ridge of sandhills, covered the ground allotted by the Commissioners for -the encampment of our forces. Suddenly Walker’s attention was attracted -by a cry uttered close to him. He saw a French officer who had come -out of Tung-chow during the morning, and had attached himself to the -English, in the act of being cut down and pulled off his horse by a -party of soldiers. Walker rode up to him, and catching hold of his hand, -essayed to drag him away. A mob closed round Walker; some attempted -to lift him off his horse; whilst others, taking advantage of his right -hand being engaged, canted his sword out of its scabbard and made off. -A mortal blow was dealt to the poor Frenchman; swords were drawn on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -all sides; and Walker calling on his men to put spurs and ride, galloped -for his life towards our troops, now drawn up within sight, about half a -mile away. The party was pursued by cavalry, and fired on by Tartar -infantry and guns in succession; but they reached our lines alive, with -one horse severely, and two men slightly, wounded.</p> - -<p>An immediate advance was made by the Allied forces; the enemy were -speedily driven from their guns, and their cavalry was swept away by -successive charges of our horse. All their guns, seventy-five in number, -their camps, and quantities of arms, were captured by our troops, who -occupied for the night the walled town of Chan-kya-wan, which gave its -name to the battle. That place is twelve miles from Pekin, in a direct -line, and four from Tung-chow, which is the port of Pekin on the Peiho; -and lies to the right of the direct road from Tientsin.</p> - -<p>But the victory did not lead, as we had fondly hoped, to the immediate -recovery of the prisoners, victims of treachery so dark as to have been -unsuspected even by the experienced and wary Parkes. The night before -the foul plot was carried out, the Prince of Ee had entertained our people -at dinner, and, smiling, had bidden them adieu. An officer, deputed by -the Prince, attended the party in the morning, and it was perhaps not -unnatural for Parkes to believe that he could induce the Prince to -countermand the movement of troops which he then saw, and which he -supposed to be unknown to the High Commissioner. The Prince’s -reception of Parkes, of course, dispelled this expectation, and no time -was lost in returning to camp. Even then there was no appearance of -immediate danger to the party, unless from possible excitement of the -rude soldiery through whom they had to pass; for both Chinese and -Tartars had up to this time invariably shown the fullest confidence in the -protection of flags of truce, under which officers had frequently passed -between the Allied and Chinese camps during the war then waging.</p> - -<p>The soldiers, however, possessed that reverence for the emblem of peace -which animates most other savages; and it was at the hands of San-ko-lin-tzin, -the commander-in-Chief of the Chinese army, and the apostle of -competitive examination, that the Chinese Government was degraded to -the last degree by the deliberate violation of a flag of truce, and by the -capture of the heralds whom it should have shielded.</p> - -<p>Having ascertained that a considerable force of Tartars was encamped -between Tung-chow and Pekin, Sir Hope Grant advanced on the 21st -September to attack their position. Again the Tartars were completely -beaten, their camps and guns all captured, and great loss inflicted on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -enemy by our cavalry. The King’s Dragoon Guards made a capital -charge; and a squadron of Fane’s horse, under Lieutenant Cattley, -attached for the day to the French, after driving the enemy into a village, -galloped quickly round it, and falling on the enemy’s flank, as he emerged -on the other side, inflicted signal punishment. The number of Tartar -troops on or about the field this day is estimated at 80,000 men, of whom -30,000 were actually engaged. The allied forces numbered 6200—viz., -English, 3200 of all arms, and fifteen guns; and French, 3000, with -twelve guns.</p> - -<p>The action of Pā-li-chow left us in possession of the important strategic -point called the Pā-li bridge, whereby the paved causeway from Tung-chow -to Pekin crosses the canal constructed between those places. It -further gave us the line of the canal on which the enemy had rested, and -left the approach to Pekin open to our troops.</p> - -<p>Our success was immediately followed by a letter from the Prince -Koung, brother of the Emperor, and heir to the throne, announcing to -the Ambassadors that he had been appointed, with full powers, to conclude -a peace, in the room of Prince Tsai.</p> - -<p>After the fight of the 18th, Sir Hope Grant had sent an express to -summon General Napier, with as much of the 2nd division as could be -spared from Tientsin. The General had already succeeded in procuring -from the Chinese authorities carriage for his troops, which the Commissariat -was unable to furnish. The order found them ready to move, and -General Napier reached headquarters on the 24th, having marched seventy -miles in sixty hours, with a supply of ammunition, which was much -required, escorted by a company of Brownlow’s light-footed Punjabees.</p> - -<p>The army halted in the position it had won until siege guns had arrived -by water from Tientsin; fourteen days’ supply had been brought up the -river, and all available troops had been collected. The force in front was -strengthened by all the infantry of the garrison of Tientsin, which was -replaced by the 19th Punjab Infantry from Tahlien Bay, and by marines, -whom the Admiral landed from the fleet.</p> - -<p>Advancing from Pā-li on the 6th October, the British took up position -on the northern road leading from the gates of Pekin to Tartary, without -falling in with any of the enemy, except a picket, which retired with precipitation. -The French who were to have operated on the left between -our flank and Pekin, marched, through some misunderstanding, across -our rear, and took possession of the imperial palace of Yuen-Ming-Yuen, -“the Fountain of Summer,” six miles to the North of Pekin, and four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -miles away to our right. We heard nothing of them all night; but Sir -Hope Grant found them the next morning, when arrangements were -made for the division between the two forces of the treasures which the -palace contained. But in the absence of any British troops the arrangements -broke through, and our prize agents, finding the principal valuables -appropriated by the French, abandoned their functions. Thereupon on -the 8th indiscriminate plunder was allowed; but as of the British a few -officers only had access to the palace, and none of the men, our officers -were ultimately desired to give up all they had brought away, and the -property they had collected was ultimately sold by auction for the benefit -of the troops actually present in the field before Pekin.</p> - -<p>A most spirited sale ensued of china, enamels, jade, furs, silk, &c., -which realised £5000; and this sum, added to the amount of gold and -silver bullion which had been brought in, enabled the prize agents at -once to make a distribution amongst the troops, ranging from £3 for a -private soldier, to £60 for a first-class field officer. All our generals surrendered -their shares to the troops. The arrangement made was perhaps -the fairest that could be arrived at under the actual circumstances of the -time; but of a booty worth at least a million of money, belonging to the -imperial crown—therefore prize of the fairest character—the British troops -have profited only to the amount of £25,000. The balance has gone to the -French, who take the broadest view of the question of halves, or to the -Chinese peasantry, who plundered as they pleased, after the departure of -the French, on the third day of occupation.</p> - -<p>On the 8th October, the first-fruits of our advance on Pekin were -realised, in the surrender to us, by the Chinese, of Messrs. Parkes and -Loch, and the Sikh orderly who had been taken with them. A French -savant and three men were given up at the same time. Our poor fellows -looked wonderfully well; but M. d’Escayrae’s hands were still contorted -by the pressure to which they had been subjected during the twenty hours -in which he was bound. The delivery of prisoners was the direct result -of an intimation sent to the Chinese, on the 7th October, that unless all -the prisoners still in their hands were delivered up immediately, a gate of -the city placed in our possession without opposition, and competent persons -deputed to conclude a peace, Pekin would be taken by assault; but if -all the prisoners were given up, our troops would not be allowed to enter -the city, and the lives and property of the inhabitants should be respected.</p> - -<p>Saturday, the 13th October, at noon, was the period fixed on for compliance -with our demands. Before the time elapsed, eleven of our Sikh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -horsemen who had been prisoners, were delivered up alive, and the -remains of all who had perished (save poor Brabazon and the Abbé), -were received in coffins. On the 17th they were buried in the Russian -cemetery, with all the honour and solemnity that could be paid. The -Ambassadors of England, France, and Russia, the Commanders-in-Chief, -and the allied officers not on duty, attended. The Roman Catholic and -Greek prelates showed, by their presence, generous sympathy in the -untimely fate of our countrymen.</p> - -<p>But as the complete fulfilment of the demands was still uncertain, batteries -were erected against the city wall at a distance of 150 yards, by -the British and French respectively, and arrangements were made for -opening fire at noon of the 13th, if the gate was not by that time given -up. Every one agreed in hoping that thousands of inoffensive people -might be spared the misery of an assault; but the 2nd Division must -have felt something like a pang when, at the appointed hour, they saw -their General ride with an escort through the gate, and found, by the -display of the ensign from its top, that the Tartars had surrendered to us -the command of the Imperial city.</p> - -<p>Yes, we were there, masters of the capital of China—at the very end -of the map of the world—at the point which appears to schoolboy -minds the limit of creation. We held the massive four-storied keep which -frowns like a line-of-battle ship above the Gate of Peace; our troops and -field artillery were actually on the walls which commanded the whole of -the interior of the city, and they could move to any point along the fifty -feet road which the summit of the wall presents. The walls and gates -adjoining, together with some few larger double-storied buildings, were -the only objects visible from our position varying the universal dun-colour -of the city houses and enclosing walls. The broad street which leads from -our gate into the city was packed with a dense crowd, anxious to make -out the foreigners, and indulging in sonorous “Ei Yaws” at every novelty -which met their wondering eyes. Electrified indeed were the Celestials -when the bands of a French regiment, and of our 67th and 99th, struck -up within the gateway, and guards presented their clanging arms as the -Generals rode by; but the climax was reached when Desborough’s guns -were spurted up the steep stone ramps which lead from the base to the -summit of the wall, fifty feet in height, drawn by six horses of fabulous -stature, and driven by the terrible barbarians who eat their enemies.</p> - -<p>The surrender was carried out in good faith; but the appearance on -the walls of guns of heavy calibre, evidently recently moved into positions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -whence our batteries were observed, spoke either of divided counsels -or of tardy resignation on the part of our enemies.</p> - -<p>Still our success was insufficient. No retribution had been exacted -for the violation of the flag of truce, and for the murder of our countrymen, -and no one seemed to feel certain whether a treaty was to be obtained -or not. It was useless to demand the surrender of the persons who had -instigated the barbarous treatment of the prisoners, for they were known -to be very near the person of the Emperor, and there was therefore no -chance of our getting the real offenders. An atonement in money, for -the iniquities perpetrated, though repugnant to our feelings, appeared to -be the only kind of demand with which the Chinese Government, humiliated -and beaten as it was, could be expected to comply. The readiest -means of obtaining a treaty was obviously to remain at Pekin until we -got it; but the French Commander refused positively to detain his troops -at the capital after the 1st November, and the English General was -greatly indisposed to incur the risk of keeping his force there through the -winter, in the absence of complete and timely arrangements for provisionment, -which it was considered the advanced period of the season rendered -impracticable.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, on the 18th October, an ultimatum was addressed by the -plenipotentiaries to Prince Koung, requiring him to reply by the morning -of the 20th, whether, after paying, as a necessary preliminary to further -negotiations, a sum of money in atonement for the murders committed, he -would on an early day sign the convention already agreed upon? His -Excellency was told that the Summer Palace, which had been partially -plundered before the fate of the prisoners was known, would now be -entirely destroyed, that its ruins might present a lasting mark of the -abhorrence of the British Government at the violation of the law of -nations which had been committed. He was also told, that in case of -refusal to comply with the demands now made, the Imperial Palace of -Pekin would be captured, plundered and burned.</p> - -<p>In support of the ultimatum, the 1st Division of the British force, with -cavalry, proceeded on the 18th and 19th to complete the plunder and -destruction of the Summer Palace, whose smoke, driven by the northerly -wind, hung over Pekin, whilst its ashes were wafted into the very streets -of the capital. The French declined to take any part in this act of -punishment—first, because they thought the palace had already been -destroyed on their quitting it; and further, they feared that this demonstration -would frighten the Chinese out of all hope of making any treaty -at all.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> - -<p>The result showed that not one-fourth of the Imperial pavilions which -constitute the Summer Palace had been even visited in the first instance, -much less burned; and great booty was acquired by the troops employed -as well as by the members of the embassy, navy, and staff, who were -able to accompany the force. And so salutary was the effect produced -on the advisers of the Imperial crown, that a letter acceding to all demands -was received at daylight on the 20th, to the renewed disappointment of -the 2nd Division, who again were under arms for the assault.</p> - -<p>On the 22nd, the atonement-money, amounting to £100,000, was paid; -and on the 24th, her Majesty’s Plenipotentiary, accompanied by the Commander-in-Chief, -and escorted by a division of the army, entered in state -and triumph the gates of the dim, mysterious city. The Ambassador was -received by a deputation of Mandarins, who accompanied Lord Elgin to -the hall, three miles distant, at the far side of the Tartar city, where the -Prince Koung, surrounded by the principal officers of state, awaited his -arrival.</p> - -<p>At five o’clock that afternoon, ratifications of the treaty of 1858 were -duly exchanged by the representatives of the sovereigns, and a convention -signed, which, commencing with a recital of the Emperor’s regret at -the occurrences at the Peiho Forts in 1858, declares Tientsin a free port, -and thereby opens the Peiho to within seventy miles of Pekin for the -traffic of the world. The provisions of the convention permit free emigration -of Chinese, with their wives and families, to all parts of the -world, and transfer a territory at Cowloon, opposite Hong Kong, where -our troops were encamped in 1860, to the British Crown. An indemnity -of three millions sterling to the British is guaranteed; and stipulation is -made for the establishment of a British force at Tientsin, until the terms -are fulfilled. A portion of the indemnity is to be paid 31st, December, -1860, whereon Chusan is to be evacuated by the English and French -troops. But no provision is made for the evacuation of Canton, to which -the French are at present understood to be disinclined to agree. The -remainder of the indemnity is to be paid by periodical instalments of -one-fifth of the gross revenue of the customs of China.</p> - -<p>After signing the convention, Lord Elgin expressed a hope that the -treaty would inaugurate friendly relations between the powers. Prince -Koung replied that he himself had been about to utter the same words; -and acknowledging that foreign affairs had hitherto been greatly mismanaged, -observed, that as their administration was now exclusively placed -in his hands, he had no doubt their future management would be more -satisfactory.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Franco-Chinese treaty was ratified by Baron Gros and the Prince -Koung on the following day.”</p> - - -<p>CINTRA, CONVENTION OF.—This disgraceful convention was -concluded between the British army, under Sir Hew Dalrymple and the -French under Marshal Junot. The latter were allowed to evacuate Portugal -and to be carried home to France in British ships, taking with them -their ill-got gain; signed the day of the battle of Vimeira, August 22nd, -1808.</p> - - -<p>CITATE.—Fought 5th January, 1854, between Omar Pacha and -the Turks, on the one side, and the Russians on the other.</p> - -<p>“The army to which was allotted the first active operation was that -commanded by General Fishback, with Generals Engelhardt and Bellegarde -under his orders. This force was to occupy the extreme west of -the Russian line of attack, and to drive the Turks from their position at -Kalafat. By the time, however, that Fishback had reached Citate, a village -within a few miles of his destination, he discovered that his force -of about 15,000 men was inadequate to dislodge an equal number, -strongly intrenched, and in unimpeded communication with Widdin, on -the opposite side of the river, whence considerable supplies of men and -ammunition could doubtless be obtained. He resolved, therefore, to -postpone the assault until the 13th of January (the Russian New Year’s -day), by which time he would be in possession of the requisite reinforcements, -which he anticipated would raise his force to 45,000 men. Achmet -and Ismail Pachas, who commanded the garrison at Kalafat, were -well aware of the plans of the Russian commander, and determined to -forestall his action. At daybreak, on the 6th of January, they sallied -from the town with fifteen field-pieces, 10,000 regular infantry, 4000 -cavalry, and 1000 of the irregular troops, known as Bashi-Bazouks. -Three thousand men from the garrison at Widdin crossed the river to -defend Kalafat from surprise; and at Moglovitz, between that town and -Citate, a similar number were detached as a reserve. About nine o’clock -the Turks reached Citate, and opened a side fire upon the village, while -the infantry vigorously charged in front. After three hours of sanguinary -street-fighting, the nature of the ground forbidding organized military -combinations, the Russians retreated to the works they had thrown -up beyond the village. The Turkish field-pieces were now brought to -bear upon the intrenchments, and several vigorous assaults were made and -as bravely repulsed. In the midst of the conflict, a large body of Russian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -reinforcements arrived, and the Turks, who occupied the gardens and -orchards round the village, were exposed to an energetic assault in their -rear. Nothing daunted, and favoured by their position, the Ottomans -fought nobly, and succeeded in routing the newly-arrived reinforcement -of the enemy, just as Ismail Pacha appeared upon the scene with the -reserve from Moglovitz. Concentrating their forces, they now rushed at -the intrenchments, and, beating down all opposition, drove the enemy -from the position they had held. Nearly 2400 Russians dead in the -streets and earth-works, a like number wounded, four guns, and the -depôts of ammunition and arms which they captured, attested that day -the prowess of the Turkish arms. Their own loss was about 200 killed -and 700 wounded. For two days they held the place against the attempts -of the Russians to recapture it; and then, emerging into the open field, -drove the Russians before them back to Krajova. Then, retiring in -triumph, they re-entered Kalafat, which, now mounting 250 heavy guns, -and garrisoned (including Widdin) by 25,000 men, might safely promise -a desperate resistance to any further Russian attempt.”</p> - - -<div><a name="CIU" id="CIU"></a></div> -<p>CIUDAD RODRIGO.—This strong fortress of Spain was invested -by the French, June 11th, 1810, and surrendered July 10th, following.—Remained -in the hands of the French till stormed gallantly by the -British, under Wellington, January 19th, 1812.—Loss of the British -and Portuguese 1000 killed and wounded, equal number of French, and -1700 prisoners.</p> - - -<p>CLONTARF, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the Irish and Danes -on Good Friday, 1039. The Danes were signally defeated, 11,000 of -them perished in battle, but the Irish had to deplore the loss of Bryan -Boiroimhe, the King, and many of the nobility.</p> - - -<p>CLOSTERSEVEN, CONVENTION OF.—Between the Duke of -Cumberland, third son of George II, and the Duke of Richelieu, commanding -the French; 38,000 Hanovarians laid down their arms and -were dispersed,—signed September 10th, 1757.</p> - - -<p class="noindent">COALITIONS AGAINST FRANCE.</p> -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>1st. Prussia issued her manifesto June 26th, 1792.</p> - -<p>2nd. Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal and Turkey -signed them, June 22nd, 1799.</p> - -<p>3rd. Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Naples, August 5th, 1805.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> - -<p>4th. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Saxony, October 6th, 1806.</p> - -<p>5th. England and Austria, April 6th, 1809.</p> - -<p>6th. Russia and Prussia, ratified at Kalisch, March 17th, 1813.</p> -</div> - - -<p>COLONEL.—This word is derived from the French, and means the -chief commander of a regiment of troops.</p> - - -<p>COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF OF THE BRITISH ARMY -SINCE 1674:</p> - -<div class="fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Duke of Monmouth</td><td class="tdl">1674</td><td class="tdl pad4">Lord Amherst again</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">1793</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Duke of Marlborough</td><td class="tdl">1690</td><td class="tdl pad4">Frederick, Duke of York</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">1795</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Duke of Schomberg</td><td class="tdl">1691</td><td class="tdl pad4">Sir David Dundas</td><td class="tdl">March 25,</td><td class="tdl">1809</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Duke of Ormond</td><td class="tdl">1711</td><td class="tdl pad4">Frederick, Duke of York</td><td class="tdl">May 29,</td><td class="tdl">1811</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Earl of Stair</td><td class="tdl">1744</td><td class="tdl pad4">Duke of Wellington</td><td class="tdl">Jan’y 22,</td><td class="tdl">1827</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Field Marshal Wade</td><td class="tdl">1745</td><td class="tdl pad4">Lord Hill, Gen’l Commander-</td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lord Ligonier</td><td class="tdl">1757</td><td class="tdl pad6">in-Chief</td><td class="tdl">Feb’y 25,</td><td class="tdl">1828</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Marquess of Granby</td><td class="tdl">1766</td><td class="tdl pad4">Duke of Wellington again</td><td class="tdl">Dec. 28,</td><td class="tdl">1842</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lord Amherst</td><td class="tdl">1778</td><td class="tdl pad4">Viscount Hardinge</td><td class="tdl">Sept. 25,</td><td class="tdl">1852</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl nowrap">General Seymour Conway </td><td class="tdl">1782</td><td class="tdl pad4">Duke of Cambridge</td><td class="tdl">July 15,</td><td class="tdl">1856</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE.—The League of the -Germanic States formed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By -this celebrated League the German States had to raise 258,000 troops to -serve in case of war. It terminated with the downfall of Napoleon.</p> - - -<p>CONFLANS, TREATY OF.—A compact between Louis XI of -France and the Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany and Burgundy. This treaty -put an end to the “War of the Public Good,” in 1468.</p> - - -<p>CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.—It was whilst preparing to cross -the Alps, to chastise the barbarians, that Constantine is said to have -witnessed the supernatural appearance which induced him to embrace -Christianity, and establish it henceforth as the religion of the empire. -While meditating in his tent on the dangers that surrounded him, and -praying for divine guidance and protection amidst them, there is said to -have appeared over against him in the heavens a pillar of light in the -form of a cross, bearing this inscription, “By this overcome.” Those -who were attached to paganism looked upon this as a most inauspicious -omen, but it made a different impression on the Emperor. He caused a -royal standard to be made, like the appearance he had seen in the heavens. -This was always carried before him in his war as an ensign of victory and -celestial protection. Soon after this event he embraced the religion of -Christ, and a little while after encountered Maxentius, his opponent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -whom he utterly defeated in a terrible battle—Maxentius himself having -been drowned while attempting to cross the river Tiber.</p> - - -<p>CONSTANTINOPLE.—Taken by the western crusaders in 1204. -Retaken in 1261. Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew 6000 of the -people, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1453. Ever since possessed by the Turks.</p> - - -<div><a name="COP" id="COP"></a></div> -<p>COPENHAGEN.—Capital of Denmark. It was bombarded by the -English, under Nelson and Admiral Parker. Of twenty-three ships -belonging to the Danes, eighteen were taken or destroyed, April 2nd, -1801. Again, after another bombardment of three days, the city and -fleet surrendered to Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart, September 7th, -1807. Immense naval stores and eighteen sail of the line, fifteen -frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gunboats were captured.</p> - - -<p>CORNET.—An instrument of music of the nature of a trumpet. In -modern usage, a cornet is a commissioned officer of cavalry next below a -lieutenant who bears the ensign or colors of a troop.</p> - - -<p>CORONEA, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the Athenians and -Allies and the Spartans. The King of the Spartans, engaging the Allies, -completely defeated them, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 394.</p> - - -<p>CORPORAL.—The lowest officer of a company next below a sergeant. -The corporal of a ship of war is an officer under the master-at-arms, -employed to teach the sailors the use of small arms. Napoleon was -familiarly known among his troops by the name of the Little Corporal, -and as he used to say there was just one step between the sublime and -the ridiculous, so opposite extremes are taken in his titles. Emperor! -Corporal!</p> - - -<p>CORUNNA, BATTLE OF.—Sir John Moore commanded the -British army of about 15,000 men, and had just accomplished a safe -retreat, when they were attacked by the French with a force of 20,000. -They were completely repulsed, but the loss of the British was immense. -Sir John Moore was struck by a cannon ball which carried off his left -shoulder and part of his collar bone, leaving the arm dangling by the flesh. -He died immediately. In the evening of the day of battle the remains -of the splendid British army embarked at Corunna, January 16th, -1809. Previous to the battle, the army under their illustrious leader, -had accomplished an arduous yet honorable retreat, for many leagues -through an enemy’s country.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> - - -<p>CRACOW.—It was taken by Charles XII, in 1702. Taken and retaken -several times by the Russians, and Kosciusko expelled the Russians, -March 24th, 1794, but it surrendered to the Prussians the same year. -Occupied by 10,000 Russians, September, 1831; seized by Austria, and -incorporated into that empire, November 16th, 1846.</p> - - -<p>CRESSY.—Fought between the English and French, August 26th, -1346. In the month of July in the year 1346, King Edward, at the -head of an army of 30,000 men, landed at La Hogue, in Normandy. -He was accompanied by his son, the Prince of Wales, though only fifteen -years of age, and by his principal nobility. Having taken several towns, -he moved along the left bank of the Seine, which river he wished to -cross, in order to join an army of Flemings in Picardy. But he found -the bridges all broken, and King Philip, at the head of a numerous army, -followed his motions on the opposite bank of the river. At length -Edward contrived to repair one of the broken bridges, and to pass over -unknown to Philip; and he then marched rapidly till he reached the -river Somme; but he there again found all the bridges secured, and -learned that Philip was at Amiens with 100,000 men. Being -informed that there was a ford near the town of Abbeville, which -might be passed when the tide was low, Edward set out for it at midnight; -but when the English reached it, the waters were not sufficiently -low; and while they were waiting, a large body of French cavalry came -down to oppose their passage. The English horsemen, however, gallantly -plunged into the stream, drove off the enemy, and gained the opposite -bank. The whole army was over when King Philip arrived, and the -rising of the tide obliged him to go round by the bridge of Abbeville.</p> - -<p>Though the French army was nearly four times as numerous as his -own, King Edward resolved to give it battle. He drew up his troops in -three divisions on an eminence behind the village of Creci or Cressy. -The prince of Wales, aided by the Earls of Oxford and Warwick, led the -first, the King himself commanded the last. At dawn (the day was the -26th of August), Edward having heard mass and received the sacrament, -rode along the lines, cheering his men, and at ten o’clock they sat down -and took their breakfast in their ranks. The French, meantime, -advanced from Abbeville in confusion and disorder. A storm of thunder -and rain came on and lasted through a great part of the day; but at five -o’clock in the afternoon, the sky becoming clear, Philip ordered a body -of Génoese cross-bowmen, in his service, to begin the battle. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -Génoese gave a shout, and discharged their bolts; the English archers, -who were posted in front, showered in return their arrows of a yard in -length; and the Génoese, unable to re-charge their ponderous crossbows, -fell into disorder. The count of Alençon then charged the first division -of the English with a numerous body of cavalry. The second line -advanced to its aid, and a knight was sent off to King Edward, who was -viewing the battle from the top of a windmill, to pray him to send more -help. “Is my son slain or wounded?” said the King. “No, sire.” -“Then,” replied he, “tell Warwick, he shall have no aid. Let the boy -win his spurs.” When this message was brought to the English, it -redoubled their courage; and the French were at length totally routed, -with immense loss. “Fair son,” cried Edward to the Prince, as he -clasped him to his bosom after the battle, “Fair son, continue your -career. You have acted nobly, and shown yourself worthy of me and the -crown.”</p> - -<p>The person of the highest rank who fell in this great battle was John, -king of Bohemia. This prince, who was blind from age, ordered four of -his knights to lead him into the thick of the battle. They interlaced his -and their own bridles, and rushed forward, and all were slain. The -crest of the King of Bohemia, three ostrich feathers, and his motto, <i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ich -dien</i>, i.e. <i>I serve</i>, were adopted by the Prince of Wales, and still are -those of the heir-apparent of the crown of England.</p> - - -<p>CRIMEA, LANDING IN THE.—<em>Crimean War.</em>—The following -graphic description is from Emerson’s Sebastopol:—“At length the -great fleet, nearly 400 vessels in all, on the 7th of September, 1854, a -memorable day thenceforth, set sail for its destination. What that -destination was none knew. Orders were issued to rendezvous off the -Isle of Serpents, near the Sulina mouth of the Danube. The scene, -when the immense flotilla was fairly under weigh, was of the most -exciting and animating character. Every ship bore on its side the -number of the regiment and nature of troops it conveyed, and carried a -distinguishing flag. As night closed in, lanterns signalling the division -to which it belonged were displayed, and an illumination, such as the -waters of the Euxine never reflected, was witnessed by the sharers in the -daring adventure. No incident of these modern practical times, perhaps, -has partaken so largely of the character of romance as the departure of -this renowned expedition. The great armada, which taxed the energies -of the most powerful maritime nation of the sixteenth century, was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -puny flotilla compared to the one we are now writing of. The largest -vessel of that celebrated fleet was a cockleshell to many of our noble -steamers, detached from their customary vocation of carrying on the -commercial intercourse of nations, and devoted to the service of war. -Resources of science, unknown before the present generation, and adapted -by skill to our naval requirements, were there in abundance, rendering a -single steamer more than a match for a dozen vessels of an earlier age, -and almost independent of the adverse winds and strong currents which -had dispersed many a gallant fleet and defeated many a deep-laid scheme -of conquest. Iron, naturally one of the densest of bodies, became, in -the hands of the scientific shipwright, buoyant as cork; and vessels, each -large enough to carry a regiment of cavalry besides its proper crew, and -to which a Spanish brig-of-war of the days of Philip might have served -for a jolly-boat, breasted the broad waves of the Euxine, freighted with -as brave and chivalrous warriors as menaced Troy, or did battle with -the infidel possessors of Jerusalem.</p> - -<p>Brave and chivalrous indeed, for they sailed they knew not whither, -to encounter an unknown enemy. It might be that they were to force -a landing at once under the very guns of Sebastopol, and by sheer audacity -achieve the capture of the renowned fortress. It might be that, -debarking at a distance from that spot, they would be exposed to toilsome -marches, in an enemy’s country, harassed by clouds of Cossacks, -and opposed by great armies, in strong positions, infinitely outnumbering -their own force, when even continuous victory would necessarily be -almost entire annihilation. But, like the errant-knights of old, they -anticipated no difficulties, and bore a stout heart for any fate. English -and French, officer and man, seemed to have but one desire, that of -meeting all foes at all hazards, and winning gallantly or dying gloriously.</p> - -<p>The general instructions furnished to Marshal St. Arnaud (who, by -reason of the French army being so numerically superior to the English, -and his military rank as marshal being higher than that of Lord Raglan, -assumed the rank of generalissimo of the expedition), and which were -understood to have been drawn up by the Emperor Louis Napoleon -himself, though leaving to the discretion of the Generals the point of -debarkation on the shores of the Crimea, yet strongly recommended—so -strongly, in fact, as almost to amount to a command—the choice of -Kaffa as the most convenient spot. It was, we cannot help believing, -exceedingly fortunate that the allied Generals resolved upon examining -for themselves the locality, and ultimately rejected the plans of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -Emperor. Kaffa, it is true, affords the largest bay and the most secure -anchorage in the Crimea, and, had they been the only requisites, there -could have been little doubt that the imperial scheme would have been -adopted. But the fleet was only valuable in the expedition as an auxiliary -to the army—as a basis of operations, a depôt of stores, a means of -conveying reinforcements, an assistant in the actual bombardment, or a -medium of retreat in event of a disaster. For all practical purposes -Sebastopol was the Crimea; and Sebastopol is on the western coast, -while Kaffa is on the eastern, at least 100 miles distant. Had the object -been to provide for the security and comfort of the fleet, it might as well -have been in snug quarters at Spithead or Cherbourg, as at Kaffa, and -there it would have been about as useful. The plan of Napoleon was to -seize the town of Kaffa, thence to march across the peninsula, taking -possession of Karu-Bazar, Simferopol, and Baktchi-Serai, thus advancing -to Sebastopol, and securing the harbour of Balaklava, as a naval basis -near the scene of intended operations. But the Emperor, by some strange -oversight, seems to have forgotten his own previous caution not to separate -from the fleets, when he sketched out the march of an army, only -50,000 strong, encumbered with necessary ammunition and baggage, -along a road forty miles from the sea in some parts, through a mountainous -district, in an enemy’s country, for a 100 miles, exposed to continued -encounters with immense armies, and necessitated to seize and -retain possession of, at least, three large towns, strongly garrisoned. It -is true, a force stationed at Kaffa might intercept reinforcements arriving -from Asia, or along the narrow strip of land bridging the Putrid Sea; -but what was to hinder the arrival of the legions which should be poured -into the Crimea, through Perekop, the most direct and available route -from the very heart of the military strength of Russia, on the first intelligence -of the invasion? Supposing, too, that a sufficient force to hold -Kaffa had been left in occupation there (and if it had not been, what -would have prevented the arrival of troops from Asia and the north, -which would have followed the invaders, and enclosed them between two -fires?)—that the three great towns had been captured and consequently -garrisoned—or where the utility of taking them?—deduct the necessary -casualties of the march, and the inevitable results of the unavoidable -battles, even supposing them to have been victories, and how many men -could possibly have arrived before Sebastopol out of 50,000? The -expedition to the Crimea at all was romantic, and is said to have been -strongly opposed by some of our most able Generals; but this contemplated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -march through a mountainous region, interposing innumerable -obstacles to transit, in the face of a powerful enemy, far from assistance, -cut off from supplies of food or ammunition, with three fortified towns -to capture, at least several pitched battles to fight, and, as a finish to the -prospect, the most strongly fortified town in the world to reduce, was the -very absurdity of Quixoteism.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, we say, the generals were wiser than their teacher. -When the ships collected at their appointed rendezvous, orders were -received to proceed to a spot about forty miles west of Cape Tarkan, in -the north of the Crimea; then, embarking in the <i>Caradoc</i>, a small -English steamer, Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord Raglan, accompanied -by their seconds in command, Generals Canrobert and Brown, and Sir -Edmund Lyons, proceeded to survey the coast and select the spot most -favourable to their purpose. They skirted the western shore, ran close -into Eupatoria, examined the coast thence to Sebastopol (where a few -weeks previous, General Canrobert and Sir George Brown had closely -scanned the fortifications on a flying visit, penetrating, under cover of -night even into the harbour, and not retiring until the grey light of -morning had revealed to them a considerable amount of information), -passing almost within range of the guns, and coasting round to the little -harbour of Balaklava; which having scrutinized, they returned in safety -to the fleets. Had any of the large Russian steamers crossed the path -of the little <i>Caradoc</i>, and attacked it, a very different fate might have -awaited the Allies from that which they anticipated. But the Russian -Admirals little dreamed of the prize they might have secured, and our -modern Agamemnons were borne back unscathed from their perilous -cruise.</p> - -<p>On the morning of Monday, the 11th of September, the chiefs returned -from their trip and rejoined the fleet; and the anxious expectation as to -the point of debarkation, which had agitated the minds of all on board, -during the two days’ tedious riding at anchor, was in some degree -alleviated by the order to make sail, and rendezvous thirty miles west of -Sebastopol. Even then, uncertainty seemed to cloud the counsels of the -Commanders. The fleet was dispersed, the heavy sailing vessels having -failed to keep in company with their more alert fellows of the steam -fleet. At length, the English and French fleets, in one compact flotilla, -approached the shore, and the town of Eupatoria, and the hills of the -south-east, were presented to the eager gaze of the soldiers. A small -steamer was despatched to summon the town to surrender at discretion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -and a refusal being received, a small body of English and French marines -was landed, their appearance soon stifling any qualms of conscience the -local authorities might have felt at yielding up their trust to the enemy. -The fleet then shaping a course in a south-easterly direction, the plans of -the allied Generals became apparent. About eight miles from Eupatoria -the ships cast anchor at a mile from the shore, in the Bay of Kalamita, -near a place known as Old Fort. A narrow strip of level land was the -spot selected for debarkation, and the enemy exhibited no signs of opposition, -or even preparation. It had been not unnaturally anticipated -that a formidable resistance would have been made to the expected -landing of the Allies, which could only then have been accomplished with -much loss. On the contrary, the only signs of Russian life apparent, -was the presence of a mounted Russian officer, who, attended by three -or four Cossacks, securely stationed on a neighbouring eminence, was -calmly sketching the scene.</p> - -<p>It had been arranged that the ships of the Admirals should occupy the -centre of the bay, thus dividing the two armies. Had this determination -been carried out, the landing might have been effected with the least imaginable -difficulty; but the French Admiral, with an exclusive attention -to his own branch of the allied force, which subsequent events of the campaign -paralleled, thought proper to anchor his vessel at the extreme right -of the bay, thus throwing the vessels into considerable confusion. One -transport was grounded, and several fouled in their endeavours to get into -their proper positions. In an incredibly short space of time, however, -order was restored; and, under the energetic superintendence of Sir -Edmund Lyons, the steamers and transports commenced to discharge -their living freights. The sea was literally covered with boats, laden with -soldiers in their varied uniforms, and bearing rations for three days, every -article that could possibly be dispensed with being left in the ships. Those -who landed first marked out with flags the spots to be occupied by each -division and regiment; and the sailors, standing knee-deep in the water, -lent hearty assistance to those who were less amphibious than themselves. -Nothing could exceed the delight of the sturdy seamen, as they lifted -their red-coated compatriots from the boats, and placed them dry-footed -on the shore; or lent a hand, with more zeal than knowledge, to disembark -the horses. Frequently, a noble charger, startled by the novelty of -his situation, would roll into the water, half a dozen ancient mariners -clinging to his mane or tail, and sharing his immersion,—emerging at -length, dripping with brine, but in a high state of jollity at having rescued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -their steed, and overwhelming him with caresses of a nautical fashion, -as they soothed his fears or indulged him with a short trot on <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">terra firma</i>. -The two or three Cossacks who had watched our landing now deemed it -prudent to withdraw, though not until a few shots had warned them of -the prowess of the English riflemen, and one of their number had received -a compliment from Major Lysons, of the 23rd, which would probably -render his sitting in the saddle, or elsewhere, exceedingly inconvenient -for some time to come. It so chanced, however, that even these few Cossacks -were very nearly inflicting a heavy blow on the English army, by -the capture of one of its most distinguished officers. Sir George Brown, -general of the Light Division, had no sooner landed, than with characteristic -daring he mounted his horse, and advanced alone to gain a view of -the surrounding country. He had ridden some distance, and had closely -approached the retreating party, quite unconscious of their neighbourhood, -when he was suddenly astonished by the unwelcome apparition of -three ferocious horsemen, lance in hand, in full career towards him, and -at but a few yards’ distance. Sir George, who was almost unarmed, was -too old a soldier to mistake rashness for courage, and wisely considering -the odds too great, discreetly put spurs to his horse and galloped off, followed -by his Cossack pursuers. A few of our men had fortunately, however, -followed in the steps of their leader, and when they saw his danger, -hastened to the rescue. Half a dozen levelled rifles proved too strong an -argument for the valour of the Russian horsemen, and they, in their turn, -made a precipitate retreat. Sir George Brown rejoined the main body, -and proved, when the time came, that he could attack as bravely as he -could retire discreetly.</p> - -<p>By the time when the approaching darkness rendered it necessary to -suspend operations for the day, 20,000 English, with thirty-six guns, and -numerous horses, had been landed, and the French in about equal force. -Our men had left their tents in the ships, and officers and common soldiers -were alike unprovided with means of shelter. Their rations consisted -of provisions for three days; and in this respect, those high in -command shared with their less distinguished followers. As night closed -in, torrents of rain began to descend, and in a brief space of time, the -narrow strip of land on which they stood, bounded on the one side by the -sea, and on the other by a salt lake, was a dismal swamp. Wrapping -themselves in their blankets, which were thoroughly soaked in a few -minutes, the men lay down in the mud, and endeavoured to sleep. A -moderate, and not very luxurious supper of cold pork, washed down with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -a single sip of rum, was their first meal in the Crimea; and then, officers -and men strove to drown in slumber the wretched aspect of affairs which -thus initiated their invasion. Sir De Lacy Evans was fortunate enough -to possess a tent, which some considerate member of the veteran’s staff -had contrived to bring on shore. An old cart, the property probably of -some Tartar peasant, frightened from his accustomed labour, made, when -overturned, a canopy such as royalty seldom couches beneath; but under -its welcome shelter the Duke of Cambridge pressed, no doubt for the first -time, the bare earth. The French were better provided. They had contrived -to land a considerable number of tents; and, moreover, many of -their regiments were supplied with the little <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tentes-abris</i>, a portion of -which was borne by each soldier; and several of these parts could be -united into a small tent, sufficiently commodious to afford some protection -from the severity of the weather.</p> - -<p>How little can the home-keeping public realise the feelings which must -have been predominant in the bosoms of the men during that melancholy -bivouac! Soldiers are, perhaps, less sensitive to hardships and exposure -than civilians; and probably comparatively callous to the finer sentiments. -But it is scarcely possible to conceive that, out of 60,000 men, -lying on the bare earth in an enemy’s country, there would be many who -would not be keenly alive to the emotions their situations would naturally -suggest. Physically depressed by a day of extreme toil, poorly fed, and -drenched by the descending torrent, the past would be inevitably present -to their imaginations, and with the past the probable future. Many men -will march dauntlessly to the cannon’s mouth, and show no signs of fear, -but with cheerful voice, and light step, dash through the enemy’s fire, and -over the bodies of the dead. But in the stillness of the night, when no -excitement warms his blood, the bravest will be despondent, and the -strong man be moved with emotions as keen as those which agitate the -breasts of the tender woman or the sympathetic child. Oceans rolled -between them and all they had learned to love and value. No hand so -rough but had been pressed by some other hand on the day of departure; -no nature so fierce and ungentle but had softened into a better manhood -as the cliffs of England receded from the view. And now they lay through -the long hours of that miserable night, striving vainly enough to drown -their remembrances in sleep, and gain renewed strength and courage for -the morrow—the morrow that might bring death, and certainly imminent -dangers. Before them lay an unknown land—a future of deadly uncertainty. -Battles were to be fought, shot and steel to be encountered; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -who could tell who were destined to lie in the obscurity of death on that -foreign soil, and who to bear the tidings back to thousands of melancholy -homes?</p> - -<p>Thus was passed the night of the 14th of September, the anniversary -of the death of the great Duke of Wellington, who, two years before, ended -his career amid the universally expressed sorrow of a great people. He -was, we had fondly hoped, the last great representative of the military -glory of this country. A new era had been, we believed, initiated, in -which the arts of peace supersede the operations of war. And now, but -two years after the conqueror of Waterloo had looked for the last time -upon the world, an English army had landed upon the shores of a hostile -territory, and was commencing a warfare of which no man could see the -termination, and which bade fair to involve every nation of Europe. The -chosen champion of England’s military glory was quiet in his tomb; but -his companions, pupils, and successors were prepared to emulate his deeds, -and strike as vigorously for the honor of their country, and the maintenance -of the freedom of Europe.”</p> - - -<p>CROPREADY, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the forces of Charles -I of England and the Parliament, June 6th, 1644. It was a drawn battle; -for both sides, in their respective accounts, claim the victory.</p> - - -<p>CRUSADES.—The holy wars, waged by the Christians, to wrest the -Sepulchre of Christ and Jerusalem, from the hands of the Saracens, continued -for many years, and no important results were derived from them as -regards territorial acquisition, but they had an immense effect in civilizing -the west countries of Europe. There were three principal ones.</p> - - -<p>CUDDALORE.—<em>India.</em>—Possessed by the English in 1681. Reduced -by the French, 1758. Recaptured two years afterwards by Sir Eyre Coote. -Taken again in 1781. Besieged by the British under General Stuart in -1783.</p> - - -<p>CUIRASS.—A covering for protecting the body of cavalry from the -weapons of opponents. The French had a body of soldiers covered with -them.</p> - - -<p>CULLODEN, BATTLE OF.—Fought April 16th, 1746, between -the Pretender and the Duke of Cumberland. The Scots lost 2500 men, -while the English lost only 200. A writer thus describes the battle:—</p> - -<p>“Thus far the affairs of the rebel army seemed not unprosperous; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -here was an end of all their triumphs. The Duke of Cumberland, at that -time the favourite of the English army, had been recalled from Flanders, -and put himself at the head of the troops at Edinburgh, which consisted of -about 14,000 men. With these he advanced to Aberdeen, where he was -joined by several of the Scotch nobility, attached to the house of Hanover; -and having revived the drooping spirits of his army, he resolved to find out -the enemy, who retreated at his approach. After having refreshed his -troops at Aberdeen for some time, he renewed his march, and in twelve -days he came up to the banks of the deep and rapid river Spey. This was -the place where the rebels might have disputed his passage, but they lost -every advantage in disputing with each other. They seemed now totally -void of all counsel and subordination, without conduct, and without unanimity. -After a variety of contests among each other, they resolved to wait -their pursuers upon the plains of Culloden, a place about nine miles distant -from Inverness, embosomed in hills, except on that side which was open -to the sea. There they drew up in order of battle, to the number of 8000 -men, in three divisions, supplied with some pieces of artillery, ill manned -and served.</p> - -<p>“The battle began about one o’clock in the afternoon; the cannon of the -King’s army did dreadful execution among the rebels, while theirs was -totally unserviceable. One of the great errors in all the Pretender’s war-like -measures, was his subjecting wild and undisciplined troops to the -forms of artful war, and thus repressing their native ardour, from which -alone he could hope for success. After they had kept in their ranks and -withstood the English fire for some time, they at length became impatient -for closer engagement; and about 500 of them made an irruption upon -the left wing of the enemy with their accustomed ferocity. The first line -being disordered by this onset, two battalions advanced to support it, and -galled the enemy with a terrible close discharge. At the same time the -dragoons, under Hawley, and the Argyleshire militia, pulling down a park -wall feebly defended, fell among them, sword in hand, with great slaughter. -In less than thirty minutes they were totally routed, and the field covered -with their wounded and slain, to the number of 3000 men. The -French troops on the left did not fire a shot, but stood inactive during the -engagement, and afterwards surrendered themselves prisoners of war. An -entire body of the clans marched off the field in order, while the rest were -routed with great slaughter, and their leaders obliged with reluctance to -retire. Civil war is in itself terrible, but much more so when heightened -by unnecessary cruelty. How guilty soever an enemy may be, it is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -duty of a brave soldier to remember that he is only to fight an opposer, -and not a suppliant. The victory was in every respect decisive, and -humanity to the conquered would have rendered it glorious. But little -mercy was shown here; the conquerors were seen to refuse quarter to the -wounded, the unarmed, the defenceless; some were slain who were only -excited by curiosity to become spectators of the combat, and soldiers were -seen to anticipate the base employment of the executioner. The Duke, -immediately after the action, ordered thirty-six deserters to be executed. -The conquerors spread terror wherever they came; and, after a short -space, the whole country round was one dreadful scene of plunder, -slaughter, and desolation; justice was forgotten, and vengeance assumed -the name.”</p> - - -<p>CUNNERSDORF, BATTLE OF.—The King of Prussia with -50,000 men attacked the Austrian and Russian army with 90,000 men -(in their camp). At first he gained considerable advantages, but pursuing -too far, the enemy rallied and gained a complete victory. The Russians -lost 200 pieces of cannon and 20,000 men in killed and wounded. Fought -August 12th, 1759.</p> - - -<p>CUSTOZZA, BATTLE OF.—Fought Sunday, 24th June, 1866 -between the Austrians and Italians. “The Italian army, divided into -three corps and a reserve, making up a force of from 80,000 to 90,000 -combatants, after crossing the Mincio at Gotto, and on the other points, on -Saturday afternoon, June 23rd, 1866, and sending reconnoitering parties -towards Peschiera and Verona, encamped for the night at some place -beyond Roverbella, equidistant from the two fortresses. On the ensuing -morning an attempt was made upon those high positions of Sona, Somma -Campaigna, and Santa Ciustina, which commands the fifteen miles railway -line joining the two strongholds, positions which played a conspicuous -part in the campaign of 1848. The object of the Italians was -evidently to take possession of the railway, so as to isolate Peschiera and -secure a basis of operations against Verona. The Austrians, however, -who were massed in great force at Verona, sallied forth from that place at -daybreak, and, anticipating the Italian movements, took up their position -upon those hills, which are now everywhere bristling with bastions -and redoubts, and may be looked upon as mere outworks of the two citadels, -extending from the gates of one to those of the other. After a severe -and bloody, or, as the Italians describe it, “desperate struggle,” which -lasted nearly the whole day—that longest of summer days—the Imperial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -army was victorious along the whole line. They stormed the summit of -Montevente, where the Italians held out the longest, and at the close of -the engagement, at five o’clock in the afternoon, they also carried the -position of Custozza, a spot fatal to Italian arms in their encounter with -Radetski, in July, 1848. The victors captured several guns, and -about 2000 prisoners, and behaved, as the Archduke Albert’s bulletin -assures us, and as we may readily believe, with even more than their -ordinary bravery and endurance. On the same evening the Italian army -was obliged to re-cross the Mincio.</p> - -<p>The Italian accounts of the engagement present no points of material -difference. According to them, the first army corps was sent forward to -occupy some positions between Peschiera and Verona, but being surrounded -by superior numbers, it “failed to effect its purpose,” and the -description given of its losses in the contest leaves us little doubt that it -was all but annihilated. The second and third corps, unable—it is not -said for what reason—to advance to its rescue, were still in the evening -“almost intact.” It was also stated from Brescia that the army had -maintained its position; but there is little doubt that it had to withdraw -across the Mincio later in the night. The Italians had several of their -Generals wounded, among others the King’s second son, Prince Amadeus, -who has arrived at Brescia.</p> - -<p>There is every probability, also, that the Italians were, on this occasion, -outnumbered by their enemies: for the Austrians have from 200,000 -to 250,000 men in Venetia, and as they had in their hands the most formidable -of all engines of modern warfare—the railway, they had probably -massed three-fourths, at least, of their troops in Verona, ready for the -long-expected Italian inroad. The Archduke’s bulletins, in fact, never -speak of garrisons, but tell us that the “imperial army” was in the -field.</p> - -<p>The Italians, we are assured, behaved with great heroism, and, no doubt -although they lost the day, they came off without loss of honour. An -advance across the Mincio, right into the heart of the Quadrilateral, is an -enterprise which no other European army would, under such circumstances, -have ventured upon, but a frenzy to do something seems to have -possessed the whole Italian nation, and the men in command could think -of nothing better than dashing their heads against those formidable stone -walls. There may be bravery in so desperate an attempt to take the bull -by the horns, but we believe it would be impossible for the king or La -Marmora to say what results they expected from their ill-conceived and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -worse-executed attempt. It was a battle in which they staked the very -existence of their army, while their enemies, in the worst event, ran no -other risk than that of a safe and leisurely retreat behind the shelter of -their bastions. The least that may be said of it is, that like the Balaklava -charge, “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">C’était beau mais ce n’était pas la guerre</i>.” Ever since -1848 and 1849 the Austrians have strained every nerve to strengthen -these four citadels, and have extended their outworks, so that the line -between Peschiera and Verona, especially, is a vast intrenched camp.”</p> - - -<p>CYZICUM, BATTLE OF.—Fought during the Peloponnesian -war. Plutarch states that Mindarus was slain in this battle. The Athenians -gained a complete victory over the Lacedæmonian fleet. Fought -<span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 410.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="D" id="D"></a>D.</h3> - - -<p>DAMASCUS.—Taken by the Saracens, 633. Again by the Turks -in 1006, and was destroyed by Tamerlane in 1400.</p> - - -<p>DANTZIC.—It surrendered to the French, after a siege of four -months, May 5th, 1807; and, by the treaty of Tilsit, was restored to its -former independence under the protection of Russia and Saxony. It -was besieged by the Allies in 1812, and surrendered to them January 6th, -1814. By the treaty of Paris it reverted to its former status.</p> - - -<p>DARDANELLES, PASSAGE OF THE.—This was achieved by -the British fleet under Sir John Duckworth, February 19th, 1807; but -the admiral was obliged to repass them—which he did with great loss and -immense damage to the fleet, March 2nd following. The castles of Sestos -and Abydos hurled down rocks, each of many tons weight, upon the -decks of the British ships.</p> - - -<p>DARTMOUTH.—Burnt by the French, in the reign of Richard I -and Henry IV. Prince Maurice took it in 1643, but it was retaken by -General Fairfax, by storm, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1646.</p> - - -<div><a name="DEL" id="DEL"></a></div> -<p>DELHI.—Once the great capital of the Mogul empire. In 1738, -when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he entered Delhi, and 100,000 of -the inhabitants were put to the sword. In 1803, the Mahrattas aided by -the French, got possession of the place; but they were afterwards defeated -by General Lake. This city has been the scene of much commotion in -the course of its history.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> - -<p>The following is a short account of the storming of Delhi, in the last -great mutiny:</p> - -<p>“Until the latter end of August, the British troops before Delhi are -rather to be considered as an army of observation, than as a besieging -force. Their inferiority in numbers and artillery was barely counter-balanced -by their superior discipline, courage and physical strength. These -advantages enabled them, indeed, to maintain their ground, but not to -assume the offensive.</p> - -<p>Toward the close of August, however, a re-inforcement of European -and Sikh troops, under Brigadier Nicholson, arrived from the Punjab, -and, on the 25th of that month, the rebels were defeated at Nujuffghur, -with great slaughter, and the loss of thirteen guns. A few days later a -heavy siege-train was received from Ferozepore, and breaching batteries -were constructed on the north side of the city. The siege may be said to -have commenced on the 7th September, and by the evening of the 13th, -the engineers reported two practicable breaches—one near the Cashmere, -the other near the Water bastion. Arrangements were, therefore, at once -made for an assault, to take place at daybreak on the following morning.</p> - -<p>The first column, commanded by Brigadier Nicholson, advanced under -a tremendous fire, and, applying their scaling-ladders, carried the -Cashmere bastion, and established themselves in the main-guard. Almost -simultaneously, the second column, under Brigadier Jones, stormed the -Water bastion, and effected a junction with their comrades inside the -walls.</p> - -<p>A third column, under Colonel Campbell, awaited the blowing open of -the Cashmere gate to join the assault. They had not long to wait. Lieutenants -Salkeld and Home, of the engineers, accompanied by three -sergeants carrying the powder-bags, walked up to the gateway in broad -daylight, and, while exposed to a heavy fire of musketry, coolly fastened -the bags to the iron spikes of the gate. In the performance of this heroic -exploit, Lieutenant Salkeld was severely wounded, and two of the sergeants -killed upon the spot; but the train was lighted, and the gate blown open -with a tremendous crash.</p> - -<p>As the smoke cleared away, the storming party sprang through the ruins -with a British cheer; and the three columns uniting, made themselves -master of the whole line of works, from the Water bastion to the Cabul -gate; and before nightfall were in possession of Skinner’s house, the -Church, the College, and the adjacent grounds. This brilliant success, -however, was not achieved without great loss of life.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p> - -<p>Of the European soldiery, eight officers and 162 rank and file were -killed, with 52 officers and 510 rank and file wounded; of the Sepoys, -413 were placed <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">hors de combat</i>, of whom 103 were slain outright. The -total number of casualties thus amounted to 1145, or one-third of the -entire assaulting force. Among the mortally wounded was Brigadier -Nicholson, whose death was justly deplored as a national calamity.</p> - -<p>Simultaneously with these main attacks, a diversion was made by a -fourth column, consisting of Sikhs, Ghoorkas, and Cashmerians, on the -suburbs of Kishengunge and Pahareepore. But, in spite of their most -strenuous efforts, these troops failed to overcome the desperate resistance -offered by the enemy, and, in the end, were compelled to retreat, though -not ingloriously.</p> - -<p>The day following the assault was consumed in shelling the palace, and -in battering the magazine. A breach was effected, and, at daylight on the -16th, a storming party dashed forward with such impetuosity that the -rebel artillerymen dropped their lighted port-fires and fled, leaving undischarged -six guns of large calibre commanding the breach and loaded -with grape. On the 17th, the British troops became masters of the Bank, -formerly the palace of the Begum Sumroo, and shortly afterwards, of the -Jumma Musjid, or principal mosque. Heavy guns were now brought to -play upon the palace and the bridge of boats, and, by the evening of the -20th, the rebels entirely evacuated the city and its suburbs. Then was -seen the extent of the damage sustained by the former capital of the -Mogul dynasty. Whole streets had been laid in ruins; dead bodies -tainted the air in all directions; the inhabitants, reduced to beggary, were -crouching, terror-stricken, in obscure lurking-places. But the British -soldier is merciful in victory, as he is irresistible in battle. To armed -rebels, no mercy was shown; but women and children, and the defenceless -citizens, were spared and protected.</p> - -<p>The venerable descendant of Timour—venerable only by reason of his -gray hairs and extreme old age—had fled, with his principal Begum, two -sons, and a grandson, to the tomb of his ancestor, Hoomavoon, son of the -mighty Baber. He was discovered and seized by captain Hodson, of the -2nd European Fusiliers. His own life, and that of his queen, were -respected—but the princes were led out and shot, and their dead bodies -publicly exposed at the kotwalee, or mayor’s court.</p> - -<p>General Wilson, whose health failed him in the hour of victory, now -resigned the command to Brigadier Penny, C.B., a veteran of approved -gallantry. Colonel Burn, whose father so gallantly defended Delhi against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> -Jeswunt Rao Holkar, in 1803, was appointed military commandant within -the city, and measures were successfully taken to re-establish order, and -to afford protection to well-disposed and peaceful citizens. Two movable -columns, consisting each of 1600 infantry, 500 cavalry, three troops of -horse artillery, and eighteen guns, were told off, and ordered to follow -up the retreating enemy without delay. One of these, commanded by -Colonel Greathed, of the 84th, came up with a rebel force strongly posted -near Bolundshuhur, and, after a spirited engagement, utterly discomfited -them with the loss of two guns, a vast quantity of ammunition, and 100 -men.”</p> - - -<p>DEMERARA AND ESSEQUIBO.—Founded by the Dutch but -taken by the British, under Major General White, April 22nd, 1796. -Restored in 1802. Again surrendered to the British, under General -Grinfield and Commodore Hood, September 20th, 1803. They are now -British colonies.</p> - - -<p>DENNEWITZ, BATTLE OF.—In this battle a remarkable victory -was obtained by Marshal Bernadotte, Prince of Denmark—who afterward -became Charles XIV of Sweden—over Marshal Ney, September 6th, -1813. The loss of the French exceeded 16,000 men and two eagles, -while the loss of the opposite army was inconsiderable.</p> - - -<p>DETTINGEN, BATTLE OF.—Between the British, Hanoverian, -and Hessian army, commanded by George II of England in person and -the Earl of Stair, on the one side, and the French army, commanded by -Marshal Noailles and the Duke of Grammont, on the other side. The -English army amounted to 52,000 men, the French to 60,000 strong. -The French having passed a defile which they should have guarded, the -British and Allies bravely sustained the impetuous charge of the French -cavalry, so that they were obliged to give way, and recross the Mayne, -with the loss of 5000 men. Fought June 16th, 1743.</p> - - -<p>DIEPPE.—<em>In France.</em>—This town was bombarded by an English -fleet, under Admiral Russell, and laid in ashes, July 1694. Again -bombarded by the British, September 14th, 1803.</p> - - -<p>DIZIER ST.—<em>In Champagne.</em>—One of the most memorable sieges -in modern history. This town sustained a siege for six weeks against -the army of Charles V, Emperor of Germany, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1544. A battle was -fought here between the armies of the Allies on the one side, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -French, commanded by Napoleon in person, on the other, in which he -was defeated with great loss, January 27th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>DONNINGTON, BATTLE OF.—<em>In Lincolnshire, England.</em>—Fought -between the Royalists, commanded by Colonel Cavendish, and the -forces of the Parliament—the latter defeated, 1643. The battle of Donnington, -in Gloucestershire, was fought in 1645, when the Royalists, under -Lord Aston, were defeated by Colonel Morgan. This victory led to the -surrender of the King’s garrison at Oxford.</p> - - -<p>DRAGOON.—Name supposed to have been derived from dragon. -The first regiment of dragoons in England was raised <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1681.</p> - - -<p>DRESDEN, BATTLE OF.—Between the allied army, under the -Prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French army, commanded by Napoleon, -August 26th and 27th, 1813. The Allies were 200,000 strong. They -attacked the position of Napoleon, and the event had nearly proved fatal -to them, but for an error of General Vandamme. They were defeated with -dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia. Vandamme -pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and he and all his staff -made prisoners. In this battle, General Moreau received his mortal -wound, while in conversation with the Emperor of Russia.</p> - - -<p>DROGHEDA.—<em>In Ireland.</em>—Cromwell took this city by storm, and -put the governor and all the garrison to the sword, August 14th, 1649. -More than 3000 men, mostly English, perished, one individual—a -lieutenant—alone escaping. Cromwell also murdered every man, woman, -and child of the citizens that were Irish!</p> - - -<p>DRUM.—A martial instrument—the invention of which is ascribed -to Bacchus. Being an oriental invention, it was introduced into Europe -by the Moors, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 713.</p> - - -<p>DUMBLANE <span class="fs70">OR</span> DUNBLANE, BATTLE OF.—Called also the -Battle of Sheriffmuir.—Fought between the Royalist army, and the Scotch -rebels, November 12th, 1715. The Duke of Argyle, who commanded the -Royalists, had in his army 4000 veteran troops; the Earl of Mar, who -commanded the rebels, 8000, but all newly raised. The loss was equal on -both sides, and each claimed the victory. The Highland foot behaved -most gallantly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p> - - -<p>DUNBAR, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the Scottish and -English army, in which John Baliol was defeated by the Earl of Warrenne, -and Scotland subdued by Edward I, April 27th, 1296. Another battle -was fought here between the Scots and the English, under Cromwell, who -obtained a great victory, September 3rd, 1650.</p> - - -<p>DUNDALK.—Edward Bruce, being defeated in his unfortunate -invasion of Ireland, was beheaded here, in 1318, and with him 6200 -Scots invaders, lost their lives. The walls and fortifications were destroyed -in 1641.</p> - - -<p>DUNGAN HILL, BATTLE OF.—<em>In Ireland.</em>—Fought between -the English and Irish armies. The former commanded by Colonel -Jones, who signally defeated the insurgent Irish, of whom 6000 were -slain, while the loss of the English was inconsiderable. Fought July -10th, 1647.</p> - - -<p>DUNKIRK.—Taken by the English and French from the Spaniards, -June 24th, 1658. Sold by Charles II, for £500,000, to Louis XIV, -in 1662. The English attempted to besiege this place, but the Duke -of York, who commanded, was defeated by Hoche, and forced to retire -with loss, September 7th, 1793.</p> - - -<p>DUNSINANE, BATTLE OF.—Celebrated by Shakespeare. Fought -between Macbeth, the thane of Glamis, and Seward, earl of Northumberland. -Macbeth was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, when he -was slain, 1057.</p> - - -<p>DURHAM, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the English and -Scottish armies, October 17th, 1316. See <em><a href="#NEV">Nevill’s Cross</a></em>.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="E" id="E"></a>E.</h3> - - -<p>EBRO.—Scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards, by the French, -November 23rd, 1808. Scene also of several movements of the allied -forces during the Peninsular War.</p> - - -<p>ECKMUHL, BATTLE OF.—Fought, April 22nd, 1809, between -the main armies of France and Austria. The French army was -commanded by Napoleon, and the Austrian by the Archduke Charles. -Napoleon, by one of his masterly movements, broke through the -Imperial army, and completely routed them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> - - -<p>EDGEHILL, BATTLE OF.—Fought, October 23rd, 1642, between -the Royalists and the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance -in the civil war. Charles I was present in this battle. Prince Rupert -commanded the Royalists and the Earl of Essex the Parliamentarians. -The Earl of Lindsay, one of Charles’ Generals, who commanded the -foot forces, was mortally wounded and taken prisoner. The King’s -army lost 5000 men, dead on the field of battle, with vast numbers of -wounded and prisoners; but the great loss on the other side prevented -them from making all they could of the victory.</p> - - -<p>ENSIGN.—A flag or banner. The lowest commissioned officer in an -infantry regiment—he who carries the flag or colors—hence the name; -derived from the French.</p> - - -<p>ENGHIEN, BATTLE OF.—Fought, August 3rd, 1692, between -the British, under William III, and the French, under Marshal Luxembourg, -who were victorious. William had put himself at the head -of the confederate army in the Netherlands, and leagued himself with -the Protestant powers upon the continent against the ambition of -Louis XIV, and in the end he triumphed.</p> - - -<p>ENLISTMENT OF SOLDIERS AND SEAMAN.—None enlisted -are to be sworn in before a magistrate in less than twenty-four hours, -and then they are at liberty to withdraw, upon returning enlistment or -bounty money and 21s. costs. All enlistment is now voluntary.</p> - - -<p>ENNISKILLEN.—<em>Ireland.</em>—It made an obstinate defence against -the army of Elizabeth; then against James II, 1689—1500 Enniskillens -met General McCarty with a force of 6000 men—defeated him, with a -loss of 3000 men, and took all the rest—losing only twenty men, July -1689. The Enniskillen dragoons were raised here.</p> - - -<p>ESSLING, BATTLE OF.—Fought, May 22nd, 1809, between the -armies of France and Austria, commanded by Napoleon and the Archduke -Charles,—a dreadful conflict, which began on May 21st, and continued -on the 22nd. Napoleon was defeated with the loss of 30,000 -men—but the Austrians lost 20,000. This was the most severe check -that Napoleon had ever yet experienced, which rendered his army’s retreat -very difficult.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> - - -<p>EUPATORIA.—<em>Crimea.</em>—Famous in the Crimean war. The -following is an account of its capture by the Allies:</p> - -<p>“About 25,000 Turks, under Omer Pacha, the veterans for the most -part of the army of the Danube, had occupied the town, and strongly -entrenched themselves, assisted by a small force of English and French, -and supported by the presence of a naval squadron, under the command -of Captain Hastings, of the <i>Curaçoa</i>. For some days previous to the -16th of February, large bodies of Russians had been observed in the -vicinity; and on the morning of that day, a strong force of artillery, -supported by bodies of cavalry and infantry, estimated at about 40,000 -men, opened a smart fire upon the town, at a distance of 1200 yards, -subsequently advancing nearer. The small squadron, under Captain -Hastings, was enabled to do good service; the <i>Valorous</i> pitching shells -and shot among the enemy on the left; and the <i>Viper</i>, an active little -gun-boat, smartly seconding her efforts on the left. The enemy’s infantry -approached to the right of the town, through the cemetery. As they -advanced from the burying-ground, they were met by a vigorous fire of -musketry from the entrenchments. The <i>Furious</i> had detached a rocket-party, -which coming round among the windmills to the right of the town, -met the advancing Russians with a succession of volleys. The enemy -advanced to within twenty yards of the ditch, and then fell into confusion. -Selim Bey, the leader of the Egyptian contingent, seizing the -opportunity, threw forward his brigade in a rapid charge with the bayonet -upon the disordered columns, but fell mortally wounded at the head of his -men. Unable to stand the terrific fire to which they were exposed, and -yielding before the vigorous charge of the Egyptians, the Russians gave -way, and the repulse was complete. The artillery limbered up their guns, -and with the cavalry, drew leisurely from the spot. The enemy’s loss -must have been immense, considering the short time the skirmish lasted, -as the ground was strewed with the bodies of the slain, who were quickly -despoiled by the ever ready Bashi-Bazouks, and left stark naked in their -blood. The loss to the defenders of the town was 101 killed, and 286 -wounded. The Turkish artillery suffered greatly from the enemy’s fire, -nineteen men being killed in one battery. Thus did Omer Pacha initiate -his campaign in the Crimea.”</p> - - -<p>EURYMEDON, BATTLE OF.—One of the most celebrated battles -in Grecian history, when Cimon destroyed the fleet of the Persians at -Cyprus, and the land forces also at the River Eurymedon, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 470.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p> - - -<p>EVESHAM, BATTLE OF.—Fought, August 4th, 1265, between -Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I, and Simon de Montfort, Earl of -Leicester—in which the Barons were defeated, and Montfort slain. This -victory broke up the confederation of the Barons against the King.</p> - - -<p>EXETER.—When held by the Danes King Alfred invested and took -it <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 894. Sweyn besieged it 1003. Again besieged by William the -Conqueror, 1067. Surrendered to King Stephen, 1136. Besieged by Sir -William Courtenay, 1469. Lastly assaulted by Perkin Warbeck 1497.</p> - - -<p>EXPEDITIONS OF THE BRITISH. PRINCIPAL ONES.</p> - -<div class="fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">France near Port l’Orient</td><td class="tdl wd20">October 1,</td><td class="tdl wd10">1746</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cherbourg</td><td class="tdl">August 7,</td><td class="tdl">1758</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">St. Malo</td><td class="tdl">September,</td><td class="tdl">1758</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Ostend</td><td class="tdl">May,</td><td class="tdl">1798</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Zuyder Zee</td><td class="tdl">September,</td><td class="tdl">1799</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Egypt</td><td class="tdl">March,</td><td class="tdl">1801</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Copenhagen</td><td class="tdl">September,</td><td class="tdl">1807</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Walcheren</td><td class="tdl">July,</td><td class="tdl">1809</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Bergen-op-Zoom</td><td class="tdl">March,</td><td class="tdl">1814</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>EYLAU, BATTLE OF.—Fought, February 8th, 1807, between the -French and Russians.—It was one of the most terrible and bloody in -Napoleon’s wars. Napoleon lost 15,000 men, and the Russians 20,000, -in slain alone. Both armies were dreadfully crippled by this battle, and -both had to retire.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="F" id="F"></a>F.</h3> - - -<p>FALCZI, PEACE OF.—This celebrated peace was concluded -between Russia and Turkey, July 2nd, 1711,—the Russians giving up -Azof and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. In the -following year the war was renewed, and at last terminated in the peace -of Constantinople, April 16th, 1712.</p> - - -<p>FALKIRK, BATTLE OF.—First battle fought between Edward I -of England, and the Scots under William Wallace, July 22nd, 1298; -and the second between the King’s forces and Prince Charles Stuart, the -Pretender, January 18th, 1746. Both are described in the following -extracts:</p> - -<p>“Edward had been in Scotland for about a month. He had advanced -as far as Kirkliston, ten miles west of Edinburgh. Symptoms of mutiny -began to appear among his hungry soldiers. He was compelled to give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -orders for a retreat to Edinburgh, meaning to wait there till his fleet, -laden with provisions, should arrive at Leith, and then to advance again.</p> - -<p>Things stood thus, when two scoundrels, the Earl of Dunbar and the -Earl of Angus, came at daybreak into the camp of the English, and gave -information that Wallace lay in the forest of Falkirk, intending to attack -the English in their quarters that very night. Edward was filled with -joy at the tidings. “Thanks be to God,” he cried, “who hath hitherto -delivered me from every danger! They shall not need to follow me, for I -shall instantly go and meet them.”</p> - -<p>In an hour’s time he had his army in motion for the west. That night -they encamped on a moor near Linlithgow. Each man slept in his -armour, each war-horse was kept ready bridled beside its rider. The king -himself slept on the bare ground, like the meanest soldier in his army. In -the middle of the night the sleeping king received a kick from his own -charger, by which two of his ribs were broken. As soon as morning -dawned the march was resumed. The king, wounded as he was, was -among the first to mount.</p> - -<p>Passing through the town of Linlithgow, they continued their march, -and gained a rising ground at some distance beyond. There they halted, -and the fighting Bishop of Durham said mass. While the ceremony was -performing the sun rose, and his rays, glancing upon the array of spears, -showed them the Scottish army taking their ground on the slope of a -small hill not far from Falkirk. Wallace arranged his battle thus: His -main force lay in his infantry, who fought with long spears, and carried -short daggers and axes for close battle slung at the girdle. They were -divided into four circular masses, or <em>schiltrons</em>, as they were called in the -military language of the time. In these circles the spearmen stood compactly -together, with their long spears stretched out, and forming a ring -of steel. The spaces between circle and circle were occupied by the -archers, tall yeomen from the forests of Selkirk and Ettrick. The -cavalry, amounting to 1000 heavy armed horse, were placed in the rear. -Among them were most of the nobles who had joined Wallace; but the -jealousy which these proud barons felt towards him, and their selfish fear -of losing their estates, made them less than half-hearted in the cause.</p> - -<p>The English came on in three divisions, each division as strong as the -whole Scottish army. At the first clash of spears the entire body of the -Scottish cavalry, led by the traitor lords, turned bridle, and rode off the -field without a blow given or taken. While the battle raged against the -circles of spearmen, the English horse charged the Scottish archers. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -brave foresters stood firm to meet the rush of 7000 of the finest cavalry -ever present on a stricken field. But what could they, lightly armed as -they were, do against mailed horse and steel-clad knights? They defended -themselves so bravely with their short daggers that the very enemy -admired them. But they died there to a man. After the battle the -conquerors remarked their tall and handsome forms as they lay dead on -the ground they had kept so well.</p> - -<p>The four circles of the Scottish spearmen remained yet entire, standing -up like a wall, with their spears, point over point, so thick and close -together that no living man could pierce through. But the cloth-yard -arrows from the great bows of England fell thick and deadly among them. -The columns of archers advanced near and discharged their shafts in -perfect security, the Scots having neither cavalry to scatter them by a -charge, nor archers to reply to them. Drawing their arrows to the head, -they shot with all their force into the circles, and quickly breached the -living walls. Through the gaps made by the archers the English cavalry -charged, and having once broken in made a dreadful slaughter. The -battle was lost. One duty alone remained to the Scottish leader, and -that was to save the remainder of his army from destruction by a retreat. -Well and soldierly he did it. Retiring slowly, and himself with his best -knights defending the rear, he was able to draw off the broken remains of -his circles, and to gain the shelter of Torwood forest.”</p> - -<p><em>Second Battle.</em>—“Being joined by Lord Drummond, Prince Charles -invested the castle of Stirling, commanded by General Blakeney; but the -rebel forces, being unused to sieges, consumed much time to no purpose. -It was during this attempt that General Hawley, who commanded a considerable -body of forces near Edinburgh, undertook to raise the siege, -and advanced towards the rebel army as far as Falkirk. After two days -spent in mutually examining each other’s strength, the rebels being -ardent to engage, were led on, in full spirits, to attack the King’s army. -The Pretender, who was in the front line, gave the signal to engage, and -the first fire put Hawley’s forces into confusion. The horse retreated -with precipitation, and fell upon their own infantry; while the rebels, -following up the blow, the greatest part of the royal army fled with the -utmost precipitation. They retired in confusion to Edinburgh, leaving -the conquerors in possession of their tents, their artillery, and the field of -battle.”</p> - - -<p>FEROZESHAH, BATTLE OF.—<em>India.</em>—Between the Sikhs and -British. The British attacked the entrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -by storm the first line of works, December 21st, 1845. Night -coming on the operations were suspended till day-break next day, and -their second line was carried and their guns captured; the Sikhs advanced -to recapture the guns but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated -towards the Sutlej, December 22nd, and re-crossed the river unmolested, -December 27th.</p> - - -<p>FERROL, BRITISH EXPEDITION TO.—Upwards of 10,000 -British landed, August, 1800, near Ferrol, commanded by Sir James -Pulteney. Despairing of success, though they had gained the heights, -they re-embarked and returned to England, by order of the General, and -in opposition to the wishes and advice of his officers.</p> - - -<p>FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD.—Henry VIII embarked -at Windsor to meet Francis I of France, at Ardres, May 31st, 1520. -So much magnificence was displayed on the occasion, that the field -received that name, by which it is now always known in history.</p> - - -<p>FIRE SHIPS.—Used first in the 16th century. The first use of -them, in the English navy, was by Lord Effingham, in the engagement -of the Armada, July, 1588.</p> - - -<p>FLAG.—Acquired its present form in the 6th century, in Spain; -introduced, it is said, by the Saracens.</p> - -<p>FLAT BUSH, BATTLE OF.—<em>Long Island, America.</em>—Fought -August 27th, 1776, between the British forces and American colonists, -when the latter, after a desperate engagement, were compelled to retire, -with the loss of 2000 men killed, and 1000 prisoners.</p> - - -<div><a name="FLE" id="FLE"></a></div> -<p>FLEURIS, BATTLE OF.—Fought, June, 17th, 1794, between the -Allies, under the Prince of Cobourg, and the French revolutionary army, -commanded by Marshal Jourdan. The Allies had 100,000 men, and -having met the enemy on the plains of Fleuris, were signally defeated. -Between 8000 and 10,000 were killed, wounded and taken prisoners, -and Jourdan was able to form a junction with the French armies of the -Moselle—the Ardennes and the north. In this memorable battle, the -French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy’s army—an experiment -which it is said very materially tended to their gaining the victory.</p> - - -<p>FLODDEN.—Fought on the 9th September, 1513, between the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -English and Scots. Underneath is a graphic account of the most disastrous -battle that ever befell the Scottish arms.</p> - -<p>“On the 22nd of August, 1513, James IV of Scotland, at the head of -a gallant army, crossed the Tweed, for the purpose of revenging some -injuries which he conceived himself to have received at the hands of the -King of England, who was then pursuing hostilities in France. Immediately -on his crossing that river, he laid siege to the castles of Etel and -Ford, and spent much precious time in endeavouring to reduce those -fortresses.</p> - -<p>Whilst such was the course pursued by the King, the Earl of Surrey concentrating -the strength of the northern counties, soon raised an army of -26,000 men; and marching through Durham, received there the sacred -banner of St. Cuthbert. He was soon after joined by Lord Dacre, Sir -William Bulmer, Sir Marmaduke Constable, and other northern Barons; -and on proceeding to Alnwick, was met by his son, Lord Thomas Howard, -Lord Admiral of England, with a reinforcement of 5000 men. On -advancing with this united force, Surrey dispatched Rouge Croix Herald -to carry his challenge to the King of Scots, which was couched in the -usual stately terms of feudal defiance. It reproached him with having -broken his faith and league, which had been solemnly pledged to the King -of England, in thus invading his dominions—and offered him battle on -the succeeding Friday, if he would be content to remain so long in England -and accept it. Lord Thomas Howard added a message, informing -the King, that, as High Admiral, and one who had borne a personal share -in the action against Andrew Barton, he was now ready to justify the -death of that pirate, for which purpose he would lead the vanguard, where -his enemies, from whom he expected as little mercy as he meant to grant -them, would be sure to find him. To this challenge, James instantly replied, -that “he desired nothing more earnestly than the encounter, and he would -abide the battle on the day appointed.” As to the rude accusation of -broken honour which had been brought against him, he desired his herald -to carry a broad denial of the statement. “Our bond and promise,” he -observed, “was to remain true to our royal brother, so long as he maintained -his faith with us. This he was the first to break; we have desired -redress, and have been denied it; we have warned him of our intended -hostility—a courtesy which he has refused to us; and this is our just -quarrel, which, with the grace of God, we shall defend.” These mutual -messages passed on the 4th of September; and on the day appointed, -Surrey advanced against the enemy. By this time, the distress for provisions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -the incessant rains, and the obstinacy of the King in waiting -upon his pleasures, and his observation of the punctilios of chivalry, the -hours which might have been spent in active warfare, had created dissatisfaction -in the soldiers, many of whom deserted, with the booty they had -already collected; so that in a short time the army was much diminished -in numbers. To accept the challenge of his adversary, and permit him -to appoint a day for the encounter, was contrary to the advice of his best -councillors; and he might have recollected, that in circumstances almost -similar, two great masters in war, Douglas and Randolph, had treated a -parallel proposal of Edward III with a sarcastic refusal. He had the -sagacity, however, to change his first encampment for a stronger position -on the hill of Flodden, one of the last and lowest eminences which detach -themselves from the range of the Cheviots; a ground skillfully chosen, -inaccessible on both flanks, and defended in front by the river Till, a deep -sluggish stream, which ran between the armies.</p> - -<p>On advancing and reconnoitering the spot, Surrey, who despaired of -being able to attack the Scots without exposing himself to the probability -of defeat, again sent a herald to request the King to descend from the -eminence into the plain. He complained, somewhat unreasonably, that -James had “putte himself into a ground more like a fortress or a camp, -than any indifferent field for battle to be taxed;” but James would not -even admit the messenger into his presence. So far all had succeeded -and nothing was required on the part of the King but patience. He had -chosen an impregnable position, had fulfilled his agreement by abiding -the attack of the enemy; and such was the distress of Surrey’s army in -a wasted country, that to keep it longer together was impossible. He -attempted, therefore, a decisive measure, which would have appeared -desperate, unless he had reckoned upon the carelessness and inexperience -of his opponent. Passing the Till on the 8th of September, he proceeded -on its east side to Barmoor wood, two miles distant from the Scottish -position, where he encamped for the night. His march was concealed -from the enemy by an eminence on the east of Ford; but the manœuvre -being executed without observation or interruption, evinces a shameful -negligence in the Scottish commanders. Early on the morning of the -9th, he marched from Barmoor wood in a north-westerly direction; and -then turning suddenly to the eastward, crossed the Till with his vanguard -and artillery at Twisel bridge, not far from the confluence of the -Till and the Tweed—whilst the rear division, under Surrey in person, -passed the river at a ford. Whilst these movements were taking place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -the Scottish King remained unaccountably passive. His veteran officers -remonstrated. They showed him, that if he advanced against Surrey, -when the enemy were defiling over the bridge with their vanguard -separated from the rear, there was every chance of destroying them in -detail, and gaining an easy victory. The Earl of Angus, whose age and -experience gave great weight to his advice, implored him either to assault -the English, or to change his position by a retreat, ere it was too late; -but his prudent counsel was only received by a cruel taunt. “Angus,” -said the King, “if you are afraid, you may go home;” a reproach which -the spirit of the old Baron could not brook. “My age,” said he, “renders -my body of no service, and my counsel is despised; but I leave my two -sons and the vassals of Douglas in the field; may the result be glorious, -and Angus’s foreboding unfounded!”</p> - -<p>The army of Surrey was still marching across the bridge, when Borthwick, -the master of the artillery, fell on his knees before the King, and -solicited permission to bring his guns to bear upon the columns, which -might then be done with the most destructive effect; but James commanded -him to desist on peril of his head, declaring that he would meet -his antagonist on equal terms in a plain field, and scorned to avail himself -of such an advantage. The counsel of Huntly was equally ineffectual; -the remonstrance of Lord Lindsay of the Byres was received by -James with such vehement indignation, that he threatened on his return -to hang him up at his own gate. Time ran on amidst these useless -altercations, and the opportunity was soon irrecoverable. The last divisions -of Surrey’s force had disentangled themselves from the narrow -bridge; the rear had passed the ford; and the Earl, marshalling his army -with the leisure his enemy allowed him, placed his entire line between -James and his own country. He was thus enabled, by an easy and -gradual ascent, which led to Flodden, to march upon the rear of the -enemy; and without losing his advantage for a moment, he advanced -against them in full array, his army being divided into two battles, and -each battle having two wings. On becoming aware of this, the King -set fire to the temporary huts and booths of his encampment, and descended -the hill, with the object of occupying the eminence on which the village -of Brankston is built. His army was divided into five battles, some of -which had assumed the form of squares, some of wedges; and all were -drawn up in line, about a bow-shot distant from each other. Their march -was conducted in complete silence; and the clouds of smoke which arose -from the burning camp, being driven in the face of the enemy, mutually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -concealed the armies; so that when the breeze freshened, and the misty -curtain was withdrawn, the two hosts discovered that they were within a -quarter of a mile of each other. The arrangement of both armies was -simple. The van of the English, which consisted of 10,000 men, divided -into a centre and two wings, was led by Lord Thomas Howard; the -right wing being intrusted to his brother, Sir Edmund, and the left to -Sir Marmaduke Constable. In the main centre of his host Surrey himself -commanded; the charge of the rear was given to Sir Edward Stanley; -and a strong body of horse, under Lord Dacre, formed a reserve. Upon -the part of the Scots, the Earls of Home and Huntly led the advance; -the King, the centre; and the Earls of Lennox and Argyle, the rear; -near which was the reserve, consisting of the flower of the Lothians, commanded -by the Earl of Bothwell. The battle commenced at four in the -afternoon, by a furious charge of Huntly and Home upon the portion of -the English advance under Sir Edmund Howard; which, after some -resistance, was thrown into confusion, and totally routed. Howard’s -banner was beaten down; and he himself escaped with difficulty. Lord -Thomas Howard, dreading the consequences of a defeat, dispatched a -messenger to his father, Lord Surrey, entreating him to extend his line -with all speed, and strengthen the van by drawing up a part of the centre -on its left. The manœuvre was judicious, but it would have required -too long a time to execute; and at this critical moment, Lord Dacre -galloped forward with his cavalry to the support of his advance. Nothing -could have been more timely than this assistance; he not only checked -the career of the Scottish Earls, but drove back the division of Huntly -with great slaughter; whilst Home’s men, imagining they had already -gained the victory, began to disperse and pillage. Dacre and the Admiral -then turned their attack against another portion of the Scottish advance, -led by the Earls of Crawford and Montrose, who met them with levelled -spears, and resolutely withstood the charge. Whilst such was the state -of things on the right, a desperate contest was carried on between James -and the Earl of Surrey in the centre. In his ardour, the King forgot -that the duties of a commander were distinct from the indiscriminate -valour of a knight: he placed himself in the front of his lances and billmen, -surrounded by his nobles, who, whilst they pitied the gallant weakness -of such conduct, disdained to leave their sovereign unsupported. -The first consequence of this was so furious a charge upon the English -centre, that its ranks were broken, and for a while the standard of the -Earl of Surrey was in danger; but by this time Lord Dacre and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -Admiral had been successful in defeating the division led by Crawford -and Montrose, and wheeling towards the left, they turned their whole -strength against the flank of the Scottish centre, which wavered under -the shock, till the Earl of Bothwell came up with the reserve, and restored -the day in this quarter. On the right, the divisions led by the Earls of -Lennox and Argyle were composed chiefly of the Highlanders and Isle-men, -the Campbells, Macleans, Macleods, and other hardy clans, who -were dreadfully galled by the discharge of the English archers. Unable -to reach the enemy with their broadswords and axes, which formed their -only weapons, and not very amenable to discipline, their squadrons began -to rush fiercely forward, eager for closer fight, and thoughtless of the fatal -consequences of breaking their array. It was to little purpose that La -Motte and the French officers with him attempted by entreaties and blows -to restrain them; they neither understood their language nor cared for -their violence, but threw themselves sword in hand upon the English. -The squares of English pikemen stood to their ground; and though for -a moment the shock of the mountaineers was terrible, its force once -sustained, became spent with its own violence, and nothing remained but -a disorganisation so complete that to recover their ranks was impossible. -The consequence was, a total rout of the right wing of the Scots, -accompanied by a dreadful slaughter, in which the Earls of Lennox and -Argyle were slain. Yet, notwithstanding this defeat on the right, the -centre, under the King, still maintained an obstinate and dubious conflict -with the Earl of Surrey. No quarter was given on either side; and the -combatants were disputing every inch of ground, when Stanley, without -losing his time in pursuit of the Highlanders, drew back his division and -impetuously charged the rear of the Scottish centre. It was now late in -the evening, and this movement was decisive. Pressed on the flank by -Dacre and the Admiral—opposed in front by Surrey, and now attacked -in the rear by Stanley, the King’s battle fought with fearful odds against -it; but James continued by his voice and his gestures to animate his -soldiers, till he fell pierced with an arrow, and mortally wounded in the -head by a bill, within a few paces of the English Earl, his antagonist. -The death of their sovereign seemed only to animate the fury of the -Scottish Nobles, who threw themselves into a circle round the body, and -defended it till darkness separated the combatants. At this time Surrey -was uncertain of the result of the battle; the remains of the enemy’s centre -still held the field; Home with his borderers hovered on the left; and the -commander allowed neither pursuit nor plunder, but kept a strict watch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -during the night. When the morning broke, the Scottish artillery were -seen standing deserted on the side of the hill, their defenders had disappeared; -and the Earl ordered thanks to be given for a victory which -was no longer doubtful.</p> - -<p>The loss of the Scots, in this fatal battle, amounted to about 10,000 -men. Of these a great proportion were of high rank; the remainder -being composed of the gentry, the farmers and landed yeomanry, who -disdained to fly when their sovereign and his nobles lay stretched in heaps -around them. Among the slain were thirteen Earls—the King’s natural -son, the Archbishop of St. Andrews—the Bishops of Caithness and the -Isles—the Abbots of Inchaffray and Kilwinning—and the Dean of -Glasgow; besides fifteen Lords and chiefs of clans. The body of James -was found on the morrow amongst the thickest of the slain, and recognised -by Lord Dacre, although much disfigured by wounds. It was carried to -Berwick, and ultimately interred at Richmond.”</p> - - -<p>FONTAINBLEAU, PEACE OF.—Concluded between France and -Denmark, in 1670. Treaty of ditto between the Emperor of Germany -and Holland, signed November 8th, 1785. Second Treaty of ditto, -between Napoleon and the Royal Family of Spain, October 27th, 1807. -Concordat of ditto, between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, January 25th, -1813. Entered by the Austrians, February 17th, 1814. Napoleon -here resigned his imperial dignity, and bade farewell to his army, April -5th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>FONTENOY.—Fought, April 30th, 1745,—according to others, -May 11th, 1745—between the French, commanded by Count Saxe, and -the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the -Duke of Cumberland. “The French entered upon the war with great -alacrity. They besieged Fribourg, and in the beginning of the succeeding -campaign invested the strong city of Tourney. Although the Allies -were inferior in number, and although commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, -yet, they resolved, if possible, to save the city by hazarding a -battle. They accordingly marched against the enemy, and took post in -sight of the French, who were encamped on an eminence, the village of -St. Antoine on the right, a wood on the left, and the town of Fontenoy -before them. This advantageous situation did not repress the ardour of -the English, who began the attack at two o’clock in the morning, and -pressing forward, bore down all opposition. They were for nearly an -hour victorious, and confident of success, while Saxe, a soldier of fortune,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -who commanded the French army, was at that time sick of the same disorder -of which he afterwards died. However, he was carried about to -all the posts in a litter, and assured his attendants that, notwithstanding -all unfavourable appearances, the day was his own. A column of the -English, without any command, but by mere mechanical courage, had -advanced upon the enemy’s lines, which, opening, formed an avenue on -each side to receive them. It was then that the French artillery on the -three sides began to play on this forlorn body, which, though they continued -for a long time unshaken, were obliged at last to retreat. This -was one of the most bloody battles that had been fought in this age; the -Allies left on the field 12,000 men, and the French bought their victory -with nearly an equal number of slain.”</p> - - -<p>FORT DU QUESNE.—<em>United States.</em>—Famous in the French war -of Canada with the English. The following extract well describes the -expedition:</p> - -<p>“Braddock, who had been recommended to this service by the Duke of -Cumberland, set forward upon this expedition in June, and left the -cultivated parts of the country on the 10th, at the head of 2200 men, -directing his march to that part of the country whence Major Washington -had retreated the year before. Being at length within ten miles of -the French fortress he was appointed to besiege, and marching forward -through the forest with full confidence of success, on a sudden his whole -army was astonished by a general discharge of arms, both in front and -flank, from an enemy that still remained unseen. It was now too late to -think of retreating; the troops had passed into the defile which the enemy -had artfully permitted them to do before they offered to fire. The vanguard -of the English therefore, fell back in consternation upon the -main body, and the panic soon became general. The officers alone disdained -to fly, while Braddock himself still continued to command his -brave associates, discovering at once the greatest intrepidity and imprudence. -An enthusiast to the discipline of war, he disdained to fly from -the field, or to permit his men to quit their ranks, when their only method -of treating the Indian army was by precipitate attack, or an immediate -desertion of the field of battle. At length Braddock, having received a -musket shot through the lungs, dropped, and a total confusion ensued. -All the artillery, ammunition, and baggage of the army was left to the -enemy, and the loss sustained by the English amounted to 700 men. The -remnant of the army, in this emergency, was saved by the courage and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -ability of Washington, who first here appears conspicuously on the -theatre of this world’s great events.”</p> - - -<p>FORT ERIE.—<em>Canada.</em>—This fortress was taken by the American -General Brown, July 3rd, 1814. Defended by only 170 men, no wonder -it yielded to the Americans with 4000 strong. On the 15th August, -General Drummond tried to retake it, but failed. September 17th the -besieged made a sortie but were driven back, each side losing 600 men. -Evacuated by the Americans, who blew up to the fort November 5th, -1814.</p> - - -<p>FORT NIAGARA.—<em>Canada.</em>—Captured by Sir William Johnston. -In the war of 1813 it was surprised and captured by the Canadians.</p> - - -<p>FREDERECKSHALL.—Rendered memorable by the death of -Charles XII of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon ball before its walls, -and while in the trenches leaning against the parapet examining the works. -He was found in that position with his hand on his sword and a prayer -book in his pocket.—December 11th, 1718. It is now generally believed -that some traitor shot the King with a pistol.</p> - - -<p>FRENCHTOWN.—<em>Canada.</em>—This town was taken from the -British by the American General Winchester, January 22nd, 1813. -Retaken by the British forces under General Proctor immediately afterwards, -when the American commander and the whole of his troops were -made prisoners of war.</p> - - -<p>FRIEDLAND, BATTLE OF.—Fought, June 14th, 1807, between -the allied Russian and Prussian armies on the one side and the French, -commanded by Napoleon in person, who signally defeated them, with the -lose of eighty pieces of ordnance and 50,000 men. This victory led to -the peace of Tilsit.</p> - - -<p>FUENTES DE ONORE, BATTLE OF.—Napier thus describes -this great battle: “On May 2nd, 1811, Messina crossed the Agueda -with 40,000 infantry, 5000 cavalry, and about thirty pieces of artillery, to -relieve Almeida. He expected every day to be superseded in his command, -and he wished to make a last effort for his own military character. -Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, of which force only -1200 were cavalry. He, however, determined to fight rather than give -up the blockade of Almeida; after much fighting night came on and put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -an end to the battle. Next day Messina was joined by Bessières, with a -body of the Imperial Guard, and on the 5th the enemy made the grand -attack. The battle raged throughout a vast plain, and in all the Peninsular -War there was never so dangerous an hour for England. The fight lasted -till evening, when the lower part of the town was abandoned by both sides—the -British keeping the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a -cannon shot from the stream.” Fought, May 5th, 1811.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="G" id="G"></a>G.</h3> - - -<p>GALWAY.—<em>Ireland.</em>—In 1690, Galway declared for King James, -but it was invested and taken by General Ginckel, immediately after the -memorable battle of Aughrim, July 12th, 1691.</p> - - -<p>GENERAL.—This rank has been given to commanders from very -remote antiquity. In the French army, Montmorency was the first -officer who was so called, in 1203. Cardinal Richelieu was the first who -took the title <em>Generalissimo</em>, having coined the word when he assumed -supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 1629.</p> - - -<p>GENOA.—Bombarded by the French, in 1684, and by the British, -in 1688 and 1745. Taken by the Imperialists, December 8th, 1746. -Sustained a siege from the British fleet and Austrian army, when it -capitulated, May, 1800. Surrendered to the French, after the battle of -Marengo. Next surrendered to the combined English and Sicilian armies, -April 8th, 1814, but was transferred to the Kingdom of Sardinia, in 1826. -The city seized by insurgents, who, after a murderous struggle, drove out -the garrison, and proclaimed a Republic, April, 1850, but in the end the -insurgents surrendered to General Marmora.</p> - - -<p>GERMANIC CONFEDERATION.—When Napoleon determined -that the German or Holy Roman Empire should no longer exist, but -that a Confederation of States should be in its stead, the proposal was -adopted by the Allied Sovereigns, in 1815, which has continued ever -since.</p> - - -<p>GETTYSBURG.—<em>United States.</em>—This battle was fought between -the Confederates of the Southern States, and the Northern army. -General Lee was defeated by the United States’ troops. This battle immediately -followed the surrender of Vicksburg to General Grant. Fought -on the 4th July, 1863.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> - - -<p>GHENT.—Taken by the Duke of Marlborough, in 1706. Several times -taken and retaken during the Napoleon wars. The peace of Ghent, -between Great Britain and America, signed here, December 24th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>GHIZNEE, BATTLE OF.—The British, under Sir John Keane, -attacked this place, and having blown up the gates, forced their way into -the city, and succeeded in fixing the British colors on the towers, July -23rd, 1839. Ghiznee capitulated to the Affghans, March 1st, 1842. The -following account gives the items of General Nott’s entering it, September -7th, 1842:</p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Ghiznee</span> is situated on the base of a hill, which supports its rear or -main post, and commands a most extensive plain, and it is in the midst -of a rich, fertile country; it has ever held the most noble rank as a -capital, and is capable of being rendered one of the most important fortifications -in the Eastern nations; its adjacent hills are great, and border -on Dora and Bameean; it covers the routes of the latter, as well as -Loghar and Cabool; near the low hills which command the city, are -several cemeteries, and ancient buildings; at a short distance is Rozah, -in which stands the great sepulchre, and shrine of Mahmood, the once -famed Emperor of Ghiznee; and of whom “Dow” speaks so much in his -History of Hindostan.</p> - -<p>The fortress in itself is of great importance; the town is walled round, -and contains several thousand houses; the former principally of stone, -and the latter of mud. It is surrounded by a deep trench; the main -entrance, being the one blown up by Sir John Keane, is in ruins, and -another was made to the right. In the centre of the town stands the -citadel, which had three tiers; the lower one had been much improved -since we possessed it, and a parade ground, or large square, had been -formed, as a park for the ordnance. A river ran close by, which afforded -good water, and rendered it almost complete. All remained quiet, till -within a short distance from them, fortunately for us, as it enabled us -to get up our baggage, and cattle; close to the rear of the column -the road was very difficult, being over extensive fields of long grass, and -the ditches very numerous and wide, in crossing which the cattle were -continually falling, which greatly delayed us. General Nott directed the -Light Battalion to proceed with the Quarter Master General, to take up -an encampment opposite to Ghiznee, at a place some two and a half miles -from the fortress, known as Sir John Keane’s garden. I accompanied -this body, and as we proceeded, we discovered the enemy in the citadel,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -and a great number outside, preparing to advance. The Quarter Master -General ordered a portion of his force to man a small hill, which -commanded their approach, and left it in charge of Captain Adamson, of -the 40th. The General dispatched, in another direction, the 16th Native -Infantry, under Colonel McLaren, who were met by the enemy, and a -smart action took place; fortunately, however, after having rallied for -some time, the corps managed to get under cover, in a walled garden, -about a mile from the fort, and kept them off in fine style; the Colonel, -finding the enemy so numerous, feared a serious result, as the chances -were, the General could not send him a re-inforcement before the whole -of his ammunition would be expended, and a soldier without ammunition -is not in the most enviable situation. The Quarter Master -General’s party was attacked, but effected a complete mastery over them, -and drove them back. The General, perceiving the situation of McLaren, -dispatched the 3rd Regiment Light Cavalry, and two of Anderson’s -guns, who got up just in time to save them, as they were getting short of -shot; at length came up the General with the main body; the cavalry -made a grand charge after those outside the town, and we lost a great -number of our men, but not before leaving a greater number of the enemy -lying on the field; during all this time those in possession of the citadel -were not idle, but made some excellent play with their guns from the -square I named, as being situated on the lower part of the citadel; but -fortunately for us their knowledge of the art of gunnery was so shallow -that they did little or no damage with their guns. One of the hills mentioned -as adjacent to the fortress, was called Balloon Hill, from its -peculiar form, and difficulty of ascent; this hill was literally crowded -with rebels, and their colours were planted in every direction; they -now began to emerge from the gates in great numbers, and finding, after -the charge of the cavalry, that they had no chance of overpowering the -front, Shooms-ood-Dien dispatched a large force round, to attack the rear -of our columns. The General had, however, taken the necessary precaution, -and reinforced the rear guard to 3000 men, with six guns, including the -heavy battery. Perceiving the object the enemy had in view, he let fly -a volley of grape to meet them, which had the desired effect, and left -numbers of them dead on the ground, and the rest immediately made -off; the next thing to be done was to got possession of Balloon Hill. -This hill was so situated that it commanded all around it, and more particularly -the square in the citadel, as it immediately covered it. The -General directed the 40th and 16th to proceed at once and take the hill.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -The order was in itself easily given; my readers may imagine the -position.</p> - -<p>The guns from the citadel were in full play, the hill was in possession -of, and covered by several hundreds of the enemy, both horse and foot; -the ascent was considerable, and we were nearly two miles from it. -However, it is not for Britons to look at difficulties in such a moment, -for had we done so we should never have accomplished it; we set forward, -and those in the fortress seeing our advance, opened a heavy fire upon us, -which, Providence be thanked, showed us that they could not hit their -mark, and we reached the foot of the hill with little loss. Those in possession -leapt for joy, at the apparent opportunity of cutting us off. We -commenced the ascent, throwing out skirmishers in every direction; our -fire was kept up steadily as on a parade, and every ball seemed to find -its desired billet; numbers fell, of course, but not near so many as we -had been anticipating. We were obliged to halt half way to gain breath, -and necessitated to keep up a heavy fire; we again advanced, and the -enemy began to show symptoms of retiring, which greatly encouraged us, -and we made a desperate effort, and sent a volley into them, charged, and -at length they retired; we followed, and at last gained the summit. They -rushed down the other side, and made off in the direction of Candahar, -where they were met by a brigade sent round by the General for that -purpose.</p> - -<p>Having gained possession of the hill, those in the citadel began to -pour the fire of artillery into us, but as usual without success, and in -order to get out of sight we were ordered to lie down, that they might -imagine we had evacuated our position; as we lay there, the balls were -fast whistling over us, and the force under the command of the General -was making a clean sweep of all those outside the walls, which, after he -had effected, next repaired to the citadel. It was, however, found impracticable -to storm the fortress that day; first, because the Sappers and Miners -would not have time to complete their operations; and secondly, in -consequence of the fatigued state of the troops. The 16th was to be left -in charge of the hill, and the 40th were ordered to return to the encampment; -this order was, if anything, even worse than the first, because all -being comparatively quiet, we should, on retiring, be the only targets for -them to fire at, and our utter destruction seemed inevitable; we, however, -had to obey, and as was expected, no sooner did we come under -cover of their guns than they opened a severe fire from all their pieces, -but their firing was always either too far, or too short; and thus we -reached camp in almost safety.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p> - -<p>The followers had been all employed in pitching the tents, and the -cooks (natives) had prepared our scanty meal; the 16th were left in possession -of the hill; and the General ordered two guns, either under -Captain Blood or Anderson, to proceed to the top of the hill, and dislodge -them in the citadel, which, after some difficulty, was effected, and most -ably did they accomplish their duty; they soon put a stop to them, and -by their superior arrangement and management of artillery, disabled -nearly all their guns. We had scarcely got well seated in our tents when -we were suddenly surprised by the whizzing of a ball over the camp, -which lodged in the officer’s mess tent of the 41st; after that came -another and another, and they kept up a fine string of them, aiming -most admirably. We soon discovered that they had a sixty-eight pounder, -which before had remained quiet.</p> - -<p>Those shots coming so fast, and lodging just in our midst, doing considerable -damage, although we were nearly two miles from it, compelled -the General to shift camp a mile further off, and we were at last out of -the reach of the bull-dog; they most certainly in this distance did put us -to the rout. This piece was called “Chuppa Jung,” of Persian manufacture, -and as is usual in all the forts of importance in Asia, was placed -in the citadel; and a most powerful piece it was.</p> - -<p>The General now began to arrange his plans for storming and taking -the fortress; the engineers were all busily employed in preparing for the -operation; and as the day began to draw to a close, orders were issued -for the troops to be in readiness to move just before daylight on the -morrow. The night at length came on, and lights were ordered to be -extinguished at eight <span class="fs70">P.M.</span>; and at that hour all was darkness, and -enveloped upwards of 20,000 souls.</p> - -<p>All was at length prepared for the attack, and about half an hour -before the day broke, the word was passed from tent to tent, to form up. -Each rose in sadness, and many shook the hand of his comrade as for the -last time; the cattle were dispatched with the powder, to ensure the -explosion, and platforms had been carefully planted for the heavy battery -to commence a breach. The troops were slowly and silently advanced, -and arranged ready to storm immediately after the gates were blown up; -and daybreak was to be the signal. At length the day dawned, and lo! -what was our surprise when we saw floating on the highest tower the -English colors. The sight relieved each heart as though we had a -fortune. The enemy had during the night evacuated the citadel, having -received certain orders to that effect from Caboul. Colonel McLaren,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -who had kept the hill, finding they had left it, took immediate possession, -and placed “The Flag that braved a thousand years” on the highest -point. Thus did Providence prevent the inevitable loss of some hundreds -of our force, and never was a force more agreeably surprised than those -at Ghiznee, on the 6th of September, 1842.”</p> - - -<div><a name="GIB" id="GIB"></a></div> -<p>GIBRALTAR.—A British fortress on the Straits of the same name. -From the circumstance of its immense strength and impregnability, other -great fortresses have also received its name, as Quebec, which is called the -Gibraltar of America. The height of the wall is 1437 feet. Taken by -the Saracens, in 712. In 1462, the King of Castile took the fortress and -town from the Moors; and the English, under Sir George Brooke, the -Prince of Hesse-Denmark, Sir John Leake, and Admiral Byng, bravely -won it, July 24th, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannonade, -to the British by the Governor, the Marquis de Salines, and has ever -since continued one of the most brilliant gems in the coronet of England’s -Queen. Long may she reign to wear it. The following are the different -attacks which have been made upon it since the British took it. On the -11th October, 1704, the same year it was captured by the British, it -sustained a siege from the Spaniards and French, who lost 10,000 whilst -the British loss was only 400. Again the Spaniards attacked it in 1720, -but were repulsed with great loss. In 1728, they again attacked it but -were driven back with the loss of 5000 out of 20,000, while the English -lost 300. After this came the memorable siege of the Spaniards and -French, whose prodigious armaments astonished the whole of Europe. -They were the most stupendous up to that time ever brought before any -city or fortress. The siege continued from July, 1770, to February, -1783. The allied army amounted to 40,000 men. The Duke of Crillon had -12,000 of the best troops of France, 1000 pieces of artillery were brought -to bear against the fortress, besides which there were forty-seven sail of -the line all three-deckers, ten great floating batteries esteemed invincible, -carrying 212 guns, an immense number of frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, -cutters, and gun and mortar boats; while small craft literally -covered the bay. For weeks and weeks together 6000 shells were daily -thrown into the town, and, on one single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder -were expended by the enemy, yet in one single night were all -these immense batteries destroyed by red-hot cannon balls, and their whole -line of works annihilated by a sortie of the garrison, commanded by -General Elliot, November 27th, 1781. The loss of the enemy in this -memorable night alone, amounted to upwards of £2,000,000 sterling.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -The grand defeat by the garrison of only 7000 British, occurred -September 13th, 1782. Since then the British have remained in peaceful -possession.</p> - - -<p>GISORS, BATTLE OF.—<em>In France.</em>—Fought between the armies -of France and England, in which the former were signally defeated by -Richard I, who commanding in person, and whose parole for the day -was “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dieu et Mon Droit</span>,” and from this it was made the motto of the -Royal Arms of England, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1193.</p> - - -<p>GLENCOE, MASSACRE OF.—The McDonalds of Glencoe, were -cruelly massacred, May 9th, 1691, merely for not surrendering in time -after King William’s proclamation perpetrated by the Earl of Argyle’s -regiment. 38 men besides women and children perished.</p> - - -<p>GOOJERAT, BATTLE OF.—<em>India.</em>—Fought February 21st, 1849. -Lord Gough with 21,000 men and 100 guns attacked the enemy, numbering -60,000 men, with 59 guns. The Sikh Chief was strongly -posted between two river courses which protected his flanks, and yet allowed -him good manœuvring space to retire either on the east or west side of -the town of Goojerat, which afforded shelter and protection to his rear. -The battle began at 7 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span> After a severe engagement of nine hours, at -4 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> the enemy had been driven from every post and was in general -retreat, which the field artillery and cavalry converted into a rout and -flight. They were pursued for 15 miles, and next day another fresh -force took up the direct pursuit. Some of the guns and the whole of -the ammunition and camp equipage fell into the hands of the British. -The Chief, Shere-Singh, escaped with only 8000 men out of 60,000. -The loss on the side of the British was 100 killed and 900 wounded.</p> - - -<p>GOREE.—Taken by the English Admiral Holmes, in 1693—ceded to -France 1678. Again taken by the British, 1758—1779—1800—and -1804.</p> - - -<p>GOREY, BATTLE OF.—Fought June 4th, 1798, between the -King’s troops and the Irish rebels, in which, after a desperate battle, -the King’s forces were routed with great slaughter. They lost several -pieces of artillery, and retreated to Gorey and afterwards to Arklow.</p> - - -<p>GORGET.—An ancient breastplate. It was of great size, and gave -rise to the modern diminutive breastplate which was in existence at the -Restoration. It is now disused.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> - - -<p>GRAMPIAN HILLS, BATTLE OF THE.—This was a celebrated -engagement between the Scots and Picts—the former under Galgacus, and -the latter under Agricola. Fought <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 79.</p> - - -<p>GRAND ALLIANCE.—Signed at Vienna between England and -the States General—to which Spain and the Duke of Savoy afterwards -acceded, May 12th, 1689.</p> - - -<p>GRANICUS, BATTLE OF.—Alexander the Great fought and won -this battle against the Persians—<span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 334. The Macedonian troops -crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army, and totally -defeated them. Alexander’s army was only 30,000 foot and 5000 horse -and the Persian 600,000 foot, and 60,000 horse.</p> - - -<p>GRENADES.—A kind of bombshell invented in 1594. It is a small -hollow globe or ball of iron, two inches diameter, and filled with fine powder -and set on fire by a fusee at a touch-hole. The grenadiers were those -soldiers who were armed with a pouch of hand grenades—established in -France in 1667—and England in 1685. The latter word is applied now, -according to Gay, to the tall soldiers—of which there is generally a company -in every regiment.</p> - - -<p>GROCHOW, BATTLE OF.—<em>Near Praga, Warsaw.</em>—Fought -February 20th, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. After a bloody -battle, which continued all day and almost all the next, the Poles remained -masters of the field. The Russians retreated, having lost 70,000 men, -and the Poles, 2000.</p> - - -<p>GUADALOUPE.—Taken by the English, in 1759, and restored 1763. -Again taken in 1779, 1794, and 1810. At last, restored to France at -the peace of 1814.</p> - - -<p>GUARDS.—The custom of having guards was introduced by Saul, -King of Israel, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 1093. Bodyguards instituted by Henry VII, 1485. -Horse guards by Edward VI, 1550. The three regiments of the British -service, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Foot Guards, were raised in 1660, and the -command of them given to Colonel Russell, General Monk, and Lord -Linlithgow. The Second, or the Coldstream, was the first raised. The -Horse Grenadier Guards, first troop raised 1693, and second in 1702.</p> - - -<p>GUNPOWDER.—Invented by a Monk of Cologne, 1320. It has -entirely revolutionized the art of war; consists of three ingredients, viz., -charcoal, sulphur and saltpetre.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="H" id="H"></a>H.</h3> - - -<p>HALIDON HILL, BATTLE OF.—Fought July 19th, 1333.—“The -Scots were rash enough to attack the English as they held the -top of a bold hill, at the foot of which lay a marsh. The English -archers, posted on the face of the hill, shot down the Scots, almost at -their leisure, while they struggled heavily through the spongy ground. -Under the deadly arrow flight, the Scots dragged themselves through the -bog, and attempted, all breathless and exhausted, to charge up the hill -against the fresh troops of England. They were forced down with great -slaughter. Many more were slain as they struggled back through the -fatal bog. The bloody lesson, however, seems not to have been lost. -Once and again King Edward made the savage apparition of war to pass -through Scotland. But the Scots baffled him by following the wise -policy of Bruce. He traversed a country completely deserted and laid -waste. The inhabitants, with their cattle and all their property, had -retired to the inaccessible fastnesses of the mountains. Every advanced -column and detached party of the English was assailed, stragglers cut off, -and alarms kept up. Famine and disease did the work. Captain Hunger -was more than a match for Captain Sword. Edward made nothing by -his invasions, though he marched through the country as far north as -Inverness. He was compelled each time to fall back again on his own -territory, with great loss of men from hardships and misery, and the -harassing attacks of the Scots, who sallied out from every glen, forest, and -mountain defile.”</p> - - -<p>HALYS, BATTLE OF.—This great battle was fought between the -Lydians and Medes, on the banks of the river Halys. It was interrupted -by an almost total eclipse of the sun. Fought, May 28th, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> -585.</p> - - -<p>HANAN, BATTLE OF.—Fought, October 29th, 1813, between a -division of the combined armies of Austria and Bavaria, 30,000 strong, -under General Wrede and the French, 70,000 strong. The latter were -on their retreat from Leipsic when encountered by the Allies, and suffered -severely, although at the end of the battle the Austrians had to retire.</p> - - -<p>HARLAW, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 24th, 1411, between the -Earl of Mar, who commanded the Royal army, and Donald, the Lord of the -Isles. Neither army gained the victory, it being a drawn battle. So -many nobility and gentry were slain in this engagement that a Scottish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -historian declares, “more illustrious men fell in this one conflict alone than -had fallen in foreign wars during many previous years.”</p> - - -<p>HASTINGS, BATTLE OF.—Fought, October 14th, 1066. In the -beginning of summer, William embarked his powerful army of 60,000 men -on board a fleet of 300 sail; and, after some small opposition from the -weather, landed at Pevensey, on the coast of Sussex, tranquilly.</p> - -<p>“Harold, who seemed resolved to defend his right to the crown, and -retain that sovereignty which he had received from the people, who only -had a right to bestow it, was now returning, flushed with conquest, from -defeating the Norwegians, who had invaded the kingdom, with all the -forces he had employed in that expedition, and all he could invite or collect -in the country through which he passed. His army was composed -of active and valiant troops, in high spirits, strongly attached to their -king, and eager to engage.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the army of William consisted of the flower of the -continent, and had long been inured to danger. The men of Britanny, -Boulogne, Flanders, Poictou, Maine, Orleans, France, and Normandy, -were all voluntarily united under his command. England never before -nor ever since, saw two such armies drawn up to dispute its crown.</p> - -<p>The day before the battle, William sent an offer to Harold to decide -the quarrel between them by single combat, and thus to spare the blood -of thousands: but Harold refused, and said he would leave it to the God -of armies to determine. Both armies, therefore, that night pitched in -sight of each other, expecting the dawning of the day with impatience. -The English passed the night in songs and feasting; the Normans in -devotion and prayer.</p> - -<p>The next morning, at seven as soon as day appeared, both armies were -drawn up in array against each other. Harold appeared in the centre of -his forces, leading on his army on foot, that his men might be more -encouraged, by seeing their king exposed to an equality of danger. -William, fought on horseback, leading on his army, that moved at -once, singing the songs of Roland, one of the famous chiefs of their -country. The Normans began to fight with their cross-bows, which, at -first, galled and surprised the English; and, as their ranks were closed, -their arrows did great execution. But soon they came to closer fight, and -the English with their bills hewed down their adversaries with great -slaughter. Confusion was spreading among the ranks, when William, -who found himself on the brink of destruction, hastened with a select<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -band to the relief of his forces. His presence restored the suspense of -battle; he was seen in every place, endeavouring to pierce the ranks of -the enemy, and had three horses slain under him. At length, perceiving -that the English continued impenetrable, he pretended to give ground, -which, as he expected, drew the enemy from their ranks, and he was -instantly ready to take advantage of their disorder. Upon a signal given -the Normans immediately returned to the charge with greater fury than -before, broke the English troops, and pursued them to a rising ground. -It was in this extremity that Harold was seen flying from rank to rank, -rallying and inspiring his troops with vigour; and though he had toiled -all day, till near night-fall, in front of his Kentish men, yet he still seemed -unabated in force or courage, keeping his men to the post of honour.</p> - -<p>Once more, therefore, the victory seemed to turn against the Normans, -and they fell in great numbers, so that the fierceness and obstinacy of -this memorable battle was often renewed by the courage of the leaders, -whenever that of the soldiers began to slacken. Fortune at length determined -a victory that valour was unable to decide.</p> - -<p>Harold, making a furious onset at the head of his troops against the -Norman heavy armed infantry, was shot into the brains by an arrow; and -his two valiant brothers, fighting by his side, shared the same fate. He -fell with his sword in his hand, amidst heaps of slain.”</p> - - -<p>HAVRE-DE-GRACE.—Defended for the Huguenots by the English -in 1562. Bombarded several times by the British Navy. Successfully -attacked for three days from July 6th to 9th, 1759. Again bombarded in -1794 and 1795—and again by Sir Richard Strachan in 1798. Declared -in a state of blockade 1803; and the attempts of the British to burn -the shipping here signally failed, August 7th, 1804.</p> - - -<p>HERARA, BATTLE OF.—<em>In Arragon.</em>—In this battle, Don -Carlos of Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right to the throne of -that kingdom, encountered, at the head of 12,000 men, and defeated -General Buerens, who had not half the number of the Queen’s troops. -The loss of Buerens was about 1000 killed and wounded. Fought, August -24th, 1837.</p> - - -<p>HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE.—Vertot says that this battle, -fought in 1429, received its name from the following ludicrous occasion. -The Duc de Bourbon, in attempting to intercept a convoy on the road to -the English Camp, before Orleans, was severely beaten. It was a convoy -of salt-fish—and this action has ever since been called by the above name.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> - - -<p>HOCHKIRCHEN, BATTLE OF.—Between the Prussian army, -commanded by Frederick II, and the Austrians, commanded by Count -Daun. The King was surprised in his camp and defeated by the Imperial -General. In this battle, an illustrious Scotsman, Field-Marshal Keith, -in the service of Prussia, was killed; and such was the respect and admiration -which his name inspired, that Counts Daun and Lacy, the Austrian -Generals, shed tears on beholding the corpse, and ordered its interment -with military honours. Fought, October 14th, 1758.</p> - - -<p>HOCHENLINDEN, BATTLE OF.—Fought November 3rd, 1800, -between the Austrian and French armies—the latter commanded by -General Moreau. The Austrians were defeated with dreadful slaughter, -losing 10,000 men in killed and wounded, and 10,000 more in prisoners. -The forces of each army were nominally equal at the commencement of -the battle.</p> - - -<p>HOMELDEN, BATTLE OF.—Between the Scots, headed by the -Earl of Douglas, and the Percys, in which the Scots were defeated. -Douglas and many of the nobility were taken prisoners in this battle. -Fought in 1403.</p> - - -<p>HORATII AND CURIATII, COMBAT BETWEEN THE.—Fought -<span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 669. The forces of the two states met about five miles -from Rome. While the armies were awaiting the signal for the battle, -the Alban General, stepping into the space between them, proposed to -decide the dispute by single combat. To this proposition Tullus agreed. -There were in each army three twin brothers, all remarkable for their -courage, strength, and activity, and to them it was resolved to commit -the management of the combat. The Roman brothers were called Horatii -and the Albans Curiatii. The champions met. Victory, which for a -time, appeared doubtful, at last seemed to decide against the Romans. -Two of their champions lay dead on the field, and the third seemed, by -flight, to beg for mercy. Defeat was however only apparent. It soon -became evident that this flight of the surviving Roman was pretence in -order that, by separating his antagonists, he might have an opportunity -of engaging them singly. Turning suddenly upon the foremost of the -Curiatii, he laid him dead at his feet. The second instantly shared his -fate. Fatigued and disabled by his wounds, the third slowly advanced to -offer an easy victory. He was slain almost unresisting, while the conqueror -exclaimed “Two have I already sacrificed to the Manes of my -brothers; a third will I offer up to my country.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> - - -<p>HUSSAR.—This kind of soldier originated in Poland and Hungary, -and as they, being light cavalry, were more suited for hasty attacks than -a set battle, they are supposed to have taken their name from the -<em>huzzas</em> or shouts which they made at their first onset. Pardon says that -they were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers, &c., hanging on -their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock’s -feather. Introduced into the British service in the last century.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="I" id="I"></a>I.</h3> - - -<p>INKERMANN, BATTLE OF.—One of the most brilliant achievements -in the history of the British Army. Fought on the 5th of -November, 1854.</p> - -<p>“Two days after the repulse of the enemy’s sortie, by Sir De Lacy -Evans’ division, General Dannenberg, with a large Russian reinforcement, -arrived at Baktchi-Serai from Odessa, which place he left on the -19th of October. In order that his men might reach the scene of action -with the greatest practicable rapidity, and in good condition, every -available cart and rustic conveyance was pressed into the service. They -were thus comparatively fresh and vigorous after so rapid a march. On -the 3rd of November, one division, under General Soimonoff, entered -Sebastopol. The remainder, under General Pauloff, encamped at Tchorgoun, -a short distance to the east.</p> - -<p>Strengthened by this considerable reinforcement, the Russian Generals -decided upon an attack upon the position of the Allies in such strength -that it should be scarcely possible to make an effectual resistance. The -Grand Dukes Michael and Nicholas, sons of the Emperor, had arrived at -Sebastopol, with the purpose of encouraging the garrison by their presence, -and witnessing the total defeat of the haughty invaders. On -Sunday, the 4th of November, solemn religious services were held in the -town. Patriarchs and Bishops of the Greek Church addressed the soldiery, -urged upon them the importance of the trust which their good father the -Czar had thought proper to impose upon them,—assured them that death -in his service was only the road to a martyr’s crown, and that the English -were monsters of cruelty, who committed the most atrocious barbarities -upon all prisoners of war. Finally, they said the British camp abounded -in treasure, one-third of which should be the property of the soldiery. -Incited by these promises,—stimulated by extra rations of ardent spirits,—and -fanatically believing that the destruction of the English heretics -would be a work of acceptable piety, the Russian soldiers mingled shouts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -of devotion to the Czar and death to the Allies, and prepared themselves -for the encounter of the morrow.</p> - -<p>The plan of attack, as decided upon by the enemy’s commanders, was -shortly this:—The extreme right of the British position, near the bridge -which crossed the Tchernaya at Inkermann, was notoriously our weak -point. Sir De Lacy Evans, whose division occupied this position, had -repeatedly called Lord Raglan’s attention to this vulnerable point; but -so laborious were the duties devolving upon our men, and so extended -the line of defence, that it was impossible to spare either men or guns for -the establishment of works. The French, whose large numbers and secure -position on the western plateau left them a far smaller share of the duty, -had been early applied to for assistance, but had hitherto refused. Sir -John Burgoyne had called the special attention of General Biot to the -danger of leaving exposed such an avenue to the camp of the Allies; but -the French commander seems to have been at this time but little disposed -to relieve the English of any of the toil or danger they had so willingly -undertaken, but which proved too much for their effectual performance. -At length the English, by almost superhuman exertions, had erected a -small work on the brow of the hill, intended to carry two guns, but they -had not yet been mounted.</p> - -<p>Towards this point, then,—of the unprotected nature of which the -Russians were perfectly well aware, thanks to the newspaper correspondents, -who, in their anxiety to satisfy the curiosity of the readers at home, -contrived (unwittingly, we believe) to afford the enemy a very great deal -of valuable information,—the attention of the Russians was naturally -directed. It afforded a convenient access to the very centre of the -English lines, and would, in all probability, offer but a feeble resistance. -It was arranged that Gortschakoff should, at an early hour on the morning -of the 5th, make a threatening demonstration in front of Balaklava, -apparently renewing the attempt of the 25th of October. This would -have the effect of drawing a considerable portion of the armies to the -defence of that important position, thus leaving the front comparatively -unprotected. On the extreme left of the line, General Timofeyer would -also make a feigned attack, occupying the attention of the French. The -actual assault was to be made by the recently-arrived army of General -Dannenberg. The two divisions already named, according to the Russian -computation (most probably understated), were of the following strength: -General Soimonoff’s corps consisted of three regiments of the 10th division, -three of the 16th, and one of the 17th, amounting altogether to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -16,200 bayonets, with twenty-two heavy and sixteen light guns; that -of General Pauloff, numbering 13,200 bayonets, was composed of three -regiments of the 10th division, two Chasseur regiments of the 18th, with -twelve guns. The two corps thus numbered 29,400 bayonets, and fifty -guns. Soimonoff was ordered to march from the Malakoff Tower in a -westerly direction, until he reached the Kilen ravine, under cover of which -he was to penetrate into the English centre on the western side of the -ravine. Five o’clock in the morning was fixed as the time for the assault. -Pauloff’s division was to cross the Tchernaya, force the English lines at -the unprotected point, and cutting their way through the second division -join Soimonoff in the main attack, when General Dannenberg, with the -remainder of the army, would appear upon the scene, and, it was fondly -imagined, give the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup de grace</i> to the invaders. Such was the plan of -the Russian Generals, carefully matured, and kept profoundly secret from -the Allies. We shall see the result.</p> - -<p>All night the bells of Sebastopol rang loudly. The heavy November -mist obscured the sound; and most probably, the English soldiers, far -from considering the clashing from the belfries as the signal for the -gathering of troops, imagined that one of the multitudinous festivals of -the Greek Church was being celebrated with unwonted ostentation. -Towards morning the mist thickened, and it was impossible to discern -any object at above a few yards’ distance. Taking advantage of the fog, -the Russians conveyed their guns to the lofty eminences beyond the -Tchernaya, facing the British position, and by almost incredible efforts, -in a very brief time, had established a formidable battery in a most commanding -situation. About four o’clock in the morning, intelligence -arrived at head-quarters that Balaklava was again threatened. General -Bosquet was immediately on the alert, with his French chasseurs, and -the indomitable Sir Colin Campbell was fully prepared to meet any force -which might be despatched against him. It was no part, however, of the -enemy’s tactics seriously to attack this position. His purpose was fully -served by the attention of the French being attracted to this point, and -the English being diverted from the real point of assault. About five -o’clock enormous bodies of Russian infantry, under cover of the heavy -fog, silently passed the bridge across the Tchernaya, and stealthily crept -up the hill towards the weak point of the English position at the newly-erected -two-gun battery. The pickets of the 55th, on duty at this spot, -suddenly found themselves in presence of an over-whelming force of the -enemy. Desperately fighting, the courageous little band slowly yielded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -ground, contesting every step, and retreating up the hill towards the -redoubt. Their smart firing, in reply to the tremendous volleys of the -enemy’s musketry, which were now poured into the handful of men, -aroused the camp, and indicated the real nature of the enemy’s plans. -General Pennefather, who commanded the Second Division, in the absence -of Sir De Lacy Evans (who was compelled by the debilitated state of his -health to leave his active duties, and retire on board one of the ships in -the harbor), immediately hastened to the scene; and the men of his -division, hastily shaking off their sleep, quickly responded to the alarm. -In a few minutes all was bustle and activity. Officers and men, alike -hurried forward, some half-dressed, all unbreakfasted, many suffering -from sickness, and none free from the effects of privation and over-toil. -From the Second Division the intelligence of the attack was quickly carried -to the camps of the First, Fourth and Light Divisions, and the Duke -of Cambridge, Sir George Cathcart, and Sir George Brown, instantly -put themselves at the heads of their men, and lost no time in marching to -the scene of action.</p> - -<p>When the pickets were driven in, they retreated to the little two-gun -battery, and fired through the embrasures at the masses of the enemy, -now advancing in dense columns to the attack. The Russian batteries -on the opposite hills opened a tremendous fire upon them, and the guns -of the town and the ships in the harbor threw enormous volleys of shell -and shot right into the camp of the Second Division, tearing up the -ground, and destroying the tents. For a few moments the gallant fellows -of the 51st held their ground, but no courage could long contend against -such fearful odds. In spite of their fire, much too feeble to stay the -advance of such massive columns, the Russians advanced at a rapid pace -up the hill, the few shots of the undaunted defenders of the redoubt telling -fatally in their ranks. Almost before the English could reload, the -Russians were swarming around the battery, and leaping over the embrasure. -Many were hurled back again by the bayonets of the undaunted -picket, who at length, borne down by the weight of the attack, were -driven from the work, and retreated down the hill. The 41st and 49th -now came into the action, and forming into line, charged the advancing -Russians, and drove them back to the redoubt. Again was this little -work the scene of a tremendous contest. The two regiments discharging -a brisk volley from their Minié rifles, levelled their bayonets, and driving -the enemy pell-mell before them, hurled them out of the battery, and once -more the English were masters of the position. The retreating Russians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -were speedily met and reinforced by other columns of infantry, and then -doubled in numbers, again advanced to the attack. The fire, too, from -their batteries, poured unceasing destruction into the thin ranks of the -English regiments. Already the dead and dying were lying thick -around, and many of the bravest and best among them had fallen beneath -the intense fire of the enemy. The Russian masses literally surged up -the hill, and hurled themselves once more at the devoted little band. A -fearful struggle followed. Hand to hand was the combat waged, the -bayonet doing deadly havoc upon friend and foe. In vain the brave -defenders of their post struggled against the unequal odds; in vain the -officers heroically exposed themselves and encouraged their men to the -desperate encounter; and in vain the men themselves emulated their -leaders’ undaunted courage—the enemy, so immensely superior in numbers, -drove them, after a sanguinary defence, from the work, and pursued -them, desperately fighting in their retreat, towards the camp of their -division.</p> - -<p>The alarm had now spread throughout the entire camp, and even -reached Balaklava, rousing the sleepers on board the ships in the harbour. -The heavy booming of the cannon told how fierce was the contest. Sir -De Lacy Evans forgot his sickness, and leaving the bed to which for -many days he had been confined, insisted on being rowed ashore; and -mounting a horse, which he was almost too weak to guide, started for -the field of battle. Lord Raglan, with his staff, had by this time reached -the spot, and at once saw the critical position of the Allies; and saw, too, -the blunder which the enemy had committed. General Soimonoff, who -should, upon issuing from the ravine near Careening Bay, have turned -to the right and attacked the centre of the English line, weakened by the -tremendous assault on the extreme left of the position, mistook the direction -and marched to the left, thus reaching the ground occupied by the -Second Division, and embarrassing General Pauloff’s operations by permitting -the concentration of the English forces to repel his assault, instead -of diverting their attention by an attack at a comparatively remote point. -For a General of Raglan’s experience to take advantage of this blunder -was an easy task. He immediately made such arrangements of the small -means at his command as would enable him to present two fronts of resistance -on the threatened points, while preserving the solidity of his -position.</p> - -<p>The 20th and 47th regiments now arrived to the assistance of the -gallant 49th and 41st, driven with such dreadful slaughter from the two-gun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -battery. The brave Colonel Carpenter, of the 41st, had fallen -pierced with many bullets; and the blood-thirsty Russians, with that -tiger-like ferocity which has made the day of Inkermann so fearfully -memorable, mutilated the senseless form of the grey-headed old warrior, -clubbing their muskets, and beating him on the face till it was almost -impossible to distinguish his features. Covered with blood, frightfully -mangled, and recognised only by his uniform, the colonel was at length, -when the enemy retreated, found by his men, and borne, still breathing, -from the field, to linger for a few days in acute agonies, and then to -breathe his last. Amidst a hurricane of bullets from the Russian troops, -and exposed to a deadly storm of missiles from the enemies’ batteries, -the 20th and 47th fearlessly charged the opposing masses, and endeavoured -to take the redoubt. They were successful in the attempt. The -Russian lines trembled before their impetuous onset. The levelled -bayonets, borne onwards by the resistless vigour of Englishmen, now -maddened by the excitement of battle, cheered by their officers, and with -the memory of Alma, swept down the hordes of irresolute Muscovites, -and with a ringing cheer, the victorious Britons were once again in the -earthwork. There, indeed, was a sight to rouse their hearts—if, indeed, -further stimulant were needed—to deeds of vengeance. Not one of those -who in the previous attacks had fallen wounded was now alive. The -remorseless Russians—assassins rather than soldiers—had bayonetted -every one who showed signs of life. The little battery was choked with -heaps of dead. Englishmen and Russians lay as they fell stiff in their -blood, and disfigured by the agonies of death. Not one was left to tell -his victorious comrades, who leaped shouting into the redoubt, how -bravely their companions in arms had disputed its possession, how dearly -the enemy had purchased a temporary success, or how basely that success -had been consummated by the most brutal murder of wounded and -unarmed men. But the Russians were not disposed to submit to the loss -of this important position which they had made so many efforts to retain. -Fresh legions were launched against the two regiments who had been thus -far successful; and in irresistible strength, still another attempt was made -to regain the post. Against such numbers it was impossible to contend -successfully. The brave holders of the redoubt fought desperately, with -that unyielding pertinacity for which the British infantry, beyond any -soldiery in the world, is distinguished. But the shot from the batteries -on the hills beyond the river swept through their lines; on every hand -brave fellows fell pierced with bullets, or mangled by exploding shells.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -The enemy was tenfold their number, and swept on like a torrent -against their feeble defence. After a brief but most heroic struggle, the -noble remnant of the gallant 20th and 47th yielded to a force they could -no longer withstand, and retreated to the main body, leaving the Russians -for the third time the masters of the two-gun battery.</p> - -<p>The masters, it is true; but not the undisputed masters. A yet -bloodier contest was to be waged for its possession—a contest which -should make that small unfinished work, on which as yet no gun had -been mounted, renowned throughout Europe. By the time that the 20th -and 41st had been driven back, as we have just recorded, the Duke of -Cambridge had reached the scene of action with the brigade of Guards—those -renowned soldiers whose bayonets had carried the heights of -Alma, and whose prowess was a theme of terror in the Russian camps. -No soldier who had shared in or witnessed that tremendous fight could -forget the terrible onslaught of those bear-skinned warriors, when the -choicest troops of the Czar were trampled under foot, or scattered like -chaff before their irresistible charge. The Coldstreams, no longer the -magnificent battalion which a few months before left the shores of -England, but reduced by the casualties of war and sickness to a few -hundred badly fed and miserably-clothed men, though retaining all the -ancient courage, heightened, indeed, by the hardships they had endured -and the memory of their former achievements,—advanced in close ranks, -at a rapid pace and with fixed bayonets, against the living wall of the -Russians, who held the crown of the hill. Though the enemy were as -ten to one, they yielded and broke before that matchless onset. Scattering -the foe before them, the valiant Guardsmen swept like a hurricane -into the battery, and the defeated Russians were precipitated, a flying and -disordered mass, down the hill. The Coldstreams had well avenged their -comrades’ fall, but they had not yet gained an undisputed success. On -came fresh battalions of the Russians. The flying regiments were mingled -with, or sought refuge behind the advancing legions. Again the -dense mass struggled up the hill, and again did it devolve upon English -valour to defend the post which had been so dearly won. Not less than -6000 Russians advanced in a compact mass towards the two-gun battery. -The defenders did not muster more than as many hundreds. Nothing -daunted, they fired through the embrasures and from the brow of the hill -smart volleys; and when their ammunition failed, as at length it did, -many hurled stones at the enemy. But moment by moment the advancing -host drew nearer and nearer. The summit of the hill is reached,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -they surround the fort, leap over the earthworks, and in an instant there -is a hand to hand struggle, such as, perhaps, was never excelled in -modern warfare. They are repulsed—literally dashed down the hill. -Twice the assault renewed; the second time they are again defeated; -the third time they are once more in the battery. Bayonet crosses -bayonet in rapid thrusts, fearful shrieks of agony are mingled with the -shouts and curses of infuriated men, the floor is cumbered with the fallen -and slippery with blood; the gallant Coldstreams are alone and unaided, -and every moment fresh foemen rush into the deadly <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mêlée</i>. Hundreds -fall before the fatal bayonets of the dauntless Guards—their places are -supplied by hundreds more, fresh and unwounded. In front, on either -side, they swarm around, ferocious and malignant. Back to back, the -English heroes meet their tremendous charge. In all the horrors of that -scene, amid all the carnage which surrounds them, their high courage -never fails, their firm bearing is never relaxed. Though many fall mortally -wounded, their comrades bestride their bodies, and there is still the -bristling <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chevaux-de-frise</i> of bayonets, against which the foe hurl themselves -in vain, and only to fall in hundreds, thrust to the heart by the -fatal steel, wielded by the hands of the most determined soldiers in the -world. At length the limit is reached beyond which resistance is impossible, -and slowly yielding to the immense superiority of numbers, the -Guards give ground, and prepare to leave the battery once more in the -hands of the enemy. They retreat from the spot, and then see that their -path is barred by another and fresh force of the enemy. Death appears -inevitable; other soldiers might lay down their arms, and few would -doubt their courage, so great is the disparity of strength. But the -Guards are not dismayed even then. Struggling into line, with rapidity -gained only by their perfect discipline, they level their bayonets, charge -the fresh foe, and in an instant are among them. Down go the Russian -infantry, stabbed and trampled on. A brief struggle, and the invincible -Coldstreams have cut through the masses of the foe, and sweeping all opposition -from their path, have rejoined the main body of their comrades.</p> - -<p>While this deadly contest was waging, the battle on the left of the -position was rivalling it in intensity. Soimonoff’s army had attacked, -and the greater portion of the Second Division were bravely opposing -their advance. The English artillery were ordered up to the support, -and taking position on the hill, did good service, and sent many a Russian -to his great account. But at length their ammunition was exhausted, -and the enemy advancing in great force, after a stirring combat, in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -Major Townsend, a gallant and experienced officer, was killed, and prodigies -of valour were performed, succeeded in capturing four of our guns.</p> - -<p>The battle had now assumed tremendous proportions. The whole of -the Second and Fourth Divisions were engaged, as well as portions of the -First and Light Divisions, about 8000 men in all. Including the fresh -regiments which Dannenberg now brought into action, not less than -60,000 Russians were in the field. Against this overwhelming force the -English bravely held their ground. The brigade of Guards, gallantly led -by their royal commander, had again united, and waged a desperate warfare -against unequal odds. In front, the Light Division and a portion of -the Second preserved a firm bearing, and opposed themselves fearlessly to -the shock of the advancing battalions. On the left, Soimonoff’s <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">corps -d’armée</i> was met by the remainder of the Second Division, who bore the -assault of the enemy, inspirited by their success in driving back the artillery -and capturing the guns. Their exultation was fated to be of brief -duration, for the gallant Second, having repulsed their first attack, now -assumed the offensive, and charging the Russian columns, after a sanguinary -struggle, drove them back, and recaptured the guns.</p> - -<p>The ground to which the struggle was now confined was hilly and -covered with thick brushwood, sloping towards the harbour, the ships in -which, moored so as to command the English lines, poured a destructive -fire into our ranks. The brigade of Guards, forced by the enormous -odds to quit the Two-gun Battery, after such a terrific contest, were now -engaged in hand-to-hand conflict with nearly ten times their number of -the enemy. It was impossible, from the fierceness of the contest and the -nature of the ground, to preserve military order. The battle was a series -of detached groups, sometimes a few dauntless Guardsmen, bareheaded -and back to back, disputing every inch of ground, and with their -bayonets inflicting terrible execution on the enemy; sometimes a young -officer, rallying a few of his men around him, dashing with a ringing -cheer at a phalanx of the foe, and as their dense mass was broken by the -impetuosity of the attack, falling pierced by a dozen bullets, with his last -breath cheering on his men to the charge. So fell Lieut.-Colonels Mackinnon -and Cowell; so fell Sir Robert Newman; and so fell many another -brave soldier and good man. The Duke of Cambridge, affected almost to -tears by the sight of so many lying in their blood, was everywhere in the -thick of the fight, urging on his men, and setting them an example of the -most daring courage. Almost alone, he dashed into the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mêlée</i>, amid a -shower of bullets from the Russian rifles. Once he had nearly fallen a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -victim to his own enthusiasm and contempt of danger. Conspicuous by -his uniform and fine person, he presented a prominent mark for the aim -of the ambushed enemy. Reckless of the danger, he disdained even ordinary -precautions. In this emergency, Dr. Wilson, anxious to lend his -professional services to the wounded, saw the peril of the Duke, and collecting -a handful of men, dispersed the enemy’s riflemen, and rescued the -too daring leader. Nothing could exceed the deadly nature of the combat. -The Guards fought as only men can fight, when utterly desperate. -There seemed but small probability that one of that noble brigade -would leave the ground unhurt. The Russians, strong in their numbers, -inspirited by intoxication and fanaticism, poured their legions in vain -against the resistance of such unquenchable heroism. Heaps of dead -covered the ground, and the assassin Muscovites, unable to subdue the -living, wreaked a miserable vengeance on the fallen, bayonetting and -madly disfiguring with their clubbed muskets every prostrate antagonist. -When the battle was over, many a brave fellow, who had fallen wounded, -was found an unrecognisable mass of mangled flesh and blood. Rendered -nearly mad by the sight of such devilish atrocity, the survivors redoubled -their almost surpernatural efforts, and though pressed on every side, -maintained the struggle with unfailing valour, still the same invincible -Guardsmen, so terrible at Alma, so heroic at the fight for the Two-gun -Battery.</p> - -<p>The Light Division meanwhile maintained its reputation in the vigorous -struggle in which they were now engaged. Sir George Brown, their -General, was severely wounded, and borne from the field, his white hair -streaming in the wind, and his face deadly pale, from the acuteness of his -suffering. A five-gun battery, under the direction of Sir Thomas Troubridge, -Major of the 7th Fusiliers, did good service against the advancing -columns of the enemy; but the brave fellows who manned it suffered terribly -from the fire from the batteries of the town. Sir Thomas himself -had his right leg and left foot carried away by a thirty-nine pounder -from the Round Tower, or Malakoff. Notwithstanding the severity of -the injury, and the excruciating agony he must have endured, he refused -to permit his men to carry him to the rear; but ordered them to lift him -to a gun-carriage, whence, streaming with blood, he continued to give the -word of command, nor quitted his post till the enemy were routed.</p> - -<p>Seeing the desperate nature of the contest, Sir George Cathcart conceived -the idea that by descending the side of the hill, he might take the -enemy in flank, and so relieve the Guards from the unequal struggle in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -which they were engaged. He despatched General Torrens, with portions -of the 46th and 68th regiments on this duty. They advanced -rapidly, but from either hand rained the bullets of the Russian riflemen, -concealed in the brushwood. The horse of General Torrens fell pierced -by five bullets, and on every side, the number who were struck down -attested the severity of the fire to which they were exposed. Torrens -himself received a ball through his lungs, and was carried senseless from -the field. Sir George Cathcart, seeing the fierce opposition which his -brigade sustained, immediately dashed forward with the remainder of -his men, and fearlessly charged the enemy. Too late he saw the error -into which he had been led. He was perfectly surrounded by the enemy, -who held the high ground commanding the valley into which he had led -his brigade, in the hopes of making a vigorous flank attack. For some -time, his little band returned sharp volleys to the enemy’s rifles. Then -a cry was raised that their cartridges were exhausted. There was no -retreat, and the fierce fire poured like hail into their ranks. “You have -got your bayonets!” shouted their dauntless leader, and dashed forwards -followed by his men. As he raised himself in his stirrups, a bullet -pierced his brain, and the heroic Cathcart, the subduer of the Cape -savages, fell headlong from his horse, quite dead. By his side fell -Colonel Seymour, Adjutant-General of the Fourth Division, sharing his -leader’s fate. He was wounded before Sir George, but concealed his -hurt. When the General fell, Colonel Seymour dismounted to render -him assistance. The brigade had swept on, unable to pause in their -career, and then the enemy rushing on the wounded Seymour cruelly -murdered him, as he stooped over the body of his friend, and consummated -their infamy by basely stabbing with their bayonets the insensible -body of the noble Cathcart.</p> - -<p>It was now eleven o’clock, and it seemed impossible that the English -could much longer withstand the terrible assault. They were driven -back exhausted by the long struggle; hundreds of their best and bravest -had fallen heroically; and the enemy was still pouring fresh legions into -the fray. The fog and drizzling rain obscured the scene of action, so -that it was impossible for the Generals to concert a scheme of operations, -or even to know accurately the state of affairs: it was rather a series of -battles than one action. Lord Raglan and his staff were eagerly watching -the fray, but unable to control the movements of the troops. Nothing -could save the entire army but the self-devotion and valour of the -men: tactics were unavailable, and generalship useless. Now, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -came the crisis of the struggle. General Bosquet had by this time discovered -that the threatened attack on Balaklava was but a feint; and -warned by the thunder of cannon and the roll of musketry of the real -point of attack, hastened to, the rescue. Two troops of horse-artillery -were speedily despatched, and took up a position whence they could -effectively play upon the Russian guns. Hastening to the spot, with his -dashing regiments of Zouaves and Chasseurs Indigènes, he precipitated -himself upon the left flank of the Russian hordes. General Canrobert, -too, at the same time, ordered up several French regiments of the line to -the assistance of the English Second Division, on the left.</p> - -<p>Wearied, wounded, and almost disheartened, the English heroes were -gradually giving ground to the foe, when their ears caught, above the din -of battle, the rapid tread and loud shouts of advancing troops, and perceived -through the mist the forms of massive columns, moving at a rapid -pace, whether friends or foes they scarcely knew. In a few moments, a -joyous “Hurrah!” rang from the broken lines, and a mighty cheer was -echoed through the fog: then they knew the French were there to help -them. A new life seemed to animate them; no longer they retreated, -but summoning up the last flashes of their failing fire, charged the foe -anew. The Russians, staggered by the fresh assault, surprised by the -sudden appearance of the warriors of Africa, hesitated and gave way. -Then, uniting their ranks, the English and the French, with mingled -shouts, loud “Hurrahs!” and “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vive l’Empereur!</span>” dashed into the -paralyzed columns, and drove the bayonets home through many a Russian -breast. The Zouaves leaped through the tangled brushwood, and, -with wondrous activity, scattered the confused and retreating battalions. -Then came the tremendous fire from the ships in the harbour, and the -guns from the heights, which almost swept them from the field, and -forced them for a brief space to pause in their career. It was but for an -instant. Renewing their charge, English and French once more dashed -at the flying foe, and at the bayonet’s point, with fearful slaughter, drove -them, a disorderly mob, down the hill-side.</p> - -<p>The moment had now come when Lord Raglan could effectively exhibit -his generalship: for hours he had sat in his saddle, in a most exposed -situation, unable to control the fluctuating fortunes of the day. Under -his direction, General Strangways had opened a heavy fire of artillery -upon the Russian guns upon the opposite hills, with the hope of silencing -their fatal volleys. This was all he had been enabled to perform for the -succour of the troops engaged. Many fell around him, but the brave old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> -General refused to move from his exposed situation, anxious for the time -to arrive when he might be enabled so to manœuvre his forces as to drive -back the enemy. General Strangways was within a short distance of the -Commander-in-Chief, when a shot, which had actually passed between the -legs of Lord Raglan’s horse, shattered his leg, and he fell to the ground. -He was borne carefully to the rear, where, in a few moments, the gallant -old man, who had survived the dangers of Leipzig, and a fearful wound -at Waterloo, breathed his last; meeting his fate with a calm heroism that -affected to tears many a brave man fresh from the honours of that sanguinary -field. The Russians had left on the field two 18-pounder guns, and -Lord Raglan now ordered them to be brought up to the front. Colonel -Dickson had already anticipated the order, and the guns had been dragged -by main strength to the fitting position on a ridge front of the Second -Division. Assisted by Captain D’Aguilar, a well-aimed fire was poured -into the Russian batteries; the guns were overthrown, the gunners killed, -and the fire for an instant quelled; but the fertility of the enemy’s -resources did not fail them even now: fresh gunners supplied the places -of those struck down by the English fire, and the deadly duel was -resumed. Then came the retreating infantry—a headlong mass, and the -fiery Zouaves and reanimated British in hot pursuit. Three times were -the artillerymen swept away from their guns; as many times their places -were supplied. Then, under cover of fierce volleys from the town and -ships, they succeeded in carrying off their guns. The French batteries -now advanced to the crown of the ridge, and opened fire on the retreating -masses, flying pell-mell towards the heights. Hundreds fell beneath the -deadly volleys—the thunders of the death-dealing artillery drowned alike -the shrieks and groans of the wounded and the triumphant shouts of the -victors, and the battle of Inkermann was won!</p> - -<p>About 8000 English and 6000 French had thus utterly defeated -more than 50,000 of the enemy, with the disadvantage of being taken by -surprise. The English were enfeebled by sickness, imperfectly fed, and -inadequately provided with necessary equipments and ammunition. The -Russians were mostly fresh troops, prepared for the attack, and supported -by the tremendous batteries of the town and ships. It is to the French -unquestionably that we were indebted for the victory: no human courage -could much longer have withstood such disproportionate odds. The -gallant Bosquet, by his promptitude and the dashing valour of his African -soldiers, saved not only the fortunes of the day, but the very existence of -the English army. Our loss was 462 killed, including 43 officers, 1952<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -wounded, and 198 missing; giving a total of 2612 casualties. Three -generals were killed—Cathcart, Goldie, and Strangways; and three—Brown, -Torrens, and Bentinck—were wounded. If we reckon that only -about 8000 were engaged, these numbers show that nearly every third -man was killed, wounded, or fell into the hands of the enemy. The -Russians admit a loss of 2969 killed, of whom 42 were officers; and -5791 wounded, including 206 officers; giving a total loss of 8760. -There can be no rational doubt that their real loss was nearly double, -and the number of Russians killed or wounded was at the least equal to -the entire English and French forces engaged in the battle. Our -brigade of Guards alone lost twelve officers killed on the field, besides -many wounded. Truly the daring courage of the English gentleman has -not deteriorated in these latter days! The chivalric valour which placed -the officers in the very front of danger was nobly seconded by the -unquenchable spirit of the men whom they led; they were mostly fasting, -when they hurried to the scene of conflict, and for ten long hours were -engaged in one of the deadliest struggles the military historian has ever -recorded. Some were sick, all were gaunt and emaciated. It was Agincourt -once more. The starved legions met and overthrew five times their -number. Such was the bloody battle of Inkermann!”</p> - - -<p>IPSUS, BATTLE OF.—Fought <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 301. Between Seleucus and -Antigonus, King of Asia. On the side of Antigonus was his son, -whilst Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Cassander were ranged on the side of -Seleucus. The army of Seleucus consisted of 70,000 foot, and 10,000 -cavalry, with 75 elephants. The other army amounted to 64,000 infantry, -and 10,500 horse, with 600 elephants and 120 chariots. Antigonus and -his son were signally defeated.</p> - - -<p>IRUN, BATTLE OF.—Between the British auxiliary legion, under -General Evans, and the Carlist forces. It was fought, May 17th, 1837. -On the 16th, the legion marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun, which, -after a desperate resistance, they carried by assault. Great exertions were -made by the British officers to save the lives of the prisoners from the -fury of the soldiers of the legion, their minds having been exasperated by -the frequent massacre of such of their comrades as had from time to -time fallen into the hands of the enemy. The town was pillaged.</p> - - -<p>ISLE-AUX-NOIX.—<em>In the Richelieu River, Lower Canada.</em>—Commands -the entrance to Lake Champlain. Fortified by the French, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -1759. Captured by the English, in 1760. Taken by the Americans, in -1775 (from which place they issued their proclamation to the Canadians). -It rendered important service in the war of 1812–1814.</p> - - -<p>ISLE OF FRANCE.—Taken, with six French frigates, and many -Indiamen, by the British from the French, December 2nd, 1810. The -British retain possession of it, and it is now a freed colony.</p> - - -<div><a name="ISM" id="ISM"></a></div> -<p>ISMAEL, SIEGE OF.—<em>In Bessarabia.</em>—After a long siege by the -Russians, who lost 20,000 men before the place, the town was taken by -storm, December 22nd, 1790, when the Russian General, Suwarrow, the -bloodiest and most merciless warrior of modern times, put the brave -Turkish garrison, consisting of 30,000 men, to the sword—every man -was butchered. Not satisfied with this vengeance, the General ordered the -town to be pillaged by his ferocious soldiery, and 6000 women were -murdered in cold blood.</p> - - -<p>ISSUS, BATTLE OF.—Alexander the Great completely defeated -Darius in this battle, fought <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 333. The Persian army, according to -Justin, amounted to 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse, of which 61,000 -foot and 10,000 cavalry were left dead on the field, and 40,000 were -taken prisoners. The Macedonians lost only 300 foot and 150 horse, -according to Diodorus Siculus.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="J" id="J"></a>J.</h3> - - -<p>JAFFA.—Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa. Taken by Napoleon, in -February, 1799. The French driven out by the British, in June, the -same year. Here, according to the account of Sir Robert Wilson, Napoleon -massacred 3800 Arab prisoners of war; but this is reasonably doubted.</p> - - -<p>JANVILLIERS, BATTLE OF.—Between the French and Prussians, -which, after a severe engagement, Blucher, who commanded the -latter army, was driven back to Chalons with considerable loss. Fought, -February 14th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>JARNAC, BATTLE OF.—The Duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry -III of France, defeated the Huguenots, under Louis, Prince of Condé, -who was killed in cold blood by Montesquieu. The victor was but -seventeen years of age, and on account of his successes and his triumph -at Moncontour, the Poles chose him for their king; he had his arm in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -a sling, and a moment before the battle, his leg was broken by a kick -from a horse. Fought, March 13th, 1569.</p> - - -<p>JAVA.—This island capitulated to the British, August 8th, 1811. -The sultan dethroned by the English and the hereditary Prince raised to -the throne, June, 1813. Restored to Holland, in 1814.</p> - - -<p>JEMMAPPES, BATTLE OF.—This was one of the most obstinate -and hard-fought battles in modern times; 40,000 French troops -forced 28,000 Austrians, who were entrenched in woods and mountains, -defended by forty redoubts and an immense number of cannon. The revolutionary -general Dumouriez, was the victor in this battle, which lasted -four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the loss on the -Austrian side was 10,000 men killed, and that of the French 12,000. -Fought, November 5th, 1792.</p> - - -<p>JENNA, BATTLE OF.—One of the most bloody battles fought in -the Napoleon wars, between the French and Prussian armies; the former -commanded by Napoleon—the latter by the Prussian King. The latter -was signally defeated with the loss of 30,000 slain, and 30,000 taken -prisoners, and 200 field pieces taken. After this Napoleon advanced to -Berlin, October 14th, 1806.</p> - - -<p>JERUSALEM.—Taken by the Israelites <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 1048, and by Nebuchadnezzar -<span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 587. Razed to the ground by Titus <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 70, after -one of the most awful as well as remarkable sieges recorded in history -and predicted by our Blessed Lord. More than 1,100,000 Jews perished -on this occasion. Rebuilt by Adrian <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 130. Taken by the Persians -in 614; by the Saracens in 636; and by the Crusaders in 1099, when -70,000 infidels were put to the sword. A new kingdom was then -founded, and lasted eighty-eight years. Again taken from the Christians -by Saladin, in 1187, and by the Turks in 1217. Lastly taken by -Bonaparte, in February, 1799.</p> - - -<p>JUGURTHA, THE WAR WITH.—A memorable war, of which -the Roman historian, Sallust, has written an account, commenced <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> -111, and continued five years. Metellus was first sent against him, then -Sylla and Marius—the latter of whom took him prisoner, and at last he -died in prison, at Rome.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="K" id="K"></a>K.</h3> - - -<p>KAFFIR WAR.—There was an invasion of the Kaffirs, or Caffres, -in the vicinity of Grahamstown, Cape of Good Hope, in October, 1831. -The invaders fell upon the settlers, murdered them, burnt their houses, -destroyed their crops, and carried off their cattle; this irruption was -eventually suppressed by the colonial authorities. Other, but slighter -annoyances to the colonists took place occasionally, up to December, 1850, -when Sir Harry Smith, the then Governor, proclaimed martial law, -and ordered the colonists to rise <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en masse</i> for the defence of the frontier; -the Kaffirs had previously defeated the British troops, and had committed -many murderous forays on the villages. Then followed several disastrous -operations in the Water Kloof, and Colonel Fordyce and several -officers and men of the 74th Regiment were killed, November 6th, 1847. -Captain Oldham, and others, had just before this fallen into an ambuscade -and been killed. The wreck of the <i>Birkenhead</i> with re-enforcements -from England, took place February 26th, 1852. General Cathcart, at -last, on the 20th December, 1852, attacked them with 2000 British -troops at Berea, where they numbered 6000 cavalry. In this action -Captain Tanner and 38 men were killed, and two other officers and 15 -men wounded. The Kaffirs suffered severely, and at last were obliged to -sue for peace.</p> - - -<p>KALITSCH, BATTLE OF.—Fought, February 13th, 1813, -between the Saxons, under the French General Regnier, and the Russians -under Winzingerode. An obstinate engagement in which the French -were defeated, with the loss of 2000 killed and some thousands taken -prisoners.</p> - - -<p>KALUNGA, FORT.—<em>In the East Indies.</em>—Unsuccessfully attacked -by the East India Company’s forces, and General Gillespie killed, October -31st, 1814. Again unsuccessfully attacked, November 25th, following, -and evacuated by the Nepaulese on the 30th November, 1814.</p> - - -<div><a name="KAR" id="KAR"></a></div> -<p>KARS, THE BATTLE OF THE HEIGHTS OF.—“On the 29th -September, 1855, about 3.30 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>, the Russians were seen advancing up -the Shorak valley in dense masses, but in what order could not then, on -account of the darkness, be ascertained. Our troops were in a moment -under arms, and at their posts. General Kmety, with one battalion of -infantry and seven companies of chasseurs, was stationed in Sheshanegee<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -Tabia; Major Teesdale, with one battalion of infantry, in Yuksek Tabia; -and Hussein Pacha, with the Arabistan Corps, in Tahmasb Tabia, where -he was soon joined by Kerim Pacha, the second in command of the army. -Bashi-bazouks were also dispersed throughout the different works, and -the Laz held a small work called Yarem Ai Tabia, in front of Yuksek -Tabia. General Kmety was the first to open fire with round-shot on the -advancing battalions of the enemy; he was immediately answered by two -guns placed in position on a height forming the north-west boundary of -the Shorak valley. In a few minutes the whole visible force of the -Russians charged up the hill with loud cries; they were received with a -terrific fire of grape and musketry, which mowed down whole ranks at -every volley. General Kmety’s position was attacked by eight battalions -of the enemy; they advanced very gallantly to within five paces of the -work, when so heavy a fire was opened on the head of the column that -the whole corps wavered, halted, then turned, and fled down the hill in -the greatest confusion, leaving 850 dead. They did not renew the -attack there.</p> - -<p>Tahmasb Tabia bore the brunt of the battle; about 16 battalions, -with many guns, were brought up against it, but its garrison was undaunted, -and for a long time the Russians could not even get possession of the -breast-work forming the left wing of that battery; but, at length, an -overwhelming force obliged the Turks to retire within the redoubt. A -scene of carnage now ensued perfectly terrible to behold. As the Russians -came over the brow of the hill within the breastwork, to take the -battery in rear, Tchim and Tek Tabias and Fort Lake opened on them -with 24-pound shot, which tore through their ranks, but they did not -seem to heed this. They charged Tahmasb Tabia, which was one sheet -of fire, over and over again, and so resolute were their assaults that many -of the Russian officers were killed in the battery, but they could not succeed -in carrying it.</p> - -<p>General Kmety, after having repulsed the Russians, went forward with -four companies of chasseurs to Yuksek Tabia, which was sorely pressed. -Major Teesdale pointed out a battalion of Russian chasseurs which lay -hidden behind Yarem Ai Tabia (this work having been abandoned by -the Laz at the commencement of the battle), and begged that they -might be dislodged. The General at once determined to carry the battery; -so, forming up his men, he charged and drove the Russians down the hill; -leaving a company to defend the work, he returned to Yuksek Tabia, from -whence perceiving a battalion of the enemy trying to turn the right wing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -of Tahmasb Tabia, he reinforced his corps with three companies from -Major Teesdale, and charged the Russians; here, too, he was successful. -In the meantime reinforcements were sent up from below; these formed -behind the tents of the reserve, and watched their opportunity in attacking -the Russian columns, when driven back from an assault on the -batteries. For seven hours this went on; reserve after reserve of the -enemy was brought forward, but only to meet death. Nothing could -shake the firmness of our troops, till at length the Russians, wearied and -dispirited, at eleven <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>, turned and fled down the hills in a confused -mass, not one single company keeping its ranks. The army was followed -in its flight by the townspeople and Bashi-bazouks, who brought down -hundreds as they fled. While the infantry were engaged in this conflict, -the Cossacks tried to penetrate into the tents of the reserve, but they were -soon driven back by the townspeople and infantry reserves with heavy -loss.</p> - -<p>One battalion of Russian infantry attempted to march round the -position, and take a small battery situated in a commanding position on -the road leading to a village called Tchakmak. It commenced its march -in splendid order, but ere it went 600 yards it was broken and in great -disorder, and so terrified, that fifty or sixty of our chasseurs drove the -broken mass down the Tchakmak valley like a flock of sheep. The cause -of the terror was the terrible fire opened upon it by Yuksek Tabia, the -guns of Sheshanegee Tabia and Fort Lake.</p> - -<p>A column of eight battalions, with 16 guns and three regiments of -cavalry, attacked the English lines at half-past five <span class="fs70">A.M.</span> This line of -fortification was at the time very weakly garrisoned; the breastwork was -carried in a few minutes, the batteries Teesdale, Thompson, and Zohrah, -successively fell into the enemy’s hands, and the men who formed their -garrisons retired into Williams Pacha Tabia. The Russians then brought -up their artillery into position in front of Zohrab Tabia, and began firing -upon Fort Lake and shelling the town, but Fort Lake (under the able -superintendence of the gallant officer whose name it bears), Arab Tabia, -and Karadagh, opened so heavy a fire on them with 24 pounders, that -they were compelled to withdraw their artillery altogether. The Russian -infantry then charged Williams Pacha Tabia, but were repulsed by a -flanking fire from Fort Lake and a severe fire of musketry from the -defenders of the battery attacked. They retired into Zohrab Tabia, -re-formed, and again assaulted; a body of their chasseurs was at the same -time sent forward to within 500 yards of Fort Lake, to take a small open<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -work called Churchill Tabia, which was doing the enemy without the -lines much harm. This was occupied by two companies of our chasseurs: -they turned to receive the attack of the enemy; and, after retiring a short -distance halted, and kept the Russians at bay. While this was going on, -Captain Thompson, who had charge of the batteries of Karadagh and -Arab Tabia, sent over the 5th regiment of infantry from Arab Tabia to -retake the English Tabias of Teesdale and Thompson, and from below -two battalions of the 2nd regiment came up to recapture Zohrab Tabia. -The forces commenced the attack together from each end of the line, and -drove the Russians out of the forts and breastworks at the point of the -bayonet. Once out of the lines, they did not attempt to retake them. -Unfortunately the enemy had time, while in possession of the batteries, -to take away five guns, and to spike three, but they abandoned three of -the captured guns at a short distance from the redoubts, so that we only -lost two. As the enemy retreated our long guns again played on their -columns, and they retired as speedily as possible.</p> - -<p>Some cavalry attempted to engage the battery above the village of -Tchakmak, but again the terrible guns of Fort Lake drove them off. By -10.30 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span> the English Tabias were silent.</p> - -<p>Such was the dreadful battle of “The Heights of Kars.” This is but -a very lame account of the glorious fight. I have not the time to enter -into greater details, but it will give an idea of what our men did and had -to endure. The forces of the enemy exceeded 30,000, while ours, engaged, -were below 8000. Not one of our men had tasted anything since the -previous afternoon; hungry and thirsty, they remained undaunted, and -repulsed column after column of the Russians; at last their heroism was -rewarded with perhaps the most brilliant victory that has been gained -during this war.</p> - -<p>The field of battle was a sight too horrible ever to be forgotten by me; -the dead lay in vast heaps in every direction around the forts—the ditches -were full of mutilated bodies—the tents were torn to rags—arms, clothes, -broken ammunition-boxes lay strewed about. Upwards of 6000 Russians -fell, and more than 4000 muskets have been collected, and 150 prisoners -taken. The total loss to the enemy in killed and wounded must have -been very near, if not more than, 15,000. Several Generals were killed -or wounded; amongst the former, reports say, General Breumer, the -second in command; and General Baklanoff, who commanded the attack -on Canly Tabia on the 7th of last August. Thousands of carts have -been sent to Gumri (Alexandropoli) with wounded.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p> - -<p>Our list of casualties is but small, about 1000 in killed and wounded. -Dr. Sandwith, the Inspector of Hospitals, had made his arrangements, -and, thanks to his abilities, the hospitals are in good order.</p> - -<p>For this great victory, Turkey has to thank General Williams; during -the past four months his exertions to get things into order have been -astonishing; night and day he has laboured. He has had many and -great obstacles to overcome, but nothing could break his energy. On the -memorable 29th he directed the movements of the troops; the reinforcements -always reached their appointed position in time. The great results -of the day prove how well his operations were conceived.</p> - -<p>The loss inflicted on the enemy fully shows how well the positions of -the redoubts were chosen by Colonel Lake. All the batteries flanked -each other, and the Russians were unable to bring up guns to command -any of our positions. The troops kiss the batteries, and say that the -Miralai Bey (Colonel) was “Chok akill” (very wise) when he made -them work.</p> - -<p>Captain Thompson aided greatly in recapturing the English lines. -He directed, by order, the guns of Arab Tabia and Karadagh, and sent -the troops over to attack the Russians.</p> - -<p>Major Teesdale was in the hottest fire, and acted with great coolness -and bravery. He is the admiration of the Turks. He showed them -how English officers behave in battle.</p> - -<p>All the Turkish officers did their duty nobly. Kerim Pacha was -slightly wounded, and had two horses killed under him; Hussein Pacha -was hit; two Colonels, and many other officers, were killed.”</p> - -<p>Another account thus graphically describes the fall of Kars:—</p> - -<p>“Omer Pacha, gradually overcoming the difficulties of that deficiency -in transports found himself at the head of about 15,000 troops in -Abasia, a good many of these being his own trustworthy veterans. -He had gradually edged them down towards redoubt Kaleh, which -he fixed on as his basis of operations. On the 30th Shemserai was -secured, and, having driven in the Russian outposts from Sogdidi -and endeavoured to open relations with Schamyl, while conciliating the -Princess Dalian and the Christian population in his own neighbourhood, -he moved inland in a south-eastern direction. But, owing to the -difficulties of the country, which is an entanglement of woods interspersed -with very rich but neglected farm lands, and owing still more to the -precariousness and uncertainty of any supplies from the inhabitants, his -progress was extremely slow. He did all that lay in his power, purchasing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -provisions in every direction, and organizing, as his principal resource, -a regular commissariat at Redoubt Kaleh. The river Phasis, which -flows from the Caucasus to the Euxine, is navigable for nearly a hundred -miles from the sea; and he had hoped to have availed himself of this -channel for important manœuvres. His plan was this:—The first strong -Russian post was at Kutais, where the great high road—by Gori, into -Georgia, and down to Tiflis—would take his advancing columns over the -celebrated Soorem Pass. Once master of Kutais, and with his communications -well secured upon the Black Sea along his rear line, he -hoped either to be able to defeat all the local Russian garrisons and posts -between Soorem and the capital of the fertile province lying beyond and -below it, or else to recall by the terror of his progress the army of General -Mouravieff, then menacing Armenia, and beleaguering Kars. In -either case a great blow would be struck, and the hard-pressed troops of -General Williams relieved. Then, should it even prove too late to -advance permanently that year beyond Mingrelia, he could at least -strengthen himself in Kutais, make it his new centre for future operations, -and call up, meantime, additional forces for the campaign of -spring. General Mouravieff would then be pressed from the side of -Armenia, where he was now acting offensively, and from the side of -Imeretia, on which he would be thrown also upon the defensive. But it -was already too late; and the Russian chief knew it. Well informed of -the true state of the Kars garrison, he never disquieted himself, or in the -slightest altered his plans, in consequence of Omer Pacha’s diversion. -Should the Muchir even beat the militia which now guarded the northern -gorges of Georgia, he felt sure that it would all come to the same result. -The season, the floods, scarcity, would compel the victor to retreat; much -more would such become his necessity if, in the interim, he, General -Mouravieff, should succeed in reducing Kars, and, while thus liberating -his own army for an encounter with the Ottoman, should rob the latter -of the chief motive which prompted this venturous advance by depriving -it of its character <em>as a diversion</em>. Indeed, in such a contingency, the -further Omer might have penetrated, the worse, perhaps, would be his -situation; since General Mouravieff, by not returning directly towards -Tiflis (which would be rather better able than Kars had been to stand a -siege in its turn and to hold any assailant in play), but by moving -diagonally, north-east by north, along the excellent Russian line from -Alexandropol to Akhazik, would himself take Omer Pacha in flank and -rear, shatter his line of communication, overwhelm his detached supports, -and cut him off from the sea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p> - -<p>For these reasons, General Mouravieff tranquilly and steadily persisted -in the blockade of Kars; and never for a moment showed any inclination -to turn aside to face the Turkish invader. A month and seven days had -now elapsed since the assault on Kars was repulsed so gloriously, when -Omer Pacha at length brought his labouring columns through the miry -woodlands as far as the Ingour. There he saw, for the first time, a -regular stand prepared by the enemy, about 12,000 strong, intrenched -on the opposite bank, and commanding the passage by batteries. They -were chiefly the Russian militia of Georgia and were under the command -of General Bragation-Makrausky. The Turks had some 20,000 men. -The stream was barely fordable in half-a-dozen places, by which the -enemy’s intrenchments could be turned. The Turks passed it, up to -their armpits in water, holding their muskets aloft; our countrymen—Colonel -Ballard, Captain Dymsck, and others—showing a splendid -example worthy of English officers. The engagement lasted five hours, -when the Russians fled, leaving behind them 60 prisoners, five gun-carriages -and ammunition carts, and 400 killed. They appear to have -carried off their wounded. Omer Pacha had 220 wounded and 68 -killed. Pressing on the track of the fugitives he came up with them -before the end of November, within sight of Kutais, and obtained -another advantage. But the floods had come; the Phasis had assumed -the dimensions of a torrent; great forest trees were swept down the -stream as if they were reeds—now engulfed out of sight in the eddies, -now reappearing on the surface for a moment as they were borne away; -the roads were impassable to artillery, and almost to infantry; the -whole country was transformed into an alternation of morass and lagoon; -a day’s march was the work of a week; the troops were broken up and -islanded, as it were, into helpless detachments; the commissariat could -not act; the supplies arrived with greater irregularity, incertitude, and -insufficiency from day to day; the whole army was suffering incredible -hardships and privations; it was threatened with annihilation unless a -retrograde movement were promptly made; and, finally, came the news -Kars had succumbed at last. The conquerors, therefore, retired, -unpursued, and gradually straggled back to Redoubt Kaleh, where -Omer Pacha soon succeeded in restoring their tone and refreshing their -energies.</p> - -<p>So ended the war of 1855 with Russia; for this was really its last -incident, General Mouravieff having already dismantled the fortifications -of Kars, and withdrawn the bulk of his forces to Gumri. It was on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -28th of November that General Williams at last surrendered to him the -stubborn Armenian fortress. The heroic garrison had long been macerated -by the failure of rations and by disease. Even their ammunition was -expended. In another assault on the day of their surrender they would -have had no means of firing half-a-dozen rounds from their guns, and -they were completely past the power of personal resistance as a body, -being unable to wield their weapons, and hardly able to stand erect. -They had borne literally the fiercest extremities of famine. They were -now a corps of spectres, with scarcely the strength to speak. Yet these -men had furnished indiscriminately the sentinels who had mounted -guard over the little pile of half-rotten farina which was to be doled out -in a biscuit a day for each; and the trusty sentries never touched the -food which was the sole remaining common stock. Under such circumstances -it was that General Williams rode out with a flag of truce, and -told Prince Mouravieff that he would surrender Kars provided all the -courtesies and honours of war were conceded to the garrison. General -Kmety and some few attendants had tried a different expedient—they -stole out and cut their way through the leaguer on the only serviceable -horses left.</p> - -<p>Mouravieff listened with attention to General Williams, who threatened, -if his various stipulations were not granted, to burst every gun and -destroy every military trophy still extant in Kars. The Russian chief -replied with chivalrous warmth and visible emotion as he looked at the -emaciated hero, that all was granted, and that he was proud as an enemy -to testify that General Williams and those under him had immortalised -themselves. Nothing, in short, could surpass the nobility of sentiment -displayed (both then and in the subsequent treatment of the prisoners) -by Prince Mouravieff and the Russian army.”</p> - - -<p>KERTCH.—An expedition undertaken against this place during the -late Russian war was completely successful. “Notwithstanding the -recall of the expedition to Kertch in the early part of the month, the -Allied Generals were resolved to carry out the project of a descent upon -that part of the coast; and, on the 22nd of May, another expedition -departed: the English force under Sir George Brown, and the French -under General D’Autemarre. The two Admirals, Sir Edmund Lyons -and Bruat, accompanied the land forces. The troops engaged numbered -15,000, with five batteries of artillery. It was apprehended that a -serious resistance would probably be made at Kertch, and that the fleets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -would have difficulty in forcing the straits into the Sea of Azov, if they -were exposed to the fire of the powerful batteries of Kertch and Yenikale. -In order, then, that the town might be attacked from the land side, Sir -George Brown landed his force at Kamiesch Bournu, a few miles to the -south of Kertch, and advanced overland. The enemy, however, had no -intention of risking a contest, and evacuated the town, destroying the -magazines, and blowing up the fortifications. When the troops entered -Kertch, they found it deserted by nearly all the inhabitants; and the -ships in the straits hurredly endeavouring to escape into the Sea of -Azov. In this attempt they were frustrated by the activity of the allied -fleets; and the Admirals, finding the depth of water more than they had -anticipated, started in full pursuit, capturing and burning every vessel -they could approach. Yenikale was, like Kertch, deserted by its garrison; -and in a few hours the Allies were in undisturbed and bloodless possession -of the two towns commanding the outlet of the Sea of Azov, and -the fleets were in full chase of the Russian navy in those waters.”</p> - - -<p>KIEL, TREATY OF.—Between Great Britain, Sweden and Denmark, -signed January 14th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>KILCULLEN, BATTLE OF.—Fought May 23rd, 1798, between -a vast body of insurgent Irish and the British forces, commanded by -General Dundas. The latter were defeated. General Dundas, however, -subsequently beat the rebels near Kilcullen bridge, when 3000 were slain, -and hundreds wounded and taken prisoners.</p> - - -<p>KILDARE.—The great rebellion commenced here in May 23rd, 1798. -On that night Lieutenant Gifford, of Dublin, and a number of gentlemen -were murdered. Quelled in the following year.</p> - - -<p>KILLALA.—A French force landed here, August 22nd, 1798. -They were joined by the Irish insurgents, and the actions of Castlebar, -Colooney and Ballyhannack followed. At the battle of Killala the insurgents -were defeated with great slaughter, by the Royalist forces, September -23rd, 1798.</p> - - -<p>KILLIECRANKIE, BATTLE OF.—Fought July 17th, 1689, -between the forces of William III and the adherents of James II. -“General Mackay, the officer sent against Claverhouse, had about 3000 -foot and some companies of horse under his command. But they were -mostly all raw recruits, and entire strangers to the Highland way of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -fighting. At the head of the wild and gloomy pass of Killiecrankie, -Mackay found himself in front of the rebels. He drew up his men, three -deep, along the side of the narrow valley into which the pass opens. The -Highlanders occupied the hill on the north side of the valley. At this -time, the bayonet screwed into the muzzle of the musket, so that troops -could not fire with bayonets fixed. The Highlanders, in dense masses -broke down from the hill. Firing their guns once, they dropped them, -and then with target on the left arm, and flashing broadsword they -rushed, wildly yelling, on the enemy. Mackay’s troops fired a volley, -which did little harm to the loose array of their leaping, bounding foes, -and before they could screw in their bayonets, the Highlanders were -among them. An empty musket without a bayonet could do little against -the sweeping broadsword. A panic seized Mackay’s raw levies, and they -broke and fled, pursued and cut down by the savage Highlanders.</p> - -<p>Claverhouse never knew that he had won a victory. He fell at the -beginning of the action, pierced by a musket ball which entered beneath -his arm. When one in a pack of hungry wolves is killed, the rest turn -upon him and eat him up. Claverhouse’s own men, true to their savage -instinct of plunder, stripped his body, and left it naked upon the field, -where it was with difficulty distinguished from the other bodies of the -fallen!”</p> - - -<p>KOLIN, <span class="fs70">OR</span> KOLLIN, BATTLE OF.—In this engagement the -famous Austrian General Daun, gained a celebrated victory over Frederick -the Great of Prussia, June 18th, 1757. Next year he obliged the -Prussians to raise the siege of Olmutz and to retreat to Moravia.</p> - - -<p>KONIAH, BATTLE OF.—Fought on the Plains of Koniah, formerly -Jornium, between the army of the Sultan of Turkey and the Pacha of -Egypt, in which, after a most bloody action which continued all the day, -the Turkish army was defeated, and the Grand Vizier himself wounded -and taken prisoner, December 31st, 1833.</p> - - -<p>KOWNO, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the French and Russian -armies, in which the French were defeated with great slaughter, -and the loss of upwards of 6000 prisoners, 21 pieces of cannon; many -thousands on both sides were slain. Fought, December 14th, 1812.</p> - - -<p>KRASNOI, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the French under -Davoust, and the Russian army commanded by Kutusoff. In this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> -bloody battle Davoust was entirely overthrown, and his army dispersed, -thousands upon thousands being left dead on the field, November 16th, -1812.</p> - - -<p>KUNNERSDORF, BATTLE OF.—One of the most bloody battles -on record, and fought between the Prussian and Russian armies. The -King of Prussia, after a great slaughter of the enemy for upwards of six -hours, had gained many advantages and had nearly accomplished victory; -but too eager in pursuing the retreating enemy, the latter rallied, and in -the end the Prussians were defeated with the loss of 20,000 men and -200 pieces of cannon, August 12th, 1759.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="L" id="L"></a>L.</h3> - - -<p>LACOLLE MILL, BATTLE OF.—Operations were commenced -early in the spring of 1814. An American army, commanded by General -Wilkinson, and amounting to upwards of 3000 men, entered Lower -Canada on the western shore of Lake Champlain. They attacked and -completely invested Lacolle Mill, which was defended by Major Handcock, -of the 13th regiment, and about 180 men. They were vigorously -repulsed from this little fortress and driven back to the United States.</p> - - -<p>LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF.—Between the English and Dutch -combined fleets under Admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French -under Tourville. The Allies gained a complete victory, burning thirteen -ships of the French, and destroying eight more, and forcing the rest to -fly, and so preventing the threatened invasion of England, May 19th, -1692.</p> - - -<p>LA ROTHIÈRE, BATTLE OF.—Between the French, commanded -by Napoleon, and the Prussian and Russian armies, which were defeated -after a desperate engagement with the loss of some thousands slain, and -3000 prisoners and 30 pieces of cannon, February 1st, 1814. This was -about one of the last victories of Napoleon.</p> - - -<p>LA VENDÉE, WAR OF.—Many battles in this war were fought -between the French Royalists of La Vendée and the Republican armies -in 1793–4. The war terminated January 10th, 1800.</p> - - -<p>LAKES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, AND ONTARIO.—These lakes -were the scene of many engagements between the English and American<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -colonists in the War of Independence, and also in the war of 1812–15, -the chief of which was the capture of the British fleet by the Americans -after a severe action, September 11th, 1813.</p> - - -<p>LANDEN, BATTLE OF.—Between the Allies and French, in -which William III of England commanded. Owing chiefly to the -cowardice of the Dutch horse, this sanguinary engagement ended in the -defeat of the Allies, July 19, 1693. The Duke of Berwick, illegitimate -son of James II, who was fighting on the side of France, was taken prisoner -in this battle by Brigadier Churchill, afterwards the great Duke -of Marlborough.</p> - - -<p>LANGSIDE, BATTLE OF.—Fought, May 13th, 1568, between -the forces of Queen Mary of Scotland and the Regent. “Many powerful -Barons called their vassals to their banners, and hastened to support -the Queen. In a few days her camp at Hamilton contained 6000 men. -The Regent had with difficulty mustered 4000, but he determined to -bring the Queen’s army to battle at once. She broke up her camp at -Hamilton, and marched towards Dumbarton. The village of Langside -lay on her line of march, and her troops must pass through a narrow -lane leading up the face of the hill on which the village stood. Moray -posted his hag-butters, or matchlock-men, among the cottages, and lined -with them the garden-hedges on both sides of the lane. The Queen -took her station on an eminence half a mile distant, from which she had -the battle full in sight. She saw her troops press up the hill, and -endeavour to force the passage of the lane. She saw them reel under -the close and deadly fire of the hagbut-men who lined the hedges. She -saw them come on again stoutly, and meet the shock of Moray’s spearmen. -She saw the mass of combatants swaying to and fro in doubtful -conflict. And then she saw her troops swept down the hill, broken and -scattered, the Regent’s men fiercely pursuing and spearing the wretched -fugitives.”</p> - - -<p>LAON, BATTLE OF.—<em>In France.</em>—Between the Allies, chiefly the -Prussian army, and the French. This battle or rather succession of -actions, was fought under the walls of the town, and ended, after a -sanguinary and obstinate contest in the defeat of the latter with great -loss, March 9th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>LARGS, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the ancient inhabitants -of Scotland and the Northmen. A bloody battle, fought 30th September,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> -1263. The following description is from the pen of an eminent Scottish -modern writer:</p> - -<p>“It was about the middle of August when the fleet of Haco, which -counted 160 ships, rounded the Mull of Cantyre and entered the Frith -of Clyde. Time is everything in war. Haco should have landed immediately. -Every day was bringing the storms of Autumn nearer, and -every day was giving time to the King of Scotland to increase his forces. -Haco was a veteran who had been King of Norway forty-six winters. -Alexander was a young man who had lived fewer than half the years -that Haco had reigned. But the youth fairly outwitted the veteran. -He sent an embassy of barefooted friars on board of Haco’s ship to propose -terms of peace. The barefooted envoys came and went between -the two kings, and the time was spun out in negociations till the weather -began to break; the fleet was running short of provisions, and the Scots -in formidable numbers were assembling on the shore.</p> - -<p>“It was now the last day of September. At night there came on a -storm so sudden and so wild that the Norwegians believed it to have -been raised by the spells of the Scotch witches. The ships were torn -from their anchors and ran ashore, or dashed against each other in the -pitchy darkness. Haco ordered the attendance of his priests, took to his -boat, and landed on the island of Cumbrae, where, amid the howling of -the storm, he had mass performed. In stranger circumstances, surely, -mass was never said or sung. Unluckily for Haco, the strong-winged -tempest heeded it not. It continued with unabated fury all night and -all the next day. The fleet drove up the channel, scattering the sea with -wreck, and the shore with stranded vessels. The heights above the -coast were covered by a multitude of armed peasants, who watched their -opportunity and rushed down to attack the stranded ships.</p> - -<p>“When the second morning broke, and the violence of the tempest -had somewhat abated, Haco, by means of his boats, landed with a large -force to protect his stranded vessels from the armed peasantry, and if -possible to tow them off. While the Norwegians were engaged in the -operation of floating off their ships, the sun rose, and his level rays -caught the surrounding hills. Through the grey sheet of morning mist -which covered the landscape, flashes as of fire were seen. It was the -sun’s rays glancing upon the polished armour of the Scottish army. -They advanced rapidly, and the Norwegians could soon discern their -pennons and banners waving above their wood of spears, and the knights -and leaders, blazing in complete steel, marshalling the line. They were -commanded by King Alexander in person.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> - -<p>“They attacked with fury, and drove back the advanced body of the -Norwegians. It seemed as if the whole force of the enemy was about to -be swept into the sea before the fierce onset of the Scots. But the -Norsemen, who fought entirely on foot, threw themselves into a circle -with their long spears pointing out to the foe, like a huge hedgehog with -prickles of steel. All day long the battle raged around this ring of -spears. The storm had renewed its violence, so that it was impossible -to send help on shore. Again and again the Scottish horse repeated -their furious charge. The circle of steel was slowly forced back along -the shore, but it could not be broken. A Scottish knight, Sir Piers de -Curry, rode round and round it brandishing his spear and challenging -any Norse captain to single combat. He wore a helmet inlaid with gold -and set with precious stones; his mail was gold-embossed; his sword-belt -studded with jewels. A leader of the Northmen accepted his challenge, -and stepped out from the circle of spears. The Scottish knight -spurred his horse and rushed down upon him with levelled lance. The -Norseman with his great sword parried the spear-thrust, and as the -knight passed him in his career, smote him with his whole strength -upon the thigh. The sword cut sheer into the saddle through steel and -bone, so that the limb was separated from the body, and the proud -knight fell dead beneath his horse.</p> - -<p>“A re-inforcement from the ships at length succeeded in landing -through the surf; and with the aid of these fresh troops the Norwegians -bore back the Scots from the shore. Night fell upon the weary combatants, -and under cover of the darkness the Norwegians got on board -their ships.”</p> - - -<p>LAYBACH, CONGRESS OF.—Attended by the Sovereigns of -Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and resulting in two circulars, stating that -Naples should be occupied with the Austrian troops, May 6th, 1821.</p> - - -<p>LEGHORN.—Entered by the French revolutionary army, July 27th, -1796, but the immense amount of British property in the city had been -previously removed. Evacuated by the French in 1799, and retaken -the next year. The Austrian took the city May 12th, 1849.</p> - - -<p>LEGION.—A Roman body of soldiers, about 6000 men. The 10th -legion was a favourite one with Cæsar. Ancient Britain was generally -protected by three legions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p> - - -<p>LEIPSIC, BATTLE OF.—This battle fought, October 16th, 17th, -and 18th, 1813, between the allied army of Russia, Prussia, and Austria -on the one side, and Napoleon on the other, was one of the greatest, -bloodiest, and most decisive of modern times. The French numbered -160,000 men, and the Allies 260,000 strong. This great battle was lost -by the French, chiefly owing to the seventeen German battalions, then -Saxon allies, turning upon them in the heat of the action; 80,000 perished -on the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost sixty-five -pieces of cannon and many standards. This victory of the allied -army was followed by that of the capture of Leipsic, and the rear guard of -the French army next day. The King of Saxony and his family were -also made prisoners.</p> - - -<p>LEPANTO, BATTLE OF.—The great naval battle between the -combined fleets of Spain, Venice, and Pius V, and the whole maritime -force of the Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the allied fleet, -which consisted of 206 galleys and 30,000 men. The Turks had 200 -galleys. After a dreadful engagement they lost 150 galleys, and 30,000 -men in killed and prisoners. Fought, October 7th, 1571.</p> - - -<p>LEUCTRA, BATTLE OF.—One of the most famous in ancient -history, fought July 8th, 371 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> In this battle 4000 Spartans, with -their King, were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans. After this -battle the Spartans lost their position in Greece, which they had held -for 500 years.</p> - - -<p>LEWES, BATTLE OF.—Between Henry III of England and -Montfort, Earl of Leicester. Fought, May 14th, 1264. The Royal -army was overthrown, and the King, his brother and son Prince -Edward, were taken prisoners.</p> - - -<p>LEXINGTON, BATTLE OF.—The first battle fought between -Great Britain and her revolted colonies of America; gained by the -British, who destroyed the stores of the colonists, but they lost in battle -273 men killed and wounded. Fought, April 19th, 1775.</p> - - -<p>LEYDEN, SIEGE OF.—A memorable siege sustained against the -armies of Spain; 6000 of the inhabitants died during the siege, of -famine and pestilence, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1574. A University was afterwards founded -in commemoration of this event.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p> - - -<p>LIEUTENANT.—An officer who supplies the place of a superior -in his absence. In military affairs the second commissioned officer in a -company of infantry, cavalry or artillery. In ships of war, a lieutenant -is next in rank to the captain.</p> - - -<p>LIGNY, BATTLE OF.—Fought, June 16th, 1815, just before the -celebrated battle of Waterloo, between the Prussians under Blucher, -and the French commanded by Napoleon. The French gained the -victory.</p> - - -<p>LINCELLES, BATTLE OF.—Between the allied English and -Dutch armies and the French, in which the French were defeated -August 18th, 1793. In this battle, General Lake commanded the 3rd -battalion of Foot Guards, who so much distinguished themselves. Colonel -Bosville, of the Coldstreams, was killed; the French lost 11 cannon.</p> - - -<p>LINCOLN, BATTLE OF.—A battle was fought at Lincoln -between the armies of the Princess Maud and King Stephen of England. -Stephen was defeated and captured, February 2nd, 1141. Another -battle was fought here between the Dauphin of France and Henry III -of England. This was a bloody engagement, in which the French and -their English adherents were completely defeated, and Louis withdrew -his pretensions to the English crown, May 19th, 1217.</p> - - -<p>LINLITHGOW-BRIDGE, BATTLE OF.—Between the forces -of the Earl of Angus, and the forces of Lenox, who fought to get possession -of the person of James V, then a minor. Lenox was slain by Sir -James Hamilton, 1525.</p> - - -<p>LIPPSTADT, BATTLE OF.—One of the most bloody battles ever -fought in the world. Called also <em>Lutzen</em>, which see.</p> - - -<p>LISLE, SIEGE OF.—Besieged by the Duke of Marlborough and -the Allies, and taken after three months, in 1708. Restored at the -treaty of Utrecht, 1713—this siege is accounted one of the most famous -in modern times. It also sustained a severe bombardment by the -Austrians in the revolutionary war, but they were obliged to raise the -siege, October 7th, 1792.</p> - - -<p>LISSA, BATTLE OF.—This battle, fought December 5th, 1757, -closed the campaign, in which the King of Prussia vanquished Prince<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> -Charles of Lorraine; 6000 Austrians were slain. Laid in ashes by the -Russians in 1707.</p> - - -<p>LODI, BATTLE OF THE BRIDGE OF.—One of the earliest of -Napoleon’s victories. Fought in Italy, May 10th, 1796. Napoleon commanded -the French army, which was opposed to the Austrians, under General -Beaulieu, and obtained a splendid victory after a bloody engagement, -in which several thousands of the Imperialists were slain, and many thousands -made prisoners. Napoleon nearly lost his life at this battle, and -was wounded in the hip with a bayonet. One of his great Marshals in -this battle, a sergeant, saved him, and was commissioned on the spot.</p> - - -<div><a name="LND" id="LND"></a></div> -<p>LONDONDERRY, SIEGE OF.—Memorable for a siege during the -reign of James II, of England. James’ army, under the French General -Rosene, retired with the loss of 8000 men, after having practised almost -unparalleled cruelties upon the inhabitants of the surrounding villages, -April 20th, 1689.</p> - - -<div><a name="LON" id="LON"></a></div> -<p>LONGBEARDS <span class="fs70">OR</span> LONGOBARDS.—Hence Lombardy. The -Longobards or Longbeards, who had overrun and taken possession of the -great plain of the basin of the Po, retained to some extent their separate -independence even under the empire of Germany. They had their own -laws and customs, and were in the habit of crowning the emperor, or -whoever else was acknowledged, as king of Lombardy. Hence, too, Napoleon -wore the iron crown of their kings. This famed symbol of kingship -was deposited in the Cathedral of Monza; it is a broad circle of gold, set -with large rubies, emeralds, and sapphires, and was secured in an ornamented -cross placed over an altar, closely shut up within folding doors of -gilt brass. The crown is kept in an octagonal aperture in the centre of -the cross. It is composed of six equal pieces of beaten gold, joined -together by close hinges, and the jewels and embossed gold ornaments are -set in a ground of blue and gold enamel, interesting as exhibiting an -exact resemblance to the workmanship of the enamelled part of a gold -ornament now in the Ashmolean Museum, which once belonged to King -Alfred. But for those who have an appetite for relics, the most important -part of this crown is a narrow iron rim, which is attached to the -inside of it all round. The rim is about three-eighths of an inch broad, -and a tenth of an inch thick, made out of one of the nails used in the -Crucifixion. The crown is said to have been presented to Constantine -by his mother; and the sacred iron rim, from which it has its name, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -to protect him in battle. And, although this iron has now been exposed -more than fifteen hundred years, there is not a speck of rust upon it.</p> - - -<p>LONG ISLAND, BATTLE OF.—Between the British troops under -Sir William Howe and the revolted Americans, who suffered a severe -defeat, after a well fought action, losing 2000 men in killed and wounded -and 1000 prisoners. The Americans were pursued to New York, but -were saved by a thick fog, which enabled them to escape. Fought, -August 27th, 1776.</p> - - -<p>L’ORIENT, BATTLE OF.—Lord Bridport achieved a memorable -victory over the French fleet, June 23rd, 1795. The British squadron -actually engaged consisted of 10 ships of the line—the enemy’s, of -12 ships of the line, 11 frigates, and some smaller vessels. After an -action of three hours the French got into port, leaving three sail of -the line in the possession of the British. The loss of the French was -severe.</p> - - -<p>LOSSES IN GREAT BATTLES.—The <cite>Military Gazette</cite> of Vienna -makes the following comparisons of the forces engaged in the battle of -Solferino and in former great battles:—“At that battle there were more -than 300,000 soldiers in the field, and the losses must have amounted -to at least from 30,000 to 37,000. At the battle of Leipsic, which -lasted for three days, the 330,000 allies had against them 260,000 French; -the latter lost 30,000 prisoners and 45,000 killed and wounded, and the -former 48,000 killed and wounded. After Leipsic, the most sanguinary -battle was that of Moscow, on the 7th of September, 1812. The Russians -had 130,000 men and 600 pieces of cannon, the French 134,000 -men and 587 cannon; the former lost 58,000 and the latter 50,000; the -losses were, therefore, 40 per cent. At Bautzen, on the 21st of May, -1813, there were 110,000 Russians and Prussians opposed to 150,000 -French; the latter lost 20,000 men and the allies 15,000, and not a -single cannon. At Wagram, on the 5th and 6th of July, 1809, we had -137,000 men, and Napoleon 170,000; we lost 20,000 men and the enemy -22,000. At Esling we were 70,000 against 85,000; we had 20,000 -killed and wounded, the enemy 13,000 killed; but he left in our hands -33,000 prisoners, and was obliged to send 30,000 to Vienna to have their -wounds attended to, so that out of the 160,000 men engaged about one-half -were put <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">hors de combat</i>. At Austerlitz there were 70,000 French, -as many Russians, and 13,000 Austrians; the losses were 21,000 Russians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -with 160 pieces of cannon, 5,800 Austrians, and 10,000 French. -At Jena there were 142,000 French against 150,000 Prussians. At -Waterloo there were 170,000 men, of whom 70,000 were French, who -lost 25,000 men and 250 cannon, whilst the Allies lost 31,000 men.”</p> - -<p>The following statistics of Mr. Haussener will complete the account of -the losses in Great Battles:</p> - -<p>“The wars which have been waged from 1815 to 1864, have caused -the death of 2,762,000 men, of whom 2,148,000 were Europeans, and -614,000 from other quarters of the globe, which gives an average of -43,800 per annum. The figures do not include the deaths caused by -epidemics resulting from war. The most sanguinary hostilities of that -period are these:—The Eastern war of 1856, in which 508,600 men -fell in the following proportions: 256,000 Russians, 98,900 Turks, -107,000 French, 45,000 English, and 2600 Italians. The Caucusus -(1829–60) 330,000 men lost their lives. The revolt in India (1857–59) -cost 196,000 lives. The Russo-Turkish war (1820–29) 193,000. The -Polish insurrection (1831) 190,000. The whole of the French campaigns -in Africa (1830–59) 147,000. The Hungarian insurrection -142,000. The Italian war 129,870, of whom 96,874 died on the field -or from their wounds; and 33,000 from various diseases. The total -number of lives lost in Europe during the wars from 1793 to 1815 -amounted to 5,530,000, which gives for the twenty-three years an average -of 240,434 deaths per year.”</p> - - -<p>LUCKNOW, SIEGE OF.—Memorable in the Great Indian Mutiny. -The following account of the gallant defence of a few Europeans at the -Gateway, Lucknow, where General Neill fell, September 26th and 27th, -1857, is abridged from the Account of Dr. A. C. Home, contained in -“The Mutinies of Oude:”—</p> - -<p>“There were present, including Dr. Home, nine sound men, two -wounded officers, Captain Beecher and Lieutenant Swanson, and three -wounded men: total, fourteen. Private McManus kept outside the doorway, -sheltering himself behind a pillar, and killed so many of the assailants -that at length he had only to raise his piece to cause all the enemy to -leave their loopholes. The bodies of the dead Sepoys round the door -were, in fact, a defence. Ryan and McManus actually rushed out and -brought in a wounded officer who lay in a dhoolie in the adjoining street, -returning in safety, although the ground was torn by musket balls about -them. The conduct of Hallowell also was splendid. He always managed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -to kill an enemy at a most critical moment, and at length shot the leader. -Finally the Sepoys pushed a screen on wheels before them, to protect -themselves from the Minié rifle, and set the building on fire, when the -gallant little band retreated in good order to a shed at a short distance, -and defended themselves afresh. Their cowardly assailants took this -opportunity to massacre all the wounded in dhoolies near to the house -first defended. This small company of heroes kept the foe at bay during -the night. At daybreak, however, they heard firing, when Ryan suddenly -jumped up and shouted, ‘Oh, boys! Them’s our own chaps!’ In -about three minutes Captain Moorsom appeared at the entrance-hole of -the shed, and they were brought off in safety.”</p> - -<p>The following is an account of Havelock’s relief of Lucknow:</p> - -<p>“It was thus the 19th of September before General Havelock was in a -position to cross the Ganges for a third time, and to advance with an -efficient force to relieve the long-beleaguered garrison at Lucknow. On -that day the army of relief crossed the river by a bridge of boats, and -encamped on the other side. General Havelock’s force consisted of about -2000 European infantry, the Sikh regiment of Ferozepore, three batteries -of field artillery, and a handful of volunteer cavalry. The rebels mustered -above 40,000 strong, but their numerical superiority only served to -enhance the prowess of their conquerors. The first engagement took -place on the 21st of September, at the village of Mungarwar, and resulted -in the total defeat of the mutineers. Five field-pieces and guns in position -were taken, two of the former being captured by the volunteer cavalry, -led on to the charge by General Outram in person. From this point the -army pushed on by forced marches, without encountering any organized -opposition, until it arrived before the city of Lucknow. Skirting the -suburbs of that once stately capital, General Havelock forced his way -through every obstacle, and, by the evening of the 25th, had relieved the -heroic garrison. The relief was opportune. Two mines had already -been driven under the chief works, and, in a few hours more, would have -been loaded and sprung. The besieged would thus have been placed at -the mercy of those who knew no mercy. The city, however, had still to -be subdued. From several advantageous positions the enemy continued -to fire upon the fort, and were only finally dislodged after a series of -determined assaults. In these operations the loss of the British was -very severe. General Neill, the brave and energetic saviour of Benares, -and the inexorable avenger of the massacre at Cawnpore, was among the -slain. With him fell major Cooper, in command of the artillery, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -many other gallant spirits. Even now much remained to be done. -Taking courage from their overwhelming numbers, the enemy soon closed -again around the army of deliverance, and cut off their communications -with Cawnpore. Encumbered with not less than 1000 women and children, -and sick and wounded men, it would have been hazardous if not -impossible to have attempted a march across a difficult country. Under -these circumstances Sir James Outram, who had assumed the chief -command, determined on remaining at Lucknow, and awaiting the -arrival of re-inforcements. Sir Colin Campbell, the Commander-in-Chief, -left Cawnpore with a strong force, on the 9th of November, to relieve -Lucknow. He succeeded, by a well-conceived stratagem on the 12th, in -bringing away the garrison with the women and children, and marched -for Cawnpore. On the third day after leaving Lucknow, General Havelock -died from the effects of dysentery, brought on by excessive fatigue -and anxiety. In December, Cawnpore was attacked by 25,000 rebels -with fifty guns, and Sir Colin Campbell was summoned from the neighbourhood -of Lucknow for its defence. He arrived in season to save the -place, after a severe action with the enemy. Sir Colin remained at -Cawnpore, collecting a large force for the final siege of Lucknow. During -the time which was thus occupied, several actions of minor importance -took place; but it was not till the 17th of March that Lucknow was -recovered, after a short but active siege. After its fall, the kingdom of -Oude, of which it was the capital, was speedily restored to obedience and -comparative tranquillity.”</p> - - -<p>LUNEVILLE, PEACE OF.—Between the French Republic and the -Emperor of Germany, concluded February 9th, 1801.</p> - - -<p>LUTZEN, BATTLE OF.—Between the French, commanded by -Napoleon, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by -General Wittgenstein, May 2nd, 1813. This bloody battle opened the -campaign of that year, and though each side claimed the victory, it was -manifestly on the side of France. Marshal Duroc was mortally wounded -in this battle.</p> - - -<p>LUTZENGEN <span class="fs70">OR</span> LUTZEN, BATTLE OF.—Gustavus Adolphus, -King of Sweden, fought this battle against the Emperor. In this -sanguinary engagement Gustavus was basely killed in the victory, -November 6th, 1632. This Gustavus was the most illustrious hero<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -of his times, and the chief support of the German Protestants, and an -ally to Charles I of England.</p> - - -<p>LUXEMBURG.—Considered the strongest fortress in the world, -taken by the French in 1543; then by the Spaniards in 1544; again by -the French in 1684—restored to Spain in 1697. Again taken by the -French, in 1701, and given to the Dutch, and ceded to the Emperor at -the peace of 1713. During last century it also sustained a long and -memorable siege, June 17th, 1795. The garrison surrendered to the -French, and were liberated on parole.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="M" id="M"></a>M.</h3> - - -<p>MAESTRICHT.—Taken by the Prince of Parma in 1579; reduced -by the Prince of Orange, in 1632. Louis XIV took it in 1675. William, -Prince of Orange, invested it in 1676; restored to the Dutch -in 1678; besieged by the French, in 1748. In 1793, attacked by the -French, who took it the following year; but in 1814, it was delivered up -to the allied forces.</p> - - -<p>MAGENTA, BATTLE OF.—Fought June 4th, 1859, between the -French and Austrians. The French gained a splendid victory, the Allies -losing 12,000, the Austrians 15,000. The latter rapidly retreated and -evacuated Milan. The battle of Magenta was begun by the Austrians, -who, although in full retreat towards Pavia, were ordered to change their -front, and attack the advanced guard of the Allies, who had crossed the -Ticino at Buffalora. Suddenly 25,000 Austrians attacked a battalion of -Zouaves, together with two battalions of grenadiers; a close and deadly fire -was now exchanged. Then the Austrians charged with the bayonet. At -12 o’clock the French were retiring, having lost General Leclere, a colonel, -a lieutenant colonel, and 12 officers, when reinforcements appearing on -their left, they rallied and forced the Austrians to withdraw. The bold -assault of General McMahon decided the victory; and for his brave -conduct and efficient generalship, Napoleon conferred on him the rank of -Marshal, with the title of Duke of Magenta. General Guyalai brought -into the action 120,000 men; he left 20,000 of them wounded or dead on -the battle-field: 7000 were taken prisoners; 5 flags, 4000 knapsacks, -12,000 muskets and 4 guns, fell into the hands of the French. -During the battle of Magenta the bridge and the village of Magenta were -taken and retaken seven times. It was only at half-past eight at night -that the Austrians withdrew. Their retreat was slow and orderly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> - - -<p>MAIDA, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the French, commanded -by General Regnier, and the British, under Major General Sir John -Stuart. The French were nearly double the number of the British, yet -the latter gained a most glorious victory on the “Plains of Maida,” a -village of Calabria. The loss of the French was very great, July -4th, 1806. The British commander, from this victory, has historically -received the name of the “Hero of the Plains of Maida.”</p> - - -<p>MAJOR.—This officer holds the rank between a Lieutenant Colonel -and a Captain. A Major General is one who commands a division, next -above rank to a Brigadier General.</p> - - -<div><a name="MAL" id="MAL"></a></div> -<p>MALAKOFF AND REDAN, ATTACK ON THE.—In the celebrated -Crimean war. The following is a good description of the attack:</p> - -<p>“General Pelissier divided his attacking force into three columns, -numbering altogether about 25,000 men. The first, under General Mayran, -was to assault the extreme left of the Russian line; the second, in -the centre, led by General Brunet, was to turn the Malakoff on its proper -left; while the third, under General d’Autemarre, was to operate upon -its right. The Imperial Guard was held in reserve, and two batteries of -artillery occupied the Mamelon. The signal for advance was to be three -rockets fired from the Lancaster battery, which General Pelissier had -chosen as his position of observation. By an unfortunate mistake, General -Mayran mistook the flaming fuse of a bomb-shell for the rocket, and -eager for the fray, led his division rapidly forward. It was now apparent -that the enemy had full notice of our intended attack. Not only the -batteries were fully armed, but the steamers were anchored so as to be -able to pour their broadsides upon the French columns. Generals Saurin -and De Failly, obedient to the commands of their General, dashed forward, -followed at an impetuous pace by their troops. Then the Russians -opened fire from their batteries and steamers, and a hurricane of shot and -shell arrested the career of the brave French; and their leader, General -Mayran, paid the penalty of his mistake, falling mortally wounded at their -head. General Pelissier had now arrived upon the scene of action, and -perceiving the error, at once ordered up reinforcements to the threatened -division, which, strengthened by the addition of the voltigeurs of the -Guard, some regiments of the line, and a battalion of grenadiers, was -enabled to maintain its position under the orders of General De Failly, -who succeeded to the command, though prevented by the deadly fire of -the enemy from advancing further. The centre column, under General<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> -Brunet, had little better success than the other division. In fact, the -unlucky mistake of Mayran, in precipitating the attack, had disordered -the entire plan of advance, and aroused the Russians, and enabled them -to concentrate their strength for defence. General Brunet himself was -struck in the chest by a musket-ball; and his division was forced to retire -to the trenches with great loss. General D’Autemarre, who commanded -the left attack, no sooner saw the preconcerted signal, than he gave the -word to advance, and the 5th Foot Chasseurs and the first battalion of -the 19th regiment of the line, deploying to the left, along the crest of the -ravine which there enters the town, carried the entrenchment which connects -it with the Malakoff, and succeeded in entering the fortification. -The sappers who accompanied the advance immediately planted ladders, -the remainder of the regiments hurried forward, and the eagles of the -French army waved aloft, encouraging the repulsed troops of the other -divisions to renewed exertions.</p> - -<p>While the French were thus straining every nerve against tremendous -odds, and with fearful loss, to perform their parts in the achievements of -the day, the English were none the less eager to win their laurels before -the Great Redan. Sir George Brown, just returned from the Kertch -expedition, was intrusted with the direction of the assaulting party, composed -of detachments of the Light, Second, and Fourth Divisions. The -plan of attack was, that the force should be divided into three columns; -the Light Division to storm the right of the Redan at the re-entering -angle; the Fourth Division was to attack the left flank of the fortification -at a similar position; while the Second was to storm the apex of the -Redan, as soon as the other divisions had established themselves in the -work. Colonel Yea, of the 7th Fusiliers, led the storming party of the -Light Division, composed of the 7th, 23rd, 33rd, and 34th. Colonel Shirley -held the 19th, 77th, and 85th in reserve. The troops advanced in -good order from the trenches, preceded by a covering party of Rifles, and -dashed forward to the attack. They had, however, several hundred yards -of broken ground to cross; and the enemy, well prepared for their reception, -poured from every embrasure such a storm of shot and shell as effectually -broke their ranks. Colonel Yea and the regimental officers -gallantly endeavoured to animate their men to the assault, and led them -fearlessly forward against the belching fire of the batteries. As the brave -old colonel was cheering on his men, a shower of grape swept along, and -he rolled in the agonies of death, struck at once in the head and stomach. -His brave companions fell around him dead or wounded; and the regiments,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -unable to face such a sheet of fire, fell back disordered to the -trenches, leaving nearly a third of their number on the field.</p> - -<p>On the left attack, Sir John Campbell, with the Fourth Division, exhibited -extraordinary courage, and led his men forward to the attack with -tremendous energy. Here again was the tragedy of the Light Division -repeated. The men were mowed down as they left the trenches, and Sir -John, like Colonel Yea, fell cheering on his men. The loss was terrific. -The Second Division, to whom had been reserved the duty of attacking -the apex of the Redan, seeing the failure of the flank assaults, desisted -from the attempt, and withdrew to the trenches, though having suffered -considerably from the enemy’s fire.</p> - -<p>The only success of the day was that achieved by the Third Division -under General Eyre, who had been ordered by Lord Raglan to attack the -Cemetery Batteries, at the head of the ravine leading to the Dockyard -Creek. The brigade consisted of the 9th, 18th, 28th, and 44th regiments. -Four volunteers from each regiment, under Major Fielden, of -the 44th regiment, were selected to feel the way, and cover the advance. -The 18th Royal Irish formed the storming party. They possessed themselves -of the Cemetery with but little difficulty; and then four companies -of the 18th dashed forward, so eager were they for the fray, and actually -entered the town, and established themselves in the Russian houses. -They were followed by the 9th, under Colonel Borton. The enemy’s -batteries now opened a fierce fire on the daring handful of men; and -although they could not drive them from their position, effectually prevented -their retreat, from four o’clock in the morning until eight at night. -During that time they suffered terribly from thirst, and some of the brave -fellows actually crawled from the houses, reached the English lines, and -returned with cans of water to their comrades. In this way a letter was -convoyed asking for reinforcements; but General Eyre had already -retired from the spot, and the two gallant regiments were left unsupported, -to bear the brunt of the enemy’s fire until nightfall, when the -remnant of them withdrew from their dangerous post, and rejoined the -main body.</p> - -<p>The failure of the English attack enabled the Russians to draw from -the Redan reinforcements to repel the French under General D’Autemarre, -who were so nearly redeeming the fortunes of the day at the -Malakoff. Unable to contend against the forces now brought against -them, the French were compelled to retire from the commanding position -they had obtained. General Pelissier sent reinforcements; but it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -impossible a single division, exposed to an appalling flank fire and an -immensely superior force in front, could long sustain such an unequal -contest. They fought bravely; but on that fatal day bravery availed but -little, and they, too, added to the numbers of the defeated.</p> - -<p>Such was the great disaster of the 18th of June, the anniversary of that -day when the two nations, now brothers in defeat, were opposed to each -other on the plains of Waterloo. Want of concert between the generals—and -to Pelissier the blame is mainly due—resulted in a most disheartening -repulse, and the loss of thousands of brave men; the English casualties -amounting to no less than 251 killed (including 21 officers); 70 -officers and 1130 men wounded; and 22 missing. The French loss -must have been greater.”</p> - - -<p>MALPLAQUET, BATTLE OF.—The Allies under the Duke of -Marlborough and Prince Eugene, gained this battle, September 11th, -1709, over the French, commanded by Marshal Villars. The armies of -each consisted of nearly 120,000 choice men. It was attended with -immense slaughter on both sides, the Allies losing 18,000 men, which terrible -loss was but ill-repaid by the capture of Mons, which followed the -victory.</p> - - -<div><a name="MAM" id="MAM"></a></div> -<div><a name="QUA" id="QUA"></a></div> -<p>MAMELON AND QUARRIES.—The capture of the Mamelon and -the action of the Quarries, took place in the great siege of Sebastopol. -The former was gallantly stormed and taken by our allies the French -and the action of the Quarries redoubted to the indomitable pluck of -British soldiers. The following is a good account of the action and -capture of the fort:</p> - -<p>“A third general bombardment opened on the 6th of June. At half-past -two o’clock in the afternoon, the fire of 157 English and 300 French -guns and mortars simultaneously opened upon the town. The Russian -reply was feeble, and inflicted but little damage upon our batteries. A -fierce cannonade was maintained by the Allies during that and the following -day, and towards evening, on the 7th, a grand combined attack was -made by the English on the Quarries, and by the French on the Mamelon. -The former of these works, as the name implies, were pits from -which stone had formerly been excavated for the buildings in the town, -and occupied a position between the head of our advanced sap and the -Great Redan, the most formidable work of Russian defence, and which -in the general plan of attack had been apportioned to the English. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -Mamelon, as it was specifically called—the general term <em>mamelon</em>, a -rounded hill, describing its appearance—was the foremost of two similar -eminences, at a short distance from each other. The one nearest the -town was surmounted by the Malakoff tower and works, and was the -most elevated and commanding position of the enemy’s line of defence, -the Mamelon, or Mamelon Vert, as the French designated it, had long -since lost all claim to the latter name, being excavated into trenches and -rifle-pits, from which a most annoying fire was maintained upon the -French lines. Our Allies had already made a very gallant though unsuccessful -attempt at its capture; and it was under the cover of its guns -that the Russian sortie of the 22nd of March was made.</p> - -<p>It was then absolutely necessary that an endeavour should be made by -the besieging army to carry these formidable works, which presented such -obstacles to their advance; and accordingly the evening of the 7th of -June was fixed for the assault. At about six o’clock, the French battalions, -chosen for the assault, consisting of the Algerine Zouaves, -detachments of the 61st, 7th, and 50th regiments of the line, and of the -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chasseurs-à-Pied</span>, and Imperial Guard, about 1200 men in all, moved -up to the front, closely followed by the reserve or working party, to follow -the attacking column, and secure possession of the works. This second -column, commanded by General Brunet, comprised a battalion of the -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chasseurs-à-Pied</span>, and the 11th, 24th, 69th, and 16th regiments of the -line. General Bosquet was entrusted with the entire direction of the -assault.</p> - -<p>Our attacking force was composed of detachments from the Light and -Second Divisions. About 400 men from the 18th, 7th, 47th, 49th, were -told off to lead the assault, under the immediate command of Colonel -Shirley, of the 90th regiment. The working parties were selected from -remaining regiments of the Light Division; the main body remaining -under arms in reserve.</p> - -<p>Immediately the signal rockets took their flight towards the town, the -attacking columns darted forward. The active French troops swarmed -up the sides of the Mamelon, and in a few moments were in hand-to-hand -contest with the Russian defenders. With an unusual supineness the -batteries of the town offered no impediment to the advance. It might -be that the fierce bombardment to which for twenty-four hours they had -been exposed, had temporarily silenced them. Whatever might be the -cause, but little opposition was sustained by, and scarcely any loss inflicted -on the attacking columns, who reached the parapet on the crown of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -hill at a rapid pace. Here the enemy made a stand, and for a brief space -struggled bravely to maintain their position. It was, however, but an -ineffectual effort. The French fought with the utmost daring; and the -enemy giving way before the impetuous onslaught, retreated down the -hill, the French in eager pursuit. In the valley, however, the Russians -received large reinforcements from the Malakoff Tower on the opposite -eminence, and a fierce fire was opened on the French from the batteries -of the Malakoff. Then the tide of battle turned; and the hitherto -assailants, out-numbered, were driven up the hill, contesting every foot -of ground. Some of the Zouaves, with characteristic daring, evading -the attacking force, pressed onwards, and, as on the previous occasion, -positively entered the Malakoff, and spiked some of the guns. Our -allies, unable to bear the vigorous charge and overwhelming numbers of -the enemy, who now pressed upon them, were forced to relinquish the -hold they had obtained upon the Mamelon, and retreated over the brow -of the hill, reluctantly relinquishing the advantage they had gained. -The French, after a brilliant attack, were driven back by the reinforced -defenders of the hill, and the Russians were once more masters of the -Mamelon.</p> - -<p>General Bosquet, however, was not the man to accept a repulse as a final -defeat. Reforming the column in the trenches at the foot of the hill, and -sending fresh troops to their assistance, he prepared for a second assault. -This time the French, eager to retrieve their disaster, rushed forward with -emulous bravery, and again the hill side was covered with the advancing -columns, pressing onwards to the attack. Trench after trench was carried -and in a few moments the assailers again occupied the topmost parapet. -The Russians fought desperately; but no courage could withstand the -fierce valour of the French. The enemy were hurled down the hills, and -our allies, mad with excitement, rushed after them, in a rapid bayonet -charge, covering the ground with the killed and wounded, and driving -the flying enemy to the refuge of the Malakoff. Meanwhile the working -party in their rear had speedily thrown up parapets and breastworks on -the Russian side; and although the guns from the town and the shipping -in the harbour played vigorously upon the hill, they were enabled to hold -their important acquisition.</p> - -<p>Farther to the right, the French had also attacked and carried, after -considerable resistance, a line of works leading to and defending Careening -Bay, and connected with the works of the Mamelon, known as the White -Works. A number of guns were taken, and the French were thus in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -possession of an access to the great harbour, and enabled to throw up -works commanding the shipping.</p> - -<p>We have thus far related the varying fortunes of the French attack. -Let us now turn to the English assault on the Quarries. Simultaneously -with the advance of our allies, Colonel Campbell threw his small force into -the Russian works, experiencing but trifling opposition; and congratulating -himself upon having so easily achieved his object. Advancing -beyond the Quarries towards the Redan, there is no doubt the adventurous -English might even have entered that great work itself, so great was -the confusion among the Russians, caused by the attack on the Mamelon, -had they been in sufficient force to warrant such a feat. The enemy, -however, soon mustered their strength, and Colonel Campbell was forced, -after a stubborn resistance, to yield his position. Three times did the -small British force retreat from the Quarries, and as many times they -retook them with the bayonets. At length they were enabled to throw -up an earthwork, which ensured their possession of this important position. -In one of the Russian attacks, an instance of individual prowess occurred, -which obtained for the performer of it the rare honour of being named, -though a non-commissioned officer, in Lord Raglan’s despatch. The -assailing party had wavered a little before the sharp fire from the British -muskets, when Lance-Corporal Quin, of the 47th, darted out of the work -towards a Russian officer and four men, who had advanced somewhat in -front of the main body of the enemy. With the butt-end of his musket -he brained one of the soldiers, bayoneted a second and the other two -precipitately fled from the doughty corporal. Then collaring the officer, -and administering a gentle stimulant with the point of his bayonet to -quicken his advance, he dragged him a prisoner into the work, in less -time than we have occupied to tell the tale.</p> - -<p>The enemy’s loss must been very great, judging by that which the -victors sustained in the two attacks. The French lost about 60 officers, -and 2000 men killed and wounded; and the British, 35 officers, and 365 -rank and file.”</p> - - -<p>MARSHAL, FIELD.—This rank is of modern date in the British -army. It is the highest military rank in the army.</p> - - -<p>MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE OF.—This battle was the beginning -of the misfortunes of Charles I of England—fought July 3rd, 1644.</p> - -<p>“The Scots and Parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging -York, when Prince Rupert, joined by the Marquis of Newcastle, determined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -to raise the siege. Both armies drew up on Marston Moor, to the -number of 50,000, and the victory seemed long undecided between -them. Rupert, who commanded the right wing of the Royalists, was -opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who now first came into notice, at the -head of a body of troops which he had taken care to levy and discipline. -Cromwell was victorious; he pushed his opponents off the field, followed -the vanquished, returned to a second engagement, and a second victory; -the Prince’s whole train of artillery was taken, and the Royalists never -after recovered the blow.”</p> - - -<p>MERIDA.—<em>In Spain.</em>—Taken by the French in January, 1811. -Near here the British army, under Lord Hill, defeated the French, -under General Girard, after a severe engagement October 28th, 1811. -The British took Merida from the French, July 1812, after a severe -encounter,—General Hill himself leading the combined armies of Britain -and Spain.</p> - - -<p>MILAN.—French expelled from it by Charles V, of Germany, 1525. -Seized again by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians -in 1799; regained by the French, May 31, 1800. Napoleon crowned -with the Iron crown, at Milan, May 26, 1805. (See <em><a href="#LON">Longbeards</a></em> or -<em><a href="#LON">Longobards</a></em>). This city, celebrated for the Milan decrees against all -continental intercourse with England, issued by Napoleon, December -17th, 1807. Here an insurrection occurred against the Austrians, March -18th, 1848, which resulted in a battle, and flight of the viceroy and troops.</p> - - -<p>MILITIA.—Supposed to have been introduced into England by King -Alfred. The English volunteers and militia, a splendid body of men, -who have more than once materially assisted Government in times of -necessity. The Canadian Volunteers are a body of men almost equal to -the soldiers of the line; and during the late Fenian excitement, have shown -to the whole world that a brave man delights to defend his hearth and -home, and that “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dulce est mori pro patriâ</i>.”</p> - - -<p>MINDEN, BATTLE OF.—Fought, August 1st, 1759, between the -English, Hessians and Hanoverians, on the one side, and the French on -the other. The Allies were commanded by Prince Ferdinand, and under -him Lord George Sackville. The Allies gained a complete victory, and -pursued the French to the very ramparts of Minden. Lord Sackville, -who commanded the Allied cavalry, for some disobedience of orders, on his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -return to England was tried by court martial and dismissed the service, -but was afterwards restored.</p> - - -<p>MOCKERN, BATTLES OF.—Between the French, under Eugène -Beauharnois, and the allied Russian and Prussian army, which was -signally defeated with great loss, April, 1813. There was another -bloodier battle fought here, October 14th, 1813, between the same -contending armies; five times Mockern was taken and retaken during -this conflict.</p> - - -<p>MOHATZ, BATTLES OF.—<em>In Hungary.</em>—Here, in 1526, Louis, -King of Hungary, was defeated by the Turks, under Solyman II, with -the loss of 22,000 men. Another battle was fought here between the -Christians, commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine, and the Turks, -who were defeated with the loss of 10,000 men, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1687.</p> - - -<p>MOHILON, BATTLE OF.—Between the Russians, under the -celebrated Prince Bagration, and the French, under Marshal Davoust. -This was one of the most bloody engagements in the campaign of 1812. -The Russians were totally defeated, with immense loss in killed and -wounded; fought, July 23rd, 1812.</p> - - -<p>MOLWITZ, BATTLE OF.—Between the Prussians and Austrians. -The Prussians were commanded by Frederick III, who obtained a great -and important victory. An immense number of killed and wounded on -the side of the Austrians was the result of this sanguinary battle. -Austria being at the time in alliance with Great Britain, the consequence -of the victory seriously affected the interest of that country. Fought, -April 10th (March 30th), 1741.</p> - - -<p>MONTEBELLO, BATTLE OF.—Fought May 20th, 1859, between -the Austrians and French. “On the 20th May, a severe action was -fought at Montebello, which lasted six hours. The Austrians -appear, in the first instance, to have taken Montebello from the French, -and to have been afterwards expelled by the French. A desperate hand -to hand conflict took place in the village, which had to be carried, house -after house. The Austrians, after the battle, evacuated Casteggio, and -retired along the Creatisma road.”</p> - - -<p>MONTE VIDEO.—Taken by storm, by the British force, under Sir -Samuel Auchmuty, February 3rd, 1807, with a terrible loss of nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -two-thirds of his army. It was evacuated, July 7th, same year, in consequence -of the severe repulse of the British at Buenos Ayres.</p> - - -<p>MONTEREAU, BATTLE OF.—Fought, February 18th, 1814, -between the Allied army and the French, the latter commanded by -Napoleon himself. In this desperate engagement, the Allies were defeated -with great loss in killed and wounded. This battle was one of the last -ever gained by Napoleon. Four months after he was ruined at Waterloo.</p> - - -<p>MOODKEE, BATTLE OF.—<em>In India.</em>—Between the British and -Sikhs. The advanced guard of the British was attacked by the Sikh -forces, but the latter were repulsed and driven back three miles, losing -great numbers of men and 15 pieces of cannon, December 18th, 1845. -Sir Robert Sale was mortally wounded in this battle, being in his sixty-fifth -year. Lady Sale signalized herself during the two memorable -retreats from Afghanistan.</p> - - -<p>MORGARTEN, BATTLE OF.—Between the Swiss and Austrians. -The Swiss numbered 1300, the Austrians 20,000. Fought, November -15th, 1315. “The 15th November, 1315, dawned; the sun darted his -first rays on the shields and armour of the advancing host; and this -being the first army ever known to have attempted the frontiers of the -Cantons, the Swiss viewed its long line with various emotions. Montfort -de Tettnang led the cavalry into the narrow pass of Morgarten, and soon -filled the whole space between the Mountain (Mount Sattel) and the -lake. Fifty men, on the eminence above Morgarten, raised a sudden -shout, and rolled down heaps of rocks and stones among the crowded -ranks. The confederates on the mountain, perceiving the impression -made by this attack, rushed down in close array, and fell upon the flank -of the disordered column. With massy clubs they dashed in pieces the -armour of the enemy, and dealt their blows and thrusts with long pikes. -The narrowness of the defile admitted of no evolutions, and a slight -frost having injured the road, the horses were impeded in all their -motions; many leaped into the lake; all were startled; and at last the -whole column of soldiers gave way, and suddenly fell back on the infantry; -and these last, as the nature of the country did not allow them to open -their files, were run over by the fugitives, and many of them trampled to -death. A general rout ensued, and Duke Leopold was, with much -difficulty, rescued by a peasant, who led him to Winterthur, where the -historian of the times saw him arrive in the evening, pale, sullen and -dismayed.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p> - - -<p>MORTAR.—A short gun of an extraordinary large bore and close -chamber, used for throwing bomb shells. The mortar was first made in -England in 1543.</p> - - -<p>MOSCOW, BURNING OF.—Entered by the French, September -4th, 1812. “At length Moscow, with its domes, and towers, and palaces, -appeared in sight; and Napoleon, who had joined the advance guard, -gazed long and thoughtfully on that goal of his wishes. Murat went -forward, and entered the gates with his cavalry; but as he passed -through the streets, he was struck by the solitude which surrounded -him.</p> - -<p>Nothing was heard but the heavy tramp of his squadrons as he passed -along, for a deserted and abandoned city was the meagre prize, for which -such unparalleled efforts had been made. As night drew its curtains -over the splendid capital, Napoleon entered the gates, and immediately -appointed Mortier governor. In his directions, he commanded him to -abstain from all pillage. For this, said he, you shall be answerable with -your life. Defend Moscow against all, whether friend or foe. The -bright moon rose over the mighty city, tipping with silver the domes of -more than 200 churches, and pouring a flood of light over 1000 palaces, -and the dwellings of 300,000 inhabitants. The weary army sunk -to rest; but there was no sleep for Mortier’s eyes.</p> - -<p>Not the gorgeous and variegated palaces and their rich ornaments, -nor the parks and gardens, and oriental magnificence that everywhere -surrounded him, kept him wakeful, but the ominous foreboding that -some dire calamity was hanging over the silent capital. When he -entered it, scarcely a living soul met his gaze, as he looked down the -long streets; and when he broke open the buildings, he found parlors, -and bedrooms, and chambers all furnished and in order, but no occupants. -The sudden abandonment of their homes, betokened some secret -purpose yet to be fulfilled. The midnight moon was sailing over the -city, when the cry of “Fire!” reached the ears of Mortier; and the -first light over Napoleon’s falling empire was kindled, and the most -wondrous scene of modern time commenced,—the burning of Moscow. -Mortier, as governor of the city, immediately issued his orders, and was -putting forth every exertion, when, at day-light, Napoleon hastened to -him. Affecting to disbelieve the reports that the inhabitants were firing -their own city, he put more rigid commands on Mortier to keep the -soldiers from their work of destruction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p> - -<p>The marshal simply pointed to some iron covered houses that had not -yet been opened, from every crevice of which smoke was issuing like -steam from the sides of a pent up volcano. Sad and thoughtful, Napoleon -turned toward the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the Czars, whose -huge structure rose high above the surrounding edifices.</p> - -<p>In the morning, Mortier, by great exertions, was enabled to subdue -the fire. But the next night, at midnight, the sentinels on watch, on -the lofty Kremlin, saw below them the flames bursting through the -houses and palaces, and the cry of “Fire!” “Fire!” passed through -the city. The dread scene had now fairly opened. Fiery balloons were -seen dropping from the air, and lighting upon the houses; dull explosions -were heard on every side from the shut up dwellings, and the next -moment a bright light burst forth, and the flames were raging through -the apartments. All was uproar and confusion. The serene air and -moonlight of the night before, had given way to the driving clouds, and -a wild tempest that swept with the roar of the sea over the city. Flames -arose on every side, blazing and crackling in the storm, while clouds of -smoke and sparks, in an incessant shower, went driving toward the -Kremlin. The clouds themselves seemed turned into fire, rolling in -wrath over devoted Moscow. Mortier, crushed with the responsibility -thus thrown over his shoulders, moved with his young guard amid this -desolation, blowing up the houses, and facing the tempest and the -flames, struggling nobly to arrest the conflagration. He hastened from -place to place amid the blazing ruins, his face blackened with the smoke, -and his hair and eyebrows seared with the fierce heat. At length, the -day dawned, a day of tempest and of flame; and Mortier, who had -strained every nerve for 36 hours, entered a palace, and dropped down -with fatigue.</p> - -<p>The manly form and stalwart arm, that had so long carried death -into the ranks of the enemy, at length gave way, and the gloomy -marshal lay and panted in utter exhaustion. The day was one of tempest; -and when night again enveloped the city it was one broad flame, -wavering to and fro in the blast.</p> - -<p>The wind had increased to a perfect hurricane, and shifted from -quarter to quarter, as if on purpose to swell the sea of fire, and extinguish -the last hope. The fire was approaching the Kremlin, and already -the roar of the flames and the crash of the falling houses, and the crackling -of burning timbers, were borne to the ears of the startled Emperor.</p> - -<p>He arose and walked to and fro, stopping and convulsively gazing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -on the terrific scene. Murat, Eugène, and Berthier rushed into his -presence, and on their knees besought him to flee; but he still clung to -that haughty palace, as if it were his empire. But at length the shout, -“The Kremlin on fire!” was heard above the roar of the conflagration, -and Napoleon reluctantly consented to leave. He descended into the -street with his staff, and looked about for a way of egress, but the flames -blocked every passage. At length they discovered a postern gate, leading -to the Moskwa, and entered it, but they had only entered still further -into the danger. As Napoleon cast his eyes around the open space, -girdled and arched with fire, smoke, and cinders, he saw one single street -yet open, but all on fire.</p> - -<p>Into this he rushed, and amid the crash of falling houses, and raging -of the flames, over burning ruins, through clouds of rolling smoke, and -between walls of fire, he pressed on; and at length, half suffocated, -emerged in safety from the blazing city, and took up his quarters in the -imperial palace of Petrousky, nearly three miles distant.</p> - -<p>Mortier, relieved from his anxiety for the Emperor, redoubled his -efforts to arrest the conflagration. His men cheerfully rushed into every -danger. Breathing nothing but smoke and ashes,—canopied by flame, -and smoke, and cinders,—surrounded by walls of fire that rocked to and -fro, and fell with a crash amid the blazing ruins, carrying down with -them red hot roofs of iron,—he struggled against an enemy, that no -boldness could awe, or courage overcome.</p> - -<p>Those brave troops had heard the tramp of thousands of cavalry, -sweeping battle without fear, but now they stood in still terror, before -the march of the conflagration, under whose burning footsteps was heard -the incessant crash of falling houses, and palaces, and churches. The -continuous roar of the raging hurricane, mingled with that of the flames, -was more terrible than the thunder of artillery; and before this new foe, -in the midst of this battle of the elements, the awe-struck army stood -powerless and affrighted. When night descended again on the city, it -presented a spectacle, the like of which was never seen before, and which -baffles all description: the streets of fire, the heavens a canopy of fire, -and the entire body of the city a mass of fire, fed by a hurricane that -whirled the blazing fragments in a constant stream through the air. -Incessant explosions, from the blowing up of stores of oil, and tar, and -spirits, shook the very foundations of the city, and sent volumes of -smoke rolling furiously toward the sky. Huge sheets of canvas, on fire, -came floating, like messengers of death, through the flames; the towers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -and domes of the churches and palaces, glowed with red-hot heat over -the wild sea below, then tottering a moment on their bases, were hurled -by the tempest into the common ruin.</p> - -<p>Thousands of wretches, before unseen, were driven by the heat from -the cellars and hovels, and streamed in an incessant throng through the -streets. Children were seen carrying their parents,—the strong the -weak,—while thousands more were staggering under loads of plunder, -they had snatched from the flames. This, too, would frequently take -fire in the falling shower, and the miserable creatures would be compelled -to drop it and flee for their lives. Oh, it was a scene of woe and fear -indescribable! A mighty and close packed city of houses, and churches, -and palaces, wrapt from limit to limit in flames, which are fed by a -whirling hurricane, is a sight this world will seldom see. But this was -all within the city. To Napoleon, without, the spectacle was still more -sublime and terrific. When the flames had overcome all obstacles, and -had wrapped everything in their red mantle, that great city looked like -a sea of fire, swept by a tempest that drove it into vast billows.</p> - -<p>Huge domes and towers, throwing off sparks like blazing firebrands, -now towered above these waves, and now disappeared in their maddening -flow, as they rushed and broke high over tops, and scattered their spray -of fire against the clouds. The heavens themselves seemed to have -caught the conflagration, and the angry masses that swept it, rolled over -a bosom of fire. Columns of flame would rise and sink along the surface -of the sea, and huge volumes of black smoke suddenly shoot into the air, -as if volcanoes were working below.</p> - -<p>The black form of the Kremlin alone towered above the chaos, now -wrapped in flame and smoke, and again emerged into view, standing -amid the scene of desolation and terror, like virtue in the midst of a -burning world, enveloped but unscathed by the devouring elements. -Napoleon stood and gazed upon this scene in silent awe. Though nearly -three miles distant, the windows and walls of his apartment were so hot, -that he could scarcely bear his hand against them. Said he, years afterwards, -“It was the spectacle of a sea and billows of fire, a sky and -clouds of flame; mountains of red rolling flame, like immense waves of -the sea, alternately bursting forth, and elevating themselves to skies of -fire, and then sinking into the ocean of flame below. Oh! it was the -most grand, the most sublime, the most terrific sight the world ever -beheld.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p> - - -<p>MOSKWA, BATTLE OF.—Also called the battle of <em>Borodino</em>, -which see.</p> - - -<p>MUSKET.—First used at the siege of Anasitti, 1414. Introduced -generally into the British army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 1521.</p> - - -<p>MUNCHENGRATZ <span class="fs70">AND</span> GITSCHIN, BATTLES OF.—Fought, -28th June, 1866, between the Austrians and the Prussians. The <em>Times’</em> -correspondent, with the Prussian army, gives the following account of -these battles:</p> - -<p>“The Prussian leader calculated that if he made a demonstration of -a careless march towards Munchengratz by the highroad and railway, the -Austrians, who might be on the Mushey Berg, would lie there quiet till -the heads of his columns had passed their position in order that their -artillery might take the marching troops in reverse, and that he might -himself in the meantime turn their position. By the same bait he also -hoped to hold his adversaries on the Kaczowberg until their retreat was -cut off. To effect this double object, the seventh division was to move -from Turnau by a road on the south side of the Iser, whereby the village -of Wschew crosses the road from Podoll to Sobotka, at Zdiar. It was -then to take the Austrians on the Mushey Berg in rear—for this hill -slopes gently on its reverse side towards a rivulet which forms the little -lake of Zdiar. The division was afterwards to push on over the hill -and strike the road from Munchengratz to Furstenbruck, between the -village of Bossin and the former place. On the right bank of the river -General Herwarth was to advance from Huhnerwasser on Munchengratz, -cross the Iser, and occupy the town, throwing out at the same time a -division to his left, which by Mohelnitz should take in reverse the -defenders of the Kaczowberg. The divisions of Horne and Manstein -were to push down the main road from Podoll, while strong reserves -closed down to Podoll. A division of infantry was to cross at Huberlow -and attack the Kaczowberg in front, while a division of cavalry kept the -communications open between the divisions on the right bank of the -river. A strong division of cavalry was also sent from Turnau to scour -the country to Jicin in the direction of Josephstadt.</p> - -<p>About eight o’clock this morning, Prince Charles, with General Von -Voigts-Retz, his chief of the staff, and General Stuhltnahl, his Quarter-master-General, -came down to the bridge of Podoll, and almost immediately -the Jagers, who formed the advanced guard of Horne’s division,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> -crossed the bridge, but not before an opening cannonade in the direction -of Munchengratz told that Bittenfeld was already engaged. On a hill -upon the northern bank there was a convenient spot from which to see -the whole theatre of the combat, and here the Prussian staff went to -watch the course of the action.</p> - -<p>Attention was called towards Munchengratz, where the progress of -Bittenfeld’s attack could be traced by the puffs of white smoke which -rose from the discharges of the artillery. The Prussian cannonade was -seen to be slowly advancing, and that of the Austrian to be retiring, -while a heavy cloud of black smoke rising close beside the town showed -that the Austrians had retired from the right bank of the river and had -burned the bridge. For a short time the fight was stationary, but in -about a quarter of an hour a bright flash of flame and a much heavier -smoke rising from the Austrian line told that an ammunition waggon had -exploded. Their battery then ceased firing and rapidly retired, while a -quick advance of the Prussian cannonade showed that Bittenfeld’s -pioneers had quickly thrown their bridge, and that his corps was across -the Iser. But the Austrians did not go far, for in a short time they -were again in action in the direction of the Jung Bunzlau Road, and -one battery was drawing off towards Furstenbruck. It then seemed -that Bittenfeld had halted; the cannonade ceased in this direction. -The heads of the Prussian columns were some way past the hill, and -were pushing steadily towards Munchengratz, when the well-known puff -of smoke rising from the dark firs on the Mushey Berg plateau showed -that the Austrians had opened fire upon them. The battery on the hill -did not appear to be more than four guns, and at first they fired slowly, -nor did they do much execution. Their shells, projected from so great -a height, went straight into the ground, and did not ricochet among the -troops; but they were well aimed, and in most cases burst at the proper -moment, and every now and then a man went down. A squadron of -Uhlans was directed to pass close along the foot of the Mushey Berg, so -that the guns on the plateau could not be depressed sufficiently to hurt -them, and were to gain a steep path which leads to the summit between -the highest point and Bossin, while an infantry brigade was to support -the movement; but before this plan could be carried into execution the -Seventh Division was heard engaged on the reverse side, and the Austrian -battery quickly limbered up and retired. The guns were not intercepted -by the Seventh Division; but here General Franscky made 600 prisoners -from the infantry which was on the hill to support the battery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> -While the Seventh Division was still engaged behind the Mushey Berg, -four Austrian guns appeared on the summit of the hill, between Bossin -and Wessely, and opened fire against the Prussian columns, who were -now again advancing over the plain. But Franscky was pushing towards -them, and his artillery threatened to enfilade them, so that they soon -had to retire. The Seventh Division then struck the road between -Munchengratz and Bossin, and attacked the latter village. Bittenfeld -had already pushed towards it from Munchengratz, and supported this -attack. The first round of Franscky’s artillery set fire to a house, -which began to burn fiercely, and the flames were soon communicated to -the next, for most of the cottages in this country are built of wood, -which, dried in the hot summer sun, readily takes fire. After a sharp -skirmish, the Austrians were driven from the village and retired in the -direction of Furstenbruck, and they left here 200 prisoners; and General -Herwarth von Bittenfeld had already captured 200.</p> - -<p>With the occupation of the village of Bossin ended the combat of -Munchengratz, in which, by a series of strategic movements, with little -fighting, and slight loss—for the Prussian killed, wounded, and missing -do not number 100—Prince Frederick Charles has gained about twelve -miles of country, and has taken 1000 prisoners, has turned the strong -position of the Kaczowberg, and has effected his secure junction with the -corps of General Bittenfeld.</p> - -<p>The corps of General von Schmitt marched yesterday from the neighbourhood -of Podoll to Sobotka, and there, striking the road from Munchengratz -to Gitschin, General von Schmitt changed the direction of his -march to the left, and advanced towards Gitschin. He moved with his -two divisions at some distance apart—that of General von Werder, or -the Third Division, as it is named in the muster-roll of the army, led the -way. Von Werder’s advanced guard consisted of the 2nd battalion of -Jagers, and the 3rd battalion of the 42nd Regiment. In rear of these -followed the three battalions of the regiment of the late King of Prussia, -the two remaining battalions of the 42nd, and one battalion of the 14th -Regiment, with one six-pounder and two four-pounder field-batteries.</p> - -<p>A strong Austrian force held the wood behind the first ravine, with its -sharpshooters hidden behind the trunks of the fir-trees, with the view of -compensating for the inferiority of their rifle to the Prussian needle-gun. -Behind each marksman two soldiers were placed, whose only duty was to -load their rifles and hand them to the picked men to whom the firing was -intrusted. The Austrian artillery was placed behind the wood, so that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> -it could bring a cross fire on the opening in the front through which the -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chaussée</i> passes, and strike heavily on the Sobotka bank of the ravine and -the open country beyond. As the Prussian advanced guard approached -the ravine, the Austrian batteries opened fire upon them, and the marksmen -from behind the trees also soon commenced a biting fire. The Jagers -and the men of the 42nd quickly spread out as skirmishers, and, regardless -of the withering fire to which they themselves were exposed, showered -bullets from their quickly loaded arms against the defenders of the wood, -while some of their artillery quickly brought into action tried to silence -the Austrian guns. But the fight was unequal, the sharpshooters behind -the trees could rarely be seen, and the fire of the Prussians did not tell -much upon their concealed enemies, nor were their guns in sufficient -force to engage successfully the more numerous Austrian pieces. The -Jagers from among the trees were aiming well; the men of the 42nd -were falling fast, and it seemed that the defenders would be able to hold -the wood. But the rest of the Prussian division was coming up; more -artillery was already in action; and the Austrian gunners began to fire -with less effect. The regiment of the King of Prussia soon arrived. The -Prussian soldiers, unable to make much impression with their fire on the -riflemen in the trees, were already anxious to come to close quarters, and -then General von Werder sent his men forward to take the woods with -the bayonet. They were carried, but not without loss, for the Austrians -retired from tree to tree, and only when pressed beyond the last skirt of -the wood retired under cover of their guns and reserves to take up a -position on the further brow of the next ravine. The musketry fire -recommenced. The opponents stood on either bank of the hollow, and -poured volley after volley into each other’s ranks, while the artillery, -from positions on the flanks of both lines, sent their shells truly among -their adversaries’ infantry. But here the needle-gun had more success, -for the Austrians stood up clear against the sky, and soon the white uniforms -began to go down quickly. No troops so ill-armed could have stood -before the murderous fire which the Prussians directed against the opposite -line. The Austrians did all that men could do; but, after losing -fearfully, were obliged to fall back and take up their third position in the -village of Lochow.</p> - -<p>It was now about seven o’clock in the evening; the combat had already -lasted almost two hours, but here it was renewed more fiercely than ever. -The Prussians, encouraged by their success—brave soldiers and bravely -led—eagerly came to the attack. With hearts as big and with officers as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -devoted, the Austrians stood with a desperate calmness to receive them. -On both sides the fighting was hard; but at any distance the Austrian -rifle had no chance against the needle-gun; and at close quarters the -boyish soldiers of the Kaiser could not cope with the broad-shouldered -men of Pomerania, who form the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">corps d’armée</i>, one division of which -was here engaged. Yet for three-quarters of an hour the little village of -Lochow was held, and the continuous rattle of the rifles and the heavy -cannonade of the guns remaining almost stationary told the determination -of the assault and the stoutness of the defence. But the Austrians were -slowly forced from house to house and from orchard to orchard, and had -to retreat to their last vantage ground on the top of the Gitschin bank of -the fourth ravine.</p> - -<p>And here both sides re-engaged in the fight with the utmost fury. The -defenders felt that this was their last standing-point, and on its maintenance -depended the possession of Gitschin; the assailants knew that success -here would almost certainly bring them to the object of all their -exertions. The Prussian line soon formed on the top of the opposite -bank to that held by the Austrians, and then began to fire rapidly against -the brow where the Austrians stood. The latter returned the fire, but -from necessity more slowly; still their guns smote the Prussian troops -heavily, and the shells, bursting in front of the assailants’ line, caused -many casualties. But the Pomeranians were highly excited, and it is -said that a heavy mass of the Prussians dashed down the road and rushed -up the opposite slope with their rifles at the charge. There a fierce -struggle ensued. The strong men of Pomerania pressed hard against -their lighter opponents, and pushed them beyond the brow of the slope -on to the level plain; yet the lithe and active Austrians fought hard, and -strove to drive their bayonets into the faces of their taller antagonists; -but strength and weight told, for their more powerful adversaries urged -them back foot by foot till a gap was clearly opened in the defenders’ -line. The musketry bullets had also told sharply on the Austrians, and -they were obliged to retire. They drew off across the plain towards -Gitschin, but not in rout. Slowly and sullenly they drew back, suffering -awful loss in the open plain where the needle-gun had a fair range; but -they fought for every yard of ground, ever turning to send among the -advancing Prussians shots which were often truly aimed, but which -formed no sufficient return for the showers of bullets which were rained -upon themselves. For long the plain was the scene of the advancing -combat, and it was not till near midnight that General von Werder occupied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -Gitschin. In the town the Austrians did not stand; they held some -houses at the entrance for a short time, but these were carried, and then -they retired rapidly towards the south. In their haste they left their -hospitals; and here, as well as in Lochow, Von Werder’s division took a -large number of prisoners.”</p> - - -<p>MUTINY:—A memorable mutiny in the British fleet,</p> -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">for an advance of wages</td><td class="tdl">April 15th, 1797;</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Of the Nore</td><td class="tdl">June, 1797;</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Of Admiral Mitchell’s fleet at Bantry Bay</td><td class="tdl">December, 1801;</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Great Indian mutiny, begun</td><td class="tdl">March 27th, 1857.</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>MYCALE, BATTLE OF.—Fought, September 22nd, 479 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span>, -between the Greeks and Persians. The Persians consisted of about -100,000 men. They were completely defeated, many thousands of them -killed, their camp burned, and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their -troops, and sailed to Samos with an immense booty.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="N" id="N"></a>N.</h3> - - -<p>NAAS, BATTLE OF.—A desperate engagement between a body -of the King’s forces, consisting of the ancient Britons and the Armagh -militia. The insurgent Irish, who had just begun the Great Rebellion -of 1798, were 3000 strong, and were defeated with the loss of 300 killed -and some hundreds wounded. Fought, May 24th, 1798.</p> - - -<p>NARVA, BATTLE OF.—This was the celebrated battle in which -Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by the renowned Charles -XII of Sweden. Fought, November 30th, 1700. The Russians -amounted to 70,000 men, while the Swedes had only 20,000. The -enemy lost 30,000 in killed, whilst as many surrendered to the conqueror.</p> - - -<p>NASEBY, BATTLE OF.—Between Charles I of England and the -Parliamentary army, under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main body of -the Royal army was commanded by Lord Astley. Prince Rupert led -the right wing, Sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the King himself -headed the body of reserve. The forces of the Parliament gained the -victory, the Royalists being obliged to abandon the field, losing all their -cannon and baggage and 5000 men made prisoners. Fought, June 14th, -1645.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> - - -<p>NAVY OF ENGLAND.—What the British Navy has done, and -the number of vessels captured by it, is shown in the following table:—</p> - -<div class="p1 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdcx bold" colspan="6">In the French War, ending 1802.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdcx smcap">Force.</td><td class="tdrz">French.</td><td class="tdrz">Dutch.</td><td class="tdrz">Spanish.</td><td class="tdc">Other<br />Nations.</td><td class="tdrz">Total.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Of the Line</td><td class="tdrz">45</td><td class="tdrz">25</td><td class="tdrz">11</td><td class="tdrz">2</td><td class="tdrz">83</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fifties</td><td class="tdrz">2</td><td class="tdrz">1</td><td class="tdrz">0</td><td class="tdrz">0</td><td class="tdrz">3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Frigates</td><td class="tdrz">133</td><td class="tdrz">31</td><td class="tdrz">20</td><td class="tdrz">7</td><td class="tdrz">191</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sloops, &c.</td><td class="tdrz">161</td><td class="tdrz">32</td><td class="tdrz">55</td><td class="tdrz">16</td><td class="tdrz">264</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad4 nowrap">Total </td><td class="tdrz">341</td><td class="tdrz">89</td><td class="tdrz">86</td><td class="tdrz">25</td><td class="tdrz">541</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdcx bold" colspan="6">In the French War, ending 1814.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdcx smcap">Force.</td><td class="tdrz">French.</td><td class="tdrz">Spanish.</td><td class="tdrz">Danish.</td><td class="tdrz">Russian.</td><td class="tdrz">American.</td><td class="tdrz"> Total.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Of the Line</td><td class="tdrz">70</td><td class="tdrz">27</td><td class="tdrz">23</td><td class="tdrz">4</td><td class="tdrz">0</td><td class="tdrz">124</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fifties</td><td class="tdrz">7</td><td class="tdrz">0</td><td class="tdrz">1</td><td class="tdrz">0</td><td class="tdrz">1</td><td class="tdrz">9</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Frigates</td><td class="tdrz">77</td><td class="tdrz">36</td><td class="tdrz">24</td><td class="tdrz">6</td><td class="tdrz">5</td><td class="tdrz">148</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sloops, &c.</td><td class="tdrz">188</td><td class="tdrz">64</td><td class="tdrz">16</td><td class="tdrz">7</td><td class="tdrz">13</td><td class="tdrz">288</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad4 nowrap">Total </td><td class="tdrz">342</td><td class="tdrz">127</td><td class="tdrz">64</td><td class="tdrz">17</td><td class="tdrz">19</td><td class="tdrz">569</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>NAVARINO, BATTLE OF.—Fought on the 20th October, 1827. -“The atrocities which marked the warfare between the Greeks and -Turks were so shocking to humanity, that the Sovereigns of Europe felt -themselves bound to interfere, and a treaty for the pacification of Greece -was signed in London, on the 6th of July, 1827, by the representatives -of England, France, and Russia. In consequence of this, the allied -fleets in the Mediterranean prepared to force the combatants to consent -to an armistice, and blockaded the Turkish fleet in the harbour of Navarino. -Ibrahim Pacha, the Turkish commander in the Morea, paying -but little attention to the remonstrances of the allied Admirals, the -united fleets sailed into harbour, on the 20th of October, under the command -of Sir Edward Codrington, to intimidate him into submission. -A shot fired by a Turkish vessel was the signal for a general engagement, -which lasted four hours. It terminated in the almost utter annihilation -of the Turkish fleet, with comparatively little loss to the allied squadrons. -The independence of Greece was virtually achieved by this -brilliant victory, and was further secured by the arrival of a small -military force from France; the Turkish government, however, refused -submission, and war was commenced against Russia. The events of -this war, though not properly belonging to English history, demand a -brief notice; in the first campaign the Turks made an obstinate resistance, -and gained some advantages over their opponents; but in the -following year (1829), the Russian arms were everywhere successful; -the passages of the Balkan were forced; Adrianople, the second city in -the empire, was captured, and the Sultan forced to consent to terms of -peace, dictated almost at the gates of Constantinople. The demands of -Russia were, however, less exhorbitant than might have been expected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> -under the circumstances, but there is reason to believe that this moderation -was inspired by a dread of provoking the jealousy and resentment -of England.”</p> - - -<div><a name="NEV" id="NEV"></a></div> -<p>NEVILL’S CROSS, BATTLE OF.—Fought October 17th, 1346, -between the Scots and English. More than 15,000 of the Scots were slain.</p> - -<p>“Philippa, Edward’s Queen, took upon her the conduct of the field, -and prepared to repulse the enemy in person: accordingly, having made -Lord Percy general under her, she met the Scots at a place called -Nevill’s Cross, near Durham, and offered them battle. The Scots King -was no less impatient to engage; he imagined that he might obtain an -easy victory against undisciplined troops, and headed by a woman. But -he was miserably deceived. His army was quickly routed and driven -from the field. 15,000 of his men were cut to pieces; and he himself, -with many of his nobles and knights, were taken prisoners, and carried -in triumph to London, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1346.”</p> - -<p>Another historian says:—</p> - -<p>“Some years after his return home, King David burst into England -at the head of an army. Edward was absent in France, and David -thought to avail himself of the opportunity. It turned out a dear business -to him. Marching southward as far as Durham, he laid waste the -country with fire and sword. At a place called Nevill’s Cross, an -English army came up. A Scottish knight, seeing their archers gathering -in a vast cloud, and knowing well the bitter shower which that cloud -would discharge, said to the King, “Give me but 100 horse, and I will -disperse them all.” The conceited and headstrong King gave no heed. -The archers commenced their deadly practice without interruption. -Three hours of the arrow sleet, three hours of furious charging by the -English horse, and the Scots were a rout of fugitives. Their King -was taken prisoner and convoyed to London. Mounted on a tall black -horse that he might be seen by all the people, the son of Robert the -Bruce was conducted to the Tower.”</p> - - -<p>NEWARK, BATTLE OF.—This battle was fought March 21st, -1644, between the army of the Parliament and the Royal forces, under -Prince Rupert. He was defeated, and here afterwards Charles I put -himself into the hands of the Scotch army.</p> - - -<p>NEWBURY, BATTLES OF.—The first battle, fought September<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -20th, 1643, was between the Parliamentary army and that of Charles I. -It lasted till midnight, and among the slain was Lucius Carey, Viscount -Falkland. A second battle was fought here next year, October -10th, and the result, as the first, was equally dubious, both sides claiming -victory.</p> - - -<p>NEW ORLEANS, BATTLE OF.—(See <em><a href="#ORL">Orleans</a></em>.)</p> - - -<p>NIAGARA FORT.—<em>Upper Canada.</em>—“The Fort of Niagara was a -place of great importance, and served to command all the communication -between the northern and western French settlements. The siege was -begun with vigour, and promised an easy conquest; but General Prideaux -was killed in the trenches by the bursting of a mortar, so that the -whole command of the expedition devolved upon General Johnson, who -omitted nothing to push forward the vigorous operations of his predecessor, -to which also he added his own popularity with the soldiers under -him. A body of French troops, who were sensible of the importance of -this fort, attempted to relieve it; but Johnson attacked them with intrepidity -and success; for in less than an hour their whole army was put -to the rout. The garrison soon after perceiving the fate of their countrymen, -surrendered prisoners of war.”</p> - - -<p>NICOPOLIS, BATTLE OF.—Between the Christian powers, under -Sigismund, King of Hungary, and the Turks. This battle, fought <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> -1396, is celebrated as the first fought between the Cross and Crescent. -The Christians triumphed; the Turks lost 20,000 in slain, and 20,000 -in wounded and prisoners.</p> - - -<div><a name="NIL" id="NIL"></a></div> -<p>NILE, BATTLE OF THE.—Fought, August 1st, 1798, between the -fleets of England and France. The French fleet arrived at Alexandria -August 1st, 1798, and Admiral Brueys, not being able to enter port, -which time and neglect had ruined, moored the ships in Aboukir Bay, in a -strong and compact line of battle; the headmost vessel, according to his -own account, being as close as possible to a shoal on the north-west, and -the rest of the fleet forming a kind of curve along the line of deep water, -so as not to be turned by any means in the south-west.</p> - -<p>The advantage of numbers, both in ships, guns, and men, was in favour -of the French. They had 13 ships of the line and 4 frigates, carrying -1196 guns, and 11,230 men. The English had the same number of -ships of the line, and one 50 gun ship, carrying 1012 guns, and 8068 men.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -The English ships were all seventy-fours; the French had three 80 gun -ships, and one three-decker of 120.</p> - -<p>During the whole pursuit it had been Nelson’s practice, whenever circumstances -would permit, to have his captains on board the <i>Vanguard</i>, -and explain to them his own ideas of the different and best modes of -attack, and such plans as he proposed to execute on falling in with the -enemy, whatever their situation might be. There is no possible position, -it is said, which he did not take into consideration. His officers were -thus fully acquainted with his principles of tactics; and such was his -confidence in their abilities, that the only thing determined upon, in case -they should find the French at anchor, was for the ships to form as most -convenient for their mutual support, and to anchor by the stern. “First -gain your victory,” he said, “and then make the best use of it you can.” -The moment he perceived the position of the French, that intuitive -genius with which Nelson was endowed displayed itself; and it instantly -struck him that where there was room for an enemy’s ship to swing there -was room for one of ours to anchor. The plan which he intended to -pursue, therefore, was to keep entirely on the outer side of the French -line, and station his ships, as far as he was able, one on the outer bow -and another on the outer quarter of each of the enemy’s. Captain Berry, -when he comprehended the scope of the design, exclaimed with transport, -“If we succeed, what will the world say?” “There is no <em>if</em> in the case,” -replied the Admiral; “that we <em>shall</em> succeed is certain—who may live to -tell the story is a very different question.”</p> - -<p>As the squadron advanced, they were assailed by a shower of shot and -shell from the batteries on the island, and the enemy opened a steady -fire from the starboard side of their whole line, within half gunshot distance, -full into the bows of our van ships. It was received in silence; -the men on board every ship were employed aloft in furling sails, and -below in tending the braces, and making ready for anchoring;—a miserable -sight for the French, who, with all their skill and all their courage, -and all their advantages of number and situation, were upon that element -on which, when the hour of trial comes, a Frenchman has no hope. -Admiral Brueys was a brave and able man; yet the indelible character -of his country broke out in one of his letters, wherein he delivered it as -his private opinion that the English had missed him, because, not being -superior in force, they did not think it prudent to try their strength with -him. The moment was now come in which he was to be undeceived.</p> - -<p>A French brig was instructed to decoy the English. By manœuvring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -so as to tempt them towards a shoal lying off the island of Beguieres; -but Nelson either knew the danger, or suspected some deceit, and the -lure was unsuccessful. Captain Foley led the way in the <i>Goliath</i>, out-sailing -the <i>Zealous</i>, which for some minutes disputed this post of honour -with him. He had long conceived that, if the enemy were moored in -line of battle in with the land, the best plan of attack would be to lead -between them and the shore, because the French guns on that side were -not likely to be manned, nor even ready for action. Intending, therefore, -to fix himself on the inner bow of the <i>Guerrier</i>, he kept as near the edge -of the bank as the depth of water would admit; but his anchor hung, -and, having opened his fire, he drifted to the second ship, the <i>Conquérant</i>, -before it was cleared, then anchored by the stern, inside of her, and in -ten minutes shot away her masts. Hood, in the <i>Zealous</i>, perceiving this, -took the station which the <i>Goliath</i> intended to have occupied, and totally -disabled the <i>Guerrier</i> in twelve minutes. The third ship which doubled -the enemy’s van was the <i>Orion</i>, Sir J. Saumarez; she passed to windward -of the <i>Zealous</i>, and opened her larboard guns as long as they bore on the -<i>Guerrier</i>; then passing inside the <i>Goliath</i>, sunk a frigate which annoyed -her, hauled toward the French line, and, anchoring inside between the -fifth and sixth ships from the <i>Guerrier</i>, took her station on the larboard -bow of the <i>Franklin</i> and the quarter of the <i>Peuple Souverain</i>, receiving -and returning the fire of both. The sun was now nearly down. The -<i>Audacious</i>, Captain Gould, pouring a heavy fire into the <i>Guerrier</i> and -the <i>Conquérant</i>, fixed herself on the larboard bow of the latter, and when -that ship struck, passed on to the <i>Peuple Souverain</i>. The <i>Theseus</i>, -Captain Miller, followed, brought down the <i>Guerrier’s</i> remaining main -and mizen masts, then anchored inside the <i>Spartiate</i>, the third in the -French line.</p> - -<p>While these advanced ships doubled the French line, the <i>Vanguard</i> -was the first that anchored on the outer side of the enemy, within half -pistol shot of their third ship, the <i>Spartiate</i>. Nelson had six colours -flying in different parts of the rigging, lest they should be shot away—that -they should be struck, no British Admiral considers as a possibility. -He veered half a cable, and instantly opened a tremendous fire, under -cover of which the other four ships of his division, the <i>Minotaur</i>, <i>Bellerophon</i>, -<i>Defence</i> and <i>Majestic</i>, sailed on ahead of the Admiral. In a few -minutes every man stationed at the first six guns in the fore part of the -<i>Vanguard’s</i> deck was killed or wounded—these guns were three times -cleared. Captain Louis, in the <i>Minotaur</i>, anchored next ahead, and took<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -off the fire of the <i>Aquilon</i>, the fourth in the enemy’s line. The <i>Bellerophon</i>, -Captain Darby, passed ahead, and dropped her stern anchor on the -starboard bow of the <i>Orient</i>, seventh in the line, Bruey’s own ship of one -hundred and twenty guns, whose difference in force was in proportion of -more than seven to three, and whose weight of ball, from the lower deck -alone, exceeded that from the whole broadside of the <i>Bellerophon</i>. Captain -Peyton, in the <i>Defence</i>, took his station ahead of the <i>Minotaur</i> and engaged -the <i>Franklin</i>, the sixth in the line, by which judicious movement the -British line remained unbroken. The <i>Majestic</i>, Captain Wescott, got -entangled with the main rigging of one of the French ships astern of the -<i>Orient</i>, and suffered dreadfully from that three-decker’s fire; but she -swung clear, and closely engaging the <i>Heureux</i>, the ninth ship in the -starboard bow, received also the fire of the <i>Tonnant</i>, which was the eighth -in the line. The other four ships of the British squadron, having been -detached previous to the discovery of the French, were at a considerable -distance when the action began. It commenced at half-after six, about -seven the night closed, and there was no other light than that from the -fire of the contending fleets.</p> - -<p>Trowbridge, in the <i>Culloden</i>, then foremost of the remaining ships, -was two leagues astern. He came on sounding, as the others had done. -As he advanced, the increasing darkness increased the difficulty of navigation, -and suddenly, after having found eleven fathoms’ water, before -the lead could be hove again, he was fast a-ground; nor could all his own -exertions, joined to those of the <i>Leander</i> and <i>Mutiné</i> brig, which came -to his assistance, get him off in time to bear a part in the action. His -ship, however, served as a beacon to the <i>Alexander</i> and <i>Swiftsure</i>, which -would else, from the course they were holding, have gone considerably -further on the reef, and must inevitably have been lost. These ships -entered the bay and took their stations, in the darkness, in a manner still -spoken of with admiration by all who remember it. Captain Hallowell, -in the <i>Swiftsure</i>, as he was bearing down, fell in with what seemed to be -a strange sail. Nelson had directed his ships to hoist four lights horizontally -at the mizen peak as soon as it became dark, and this vessel had -no such distinction. Hallowell, however, with great judgment, ordered -his men not to fire. “If she was an enemy,” he said, “she was in too -disabled a state to escape; but, from her sails being loose, and the way -in which her head was, it was probable she might be an English ship.” -It was the <i>Bellerophon</i>, overpowered by the huge <i>Orient</i>. Her lights -had gone overboard, nearly two hundred of her crew were killed or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -wounded, all her masts and cables had been shot away, and she was -drifting out of the line towards the lee-side of the bay. Her station at -this important time was occupied by the <i>Swiftsure</i>, which opened a steady -fire on the quarter of the <i>Franklin</i> and the bows of the French Admiral. -At the same instant Captain Ball, with the <i>Alexander</i>, passed under his -stern, and anchored within sight on his larboard quarter, raking him, and -keeping a severe fire of musketry upon his decks. The last ship which -arrived to complete the destruction of the enemy was the <i>Leander</i>. -Captain Thompson, finding that nothing could be done that night to get -off the <i>Culloden</i>, advanced with the intention of anchoring athwart-hawse -of the <i>Orient</i>. The <i>Franklin</i> was so near her ahead, that there was not -room for him to pass clear of the two; he therefore took his station -athwart-hawse of the latter, in such a position as to rake both.</p> - -<p>The two first ships of the French line had been dismasted within a -quarter of an hour after the commencement of the action; and the others -in that time suffered so severely, that victory was already certain. The -third, fourth and fifth were taken possession of at half-past eight. Meantime -Nelson received a severe wound on the head from a piece of langridge -shot. Captain Berry caught him in his arms as he was falling. -The great effusion of blood occasioned an apprehension that the wound -was mortal. Nelson himself thought so; a large flap of the skin of the -forehead cut from the bone, had fallen over the eye; and, the other being -blind, he was in total darkness. When he was carried down, the surgeon, -in the midst of a scene scarcely to be conceived by those who have never -seen a cockpit in time of action, and the heroism which is displayed -amid its horrors—with a natural but pardonable eagerness, quitted the -poor fellow then under his hands, that he might instantly attend the -admiral. “No!” said Nelson, “I will take my turn with my brave -fellows.” Nor would he suffer his own wound to be examined, till every -man who had been previously wounded was properly attended to. Fully -believing that the wound was mortal, and that he was about to die, as he -had ever desired, in battle and in victory, he called the chaplain, and -desired him to deliver what he supposed to be his dying remembrance to -Lady Nelson; he then sent for Captain Louis on board, from the <i>Minotaur</i>, -that he might thank him personally for the great assistance he -had rendered to the <i>Vanguard</i>; and, ever mindful of those who deserved -to be his friends, appointed Captain Hardy from the brig to the command -of his own ship, Captain Berry having to go home with the news -of the victory. When the surgeon came in due time to examine the wound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -(for it was in vain to entreat him to let it be examined sooner), the most -anxious silence prevailed; and the joy of the wounded men, and of the -whole crew, when they heard that the hurt was superficial, gave Nelson -deeper pleasure than the unexpected assurance that his life was in no -danger. The surgeon requested, and, as far as he could, ordered him to -remain quiet; but Nelson could not rest. He called for his secretary, -Mr. Campbell, to write the despatches. Campbell had himself been -wounded, and was so affected at the blind and suffering state of the Admiral -that he was unable to write. The chaplain was sent for; but before -he came, Nelson, with his characteristic eagerness, took the pen, and -contrived to trace a few words, marking his devout sense of the success -which had already been obtained. He was now left alone; when suddenly -a cry was heard on the deck that the <i>Orient</i> was on fire. In the -confusion he found his way up, unassisted and unnoticed; and, to the -astonishment of every one, appeared on the quarter-deck, where he -immediately gave order that boats should be sent to the relief of the -enemy.</p> - -<p>It was soon after nine that the fire on the <i>Orient</i> broke out. Brueys -was dead; he had received three wounds, yet would not leave his spot; -a fourth cut him almost in two. He desired not to be carried below, but -to be left to die upon deck. The flames soon mastered his ship. Her -sides had just been painted, and the oil-jars and paint-buckets were -lying on the poop. By the prodigious light of this conflagration, the -situation of the fleets could now be perceived, the colours of both being -clearly distinguishable. About ten o’clock the ship blew up, with a shock -which was felt to the very bottom of every vessel. Many of her officers -and men jumped overboard, some clinging to the spars and pieces of wreck -with which the sea was strewn; others swimming to escape from the -destruction which they momently dreaded. Some were picked up by our -boats; and some, even in the heat and fury of the action, were dragged -into the lower ports of the nearest British ships by the British Sailors. -The greater part of her crew, however, stood the danger to the last, and -continued to fire from the lower deck. This tremendous explosion was -followed by a silence not less awful; the firing immediately ceased on -both sides; and the first sound which broke the silence was the dash of -her shattered masts and yards falling into the water from the vast height -to which they had been exploded. It is upon record, that a battle -between two armies was once broken off by an earthquake:—such an -event would be felt like a miracle: but no incident in war produced by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -human means, has ever equalled the sublimity of this coinstantaneous -pause, and all its circumstances.</p> - -<p>About seventy of the <i>Orient’s</i> crew were saved by the English boats. -Among the many hundreds who perished were the Commodore, Casa -Bianca, and his son, a brave boy only ten years old. They were seen floating -on a shattered mast when the ship blew up. She had money on board -(the plunder of Malta) to the amount of six hundred thousand pounds -sterling. The masses of burning wreck which were scattered by the -explosion, excited for some moments apprehensions in the English which -they had never felt from any other danger. Two large pieces fell into the -main and foretops of the <i>Swiftsure</i>, without injuring any person. A -port-fire also fell into the main-royal of the <i>Alexander</i>; the fire which it -occasioned was speedily extinguished. Captain Ball had provided, as far -human foresight could provide, against any such danger. All the shrouds -and sails of his ship, not absolutely necessary for its immediate management, -were thoroughly wetted, and so rolled up, that they were as hard -and as little inflammable as so many solid cylinders.</p> - -<p>The firing recommenced with the ships to leeward of the centre, and -continued till about three. At daybreak the <i>Guillaume Tell</i> and the -<i>Généreuse</i>, the two rear ships of the enemy, were the only French ships -of the line which had their colours flying: they cut their cables in the -forenoon, not having been engaged, and stood out to sea, and two frigates -with them. The <i>Zealous</i> pursued; but, as there was no other ship in a -condition to support Captain Hood, he was recalled. It was generally -believed by the officers that, if Nelson had not been wounded, not one of -these ships could have escaped; the four certainly could not, if the -<i>Culloden</i> had got into action; and, if the frigates belonging to the -squadron had been present, not one of the enemy’s fleet would have left -Aboukir Bay. These four vessels, however, were all that escaped; and -the victory was the most complete and glorious in the annals of naval -history. “Victory,” said Nelson, “is not a name strong enough for -such a scene;” he called it a conquest. Of thirteen sail of the line, nine -were taken and two burnt; of the four frigates, one was sunk; another -the <i>Artemise</i> was burnt in a villainous manner by her captain, M. Estandlet, -who having fired a broadside at the <i>Theseus</i>, struck his colours, -then set fire to the ship, and escaped with most of his crew to shore. -The British loss in killed and wounded amounted to 895. Westcott was -the only captain who fell: 3105 of the French, including the wounded, -were sent on shore by cartel, and 5225 perished.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus ended this eventful battle, which exalted the name of Nelson to -a level at least with that of the celebrated conqueror, whose surprising -success at the head of the French armies had then begun to draw -the attention of the civilized world. The first words of his despatches -on this memorable occasion prove his gratitude to that Providence which -had protected him:—“<em>Almighty God has blessed his Majesty’s arms.</em>”</p> - - -<p>NISBET, BATTLE OF.—Fought, May 7th, 1602, between the -English and Scotch armies,—10,000 of the latter were left dead on the -field and in the pursuit.</p> - - -<p>NORTHALLERTON, BATTLE OF.—<em>Or the Standard.</em>—A -furious engagement fought in Yorkshire, England, August 22nd, 1137, -between the Scottish and English armies. This battle received the -latter name from a high crucifix which was erected by the English on a -waggon and was carried along by the troops. (See <em><a href="#STA">Standard, Battle of</a></em>)</p> - - -<p>NORTHAMPTON, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the Duke of -York and Henry VI of England. Henry was defeated, and made -prisoner, after a bloody fight, which took place July 19th, 1460.</p> - - -<p>NOIR, BATTLES OF.—First, fought, August 15th, 1799, between -the French army commanded by Joubert, and the Russians, under Suwarrow. -The French were defeated with immense slaughter,—10,000 -being left dead on the battlefield, among whom was their General, -Joubert, and several distinguished officers. A second battle was fought, -January 8th, 1800, between the Austrian and French armies, when the -latter a second time were signally defeated.</p> - - -<p>NUMANTIA, SIEGE OF.—Celebrated in the life of Scipio Africanus. -He besieged the city with 60,000 men, the Numantines had only -4000 able to bear arms, but for 14 years it bravely withstood all -attempts, till at last it fell, and every soul preferred to perish rather than -fall into the hands of the Romans.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="O" id="O"></a>O.</h3> - - -<div><a name="ORL" id="ORL"></a></div> -<p>ORLEANS.—<em>France.</em>—Besieged by John Talbot, the Earl of Salisbury, -October 12th, 1428; relieved, and the siege raised by the Maid -of Orleans—Joan of Arc—from which circumstance she received her -name.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> - - -<p>ORLEANS NEW.—The British made an attack on New Orleans, -December, 1814; they were repulsed by the Americans, under General -Jackson, with great loss January, 7th, 1815. The American troops -were entrenched behind a large number of cotton bales, and the British -were obliged to advance in an open and exposed plain for more than -a mile, during which they were literally mowed down by the shot from -the cotton batteries. Some of the bravest Peninsular heroes fell here -and met a soldier’s grave.</p> - - -<p>ORTHES, BATTLE OF.—Fought, February 27th, 1814, between -the British and Spanish armies, on the one side, and the French on the -other. The Allies were commanded by Wellington—the French by Soult. -In this memorable engagement the Allies gained a complete victory.</p> - - -<p>OSTROLENKA, BATTLE OF.—Between the Poles and Russians. -It was one of the most sanguinary and desperate battles fought between -the two countries, and took place May 26th, 1831. On both sides -the slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained masters of the field.</p> - - -<p>OTTERBURN, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 31st, 1388. The following -is a graphic account of this engagement:—</p> - -<p>“One of the Scotch inroads into England, in the time of Robert II, -led to the famous battle of Otterburn, or “Chevy Chase.” This was -considered, by the judges of fighting in those days, to have been the best -fought, and, for the numbers engaged, the most severe of all the battles -of that age. There was not a man, knight or squire, that did not acquit -himself gallantly, fighting hand to hand with his enemy. It was about -the time of Lammas, when the moor men were busy with their hay harvest, -that the Earl of Douglas rode into England to drive a prey. The -warders on the walls of Newcastle and Durham saw, rising in all directions, -thick columns of smoke. This was the first intimation of the -presence of the Scots. In their return homeward they halted three days -before Newcastle, where they kept up an almost continual skirmish. The -Earl of Douglas had a long combat with Sir Henry Percy, and took his -pennon. “Hotspur, I will carry this pennon into Scotland,” said the -Douglas, “and fix it on the tower of my castle of Dalkeith, that it may -be seen from far.” “That shall you never, Earl of Douglas,” said Hotspur; -“be assured you shall never have this pennon to boast of.” “I -will fix your pennon before my tent,” said Douglas, “and shall see if you -will venture to take it away.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Scots resumed their march homeward. They encamped at Otterburn, -“upon the bent so brown,” and Douglas declared his resolution to -wait there for two or three days, and see if the Percy would come to -recover his pennon. On the evening of the second day the Scots were -supping, some, indeed, had gone to sleep, when a loud shout of “Percy! -Percy!” was heard, and the English were upon them. It was a sweet -moonlight evening in August, clear and bright, and the breeze blew soft -and fresh. The Scots, though somewhat taken by surprise, rose to the -fight cool and “siccar,” as at Bannockburn itself. The lances crossed, -and many on both sides went down at the first shock. Douglas, shouting -his war cry, ordered his banner to advance. Percy, eager to encounter -the Douglas, advanced his banner also. The two banners met, and many -valiant deeds of arms were done around them. But the English were -three to one, and the Scots were beginning to be forced back.</p> - -<p>Seeing this, the Earl of Douglas seized a battle-axe with both hands -and dashed into the midst of the enemy, his men following close. He -struck right and left, and cut a lane deep into the battalion of the -English. At last three spears were thrust against him all at once. One -struck him on the shoulder, one on the breast, and the stroke glanced off -his armour down into his groin; the third struck him in the thigh. -With these three strokes he was borne to the earth, and as soon as he fell -a battle-axe hewed deep into his head. The English marched over him -without knowing who he was.</p> - -<p>Sir John Sinclair, cousin to the Earl, knelt beside him, supported his -bloody head, and asked, “Cousin, how fares it with you?” “Indifferently,” -said he. “Thanks be to God, there are but few of my ancestors -who have died in their beds. I bid you revenge my death, for my heart -grows every moment more faint. Lift up my banner, which is on the -ground, from the death of the valiant squire who bore it. Shout ‘Douglas!’ -and tell neither friend nor foe but what I am with you.” Having -spoken thus he expired. His orders were obeyed. They cast a mantle -over his body, took his banner from the dead hand of the squire, raised -it, and shouted, “Douglas!” The Scots came thronging up to the cry. -They levelled their lances, and pushed with such courage that the English -were soon driven beyond the spot where the Douglas lay. Again the -shout of “Douglas!” rose more vehement and loud. The Scots in a -dense mass renewed the onset, bore the enemy before them, and broke -them so completely that they never rallied again. Percy himself was -made prisoner. He and his pennon, too, had to go to Scotland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus the dead Douglas won the field. The Scots laid the body of -their leader in a coffin, which they placed on a car, and began their -march home. They came without interruption to Melrose, and there, -in the fair abbey, the Douglas was laid. The banner, about which his -dying charge had been given at Otterburn, was hung above the place of -the warrior’s rest.”</p> - - -<p>OUDENARDE, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 11th, 1708, between -the Allies, commanded by Marlborough, and Prince Eugene and the -French. The French were defeated, and completely routed, with great -loss. The result of this victory was, that the French King entered -into a negotiation for peace.</p> - - -<p>OULART, BATTLE OF.—Fought, May 27th, 1798, between a body -of 3000 Irish insurgents and the King’s troop, a small number. In this -engagement the North Cork Militia were cut to pieces—the Lieut. -Colonel, one Sergeant and three Privates alone remaining.</p> - - -<p>OURIQUE, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 25th, 1139. Alfonso, -Count of Portugal, encountered five Saracen Kings and an immense army -of Moors on the plains of Ourique. After a glorious victory, he was hailed -King by his soldiers on the spot. He afterwards entered Lisbon in -triumph, and overthrew the Moorish dominion in Portugal. This was, -perhaps, the greatest battle recorded in the History of Portugal.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="P" id="P"></a>P.</h3> - - -<p>PALESTRO, BATTLE OF.—Fought, 29th May, 1859, between -the Austrians and the French.</p> - -<p>“On the 29th May, was fought the battle of Palestro. The Austrian -avant-garde, 1500 strong, occupied the villages of Palestro and Vinzaglio. -They were carried by the Allies at the point of the bayonet, and two -cannons, the first captured since the opening of the war, were taken. The -next morning the Austrians advanced to retake Palestro. Having -cannonaded the village, a body of Austrians advanced to cut off the -communication between the Piedmontese troops and the river. Perceiving -this, the Zouaves, who had arrived during the night, threw themselves, -in spite of a murderous fire, on the Austrians, take eight guns and put -the Austrians to flight. During this engagement the King of Sardinia -headed an attack on a battery. The Emperor of the French, a few days<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> -afterwards, complimenting him on his bravery, told him that if he wished -to be King of Italy, he must take rather more care of his august person. -This engagement inspired the Austrians with a great dread of the -Zouaves, whom they call the <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">quei terribili zuai</i>.”</p> - - -<p>PAMPELUNA, BATTLE OF.—Taken by the French on their -invasion of Spain; invested by the British; hence very bloody engagements, -July 27th and 29th, 1813. It surrendered to the British same -year.</p> - - -<p>PARMA, BATTLES OF.—The confederates, England, France and -Spain, fought against the Emperor of Austria, June 29th, 1734. Both -sides claimed the victory. A second battle, called the great battle of -Parma, in which the French, under Marshal McDonald, were defeated by -the celebrated Suwarrow, with the loss of 20,000 men and four Generals, -July 12th, 1799.</p> - - -<p>PATAY, BATTLE OF.—This battle was fought, June 10th, 1429. -Joan of Arc was present in this battle. The French signally defeated -the English; the consequence of which was that Charles VII of France -entered Rheims in triumph, and was crowned July 17th, same year—Joan -of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full armour and holding the -sword of state.</p> - - -<p>PAVIA, BATTLE OF.—Fought, February 24th, 1525, between -the French and Imperialists, when the former were defeated and their -King, Francis I, after fighting with heroic bravery and killing seven men -with his own hand, was obliged to surrender himself a prisoner of war. -He wrote to his mother a letter acquainting her with the melancholy -news in these expressive words—“<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tout est perdu, Madame, hors l’honneur.</i>”</p> - - -<p>PEAFFENDORF, BATTLE OF.—Fought, August 15th, 1760, -between the Imperialists and Prussians; the Austrians were totally -defeated by the King of Prussia, who, by this victory, prevented the -Austrian army from forming a junction with the Russians.</p> - - -<p>PHALANX.—This word originally signified a battalion or squadron. -The Greek Phalanx consisted of 8000 men, in a square battalion, with -shields joined and spears crossing each other. The celebrated Phalanx -of Epaminondas, or the Theban Phalanx, was wedge shaped, and by it he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -achieved his two great victories. The modern square is based on the -Grecian Phalanx, which was itself, as well as the Roman Orb, taken from -the Theban. The renowned Macedonian Phalanx of Alexander the -Great’s father, Philip, was instituted <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 360. This consisted of 16,000 -picked men divided into four equal parts of 4000 each. They performed -their evolutions upon the enomoty or single file, whether it were required -to extend or deepen the line, and there was an interval between every two -sections for the convenience of manœuvring.</p> - - -<p>PHARSALIA, BATTLE OF.—Fought, May 12th, 48 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span>, between -Julius Cæsar and Pompey.</p> - -<p>“The battle commenced about daybreak, and before noon the army -of Pompey was utterly defeated. Pompey himself, early in the battle, -seemed entirely to have lost his presence of mind, and fled in despair to -his tent, there to await the result. Cæsar, determined to make the most -of his advantage, notwithstanding the weariness of his troops, did not -permit the pursuit to slacken till the army of Pompey was entirely -scattered. A considerable body of them had taken refuge in an adjacent -mountain. By cutting off all hope of succor, Cæsar induced them to -surrender. He received their submission with the greatest gentleness, and -forbade his soldiers from offering violence to their vanquished countrymen. -This was the most complete victory Cæsar ever obtained. His loss did not -exceed 200, while that of Pompey was 10,000, and 24,000 surrendered -themselves prisoners of war. On passing over the battle field, so thickly -strewn with Romans, Cæsar is said to have been affected even to tears, -while he exclaimed to one near him, “They would have it so.”</p> - - -<p>PHILIPPI, BATTLE OF.—Fought, October, 42 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span>, between -Octavius Cæsar and Marc Antony, on the one side, and Brutus and -Cassius on the other.</p> - -<p>“In the meantime, Brutus and Cassius, the principal conspirators -against Cæsar, having retired into Greece, persuaded the Roman students -at Athens to declare for the cause of freedom. In Syria and Macedonia -they succeeded in raising large armies, and soon found themselves in a -condition to support a contest on which the empire of the world depended. -While at Sardis, Brutus and Cassius are said to have had a serious misunderstanding, -the effect of a jealousy which had been industriously raised -between them. But no bad consequences arose from it, for immediately -joining their armies, they hastened to oppose Antony and Octavius, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> -were rapidly advancing to meet them. Once more the empire of the -world was about to be decided by a single battle. It was a time of fearful -suspense. Should the arms of Brutus be successful, the Roman -people might again form a free republic. On the other hand, should -Octavius triumph, they had to fear a worse tyranny than ever had been -exercised by Julius Cæsar. Brutus and Cassius took their station each -on a little hill near the city of Philippi. Behind them was the sea, by -which they might obtain supplies, and between them and the plain on -which the Triumviri had encamped their army, was an impassable morass. -In this favorable position, it was their policy to delay a battle as long as -possible. On the contrary, the Triumviri, not being able to obtain supplies -by sea, and conscious that their army could not long be sustained by -the resources of the surrounding country, were eager immediately to -engage. A road was constructed by them through the morass which -separated the armies. The tall reeds of the morass having concealed the -soldiers while making the road, Brutus and Cassius were in some measure -taken by surprise when the enemy advanced over it, and the impatience -of their own soldiers prevented a longer delay.</p> - -<p>A battle therefore ensued. Antony led his forces against that part of -the army commanded by Cassius, and in a short time put his cavalry to -flight. Cassius did all that the courage of a single man could do to rally -his troops, but in vain. Supposing the battle to be entirely lost, and -determined not to fall into the hands of the enemy, he returned into -his tent and killed himself. Brutus still kept possession of the camp, -and did all in his power to encourage his men. Still he determined for -the present to avoid seeking another battle. His design was to starve -the enemy, whom he know to be in great want of provisions. After -a respite of twenty days, he was, however, forced to give in to -the impatience of his men, and try the fate of a battle. In the -engagement that followed, wherever Brutus commanded in person, he -had the advantage. But the troops of Cassius being seized with -a panic, communicated their terror to the rest, and soon the whole -army gave way. In the midst of his bravest officers Brutus fought -with undaunted courage. The son of Cato, and the brother of Cassius, -fell fighting at his side. At last, however, yielding to the necessity of -the case, Brutus fled. Octavius and Antony, secure of the victory, -thought only of getting Brutus into their power. He was on the point -of being overtaken, when Lucilius, his friend, determined to save his life -by the sacrifice of his own. Giving himself up to a band of Thracians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -he told them he was Brutus, and requested to be conducted into the -presence of their General. Antony seeing the Thracians approach, and -being informed of the prisoner’s capture, prepared himself for an interview -with his enemy. But Lucilius, advancing with a cheerful air, said, -“It is not Brutus that is taken. Fortune has not yet had the power to -commit so great an outrage upon virtue. As for my life, it is well lost -in preserving his honor. Take it, for I have deceived you.” Antony, -struck with such fidelity, pardoned him, and gave him his friendship. -Meanwhile Brutus, with a few friends had escaped over a rivulet, and -night coming on, they concealed themselves under a rock. An officer -whom Brutus had sent out to ascertain the extent of their defeat, did -not return, and he rightly judged that he had fallen into the hands of -the enemy. Before the first battle, Brutus had told Cassius that if he -was defeated, he would not fall alive into the power of Octavius, and he -now prepared to end his misfortunes with his life. After calling to mind -with great tenderness many of his friends, who had fallen in the battle, -he bade farewell to all present, one by one, saying aloud, that he was -happy in never having been betrayed by any one whom he had trusted as -a friend. Soon after, falling upon his sword, he expired in the forty-third -year of his age.”</p> - - -<p>PIGEON HILL.—Famous as the scene of a skirmish between the -British Regulars and Volunteers and the Fenian bandits, who attempted -to invade Canada during the past summer. The following gives honor -to whom honor is due, and is written by a gentleman who can be relied on:</p> - -<p>“If any evidence were required, more than we possess, of the essentially -weak and contemptible character of the Fenian organization, the circumstances -attending the operations of Her Majesty’s forces and our own -volunteers on Saturday, June 9th, in the neighborhood of Pigeon Hill, -would furnish it. As one who accompanied that expedition, and had an -opportunity of observing all that passed, I shall be happy to furnish you -with a few details. I arrived at St. Armand’s Station between 11 and -12 o’clock, just at the moment that two waggons from Pigeon Hill arrived, -bringing five Fenian prisoners, who had been taken that morning by -different parties, whose names I need not mention, as I cannot give all -with accuracy. I must confess that my astonishment was great when I -saw them. Three were little scamps—such as one sees about the streets -of all great cities, as news-boys, &c. One was a tolerably stout, resolute -looking-fellow, the other a mild-looking young man, much better dressed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -who, I am sorry to say, stated himself to have been born in Yorkshire, -though hailing from Montpelier, Vt. Shortly after they were lodged in -the guard-house, another prisoner, an able-bodied hard-looking customer, -about 28 or 30 years of age, was brought in. He had a tremendous -black eye, which he told me he received in a brawl with his own companions -the night previous. Leaving these in the custody of the St. Armand -volunteers, the column of attack started for Pigeon Hill about 2 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> -The Granby and Waterloo volunteers, commanded by Captain Millar, -formed the advance guard, being followed by two 12-pounder Armstrong -guns of Captain Balfour’s battery, with their complements of artillerymen, -commanded by Captain Phipps, R.A. These were followed by two companies -of the Rifle Brigade, under Major Nixon, who, I understand, commanded -the whole column, and two companies of the 25th regiment—another -company of that regiment forming the rear guard. Between the -main body and the rear guard, the supply waggon and a farmer’s waggon, -carrying the Surgeon’s apparatus and medical comforts, were placed.</p> - -<p>The officers and men were in the highest spirits, only fearing lest the -redoubtable Fenians should seek shelter too promptly in Uncle Sam’s dominions, -the line being only half a mile from their camp. The day was very -fine, a bright sun, tempered by a cool breeze, having dried up the roads, -and made marching pleasant. And I may here remark a circumstance -creditable to the pluck and training of our volunteers, that, although several -soldiers of the line and rifles were knocked up, and obliged to fall out, -the volunteers, though forming the advance guard and obliged to keep in -advance of the powerful artillery horses, had not a man who manifested the -least fatigue. At Holt’s Corner a short halt took place, and a prisoner was -brought up from the south road, leading to Highgate, by a farmer I understood, -of the name of Reynolds, who with his son and hired man, had just -captured him while reconnoitering. He was mounted upon a handsome -horse, and had rather a gentlemanly and refined appearance. He was -speedily dismounted, being succeeded in his saddle by Captain Hallowes -of the 25th Regiment, and conducted to the rear in charge of a guard from -that regiment. Another prisoner was met squatted in a single waggon -between the feet of two farmers of Stanbridge who had captured him—a -very low and unintellectual type of humanity. Just before the column -reached Pigeon Hill there was a cry, “Incline to the right,” and that -splendid body of horsemen, the Guides, under Captain D. L. Macdougall, -dashed past in single file, and took their place in front. They had no -opportunity that day, more is the pity, to “flesh their maiden swords”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -upon any considerable body of the Fenians. But they rode round by the -Cook’s Corner road, and thus, at a later period of the day, cut off the -retreat of some who would have escaped, and took two of the scoundrels -prisoners. If the Fenians had a good sight of them, they must have felt -inclined to keep out of their way. In turning to the right at the tavern at -Pigeon Hill, the whole column descended the hill on the road leading -directly to the line—the artillery taking the lead. The guns were placed -in position on a high point overlooking the whole valley, and about half-a-mile -within the line. One company of the 25th remained with the -guns, and the remainder of the infantry, in two lines, with the rifles thrown -out in front as skirmishers, descended into the valley in the direction of -the woods, which were about three-fourths of a mile distant. The last -red coat disappeared among the trees, and we remained in anxious expectation -awaiting the result. Meantime the farmer’s family before whose -door the guns were placed, and who had suffered sore annoyance for -several days from the constant demand of the ragamuffins for food, gladly -brought to their deliverers such simple refreshment as could be hastily -prepared. Presently a single rifle shot was heard, echoing loudly through -the woods—two more followed, then a dropping fire of twenty-five or -thirty shots and all was silent.</p> - -<p>At the first report the whole party sprang to their feet, the gunners -placed themselves by their pieces, and the officers of artillery prepared to -point them upon any body of the enemy that might break cover. And -much were all disappointed when the firing ceased.</p> - -<p>Presently the red coats emerged from the woods, marched across a -small clearing and disappeared in the woods beyond. After waiting -some time longer and the sun beginning to approach the horizon, the -horses were put to the guns and waggons and preparations were made for -returning to St. Armand. One company of the 25th regained their -comrades on the hill. The rest of the force made their way by the -Cook’s Corner road back to Pigeon Hill, with the exception of one -company of the Rifles, which was detached towards Frelighsburg. The -rest of the force reached St. Armand’s Station between 9 and 10 o’clock -at night.</p> - -<p>The result of this expedition was unsatisfactory, though all concerned -did their duty with the utmost alacrity and zeal. But when there was -really no enemy to fight, no great victory could be achieved.</p> - -<p>It was generally supposed that 2 Fenians only were killed and 16 -captured, but I have been since informed that 4 bodies were found -in the woods on Sunday.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus ended most ingloriously to those concerned in it this base attempt -to desecrate, by unlawful invasion, the soil of Canada, <em>and to detach from -their allegiance to their rightful Sovereign a contented, happy and loyal -people</em>. I may add, in conclusion, that the inhabitants were most active -in searching for and arresting straggling Fenians and bringing them into -head-quarters.”</p> - - -<p>PINKEY, BATTLE OF.—Fought, September 10th, 1547, between -the English, under the Earl of Hertford Protector, and the Scots, when -the latter were totally defeated. Few victories have been achieved with -less loss to the victors; the English loss was no more than 200, whilst -the Scots lost the enormous number of 20,000.</p> - - -<p>PISTOL.—The smallest sort of fire arms. First used by the -English cavalry, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1544.</p> - - -<p>PLAINS OF ABRAHAM.—<em>See <a href="#QUE">Quebec</a>.</em></p> - - -<p>PLASSY, BATTLE OF.—Fought, June 23rd, 1757, between the -British, under Lord Clive, and the native Hindoos, under Surajah -Dowlah. The Hindoo army consisted of 70,000 men, whilst the British -did not exceed 3000, yet the Surajah was signally defeated. This battle -laid the foundation of the British power in India.</p> - - -<p>PLATÆA, BATTLE OF.—Fought, September 22nd, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 479, -between Mardonius, General of the Persians, and the Lacedæmonians and -Athenians under Pausanias. The Persian army consisted of 300,000 -men, 3000 of which only remained alive after the battle. The Grecians -lost only 91 Spartans, 52 Athenians, and 16 Tegeans. Pausanias received -one-tenth of all the immense plunder for his uncommon valour, and -the rest were rewarded each according to his respective merit.</p> - - -<p>PLATTSBURG, EXPEDITION TO.—The British squadron -against Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, was designed under General Sir -George Prevost, but it was abandoned, after a severe defeat of the naval -squadron of England on the Lake, September 11th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>PODULTZ, BATTLE OF.—Fought, June 28th, 1866, between the -Austrians and the Prussians. The Prussians everywhere were victorious. -The needle gun of their army was decidedly superior to any other -weapon used. The following is the <cite>Times</cite> account:</p> - -<p>“On the northern side of Gitschin and on the Turnau road the Austrians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -had taken up a position to cover the town against the Prussians, -advancing from the direction of Turnau. As the Prussians advanced they -saw the village of Podultz close to the road, and on their right, standing -at the top of the gentle ascent by which the road rises to the top of the -lower spur, on the other side of the road and about 300 yards from -it, nearer to the advancing division by 200 yards than Podultz, the -village of Diletz, lying in the plain, while high on their right they could -see the chimneys of Brada above the thick fir wood which, lying on the -hill side, in front of that village, runs down nearly to Podultz, and traced -by the different colours of the foliage the ground occupied by its orchards. -The three villages and the fir wood were held by Austrian and Saxon -troops, supported by seven battalions of artillery, which were placed both -on the spur and on the Brada Hill, while behind the spur were hidden -three of Austria’s finest cavalry regiments—the Hussars of Radetzky, of -Lichtenstein, and of the Austrian Regiment the King of Prussia. As -soon as the Prussians came within range the Austrian batteries opened -upon them; the Prussian guns replied, and, under cover of their artillery, -the columns advanced to the attack of the position. The 8th and -48th Regiments advanced against the village of Diletz, which was garrisoned -by the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Saxon battalions, and where, as the -prisoners report, the King of Saxony himself took part in the fight. The -12th and 18th Regiments advanced against the village of Podultz. Both -attacking columns were exposed to a very hot fire, but after a severe -struggle both villages were carried, though that of Podultz, set on fire by -a shell, was burning when the Prussians occupied it. General Edelsheim, -who commanded the Austrian cavalry, with a desperate valour, attacked -the burning village, but the horses would not face the flames, and the -Prussian infantry, from behind the blazing houses, fired on the disordered -squadrons and killed many troopers. After taking Podultz, the 12th and -18th Regiments pushed past Brada, leaving it to their right, and made -for the Lochow Road, in order to cut off the retreat of the Austrians, -who were retiring from Lochow on Gitschin. The Austrian cavalry -charged the advancing Prussians, but the latter received them without -forming square, and the horsemen recoiled, broken by their steady fire. -The Austrian troops in Brada, and the Saxons and Austrians in Diletz -were quite separated by the capture of the village of Podultz, and the -former were almost entirely taken; the latter were cut off from retreat -in large numbers, for Von Werder was pressing towards Gitschin, the -roads were crowded, and the little river formed on the right of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -broken allies a wide extent of marshy ground, which it was almost -impossible to cross. The loss of the Saxons between Diletz and Gitschin -was tremendous; they fell thickly, and the ground was covered with -corpses. The Prussians suffered much, but they fought most bravely, -and, with only four regiments, and half as many guns as their opponents, -carried a very strong position held by a much superior force; for the -Prussians had in the field but 16,000 men, and the allied strength is estimated -at 30,000. Under a crushing fire they advanced to the attack of -Podultz and Diletz, and the vacancies in the muster-roll show how -fearfully they suffered; but every man who fell on the Prussian side was -trebly avenged, and a long broad track of fallen enemies marks the line of -march of the four regiments who so well fought and won Diletz.</p> - -<p>The field of Diletz is almost more thickly strewn with killed and -wounded. Here the Prussians lie more thickly than at Lochow, for the -more numerous artillery of the defenders ploughed with terrible effect -through the dense columns of the assailants as they advanced to the -attack. But between Diletz and Gitschin the ground is covered with -broken arms, knapsacks, shakos, and fallen men, who are mostly either -Saxons or Austrians, for here the needle-gun was more used than artillery.</p> - -<p>The Prussians took 7000 prisoners in the two combats, and many -officers: and the Austrian loss in killed and wounded is estimated at -3000, so that yesterday evening has withdrawn 10,000 soldiers from -under the Austrian colours.”</p> - - -<p>POICTIERS, 1356.—“Ten years after the victory of Crecy, a -similar event took place in one of the south-west districts of France, at -Poictiers, the capital of Poiteau. Edward “the Black Prince,” now in -the prime of his early manhood, regarding his country as at war with -France, sallied forth from the Gascon province in the summer of 1356, -on a ravaging expedition, to do his enemy all the damage in his power. -He left Bourdeaux with about 12,000 men; ascended the Garonne -as far as Agen, and then, turning to the left, entered central France, -and overran the fertile provinces of Limousin, Querci, Auvergne, and -Berri. It was harvest-time, and everywhere the harvest was seized, the -towns plundered, and all captives able to pay a ransom were carried to -Bourdeaux. One account states that the English army sent off no fewer -than 5000 cartloads of plunder to Bourdeaux. This employment -doubtless had its attractions for the army; but its commander seems -to have forgotten that he was invading and exasperating a powerful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -kingdom, whose people and sovereign might be expected to take vengeance -for such an inroad as this.</p> - -<p>Philip of Valois was now dead, and John, his son, a high-spirited but -indiscreet prince, had succeeded him. Hearing of young Edward’s -performances in Limousin and Berri, “he instantly declared with an -oath,” says Froissart, “that he would forthwith set out after him, and -would fight him whenever he could find him. He therefore issued forth -a general summons to all his nobles and vassals of every kind, that they -should set forth to meet him on the borders of Touraine and Blois, -for he was determined to fight the English.”</p> - -<p>He soon marched from Paris, having with him a considerable body of -troops, and went to Chartres to be nearer the enemy, and to gain quicker -intelligence of his proceedings. Here he rested some days, and “great -crowds of knights and men at arms daily joined him, from Auvergne, -Berri, Burgundy, Lorraine, Hainault, Picardy, and other provinces.” -But as yet neither of these two Princes seems to have been well informed -of the other’s movements.</p> - -<p>“The Prince,” says Froissart, “having with him 2000 men-at-arms -and 6000 archers, rode on at his ease, having all things at his command. -They found Auvergne, which they were now overrunning, very rich and -teeming with abundance; and when they entered any town, they -rested there for some days to refresh themselves, consuming what they -pleased, and destroying the rest, whether of corn, wine, or other provisions.” -“They kept advancing, and found plenty everywhere, for -the provinces of Berri, Poiteau, Touraine and Maine,” says Froissart, -“were very rich, and full of provisions for an army.”</p> - -<p>At Bourges they were stopped by the strength of the place; having -no means of besieging a fortified town, they passed on, and came to -another town, the name of which Froissart does not give, but which, he -says, had great plenty of wines and provisions. This they carried by -storm, and here they remained three days.</p> - -<p>And now tidings were brought to the Prince that the King of France -was at Chartres with a large army, and that all the passes and towns on -the north of the Loire were manned and well defended. He therefore -held a council of war, in which it was resolved to return at once to Bourdeaux, -doing the enemy what damage was possible on the road. But the -castle of Romorontin delayed their retreat, the Prince making it a point -of honour not to be foiled by so small a place, and wasting therefore -three days before it. This delay enabled the French army to reach him.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -The King of France, having now a large force, had set forward from -Chartres, had crossed the Loire at Blois, and was rapidly marching on -the city of Poictiers. Both of the chiefs seem to have been in the dark -as to the exact position of the other—John, imagining the English to be -far before him, and Edward similarly deeming the French to be in his -rear. At last, at Chauvigny, on the Vienne, the two armies came in -sight of each other, or rather, learned each other’s proximity by an -encounter of outposts. A party of French knights falling in with two of -Edward’s captains and a party of sixty men, pursued them until they -came to the main body of the English, and here, not retreating, the -greater part of the assailants were either slain or captured. From the -prisoners, the Prince learned that the King of France was close by with -his army, and that he could not retreat without fighting him. He called -in immediately all foragers; and ordered every man to keep under his -standard. Four experienced Captains, with 200 horse, were sent out -to reconnoitre the French positions. They were not long before they fell -in with it, and captured some stragglers. They soon perceived the whole -plain to be covered with troops. Their approach alarmed the French, -who, instead of entering Poictiers, turned towards the English army, -and as it was late encamped for the night in the open fields. The English -detachment returned to the Prince, and told him that the French -“were in immense numbers.” The Prince replied, “God help us! we -must begin to consider how we can best receive them.”</p> - -<p>The next day was Sunday. The French king ordered a solemn mass -in his pavilion, and he and his four sons communicated. There then -assembled around him the great Lords, the Duke of Orleans, the Duke of -Bourbon, the Earl of Ponthieu, the Constable of France, the Marshal of -France, and a great body of Lords and famous knights. They were long -debating; at last it was resolved “that each Lord should display his -banner, advance into the plain, and push forward in the name of God and -St. Denis.” It is already tolerably clear, that this great army had <em>no -General</em>.</p> - -<p>“Then might be seen all the nobility of France, richly dressed out in -shining armour, with banners and pennons gallantly displayed; for all the -flower of the French nobility was there.” By the advice of the Constable -and marshals, the army was divided into three battalions, each -consisting of 16,000 men-at-arms. Nearly 50,000 spears then, a large -proportion doubtless mounted, were arrayed against 2000 English lances, -and 4,000 archers, with a few irregulars. Michelet says: “There were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -the King’s four sons, 26 Dukes or Counts, and 140 knights-bannerets—a -magnificent spectacle; but the army was none the better for all that.”</p> - -<p>The King sent forward three knights to reconnoitre the English army. -They returned, and Sir Eustace Ribeaumont said, “Sir, we have -examined the English closely; they amount, according to our estimate, -to about 2000 men-at-arms, 4000 archers, and 1500 footmen. They -are posted very strongly; and have fortified their position as well as -they can. They are on a hill, which is only approachable by one road or -lane; so narrow that only four men can ride abreast.”</p> - -<p>The French were now on the point of moving forward to the attack, -when the Cardinal de Perigord came up at a full gallop, and making a -low reverence, entreated the King to listen to him a moment. “You -have here,” he said, “all the flower of your kingdom against a mere -handful of English; you may have them on other terms than by a battle. -Let me go to the Prince, and remonstrate with him on the dangerous -situation he is in.” The King said, “It is very agreeable to us; but -make haste back again.”</p> - -<p>The Cardinal set off at full speed; and was admitted to the Prince, -whom he found on foot in the midst of his army. He said, “Fair son, -if you have well considered the great army of the King of France, you -will allow me to make up matters between you, if I possibly can.” The -Prince said, “Sir, save my own honour, and that of my army, and I will -agree to any reasonable terms.” The Cardinal then returned to the -French camp, and saw the King; and all that day he rode from one army -to the other, trying to bring about an agreement. Many proposals were -made, the Prince offered to give up all the towns and castles which he -had taken; to release all his prisoners without ransom; and to engage not -to take up arms against the King of France for the next seven years. -But John refused the offer; demanding that Edward, with an hundred -of his knights, should surrender themselves prisoners. “The Prince -and his army,” says Froissart, “disdained to accept any such conditions.” -Another account says, that Edward exclaimed, “England shall -never have to pay a ransom for me!”</p> - -<p>Thus Sunday was spent; and the battle was necessarily deferred till -the morrow. The English, however, had well employed their time in -still further strengthening their positions. But they were short of -provisions; and could the French have stooped to defer the attack, and -to be content with cutting off all supplies, Edward and his whole force -must have submitted themselves before the termination of another week.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -But such a course would have been humbling to the pride of France. A -certain triumph seemed in the power of the French commanders, and -they could brook no delay.</p> - -<p>Edward, therefore, made up his mind for a struggle for life or liberty -on the Monday morning. He remained on the defensive; except that -he detached a body of 300 men-at-arms, and as many archers, with orders -to make a circuit, and get into the flank and rear of the Duke -of Normandy’s battalion; the position of which he could survey from -his hill.</p> - -<p>“And now,” says Froissart, “the whole army of the Prince, including -every one, did not amount to more than 8000; while the French -had upwards of 60,000 combatants, among whom were more than 3000 -knights. The Prince, seeing all hope of an accommodation at an end, -addressed his captains and men, saying:—</p> - -<p>“Now, my gallant follows! what though we be but a small body when -compared with our enemies; let us not be cast down on that account; -for victory is not always with the greater numbers, but God gives it to -whom he pleases. If the day shall be ours, great will be the honour of -it: if not, I have a father, and you all have friends, who will be sure to -avenge our deaths. Stand fast, therefore, and fight like men; and if it -please God, you shall see me play the part of a true knight.”</p> - -<p>And now came on the French, and soon it was seen that here, as in -many other battles of the time, the English bow was a most formidable -weapon. The battalion of the French marshals entered the lane by -which the English position must be approached; and now the archers -began to ply their weapons “in such sort that the horses, smarting under -the pain of their wounds, would not advance, but turned about, threw -their masters, and created a general confusion. And if a few of the -French struggled through and came in sight of the Prince’s battalion, a -small party or two of English knights, who waited for them, instantly -attacked them and slew them, or made them prisoners.</p> - -<p>Thus, in a short time, this battalion of the marshals was defeated. -The front line was driven back in confusion on the division immediately -behind it. This, unable to advance, began to give ground, impelled by -the crowd of fugitives pressing back upon it. But in retreating, this -battalion fell back upon the Duke of Normandy’s and soon confusion -and terror spread through the whole army. The detachment which the -Prince had placed over-night on the flank and rear of the Duke of Normandy’s -battalion, now came forth from their ambuscade, and fell vehemently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -upon the already disordered ranks of the French; “and, in -truth,” says Froissart, “the English archers shot so thickly and so well, -that the French did not know which way to turn themselves to avoid the -arrows.” And now, this battalion, which was broad enough in the front, -grew thin and scanty in the rear, for the news of the repulse of the marshals -had spread, and the men began to escape in crowds. Meanwhile the -English on the hill, perceiving that the first battalion was beaten, and -that the Duke of Normandy’s was in great disorder, gave the word, and -the knights and men-at-arms were in a moment in their saddles.</p> - -<p>“The day is ours,” said Sir John Chandos, and, giving a shout, the -2000 horse pushed down the hill, charging with vehemence the disordered -battalion.</p> - -<p>“Let us make for the King himself,” said Sir John to the Prince, -“for I know that he will not fly, and we shall have him—if it please -God.”</p> - -<p>And now the battle grew hot; the French were so numerous, and in -such disorder, that it was an arduous task that still remained. Edward -charged the division of the Duke of Athens, broke it, and drove it before -him;—then the battalion of Germans, under the Count of Salzburg, -which was soon overthrown and put to flight. Meanwhile “the English -archers, advancing with the cavalry, shot so well that none dared to -stay within their reach.”</p> - -<p>And now three of the King’s sons, the Duke of Normandy, the Earl of -Poictiers, and the Earl of Touraine, with 800 lances which had never -put spear in rest, took flight and rode off the field.</p> - -<p>The King himself stood firm. “If one-fourth of his soldiers,” says -Froissart, “had behaved as well as he did, the day would have been his -own.” Again he says, “King John himself did wonders, he fought with -a battle-axe, with which he defended himself bravely.” The English -knew the value of such a prize, and they directed their chief efforts to -his capture. The Earl of Tancarville was made prisoner close to him, -as were the Earl of Ponthieu, and the Earl of Eu. A little further on, -the Lord Charles d’Artois and many other knights were captured by -the flank attack. “The English and Gascons poured so fast upon the -King’s division that they broke all its ranks,” and now the last show of -order was lost, and the whole field was one confused mass. Every one -was pressing forwards, eager to seize the King; at last a young French -knight, who had been banished and had entered the English service, -entreated the king to surrender or he would lose his life. “To whom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> -am I to surrender?” said John, “where is my cousin the Prince of -Wales? Who are you?” “I am Denis de Morbeque, knight of Artois,” -said the Frenchman, “surrender yourself to me and I will lead you to -the Prince.” “Well,” said the King, giving him his glove, “I surrender -myself to you.”</p> - -<p>Sir John Chandos, who had remained by the Prince’s side all the day, -had now advised him to raise his banner on an elevated point, and to -pitch his tent, for there was no longer any French army in sight. -Accordingly, the banner was raised, a small pavilion was pitched, wine -was brought, the Prince took off his helmet, and the trumpets began to -sound. But now the Prince addressed the Earl of Warwick and Lord -Cobham, saying. “I pray you to mount your horses, and ride over the -field, that I may know, if possible, what has become of the King.” These -two lords immediately rode forth, and they soon perceived a great crowd -of knights and men-at-arms, all striving with a great noise. More than -ten knights were loudly claiming the honour of having taken the King. -“The two lords then pushed through the crowd by main force, and -ordered all to stand aside. They commanded, in the Prince’s name, all -to keep their distance, on pain of death. They then, dismounting, -approached the King with profound reverence, and conducted him peaceably -to the Prince of Wales.” Edward received the King with a low -obeisance, and comforted him as well as he was able, ordering wines and -refreshments to be brought, which he presented to the King with his own -hand. “In the evening a supper was spread in the Prince’s pavilion; -and the King, his son Philip, with Bourbon, Artois, the Earl of Tancarville, -Estampes, Granville, and others, were seated at an elevated table, -while the Prince served the King with his own hands. The French -princes, struck with Edward’s courtesy, declared that he would be one -of the most gallant knights in Christendom, if it please God to grant -him life.”</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, the English horse continued its pursuit of the fugitives, -up to the very gates of Poictiers. “There was such an horrible spectacle -of men slaughtered and trampled down, as it is wonderful to think of. -The frightened French, in crowds, surrendered the moment they caught -sight of an Englishman.”</p> - -<p>The report now given in to the Prince, showed that the King and one -of his sons, and 17 Earls, besides a great number of Barons and -knights, were prisoners; and that from five to six thousand lay dead on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> -the field.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> But the victors were troubled what to do with the crowds of -captives of all ranks, who were <em>twice as numerous as themselves</em>. They -concluded, at last, to ransom them on the spot, and even to take the -pledges of those who had no money. As for the booty, it was immense; -“there being quantities of gold and silver plate, rich jewels, and trunks -full of gold and silver ornaments. As to fine armour, that was in such -abundance as to be little regarded.”</p> - -<p>The prince and his little army, now undisturbed, continued their -march, and in a few days passed the Garonne, and arrived safely at -Bourdeaux. “Great was the dismay at Paris, when the fugitives brought -word that there was no longer a King nor Barons in France, but all were -killed or taken.”</p> - -<p>England, very naturally, rejoiced through all her coasts. The Prince, -after a short stay, embarked for England with his illustrious prisoner, to -whom, for greater ease and comfort, he assigned a separate vessel. He -entered London with knightly courtesy, riding a small black horse, while -the King of France, royally mounted on a white charger, rode by his -side. The palace of the Savoy was made the residence of the captive -monarch, and there king Edward and his Queen frequently visited him. -John, however, was long detained in England, the enormous sum of -3,000,000 of gold crowns being demanded from France for his ransom. -He finally consented to those hard terms; but on returning to -his own kingdom, he found so much difficulty in persuading his people -to raise this great ransom, that he finally resolved to return to his prison -in Westminster. As true as he was brave, he nobly answered his council, -who tried to persuade him to be guilty of a breach of his engagement, -that “if honour were banished from every other abode, it ought at least -to find a home in the breast of Kings.” He returned to his home in -the Savoy; where, a few months after, he died. Edward III ordered -his obsequies to be performed with royal magnificence, and sent his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> -corpse, with a splendid retinue to France, where it found a place in the -burial-place of the Kings, in the abbey-church of St. Denis.”</p> - - -<p>POLOTSK, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 30th, 1812, between the -French Marshal, Oudinot, and the Russians under Wittgenstein. The -Russians were defeated with great loss.</p> - - -<p>PONDICHERRY.—<em>India.</em>—Settled by the French in 1674; taken -by the Dutch in 1693; besieged by the British in 1748, and taken by -our forces in January, 1761, but restored in 1763. Again taken in October, -1778, and restored in 1783. Again captured by the British, August -23rd, 1793, and finally in 1803.</p> - - -<p>PORTOBELLO.—<em>South America.</em>—Taken from the Spaniards by -Admiral Vernon, November 22nd, 1739. Again taken by the British, -who destroyed the fortifications, in 1742.</p> - - -<p>PRAGA, BATTLES OF.—Fought, October 10th, 1794, between -the Poles and Russians; 30,000 Poles were butchered in this battle by -the merciless Suwarrow. A second battle, fought March 31st, 1831, -between the same countries, resulted with defeat of the Russians who lost -4000 killed and wounded, and 6000 prisoners and 12 pieces of cannon.</p> - - -<p>PRESCOTT, BATTLE OF.—<em>Upper Canada.</em>—Fought, November -27th, 1838, between the Canadian Rebels and the British, under Major -Young, and on the following day by Lieut.-Colonel Dundas, who, after -a desperate resistance, succeeded in dispersing the insurgents, several -of whom were killed and many taken prisoners; the troops also suffered -considerably. After the attack the remainder of the rebels surrendered. -In these engagements the rebels were aided by the Americans, who -invaded the Canadian territory in great numbers.</p> - - -<p>PRESTON, BATTLE OF.—Fought, November 12th, 1715, between -the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, and the British, under General -Willis. The first attack was successful, on the side of the Jacobites, but -the Royal forces being augmented by the arrival of General Carpenter, -Preston was invested on every side, and the Scots at length laid down -their arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured. Some were shot as -deserters, and others sent off to London, pinioned and bound together, to -frighten their party.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p> - - -<p>PRESTON-PANS, BATTLE OF.—Fought, September 21st, 1745, -between Prince Charles the Pretender and the Royal forces.</p> - -<p>“In the meantime Sir John Cope, who had pursued the rebels through -the Highlands, but had declined meeting them in their descent, being -now reinforced by two regiments of dragoons, resolved to march towards -Edinburgh and give the enemy battle. The young Adventurer, whose -forces were rather superior, though undisciplined, attacked him near -Preston-Pans, about twelve miles from the capital, and in a few minutes -put him and his troops to flight. This victory, by which the King lost -500 men, gave the rebels great influence; and had the Pretender taken -advantage of the general consternation, and marched directly for England, -the consequence might have been fatal to freedom. But he was amused -by the promise of succours which never came; and thus induced to -remain at Edinburgh, to enjoy the triumphs of an important victory, -and to be treated as a monarch.”</p> - - -<p>PULTOWA, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 8th, 1709, between -Charles XII of Sweden and Peter the Great of Russia. In this celebrated -battle the Czar entirely defeated the Hero of Sweden, and forced -him to flee to Turkey. This battle was lost on account of Charles having -been wounded just before, being obliged to issue his orders from a litter, -his soldiers thus having no opportunity of seeing their loved commander.</p> - - -<p>PULTUSK, BATTLES OF.—One between the Saxons and Swedes, -in which the former were defeated, 1703; and the other between the -French, under Napoleon, and the Russian and Prussian armies. -Both sides claimed the victory, but it inclined in favour of the French.</p> - - -<p>PYRAMIDS, BATTLE OF THE.—Fought between the French and -Turks, 1798. “The sight of the Pyramids, and the anxious nature of -the moment, inspired the French General with even more than usual -ardour; the sun glittered on those immense masses, which seemed to -arise in height every step the soldiers advanced, and the army, sharing -his enthusiasm, gazed, as they marched, on the everlasting monuments. -“Remember,” said he, “that from the summit of those Pyramids forty -centuries contemplate your actions.”</p> - -<p>With his usual sagacity, the General had taken extraordinary precautions -to ensure success against the formidable cavalry of the Desert. -The divisions were all drawn up as before, in hollow squares six deep, -the artillery at the angles, the general and baggage in the centre. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> -they were in mass, the two sides advanced in column, those in front and -rear moved forward in their ranks, but the moment they were charged, -the whole were to halt, and face outward on every side. When they -were themselves to charge, the three front ranks were to break off and -form the column of attack, those in the rear remaining behind, still in -square, but three deep only, to constitute the reserve. Napoleon had no -fears for the result, if the infantry were steady; his only apprehension -was, that his soldiers, accustomed to charge, would yield to their -impetuosity too soon, and would not be brought to the immovable firmness -which this species of warfare required.</p> - -<p>Mourad Bey, no sooner perceived the lateral movement of the French -army, than, with a promptitude of decision worthy of a skilful general, -he resolved to attack the columns while in the act of completing it. An -extraordinary movement was immediately observed in the Mameluke -line, and speedily 7000 horsemen detached themselves from the -remainder of the army, and bore down upon the French columns. It -was a terrible sight, capable of daunting the bravest troops, when this -immense body of cavalry approached at full gallop the squares of infantry. -The horsemen, admirably mounted and magnificently dressed, rent -the air with their cries. The glitter of spears and cimeters dazzled the -sight, while the earth groaned under the repeated and increasing thunder -of their feet. The soldiers, impressed, but not panic-struck, by the sight, -stood firm, and anxiously waited, with their pieces ready, the order to -fire. Desaix’s division being entangled in a wood of palm-trees, was not -completely formed when the swiftest of the Mamelukes came upon them; -they were, in consequence, partially broken, and thirty or forty of the -bravest of the assailants penetrated, and died in the midst of the square, -at the feet of the officers: but before the mass arrived the movement -was completed, and a rapid fire of musketry and grape drove them from -the front round the sides of the column. With matchless intrepidity, -they pierced through the interval between Desaix’s and Regnier’s divisions, -and riding round both squares, strove to find an entrance; but an -incessant fire from every front mowed them down as fast as they poured -in at the opening. Furious at the unexpected resistance, they dashed -their horses against the rampart of bayonets, and threw their pistols at -the heads of the grenadiers, while many who had lost their steeds crept -along the ground and cut at the legs of the front rank with their cimetars. -In vain thousands succeeded, and galloped round the flaming walls -of steel; multitudes perished under the rolling fire which, without intermission,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> -issued from the ranks, and at length the survivors, in despair, -fled towards the camp from whence they had issued. Here, however, -they were charged in flank by Napoleon at the head of Dugua’s division, -while those of Vial and Bon, on the extreme left, stormed the intrenchments. -The most horrible confusion now reigned in the camp; -the horsemen, driven in disorder, trampled under foot the infantry, who, -panic-struck at the rout of the Mamelukes, on whom all their hopes -were placed, abandoned their ranks, and rushed in crowds towards the -boats to escape to the other side of the Nile. Numbers saved themselves -by swimming, but a great proportion perished in the attempt. The -Mamelukes, rendered desperate, seeing no possibility of escape in that -direction, fell upon the columns who were approaching from the right, -with their wings extended in order of attack; but they, forming square -again with inconceivable rapidity, repulsed them with great slaughter, -and drove them finally off in the direction of the Pyramids. The intrenched -camp with all its artillery, stores, and baggage fell into the -hands of the victors. Several thousands of the Mamelukes were drowned -or killed; and of the formidable array which had appeared in such -splendour in the morning, not more than 2500 escaped with Mourad -Bey into Upper Egypt. The victors hardly lost 200 men in the action; -and several days were occupied after it was over in stripping the -slain of their magnificent appointments, or fishing up the rich spoils -which encumbered the banks of the Nile.”</p> - - -<p>PYRENEES, BATTLE OF THE.—Fought, July 28th, 1813, between -the British army, commanded by Wellington, and the French, -commanded by Marshal Soult. The French were defeated, with great -slaughter. After the battle of Vittoria, fought, June 21st, Napoleon -sent Soult to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the British -across the Ebro; a duty which he could not accomplish; for he was obliged -to retreat into France, which was entered by the British, and he lost -20,000 men, in a series of engagements in the Pyrenees, which separate -France from Spain, from July 25th to August 2nd, same year.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="Q" id="Q"></a>Q.</h3> - - -<p>QUARTRE BRAS, BATTLE OF.—Fought, June 16th, 1815, -between the French and English. The French were commanded by -Marshal Ney, and the British by the Duke of Brunswick, the Prince -of Orange, and Sir Thomas Picton. It was fought two days before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> -Waterloo. The British fought, to maintain their position, with wonderful -intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferiority in number, and the fatigue -of marching all the preceding night. The gallant 42nd Regiment of -Scotch Highlanders, or the Black Watch, suffered very severely in -pursuit of a French division repulsed early in the morning, by cuirassiers -being posted in ambush behind growing corn as high as the -shoulders of the tallest men. In this battle, the Duke of Brunswick -fell, whose death is alluded to in the well-known lines of Byron on the -field of Waterloo.</p> - - -<div><a name="QUE" id="QUE"></a></div> -<p>QUEBEC.—Has been five times assaulted. Founded by the French -in 1605. Reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 1626, and restored -in 1632. Besieged again by the English, but without success, in 1711, -but was taken, under Wolfe, September 13th, 1759. The following is -a good account of the capture of the city, under the immortal Wolfe. -Quebec was again besieged by the American General Montgomery, who -was slain before it, December 31st, 1775, and the siege was raised early -next year. Appended is also an account of the siege and death of -the American General.</p> - -<p>“Wolfe’s army, amounting to about 8000, was conveyed to the vicinity -of Quebec by a fleet of vessels of war and transports, and landed, in two -divisions, on the island of Orleans, on the 27th of June. The Marquis -de Montcalm made vigorous preparations for defending Quebec. His -armed force consisted of about 13,000 men, of whom six battalions were -regulars, and the remainder well disciplined Canadian militia, with some -cavalry and Indians. He ranged these forces from the River St. Charles, -to the Falls of Montmorency, with the view of opposing the landing of -the British.</p> - -<p>“Wolfe first attempted the entrenchment of Montmorency, landing -his troops under cover of the fire from the ships of war, but he was -gallantly repulsed by the French. In consequence of this repulse, he -sent dispatches to England, stating that he had doubts of being able to -reduce Quebec during that campaign. His prospects, indeed, were not -encouraging: the great stronghold kept up an incessant fire from its -almost inaccessible position, bristling with guns, defended by a superior -force, and inhabited by a hostile population. Above the city, steep -banks rendered landing almost impossible; below, the country for eight -miles was embarrassed by two rivers, many redoubts, and watchful -Indians. A part of the fleet lay above the town, the remainder in the -north channel, between the island of Orleans and Montmorency.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Soon after this repulse, however, Wolfe roused his brave and vigorous -spirit, called a council of war, and proposed, it is generally said, at -the instigation of his second in command, General Townsend, to gain -the heights of Abraham behind and above the city, commanding the -weakest part of the fortress. The council acceded to this daring proposal, -and their heroic commander commenced his preparations; in the -meanwhile, making such active demonstrations against Montcalm’s position, -that the French still believed it to be his main object.</p> - -<p>“On the 11th of September, the greater part of the troops landed, -and marched up the south shore opposite Quebec,—forded the river -Etchemin—and embarked on board the men of war and transports -which lay above the town. On the 12th, the ships of war sailed nine -miles up the river, to Cap Rouge. This feint deceived Montcalm, and -he detached De Bougainville, who, with his army of reserve, proceeded -still farther up the river to prevent the English from landing. During -the night, the English troops dropped silently down the river, with the -current, in boats, and at four o’clock in the morning began to land.</p> - -<p>“It is surprising how the troops contrived to land, as the French had -posted sentries along the shore, to challenge boats and give the alarm. -The first boat was questioned, when Captain Donald M‘Donald, one of -Frazer’s Highlanders, who was perfectly well acquainted with the French -language and customs, answered to “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Qui vive?</i>” which is their challenge, -the word “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La France</i>”—when the sentinel demanded “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">A quel -régiment?</i>” the captain replied, “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la Reine</i>,” which he knew by -accident to be one of those commanded by De Bougainville. The -soldier took it for granted that it was an expected convoy, and saying -“<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Passe</i>,” the boats proceeded without further question. One of the -sentries more wary than the rest, running down to the water’s edge -called out, “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Pourquoi est-ce que vous ne parlez pas plus haut?</i>” to -which the captain answered in a soft tone of voice, “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tais-toi, nous -serons entendus</i>.” Thus cautioned, the sentry retired, and the boats -proceeded without further altercation, and landed at the spot now celebrated -as “Wolfe’s Cove.”</p> - -<p>“General Wolfe was one of the first on shore, and on seeing the -difficulty of ascending the precipice, observed familiarly to Captain -M‘Donald, “I don’t believe there is any possibility of getting up, but -you must do your endeavour.” Indeed the precipice here was so steep, -that there seemed no possibility of scaling it, but the Highlanders, -grasping the bushes which grew on its face ascended the woody precipice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> -with courage and dexterity. They dislodged a small body of troops -that defended a narrow path-way up the bank; and a few more mounting, -the General drew up the rest in order as they arrived. With great -exertion they reached the summit, and in a short time, Wolfe had his -whole army drawn up in regular order on the plains above.</p> - -<p>“Montcalm, struck with this unexpected movement, concluded, that -unless Wolfe could be driven from this position, Quebec was lost. -Hoping probably that only a detachment had as yet reached it, he lost -his usual prudence and forbearance, and finding that his opponent had -gained so much by hazarding all, he, with an infatuation for which it is -difficult to account, resolved to meet the British army.</p> - -<p>“He crossed the St. Charles on the 13th, sallying forth from a strong -fortress without field artillery—without even waiting the return of Bougainville, -who, with 2000 men, formed a corps of observation,—before he -could concentrate his forces, advanced with haste and precipitation, and -commenced a most gallant attack, when within about 250 yards of the -English line. The English moved forward regularly, firing steadily, -until within thirty or forty yards of the French, when they gave a -general volley which did great execution. The English had only a light -cannon, which the sailors had dragged up the heights with ropes. The -sabre, therefore, and the bayonet decided the day. The agile Scotch -Highlanders, with their stout claymores, served the purposes of cavalry, -and the steady fire of the English Fusiliers compensated, in some -degree, for the want of artillery.</p> - -<p>“The heroism of Montcalm was as conspicuous as that of his illustrious -opponent,—both headed their men,—both rushed with eagerness where -the battle raged most fiercely. Often by their personal prowess and -example did they change the fortune of the moment. Both were -repeatedly wounded, but still fought on with enthusiasm. And, at last, -both those gallant commanders fell mortally wounded, whilst advancing -to the last deadly charge at the head of their respective columns.</p> - -<p>“Wolfe was first wounded in the wrist. He immediately wrapped a -handkerchief round his arm, and, putting himself at the head of his -grenadiers, led them on to the charge. He was then struck with a -second ball, but still pressed on, when, just as the enemy were about to -give way, he received a third ball in the breast and groin, and sank. -When they raised him from the ground, he tried with his faint hand to -clear the death-mist from his eyes. He could not see how the battle -went, and was sinking to the earth, when the cry “<em>They run!</em>” “<em>They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> -run</em>;” arrested his fleeting spirit. “<em>Who run?</em>” asked the dying hero. -“<em>The French</em>,” replied his supporter, “<em>they give way everywhere</em>.” -“<em>What!</em>” said he, “<em>do they run already? now God be praised; I die -happy!</em>” and so saying, the youthful victor breathed his last. Such -was the death of Wolfe, at the early age of thirty-five, when but few men -begin even to appear on the theatre of great events.”</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">DEATH OF GENERAL MONTGOMERY, ETC.</p> - -<p>“The first Congress of what is now called “The United States,” -met in Philadelphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. It is remarkable -that one of their first objects, after obtaining their own independence, -was to attempt to seize on the country they had assisted England to -conquer. It is a singular fact that the money, which it was endeavoured -to levy upon the New Englanders and their fellow-colonists, and which, -in a great measure, caused the rupture, was for the express purpose of -defraying the great expenses incurred by England in the capture of -Canada.</p> - -<p>Having resolved to invade Canada, the Americans entered it in the -fall of 1775, in two directions—by Lake Champlain and by the sources -of the Kennebec River. The first division, under General Montgomery, -was very successful. After obtaining possession of Ticonderoga, Crown -Point, and St. Johns, he advanced towards Montreal. His force was -very considerable, while there were but few British soldiers in Canada. -General Carleton, who succeeded General Murray in the military command, -had been repulsed at Longueuil; so that Montgomery had only -to take possession of the city, which he did on the 19th of November. -The naval force in the river, and all the military stores and provisions, -were surrendered into his hands, and General Prescott, with the volunteers -and soldiers, became prisoners of war. Finding plenty of woollen -cloth in the city, General Montgomery took the opportunity of new-clothing -his troops, who had suffered much from the severity of the -weather. The second division of the American army, under General -Arnold, reached the St. Lawrence on the 9th of November. They had -traversed, with dreadful fatigue, the forests and swamps in the District -of Maine, and arrived at Point Levi, opposite Quebec, worn out and -dispirited. Quebec was at this time defenceless; and had General -Arnold been able to cross the river, that capital, and with it the territory -of Canada, must have passed into the hands of the Americans. Fortunately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> -all the shipping had been removed to the other side, and it was -not until the 14th that he was able to cross over. He landed 500 men -at Wolfe’s Cove, and waited near that place in the hope of being joined -by Montgomery from Montreal. General Carleton, the British Governor, -was at this time occupied, with his troops near Montreal, in endeavouring -to repulse Montgomery. The latter wished to effect a junction with -General Arnold, that they might unitedly attack the fortress. Perceiving -that the safety of the country depended upon the possession of -Quebec, Carleton effected a masterly movement to reach that place. In -this, he was assisted by Captain Bouchette, R.N., who conveyed him -through the American forces by night, in a canoe with muffled paddles. -He arrived at the citadel of Quebec on the 19th, whilst the Americans -thought him busily engaged with Montgomery, near Montreal.</p> - -<p>General Carleton’s arrival at Quebec was hailed with great joy by the -Canadians, who vied with the oldest British soldiers in preparations for -defence. The force under his command amounted to only 1800 men. -Not more than 350 were regulars—of whom 230 were Frazer’s Highlanders, -who had settled in the country, and were re-embodied under -Colonel McLean. The remainder were 450 seamen, and a gallant band -composed of Canadian militia and artificers. The American Generals -had now effected a junction of their forces, and summoned the fortress -to surrender. This was at once rejected. After pushing the siege -during the month of December, without any prospect of success, Montgomery -determined upon making a night-attack. This intention soon -became known to General Carleton, who made every preparation to -defeat the enemy. The Governor, with the officers and gentlemen off -duty, took up their quarters for several days at the Recollet Convent, -where they slept in their clothes. During this month’s siege, the -American riflemen kept up an unintermitting fire upon the sentinels, -and threw from forty to fifty shells every night into the city. The -inhabitants became so accustomed to the occurrences of a siege that they -ceased to regard them with alarm, all joining cheerfully in bearing arms -and performing the duty of soldiers. Two strong parties were formed -on the 31st of December—one under Montgomery, the other under -Arnold, whose local knowledge of Quebec was accurate. They were to -advance from opposite sides and meet at the foot of Mountain street; -then force Prescott gate and reach the Upper Town.</p> - -<p>The besiegers approached the city with the most careful silence, aided -by the raging of a furious storm. Advancing by the road which winds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> -round the face of the rock, the army was crowded into the narrow pass -which led to the gate. Notwithstanding every precaution the confused -noise of the approaching troops rose above the conflict of the elements, -and struck the watchful ear of the outer sentinel, who, receiving no -answer to his challenge, roused the British guard. The party who -defended the battery, consisted of Canadian militia, with nine British -seamen to work the guns. They kept a close watch, and, as soon as the -day broke, discovered the troops marching in the snow. Orders were -given to make no movement; and the Americans, having halted at the -distance of fifty yards, sent forward an officer to reconnoitre. On his -return the troops marched forward with a quickness and precision -deserving the highest praise. The English then opened a tremendous -fire from the artillery which commanded the path; the groans which -succeeded plainly revealed the enemy; and it was not until every sound -in answer to their fire had died away, that they ceased their cannonade. -The enemy having retired, thirteen bodies were found in the snow. -Montgomery’s orderly sergeant, desperately wounded, but yet alive, was -found and brought into the guard-room. On being asked if the General -himself had been killed, he evaded the question by replying that he had -not seen him for some time. This faithful sergeant died in about an -hour afterwards. It was not ascertained that the American General -had been killed, until General Carleton, anxious to learn the truth, sent -to inquire if any of the prisoners would identify the body. An officer -consenting accompanied the aide-de-camp to the “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Près de Ville</i>” guard, -and pointed out the body, pronouncing over it a glowing eulogium on -Montgomery’s bravery. His two aides-de-camp were also recognised -among the slain. This brave man had fought by the side of Wolfe on -the Plains of Abraham; but, marrying an American lady, the daughter -of Judge Livingston, he imbibed the politics of his father-in-law’s family, -and joined the cause of the colonists against the Mother Country. The -excellence of his qualities and disposition procured him an uncommon -share of private affection and esteem. After his death the Continental -Congress ordered a magnificent cenotaph to be erected to his memory in -St. Paul’s Church, N.Y. Thither his remains were removed in 1818, -by the desire of his widow, and with the permission of the then British -Governor, Sir John Sherbrooke. In the meantime, Arnold, who had -been repulsed at the opposite side of the town, took the command, and -attempted still to maintain his ground; but the dispirited state of his -men rendered him unable to keep up more than an imperfect blockade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> -at a distance of three miles, which he at last abandoned. In the whole -attack upon Quebec the Americans lost about 100 killed and wounded, -and six officers of Arnold’s division, inclusive of the loss at <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Près de -Ville</i>. The British had one officer and seventeen men killed and -wounded. The number of those who surrendered was 426.”</p> - - -<p>QUEENSTON.—<em>Upper Canada.</em>—This town, on the River Niagara, -was taken by the United States troops in the American war of 1812, -October 13th, but was retaken by the British, who defeated the -Americans with loss. The following is a succinct account of the battle -and death of general Brock, the Hero of Upper Canada:</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">WAR OF 1812 AND DEATH OF GEN. BROCK.</p> - -<p>“The American Government assembled at the Niagara frontier a force -of 6300 men; of this force, 3170 (900 of whom were regular troops) -were at Lewiston, under the command of General Van Rensselaer. In -the American reports this army is set down at 8000 strong, with 15 pieces -of field ordnance. To oppose this force Major General Brock had part of -the 41st and 49th regiments, a few companies of militia, and about 200 -Indians, in all 1500 men; but so dispersed in different posts at and -between Fort Erie and Fort George, that only a small number was available -at any one point. Before daylight on the morning of the 13th of -October, a large division of General Van Rensselaer’s army, numbering -between 1300 and 1400, under Brigadier General Wadsworth, effected a -landing at the lower end of the village of Queenston (opposite Lewiston), -and made an attack upon the position, which was defended with the most -determined bravery by the two flank companies of the 49th regiment, commanded -by Captains Dennis and Williams, aided by such of the militia -forces and Indians as could be collected in the vicinity. Captain Dennis -marched his company to the landing place opposite Lewiston, and was -soon followed by the light company of the 49th, and the few militia who -could be hastily assembled. Here the attempt of the enemy to effect a -passage, was for some time successfully resisted, and several boats were -either disabled or sunk by the fire from the one-gun battery on the -heights, and that from the masked battery, about a mile below. Several -boats also were, by the fire from this battery, so annoyed, that falling -before the landing place, they were compelled to drop down with the -current and recross to the American side. A considerable force, however, -effected a landing some distance above, and succeeded in gaining the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> -summit of the mountain. No resistance could now be offered to the -crossing from Lewiston, except by the battery at Vromont’s Point, half -a mile below, and from this a steady and harassing fire was kept up, which -did considerable execution.</p> - -<p>At this juncture Sir Isaac Brock arrived. He had for days suspected -this invasion, and on the preceding evening he called his staff together -and gave to each the necessary instructions. Agreeable to his usual custom -he rose before daylight, and hearing the cannonade, awoke Major -Glegg, and called for his horse Alfred, which Sir James Craig had presented -to him. He then galloped eagerly from Fort George to the scene -of action, and with two Aides-de-Camp passed up the hill at full gallop in -front of the light company, under a heavy fire of artillery and musketry -from the American shore. On reaching the 18-pounder battery at the -top of the hill, they dismounted and took a view of passing events, which -at that moment appeared highly favourable. But in a few minutes a -firing was heard, which proceeded from a strong detachment of American -regulars under Captain Wool, who, as just stated, had succeeded in gaining -the brow of the heights in rear of the battery, by a fisherman’s path -up the rocks, which being reported as impossible, was not guarded. Sir -Isaac Brock and his Aides-de-Camp had not even time to remount, but -were obliged to retire precipitately with the twelve men stationed in the -battery, which was quickly occupied by the enemy. Captain Wool having -sent forward about 150 regulars, Captain Williams’ detachment of about -100 men advanced to meet them, personally directed by the General, who, -observing the enemy waver, ordered a charge, which was promptly executed; -but as the Americans gave way, the result was not equal to his -expectations. Captain Wool sent a reinforcement to his regulars, -notwithstanding which, the whole was driven to the edge of the -bank. Here some of the American officers were on the point of hoisting -a white flag with an intention to surrender, when Captain Wool tore it off -and reanimated his dispirited troops. They now opened a heavy fire of -musketry, and, conspicuous from his cross, his height, and the enthusiasm -with which he animated his little band, the British Commander was soon -singled out, and he fell about an hour after his arrival.</p> - -<p>The fatal bullet entered his right breast, and passed through his left -side. He had but that instant said, “<em>Push on the York Volunteers!</em>” -and he lived only long enough to request that his fall might not be noticed, -or prevent the advance of his brave troops, adding a wish which could not -be distinctly understood, that some token of remembrance should be transmitted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> -to his sister. He died unmarried, and on the same day, a week -previously, he had completed his 43rd year. The lifeless corpse was -immediately conveyed into a house close by, where it remained until the -afternoon, unperceived by the enemy. His Provincial Aide-de-Camp, -Lieutenant Colonel McDonell, of the militia, and the Attorney General -of Upper Canada, a fine promising young man, was mortally wounded -soon after his chief, and died the next day, at the early age of twenty-five -years. Although one bullet had passed through his body, and he -was wounded in four places, yet he survived twenty hours, and during a -period of excruciating agony his thoughts and words were constantly -occupied with lamentations for his deceased commander and friend. -He fell, while gallantly charging up the hill, with 190 men, chiefly York -Volunteers, by which charge the enemy was compelled to spike the 18-pounder -in the battery there.</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">THE BATTLE OF QUEENSTON HEIGHTS.</p> - -<p>At this time, about two in the afternoon, the whole British and Indian -force thus assembled was about 1000 men, of whom 600 were regulars. -In numbers the Americans were about equal—courage they had, but -they wanted the confidence and discipline of British Soldiers. After carefully -reconnoitering, General Sheaffe, who had arrived from Fort George, -and who had now assumed the command, commenced the attack by an -advance of his left flank, composed of the light company of the 41st, under -Lieutenant McIntyre, supported by a body of militia and Indians. After -a volley, the bayonet was resorted to, and the American right driven in. -The main body now advanced under cover of the fire from the two -3-pounders, and after a short conflict forced the Americans over the first -ridge of the heights to the road loading from Queenston to the Falls. -The fight was maintained on both sides with courage truly heroic. The -British regulars and militia charged in rapid succession, until they succeeded -in turning the left flank of the enemy’s column, which rested on -the summit of the hill. The Americans who attempted to escape into -the woods were quickly driven back by the Indians; and many cut off in -their return to the main body, and terrified by the sight of these exasperated -warriors, flung themselves wildly over the cliffs, and endeavoured -to cling to the bushes which grew upon them; but some, losing their hold, -were dashed frightfully on the rocks beneath; while others, who reached -the river, perished in their attempts to swim across it. The event of the -day no longer appeared doubtful.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p> - -<p>Major-General Van Rensselaer, commanding the American army, -perceiving his reinforcements embarking very slowly, recrossed the river -to accelerate their movements; but, to his utter astonishment, he found -that at the very moment when their services were most required, the -ardour of the unengaged troops had entirely subsided. He rode in all -directions through the camp, urging his men by every consideration, to -pass over. Lieutenant-Colonel Bloome, who had been wounded in the -action and recrossed the river, together with Judge Peck, who happened to -be in Lewiston at the time, mounted their horses and rode through the -camp, exhorting the companies to proceed, but all in vain. Crowds of the -United States militia remained on the American bank of the river, to -which they had not been marched in any order, but ran as a mob; not one -of them would cross. They had seen the wounded recrossing, they had -seen the Indians; and they had seen the “Green Tigers,” as they called -the 49th, from their green facings, and were panic struck. There were -those to be found in the American ranks who, at this critical juncture, -could talk of the Constitution, and the right of the militia to refuse crossing -the imaginary line which separates the two countries. General Van -Rensselaer having found that it was impossible to urge a single man to -cross the river to reinforce the army on the Heights, and that army -having nearly expended its ammunition, boats were immediately sent to -cover their retreat; but a desultory fire which was maintained upon the -ferry from a battery on the bank at the lower end of Queenston, completely -dispersed the boats, and many of the boatmen relanded and fled -in dismay. Brigadier-General Wadsworth was, therefore, compelled, after -a vigorous conflict had been maintained for some time upon both sides, to -surrender himself, all his officers, and 900 men, between three and -four o’clock in the afternoon. The loss of the British army was 16 killed -and 69 wounded; while that on the side of the Americans was not less -than 900 men, made prisoners, and one gun and two colours taken, and -90 killed and about 100 wounded. But amongst the killed of the -British army, the government and the country had to deplore the loss of -one of their bravest and most zealous Generals, in Sir Isaac Brock, and -one whose memory will long live in the warmest affections of every Canadian -and British subject. The country had also to deplore the loss of -the eminent services and talents of Lieutenant-Colonel McDonell, whose -gallantry and merit rendered him worthy of his chief.</p> - -<p>The gratitude of the people of Canada to the memory of Brock -was manifested in an enduring form. They desired to perpetuate the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> -memory of the hero who had been the instrument of their deliverance, -and they were not slow in executing their design; and whilst his noble -deeds were still fresh in the memory of all, the Provincial Legislature -erected a lofty column on the Queenston Heights, near the spot where -he fell. The height of the monument, from the base to the summit, -was 135 feet; and from the level of the Niagara River, which runs -nearly under it, 485 feet. The monument was a Tuscan column, on -rustic pedestal with a pedestal for a statue; the diameter of the base of -the column was 17½ feet and the abacus of the capital was surmounted -by an iron railing. The centre shaft, containing the spiral staircase, -was 10 feet in diameter.</p> - -<p>On Good Friday, the 17th of April, 1840, a vagabond of the name of -Lett, introduced a quantity of gunpowder into the monument with the -fiendish purpose of destroying it, and the explosion, effected by a train, -caused so much damage us to render the column altogether irreparable. -Lett had been compelled to fly into the United States for his share in the -rebellion of 1837, and well knowing the feeling of attachment to the name -and memory of General Brock, which pervaded all classes of Canadians, he -sought to gratify his malicious and vindictive spirit, and at the same -time to wound and insult the people of Canada by this atrocious deed.</p> - -<p>He afterward met with some meed of his deserts in the State Prison -at Auburn, New York.</p> - -<p>After the first monument had remained in the dilapidated condition, to -which it was reduced, for some years, a new and beautiful column was a -short time ago raised on its site. It is thus described: “Upon the solid -rock is built a foundation 40 feet square and 10 feet thick of massive -stone; upon this, the structure stands in a grooved plinth or sub-basement -38 feet square and 27 feet in height, and has an eastern entrance -by a massive oak door and bronze pateras, forming two galleries to the -interior 114 feet in extent, round the inner pedestal on the North and -South sides of which, in vaults under the ground floor, are deposited the -remains of General Brock, and those of his Aide-de-Camp, Colonel -McDonell, in massive stone sarcophagi. On the exterior angles of the -sub-basement are placed lions rampant 7 feet in height, supporting shields -with the armorial bearings of the hero: The column is of the Roman -composite order, 95 feet in height, a fluted shaft, 10 feet diameter at the -base; the loftiest column known of this style; the lower part enriched -with laurel leaves, and the flutes terminating on the base with palms.”</p> - -<p>The height from the ground to the top of the statue is 190 feet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> -exceeding that of any monumental column, ancient or modern, known, -with the exception of that on Fish-street Hill, London, England, by Sir -Christopher Wren, architect, in commemoration of the great fire of 1666, -202 feet high, which exceeds it in height by 12 feet.”</p> - - -<p>QUESNOY, BATTLE OF.—Fought, September 11th, 1773, between -the French and British, in which the British were defeated, with some -loss. Taken by the Austrians in 1793, but recovered by the French the -following year. It surrendered to Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, -after the battle of Waterloo.</p> - - -<p>QUIBERON BAY.—A British force landed here in 1736, and was -repulsed. In this Bay Admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over -the French, under Conflans. This most perilous and important action -defeated the French invasion, November 10th 1758. Taken by some -French regiments in pay of the British, July 3rd, 1795; but on July -21st, retaken by the French Republicans. About 900 of the troops -and near 1500 Royalist inhabitants effected their escape on board the -ships.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="R" id="R"></a>R.</h3> - - -<p>RAMILIES, BATTLE OF.—Between the English and Allies, commanded -by Marlborough, on the one side, and the French, commanded by -the Elector of Bavaria and the Marshal de Villeroy. The French, having -no confidence in their Commander, were soon seized with a panic, and a -general rout ensued. About 4000 of the Allied army were slain. Fought -on Whitsunday, May 26th, 1706.</p> - -<p>“The year following the victory of Blenheim was, for the most -part, wasted in the struggles of Marlborough with his enemies at -home, and with the dilatory and uncertain course of the allies of -England abroad. He succeeded in forcing the French lines in Flanders; -but the fruits of this great achievement were snatched from -him by the constant backwardness of the Dutch Generals, who opposed -every measure which was urged by him. So grieved was he by their -continual opposition, that on one occasion, when the opportunity of a -brilliant success was thus lost, he exclaimed, “I feel at this moment ten -years older than I was four years ago.” In fact, towards the end of -what he had hoped to make a glorious campaign, but which through this -opposition had been lost in disputes, he fell seriously ill, and was obliged -to retire for a time from active employment.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p> - -<p>Meanwhile, the Imperial government had begun to show signs of -jealousy and uneasiness that this great General should be employed in -Flanders, and in the defence of Holland, instead of recovering the Austrian -possessions on the Rhine, and liberating Lorraine. Pressing -applications were made that the Duke, instead of prosecuting the war in -Belgium, would return to the Moselle, and co-operate with the Imperial -forces in that quarter. Taking his departure from the army at the end -of October, 1705, Marlborough set out for Vienna, which he reached on -the 12th of November. Here the Emperor Joseph created him a Prince -of the Empire, and conferred on him the lordship of Mindelheim. But -which gave him far more satisfaction, he succeeded in reconciling all -differences, and in cementing the alliance, which seemed in danger of -dissolution, between Austria, Prussia, and the Netherlands, against the -ambitious designs of France. He then returned to the Hague, which he -reached on the 11th of December, proceeding thence to London, which he -reached early in the new year.</p> - -<p>On the 25th of April, 1706, he again arrived at the Hague for the -active duties of the approaching campaign. This year’s warfare began -at an earlier period than the previous ones, for the French General, with -commendable zeal and activity, took the field in the spring, forced the -German lines on the Motter, reduced Dreisenheim and Hagenau, and -threatened the Palatinate. The Duke, therefore, left the Hague on the -9th May, the Dutch being now anxious to retain him with them, and -offering him uncontrolled power over their forces. Accompanied by -Overkirk, he passed through Rimemont, and reached Maestricht on the -12th. Here he reviewed the Dutch troops, and began to take measures -for an attack on Namur. But Villeroy received orders from Paris rather -to risk a battle than to give up this important place. Hence, in the -third week in May, the two armies began to approach each other.</p> - -<p>Villeroy and the Elector of Bavaria passed the Dyle, and approached -Tirlemont. Their combined forces amounted to about 62,000 men. -The Duke, with his English, joined the Dutch at Bilsen on the -20th of May, and on the 22nd he had intelligence of the arrival of the -Danish contingent, which raised the strength of his army to about -60,000 men. His first desire, now, was to learn the position of the -enemy, and how best to come in contact with them. The field of battle -ultimately proved to be in an elevated part of the plain of Brabant, lying -between Maestricht, Louvain, and Namur. The village of Ramilies -itself is but a few miles to the east of Wavre, the position of Marshal -Blucher on the morning of the day of Waterloo.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the 23rd of May, then, in 1706, the English, Dutch, and Danish -army, commencing their march early in the morning, came in sight, about -eight o’clock, of the Franco-Bavarian outposts. A fog for some time made -everything obscure, but about ten o’clock the two armies stood in presence -of each other. The French commander had formed his order of battle -with the skill which experience generally gives; but he was opposed by -a greater commander, whose eye speedily detected the weaknesses of his -position.</p> - -<p>The French and Bavarians were drawn up on ground which, by its -nature, gave their order of battle a concave form. Thus the attacking -enemy would have the advantage of being able to bring his men more -rapidly from one side to the other, as required. The left wing of the -French, also, though strongly posted, was in a position from which it -could not easily move. Marlborough, therefore, was not long in forming -his plan, which was, to turn the enemy’s right wing; to seize an elevated -position in the rear of that wing, and from that position to outflank the -whole army.</p> - -<p>He therefore began a feigned attack, by his own right wing, upon -the left of the French. Villeroy immediately met this, as Marlborough -intended, by sending for fresh troops from his centre, and by weakening -his right. Pausing in his apparent attack, Marlborough promptly moved -to the left all the infantry that were out of sight of the French, and fell -upon the enemy’s right wing, which was posted in Tavieres.</p> - -<p>The attack succeeded, and Tavieres was carried. Villeroy, finding -out his mistake, hurried his squadron of dragoons to the succour of his -right wing; but these squadrons were met by the Danish cavalry emerging -from Tavieres, and they were all cut to pieces, or driven into the -Mehaigne.</p> - -<p>And now Ramilies itself, in the centre, became the object of attack. -The Duke ordered up from his own right wing every available squadron, -and exposed himself much in leading the attack. He was, at one moment, -thrown from his horse, and in danger of being made prisoner. -While he was remounting, a cannon-ball killed his equerry, Captain -Bingfield, who was assisting him.</p> - -<p>But now the allied cavalry had reached the height of Ottomond, in the -rear of the French position, and the success of the attack was secured. -The French were in utter confusion in all parts of the field, and Ramilies -itself was carried. There remained only the left wing of Villeroy’s -army; and this, attacked now by the reserves on Marlborough’s right,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> -and by the victorious troops which had cleared Ramilies, gave way as -evening drew on, rushed in crowds down the descent behind their position, -and fled for Judoigne. The cannon and baggage fell into the hands of -the victors, who pursued the flying French and Bavarians until two -o’clock in the morning. The allied army did not halt in its pursuit till -past midnight, when it had advanced to Meldert, five leagues from the -field of battle, and two from Louvian.</p> - -<p>This battle cost the Franco-Bavarian army 13,000 men, in killed, -wounded, and prisoners: among whom were the Princes of Soubise -and Rohan, and a son of Marshal Tallard. The spoils of the day consisted -of 80 colours and standards taken from the French; nearly all -their artillery, and all the baggage which was in the field. The loss of -the Allies was 1066 killed, and 2567 wounded. The vast difference -between this, and the loss sustained at Blenheim, shows that the victory -of Ramilies was gained by the Duke’s masterly manœuvres; and was not -owing merely to the courage of the soldiers.</p> - -<p>The results of the battle of Ramilies were very great. Louvain -instantly surrendered; Brussels received the Duke with open arms on the -28th. Mechlin, Alost, and Lierre, quickly followed. All Brabant was -gained by this one victory. Nor was this all. Flanders caught the -infection. Ghent opened its gates on the 1st of June; and Antwerp -surrendered a few days afterwards. Ostend fell on the 6th of July; and -in its harbour were taken two men-of-war, and 45 smaller vessels.”</p> - - -<p>RATHMINES, BATTLE OF.—<em>In Ireland.</em>—Colonel Jones, Governor -of Dublin Castle, made a sally, August 2nd, 1649, and routed the -Marquis of Ormond, killed 4000 men and took 2517 prisoners, with their -cannon, baggage and ammunition. This battle, and other successes, completely -discomfited the rebels in this part of Ireland.</p> - - -<p>RAVENNA, BATTLE OF.—Fought, April 11th, 1512, between the -French, under the great Gaston de Foix, Duke of Nemours, and nephew of -Louis XII, and the Spanish and Papal armies. De Foix, gained this -memorable battle, but perished in the moment of victory, and the French -fortunes in Italy were thus closed. The confederate army was cut to -pieces. The Duke had performed prodigies of valor, but being too eager -in his pursuit of the Spaniards, who were retiring in good order, he was -slain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p> - - -<p>REVOLUTION.—The Great Revolution which overturned the old -Monarchy of France occurred at the close of the last century. The 2nd, -the one here described sent Charles X into exile and was somewhat -like that of 1848 which also exiled Louis Philippe.</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">SECOND FRENCH REVOLUTION.</p> - -<p>“The political history of 1830 commenced on March 2nd, by a speech -from the throne, announcing war against Algiers for the insults offered -to the French flag, and a wish for a reconciliation with the Bragazana -family.</p> - -<p>This caused great dissatisfaction; the funds fell, the Chamber -of Deputies were against the measure, and on the 19th were convoked -till August 3rd, and several fires took place, evidently the work of -incendiaries.</p> - -<p>On the 25th July, Polignac addressed a report to the king on “legitimate -power,” and which formed the ground-work of three memorable -ordinances, which were signed on that day by Charles, and countersigned -by the ministers.</p> - -<p>The first ordinance abolished the freedom of the press; the second -dissolved the Chamber of Deputies; and the third abrogated the most -important rights of the elective franchise.</p> - -<p>On the publication of the <cite>Moniteur</cite> on the following morning, all Paris -was astounded by the mystifying report of the ministers of Charles X -and the king’s arbitrary decrees. The <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rentes</i> fell, and the bank stopped -payment.</p> - -<p>All work was now abandoned, every manufactory closed, and detachments -of artisans with large sticks traversed the streets. Troops of gendarmes -patrolled the streets at full gallop to disperse the accumulating -crowds. The people were silent; and at an early hour the shops were -closed. Early on the 27th, troops of the royal guard and soldiers of the -line came pouring in. The people looked sullen and determined. The -chief points of rendezvous were the Palais Royal, the Palais de Justice, -and the Bourse. Here were simultaneous cries of “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Viva la Charte!</i>”—“Down -with the absolute king!” but no conversation—no exchange of -words with each other. The King was at the Tuilleries. In the Place -Carousel there was a station of several thousands of the military, -including the lancers of the royal guard, with a great number of cannon. -At the Place Vendome a strong guard of infantry was stationed -around the column, to guard the ensigns of royalty upon it from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> -being defaced. Crowds of people assembled, and several skirmishes -took place.</p> - -<p>On Wednesday morning, July 28th, the shops of Paris were closely -shut, and the windows fastened and barred, as if the inhabitants of the -city were in mourning for the dead, or in apprehension of approaching -calamity. The tocsin sounded, and the people flocked in from the fauxbourgs -and different quarters of the city. That determined enemy to -oppression, the press, had been at work during the night. Handbills -were profusely distributed, containing vehement philippics against the -king and his ministers, and summoning every man to arm for his country, -and to aid in ejecting the Bourbons. Placards were constantly posted -up and eagerly read. During the preceding night an organisation of the -people had been arranged. All the arms that could be found at the -theatres, and remaining in the shops of armourers that had not been -visited the evening before, were seized and distributed. Every other -kind of property, however, was respected.</p> - -<p>Strong detachments guarded the different hotels of the ministers. -Loud cries and shouts were constantly heard, of “Down with the -Jesuits!”—“Down with the Bourbons!” “Death to the Ministers!” Each -man strove to provide himself with a musket, a pistol, a sword, a pole with a -knife, or some cutting instrument to form a weapon of offence. Troops -continually arrived from St. Denis, St. Cloud, and other military stations. -Rude barricades were hastily thrown up in different places, to prevent the -attacks of cavalry. Several telegraphs, including that on the Church des -Petits Peres, were dismounted. Groups of the people, armed with sticks, -bayonets, pikes, and muskets, removed or effaced all the insignia and -emblems of royalty. A red flag was hoisted on the gate of St. Denis, -amidst the shouts of the people. Tri-coloured flags were promenaded in -the streets, and tri-coloured cockades and breast-knots were worn, not -only by the French, but by the English and foreigners of all nations. The -royal arms, and other ensigns of the government of Charles X that were -moveable, were burned in the Place Publique. All Paris was in insurrection. -Every movement of the people portended a terrible conflict. The -government reposed in security upon a blind and implacable dignity.</p> - -<p>M. Lafitte had an interview with Polignac, who said “that the ministers -could enter into no compromise or concession.” “We have, then, -civil war,” said Lafitte. The prince bowed, and Lafitte retired.</p> - -<p>As soon, however, as Polignac’s answer was made known, that “ministers -would enter into no compromise or concession,” war, and war to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> -the knife, commenced; and never were witnessed more heroic acts of -personal bravery, and more generous disregard of selfish feelings, than -were displayed by the citizens of Paris on this memorable day and night. -The drums of the national guards soon beat “to arms!” The populace -answered the call amid the incessant ringing of the tocsin, and the -struggle began in earnest. About two o’clock a cannon on the bridge -near the Marche aux Fleurs raked with grape-shot the quay, while the -troops were resolutely attacked by the people, and numbers of the guards -led off, killed or wounded.</p> - -<p>There was a tremendous conflict in La Halle, the great market-place -of the Rue St. Denis. The royal guard were early in possession of it. -All the outlets were speedily closed by barricades, from behind which, -from the corners of the various streets, and from the windows of the -houses, the people fired on the guards, and there was a terrible slaughter -on both sides. The hottest engagement seems to have been in the Rue -St. Honoré, opposite the Palais Royal, where the military were assembled -in great force, and the people resisted their assailants with desperate -determination.</p> - -<p>At the Place de Grêve they fiercely contended with the household -troops, the Swiss guards, and compelled them to fly with great loss. In -the Rue Montmartre an attack was made by the duke of Ragusa in -person. During part of the day the Place des Victoires was occupied by -some troops, among whom was a part of the fifth regiment of the line, -who had gone over to the national guards established at the Petits Peres. -About two o’clock the duke de Ragusa arrived at the place at the head of -fresh troops. He drew them up opposite the Rues du Mail, des Fosses, -Montmartre, Croix des Petits Champs, and Neuve des Petits Champs. -He immediately commanded a charge, and on both sides hundreds of men -were killed. The marshal directed his troops down the Rue du Mail, -and they scoured the Rue Montmartre without much difficulty till they -reached the Rue Joquelet, where the people were prepared. Each house -was armed and guarded. The black flag was displayed on the Porte St. -Denis and other edifices.</p> - -<p>As soon as the firing ceased, the people made preparations for the next -day by strengthening the barricades and increasing their number. They -were assisted by women and even children. The remainder of the afternoon -and evening, and the whole of the night, was spent in raising these -important obstacles to the evolutions of cavalry. Excellent materials -were at hand in the paving-stones; they were dug up and piled across<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> -the streets in walls breast high, and four or five feet thick. These walls -were about fifty paces distant from each other. Hundreds of the finest -trees were cut down for blockades. Nothing could be more effective for -the defence of a large open town like Paris, traversed in every direction -by long narrow streets, overlooked by houses of six, seven, and eight -stories, than such barriers, scientifically constructed. All the means that -industry and ingenuity could devise, in so short a time, were carried -into execution, for the energetic stand and assault determined to be -made against the military in the morning.</p> - -<p>At day-break on Thursday the tocsin sounded “To arms;” and the -people began to assemble rapidly and in great crowds. The military, -whose guard-houses had been destroyed, were chiefly quartered at the -Louvre and the Tuilleries, the Swiss and the royal guards being posted -in the houses of the Rue St. Honoré and the adjacent streets. At the -same time, the students of the Polytechnic School joined the citizens -nearly to a man; they then separated, proceeding singly to different -parts to take the command of the people, and nobly repaid the confidence -reposed in them. The garden of the Tuilleries was closed. In the -Place du Carousel were three squadrons of lancers of the garde royale, a -battalion of the third regiment of the guards, and a battery of six pieces, -also belonging to the guards.</p> - -<p>About one o’clock in the afternoon, a party of the royal guards and of -Swiss, to the number of nearly 800 men, appeared on the Place de -Grêve. A brisk fire commenced, but the national guards not being in -sufficient strength, were obliged to give ground and to suffer the royal -guards to take possession of their post. The royal guards had scarcely -made themselves masters of the Hotel de Ville, when they were assailed -on all sides with a shower of bullets from the windows of the houses on -the Place de Grêve and in the streets abutting on the quay. The royal -guards resisted vigorously, but were ultimately compelled to retreat along -the quay; their firing by files and by platoons succeeding each other -with astonishing rapidity. They were soon joined by fresh troops of the -royal guard and of Swiss, including 100 cuirassiers of the guard and four -pieces of artillery, each of them escorted by a dozen of artillerymen on -horseback. With this terrible reinforcement they again advanced on the -Hotel de Ville, and a frightful firing began on all sides. The artillery -debouching from the quay, and their pieces charged with cannister shot, -swept the Place de Grêve in a terrific manner. They succeeded in -driving the citizens into the Rues de Matriot and du Mouton, and entered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> -for the second time that day into their position at the Hotel de Ville. -But their possession of it did not continue long; for they were soon again -attacked with a perseverance and courage which was almost irresistible. -Their artillery ranged before the Prefecture of the Seine and the Hotel -de Ville threatened death to thousands.</p> - -<p>Hundreds of the constitutionalists were killed by the fire of the Swiss -guard from the windows of this edifice. It was erected in 1600, and -though it does not appear to possess any of the characteristics of strength -in a military sense of the word, yet its gates, being of immense thickness, -furnished a good defence from the musketry of the attacking parties. -The Hotel de Ville was afterwards employed as the head-quarters of La -Fayette and the provisional government.</p> - -<p>The Rue St. Honoré, for two days, was a perpetual scene of slaughter. -The Louvre, except the picture-gallery, was on all sides attacked and -defended at the same moment, and for hours. In the court of the Louvre -a field-piece was planted, which commanded the Pont des Arts, being -exactly opposite the Institute. Here the fighting was so dreadful and -so maintained, that the front of the building of the Institute was completely -covered with muskets and grape shot. One cannon ball smashed -a portion of the wall, and from its elevation did dreadful execution in -sweeping the bridge. The attack on the Tuilleries was over in two or -three hours. A young man marched with a tri-coloured flag at the head -of the attacking bourgeois. A thousand balls, fired from the front of the -chateau, whistled by him without touching him. He continued to march -with perfect <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sangfroid</i>, but with, at the same time, an air of importance, -up to the triumphal arch, and remained until the end of the battle.</p> - -<p>While the people and the military were combating at the Place de -Grêve, the Louvre, and the Tuilleries, troops were arriving by the -Champs Elysees. A great party of the people, and many national guards, -with two pieces of cannon, were hastening along near the Place Louis -XVI towards the Barrier St. Etoile, when a largo troop of dragoons -arrived, made a desperate charge, and cut down the people without mercy -who made a very bold stand. Many of the soldiers solemnly vowed that -they would not continue to obey orders to massacre their brothers and -sons. Their numbers were thinned, they were fatigued, disheartened, -discomfited, beaten, and fled. At Chaillot, a district of Paris, verging -on the route to St. Cloud, the inhabitants, though few in number, -sustained the fire of five regiments of the guards, who attempted to -effect their retreat by the barrier of Passy. At length, all the royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> -troops left the capital by the way of the Champs Elysees, and in their -retreat were fired upon by the people.</p> - -<p>At night, part of the town was illuminated, particularly the streets of -St. Denis, St. Martin, St. Jacques, and the neighbourhood of the Hotel -de Ville. Perfect tranquillity prevailed throughout the city. Strong -patroles silently paraded the streets, passed gently from barricade to barricade, -and disarmed individuals whom fatigue and the heat of the -weather, more than wine, had rendered incapable of employing their -weapons usefully.</p> - -<p>A deputation from Charles X at St. Cloud, arrived at the Hotel de -Ville early in the morning. It consisted of the marquis de Rastoret, -chancellor of France; M. Semonville; and count d’Argout, peer of -France. They announced that Charles had named the duke de Mortemart -president of the council, and that he was willing to accept a ministry -chosen by him.</p> - -<p>At eleven o’clock, the deputies and peers then in Paris assembled in -their respective halls, and established regular communications with each -other. The duke de Mortemart was introduced to the chamber of -deputies, and delivered four ordinances, signed, the previous day, by -Charles X. One of them recalled the fatal ordinances of the 25th; -another convoked the chambers on the 3rd; the third appointed the -duke de Mortemart president of the council, and the fourth -appointed count Gerard minister of war, and M. Casimir-Perier minister -of finance. The reading of these ordinances was listened to with the -greatest attention. At the termination profound silence continued;—no -observation was made;—the deputies passed to other business.—The -duke de Mortemart returned to acquaint his master that he was no longer -acknowledged as king of France. The manner in which the duke and -his communications were received by the deputies, was an announcement -that Charles X had ceased to reign.</p> - -<p>On the 31st, the deputies published a proclamation, declaring that -they had invited the duke of Orleans to become Lieutenant-General of the -kingdom. At noon of the same day, Louis Philippe d’Orleans issued a -proclamation, declaring that he had hastened to Paris, wearing the -“glorious colours” of France, to accept the invitation of the assembled -deputies to become Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. A proclamation -of the same date appointed provisional commissaries for the different -departments of government. The king, with his family, escaped to St. -Cloud.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the 3rd of August the chambers met, when the abdication of -Charles was announced; and on the 9th, Louis Philippe, having taken -the prescribed oath, was created king, under the title of “King of the -French.”</p> - -<p>Thus terminated this desperate struggle for popular rights, and which -has no parallel in the annals of history. The Parisians left their homes -to fight, without organization and almost without arms, against some of -the best troops in the world;—and for what? Were they a rabble -driven by hunger, or a rebellious nobility endeavouring to wrest new -privileges from the monarch? No: they were men who, animated with -an ardent desire to be free, would not suffer themselves to be stripped of -their civil rights, but firmly and manfully defended them with their -lives. It was in this respect a great moral revolution, and forms a brilliant -epoch in the annals of the world.”</p> - - -<p>RETREAT OF THE GREEKS.—Whoever has read the beautiful -descriptions of Xenophon, has read of the memorable retreat of the 10,000 -Greeks. It happened <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 401, after the battle of Cunaxa; Xenophon -was chosen commander. He rose superior to danger, and though under -continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled -to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops of -mountains, till he could rest secure for a while, and refresh his tired -companions. At last they returned home, after a retreat of 1155 parasangs -or leagues, which was performed in 215 days,—and after an absence -of 15 months.</p> - - -<p>RIDGEWAY, BATTLE OF, <span class="fs70">OR</span> LIME RIDGE.—Fought, Saturday, -June 2nd, 1866, between the Canadian Volunteers of Toronto and -Hamilton, and the Fenians, a lawless band of predatory scoundrels, who -wantonly invaded Canada, and were driven back by Canada’s brave sons. -The following succinct account is from the pen of the Rev. D. Inglis, -D.D., of Hamilton, who was present in the engagement.</p> - -<p>“Rev. Mr. Burwash and myself were appointed by a number of the -ministers of this city to join the 13th Battalion of Hamilton volunteers, -and to render them such assistance as might be in our power. The -shadows of night had just given way to the bright light of that June -morning when we reached Port Colborne and joined the battalion in the -cars, a few minutes before the train left for Ridgeway. Much has been -written on the proper rations and equipments for the men, and I only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> -refer to this with the view of noticing the want of shoulder-straps with -which to fasten the overcoats on the back of the soldiers, and the fact -that they were obliged to roll them up and sling them over their right -shoulders, under their left arm-pits, an expedient which afterwards greatly -impeded them in aiming and firing, and caused them to abandon their -overcoats when going into battle.</p> - -<p>The train proceeded slowly to Ridgeway, where the men left the cars -and were drawn up on the Stevensville road. The Queen’s Own were in -the front, then came the 13th Battalion, and a company of riflemen from -Caledonia forming the rear-guard. The men were in good spirits, and I -could not look without admiration upon the coolness and intrepidity with -which these volunteer soldiers, many of them mere lads, prepared for -the advance. The ammunition was distributed to the men, the order -given to load with ball cartridge, and then followed an interval of suspense -and waiting. The sensation of relief was great when after some -minutes of anxiety and impatience the order to advance was given. The -position assigned to the waggon containing the ammunition, &c., in -which Mr. Burwash and myself were riding, was immediately behind the -main body, and in front of the rear guard. When about a mile and a -half from Ridgeway several companies of the Queen’s Own were ordered -into the fields and woods to clear them of Fenians—and in a short time -the first shot was fired—and then in a rapid succession we saw small -clouds of blue smoke issuing from the woods, telling us of a rapid discharge -of musketry before the reports reached our ears. The sergeants -in charge concluded to halt with their waggon, and Mr. Burwash and -myself hurried on in the rear of our main body. The Fenian skirmishers -fell back upon the main body of their force, who were drawn up in an -entrenched position along the Fort Erie road. They had converted a -stone wall and the ordinary snake-fences into barricades, and held a strong -position; but on the advance of our forces, fearing lest our skirmishers -should out-flank them, they retired in good order, and amid rapid firing, to -a slightly elevated piece of ground covered with thick woods, some distance -in their rear. It was in this advance that Ensign McEachren was mortally -wounded. It has been stated that Colonel Booker rushed to the rear -calling for a surgeon. I am in a position positively to deny this; the -cry for a surgeon was heard by me, but it did not come from the Colonel. -Mr. McEachren was borne to the rear by some men of his company, -accompanied by the Captain, a noble fellow, whose name I do not know, -to whom I at once introduced myself as a minister, and offered to do all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> -I could for his friend. He thanked me with tears in his eyes, and hastened -back to the post of danger. Dr. May was in attendance; but a -glance at the wound shewed that it was mortal—and it fell to me to -inform him of the fact. He received the intelligence as a Christian soldier—informing -me that his faith rested in the Lord Jesus Christ. I -prayed with him, and after a few moments’ conversation I mentioned Mr. -Burwash’s name, and finding that he was an old parishioner of Mr. -Burwash, I left him mainly to his care—though I several times spent a -few moments with him afterwards. I then returned to the battle-field -to see if I could be of use there. Our forces had advanced, throwing out -their skirmishers right and left of the skirmishers—Queen’s Own—to the -extreme right—13th battalion—the distance was probably a little more -than three-quarters of a mile. Not a Fenian was to be seen, but as our -brave soldiers advanced, nearer and nearer, there came again first a single -shot, and then a rapid discharge of fire-arms along the whole line. From -their elevated position, or from what other cause, I know not, the shots -went over the heads of our men, and I could see them striking the field -behind. I hastened back to the hospital with feelings of admiration for -the brave fellows who, exposed to a terrible fire from an unseen foe, so -nobly stood their ground, while the sharp crack of their rifles assured me -that the gallant fellows were doing their duty amidst those showers of -bullets, in spite of all the manifest disadvantages of their position; but I -could not rid myself of a feeling of depression and anxiety when I thought -of the result.</p> - -<p>In the hospital I found a few men slightly wounded. One of them -told me there were no litters with which to bear the wounded from the -field. I set the men who were on guard to work to make litters with -some poles which we found near—and such sheets and blankets as I could -lay my hands on—and returned to the field with the men carrying the -litters. I took my old position, from which I had a full view of the -whole field, and was startled to notice strange movements going on -among our men. They had halted—the whole line trembled—I do not -mean that the brave men trembled, but there was a movement along their -line which I find no other word to describe. The order to receive cavalry -was given, and an effort was made to obey it. Then another and another -order. The only one which the men seemed eager to obey was the one -to advance, and then came the fatal bugle’s notes that told them to retreat, -and our men began to fall back. I hurried to the hospital and told the -Doctor and Mr. Burwash that I feared the day was against us, but said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> -I would return to the field while they made the necessary preparations -to remove the sick and wounded from a place which should soon be the -very centre of the battle. When I again reached my old post of observation -a shower of bullets fell around me, and before I got back to the -hospital, a number of men belonging to the Queen’s Own had got -between me and the house. These were quickly followed by a large -number of the 13th Battalion, and I was forced to leave without again -communicating with my friends. I soon found, however, that the Doctor -and his wounded men, as well as Mr. Burwash, had got safely out of -that terrible fire.</p> - -<p>The descriptions given of the retreat, are, for the most part greatly -exaggerated. Some men, it is true, ran away in terror, but the main -body, though in confusion, were not panic-stricken. The feeling was -one of vexation, and at the very moment when they expected victory, -all had unaccountably gone wrong with them. Tears were shed, but they -were tears wrung from brave men at the bitter thought of being called to -retreat before their foes. In the rear, Major Skinner, with a number -of men belonging to the 13th and the Queen’s Own, kept in good order, -and so effectually covered our retreat, that the enemy were unaware of -the disorder in which the main body were retiring. Beyond all doubt, -we were at this point saved from further disaster by the coolness and -steadiness of Major Skinner, and the officers and men who were with -him.</p> - -<p>At Ridgeway the confused and scattered mass of men who got into -order through the exertions of a Toronto officer whose name I have been -told is Captain Arthurs, and who certainly discharged his duty in a way -that marked him out as a man able to control and lead others.</p> - -<p>I have refrained from all criticism of the conduct of the officers on -whom the responsibilities of this matter lie. I know nothing of military -tactics, and it does not become me to say anything of why this little -band of volunteers should have been led into a conflict with superior -numbers of trained and veteran soldiers without support from artillery -or the regulars—it is not my part to say what the commanding officer -should or should not have done. This only I am bound to say, that the -officers and men of the Queen’s Own and 13th Battalion, behaved -throughout the battle with coolness and gallantry—and even the unfortunate -retreat only brought out more clearly that, with few exceptions, -they were men of unflinching courage. The hospital, no less than the -battle-field proved the noble courage of our men, and it would have moved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> -the stoutest heart to tears, to see those boy-heroes suffering as they did, -without a murmur or a groan.</p> - -<p>Major Gilmore, of the Queen’s Own, and Major Skinner, of the 13th, -distinguished themselves greatly, their words of command inspiring their -men with courage—while they themselves were steady as rocks under -the hottest fire. Indeed, but for Major Skinner’s coolness and power -over the men under his command, the retreat of Ridgeway must have -resulted in fearful consequences.”</p> - - -<div><a name="RIF" id="RIF"></a></div> -<p>RIFLE PITS, CONTEST AT THE.—<em>Crimean war.</em> “The -bombardment was re-opened on Easter Monday, the 9th April, soon after -daybreak. Heavy rain fell all day, and the dense atmosphere prevented -our men from observing the effect of the fire. This time the fleets did -not share in the bombardment. At the close of the day, it was evident -that our weight of metal, though greatly superior to that employed on the -occasion of the first bombardment in October, was yet inadequate to the -task of destroying the colossal works of the enemy. In vain our artillery -pounded the earthworks and batteries. In vain showers of shell were -poured into the town. The Russian engineers proved themselves consummate -masters of their art, and every morning fresh guns poured forth -a deadly reply from the repaired embrasures. Their resources seemed -literally inexhaustible, and their courage was fully equal to the occasion. -For more than a week the tremendous bombardment continued, and -notwithstanding the intensity of the fire from the French and English -batteries, comparatively little effect was produced. In the meanwhile -both armies worked assiduously at the trenches. The French succeeded -in carrying their parallels yet nearer to the Mamelon, a large rounded hill -in front of the Malakoff Tower, and covered with rifle pits and earthworks; -while the English gradually extended their lines towards the formidable -Redan. Their great difficulty lay in forming a trench which -should connect the zigzags leading on the right towards the Malakoff, -and on the left towards the Redan. In order to obstruct the formation -of this work, the enemy established a series of rifle-pits which enfiladed -the new parallel, and whence considerable loss was inflicted upon our -working parties. In addition to the fire from the rifle-pits, the enemy -brought down a 12-pounder gun which swept our trenches, and effectually -hindered the progress of the work. It became necessary, therefore, -to attempt to drive the Russians from their vantage-ground; and on the -night of the 19th of April, Colonel Egerton, at the head of 250 men of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> -the Light Division, attempted the exploit, dashed from the breastwork, -and, taking the enemy by surprise, drove him out. The successful -English immediately established themselves in the pits, but the Russians -were too sensible of the value of the position to permit the advantage to -remain undisputed, and marched down a column 1000 strong, to attempt -the recovery of the pits. Our troops met them with a well-directed -volley, which shook their ranks and then closed with them in a deadly -contest. The enemy was, after an obstinate fight, completely routed, and -the British had secured an important advantage, though not without the -loss of the gallant Colonel. On the following night, the second line of -rifle-pits was also carried, after a feeble resistance; and our working -parties were thus enabled to pursue their labours without annoyance, and -in comparative security.”</p> - - -<p>ROADS, LORD COCHRANE AT BASQUE.—“Our fire-ships -were sent in, each conducted by a lieutenant and five men; the -ships were sixteen in number, and some very heavy. When they got -in, the French ships cut and slipt, nine sail of the line got on shore on -the Isle of Aix, and the next morning we discovered them: the fire-ships -having done little good, the small craft and frigates were ordered in to -attempt to destroy them. The place where they lay was like Portsmouth -harbour, under the fire of the two batteries, each of which had three tiers -of guns, of twenty-nine each, all heavy metal: the navigation to get at -them was very difficult, in some places there being only four fathoms -water. Just as we were sitting down to dinner on board the Revenge, -our signal was made to go in and assist the gun and mortar vessels; our -ship was cleared for action in fifteen minutes, and in half an hour we -were alongside of three sail of the line, when we opened a dreadful -cannonade on them, which continued for an hour and a quarter, the -Warsaw, a fine 80-gun ship, and the Aquilon, struck to us. We were -now in a very critical state ourselves, being in only five fathoms water, -which was ebbing very fast; the batteries on shore, having got our length, -struck us almost every shot for the last quarter of an hour; luckily, a -breeze springing up, we got off into deeper water, and out of reach of their -guns, when we anchored again, and sent our boats to take out the -prisoners, and set them on fire, about seven, p.m. At nine they were -all in flames, and at two in the morning they blew up with a tremendous -explosion; the French set fire to the Tonniere, and the Imperieuse to the -Calcutta; three other ships of the line were on shore, very much mauled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> -by the frigates and boom-ships; some of them were on their beam-ends, -and but little chance of getting off again. The captain of the Warsaw -was on board our ship; he said, they were bound out to relieve Martinique -with troops and provisions. I went on board his ship after she -struck, and the decks were strewed with dead and dying, a most dreadful -slaughter. We also lost several killed and wounded, and our ship was -much cut up in sails and rigging.</p> - -<p>Lord Cochrane caused about 1500 barrels of gunpowder to be started -into puncheons, which were placed end upwards: upon the tops of these -were placed between 3 and 400 shells, charged with fuses; and again, -among and upon these were between 2 and 3000 hand-grenades. The -puncheons were fastened to each other by cables wound round them, and -jammed together with wedges; and moistened sand was rammed down -between these casks, so as to render the whole, from stem to stern, as -solid as possible, that the resistance might render the explosion the more -violent.</p> - -<p>In this tremendous instrument of destruction, Lord Cochrane committed -himself, with only one lieutenant and four seamen; and after the boom -was broken, his lordship proceeded with this explosion-ship towards the -enemy’s line. Let it be recollected, that at this moment the batteries on -shore were provided with furnaces to fire red-hot shot, and then his lordship’s -danger in this enterprize may be properly conceived.</p> - -<p>The wind blew a gale, and the tide ran three knots an hour. When -the blue lights of the fire-ships were discovered, one of the enemy’s line -made the signal for fire-ships; which being also a blue light, the enemy -fell into great confusion, firing upon her with very injurious effect, and -directly cut their cables.</p> - -<p>When lord Cochrane had conducted his explosion-ship as near as was -possible, the enemy having taken the alarm, he ordered his brave little -crew into the boat, and followed them, after putting fire to the fuse, -which was calculated to give them fifteen minutes to get out of reach of -the explosion. However, in consequence of the wind getting very high, -the fuse burnt too quickly; so that, with the most violent exertion -against wind and tide, this intrepid little party was six minutes nearer -than they calculated to be, at the time when the most tremendous explosion -that human art ever contrived took place, followed by the bursting -at once in the air of nearly 400 shells and 3000 hand-grenades, pouring -down a shower of castmetal in every direction. But fortunately our -second Nelson was spared, the boat having reached, by unparalleled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> -exertion, only just beyond the extent of destruction. Unhappily, this -effort to escape cost the life of the brave lieutenant, whom his noble -captain saw die in the boat, partly under fatigue, and partly drowned -with waves that continually broke over them. Two of the four sailors -were also so nearly exhausted, that their recovery was for some time -despaired of.</p> - -<p>The repetition of his explosions was so dreaded by the enemy, that -they apprehended an equal destruction in every fire-ship, and, immediately -crowding all sail, ran before wind and tide so fast, that the fire-ships, -though at first very near, could not overtake them, before they were high -and dry on shore, except three seventy-fours, besides the Calcutta, which -were afterwards engaged, taken, and burned.</p> - -<p>Lord Cochrane now turned his attention to rescue the vanquished -from the devouring elements; and in bringing away the people of the -Ville de Varsovie, he would not allow even a dog to be abandoned, but -took the crying little favourite up into his arms and brought it away. -But a still greater instance of goodness was displayed in his humanity to -a captain of a French seventy-four, who came to deliver his sword to -Lord Cochrane, and lamented that all he had in the world was about to -be destroyed by the conflagration of his ship. His lordship instantly got -into the boat with him, and pushed off to assist his prisoner in retrieving -some valuable loss; but in passing by a seventy-four, which was on fire, -her loaded guns began to go off; a shot from which killed the French -captain by Lord Cochrane’s side, and so damaged the boat, that she filled -and the rest of the party were nearly drowned.”</p> - - -<p>RODNEY’S, ADMIRAL, VICTORIES.—This renowned Admiral -fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish Admiral Don Langara, whom -he defeated, and made prisoner, destroying eight of his ships and taking -four, January 16th, 1780. On April 12th, 1782, he encountered the -French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by Count de Grasse—took -10 ships of the line, and sent the French Admiral prisoner to England. -The enemy lost also one ship, sunk, and three blown up.</p> - - -<p>ROSAS, BAY OF.—Brilliant naval action by the boats of the Tigre, -Cumberland, Volontaire, Apollo, Topaz, Philomel, Scout, and Tuscan, -commanded by Lieutenant Tailour, which ended in the capture or -destruction of 11 armed vessels in the bay. November 1st, 1809.</p> - - -<p>ROSBACH, BATTLES OF.—In the first battle fought at Rosbach<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> -40,000 rebel Flemings, under the command of the Duke of Burgundy, the -King Charles VI in France being present, fell November 17th, 1382. A -second battle between the Prussians, commanded by their King and the -combined army of the French and Austrians, in which the latter sustained -a severe defeat. Many thousands were slain on both sides, November 5th, -1757.</p> - - -<p>ROSES, WARS OF THE.—These wars arose out of a contest for the -throne, between the two houses of York and Lancaster. It was termed -the War of the Roses, from the badge of the York party being a white, -and that of the Lancaster a red rose. It arose in complicated disputes -about the succession among the descendants of Edward III. The feud -thus arising was not concluded until Henry VII asserted the ascendency -of the Lancaster party, on the field of Bosworth, and united the two, by -marriage with a daughter of the York party.</p> - -<p>King Richard was killed at Bosworth and the Crown conferred upon -the Earl of Richmond, and an end put to the wars between the two -houses of York and Lancaster, begun upon the intrusion of king Henry -IV, and continued till the death of King Richard III. There were -fought 12 pitched battles, and 2 kings, 1 prince, 10 dukes, 2 marquesses, -24 earls, 27 lords, 2 viscounts, 1 lord prior, 1 judge, 139 knights, 441 -esquires, and 84,998 private soldiers were slain; which, being added to -the 638 of superior quality, there appears to have been killed in the -quarrels between the two roses, 85,625.</p> - - -<p>ROSS, BATTLE OF.—<em>In Ireland.</em>—Fought, June 4th, 1698, -between the Royal troops and the insurgent forces, when, after the most -obstinate contest, the latter were defeated losing more than 2600 killed on -the field.</p> - - -<p>ROXBURGH.—The following describes the razing of this fortress -<span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1460: “Ever since the captivity of David II, a period of more than -a hundred years, the castle of Roxburgh had been in possession of the -English. James laid siege to it. He had gone with several of his nobility -to watch the effect of a battery of cannon which had begun to play on the -fortress. One of the pieces, a large gun of Flemish manufacture, formed -of iron bars hooped together, burst in firing. A heavy fragment struck -the King on the groin, and killed him on the spot. A holly tree in the -park of Fleurs Castle still marks the place where James of the Fiery -Face, not yet 30 years old, came to his untimely end. On hearing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> -the lamentable tidings, the queen came immediately to the camp. She -appeared in the midst of the army, leading by the hand her little son, -now the King. The spirited woman exhorted the soldiers to spend no -time in vain regrets, but to show their regard for the dead, by gaining -the victory which he had so much at heart. Catching ardour from -her appeal, the army renewed the attack and carried the castle by -storm that same day. The ruins of the stronghold, which cost Scotland so -dear, are still to be seen on the tongue of land where Tweed and Teviot -join, a little way above Kelso Bridge.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="S" id="S"></a>S.</h3> - - -<p>SACRED WAR.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sacrum Bellum.</i>—The first, about the celebrated -temple of Delphi, took place <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 448. The second occurred also at the -same place, when it was attacked by the Phœnicians, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 356.</p> - - -<p>SADOWA, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 3rd, 1866, between the -Prussians and Austrians. Dr. Russel thus writes:—</p> - -<p>“In spite of the sombre morning and of the grey clothing, relieved -only by the darker but livelier green of the Jagers and their plumed -hats, the effect of the whole host wheeling, deploying, advancing, taking -ground to the right or left, or marching in lengthened column, was so -bright that it was difficult to believe they all, horses and men, had been -sleeping out under the veiled stars of heaven, and were still dank and -heavy with the night dew and the rain of the morning. But there -could be no mistake about the reality of the work in which they were -engaged, for the Austrians on the brow of the slope to the right were -pounding away fiercely at the invincible enemy in the valley. That -there was an enemy was plain enough, for the earth flew up on the -slope as the answering shells glanced upwards, and then exploded among -the infantry in the rear. This was about 8.30 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span> At nine o’clock a -heavy shower obscured the field, and when it drifted northwards three -Austrian batteries were still busy on the slope, and several columns of -infantry, deploying on its side, moved up around it and disappeared into -the valley, whence there soon came masses of curling smoke, and then -the batteries limbered up and moved over also, showing that the enemy -were falling back. The second line on the right made a slight movement -to the right and upwards, but it did not seem as if the Austrians -concerned themselves much for the ground between the rear of Imilovitz -and the river. The cannonade which had all this time been going on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> -towards the right now extended towards the middle or centre; a line of -batteries moving on or halting to fire could be seen on the plateau to -the right of Klum, and it was evident that the enemy was in great force -in that direction. It looked as if the Prussians had attacked the position -almost simultaneously from left to right, for no sooner had the -action developed itself on the centre than it rolled back from Nechanitz -on the left, and before 9.30 the whole range of hills and valleys and -slopes for nine miles and more was as if the earth had been turned into -snow wreaths agitated in a wintry gale. Before 10 o’clock a thicker -and darker cloud rose from the trees and the village on the right. “My -God, Imilovitz is in flames,” exclaimed the guardian of the tower. -The officers said “<em>Ja so!</em>” “<em>Hem!</em>” and uttered various other sounds -of varied import possibly, smoked their cigars, and looked on. Imilovitz, -indeed, blazed up furiously after a time, and in about a quarter of an -hour more the Austrian batteries which had gone down the slope toiled -up again, unlimbered, and fired from the brow. Puffs of smoke high in -the air or rising from the ground showed where the Prussian fire was -plying the Austrians on the right; but their guns replied vigorously, -and all through that day, though sometimes ill-placed, the Austrian -artillery behaved most gallantly. It was difficult to ascertain why the -Austrian corps on the right were so unsteady, and why so many men -were leaving the ranks of regiments still invisible; but after a time -another sponge-like rain-cloud wiped away everything, and left it all -like a clean slate, from behind which there issued a rolling fire of cannon -as close as the volleys of a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">feu de joie</i>. When the shower passed away, -the cannonade on the right near the tree had sensibly diminished, and -the Austrians seemed to have the advantage all along the front, judging -by the advance of their guns and infantry, except near the left centre -and right of their line. On the extreme left another black cloud now -rose up, licked by flames at the base. “<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Gott in Himmel!</i>” exclaimed -the guardian of the tower, “Sadowa burns now!” And so it was. -The pleasant little village, snug church, hospitable mill—all were burning. -It was with surer divination of the coming woe than we had that -the poor people had fled in tears, or remained in hopeless sorrow in their -homes. The heat of this great battle burned up whatever it touched, -and sent forth the lava which destroyed as it flowed on all sides. -Between the big tree and Klum, in the centre and far away towards the -second ridge, the fight was raging with extraordinary fury from 10 -o’clock till 10.30—and that half-hour seemed an age. But still the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> -Austrians advanced. One grey mass of men followed another into the -smoke, and was lost there. Towards Sadowa and Nechanitz on the left -they also were gaining ground, and before 11 o’clock their columns -had gone out of sight into the valley or undulations, and the Prussians -could be seen by their fire to have fallen back on the opposing slopes of -the second range of hills.</p> - -<p>An animating and magnificent feature was now added to the terrible -spectacle by the forward movement of the heavy cavalry near the Prague -road and towards the centre. These great squares of white, spreading -out slowly, obliterated the cornfields. The very colour of the ground -was changed and darkened under the trampling of horses. One column -went towards the Nechanitz road, the other two moved towards Klum; -but after a few formations they halted again, and some of these regiments -dismounted and stood by their horses. The Saxons, readily to be distinguished -by their light blue, also advanced parallel with the Prague -road towards the top of the slope. This was some time after eleven -o’clock, when the Prussian left and centre had visibly given way, though -fighting with extreme tenacity and fervour. The light cavalry, at the -same time, or part of them, advanced towards Klum in the centre, -awaiting the moment to deluge the plain with an exulting flood. But -the time was not come. The Prussians, reinforced, or calling in their -second line and reserves, came with a desperate impetus up the slopes on -the left and centre, and also developed a new attack on the left of the -Prague road, which looked like a black riband now and then as the smoke -was driven off by the wind. They were intent on turning our left if -possible, but they met with a stubborn and successful resistance at that -point. Soon afterwards, in the midst of a heavy fall of rain, the cavalry -made another advance, and when it cleared the Austrian infantry were -seen to have moved still further to the left and centre, while the sound -of the cannonade grew so deafening that the Prussians must have been -driven back beyond the position they occupied when they began the -action. Between half-past eleven and twelve o’clock the Austrians were -to all intents successful on the centre and on its flanks, although the fury -of the cannonade and the incessant rattle of musketry all along the front, -from the front of Nechanitz to the plateau beyond Klum attested the -severity of the struggle and the obstinate resistance of the Prussians. -Probbis, another pretty village, was now in flames; three villages burning -at once, farmhouses adding their contingents to the fire and smoke, -caissons blowing up, shells bursting, and the slopes and hill tops covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> -with grey and blue specs—each a man in agony or in death. Again the -cavalry moved onwards. This time one division, in three bodies, crowned -the ridge and formed near the front line under the church, on the left -of Klum, in the centre and left of the position, and there they waited -once more. But now on the right the action awoke again, and, to our -surprise, a very heavy fire of musketry, comparatively close at hand, came -from the direction of Smirlintz; the Austrians on the crest of the ridge -moved uneasily, while many more stragglers than one cared to see pressed -down towards the railroad. Whatever the cause of the agitation, the -Prussians on the centre and left pressed their attack with renewed -vigour, and the contest which ensued was of exceeding fierceness; but -still the enemy did not prevail—the Austrians not only held their ground, -but repulsed the enemy advanced against them, took their ground, and -made prisoners. From the left of Klum to the Prague road, and beyond -it, all was fire and smoke. The tumult of voices was dreadful, and such -as is never to be heard save in such awful agony of battle. The Austrians -again advanced a little nearer the big tree, and two batteries of -reserve artillery could be seen driving fast to the left to strengthen the -attack. But the Prussian reserves were once more called upon, and from -12.30 till nearly 1 o’clock there was an artillery fire from centre to left -for six miles or more, which could not well have been exceeded in any -action of which history makes mention. That ammunition was becoming -needed in the advanced position was evident from the motion of the trains -of supply and reserve, and we watched the cavalry with intense interest, -as it seemed to be the time for them to make an impression. The Prussians -were wavering. At 1 o’clock the Prussians, however, recovered -some of the ground on the right near the big tree. The Austrian artillery -began to fall back over the brow of the hill, and again battalions of -infantry came in sight and moved away obliquely towards the centre. -Still, no Prussians appeared in that direction, but they were certainly -forcing the Austrians back on the right. It might have been expected -that the reserves to the right would have been sent up to hold the top of -the slope, but I could not see it was so. Many stragglers now appeared -on the railway, the fields were spotted with them; and now and then a -shell bursting in or over the infantry marching along the slope or the -reserves, struck them, or left a little pile of dead or struggling men in the -voids which the opening columns displayed. I confess the advance of the -Prussians in this direction appeared to me inexplicable and very serious; -for, although the left and centre of the Austrians might be victorious,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> -this movement threatened, by forcing back their right, to cut them off from -Konigsgratz—so, at least, was the situation as viewed from the tower; -but it is strange how different a field of action appears from different -points of view, as any one may find out by riding from place to place on a -field-day. However, a General who saw what was visible to those in the -tower would have felt uneasiness and have turned his attention to fill the -gap in his line at the centre, and to drive back the Prussians who were -doubling up his right.</p> - -<p>While the centre advanced slowly, but surely, a space seemed to be -left between the ground they had occupied and the left of the Austrians, -who were continually retiring there. The houses burning fiercely in -Klum emitted volumes of smoke, which were swept away towards the -right. Another village lying apparently to the left of Prague road, -named Gres Biaritz, or Hiaritz, as well as I could catch the name, was -now in flames. More tumbrils blew up in that direction, so that there -were now six or seven villages and hamlets on fire from left to right. -The battle was assuming a more awful and tremendous aspect, and the -faint rays of sunshine which shot at intervals through the lifting clouds -only gave the scene greater terror. Horses without riders careered -among the wounded, who were crawling all over the plain, dismounted -dragoons dragged themselves to the rear, and men came crawling along in -such numbers that they appeared like a broad fringe to the edges of the -battle. The rolling of musketry in the hollows beyond smothered the -voice of the cannon. At last the reserves behind were pressed forward -with energy. Their artillery unlimbering opened from sixteen guns into -the dense blue columns which were driving the Austrians before them, -and checked their advance, till the Prussian artillery, getting upon the -small ridge and firing down so as to get a slight enfilade, began to knock -over horses and men. The Austrians, however, here, as elsewhere, stuck -to their pieces admirably, and it was not till the Prussian infantry, getting -into a clump of timber, opened a sharp fire on their flank that they -limbered up, leaving more than one black heap to mark the position they -had occupied. Meanwhile the Austrians on the left pursued their onward -career. The Saxon reserves pushed up the hills in the direction of Nechanitz; -and a great body of cavalry sweeping round between the left and -centre, dashed in wavelike columns through the smoke towards the Prussians, -and menaced their artillery, against which some thirty or forty -pieces in line were directing a steady and rapid fire. Prussian prisoners -begun to arrive at intervals between the convoys of wounded, winding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> -their way along the Prague road. Most of those men belonged to the -6th and 31st regiments, to judge from the numbers on their shoulder-straps; -and among them was an officer of great stature, with red moustaches -and whiskers, who bore his captivity with great <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sang froid</i>, and -walked along like a conqueror. As the Austrian left and centre gained -ground, the right yielded, and column after column of Prussians came -upon the ridge, firing as they advanced, while their guns on the flanks -swept the slowly retreating, but not disorderly, Austrians with shrapnel -and shell. At times the Austrians halting opened a brisk fire; once or -twice several regiments formed square to receive cavalry, but I could not -see any Prussian horse on the slope near them. There was a hesitation, -both in the Austrians and the enemy, which was not intelligible, and -several times the officers at the head of the Prussian columns riding forward, -fired over their horses’ heads, and stood up in their stirrups as if -to see into the hollows. A shell burst close over one of them, and when -the smoke cleared away, man and horse were down, and never stirred -again. The folds of the ground must have hid most of the Prussians -from the Austrian artillery as they got near the big tree, for the gunners -principally directed their pieces against the Prussian guns, which received -accessions rapidly, and occupied their full attention. At last the Prussians -were perceived, and five battalions of Austrians from the reserve, -coming from the extreme right, tried to check their advance by a flanking -fire. The Prussians halted, and in an instant a fire of surprising volume -and sharpness flew along their front. The Austrians for a few minutes -replied steadily, but they fell fast, and at last two battalions, with great -vigour, charged up the hill, but were broken in the run, were shaken by -a rolling volley and by several rounds from the artillery in flank, and -retreated in some disorder towards the left, behind a spur of the ridge. -The enemy pressed on anew, and soon gained the <em>plateau</em> close by the -big tree, where they dipped into an undulation only to reappear at the -other side, and then formed up in compact square-like formations, pushing -out lines of skirmishers towards Klum, from which they were about a mile -distant. The Austrians below them and nearer to Konigsgratz halted -and faced round to meet a new enemy, for the Prussians now showed near -the railway, and a sanguinary encounter took place around some houses -in a wood, in which artillery and musketry raged for a quarter of an -hour in a perfect tornado. A range of buildings near a large factory -chimney on the very banks of the Elbe, as it seemed to me, was the -scene of another very severe struggle. Another village, Trothina, burst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> -into flames, and from under the very smoke appeared the Prussian skirmishers -on the very extreme right, followed by more infantry. The -enemy were, indeed, quite inexhaustible in number, though still he could -not hold his own on the left. Suddenly an Austrian battery, galloping -from the left centre, began to mow down the Prussians on the right. -They were retiring behind the burning Trothina. But their artillery -was at hand again. From a lane above the village a battery opened on -the Austrians, and, at the same time, another battery, wheeling over the -slope below the big tree, crossed its fire on the devoted Austrians. “<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ein -Kreuz feuer? Ein Kreuz feuer?</i>” exclaimed the officers. “Good God! -where do they come from?” Where, indeed! This combat now assumed -larger proportions. The Prussian right showed in great force, and the -hills were covered with their regiments advancing in the most perfect -order. All over the field were hundreds limping away, and piles of dead -lay in rows along the lanes and in the thick corn. The enemy, whose -strength had been hidden from us by the hills, now displayed numbers, -which accounted for the retreat of the Austrians on the right.</p> - -<p>The Austrian gunners could not hold up against the cross fire, and the -weight of pieces opposed to them. What avail was it that they were -winning on the centre? Through the glass they could be seen pressing -on from point to point in a tempest of smoke and flame. It was now -near two o’clock. On the left and centre there could be no hesitation in -declaring that the Prussians were all but beaten. It seemed as if a charge -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en masse</i> of the horse deployed for miles on the <em>plateau</em> could roll up their -centre on their left, or crumble the left into pieces. The fire at Klum, -in the centre, which had died out, broke forth with fresh violence, and -all the village began to burn. The Prussians in the centre made another -grand effort, and it would only be a repetition of adjectives, utterly feeble -at the strongest, to endeavour to give the smallest conception of the roar -of cannon which announced and met this fresh attempt to change the -fortunes of the day. The strong wind could not clear away the smoke, -which poured in banks as agitated as the sea itself over the battle-field, -now contracted to the centre and right, for all towards the Prague road -the fight had apparently ended in the discomfiture of the Prussian left. -As it contracted it heated up, and the caissons and tumbrils blew up -repeatedly. The movements of the Austrians from the right centre to -oppose the last effort of the Prussians increased the open interval between -the centre and the extreme right resting on the lower ground near the -river, but the Austrians did not perceive it, or if they did, could not prevent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> -the advance of the enemy along the <em>plateau</em> by the big tree towards -Klum. The Austrian right and reserves become more unsteady, but -their artillery contests every foot of ground. Suddenly a spattering of -musketry breaks out of the trees and houses of Klum right down on the -Austrian gunners, and on the columns of infantry drawn up on the slopes -below. The gunners fall on all sides—their horses are disabled—the fire -increases in intensity—the Prussians on the ridge press on over the -<em>plateau</em>; this is an awful catastrophe—two columns of Austrians are led -against the village, but they cannot stand the fire, and after three -attempts to carry it, retreat, leaving the hill-side covered with the fallen. -It is a terrible moment. The Prussians see their advantage; they here -get into the very centre of the position. In vain the staff officers fly to -the reserves and hasten to get back some of the artillery from the front. -The dark blue regiments multiply on all sides and from their edges roll -perpetually sparkling musketry. Their guns hurry up, and from the -slope take both the Austrians on the extreme right and the reserves in -flank. They spread away to the woods near the Prague road and fire -into the rear of the Austrian gunners.</p> - -<p>Thus a wedge growing broader and driven in more deeply every instant -was forced into the very body of the Austrian army, separating it at the -heart and dividing its left and centre from the right. The troops in the -centre and left are dismayed at hearing the enemy’s guns in their rear, -and are soon exposed to the fire which most of all destroys the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">morale</i> of -soldiers already shaken by surprise. The right, previously broken up -and discomfited, hurry towards the Prague road in something like confusion, -and spread alarm among the reserves of the centre and left. The -regular lines of the columns below are gradually bulging out, and are at -last swallowed up in disordered multitude. Officers gallop about trying -to restore order. Some regiments hold together, though they are losing -men in heaps every instant. The left wing is arrested in its onward progress. -The Prussian Generals in front of them and on the centre, seeing -their enemy waver, throw their battalions against them, and encourage -their artillery to fresh efforts; but the formidable Austrian cavalry prevents -any hasty or enthusiastic demonstrations on the part of the Prussian -right, whom long continued fighting and heavy losses must have somewhat -enervated.</p> - -<p>Even yet there was hope for the Austrians! There, on the Prussian -front, wheeled a force of horse with which a Murat or a Kellerman or a -Seidlitz could have won a battle and saved an empire. There, still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> -unshaken, were at least 40,000 men, of whom scarcely one had ever fired -a shot. The indomitable Austrian artillery still turned hundreds of muzzles -on the enemy’s guns, and girt their men in a band of fire. To let slip -that cavalry on both sides of Klum, to crash through infantry and guns, -seemed really worth doing, though failure would have made the difference -between a defeat and a rout. It would have been a supreme deed fit for -such a force to accomplish or to perish in attempting. And there were -no natural obstacles visible from the tower to a grand charge. The Prussian -right, separated from its centre and left, would have been rolled down -into the valley among the Austrians, and utterly crushed, and the Austrian -centre and left have been liberated to continue their contest with the enemy. -Moments were precious. The Prussian fire became more severe, the -wavering of the Austrians greater. The falling of trees on the Prague -road, the rush of fugitives, the near approach of the Prussian shells to the -place, some of them bursting over the railway station, were awful warnings -of the state of the battle. All the roads were blocked up with retreating -trains and waggons. Men were throwing down their arms and wading -through the inundations. The Austrian gunners on the causeway began -to catch a sight of the Prussians near at hand in the woods, and opened -on them with shrapnel and shell. It was now somewhere about 2.30; -but it was not possible to note time when such things were going on so -near. Scarce could the glass be directed to one point ere an exclamation -from a bystanding officer or an awful clamour carried it to another. -Seconds were of inestimable value—not only that hundreds were falling, -but that they were falling in vain—that all the issues for which an empire -had summoned its might and the Kaiser his people to the field were being -decided, and that the toils of generations of Emperors, warriors, and -statesmen were about being lost for ever. The genius of the Prussian -was in the ascendant.</p> - -<p>The spirit of Bismark or his genius ruled the battle-field. While the -Austrian was hesitating, the Prussian was acting. The lines of dark -blue which came in sight from the right teemed from the vales below as -if the earth yielded them. They filled the whole back ground of the -awful picture of which Klum was the centre. They pressed down on the -left of the Prague road. In square, in column, deploying or wheeling -hither and thither—everywhere pouring in showers of deadly precision—penetrating -the whole line of the Austrians; still they could not force -their stubborn enemy to fly. On all sides they met brave but unfortunate -men, ready to die if they could do no more. At the side of the Prague<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> -road the fight went on with incredible vehemence. The Austrians had -still an immense force of artillery, and although its concentrated fire -swept the ground before it, its effect was lost in some degree by reason of -the rising ground above, and at last by its divergence to so many points -to answer the enemy’s cannon. Many Austrians must have fallen by -their own artillery. Once an Austrian column, separating itself from the -great multitude below, with levelled bayonets, led by its officers in front -waving caps and sabres, went straight at the wood around Klum and -drove back the Prussian Tirailleurs, but were staggered by fearful volleys -of musketry. Their officers were all killed or wounded. They fell -suddenly back. Down came the Prussians, but they were received on the -bayonet point and with clubbed muskets, and were driven back to the -shelter of the wood, and some were carried off prisoners in the retreating -column. Indeed, handfuls of Prussians were coming into the town behind -us all the day, showing how close the fight was, and a considerable body -of the 27th Regiment, with some officers, are now in the Grosser Ring. -Chesta and Visa were now burning, so that from right to left the flames -of ten villages, and the flashes of guns and musketry, contended with the -sun that pierced the clouds for the honour of illuminating the seas of -steel and the fields of carnage. It was three o’clock. The efforts of the -Austrians to occupy Klum and free their centre had failed, the right was -driven down in a helpless mass towards Konigsgratz, quivering and palpitating -as shot and shell tore through it. “<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Alles ist verloren!</i>” Artillery -still thundered with a force and violence which might have led a stranger -to such scenes to think no enemy could withstand it. The Austrian -cavalry still hung like white thunder-clouds on the flanks, and threatened -the front of the Prussians, keeping them in square and solid columns. -But already the trains were streaming away from Konigsgratz, placing -the Elbe and Adler between them and the enemy. The grip of the -Prussians could not be shaken. Word was brought to me to leave at -once, for the city gates were about being closed, and the gunners on the -walls were laying their pieces to cover the inundations and the causeways. -One more glance showed a very hell of fire—cornfields, highways, slopes, -and dells, and hillsides covered with the slain—the pride and might of -Austria shattered and laid low. What happened more I can only tell -from hearsay. But I am told that at the last the Austrian horse saved -all that was not lost, and in brilliant charges rolled back the tide of Prussian -infantry; that the gunners threw their pieces into the Elbe and into -the inundated fields as they retreated; that men were drowned in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> -hundreds as they crowded over pontoon bridges hastily laid and sunk or -burned ere the columns could cross over; that luggage-trains, reserve -ammunition, guns, and prisoners, the spoils of that enormous host, fell -into the hands of the victors, who remained masters of that hard-fought -field, covered for nine miles with myriads of the slain. Well might -Benedek exclaim, “All is lost but my life! Would to God I had lost -that too!”</p> - -<p>There is no account of our losses, estimates varying from 10,000 to -25,000. If prisoners be included, I am inclined to think the latter -number correct. The loss in guns is reckoned at 150 to 180. It would -not astonish me to hear it was more.”</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">INCIDENTS OF THE BATTLE.</p> - -<p>Incidents of the battle are furnished by several other correspondents -of the London papers. The following are selections:—</p> - -<p>“In the Austrian ranks some striking instances of inhumanity have -been exhibited. Yesterday, a prisoner was brought hither loaded with -chains, to suffer well-deserved punishment. He was a Croat, and was -taken in the very act of cutting off his own wounded captain’s fingers to -get quicker at his rings.</p> - -<p>In the knapsacks of the fallen Austrians were found spare suits of -regimentals that had never been worn; and, according to the prisoners, -those uniforms were intended to be worn at the solemn entry into -Berlin.</p> - -<p>One correspondent was informed by an Austrian officer, a prisoner, -that in Konigsgratz, on the 2nd July even, there were 7000 wounded -Austrians. But—disgraceful as the fact may seem—three days after -the battle of Skalitz, wounded Austrians—such is the testimony of Prussian -officers and surgeons—were found with wounds still bleeding on the -field among the dead bodies.</p> - -<p>At 1.5 the staff galloped off to see the position on the right, passing -through the 6th Corps, which was in reserve. As the green plumes were -seen rapidly advancing, the bands broke into the National Anthem, and -the men cheered their commander as he passed with no uncertain note. -Faces broke out into broad smiles; Jager hats were thrown into the air; -all seemed joyous in the anticipation of an approaching triumph. -Benedek, however, waved to them to cease, shouting in his peculiar tone -of voice, always clear and distinct, “Not now—wait till to-morrow, my -children.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p> - -<p>By half-past four o’clock the whole army was in full retreat; its rear, -harassed by the enemy, was protected by the artillery and cavalry, who -are said to have made many desperate charges, and to have been more -than decimated. The bridges across the Adler and the Elbe are few -and narrow, and the several columns meeting at such points became confused -and intermixed. Guns that could not be carried away, were thrown -off their carriages into the river; many were lost in this manner, but it -is said that comparatively few are taken. A captain of artillery, who -heard me asking about the loss in guns, said, “Out of my whole battery -I have but one gun and seven horses left, and many others are in like -condition.” Another said, “We have no artillery.” Every head was hung -down, every spirit depressed. It was not merely a battle, but an empire -lost, unless diplomatists can at last unweave the net which baffled them -before, and which the sword has failed to cut. The soldiers knew nothing -of all this; their only trouble was the fatigue from which they -suffered, or the thought that the day’s battle would have to be fought -over again before they could reach the pleasant plains and reap the -benefits held out to their imaginations in Benedek’s proclamation issued -but a few days ago. The night was chilly, and bivouac fires lined the sides -of the road at intervals. Had it been an advance instead of a retreat, -we might have enjoyed the picturesque scene. Round fires of firwood, -flaming high above their heads, stood or sat the brave fellows who had -laboured so hard and fought so gallantly on that day. Some stood warming -themselves by the blaze which lighted up their bronzed faces to as -red a glow as that of the pine stems that towered over them; others sat -resting a wounded arm or leg on the bed of branches plucked for them -by their more fortunate comrades; others, again, lay about in every -attitude of exhaustion.”</p> - - -<p>SAGUNTUM, SIEGE OF.—Like Numantia, one of the most important -in history, occurred <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 219. The citizens, after sustaining the -siege for eight months, with heroic bravery, to prevent themselves falling -into the hands of Hannibal, buried themselves in the ruins of their city. -They burnt their houses and all their effects, and thus reduced the city -to ashes.</p> - - -<p>ST. ALBANS, BATTLES OF.—The first fought, May 22nd, -1455, between the houses of York and Lancaster. The second between -the Earl of Warwick and Queen Margaret of Anjou, who conquered. -Fought, February 2nd, 1461. This battle was fought on Shrove-Tuesday,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> -and resulted in the death of the Earl. “The Earl of Warwick, -who now put himself at the head of the Yorkists, was one of the most -celebrated generals of the age, formed for times of trouble, extremely -artful and incontestably brave, equally skilful in council and the field; -and inspired with a degree of hatred against the Queen that nothing -could suppress. He commanded an army, in which he led about the -captive King, to give a sanction to his attempts. Upon the approach of -the Lancastrians, he conducted his forces, strengthened by a body of -Londoners, who were very affectionate to his cause, and gave battle to -the Queen at St. Alban’s. In this, however, he was defeated. About -2000 of the Yorkists perished in the battle, and the person of the King -again fell into the hands of his own party, to be treated with apparent -respect, but real contempt.”</p> - - -<p>ST. CHARLES.—On the 6th of November, 1837, a riot occurred at -Montreal, but no lives were lost. On the 10th, Sir John Colborne, the -Commander of the Forces, removed his head quarters from Sorel to -Montreal. On the same day, a detachment proceeded to St. John’s -under the command of Captain Glasgow. He found a large body of -people posted on the opposite bank of the Richelieu, and the cavalry -proceeded to take possession of the bridge, in order to prevent them from -crossing. On the 16th, warrants were issued for the apprehension of twenty-six -of the chief leaders. As a party of volunteer cavalry, newly organised, -who had charge of two prisoners, were returning to Montreal, a large -body of peasantry fired upon them from behind the fences near Longueuil, -and compelled them to abandon their prisoners. Colonel Wetherall, -with a considerable force, proceeded immediately from Chambly in the -direction of St. Charles, for the purpose of dispersing a large body of -people who had assembled there, and fortified their position. At some -places the insurgents fled on the approach of the army, but at St. Charles -the defenders were so obstinate that the Colonel was obliged to storm -and carry the works, burning every house but one. The slaughter was -great on the side of the unfortunate and misguided people, but slight on -that of the troops. Another party of troops, who were marching from -Sorel up the course of the Richelieu to effect a junction with Colonel -Wetherall, were not so successful. At St. Denis they met with such a -strong opposition, that they were compelled to abandon their intention -and march back to Sorel. This success on the part of the insurgents -was only of short duration, for, on the winter roads being formed, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> -same party marched through the country without opposition. Having -captured St. Charles, and dispersed a considerable body collected for the -purpose of cutting off his return, Colonel Wetherall came back to -Montreal, bringing with him the pole and cap of liberty, which had -been reared at St. Charles, and twenty-five prisoners. Four or five -battalions of troops were raised in Montreal, and upwards of 50 corps -of various kinds in other parts of the country. One of the most tragical -events which took place at this time was the murder of Lieutenant -Weir. This young officer had been sent overland to Sorel with a despatch -directing the officer in command to prepare a force to accompany Colonel -Gore, who was to leave Montreal in the afternoon in the steamboat. -The roads were so bad that travelling was almost impossible, and he -could not reach Sorel by land until half an hour after Colonel Gore and -his division had crossed the St. Lawrence and marched on their route to -St. Denis. Taking a fresh <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">calèche</span>, he hastened to join his troops; but, -mistaking the road, he passed them and arrived at St. Denis before -them. Here he was made a prisoner, closely pinioned, sent forward to -St. Charles, and on the road was barbarously murdered by his brutal -guardians. The fact and the circumstances attending it were only -ascertained on the second expedition to St. Denis. The body was found -in the Richelieu, and was brought to Montreal for interment. The -funeral took place with military honours, and so solemn and imposing a -sight was never before witnessed in the city.</p> - -<p>Martial law was proclaimed in the District of Montreal on the 5th of -December, and Sir John Colborne invested with authority to administer -it. Immediately after this the attention of Government was called to -the preparations making at the Lake of the Two Mountains, at St. -Eustache, St. Benoit and St. Scholastique, where the most active and -able leaders of the revolt had fortified themselves in a formidable manner.</p> - -<p>On the morning of the 13th of December, Sir John Colborne, with -about 1300 men, advanced towards the district from Montreal along the -left hank of the Ottawa. On the 14th the army crossed the river and -invested the village of St. Eustache. The attack was completely -successful, though attended with much destruction of life and property. -The handsome church was set on fire as well as the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">presbytère</i> and about -60 of the principal houses. One of the leaders was killed near the -church, and a large number burnt or suffocated from the flames; of the -troops only one or two were killed and a few wounded.</p> - -<p>The next day, as the troops marched forward to St. Benoit, His<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> -Excellency was met by delegates bearing a flag of truce, and stating that -the insurgents were prepared to lay down their arms unconditionally. -Almost every house exhibited something white; and, on arriving at St. -Benoit, 250 of these misguided men were found drawn up in a line and -suing for pardon, stating that their leaders had deserted them. They -were immediately dismissed to their homes and occupations. With the -return of the troops from the county of the Two Mountains the military -operations, connected with the first insurrection in Lower Canada, may -be said to have terminated.</p> - - -<p>ST. DIZIER, BATTLES OF.—<em>In France.</em>—Between the Allied -armies and the French—one of the engagements being commanded by -Napoleon himself. The French sustained in these battles, as in several -proceeding, severe defeats, and led the way by which the Allied armies -entered Paris. Fought, January 27th and March 26th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>ST. JEAN DE LUZ, BATTLE OF.—“Soult had a strong position -on the Nivelle from St. Jean de Luz to Ainhoe, about twelve miles in -length. General Hill, with the British right, advanced from the valley of -Baztan, and attacking the French on the height of Ainhoe, drove them -towards Cambo, on the Nive, while the centre of the Allies, consisting of -the English and Spanish troops, under Beresford and Alton, carried the -works behind Sarre, and drove the French beyond the Nivelle, which the -Allies crossed at St. Pé, in the rear of the enemy. Upon this the French -hastily abandoned their ground and works on the left of the Nivelle, and -during the night withdrew to their entrenched camp in front of -Bayonne. Wellington’s headquarters were established at St. Jean de -Luz, November 10th, 1813.”</p> - - -<p>ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF.—Philip II, of Spain, assisted by -the British, defeated the French here, August 10th, 1557.</p> - - -<p>ST. SEBASTIAN, BATTLE OF.—The fortified works, through -which ran the high road to Hernani, were carried by the English -Auxiliary Legion, under General Evans, after very hard fighting. The -British naval squadron off the place, lent, under Lord John Hay, very -great aid to the victors. Fought, May 5th, 1836. Again, on the 1st of -October, same year, a vigorous assault was made on the lines of General -De Lacy Evan by the Carlists. Both sides fought with great bravery, -but the Carlists were repulsed after suffering severely. The Anglo-Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> -loss was 376 men, and thirty-seven officers killed and wounded. -The General was also wounded.</p> - - -<p>ST. SEBASTIAN, SIEGE OF.—By the British and Allied armies, -under Wellington. After a short siege, during which it sustained a heavy -bombardment, and by which the whole town was nearly laid in ruins, -it was stormed by General Graham, and taken, August 31st, 1803. The -loss was almost all on the British side in the storming—the Spaniards -losing few.</p> - - -<p>ST. VINCENT, BATTLE OF CAPE.—Between the Spanish and -British fleets off this Cape. The latter was commanded by Admiral Sir -John Jarvis, who took four line of battle ships, and damaged considerably -the rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14th, 1797. His own fleet -consisted of 15 sail of the line only—whilst the enemy’s fleet was 27 -sail, 7 of which carried from 112 to 130 guns each.</p> - - -<p>ST. VINCENT, CAPE.—Admiral Rooke, with 20 men of war, and -the Turkish fleet, under his convoy, was attacked by Admiral Tourville -with a force vastly superior to his own, when 12 English and Dutch -men of war, and 80 merchant men were taken or destroyed by the -French, June 16th, 1693. Here, also, Admiral Rodney destroyed several -Spanish ships, January 16th, 1780.</p> - - -<p>SALAMANCA, BATTLE OF.—Fought July 22nd, 1812.—“Lord -Wellington had fought the battle of Talavera in less than three -months after he had marched out of Lisbon, and in only three months -and six days after his landing in Portugal. He had seen some kind of -action and enterprise to be absolutely necessary. It was demanded by -England; it was expected by Spain and Portugal. Hence he first drove -the French out of Oporto and out of the Portuguese dominions, and -then, in conjunction with a Spanish army, marched upon Madrid, and -fought a battle with the French.</p> - -<p>But these three months sufficed to show him, how utterly valueless -was the aid proffered him by the Spaniards. They left him without -provisions; they furnished him with no means of transport; and when -they placed an army by his side, that army could do nothing but run -away, and spread alarm and consternation on every side. Hence, so -soon as he fully understood the real condition of affairs, he wrote home -to the British government in these plain terms:</p> - -<p>“Spain has proved untrue to her alliance because she is untrue to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> -herself;” “and until some great change shall be effected in the conduct -of the military resources of Spain, and in the state of her armies, no -British army can attempt safely to co-operate with Spanish troops in -the territories of Spain.”</p> - -<p>Having arrived at this conclusion, Lord Wellington soon withdrew his -army from Spain, retired into Portugal, and began to concert measures -for the effectual defence of that kingdom. At home, party spirit, as -usual, led to injustice. The opposition in the British parliament questioned -the whole of his conduct of the past campaign. Sir W. Napier -tells us, that “his merits, they said, were nought; his actions silly, -presumptuous, and rash; his campaign one deserving not reward but -punishment. Yet he had delivered Portugal, cleared Galicia and Estramadura, -and forced 100,000 French veterans to abandon the offensive -and concentrate about Madrid!”</p> - -<p>He now calmly submitted to the British government his views of the -defence of Portugal. He assigned to Marshal Beresford the organization -of the Portuguese army; he required only 13,000 British troops to -be permanently maintained; and with this force he expected to be able -to defend Portugal, at least until Spain should be thoroughly subdued -by the French; so as to allow of the concentration of their whole force -on the work of subjugating Portugal.</p> - -<p>The wisdom and expediency of this employment of English troops and -English revenues in foreign war, was abundantly evident. For, when -the Continent should have been wholly conquered by Napoleon, he would -then, as he plainly declared, attempt the invasion of England. Hence, -to keep his armies employed in the Peninsula, was the way plainly -pointed out by common sense, as likely to postpone or wholly avert a -French invasion of the British islands. To defend Portugal, therefore, -was Wellington’s first object; for Portugal had become a sort of outwork -of England.</p> - -<p>The Spanish government, meanwhile, with equal imbecility and self-sufficiency, -chose to rush into inevitable defeat. They had starved the -English army; which, in a whole month, got only ten days’ bread; and -which lost 1000 horses from mere want of provender; and had thus -forced Lord Wellington to retire into Portugal. They now choose, with -an army of 50,000 men, to give battle to the French at Ocana; where, -on the 12th of November, they sustained such a total defeat, that ten -days after the battle not a single battalion kept the field. No fewer -than 20,000 of the Spaniards laid down their arms, and the rest were -utterly scattered and dispersed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p> - -<p>At the opening of 1810, Napoleon resolved to complete the conquest -of the Peninsula. He augmented his armies in Spain to 360,000 men. -One army, consisting of 65,000 men, under the command of Soult, was -charged with the subjugation of Andalusia; and another, of 80,000 men, -under Massena, was to move to the west, and reduce Portugal. Now, -therefore, must Wellington’s plans for the defence of Portugal be brought -to the test.</p> - -<p>The actual force of Massena’s army in May, 1810, is shown by French -returns given by Sir W. Napier, to have been 86,847 men.</p> - -<p>On the 1st of June the French commander invested Ciudad Rodrigo, -which capitulated on the 11th of July. Almeida surrendered on the -26th of August, and thus the road to Lisbon was opened to the French -army. Wellington would gladly have fought a battle to save these fortresses; -but if he engaged 80,000 French, with 32,000 English and -Portuguese, and did not signally defeat them; what would then have -become of Portugal? Still, when on Portuguese ground, and engaged -in the defence of Portugal, he thought it right, on September 27th, to -make one stand at Busaco; where he inflicted on the French a loss of -4500 men, at a cost, to his own army, of only 1300. Massena then -began even to think of retreating into Spain; when a peasant informed -him of a mountain-pass by which he might carry his army into a position -from which he could threaten Wellington’s left. This compelled the -English General again to make a retrograde movement; and on the 15th -of October the whole British and Portuguese army was collected within -the lines of Torres Vedras.</p> - -<p>These now famous lines, which Wellington had long been silently constructing, -were so little thought of either in England or in France, that -military instructions were actually given in England commencing thus: -“As it is probable the army will embark in September.” And the -French commander on his part, found his way suddenly stopped by an -insurmountable obstacle, of the existence of which he had never before -heard.</p> - -<p>Lord Wellington had observed that on the land side (and the French -had no force upon the water) Lisbon could be completely defended by a -series of entrenchments properly manned. Silently, therefore, during -many months past, he had been at work on these lines. They were -now complete, mounting 600 guns and when manned by 50,000 men -they might have defied Napoleon himself at the head of one of his largest -armies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span></p> - -<p>Massena, astonished, employed several days in examining these lines -on every side, but at no point could he find an attack to be feasible. -One or two attempts were made, in which his troops were roughly -handled, and one of his Generals killed. At last, altogether perplexed, -he sent off General Foy to Paris to ask of Napoleon what was to be done. -But Napoleon himself had no remedy to prescribe, and hence, after -remaining before the lines for one whole month, until utter starvation -menaced his army, the French Marshal commenced a retreat. He first -retired to Santaren, where he remained until the following March. He -then finally retreated out of Portugal, having lost, in the short space of -seven months, not fewer than 45,000 men, chiefly by exposure, disease, -and starvation. Lord Wellington followed him, and at once invested -Almeida. Massena ventured on an engagement at Fuentes d’Onore, -but failed, and Almeida capitulated to the English on the 12th of May, -1811.</p> - -<p>This campaign had greatly raised the hopes and the confidence of -England, and had placed the character of her General on an unassailable -elevation. Portugal had been defeated, and a French Marshal with a -noble army had been driven back in defeat. Lord Wellington now, -therefore, resolved to begin offensive operations in Spain, and he sat -down before Badajoz. But Napoleon had at last awakened to the real -character of this great struggle. He resolved that Badajoz should not -be lost. He therefore earnestly and strenuously increased his forces in -Spain, until, in September, 1811, they again amounted to 368,000 men. -Soult and Marmont received their orders, and approached Badajoz with -60,000 men. Lord Wellington retired, but in July he threatened -Ciudad Rodrigo, when again the two French Marshals marched to its -relief with a greatly superior army. And now, as the winter approached, -both armies went into cantonments, and the campaign of 1811 ended.</p> - -<p>But with January, 1812, commenced that career of triumph which -only ended at Waterloo. In 1810, Wellington had saved Portugal; in -1811, he had threatened and disquieted the French armies in their possession -of Spain; but the opening year was not to close until that possession -was very seriously endangered.</p> - -<p>Silently, all November and December, Wellington’s preparations were -going on. Soult imagined that he was about to renew the siege of -Badajoz, but suddenly, in the earliest days of January, a bridge was -thrown over the Agueda, and the English army crossed the river and -invested Ciudad Rodrigo. The siege commenced on the 8th, and on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> -the 19th the place was stormed and carried. It had cost the French a -siege of six weeks to take it from the Spaniards two years before. On -hearing of its capture in twelve days, Marmont wrote to Napoleon, -saying, “On the 16th, the English batteries opened their fire: on the -19th the place was taken by storm, and fell into the power of the enemy. -There is something so incomprehensible in all this, that until I know -more I refrain from any observation.”</p> - -<p>Badajoz, a far stronger place, was next invested, on the 17th of March, -and on the 6th of April it was taken by storm. And here, too, General -Lery, a French engineer, expressed his astonishment, writing thus: “I -think the capture of Badajoz a very extraordinary event, and I should -be at a loss to account for it in any manner consistent with probability.” -These two great strongholds, the border-fortresses, had now been taken, -and the way was thus opened into the heart of Spain. All Europe saw -with astonishment that a little English army, seldom amounting—even -with the aid of the Portuguese,—to more than 40,000 men, could counteract -the efforts of the best armies of France, led by Napoleon’s most -trusted Generals.</p> - -<p>After these exploits, Wellington gave his army some rest until the -harvest should grow up, and provisions be more easily obtained. But -in May he sent General Hill to storm the forts at Almarez on the Tagus, -when the French works, with all their artillery and stores, fell into the -hands of the English, who lost only 180 men. By this able manœuvre -the two armies of Marmont and Soult were separated.</p> - -<p>On the 13th of June, the rains having ceased, and the field magazines -being completed, Wellington passed the Agueda, and on the 17th be -entered Salamanca, the people shouting, singing, and weeping for joy. -The forts, however, were still held by French garrisons, and were not -taken until the 27th.</p> - -<p>On the 8th of July, Marmont, the French General now opposed to -Wellington, received a reinforcement of 6000 men, and both he and -Wellington began to prepare for a battle. On the 15th and 16th, Marmont, -who had previously made several deceptive movements, concentrated -his beautiful and gallant army between Toro and the Hornija -rivers. Then began a series of manœuvres, continued for several successive -days, until, on the 20th, the two armies were in sight, marching on -parallel heights within musket-shot of each other in the most perfect -array. The strength of each army amounted to from 45,000 to 48,000 -men; but of Wellington’s force a considerable portion consisted of Portuguese -troops.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span></p> - -<p>In two or three days more, Marmont would have been joined by two -other French corps, augmenting his force by nearly 20,000 men. But -then he apprehended the arrival of either King Joseph, or Jourdan, the -senior Marshal then in Spain, either of whom would have superseded him -in the command. His object, therefore, was either to force the English -to retreat from Salamanca, or else to fight a battle, and if possible gain -a victory, before either of his superiors in command could arrive.</p> - -<p>On the 22nd of July, some change of position on the part of the -English army gave Marmont the impression that Wellington was about -to retire towards Ciudad Rodrigo. Eager not to let the English thus -escape him, the French General ordered Maucune’s division, which formed -his left, to march forward so as to fall upon the flank of the British -in their expected retreat. They did so; but in so advancing a chasm -intervened between them and the division of Bonnet, which formed part -of the French centre. Word was brought to Wellington of this movement. -“Starting up, he repaired to the high ground, and observed -their movements for some time with stern contentment. Their left -wing was entirely separated from the centre. The fault was flagrant, and -he fixed it with the stroke of a thunderbolt.” Turning to the Spanish -General Alava who stood by his side, he exclaimed, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mon cher Alava, -Marmont est perdu!</span>”</p> - -<p>A few orders issued suddenly from his lips like the incantations of a -wizard, and suddenly the dark mass of troops seemed animated by some -mighty spirit. Rushing down the slope of the mountain, they entered -the great basin. And now, after long coiling and winding like angry -serpents, the armies suddenly fastened together in deadly strife.</p> - -<p>Marmont saw the country beneath him suddenly covered with -enemies when he was in the act of making a complicated evolution; and -when by the rash advance of his left, his troops were separated into three -parts, each at too great a distance to assist the other. In this crisis, -despatching officer after officer, some to hasten up his troops from the -forest, some to stop the march of his left wing, he still looked for victory, -till he saw Pakenham with his division penetrate between his left and -his centre; then hope died within him, and he was hurrying in person -to the fatal spot, when an exploding shell stretched him on the field, -with two deep wounds in his side.”</p> - -<p>This naturally augmented the confusion of the French; but they still -fought manfully. It was just five o’clock when Pakenham fell on Maucune, -who, little thinking of such an onset, expected to see, from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> -summit of a hill he had just gained, the Allies in full retreat. Still, his -gunners stood to their guns, and his cavalry charged; but both were -killed or repulsed; the infantry endeavoured to form a front, but in the -midst of its evolution it was charged and broken. The British cavalry -fell upon the rear, while Leith, with the fifth division, bore down on the -right flank. For awhile, the French veterans maintained some kind of -order, but at last the cavalry broke them; Thomiere, one of their -Generals, was killed, 2000 of the French threw down their arms, and the -whole division was utterly routed.</p> - -<p>The next portion of the French line, Clausel’s division, while warmly -engaged with the English under Cole and Leith, had to sustain a charge -from 1200 British dragoons. The whole French division was broken in -an instant. Five guns and 2000 prisoners were taken in a few minutes. -The entire of the left wing of the French army was now only a helpless -mob of fugitives. In the centre the struggle was a more arduous one. -The French still held a strong position on a hill—the Arapiles. Two -attacks by the Portuguese and English were repelled. Beresford, Cole -and Leith, were all wounded, and the English centre for a moment was -shaken and in danger. But Wellington, whose eye was always where -the peril was greatest, immediately ordered up Clinton’s division from -the rear, and restored the battle. The ridge of the Arapiles was regained, -“And now the current once more set in for the British. Pakenham -continued to outflank the French left; Foy retired from the ridge of -Calveriza, and the Allied host, righting itself like a gallant ship after a -sudden gust, again bore right onwards, holding its course through blood -and gloom.”</p> - -<p>There remained only the division of Foy, which formed the extreme -right of the French line, and still maintained a gallant fight. It seemed -difficult for this General to extricate his division, but he did it with -great dexterity. Just as the darkness fell, he increased his skirmishers, -and brought forward some cavalry, as if for a charge. But when the -English had prepared themselves for a real encounter, the skirmishers -fell back, and the English pursued; but when they reached the top of -the hill, the main body of the French had escaped into a forest hard by, -where darkness gave them safety.</p> - -<p>Another failure on the part of a Spaniard, here, again, favoured the -French. The castle of Alba, on the Tormes, was garrisoned by a -Spanish force, under Carlos d’Espana. This, if maintained, would have -stopped the French in their flight by the main road, and have forced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> -them to take the fords. But d’Espana, without informing Wellington, -had withdrawn the garrison, and left the road open! “Had the castle -of Alba been held,” says Napier, “the French could never have carried -off a third of their army.” But by this piece of Spanish folly or -cowardice, they were permitted to escape.</p> - -<p>As it was, their loss was enormous. They went into action with -43,800 infantry and 4000 cavalry. Three weeks after, their General, -Clausel, who succeeded Marmont in the command, wrote to the Minister -of War at Paris, “The army consists of 20,000 infantry, and 1800 -horse.” So that, by death or wounds or capture, it had lost more than -half of its numbers. On the part of the Allies, the loss was 3176 British, -2018 Portuguese, and eight Spanish. One General was killed, and five -were among the wounded. Wellington himself was struck in the thigh -by a spent ball, which passed through his holster. This was one of the -last incidents of this great battle; in which the English leader, to use a -French officer’s expression, “defeated 40,000 men in forty minutes.” -“Late in the evening of that great day,” says Sir William Napier, “I -saw him behind my regiment, then marching towards the ford. He was -alone; the flush of victory was on his brow, his eyes were eager and -watchful, but his voice was calm and even gentle. More than the rival -of Marlborough,—for he had defeated greater Generals than Marlborough -ever encountered, he seemed with prescient pride to accept this victory -only as an earnest of future glory.”</p> - -<p>The French fled with such celerity, that their headquarters, on the -following night, were at Flores d’Avila, no less than forty miles from -the field of battle! The English army, on the other hand, entered Madrid -on the 12th of August, amidst a scene of the wildest ecstasy. “No -words can express the enthusiasm which prevailed when the English -standards were seen in the distance, and the scarlet uniforms began to -be discerned through the crowd. Amidst a countless multitude, wrought -up to the highest pitch of rapturous feeling; amidst tears of gratitude -and shouts of triumph, the British army entered the Spanish capital, not -as conquerors, but as friends; not as oppressors, but deliverers.” As -for Wellington, “with tears and every sign of deep emotion, the multitudes -crowded round his horse, hung by his stirrups, touched his clothes, -and throwing themselves on their knees, blessed him aloud.” The -intrusive King, with about 12,000 men, had fled out of the city a few -days previous.</p> - -<p>The Retiro, the largest arsenal which the French possessed in Spain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> -still had a garrison of 1700 men. But it surrendered on the 13th, and the -British found in it, 180 pieces of cannon, 20,000 stand of arms, and -immense stores of all kinds. Meanwhile, “the French affairs in every -part of the Peninsula now exhibited that general crash and ruin which -so usually follows a great military disaster, and presages the breaking up -of a political power.”</p> - -<p>Nor were the mighty results of this great battle limited to Southern -Europe. At the very moment when it took place, Napoleon, at the head -of 450,000, was entering the heart of the Russian empire. The news of -the defeat of his forces in Spain, reached him on the evening preceding -the great battle of Borodino. It doubtless reached the Emperor Alexander -also; and the news must have greatly aided the Russian Monarch -in forming that remarkable resolve, “I am <em>immovable</em>; and no terms -whatever shall induce me to terminate the war, or to fail in the sacred -duty of avenging our country.” And, in a general order, issued shortly -after, General Kutusoff, Alexander’s chief commander, said, “The hand -of God is falling heavily on Napoleon: <em>Madrid is taken</em>.” Still, when, -in October, Wellington, from the want of battering-artillery, failed in -carrying the castle of Burgos, faction again raised its head in England, -and even dared to question his skill and talent as a General! It was -with reference to some of these attacks that Wellington took the following -review of the results of the year.</p> - -<p>“I fear that the public will be disappointed at the results of the last -campaign: and yet it is, in fact, the most important and successful -campaign in which a British army has been engaged for the last century. -We have taken by siege Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, and Salamanca, and -the Retiro has surrendered. Since January, this army has sent to -England little short of 20,000 prisoners; and it has taken and destroyed, -or we now possess, little short of 3000 pieces of cannon.”</p> - -<p>More wonderful achievements, occupying a series of years, never were -wrought out by a British army. Sir William Napier justly traces the -triumph of Salamanca and other victories to the forethought of Wellington, -in having laid such a foundation as he had provided in Torres -Vedras. “This strong post was of his own planning,—he had chosen -it, fortified it, defended it, and now, knowing its full value, he was availing -himself of its advantages. The tree was planted to bear such fruit -as was gathered at Salamanca, and the value of his combinations must be -estimated from the general result. He had only 60,000 disposable troops, -and 100,000 were especially appointed to watch and control him; yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> -he passed the frontier, defeated 45,000 men in a pitched battle, and drove -20,000 others from Madrid in confusion, without difficulty and without -risk. No General was ever more entitled to the honour of victory.”</p> - - -<p>SALAMIS, BATTLE OF.—The Persians defeated by the Greeks -in this great battle, October 20th, 480 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> Themistocles, the Greek -commander, with only 310 sail defeated the whole fleet of Xerxes, consisting -of 2000 sail. One of the greatest naval engagements in ancient -times.</p> - - -<p>SALDANHA BAY.—<em>Near the Cape of Good Hope.</em>—Here a Dutch -squadron was captured by Admiral St. George Keith Elphinstone, without -resistance. Five men of war and nine frigates surrendered, and St. -George was in consequence of this bloodless victory, which was executed -with wonderful judgment, created Lord Keith, August 17th, 1796.</p> - - -<p>SANTA CRUZ.—Here, April 25th, 1657, the renowned Blake -totally destroyed 16 Spanish ships, secured with great nautical skill, -and protected by the castle and the forts on the shore. This was thought, -at that time, one of the greatest feats ever accomplished. The Earl of -Clarendon, speaking of this exploit, says, “It was so miraculous, that -all who knew the place wondered that any sober man, with what -courage soever endowed, would have undertaken it; and the victors -could hardly persuade themselves to believe what they had done, -whilst the surviving Spaniards thought that they were devils and -not men who had destroyed their ships so.” Here also, in an unsuccessful -attack made upon this place by Nelson, several officers and 141 men -were killed, and the brave Admiral lost his right arm, July 24th, 1797. -It is remarkable that Captain Freemantle, the great friend of Nelson, and -a companion of his in most of his great and brilliant achievements was -also wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had received his -wound in the same limb. The following laconic note addressed to the -lady of Captain Freemantle, (who was on board with her husband at the -time he wrote) has been preserved, as being the first letter written by the -glorious hero with his left hand:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p><span class="smcap">My Dear Mrs. Freemantle</span>,</p> - -<p><span class="pad6">Tell</span> me how Tom is? I hope he has saved his arm. -Mine is off; but, thank God, I am as well as I hope he is.</p> - -<p class="right padr6">Ever Yours,</p> -<p class="right">HORATIO NELSON.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p> - - -<p>SARATOGA, BURGOYNE’S SURRENDER AT.—General -Burgoyne, commander of a body of the British Army, after a very severe -engagement with the American Provincials in the American War of -Independence, October 17th, 1777, surrendered to the American General -Gates. No less than 5791 men laid down their arms. This was the -greatest check the British suffered during the war.</p> - - -<p>SCOPOLO.—On July the 5th, 1808, a desperate action was fought -off the island of Scopolo, between a large Turkish frigate and corvette, -and the Seahorse thirty-eight guns, captain Stewart, exhibiting the skill -and gallantry of the latter against a great disparity of force, by which -his own ship was so well preserved, while that of his opponent was ruined. -The action began at half-past nine in the evening, the Turks under easy -sail, a little off the wind, and continually endeavouring to board. At -ten o’clock, after a quarter of an hour’s hot fire, the small ship was silenced; -the large ship, which had during this time fallen a little to leeward, and -thus been prevented from assisting her consort, recovered her position; -the action was recommenced; and the resistance of the Turks was so -obstinate, that it was not till a quarter past one she was rendered a -motionless wreck. As they would neither answer nor fire, captain Stewart, -knowing the character of the people, conceived it most prudent to -wait for daylight to send on board her. At daylight, observing her -colours upon the stump of the mizenmast, the Seahorse poured a broadside -into her stern, when she struck. She was named the Badere Zaffer, -of fifty-two guns, with a complement of 500 men, commanded by captain -Scanderli Kichuc Ali, who had been prevented by his own people from -blowing her up. Her loss was prodigious—165 killed and 195 wounded. -The Seahorse had only five killed and ten wounded.</p> - - -<p>SEBASTOPOL.—The celebrated city besieged during the Crimean -war. See <em><a href="#BOM">Bombardment, first and second (final) of Sebastopol</a></em>; also, -<em><a href="#MAM">Mamelon</a></em>, <em><a href="#MAL">Malakoff</a></em> and <em><a href="#SOR">Sortie</a></em>.</p> - - -<p>SEDGMOOR, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 5th, 1685, in which -the Duke of Monmouth was completely defeated by the army of James -II of England. The Duke, who was the natural son of Charles II, by -Lucy Walters, one of his mistresses, was made prisoner, and soon afterwards -executed.</p> - - -<p>SEIDLITZ, BATTLE OF.—Fought, April 10th, 1831, between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> -the Poles and Russians. The Poles obtained the victory, after a bloody -battle, taking 4000 prisoners, and several pieces of cannon. The killed -and wounded, on both sides, amounted to many thousands.</p> - - -<p>SEMINCAS, BATTLE OF.—Fought <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 938. One of the most -bloody battles ever fought. Between the Moors and Ramirez II, King -of Leon, and the Austrians. More than 80,000 of the infidels were slain, -the dead lying in heaps for miles around.</p> - - -<p>SEMPACH, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 9th, 1386, between the -Swiss and Leopold, Duke of Austria. The heroic Swiss, after prodigies -of valour, gained a great and memorable victory over the Duke, who was -slain. By this battle they gained their independence, which they possess -until this day; and they annually commemorate, with great solemnity, -this victory.</p> - - -<p>SERGEANT.—The highest non-commissioned officer of a company. -This word enters into the title of different officers, as sergeant-major, -color-sergeant, &c.</p> - - -<p>SERINGAPATAM, BATTLE OF.—This first battle, called also -the Battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Saib, was -fought May 15th, 1791. The second, in which the redoubts were -stormed, and Tippoo reduced by Lord Cornwallis, fought February 6th, -1792. After this capture peace was signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede -one-half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees, about £3,000,000, -sterling to England, and to give up his two sons as hostages. In a new -war the Madras army arrived before Seringapatam, April 5th, 1799. It -was joined by the Bombay army, April 14th, and the place was stormed -and carried by Major General Baird, May 4th, same year. Tippoo was -killed in this engagement.</p> - -<p>The following account gives the particulars of the 1st engagement -previous to the capture of Seringapatam.</p> - -<p>“On the 27th of March, 1799, at three o’clock p.m., the right wing -(of the British army destined for the capture of Seringapatam) moved -slowly off the ground of encampment, along a heavy sandy road, impeded -in their progress by the ponderous battering-train of guns, each 42 -pounder being drawn majestically along by thirty, forty, and sometimes -fifty bullocks, harnessed four abreast; and even these numbers were -frequently found insufficient to extricate the wheels of the carriages from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> -the deep sloughs into which they often sank, even up to the axles, when -the aid of elephants was required; these sagacious animals would wind -their trunks or probosci around the nave and between the spokes of the -wheels, and thus lift gun and carriage from the impending difficulty, -whilst the bullocks were being goaded and whipped with leather thongs. -The ponderous machines were thus drawn forward. It was indeed an -admirable and beautiful sight to observe the sagacity of these huge -creatures; for when one only was brought up to assist, if the weight was -too considerable for its animal strength, a shrill trumpeting proceeding -from its proboscis would instantly proclaim this deficiency in strength for -the object required, when the keeper would call for another elephant, and -then the united power of the two, simultaneously applying their whole -force, would speedily overcome almost insurmountable difficulties; though, -when guns and carriages were embedded up to the axles of the four -wheels, several of these noble animals have been required to lift the -machines bodily from the tenacious clay into which they had sunk.</p> - -<p>Clouds of looties, or irregular predatory horsemen, were on the right -flank of the line, who fired incessantly on the British as they advanced; -and when a stoppage occurred, to extricate the guns, large bodies of these -looties would suddenly dash through the intervals, cutting down the -artillerymen, maiming the bullocks, and destroying the whole paraphernalia -of harness; and this in spite of all the exertions of skirmishers to -keep them at a respectable distance. The fierce sun was almost intolerable, -and many Europeans fell dead from <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coups-de-soleil</i>. Only three -miles and a half could be marched from three o’clock until nearly twelve, -when the little mud-walled fort of Malleville was descried, with the -gallant 19th dragoons, drawn up in close column under the walls, to -shelter them from the enemy’s brisk cannonade. At a hill fortress -(Amboor), previous to mounting the Ghauts and entering the Mysore -country, the British army had been joined by about 10,000 of the Nizam’s -troops—a disorderly set of savage, undisciplined barbarians (clothed in -stuffed cotton jackets, covered with steel-chained armour, capable of -resisting a musket-ball), prancing and skirmishing about the country in -every direction, wielding their long lances with uncommon dexterity, -managing their horses with grace and ease, almost to perfection in the -equestrian art—sometimes casting their spears, and then, at full gallop, -bending the body so low under the horse, as to recover possession of the -spear that lay flat on the sand. This heterogeneous force was certainly -an additional strength to the numerical force of the British, but, in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> -military point of view, of dubious advantage to the invading regular army, -whose movements they frequently disconcerted by dashing furiously -through the intervals between the columns on the line of march, and, -being often mistaken for the enemy’s irregular horse, were fired at accordingly, -many of them perishing in this unprofitable manner; and had any -adverse fortune occurred in the campaign, confusion and defeat must -have ensued, as these disorderly masses would inevitably have incommoded, -and rendered all military discipline abortive. Accordingly, to -protect them from absolute annihilation, the 33rd regiment of infantry, -under command of the hon. colonel Wellesley (the Duke of Wellington), -was attached to this disorderly crew, and acted with them during the -advance to Seringapatam. The movements of the whole army was entirely -confided to the management of Colonel Barry Close, a Company’s -officer, and adjutant-general to the forces—a man of extensive capacity, -who had displayed eminent talents in both civil and military departments -during his long residence in India. He was an ornament to his profession, -and, had fortune favoured him, might have proved a first-rate general. -For his amiable and conciliatory disposition, he was beloved and -esteemed by all who enjoyed the advantage of his society.</p> - -<p>During the march, the towns and villages were involved in flames in -every direction, and not an atom of food or forage was anywhere procurable -(every officer of the army was provided with three months’ provision -of biscuit, &c., borne on the backs of bullocks in various numbers, -according to the grade of the officer), and every tank or pool of water -was impregnated with the poison of the milk hedge, large quantities of -the branches of which the enemy had industriously thrown in—so that -many horses, bullocks, and even, in some instances, men, fell victims to -the deleterious infusion.</p> - -<p>As the head of the British column passed the little fort of Malleville, -the quarter-master-general was observed marking out the site for encampment -on an extensive sandy plain in front of the fort. The booming of -distant heavy ordnance was plainly distinguishable. The lascars had -commenced pitching the tents and marquees for the reception of the -exhausted troops, but were suddenly interrupted in their occupation by -the successive bounding of cannon-balls amongst them, when they precipitately -quitted the dangerous situation, and fled for protection to the -rear of the approaching troops. The enemy were posted on a commanding -eminence about two miles distant, at the extremity of the sandy plain, -supported by a long range of numerous heavy artillery and strong imposing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> -bodies of regular cavalry. The English pickets, commanded by -Captain Macpherson, of the 12th foot, pushed on towards the enemy’s -left flank with two 12-pounder galloppers, and the action became brisk -in that quarter—for, having ensconced themselves in a wood, they were -thus secure from the charges of hordes of cavalry surrounding, whom they -saluted with reiterated discharges of grape-shot from the galloppers. In -the interim, whilst this scene was agitating, the right wing of the British -army formed, on the intended ground of encampment, in contiguous close -columns, and in this form cautiously advanced towards the eminence in -front. I now, for the first time, became acquainted with the whirring, -hoarse noise of cannon-balls—the phitz, phitz, of musket-bullets passing -close to the body—and the ping, ping, of those flying distantly over head: -fortunately, the balls, rockets, &c., were ill-directed, and did little execution. -As the columns approached nearer the enemy’s position, the heavy -guns were withdrawn behind the eminence (Tippoo Saib fearing nothing -so much as the capture of his artillery, which he had invariably lost in his -former battles with lord Cornwallis, in 1782), and ultimately disappeared! -In this short advance, Captain Whitley, of the grenadiers of the 12th -(to which company I was attached), observing, I presume, the unaccustomed -paleness of my countenance, turned round and offered me a refreshing -draught of brandy and water from the contents of his canteen, or -leathern bottle attached to his side, which I gratefully accepted; for at -eighteen we have not the nerves and stamina of a man of forty years old. -Untried individuals may sarcastically sneer at this apparent indication of -pusillanimity; but never, during all my service, did I observe soldiers -enter on a scene of action with that calm, florid appearance, denoting a -sense of health and security: did man ever yet exist exempt from the -common feelings of human nature? In point of fact, there is an evident, -palpable alteration of feature in every man, at the commencement of a -battle; as it rages, this marked difference in the lineaments of the countenance -disappears, and the excitement of exertion soon produces the usual -effect of renewed animation, with a spirit of recklessness indifferent to the -consequences of existing danger.</p> - -<p>The advancing columns having approached within a few yards of the -summit of the eminence, halted, and deployed into line, and thus marched -on, when having reached the apex of the ascent, the formidable army of -the redoubtable Tippoo Saib appeared drawn up on the plain below in -battle array, with woods on both flanks, covered with tens of thousands of -horsemen: the first indication of a serious attack proceeded from a body<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> -of cavalry, who charging the light infantry skirmishing front, soon drove -them with headlong speed into the British line, where they rejoined their -battalions; this body of horse, of about 1500, was formed in a compact -wedge-like shape, with the front angle headed by two enormous elephants -(saddled with howdahs, filled with distinguished officers), having each a -huge iron chain dangling from the proboscis, which they whirled about -with great rapidity, a blow from which would have destroyed half a company -of infantry; at the first superficial view they were mistaken for the -Nizam’s troops, but as they rapidly approached (firing their pistols and -carbines, which produced some trifling effect) towards an interval of a -few yards extent between his majesty’s 12th regiment and a battalion of -Sepoys on the right, it was soon obvious they intended passing through -this interval to the rear of the British line; fortunately, at this momentous -crisis, a detachment of the Company’s native cavalry suddenly galloped -from the rear, and completely filled up the space, when the enemy -edged off, and directed their whole column to the front of the 12th regiment. -General Harris, the commander-in-chief, suddenly appeared in -the rear, vociferating aloud, “Fire, 12th! fire!” To their eternal -credit, coolness, and unexampled discipline, be it recorded, that although -standing with recovered arms, not a shot was fired, nor even a movement -made, that indicated indecision; the men knew it was not the voice of -the colonel, who, however, thus pressed by the authority of his superior -officer, now gave the command—“Steady, 12th! and wait until these -fellows are within ten yards of you,—then singe the beggars’ whiskers.” -This order was implicitly obeyed. At the word “Fire!” a volley was -effectually poured into the wedge of cavalry, followed by a rapid and well-directed -file-firing, which produced the happiest effect; for on the smoke -clearing away, a complete rampart of men and horses lay extended on the -earth, in front of this invincible old corps! The elephants, maddened, -with pain from their innumerable wounds, were shuffling away with speed, -and swinging the enormous chains to right and left amidst the retiring -cavalry, many of whom were thus destroyed. The howdahs (from which -the leading chiefs had directed the charge) were dashed to atoms, and -several of these brave men’s heads hung from the backs of the enraged -animals; horses rearing, and crushing the riders to death—other loose -and wounded horses scouring the plain on all sides—the scene was awfully -terrific! Just at this eventful period, two 9-pounder field-pieces replaced -the cavalry in the interval alluded to, at once opening a destructive shower -of grape-shot on the discomfited horsemen, who were attempting to join<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> -their main body stationed in the woods below; these latter, perceiving -the entire defeat of the “<em>Forlorn Hope</em>,” poured forth their tens of -thousands, scouring rapidly over the sandy plain, exposed to the exterminating -effects of the British artillery. The battle now became general -along the whole line—infantry, cavalry, and artillery, all exerting their -utmost efforts of destruction. Unfortunately, a large body of the Mysorian -cavalry outflanked and cut into the rear of the British line, destroyed -crowds of sick men and lascars, who were considered safe from such indiscriminate -and inhuman butchery. Many of these gallant fellows, although -in the last stage of human debility, crawled out of the doolies (rough -palanquins for sick men), and fought manfully to the last gasp. On the -extreme right of the line, the hon. colonel Wellesley was stationed, with -his majesty’s 33rd regiment of foot, surrounded by the Nizam’s cavalry. -The Mysorians at once charged the Nizam’s horse, who as suddenly -scampered off. When the 33rd regiment were first observed by the -enemy, the usual cry of “Feringee bong chute!” (“Rascally English!”) -was uttered, and Tippoo’s cavalry fled in confusion, leaving several battalions -of infantry to receive the dreadful charge of the British regiment! -One hurrah! and the opposing infantry came in contact; several thousands -of the Mysorians were bayonetted, the rest retiring in dismay, -followed by the 19th dragoons, who cut and slashed without mercy. The -right wing of the enemy being thrown into irretrievable confusion, and -all parts of their line wavering, the battle was soon ended, Tippoo Saib -drawing off with all possible haste. The British line now began to -advance from their fighting position; but so numerous were the dead -bodies of men and horses in front of the 12th regiment, that some difficulty -was experienced in surmounting the obstacle! Two or three horsemen, -in the attack of the wedge of cavalry, cut through the 12th regiment, -but were immediately shot in the rear. To give an idea of the temper, -sharpness, and weight of the swords of these men, who had all drugged -themselves with bang (a narcotic herb, resembling opium in its effects on -the human frame), for the attack, I have only to mention, that the barrel -of one of the European’s muskets was completely severed by one cut from -a Moorman’s sabre, the blade of which was three and a half feet long, -half an inch thick at the back, and four inches broad, weighing fourteen -pounds!</p> - -<p>It is now only necessary to add, that the victory was in favour of the -British, who with the right wing of their army (about 16,000 men) had -engaged the combined forces of the sultan, destroying several thousands,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> -with the loss only of a few hundreds. No guns were captured on either -side. About six o’clock in the afternoon, the only indication of the -proximity of an enemy was the distant booming of heavy artillery. The -British, on reaching their original ground of encampment, were congratulated -by the left wing of the army (just encamping, after a tedious hot -march) on the success of the engagement, expressing regret that they had -not arrived in time to participate in the glory of the day.”</p> - - -<p>SERINGAPATAM, OPENING THE TRENCHES BEFORE.—“On -the morning of the 5th April, 1799, the British army encamped on -their permanent ground for the siege of the celebrated fortress of Seringapatam; -and, after due deliberation, it was decided to open the trenches, -if possible, the same evening. In accordance with this determination, -two separate bodies of troops were ordered to parade, at six o’clock in the -afternoon—one destined to drive the enemy from the dry bed of a nullah, -or narrow river—the other to take possession of a small wood situated in -a line on the right of the river, and rather nearer the encampment, which -had been occupied the night before by a detachment of flankers under -General Baird, and evacuated, the enemy having silently retreated from it -on the approach of the English. Both these positions were, on the 5th, -strongly occupied by select bodies of Tippoo’s troops. To accomplish -these arduous enterprises, his Majesty’s 12th regiment, with a proportion -of sepoys or native troops, consisting of about 2000 effective men, under -the command of lieutenant-colonel Shaw (of the 12th foot), marched from -the British lines at a quarter past six o’clock, to take possession of the -bed of the river; his majesty’s 33rd regiment of foot, with a detachment -of sepoys, amounting, in toto, to 2000 men, under the command of -colonel Wellesley (now the duke of Wellington), quitted camp about the -same time, to occupy the tope, or wood, on the right of the bed of the -river. The two posts were intended to be carried at or near the same -time as possible, for the mutual protection and security of both detachments—as -one position was almost untenable without the occupation of -the other. The British encampment was situated three miles from -Seringapatam, on a rising ground gradually sloping up from the fortress, -with the exception of partial undulations, which, however, did not prevent -a perfect view of the whole intermediate spaces. The two posts -(nullah and top) were midway between the camp and the besieged town. -Scarcely had these two little columns quitted the camp, than they were -assailed by showers of rockets and blue lights from every direction in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> -front, which completely illumined the atmosphere, and exposed the -British to the fire of Tippoo’s tiger sepoys; heavy masses of whom poured -death into Shaw’s force, with the most terrific effect. Still this gallant -little body moved slowly on (as the night was exceedingly dark), although -more encumbered each moment with dead, dying, and wounded: the -rockets and musketry from upwards of 20,000 of the enemy were incessant—no -hail could be thicker; with every blue light came a shower of -bullets, and several rockets passed through the head to the rear of the -column, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations:<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> the cries of -the wounded were quite awful. Not a shot did the British fire, nor had -the men even loaded their pieces; a caution from the brave old colonel -Shaw, that “<em>all must be done with the bayonet</em>,” needed no repetition -to ensure obedience; but scarcely had this caution been conveyed through -the ranks, when a tremendous peal of musketry was heard on the right -flank, in the direction of the wood, which caused Shaw’s force to halt, as -the attack became so formidable from the front, and both flanks, that it -would have been an useless sacrifice of the men’s lives to stand up; they -were consequently directed to lie down for a few minutes, to avoid the -effects of the enemy’s scorching fire, which now proceeded from a very few -yards’ distance—the brilliant light of their fire-balls or blue lights exposing -Shaw’s column to the full force of their musketry; and imagining, from -the recumbent posture of the British, that the majority was killed, a large -column of the tiger sepoys ventured an attack with the bayonet, and -drove in the battalion of the Company’s sepoys, who were a few yards in -advance on the right, and killing their major. The command, “<em>Up, -12th and charge!</em>” was no sooner given, than each man sprang up and -advanced to the charge in silence and compact order. The tiger sepoys -stood, until a very few yards intervened between the combatants, when a -general shout of “Feringee bong chute!” (“the rascally English!”) -was uttered, and the enemy dispersed on all sides in considerable confusion; -but, shortly after, again threw out their blue lights, and recommenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> -their murderous file-firing, which once more compelled the British -to resume their prostrate posture. It was now about twelve o’clock at -night, when the solemn trampling of a body of troops was plainly distinguished, -approaching from the right flank in a hasty and rather tumultuous -manner. Once more Shaw’s column were on their feet and preparing -to charge, when a few stragglers from the hon. colonel Wellesley’s -force rushed in, and announced that the detachment had been repulsed -from the wood, and that the approaching trampling was part of the force -coming to join Shaw—that two companies of the 33rd, with their -colonel (Wellesley), were missing! A few minutes after this report, -major Shea (second in command to Wellesley) joined Shaw’s force with -the remains of that detachment: he stated that colonel Wellesley, with -two companies of the 33rd regiment, had been either taken prisoners or -had retreated to camp! As second in command, he had considered it his -duty to traverse the wood in search of him, which proving unsuccessful, -and the fire from the enemy becoming so exceedingly heavy, had induced -him to lead the remaining troops to colonel Shaw, for the purpose of -obtaining information, and receiving instructions how to act. Colonel -Shaw replied, ironically, “that he had better follow his colonel to camp”—a -hint that was implicitly and immediately complied with. Indignation -here overcame prudence, as Shaw soon saw the enemy pouring in -from all sides, and the stoutest heart in his force predicted a fatal result, -from the united and concentrated efforts of so numerous an enemy. Large -quantities of ammunition were sent from camp during the night, for the -supply of Shaw’s column, as, from the tremendous firing, it was naturally -apprehended that all their cartridges had been expended; but these incessant -peals of musketry had all proceeded from Tippoo’s troops (not a -single shot had been returned by Shaw’s column). The oldest soldier in -camp declared they had never heard so tremendous a fire: in fact, it continued -for twelve hours without intermission, blue lights and rockets -illuminating the air the whole time—beautiful, though terrific. It was -generally imagined in camp that Shaw and his detachment must have -been inevitably annihilated; but this gallant old officer only waited the -dawn of day, to exhibit one of the most glorious and impressive spectacles -that ever added lustre to the annals of British military fame! The appearance -of Wellesley in camp, followed by part of two companies of the 33rd -regiment, reporting that the remainder of his detachment had been cut -to pieces, increased the probability of the inevitable destruction of the -other attacking column, and all was anxiety and commiseration, in camp, -for the fate of this devoted little band.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span></p> - -<p>At five o’clock on the morning of the 6th April, the fire of musketry -began to relax; the whole were under arms, and generously anxious for -the safety of the column under Shaw’s command: but scarcely had the -day dawned, than a glorious and exhilarating scene was displayed: the -gallant old 12th, and the sepoys in line with them, were seen rushing on -the entrenched enemy at the point of the bayonet, and driving them from -the bed of the river, in spite of a heavy cannonade from the fortress of -Seringapatam, and the resistance of the numerous columns opposed to -them. Never did men more heroically perform their duty: the conflict -was excessively murderous and obstinate, as the tiger sepoys were brave, -numerous and well-disciplined. For some time the result of the attack -appeared most dubious, as a considerable body of French troops persevered -in most gallant style, in leading on Tippoo’s sepoys. The rapid -charge of the 12th regiment, supported by the sepoys composing the -force, excited the admiration of the whole British army. General Harris -was heard to exclaim, “Well done, old 12th! why, they are going to -take Seringapatam!” The occupation of the bed of the nullah being at -length achieved by Shaw’s column, it had scarcely secured itself under the -embankment of the river, from the thundering cannon of the fortress, -when the enemy in the wood (who had opposed and put Wellesley to -flight) opened a destructive fire from several field-pieces, which completely -enfiladed Shaw’s post. A mound of earth was quickly thrown up on -the right flank of the 12th regiment, to protect them, as much as possible, -from this fresh annoyance; but this precaution could not have prevented -the British from being dislodged from the bed of the river, had -not several brigades from camp been observed advancing to support the -position of Shaw’s post, and to drive the enemy from the wood. The -certainty of speedy support inspired Shaw’s column with renewed ardour, -and a fire was for the first time returned, with a rapidity and effect that -completely disconcerted the enemy, who retired in good order, ever and -anon facing about and firing a volley of musketry.</p> - -<p>They were not relieved until the close of the evening of the 6th, as -the enemy’s firing from the fortress of Seringapatam was so destructive, -that Baird’s brigade was compelled to halt and return to camp; the -other brigade, under Wellesley, advanced and took possession of the wood -which the enemy abandoned, and thus relieved Shaw’s post from an annoying -enfilade of cannon and musketry, from which they suffered for at -least an hour and a half after daybreak, with the greatest constancy and -courage. Eleven officers and 180 rank and file were killed and wounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> -in this small force during the night and morning of the 5th and 6th -April. About seven o’clock in the evening of the latter day, the 74th -regiment relieved the 12th, who were right happy to break their fast -after twenty-four hours’ hard fighting and fasting.”</p> - - -<p>SEVILLE.—Surrendered to the French, February 1st, 1810; taken -by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, -August 27th, 1812, when the French left it, at the general evacuation of -the south of Spain, in consequence of their signal defeat in that battle.</p> - - -<p>SHERRIFMUIR, BATTLE OF.—Fought, November 12th, 1715, -between the Royal army, under the Duke of Argyle, and the Scotch rebel -forces, who favored the Pretender, and commanded by the Earl of Mar. -The insurgents were defeated. Fought on the same day in which the -rebel forces were defeated at Preston.</p> - - -<p>SHREWSBURY, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 21st, 1403, -between the Royal army of Henry IV, and the army of the Nobles, led by -Percy, surnamed Hotspur, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. -Each army consisted of about 12,000 men, and the engagement was most -obstinate and bloody. Henry was seen everywhere in the thickest of the -fight, while his valiant son, who was afterwards the renowned conqueror -of France, fought by his side, though wounded in the face by an arrow, -still kept the field and performed astonishing deeds of bravery. On the -other hand, Hotspur performed prodigies of valour; 2300 gentlemen -were slain, and about 6000 private men. Hotspur was killed by an -unknown hand, and his death decided the fortune of the day.</p> - - -<p>SHROPSHIRE, BATTLE OF.—In which the Britons were completely -defeated, and Caractacus, their leader, taken prisoner and sent to -Rome; fought <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 51.</p> - - -<p>SIEGES.—Numerous in History; the following are the most important:—</p> - -<p><em>Acre</em>, 1799, by Bonaparte; siege raised after sixty days, open trenches.</p> - -<p><em>Algiers</em>, 1816. <em>See <a href="#ALG">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Almeida</em>, August 27th, 1810.</p> - -<p><em>Antwerp</em>, 1576, use of infernal machines; also besieged 1583, 1585, -1706, 1792, and 1814.</p> - -<p><em>Badajoz</em>, March 11th, 1811, but raised June 9th. Taken by escalade -on the night of April 6th, 1812.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Bagdad</em>, 1248.</p> - -<p><em>Bayonne</em>, 1451.</p> - -<p><em>Berwick</em>, 1293. <em>See <a href="#BER">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Bommel</em>, 1794; the invention of the covert-way used here.</p> - -<p><em>Burgos</em>, September to October, 1812, raised; the French in their -retreat blew up the works, June 13th, 1813.</p> - -<p><em>Calais</em>, 1347; British historians affirm cannon first used here at this -siege. <em>See <a href="#CAL">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Candia</em>, 1667; the largest cannon then known in Europe, used here -by the Turks.</p> - -<p><em>Carthagena</em>, 1706.</p> - -<p><em>Chalons</em>, 1199.</p> - -<p><em>Cherbourg</em>, 1650.</p> - -<p><em>Ciudad Rodrigo</em>, 1706, July, 1810; January, 1812. <em>See <a href="#CIU">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Constantinople</em>, 1453.</p> - -<p><em>Copenhagen</em>, 1700, 1801, and 1807. <em>See <a href="#COP">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Cracow</em>, 1772.</p> - -<p><em>Dunkirk</em>, 1646, 1793.</p> - -<p><em>Frederickshall</em>, 1718, Charles XII killed here.</p> - -<p><em>Gibraltar</em>, 1704, 1799, and 1782; red hot cannon balls used here to -burn the French fleet. <em>See <a href="#GIB">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Ismael</em>, 1790. <em>See <a href="#ISM">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Kars</em>, 1855. <em>See <a href="#KAR">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Londonderry</em>, 1689. <em>See <a href="#LND">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Mons</em>, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 1792, and 1794.</p> - -<p><em>Mothe</em>, 1634; the French taught by Mr. Muller, an English engineer, -first practised the art of throwing shells.</p> - -<p><em>Naples</em>, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, and 1806.</p> - -<p><em>Orleans</em>, 1428, 1563.</p> - -<p><em>Philipsburg</em>, 1644, 1675, and 1688; first experiment of firing artillery -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">à-ricochet</span> here, also besieged 1734 and 1795.</p> - -<p><em>Romorentin</em>, 1356; according to Voltaire, artillery first used here in -sieges.</p> - -<p><em>St. Sebastian</em>, September, 1813.</p> - -<p><em>Salamanca</em>, June, 1812.</p> - -<p><em>Saragossa</em>, oftener spelled <em>Zaragosa</em>,—appended to this article is a -graphic account of the 2nd siege. It was besieged three times, in 1710, -1808, and 1809, the two last were dreadful sieges.</p> - -<p><em>Schweidnitz</em>, 1762 and 1807. Here was the first experiment to -reduce a fortress by springing globes of compression.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Sebastopol</em>, 1854 and 1855. <em>See this article under the heads of -<a href="#BOM">Bombardment of Sebastopol</a>, <a href="#MAM">Mamelon</a>, <a href="#QUA">Quarries</a>, <a href="#RIF">Rifle Pits</a>, <a href="#SOR">Sortie</a>, &c.</em></p> - -<p><em>Seville</em>, 1096, 1247, 1248, one of the most memorable sieges mentioned -in Spanish history.</p> - -<p><em>Silistria</em>, 1854. <em>See <a href="#SIL">this article</a></em>.</p> - -<p><em>Stralsund</em>, 1675, 1713, and 1807; the method of throwing red hot -cannon balls first practiced here with certainty.</p> - -<p><em>Tarifa</em>, December 20th, 1811.</p> - -<p><em>Toulon</em>, 1707 and 1793.</p> - -<p><em>Tournay</em>, 1340, 1312, 1581, 1667, and 1709. During this siege the -best defence ever drawn from countermines was here practised; also -besieged in 1765 and 1794.</p> - -<p><em>Tunis</em>, 1270, 1535.</p> - -<p><em>Valenciennes</em>, May 23rd to July 14th, 1793. <em>See <a href="#VAL">this article</a>.</em></p> - -<p><em>Warsaw</em>, September 8th, 1831.</p> - -<p><em>Zutphen</em>, 1572 and 1586.</p> - - -<div><a name="SIL" id="SIL"></a></div> -<p>SILISTRIA, SIEGE OF.—In 1854.—The following is an admirable -account of the siege of this place:</p> - -<p>“After the battle of Citate, so bitter a blow to the pretensions of Russia, -the enemy’s Generals found it advisable to change their plan of operations. -Adopting Foktchani as their basis, they accumulated a large amount of -military stores, and finding that the Turks were not to be tempted into -crossing the Danube, calmly awaited reinforcements. When these had -arrived, it was resolved to make a desperate effort to force the passage of -the river. Imperative orders arrived from St. Petersburg to press the -war vigorously, and at any cost. On the 13th of February they attacked -Giurgevo, on the Wallachian bank of the Danube, with a considerable -force, and after a vigorous resistance, the Turks were forced to evacuate -their position, though not without being able to effect an orderly retreat -across the river, and establish themselves firmly in the opposite town of -Rustchuk. The Russian Generals now resolved on concentrating their -strength, and making an irresistible advance into Bulgaria. With characteristic -promptness, however, Omer Pacha initiated the attack. Throwing -a small column across the Danube at Rahova, he assaulted and drove -back the outposts at Kalarasch with considerable slaughter; and the -Turks, after this dashing feat, retired in security to Rahova. Another -attempt was made by the extreme right of the Russian line, on the 11th -of March, to seize Kalafat; but they were energetically repulsed by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> -brave garrison of that renowned town. Four days later, Prince Gortschakoff -made a desperate effort to wrest from its Ottoman defenders the -island in the Danube between Tukurtai and Oltenitza, which had been so -important a position in the battle at the latter place. The Russians were -again driven back, but some idea of the sanguinary nature of the struggle -may be formed from the fact that 2000 soldiers of the Czar left their -bodies on the disputed ground.</p> - -<p>“Five days before this desperate attempt to force the passage of the -river at Oltenitza, General Luders had succeeded in crossing, at Galatz, -into the Dobrudscha. Gortschakoff, defeated as he had been, resolved -upon abandoning the position he had so disastrously occupied, and shifting -his ground farther to the east, effected a passage at Tultscha, beyond the -point where Luders had passed with his army. The two divisions were -now united, and numbered about 5000 men. By a curious coincidence, -the 23rd of March, the day on which Gortschakoff crossed the river, was -the same day in which Odessa was so successfully bombarded by the allied -fleets. Thus was the Russian success more than counterbalanced. Four -days later, England and France had officially entered into the struggle. -The great object of the enemy’s movements now became apparent. Prince -Paskiewitch, the veteran General, the most celebrated commander of the -Russian army, was summoned from Poland to assume the supreme command, -and Schilders, the most accomplished general of engineers, also -hastened to the scene of operations. The capture of Silistria, the strongest -fortress on the southern bank of the Danube, and the key to Bulgaria, -was evidently the object of the Russians. So important was the possession -of this place deemed by the Czar, that the most imperative directions -were forwarded to accomplish it at any cost. The plan of operations was -this. Gortschakoff and Luders, having crossed the Danube, were to -advance towards Silistria, intercepting communications, and investing it -on the land side; while Paskiewitch was to throw forward the main body -of the army and vigorously assault it from the northern side. The garrison -of Silistria, commanded by Moussa Pacha, a General of great ability -and indomitable courage, did not number more than 8000 men.</p> - -<p>“Now commenced one of the most memorable sieges which history has -ever recorded. Others have exceeded it in the number of men engaged, -in the length of time occupied, but none in heroic episodes and unflinching -constancy. On the 14th of April, batteries were thrown up on the north -bank of the Danube, opposite the devoted town, and a vigorous bombardment -opened, but without much effect. On the 28th the first assault was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> -made, but so hot was the reception the attacking force met with, that -three weeks elapsed before they had sufficiently recovered to completely -invest the town. By that time 53,000 Russians had surrounded the -fortress, and batteries had been established, commanding the most important -points. On the south-west front, and consequently the land side of -the town, two very important earthworks were thrown up, known as Arab -Tabia and Illanii. The ground on which these works were situated rises -in a series of platforms, which virtually command the town. Their defence, -therefore, was of the utmost importance to the brave garrison. -Again and again, for the space of ten weeks, did the enemy precipitate -strong columns of men against these mounds of earth, and again and -again were they driven back with enormous loss. In vain the Russian -cannonade levelled the bastions and slaughtered the defenders; others supplied -their places, and once more the works rose defiantly. The Russian -shells swept the ground, and the Turks burrowed in the trenches, till the -advancing columns of assailants rushed to the breach. Then the undaunted -defenders sprang upon them, and hurled them back, covered with -defeat. Every attack was made with increased numbers, and made only -to be the more ignominiously defeated. Mines were stealthily advanced -towards the works; but the Turks countermined, and the Russian sappers -were blown into the air. All this while an incessant bombardment -from the river batteries poured death into the town. But the undaunted -besieged never for a moment relaxed their resistance. Three master-spirits -guided their operations, and infused heroic courage into their -ranks. Captain James Butler, a young Englishman, who had volunteered -for service in the army of the East, had joined the garrison, in company -with Lieutenant Nasmyth, another young officer, animated by similar -motives. These two gallant men were the very soul of the defence, and -aided by the brave Maussa Pacha, the Ottoman Commander, successfully -defied the power of the assailants. Butler, as the senior of the two -Englishmen, assumed a position readily acceded to him by his Turkish -allies, and to him they were indebted for the admirable construction and -disposition of the defensive works. Lieutenant Nasmyth proved himself -a most able seconder of his friend’s exertions, and in the capacity of -“special correspondent” of the <cite>Times</cite> newspaper, made all Europe -acquainted with the details of this extraordinary siege.</p> - -<p>“Straining every nerve, and exhausting every resource, to become -masters of the place, the Russian Generals summoned to their aid the -larger portion of the right wing of their army, thus materially weakening<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> -their power of opposing the Turkish forces to the westward of Silistria, -who, in consequence, obtained some easy successes. On the 12th of May, -a tremendous assault was made by the besiegers on the town, and repulsed -after a sanguinary struggle, in which more than 2000 Russians was -lost. Ten days afterwards another assault was attempted, and again was -the enemy defeated. With true Russian wiliness, overtures were secretly -made to Moussa Pacha to betray his trust, and for an adequate price to -deliver the fortress to the Czar. The brave man scornfully rejected the -proposition, and bade the enemy to take it if they could. Meanwhile, -Omer Pacha was anxiously endeavouring to succour the devoted garrison. -Obstacles interposed by the stupidity, if not traitorous connivance, of -officials in the ministry, had hitherto effectually tied his hands; but at -length, on the 5th of July, a detachment of Turkish troops effected an -entrance into the town after a smart skirmish; and on the 8th, about a -thousand more literally cut their way through the Russians, and were -added to the garrison. Aided by those welcome reinforcements, the Turks -now assumed the offensive, and on the night of the 13th made a sortie, -and succeeded in destroying the Russian works, springing their mines, -and inflicting a terrible loss upon their ranks.</p> - -<p>“It was now evident to the Russian Commanders that, if the town were -to be taken at all, it must be by a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup de main</i>, and a grand assault was -ordered for the 28th of June. But they had miscalculated the valour of -their soldiers. Daunted by the warm reception they had hitherto experienced, -they absolutely refused to march again to the breach; and nothing -but the threat of stopping their rations unless Silistria were taken the -next day, could induce these valiant warriors to perform their duty. On -the next day, the Russian Generals led their half-starved and unwilling -forces against the redoubts of Silistria. The Commanders, Prince Paskiewitch, -Count Orloff, Generals Schilders, Gortschakoff, and Luders, placed -themselves in the very front of the attacking force, anxious to stimulate -the soldiers by their own exposure. The assault was attempted, and -most triumphantly repulsed. The Russians were thrown into the utmost -disorganization, and fled precipitately from the well-directed volleys of the -garrison. Their leaders, too, paid dearly for their temerity. Paskiewitch -himself was severely wounded; Schilders had both his legs shattered, -Luders his jaw shot away, Count Orloff was killed, and Gortschakoff -received a serious wound. Nor did the brave defenders escape without -irreparable loss. Their gallant chief, Moussa Pacha, was struck on the -head by a round shot, and expired instantly; and the noble Butler fell a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> -sacrifice to his undaunted courage. The Turkish reinforcements outside -the garrison fell upon the rear of the retreating Russians, and completed -the rout their compatriots had so gloriously initiated. Beaten on every -hand, the enemy dashed pell-mell across the river, in confused retreat -towards Foktchani. The siege was raised. More than 30,000 Russian -soldiers had perished in the attempt to take Silistria, and the broken -remnant was now in full flight, owing its safety solely to the limited -number of the victorious Turks, which forbade pursuit.</p> - -<p>“With the exception of the small force which still lingered in the -plague-stricken plains of the Dobrudscha, not a Russian remained to the -south of the Danube. The mighty legions, precipitated so recklessly -across the Danube, were dead upon the Turkish bank, or flying ignominiously -from the scene. The despised Turks were the triumphant -conquerors, and the great Czar had received another and a greater blow -from the “sick man.”</p> - - -<p>SLAUGHTER <span class="fs70">OR</span> MASSACRE.—Under this head both Ancient -and Modern History abound with events which can be so called. The -following are among the most remarkable, as recorded by various authors:</p> - -<p>The Carthagenians in Sicily who were totally slaughtered, 397 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword by Alexander the -Great. 331 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The Romans throughout Asia, women and children not exempted, -cruelly butchered in one day, by order of Mithridates, King of Pontus, -88 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The massacre of Roman Senators, &c., 86 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>That of Octavianus Cæsar to the Manes of Julius Cæsar, 41 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>Jerusalem, 1,100,000 Jews cruelly put to the sword, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 70.</p> - -<p>Cassius slaughtered 400,000 of the inhabitants of Selucia, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 167.</p> - -<p>Eighty Christian Fathers by order of the Emperor Gratian were put -into a ship which was set on fire and then driven out to sea, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 370.</p> - -<p>Belisarius massacred 30,000 citizens of Constantinople, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 552.</p> - -<p>That of the Albigenses and Waldenses, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1209.</p> - -<p>The Sicilian Vespers—all the French in Sicily butchered without distinction -of age or sex, the first bell for vespers being the signal, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> -1282.</p> - -<p>That of St. Bartholomew’s day throughout France, August 24th, -1572.</p> - -<p>Ismael, 30,000 of the inhabitants old and young slain, December, -1790. <em>See <a href="#ISM">Ismael</a>.</em></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span></p> - -<p>Of all the whites in the Island of St. Domingo, March 29th, 1804.</p> - -<p>Massacre of the Mamelukes in Egypt, March 1st, 1811. <em>See <a href="#MLK">account -appended</a> to this list.</em></p> - -<p>Sinopé during the Crimean war, 1854.</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs80"><span class="smcap">Massacres in English History.</span></p> - -<p>Of 300 nobles on Salisbury Plain, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 474.</p> - -<p>The Danes in England, November 13th, 1002.</p> - -<p>The Jews in England, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1189.</p> - -<p>The unoffending McDonalds of Glencoe, 1692. <em>See <a href="#GLN">account appended</a> -to this list.</em></p> - -<p>Massacres of Cawnpore, Delhi, and other places during the Great -Indian Mutiny, 1857. <em>See <a href="#CAW">Cawnpore</a> and <a href="#DEL">Delhi</a>.</em></p> - - -<div><a name="GLN" id="GLN"></a></div> -<p>SLAUGHTER or MASSACRE OF GLENCOE.—This barbarous -and diabolical massacre, which, at the time of its commission, excited -universal and heartfelt indignation, took place in February, 1692. About -the middle of 1691, “as the Highlanders were not yet totally subdued, -the Earl of Breadalbane undertook to bring them over by distributing -sums of money among their chiefs; and £15,000 were accordingly -remitted from England for that purpose. The clans being informed of -this, suspected that the Earl’s design was to appropriate to himself the -best part of the money; and when he began to treat with them, they -made such extravagant demands, that he found his scheme impracticable. -He had therefore to refund the sum he had received; and resolved to -wreak his vengeance on those who had frustrated his intention. He -who chiefly thwarted him was McDonald of Glencoe, whose opposition -rose from a private circumstance, which ought to have had no effect on -a treaty that regarded the public weal. McDonald had plundered the -lands of Breadalbane during the course of hostilities; and the Earl -insisted upon being indemnified for his losses, from the other’s share of -the money which he was employed to distribute. The Highlander, however, -not only refused to acquiesce in these terms, but, by his influence -among the clans, defeated the whole scheme, and, in revenge, Breadalbane -devoted him to destruction. King William had, by proclamation, -offered an indemnity to all those who had been in arms against him, provided -they would submit and take the oaths by a certain day; and this -was prolonged to the close of 1691, with a denunciation of military execution -against those who should hold out after the end of December.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> -McDonald, intimidated by this declaration, repaired, on the very last -day of the month, to Fort William, and desired that the oaths might be -tendered to him by Colonel Hill, governor of that fortress. As this -officer was not vested with the power of a civil magistrate, he refused to -administer them; and McDonald set out immediately for Inverary, the -county-town of Argyle. Though the ground was covered with snow, and -the weather intensely cold, he travelled with such diligence, that the -term prescribed by the proclamation was but one day elapsed when he -reached the place, and addressed himself to Sir John Campbell, sheriff -of the county, who, in consideration of his disappointment at Fort William, -was prevailed upon to administer the oaths to him and his adherents. -Then they returned to their own habitations in the valley of -Glencoe, in full confidence of being protected by the government, to -which they had so solemnly submitted.</p> - -<p>Breadalbane had represented McDonald at court as an incorrigible -rebel, as a ruffian inured to bloodshed and rapine, who would never be -obedient to the laws of his country, nor live peaceably under any sovereign. -He observed, that he had paid no regard to the proclamation, -and proposed that the government should sacrifice him to the quiet of -the kingdom, in extirpating him, with his family and dependants, by -military execution. His advice was supported by the suggestions of the -other Scottish ministers; and the King, whose chief virtue was not -humanity, signed a warrant for the destruction of those unhappy people, -though it does not appear that he knew of McDonald’s submission. An -order for this barbarous execution, signed and counter-signed by his -majesty’s own hand, being transmitted to the master of Stair, secretary -for Scotland, this minister sent particular directions to Livingstone, who -commanded the troops in that kingdom, to put the inhabitants of Glencoe -to the sword, charging him to take no prisoners, that the scene might -be more terrible. In the month of February, captain Campbell of Glenlyon, -by virtue of an order from major Duncanson, marched into the -valley of Glencoe with a company of soldiers belonging to Argyle’s regiment, -on pretence of levying the arrears of the land-tax and hearth-money. -When McDonald demanded whether they came as friends or -enemies, he answered as friends, and promised, upon his honour, that -neither he nor his people should sustain the least injury. In consequence -of this declaration, he and his men were received with the most -cordial hospitality, and lived fifteen days with the men of the valley in -all the appearance of the most unreserved friendship. At length the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> -fatal period approached. McDonald and Campbell having passed the -day together, parted about seven in the evening, with mutual professions -of the warmest affection. As soon as Campbell had retired, he received -the following letter from major Duncanson, quartered at Ballachalis, a -place some distance from Glencoe. It is dated the 12th of February, -1692, and runs thus:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Sir</span>,—You are hereby ordered to fall upon the rebels, the McDonalds -of Glencoe, and put all to the sword under seventy years of age. -You are to have especial care that the old fox and his sons do upon no -account escape. This you are to put into execution at five o’clock in -the morning (Saturday, the 13th) precisely; and by that time I will -strive to be with you, with a stronger party. If I do not come to you -at five, you are not to tarry for me, but to fall on. Secure all the -avenues, that not a man may escape. <em>This is by the King’s especial -command</em>, for the good of the country, that these miscreants may be cut -off, root and branch.”</p></div> - -<p>This was instantly communicated to the officers and men under his -command, and immediate preparations made for carrying the inhuman -massacre into effect.</p> - -<p>The younger McDonald, perceiving the guards doubled, began to suspect -some treachery, and communicated his suspicion to his brother; -but neither he nor the father would harbour the least doubt of Campbell’s -sincerity; nevertheless, the two young men went forth privately, -to make farther observations. They overheard the common soldiers say -they liked not the work; that though they would willingly have fought -the McDonalds of the glen fairly in the field, they held it base to murder -them in cold blood; but that their officers were answerable for the -treachery. When the youths hasted back to apprise their father of the -impending danger, they saw the house already surrounded; they heard -the discharge of muskets, the shrieks of women and children; and, being -destitute of arms, secured their own lives by immediate flight. The -savage ministers of vengeance had entered the old man’s chamber, and -shot him through the head. He fell down dead in the arms of his wife, -who died next day, distracted by the horror of her husband’s fate. The -laird of Auchintrincken, McDonald’s guest, who had, three months before -this period, submitted to the government, and at this very time had a -protection in his pocket, was put to death without question. A boy of -eight years, who fell at Campbell’s feet, imploring mercy, and offering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> -to serve him for life, was stabbed to the heart by one Drummond, a -subaltern officer. Eight and thirty persons suffered in this manner, -the greater part of whom where surprised in their beds, and hurried into -eternity before they had time to implore the divine mercy. The design -to butcher all the males under seventy years of ago that lived in the -valley, the number of whom amounted to 200, was defeated by Duncanson -not arriving in time to secure the passes, so that one young man and -woman had nearly succeeded in escaping, and were climbing the last -rugged height of their native place, when they were discovered, and -shots immediately sent after them. Struck by one of them the unfortunate -young man made a convulsive spring, and fell headlong into the -valley below. His companion, alarmed by the report, lost her hold, and -tumbled after him. They were both killed by the fall.</p> - -<p>Campbell, having perpetrated this brutal massacre, ordered all the -houses to be burned, made a prey of all the cattle and effects that were -found in the valley, and left the helpless women and children, whose -husbands and fathers he had murdered, naked and forlorn, without -covering, food, or shelter, in the midst of the snow that covered the whole -face of the country, at the distance of six long miles from any inhabited -place. Distracted with grief and horror, surrounded with the shades of -night, shivering with cold, and appalled with the apprehension of immediate -death from the swords of those who had sacrificed their friends and -kinsmen, they could not endure such a complication of calamities, but -generally perished in the waste, before they could receive the least comfort -or assistance. This barbarous massacre, performed under the sanction -of King William’s authority, answered the immediate purpose of the -court, by striking terror into the hearts of the jacobite Highlanders; but -at the same time excited the horror of all those who had not renounced -every sentiment of humanity, and produced such an aversion to the government, -as all the arts of a ministry could never totally surmount. A -detail of the particulars was published at Paris, with many exaggerations, -and the jacobites did not fail to expatiate upon every circumstance, -in domestic libels and private conversation. The King, alarmed at the -outcry which was raised on this occasion, ordered an inquiry to be set -on foot, and dismissed the master of Stair from his employment of secretary; -he likewise pretended that he had subscribed the order amidst a -heap of other papers, without knowing the purport, of it; but as he did -not severely punish those who made his authority subservient to their -own cruel revenge, the imputation stuck fast to his character; and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> -Highlanders, though terrified into silence and submission, were inspired -with the most implacable resentment against his person and administration.”</p> - - -<div><a name="MLK" id="MLK"></a></div> -<p>SLAUGHTER or MASSACRE OF THE MAMELUKES, -March 1st, 1811.—“It has been related, that one of the chief means -employed by Mahomet Ali in civilizing Egypt, or in improving the state -of the country, was the destruction of the Mamelukes—a class of hired -foreign soldiers, who, as usual in such cases, were opposed to all changes -in the government. It was only by resorting to a barbarous stratagem -in one of his campaigns, that the sanguinary blow was struck. The -following is an account of this sanguinary affair:</p> - -<p>“The chiefs of the Mamelukes, with their adherents, being assembled, -by invitation from the Pacha of Egypt, within the citadel of Cairo, after -a time, according to eastern custom, coffee was brought, and, last of all, -the pipes; but at the moment when these were presented, as if from -etiquette, or to leave his guests more at their case, Mahomet Ali rose -and withdrew, and, sending privately for the captain of his guard, gave -orders that the gates of the citadel should be closed; adding, that as soon -as Siam Bey and his two associates should come out for the purpose of -mounting, they should be fired upon till they dropped, and that at the -same signal the troops posted throughout the fortress should take aim at, -every Mameluke within their reach, while a corresponding order was -sent down at the same time to those in the town, and to such even as -were encamped without, round the foot of the fortress, to pursue the -work of extermination on all stragglers that they should find, so that -not one of the proscribed body might escape. Siam Bey, and his two -brothers in command, finding that the Pacha did not return to them, -and being informed by the attendants that he was gone into his harem -(an answer that precluded all farther inquiry), judged it time to take -their departure. But no sooner did they make their appearance without, -and were mounting their horses, than they were suddenly fired -upon from every quarter, and all became at once a scene of confusion, -and dismay, and horror, similar volleys being directed at all the rest, -who were collected round, and preparing to return with them, so that -the victims dropped by hundreds. Siam himself had time to gain his -saddle, and even to penetrate to one of the gates of the citadel; but all -to no purpose, for he found it closed like the rest, and fell there pierced -with innumerable bullets. Another chief, Amim Bey, who was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> -brother to Elfi, urged the noble animal which he rode to an act of -greater desperation, for he spurred him till he made him clamber upon -the rampart; and preferring rather to be dashed to pieces than to be -slaughtered in cold blood, drove him to leap down the precipice, a height -that has been estimated at from thirty to forty feet, or even more; yet -fortune so favoured him, that though the horse was killed in the fall, -the rider escaped. An Albanian camp was below, and an officer’s tent -very near the spot on which he alighted. Instead of shunning it, he -went in, and throwing himself on the rites of hospitality, implored that -no advantage might be taken of him; which was not only granted, but -the officer offered him protection, even at his own peril, and kept him -concealed so long as the popular fury and the excesses of the soldiery -continued. Of the rest of that devoted number, thus shut up and surrounded, -not one went out alive; and even of those who had quietly -remained in the town, but very few found means to elude the activity -and greedy search that was made after them—a high price being set -upon every Mameluke’s head that should be brought. All Cairo was -filled with wailing and lamentations; and, in truth, the confusion and -horrors of that day are indescribable; for not the Mamelukes alone, but -others also, in many instances wholly unconnected with them, either -from mistake, or from malice, or for plunder, were indiscriminately -seized on and put to death; so that great as the number was that -perished of that ill-fated body, it yet did not comprehend the total of -the victims. The strange fact of the leap and escape of Amim Bey, and -of his asylum in the officer’s tent, reached at last the Pacha’s ears, who -sent instantly to demand him; and when the generous Albanian found -that it would be impossible any longer to shelter or screen his fugitive, -he gave him a horse, and recommended him to fly with all speed into -Asia, where, in the palace of Suleyman Pacha at Acre, he found safety.”</p> - - -<p>SLAVE TRADE.—The following is a good description of this horrible -trade now nearly at an end:—</p> - -<p>“On our return from Brazil, we fell in with a slave-ship. She had -taken in, on the coast of Africa, 336 males and 226 females, making in -all 562, and had been out seventeen days, during which she had thrown -overboard 55. The slaves were all enclosed under grated hatchways, -between decks. The space was so low, that they sat between each -other’s legs, and stowed so close together, that there was no possibility -of their lying down, or at all changing their position, by night or day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> -As they belonged to, and were shipped on account of different individuals, -they were all branded, like sheep, with the owners’ marks, of different -forms. These were impressed under their breasts, or on their arms, -and, as the mate informed me, with perfect indifference, “<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">queimados -pelo ferro quento</span>—burnt with the red-hot iron.” Over the hatchway -stood a ferocious-looking fellow, with a scourge of many twisted thongs -in his hand, who was the slave-driver of the ship; and whenever he -heard the slightest noise below, he shook it over them, and seemed eager -to exercise it. As soon as the poor creatures saw us looking down at -them, their dark and melancholy visages brightened up. They perceived -something of sympathy and kindness in our looks, which they -had not been accustomed to, and feeling, instinctively, that we were -friends, they immediately began to shout and clap their hands. One or -two had picked up a few Portuguese words, and cried out, “Viva! -viva!” The women were particularly excited. They all held up their -arms; and when we bent down and shook hands with them, they could -not contain their delight; they endeavoured to scramble upon their -knees, stretching up to kiss our hands; and we understood that they -knew we had come to liberate them. Some, however, hung down their -heads in apparently hopeless dejection; some were greatly emaciated, -and some, particularly children, seemed dying. But the circumstance -which struck us most forcibly, was, how it was possible for such a number -of human beings to exist, packed up and wedged together as tight -as they could cram, in low cells, three feet high, the greater part of -which, except that immediately under the grated hatchways, was shut -out from light or air, and this when the thermometer, exposed to the -open sky, was standing in the shade, on our deck, at 89 deg. The -space between decks was divided into compartments, three feet three -inches high; the size of one was sixteen feet by eighteen, and of the -other, forty by twenty-one; into the first were crammed the women and -girls; into the second, the men and boys: 226 fellow-creatures were -thus thrust into one space 288 feet square, and 336 into another space -800 feet square, giving to the whole an average of twenty-three inches, -and to each of the women not more than thirteen inches, though many -of them were pregnant. We also found manacles and fetters of different -kinds; but it appeared that they had all been taken off before we -boarded. The heat of these horrid places was so great, and the odour -so offensive, that it was quite impossible to enter them, even had there -been room. They were measured, as above, when the slaves had left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> -them. The officers insisted that the poor suffering creatures should be -admitted on deck, to get air and water. This was opposed by the mate -of the slaver, who, from a feeling that they deserved it, declared they -would murder them all. The officers, however, persisted, and the poor -beings were all turned up together. It is impossible to conceive the -effect of this eruption—507 fellow-creatures, of all ages and sexes, some -children, some adults, some old men and women, all in a state of total -nudity, scrambling out together to taste the luxury of a little fresh air -and water. They came swarming up, like bees from the aperture of a -hive, till the whole deck was crowded to suffocation, from stem to stern, -so that it was impossible to imagine where they could all have come -from, or how they could all have been stowed away. On looking into -places where they had been crammed, there were found some children -next the sides of the ship, in the places most remote from light and air; -they were lying nearly in a torpid state, after the rest had turned out. -The little creatures seemed indifferent as to life or death; and when -they were carried on deck, many of them could not stand. After enjoying -for a short time the unusual luxury of air, some water was brought; -it was then that the extent of their sufferings was exposed in a fearful -manner. They all rushed like maniacs towards it. No entreaties, or -threats, or blows, could restrain them; they shrieked and struggled, and -fought with one another, for a drop of this precious liquid, as if they -grew rabid at the sight of it. There is nothing which slaves, in the -middle passage, suffer from so much as the want of water. It is sometimes -usual to take out casks filled with sea-water as ballast, and when -the slaves are received on board, to start the casks and refill them with -fresh. On one occasion, a ship from Bahia neglected to change the contents -of the casks, and on the mid-passage found, to their horror, that -they were filled with nothing but salt water. All the slaves on board -perished! We could judge of the extent of their sufferings from the -afflicting sight we now saw.”</p> - - -<p>SLUYS, NAVAL BATTLE OF.—In this battle Edward III -gained a signal victory over the French. The English had the wind of -the enemy, and the sun at their backs, and began the action, which -was fierce and bloody—the English archers galling the French on their -approach; 230 French ships were taken; 30,000 Frenchmen were killed, -and two Admirals; English loss inconsiderable.—Fought, June 24th, 1340.</p> - - -<p>SMOLENSKO, BATTLE OF.—One of the most memorable battles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> -fought during the Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and -Russian armies. Fought, August 17th, 1812. The French were three -times repulsed, but at last gained the victory, and on entering Smolensko, -found it in ruins, on account of their bombardment.</p> - - -<p>SOBRAON, BATTLE OF.—<em>In India.</em>—Fought, February 10th, -1846, between the British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir Hugh Gough, -and the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The enemy were dislodged after a -dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken; and in attempting the -passage of the river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the -masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and more than -10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded or drowned. They also lost sixty-seven -cannon and some standards. The British lost 2383 men.</p> - - -<p>SOLEBAY, NAVAL BATTLE OF.—Between the fleets of England -and France on the one side and the Dutch on the other; the Allies commanded -by the Duke of York. The Dutch were compelled to flee, having -lost three ships, but the English lost four. In this obstinate and bloody -engagement the <i>Earl of Sandwich</i> man-of-war blew up, and 1000 men -were either killed or wounded. Fought, May 28th, 1672.</p> - - -<p>SOLFERINO, BATTLE OF.—This great battle, one of the most -bloody ever fought, took place during the war of Italy and France -against Austria. Fought, June 24th, 1859. The loss on both sides -was tremendous. The Austrians mustered 250,000 men; the Allies -150,000. The number slain and wounded ranged from 30,000 to -37,000. The result of this battle was the Austrians repassed the -Mincio, whilst the Allied headquarters were placed at Cavriana.</p> - - -<div><a name="SOR" id="SOR"></a></div> -<p>SORTIE FROM SEBASTOPOL.—The great sortie, during which -the good Captain Hedley Vicars was killed, is well described in the -following account:</p> - -<p>“On the night of the 22nd of March, the enemy, about 7000 strong -made a sortie from the works of the Mamelon, which the French, as -already related, had so gallantly endeavoured to wrest from them. The -distance between the advanced parallels of the opposing forces was not -more than sixty yards; and the Russians were fully alive to the necessity -of preventing, if possible, any further advance on the part of the -Allies. The French and English Generals were equally aware of the -importance of the position, and not less than 6000 or 7000 French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> -soldiers were nightly marched down to the trenches; our working and -covering parties numbering about 1500. Advancing stealthily in two -columns, the enemy attacked the head of the French sap, and were gallantly -met by a division of the 3rd Zouaves, under <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chef de Bataillon</span> -Balon. Three times was the attack made, and three times repulsed, not -without great loss both to assailants and defenders. Finding themselves -unable to force the French lines in this direction, the enemy changed his -front, and threw himself against the left of the French position; but -here, too, our brave Allies were equally on the alert, and a sharp volley -assured the adventurous Russians that but little success was to be hoped -for in that quarter. Rapidly extending their attack, they succeeded in -occupying the nearest English parallel, and thence poured a murderous -fire into the French lines. General D’Autemarre, the officer in command, -seeing the fierce nature of the attack, now ordered up the 4th battalion -of the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chasseurs-à-Pied</span>, who, in a vigorous bayonet charge, drove the -enemy from his position.</p> - -<p>While this was going on in the French trenches, to the right of our -lines, our troops were also engaged in repelling an equally determined -attack. A portion of the Russian columns advanced under cover of the -darkness, and succeeded in approaching the English lines. The first -intimation our men had of the threatened attack was from the advanced -sentinels, who quietly fell back with the intelligence that a large body of -the enemy was approaching our position. The English troops engaged -that night in the trenches consisted of detachments of the 7th, 34th, -77th, 88th, 90th, and 97th regiments, under the command of Colonel -Kelly, of the 34th. The advanced posts on the right nearest the French -lines were composed of men from the 77th and 97th, led by Captain -Vicars, who, hearing the approach of the enemy, ordered his men to keep -silence. On came the Russians, and when within a few yards of the -English trenches, they rushed forward and leaped into the works. They -were immediately met by the brave defenders of the lines, who, hitherto -motionless, now made an irresistible charge upon the advancing foe, and -after a few moments of desperate hand-to-hand conflict, literally pitched -them from the parapet. Captain Vicars, who led his men with distinguished -courage, met his death in this vigorous repulse. Major Gordon, -of the Engineers, who commanded the detachment on the right, was -severely wounded. While the attention of the defenders of the trenches -was thus drawn to the conflict in this direction, the enemy made another -attempt to penetrate our lines farther to the left, where two mortars had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> -been established for the defence of the trenches. Here they succeeded -in gaining a footing, notwithstanding a most brilliant resistance from a -few men of the 90th, who actually drove them from the battery, though -they were unable effectually to oppose their advance. The 7th and 34th, -under the command of Lieut.-Colonel Tylden, were now brought up to the -scene of action, and gallantly met the fierce assault. After a severe contest, -the Russians gave way, and were precipitated from the works. A -general attack was now made upon the retreating masses, who fled utterly -beaten. The French followed them so far as to be enabled to destroy -some of the rifle-pits they had established on the slope of the Mamelon, -which had been the means of such constant annoyance to our Allies. In -this pursuit Colonel Kelly was killed. The Russian loss must have been -very great. On our side, the casualties were not more than 38 killed -and wounded; the French lost over 300.</p> - -<p>On the next day an armistice, for the purpose of burying the dead, -was requested by General Osten-Sacken, the Russian Commander. This -was granted, and for two hours, on the 24th, the guns ceased firing, and -the officers and men of the opposed armies enjoyed a brief respite from -their deadly contest. There was a natural desire on each side to -approach as nearly as possible the lines of the other; and the soldiers -mingled freely in the open space between the Allies on the one side and -entrenched sides of the Mamelon in front. Burial parties were formed -and the dead and wounded of either army borne away by their comrades. -Meanwhile the officers chatted and exchanged cigars, and the men passed -equivocal compliments—such as their very limited acquaintance with -each other’s language would permit; the Russians making kind inquiries -as to when the Allies would favour them with a visit at Sebastopol; and -our fellows requesting them not to trouble themselves with special preparations, -as they intended to make themselves quite at home when they -did come. The dead and wounded, in every variety of attitude, were a -frightful spectacle, even to those inured to scenes of strife and bloodshed. -At length the armistice expired, the white flags disappeared from the -parapet of the Mamelon, the stragglers hastily ran to the protection of -their works, and in an instant the boom of hostile cannon again thundered -on the ear, and clouds of white smoke again obscured the scene of -the brief truce.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span></p> - - -<p>SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS, THE.—“The grand truth -embodied in the majestic lines—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verseq">“Let us be back’d with God, and with the seas,</p> -<p class="verse0">Which he hath given for fence impregnable,</p> -<p class="verse0">And with their helps alone defend ourselves;</p> -<p class="verse0">In them, and in ourselves, our safety lies.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">seems to have been a heartfelt conviction in the breasts of all true -Englishmen, long centuries before the poet was born.</p> - -<p>King John, whom history has generally branded as a very unworthy -monarch, had some redeeming kingly qualities—not the least of which -was his determined assertion of England’s sovereignty of the seas. He -ordered his sea-captains to compel all foreigners to salute his flag by -“striking” their own national flags, and, probably, by also lowering -their topsails (as was the practice at a subsequent period), in acknowledgment -of England’s maritime supremacy. If any foreign ship, even -though belonging to a friendly power, refused compliance, it was to be -seized, and adjudged a lawful prize. This and other facts lead to the -conclusion that John only enforced an ancient claim to dominion of the -seas, which had been asserted and enforced occasionally time out of mind.</p> - -<p>Edward III, during his wonderfully long reign of fifty-one years, was -a most jealous asserter of his sovereignty of the seas, over which he -claimed a judicial power. Dr. Campbell says that Edward, “in his -commissions to admirals and inferior offices, frequently styles himself -sovereign of the English seas, asserting that he derived this title from -his progenitors, and deducing from them by the grounds of his instructions, -and of the authority committed to them by these delegations. -His parliaments, likewise, in the preambles of their bills, take notice of -this point, and that it was a thing notorious to foreign nations that the -King of England, in right of his crown, was sovereign of the seas. In -old “Hakluyt’s Voyages” is printed a very curious poem, called “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De -politia conservativa maris</span>,” supposed to have been written in the time -of Edward IV. It contains a number of separate chapters, each of -which is full of most valuable and instructive information concerning the -commerce of England with various countries. The unknown author, -who must have been a man of very extensive information in his day, -urges most strongly his countrymen to maintain inviolate the sovereignty -of the seas, as the only means to preserve their prosperity and safety.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Charles I, both the French and Dutch began to -express great jealousy of the British claim to dominion of the seas, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> -Hugo Grotius endeavoured very learnedly to prove that Albion had no -better natural right than Holland, or any other maritime nation, to such -a title. Our own equally learned and eloquent Selden retorted by his -celebrated treatise “Mare Clausum.” We need not quote any of his -arguments, which are generally profound, and, if not always impregnable -to impartial criticism, are at any rate patriotic and singularly striking -and ingenious. Suffice it that the general conclusion to which he arrives -is conveyed in one very impressive sentence: “That they (the English) -have an hereditary, uninterrupted right to the sovereignty of their seas, -conveyed to them from their earliest ancestors, in trust for their latest -posterity.” Mainly with a view to enforce his claim to the sovereignty -of the narrow seas, did Charles I endeavour to provide a naval -force sufficient to overawe both French and Dutch, and therefore issued -his writs for levying “ship-money”—a most fatal undertaking as concerned -himself; for, as every reader knows, this arbitrary measure -(however honourable its original motives might have been) was the -beginning of that deplorable alienation between the King and his subjects -which resulted in the great civil war, and eventually cost the -hapless monarch both his crown and his life.</p> - -<p>In 1635 the King, by his secretary of state, addressed a long and -deeply interesting letter of instructions to his ambassador at the Hague, -in order to enable the latter to explain and justify to their “High -Mightinesses” his naval preparations, and their meaning and objects. -We will extract a few passages illustrative of our theme: “We hold it,” -saith King Charles, “a principle not to be denied, that the King of -Great Britain is a monarch at land and sea, to the full extent of his -dominions; and that it concerneth him as much to maintain his sovereignty -in all the British seas, as within his three kingdoms; because, -without that, these cannot be kept safe, nor he preserve his honour, and -due respect with other nations. But, commanding the seas, he may -cause his neighbours, and all countries, to stand upon their guard whensoever -he thinks fit. And this cannot be doubted, that whosoever will -encroach on him by sea, will do it by land also, when they see their -time.... The degrees by which his Majesty’s dominion at sea -hath of later years been first impeached, and then questioned, are as -considerable as notorious.... But withal, considering that peace -must be maintained by the arm of power, which only keeps down war -by keeping up dominion; his Majesty, thus provoked, finds it necessary, -for his own defence and safety, <em>to re-assume and keep his ancient and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> -undoubted right in the dominion of the seas</em>, and suffer no other prince -or state to encroach upon him, thereby assuming to themselves or their -admirals any sovereign command, but to force them to perform due -homage to his admirals and ships, and to pay acknowledgments as in -former times they did.”</p> - -<p>The Protector of the Commonwealth proved himself quite as jealous -of maintaining the power and privileges of the navy, as any of his kingly -predecessors, and he did what not one of them had ever effected, namely, -made a treaty with the United Provinces (the Low Countries), by which -it was solemnly stipulated “that the ships and vessels of the United -Provinces, as well those fitted for war as others, meeting any ships of -war of the said Commonwealth in the British seas, shall strike their -flag and lower their topsail, in such manner as had been any time before -practised under any former government.” This was in 1654. After -the restoration, Charles II renewed the treaty in 1662, and in 1667, in -almost precisely the same terms as the above; and at the conclusion of -the Dutch war, in 1673, in the fourth article of the treaty of peace it -was expressly stipulated that if any “ships or vessels of war, or others, -or whether single or in fleets, shall meet in any of the seas from Cape -Finisterre to the middle point of the land of Vanstaten in Norway, with -any ships or vessels belonging to his Majesty of Great Britain, whether -those ships be single or in greater numbers, if they carry his Majesty of -Great Britain’s flag or jack, the aforesaid Dutch vessels or ships shall -strike their flag and lower their topsail, in the same manner, and with -as much respect, as has at any time and in any place been formerly -practised,” &c. The reader will bear in mind that the Dutch were at -that time the most powerful naval power next to Great Britain. The -treaty appears to have confirmed the dominion of the latter beyond what -might properly be called the “narrow,” or “British seas,” including, -as it did, all from the south-west of Portugal to a cape in Norway.</p> - -<p>During the reigns of the four Stuart kings, as well as under the protectorate -of Cromwell, the “Mariners of England,”</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verseq">“Whose flag has braved, a thousand years,</p> -<p class="verse0">The battle and the breeze,”</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">did indeed jealously “guard our native seas,” and assert and maintain -their country’s sovereignty thereof. In 1652, two fierce actions were -fought on this very score “On the 14th of May, Commodore Young -fell in with a Dutch convoy, escorted by three ships of war, from whom -he civilly demanded <em>the usual honours to be paid to the English flag</em>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> -The Dutch commander positively refused to comply, giving as a reason -that he had express orders from the States-General not to pay those -honours which the English exacted from their ships in the Channel. -Commodore Young, on this refusal, fired into the Dutch, which brought -on a smart action; but at length the Dutch ships struck, and, <em>after -paying the compliment</em>, were allowed to proceed on their voyage.” Only -four days later, Blake himself and Van Tromp had a far more serious -encounter on the very same score. Van Tromp and his fleet stood -towards Dover, off which Blake was lying with fifteen men-of-war, and -paid no respect whatever to the English flag. Blake instantly fired, -from his own ship, three unshotted guns at the Dutchman as a reminder -of his want of respect. Van Tromp retorted with a broadside. “A -most furious engagement instantly began. At first the whole of the -Dutch fleet directed their fire at the English admiral, but he was soon -bravely supported by the rest of the ships, and Commodore Bourne -joining at the same time with eight sail more, obliged the Dutch to bear -away, though still superior in number, and seek shelter at the back of -the Goodwin Sands, after having been most severely mauled. The -action lasted from four till nine at night. One of the Dutch ships was -taken, and another sunk.”</p> - -<p>In a volume of the “Naval Chronicle,” for 1807, the sovereignty of -the sea is described as being “an actual and peculiar use and enjoyment -of the sea itself, and the performance of all the functions of a sovereign -upon it; such as prescribing rules of navigation to those who frequent -it, punishing delinquents, protecting others, and receiving from all that -homage and advantage which are due to every lawful sovereign.” The -writer proceeds to state that the dominion of the sea entitles the “lawful -possessors” to six several prerogatives. The first two refer to the right -of fishing, &c., and the residue we will give at length.</p> - -<p>“3. To impose tribute and customs on all merchant ships and fishermen, -fishing and trading within the limits of the sea that is subjected to -any particular dominions.</p> - -<p>“4. The regular execution of justice for protecting the innocent, and -punishing the guilty for all crimes committed within the extent of such -sea-dominions.</p> - -<p>“5. To grant free passage through any such sea to any number of ships -of war belonging to any other prince or republic, or to deny the same, -according to the circumstances and occasion of such passage, in the same -manner as any prince or state may grant or deny free passage to foreign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> -troops through their territories by land, even though the prince or state -to whom such ships or land forces belong <em>be not only at peace, but in -alliance</em> with the prince or republic of whom passage is desired.</p> - -<p>“6. To demand of all foreign ships whatsoever within those seas to -strike the flag and lower the topsail to any ships of war, or others bearing -the colours of the sovereign of such seas.”</p> - -<p>The latest example of an English commander insisting on a salute to -his flag, which we have been able to find, occurred in the month of June, -1769, when “a French frigate having anchored in the Downs, without -paying the usual compliment to the British flag, Captain John Holwell, -who was the senior officer lying there, in the ‘Apollo’ frigate, sent an -officer on board to demand the customary salute; the French captain -refused to comply, upon which Captain Holwell immediately ordered the -‘Hawk,’ sloop of war, to fire two shot over her, which being done, the -French commander thought proper instantly to salute.”</p> - -<p>Many of the greatest of our poets have eloquently alluded to the sea-sovereignty -of their native island, ramparted with tidal waters. Who -does not remember the truly magnificent lines:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verseq">“This precious stone set in the silver sea,</p> -<p class="verse0">Which serves it as the office of a wall,</p> -<p class="verse0">Or as a moat defensive to a house</p> -<p class="verse0">Against the envy of less happy lands!</p> -<hr class="r20" /> -<p class="verse0">England, bound in with the triumphant sea,</p> -<p class="verse0">Whose rocky shore beats back the envious siege</p> -<p class="verse0">Of watery Neptune.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">The popular strain of Thomson’s “Rule Britannia” gives an emphatic -assertion of Britain’s naval greatness. No poet, however, has so celebrated -the floating bulwarks of Britain, and the “Hearts of Oak” who -man them, as Campbell. His marvellously spirit-stirring lyric, “Ye -Mariners of England,”<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> has no rival in its intense patriotism.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, suffice it that for a considerable time the claim of -England’s sovereignty of the seas, so far as it includes special homage to -our flag, or anything resembling a judicial supremacy over the ships of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> -other nations, within the limits of the narrow (or any other) seas, has -been a dead letter. But we can well afford to dispense with what was -at best a somewhat questionable sort of shadowy honour, for we know -that we yet retain the substantial maritime supremacy which alone -enables us to rank as the foremost nation of the world—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verseq">“Mistress, at least while Providence shall please,</p> -<p class="verse0">And trident-bearing Queen of the wide seas!”</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">to quote the noble lines of the patriotic and Christian poet, Cowper. -Well will it be for us to constantly bear in mind the vital truth that the -same great poet proclaimed:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verseq">“They trust in navies, and their navies fail:</p> -<p class="verse0">God’s curse can cast away ten thousand sail!”</p> -</div></div> - - -<p>SPURS, BATTLE OF THE.—Henry VIII of England landed in -France, July, 1513, and soon gathered an army of 30,000 men. He was -shortly after joined by the Emperor Maximilian, with a well-appointed -army of horse and foot. They laid siege to Terouenne, which they invested -with an army of 50,000 men; and the Duc de Longueville advancing to -its relief was signally defeated. The French were everywhere routed -in the battle. This battle of Guinnegate was called the Battle of the -Spurs, because the French made more use of their spurs than their -swords. Fought 18th, August, 1513.</p> - - -<div><a name="STA" id="STA"></a></div> -<p>STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE.—Fought <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1135. The -following graphic account gives the reason why the engagement was so -called:</p> - -<p>“King David at once marched into England to strike for the rights of -his niece. Twice he ravaged Northumberland with merciless barbarity. -In a third invasion he penetrated into Yorkshire. Stephen was in the -south, hard pressed by the partisans of Matilda, and was obliged to leave -the northern part of his kingdom to look to its own defence. There was -a man in those parts who knew what to do. This was the aged Thurstan, -Archbishop of York. He assembled the Barons at York, held a solemn -fast, gave them absolution and his blessing, and delivered into their hands -his crozier and the holy banner of St. Peter of York. He ordered processions -of the priests with crosses, banners, and relics in every parish. -He enjoined all men capable of bearing arms to rise “for the defence of -the Church against the barbarians.” To all who should die in battle he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> -promised salvation. He sent forth the priests to lead their parishioners -to battle. Sickness alone prevented him, aged as he was, from putting -on his own coat of mail.</p> - -<p>The English standard was erected on Cutton Moor, near Northallerton. -The mast of a ship was set up on a high four-wheeled car. At the top -of the mast was a large cross; in the centre of the cross a silver box containing -the consecrated wafer. Below the cross floated the banners of -three Saints, St. Peter of York, St. John of Beverley, and St. Wilfred -of Ripon. The idea of this car seems to have been taken from the great -standard car which was used by the people of Lombardy.</p> - -<p>The Scottish army was 26,000 strong. Men from the Lowlands of -Scotland were there armed with cuirasses and long spears; archers from -the southland “dales,” or valleys of the rivers that run into Tweed and -Solway; troopers from the Border mountains, who rode small, but strong -and active horses; the fierce men of Galloway, who carried long pikes -and wore no defensive armour; clansmen from the Highlands with the -small round target and claymore; men of the isles, who wielded a long-handled -battle-axe. A strong body of knights and men-at-arms, sheathed -in complete mail, rode around the King.</p> - -<p>The English placed their standard in their centre. Their steel-clad -knights dismounted, sent their horses to the rear, and formed in a compact -mass round the standard car. The Scots came on, shouting their -war cry, “Alban! Alban!” Their fierce charge drove in the English -infantry, but they could not break through the dense array of mailed -warriors who surrounded the standard, and received them on the points -of their levelled lances. The long pikes of the Galloway men were -shivered against the strong plate-armour of the knights. In vain the -Highlanders tried to hew their way with the claymore into the mass of -iron-cased chivalry. The archers of Yorkshire, Nottingham, and Lincolnshire, -with their great bows, and arrows of three feet in length, -ranged themselves on both flanks of the Scots, and kept up from either -side a constant flight of their deadly shafts. On many another bloody -day the Scots were destined to know right cruelly the fatal force of the -cloth-yard arrow!</p> - -<p>For full two hours the attack was maintained. At length the Scots -began to recoil. An English soldier, cutting off the head of one of the -slain, raised it aloft, and cried, “The head of the King of Scots.” The -report that their King was killed flew through the Scottish army and filled -them with dismay. They broke and fled. The King, tearing off his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> -helmet to show his face, kept together a small body of troops around -himself, and was able in some degree to check the pursuit. On that -bloody moor he left 12,000 dead.”</p> - - -<p>STIRLING, BATTLE OF.—Fought, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1297.</p> - -<p>“Wallace was engaged in the siege of Dundee when tidings were -brought him that an army, fifty thousand strong, was on the march from -England to put the Scots down. They were holding their course -towards Stirling. Wallace immediately left Dundee and advanced to -meet them. If he could reach the river Forth before the English, he -meant to make them pay for their passage. He marched swiftly, talking -over and arranging his plans with the good Sir John the Graham as they -rode. When they reached the hill above Cambuskenneth, two miles east -from Stirling, no English were in sight. It was not long, however, till -their banners were seen approaching. The chief of their host was the -Earl of Surrey. But he was old and in broken health, and the man who -really took the command was Sir Hugh Cressingham, Edward’s Lord -Treasurer of Scotland. Cressingham was a priest, haughty and insolent, -who loved the corslet better than the cassock.</p> - -<p>The English, three times more in number than the Scots, advanced -and took up their position on the banks of the Forth. Wallace occupied -the high ground to the north. The river, spanned by a long and narrow -wooden bridge, flowed between the armies. The towers of Cambuskenneth -Abbey threw their shadows slant and long as the September sun -sank behind Ben Lomond. The glow of the watchfires lighted up the deep -and sluggish waters of the Forth, as the two armies lay under the silent -night, waiting for day, and what fortune God might send.</p> - -<p>Morning came, but Surrey was in no haste to begin. The bridge was -so narrow that only two men-at-arms could pass it abreast. The attempt -to cross a deep river in the face of an enemy, by one narrow passage, was -so dangerous that the English general hesitated to risk it. But the rash -and scornful churchman, Cressingham, would try it. He insisted on -instantly attacking the Scots with the division under his command. -Surrey gave way to the taunts of the headstrong priest, and ordered the -attack.</p> - -<p>A brave knight, Sir Marmaduke de Twenge, led the advance at the -head of a squadron of cavalry, heavily sheathed in steel, both horse and -man. Cressingham with his division followed. The Scots, posted on -high ground, kept their ranks and allowed the English to defile over the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> -bridge. Wait! they know what they are about. Twenge has got his -division of heavy cavalry over to the opposite shore. Cressingham’s -division are eagerly crowding along the bridge. Twenge forms his cavalry -and leads them up the hill against the main body of the Scots. Nearly -half the English army has crossed without interruption. But see that -strong force of Scottish spearmen who, fetching a circuit, and keeping -near the river, make swiftly for the head of the bridge. They dash across -the line of English as it issues from the bridge, and cut it in two. -Forming in a solid mass bristling with spears, they occupy the bridgehead, -and bar the bridge against all passage. Surrey looks on over the -water. In three minutes the old General shall see a sight to make his -white hair stand up!</p> - -<p>The moment Wallace has waited for has come. Up then, and at them! -The Scots charge furiously down the hill on Twenge and his cavalry, and -hurl them back in disorder on the squadrons of Cressingham, great part -of which have not had time to form since they passed the bridge. The -English are mingled, horse and foot, in desperate confusion. Hundreds -of them go down before the fierce charge of the Scots. The long spears -plough the thick, disordered mass. Vast numbers are driven back into -the river. The deep, still-flowing river swallows horse and man with -splash and gurgle. Multitudes madly plunge in, vainly hoping to struggle -to the other side, and the water is lashed into a foam by the drowning -struggles of thousands of men and horses. This is the sight which old -Surrey sees, sitting his warhorse on the safe side of the Forth.</p> - -<p>He did what he could to send help to his reeling squadrons. The -royal standard of England, with its three gold leopards set on red, was -advanced to the cry of “For God and St. George!” A strong body of -knights attended it. Then came Surrey’s own banner, of chequered blue -and gold, followed by a numerous force of his vassals. It was in vain. -They forced their way over the bridge, but finding no room to form, they -only served to increase the confusion and swell the slaughter made by the -Scottish spearmen. Of all who crossed that fatal bridge there returned -but three. Sir Marmaduke Twenge with his nephew and armour-bearer, -spurring their steads, rushed into the midst of the Scots at the bridgehead, -cut their way through, and escaped unharmed. The haughty -churchman, Cressingham, lay dead on the field. A Scottish spear had -pierced his mail like silk, and run him through the body, till the point -stood out on the other side. It was said that Wallace’s own hand drove -that spear home.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span></p> - -<p>Surrey saw that the safe side of the Forth was safe no longer, for the -Scots were preparing to cross. He turned his horse, and fled without -drawing bridle to Berwick. His troops broke and scattered in all directions. -The face of the country was covered with a confused mass of -terrified fugitives, who threw away their arms and standards as they fled. -Keen and fierce the Scots pressed the chase, and their thirsty swords -drank much blood. The powerful host which a few hours before had -marshalled so proudly beside Stirling Bridge was beaten small and scattered -like chaff.”</p> - - -<p>STONY CREEK.—<em>Canada.</em>—Fought, June 5th, 1813. Between -the Canadians and Americans, the latter commanded by Generals Chandler -and Winder. The Americans had advanced as far as Stony Creek with -the intention of dislodging him, when Lieutenant Colonel Harvey, now -Sir John Harvey, conceived and executed a plan of surprising them in -the night. Before day he entered their camp, consisting of 3000 -men, with only 704 soldiers, killed and wounded a great number, and -captured two Generals and 120 prisoners. This affair so disconcerted -the Americans that they returned hastily to Fort George, leaving the -communication with part of Niagara frontier open to the British, and -perhaps eventually saving the whole of the Province.</p> - - -<p>STRATTON HILL, BATTLE OF.—Between the Royal army and -the forces of the Parliament, headed by the Poet Waller. The Parliamentarians -lost the battle, with numbers of killed and wounded, and Waller -was obliged to flee to Bristol. Fought, May 16th, 1643. Waller was -nephew to the great Hampden.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="T" id="T"></a>T.</h3> - - -<p>TALAVERA.—Fought, July, 27th and 28th, 1809, between the -English and French and Spanish armies.—“After the campaigns of Marlborough, -the English army acquired little distinction in the field for more -than a century. The battles of Dettingen (1743), Fontenoy (1745), and -Minden (1759), were affairs in which England was involved by her Hanoverian -alliances, and in which small bodies of English troops were engaged, -with little glory, and with but trifling results. It was not until the next -century had opened, and the talent and ambition of one of the world’s -greatest conquerors had almost reached the climax of universal dominion, -that England, for her own preservation, and for the rescue of the Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> -peninsula from his grasp, was compelled to send an army into Spain; -which, under the guidance of one of the most consummate Generals that -the world has ever seen, chased the armies of France over province after -province, from Lisbon to Biscay, and ultimately drove them over the -Pyrenees.</p> - -<p>The peninsular campaigns of the Duke of Wellington commenced with -the brilliant affair of Vimiera; but we cannot dignify that engagement -with the name of a great battle, in which the forces on either side, did -not exceed thirteen or fourteen thousand men; and the fruits of which -were snatched from the victor’s hands by the sudden arrival of a superior -in command. It was on Sir Arthur Wellesley’s second appearance in -Portugal, in the year following the battle of Vimiera, that the contest -really began; and the three great battles which distinguished its successive -stages, were those of Talavera, Salamanca, and Vittoria. The first -exhibited the power of Napoleon in Spain fairly grappled with; the -second showed that power defeated; the third closed the struggle by its -absolute downfall and expulsion.</p> - -<p>After his supercession in 1808, on the very day of Vimiera, Sir Arthur -Wellesley had returned to England; but, happily, the indignation felt by -the English people at the convention of Cintra, by which the results of -that victory had been thrown away, warned the British government that -it was needful in times of great emergency to depart from the rule of -<em>seniority</em>, and to select a Commander mainly on the ground of known and -proved talent and ability. Hence the victor of Vimiera was again called -into the field, and, on the 22nd of April, 1809, Sir Arthur Wellesley a -second time landed in Portugal.</p> - -<p>“The unexpected arrival of a victorious Commander,” says Sir W. -Napier, “created the greatest enthusiasm:—the Regency nominated him -Captain-General; the people hailed his presence, and an undefined but -powerful sentiment that something great would be achieved, pervaded the -public mind.” Still, somewhat surprising, and rather overweening, was -this confidence; for Sir Arthur Wellesley commanded only 26,000 -English and German troops;—the Spanish and Portuguese armies were -of little worth, and the French Emperor had at that moment in the -Peninsula, a force of <em>two hundred and seventy thousand men</em>.</p> - -<p>Sir Arthur lost no time in bringing his troops into action. On the -12th of May he crossed the Douro, in the face of the French army, and -carried Oporto. Soult had entered it two months before with 25,500 -men; he quitted it with 19,500, having lost by the sword and by sickness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> -by assassination and capture, 6,000 good soldiers. He had marched -into Portugal with 58 pieces of artillery, he quitted it without a gun! Yet -Soult was perhaps the greatest of all Napoleon’s Generals. Sir Arthur’s next -object was, and indeed it seemed a necessity of his position, to seek the -French armies, and to fight them with the least possible delay. The -demand of the English, and of the Portuguese also, was to be led against -the foe. To raise the spirit of the people of Spain and Portugal, and also -of the governments of both countries, it was necessary to show that there -was an army and a General in the field, and that neither the army nor -the General were afraid of meeting the French.</p> - -<p>At this period the Spanish Generals and the Spanish Ministers had not -fully proved their entire inefficiency. They still boasted of their power -to “drive the French out of Madrid, and out of Spain;” and if the -English General had refused to co-operate with them, he would have been -charged with cowardice or with treachery. On the 27th of June, 1809, -therefore, Sir Arthur, at the head of 22,000 British troops, and with -30 guns, entered Spain, and began his march on Madrid. The Spanish -General Cuesta, with an army of 39,000 men, was to co-operate with -him.</p> - -<p>This co-operation, however, proved to be nothing but hindrance and a -source of vexation. The two armies marched forward, Sir Arthur grieved, -day by day, by some failure of supplies, means of transport, or other -necessary aid. On one occasion a delay of two whole days was created by -the Spanish General’s obstinacy. On the 24th of July Sir Arthur wrote -to Lord Castlereagh, “I am not able to follow the enemy as I could wish; -having found it impossible to procure <em>even one mule, or a cart in Spain</em>; ... My -troops have been in actual want of provisions for the last two -days.” Meanwhile the Spanish Government took care of its own troops, -and left the English to shift for themselves. “The French,” writes Sir -Arthur, “can take what they like and will take it—while we cannot -even buy common necessaries.”</p> - -<p>Joseph, the nominal King of Spain, was apprized of the approach of -the English and Spanish forces, and marched out of Madrid with -25,000 French veterans, commanded by Marshals Jourdan and Victor, -to meet them. The two armies came into the neighbourhood of each -other about the 22nd of July, 1809. Sir Arthur and Cuesta had agreed, -on that day, that Victor’s corps, which had been found detached from the -rest of the French army, should be attacked on the following day. But -when the English troops were getting under arms the next morning, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> -old Spaniard was not up, and finally, he objected to any attack that day. -The fact was, that the French General had contrived to corrupt some of -Cuesta’s staff, and thus difficulties were constantly thrown in the way.</p> - -<p>Victor, whose discomfiture would have been easy on the 23rd, had now -escaped, and had joined Sebastiani and King Joseph. The whole French -army now amounted to 56,122 men, and, confident in their strength, -the Commanders resolved at once to march upon Talavera, and to attack -the Anglo-Spanish army.</p> - -<p>Two or three minor engagements preceded the general battle. On -the 27th, in the afternoon, Victor’s advanced guards came upon the -British outposts, and immediately attacked them. The English troops, -some of whom then saw fire for the first time, were thrown into some -confusion, and Sir Arthur himself narrowly escaped being made prisoner. -A body of 10,000 Spanish which was posted near, took such an alarm, -that they broke and fled, giving out that “all was lost.” Sir Arthur, -with some difficulty, restored order, brought up fresh troops, and the -French were finally driven off. Yet such was the effect of this panic -among the Spanish troops, that they went into action the next day with -6000 men less than their previous number.</p> - -<p>That same night Victor, encouraged by the effect of the surprise thus -narrated, made an attack after sunset on a hill which was the key of the -English position. For a moment the French attack succeeded, but -General Hill brought up the 48th regiment, and at last expelled the -French from the ground which they had gained. The British lost 800 -men, and the French 1000, in this affair, which was not ended until long -after dark.</p> - -<p>As soon, however, as the day dawned, the French renewed the attack.</p> - -<p>Once more they ascended the hill, and struggled hand to hand with -the English infantry. General Hill was wounded, and many officers fell -around him. But the French never gained the upper hand. After a -severe contest, they fell back; and the English pressed down the hill, -after them, until the whole of the attacking column got into confusion, -and finally rushed down the declivity in headlong rout. This single -attack, which lasted only forty minutes, cost the French nearly 1500 -men.</p> - -<p>A consultation was now held in the French camp, as to the expediency -of immediately risking a general battle. Jourdan strongly urged -the taking up a position behind the Alberche, and there awaiting the -approach of Soult, who, with another army, was expected to menace the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> -English on their flank and rear in a few days. Victor was more confident, -promising to carry the hill on the English left, if Sebastiani would -attack the centre and right at the same moment. He added, “If such -a combination can fail, it is time that we gave up war.”</p> - -<p>King Joseph hesitated; when, at that moment, a despatch arrived -from Soult, stating that he could not reach the neighbourhood in less -than a week. This decided the matter, and orders were given to attack.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, many discouragements prevailed in the English camp. -Provisions were scarce, and the men suffered from hunger. Among the -Spaniards all was confusion and distrust. Such alarm was created by -Cuesta’s conduct, that in the very midst of the battle, his own countryman, -the Duke d’Albuquerque, sent one of his staff to warn Sir Arthur -Wellesley that “Cuesta was betraying him.” Sir Arthur received the -message while seated on the hill, intently watching the movements of -the French. He listened to it without even turning his head; and -coolly replied to the officer who brought him the message, “Very well, -you may return to your brigade;” and then quietly resumed his survey.</p> - -<p>But now the battle began. The allied army was posted near Talavera, -having that city and the Tagus on its right, a hill already referred to on -its left, a sort of ravine and water-course in front; and looking towards -the Alberche,—a river which flows into the Tagus,—in front of which -lay the whole French army. “The British and Germans,” says Sir W. -Napier, “were somewhat above 19,000 sabres and bayonets, with 30 -guns. The Spaniards were 33 or 34,000 men, with 70 guns. The -French advanced with 80 guns, and nearly 50,000 men. But what a -difference in the quality of the troops! The French were all hardy -veterans; while the genuine soldiers of the allied army did not exceed -19,000.”</p> - -<p>Before one o’clock the French soldiers were seen to gather round their -eagles, and the rolling of drums was heard along the whole line. Half -an hour later, King Joseph’s guards, the reserve, and the fourth corps -were descried in march; and soon the table-land and the height on the -French right were covered with dark and lowering masses. Victor gave -the signal for battle, and 80 pieces of artillery sent a tempest of bullets -before the light troops, who came on with all the swiftness and -violence of a hailstorm, followed by the broad black columns in all the -majesty of war.</p> - -<p>“Sir Arthur Wellesley from the hill viewed the whole field of battle. -He saw the fourth corps rushing forwards with the usual impetuosity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> -French soldiers and falling upon Campbell’s division, which held the -right centre, with infinite fury; yet that General, assisted by Mackenzie’s -brigade and two Spanish battalions, withstood their utmost efforts. The -British regiment met the advancing columns with loud shouts, broke their -front, lapped their flanks with fire, and at last pushed them back with a -terrible carnage. Ten guns were taken; but as Campbell feared to break -his line by a pursuit, the French rallied, and made head for another -attack. Then the British artillery played vehemently upon them; a -Spanish regiment of cavalry charged their flank; they retired in disorder, -and the victory was secured in that quarter.”</p> - -<p>This was on the right of the English line. On the left, two different -columns of French were seen advancing towards the hill, the key of the -position. Sir Arthur sent forward an English regiment of cavalry, and -the 1st German hussars, to charge the heads of these columns. A hollow -cleft, not before perceived, stopped the Germans; some of the English -leaped it, in twos and threes, and in desultory manner fell upon the -French infantry. Some Polish lancers charged them while thus disordered, -and the regiment was broken, and lost 207 officers and men.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, one of the French attacking columns was actually contending -for possession of the hill; and at the same time a powerful mass of -infantry, crossing the ravine, pressed hard upon the English centre. The -French attack was at first driven back; then the English Guards, in the -excitement of success, rushed after them with reckless ardour. The -French reserves charged them; the Guards, disordered, were broken; -the German Legion, adjoining, got into confusion, and for the moment -the English centre seemed to be shaken and in disorder.</p> - -<p>But when the Guards had made their rash charge, Sir Arthur, foreseeing -the issue of it, had ordered up the 48th regiment; and had also -sent for Cotton’s light-horse. The French came on, pushing before them -the disordered foot-guards. Sir Arthur charged them with the 48th, -brought them to a stand; the Guards and the German Legion speedily -recovered their ranks; and at last this terrible attack was defeated, and -the French were pushed back over the ravine, carrying with them their -general, Lapisse, mortally wounded.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile their attack on the hill had failed; while on the Spanish -part of the army, safely posted behind redoubts in Talavera, they had -made no assault. And so closed the battle of Talavera. Both sides -remained in the position of the morning when night closed upon them. -But at day-break the French began their retreat; and before six o’clock<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> -their whole army was safely encamped behind the Alberche. That day, -too, Sir Robert Crawford joined the British army, bringing with him the -43rd, the 52nd, and the 95th regiments; which troops immediately -relieved the rest of the army of the outpost-duty.</p> - -<p>The loss of the English in this terrible contest was 6268; including -in the reckoning all the attacks, both on the 27th and the 28th. The loss -of the French was 8794, according to their own returns. They lost -also 17 guns, some tumbrils, and several hundred prisoners.</p> - -<p>Sir Arthur Wellesley, as we have said, was obliged to fight this battle. -Had he refused to advance, the Spanish government and people would -have deemed his presence useless, and would have upbraided him with -want of courage. And having advanced, the French Marshals very -naturally looked upon him as their prey; and attacked him, deeming his -defeat certain.</p> - -<p>The reputation gained by the victory was obviously that arising from -a fearless meeting of the attack of a fine French army of 50,000 men, -led by two celebrated Generals, with an Anglo-German force of 19,000, -encumbered with the merely nominal aid of Spaniards. A French -critic, General Jomini, thus speaks of the moral result: “This battle at -once restored the reputation of the British army, which, during a century -past, had declined. It was now ascertained, that the English -infantry could dispute the palm with the best in Europe.”</p> - -<p>Sir Arthur, too, had now seen, and his troops had seen and proved, -the value of the Spanish army; and all illusion on that subject had ceased. -Their artillery was well trained, and sometimes rendered good service; -but their cavalry was wretched; and their infantry was totally unable to -perform evolutions under fire without falling into confusion. The result -therefore naturally was, that the English General, retiring into Portugal, -commenced plans to be carried out by English and Portuguese forces, in -which the Spanish armies bore little or no part.</p> - -<p>The merits of the English Commander were promptly recognized by his -own government. He was immediately created Baron Douro and Viscount -Wellington of Talavera, and of Wellington in the county of -Somerset.</p> - -<p>There is a remarkable similarity, in all its chief features, between this, -the first of Wellington’s great battles, and Waterloo, his last. Doubling -the numbers on both sides, the proportions were nearly the same. The -French at Talavera had more than 50,000 excellent troops,—at Waterloo -they had almost twice as many. The great English General had about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> -19,000 good troops at Talavera, with the nominal aid of 30,000 worthless -ones. At Waterloo, he had about 33 or 34,000 good troops, with -the addition of about as many unreliable ones. In both cases alike, the -French, confident of success, made the attack; and in both cases they -were foiled and driven back by a British force of less than half their number. -The one material difference between the two conflicts lay in this,—that -in the second great battle, just as Napoleon’s last attack had -been repelled, a force of 50,000 Prussians broke in upon the retreating -French, and utterly dispersed and annihilated their already-beaten army.”</p> - - -<p>TARA, BATTLE OF.—This was one of the earliest battles in -Ireland in ’98. Fought between the Royal forces, only 400 strong, and -the insurgent Irish, amounting to 4000, yet they were completely -beaten, and 500 slain, May 26th, 1798.</p> - - -<p>TARBES, BATTLE OF.—Fought, March 20th, 1814, between the -English and French. Marshal Soult was forced from his position, with -great loss, by the Duke of Wellington. This engagement shortly preceded -that of Toulouse.</p> - - -<p>TARENTUM WAR.—One of the most celebrated wars in Roman -History. Undertaken by the inhabitants of Tarentum, with the aid of -the renowned Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, which resulted, after many battles, -in their subjugation by the arms of the Romans.</p> - - -<p>TCHERNAYA, BATTLE OF.—One of the brilliant engagements -during the Crimean war. Fought, August 10th, 1854. The enemy, in -dense columns of infantry and cavalry, supported by 160 guns, advanced -from the heights towards the river, here crossed by two bridges, the larger -one being known as the Traktir Bridge. They carried pontoons, and -appliances for crossing the stream; and there were also several places in -which the Tchernaya was fordable. Favoured by the dim light of early -morning, they succeeded in throwing several battalions unobserved across -the river, and attacking the division led by General Camon, on the -extreme left of the French line. Though taken by surprise, the French -made a brave resistance, and the 3rd Zouaves and 50th of the line -assisted by the 82nd, which attacked them in the flank, succeeded in -repelling them with considerable loss.</p> - -<p>In their second attempt the Russians were somewhat more successful. -They advanced across the Traktir Bridge. The <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tête du pont</i> was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> -guarded by the 20th regiment of the line, who were too weak to offer -any effective resistance. They bravely disputed the ground, and lost -twelve officers before they would give way. The dense masses of the -Russians now thronged across the bridge. In their train followed three -guns, which were promptly got into position to sweep the road along -which the French would advance. The infantry swarmed across the -bridge, or waded breast high through the stream. Quickly forming into -heavy columns, they advanced in gallant style up the hill in front of the -French centre. General Herbillon was fully prepared for the attack, and -the enemy was promptly met, and, after a very animated contest, driven -back across the bridge by the 2nd Zouaves, the 97th of the line, and one -battalion of the foot Chasseurs. The slaughter was terrific; the French -and Sardinian guns playing on the retreating mass, and the French pursuing -them in a vigorous bayonet charge.</p> - -<p>The right of the French position occupied some low hillocks, defended -in front by the river, and by the aqueduct used to supply the Turkish -army with water. The Sardinian army was encamped on their right -and had manned a very effective battery. General Faucheux was the -French commander at this portion of the line, and a considerable body -of artillery was under his command. While the Russians were attacking -the French centre, as already related, another column of enormous -strength advanced across the river and aqueduct, and attacked the -French right. The artillery and the rifles of the Sardinians made dreadful -havoc in their ranks; but the Russian officers cheered on their men -to the advance, and, in defiance of dreadful loss, charged gallantly the -French position. The Zouaves, who held the brow of the hill, retired -slowly to the main body, which was partially hidden by the nature of the -ground, and the enemy came on with loud cheers, imagining an easy -conquest. Then the French suddenly formed up into line, and charging -forward with an impetuosity that defies description, literally crushed the -enemy in their tremendous rush, and hurled them down the hill. -Many rolled into the aqueduct and were suffocated; others had their -limbs broken by the fall; and the main hotly turned and fled precipitately -towards the bridge. As the broken and flying mass poured onwards, -the batteries opened upon them, and a scene of fearful massacre ensued. -The bridge was choked with the troops endeavouring to pass across, and -the river was crowded with the fugitives. Among them poured the iron -hail of the Sardinian batteries; and when they struggled into the open -ground, hundreds more fell mortally wounded. Never was there a more -complete or ignominious defeat.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span></p> - -<p>The remnants of the infantry withdrew behind the cavalry, and -retreated to the hill; the Russian artillery covering them by a heavy -fire against the French batteries. Prince Gortschakoff manœuvred his -cavalry for some time in sight of the Allies, hoping apparently to draw -our dragoons in pursuit among the hills, where a second Balaklava massacre -would probably have awaited them. General Scarlett, commanding -the English cavalry division, eagerly proffered the services of his splendid -warriors, but General Pelissier wisely declined to hazard such valuable -troops in such a perilous adventure.</p> - -<p>Towards evening the Russians drew off, leaving about 3000 dead -upon the field, and their wounded could not have amounted to less than -5000. The French carried off in their ambulances, 1626 soldiers and -thirty-three officers, besides 400 prisoners. Among the dead was General -Read, a very distinguished Russian officer, upon whose person was -found a plan of the attack. The French lost 9 officers killed and 61 -wounded, 172 men killed and 1163 wounded, besides 146 missing. -The gallant Sardinians, besides the death of General the Count of Montevecchio, -sustained a loss of 250 men. The Turkish battalions arrived -too late to take any part in the affair.</p> - - -<p>TEWKESBURY, BATTLE OF.—Fought, May 4th, 1471. The -very day of the battle of Barnet, Queen Margaret landed at Plymouth. -At the news of the defeat of Warwick she sank to the ground in despair; -but the arguments of her friends soon awakened her natural courage, and -she advanced to Bath. It was there resolved to try to effect a junction -with the Earl of Pembroke, who had a large force in Wales; but the -people of Gloucester had secured the only bridge over the Severn, and at -Tewkesbury it was found that Edward was at hand with a more numerous -army. The Lancastrian leaders then drew up their forces without -the town; the Yorkists, led by the King’s brother, the Duke of Gloucester, -fell on them furiously, and after a short but gallant resistance, the Lancastrians -were totally routed. The Queen and Prince were made prisoners; -the latter being led into the royal tent, Edward demanded of him what -had brought him to England. “To recover my father’s kingdom and -heritage, from his father and grandfather to him, and from him to me -lineally descended,” replied the undaunted youth. Edward struck him -in the face with his gauntlet, and Gloucester, Clarence, and some others -despatched him with their swords. Edward then set out for London, -and on the evening of his arrival king Henry died in the Tower, of grief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> -as was given out, but there can be little doubt that he was murdered by -order of Edward. The guilt of the deed, though without any proof, was -afterwards laid on the Duke of Gloucester.</p> - - -<p>TEXEL, BATTLES OF THE.—The vicinity of the Texel has been -the scene of some remarkable engagements, among others a battle of three -days was fought here, between the English, under Blake and Monk, and -the Dutch, under Van Tromp and DeRuyter, when the Dutch were -signally defeated and Van Tromp killed, 1653. Again Ruyter was defeated -here, August 11th, 1673. The Dutch fleet gloriously vanquished by -Lord Duncan, October 11th, 1797. Twelve ships of war and thirteen -Indiamen of the Dutch surrendered to Admiral Mitchell, who took them -without firing a shot, August 28th, 1799.</p> - - -<p>THERMOPYLÆ, BATTLE OF.—Leonidas, at the head of 300 -Spartans at this defile withstood the whole army of the Persians, until -of the 300 heroes who surrounded him, all were slain but one man; 20,000 -Persians perished by the hands of the Spartans, August 7th, 480 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> -This battle was one of the most celebrated events in the annals of Greece, -and effectually, at last, gave a check to the invading Persian army. The -following is from Rollin’s Ancient History.</p> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>“Thermopylæ is a strait or narrow pass of mount Œta, between -Thessaly and Phocis, but 25 feet broad, which therefore might be -defended by a small number of forces, and which was the only way -through which the Persian land army could enter Achaia, and advance -to besiege Athens. This was the place where the Grecian army thought -fit to wait for the enemy: the person who commanded it was Leonidas, -one of the two kings of Sparta.</p> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>Xerxes in the meantime was upon his march: he had given orders -for his fleet to follow him along the coast, and to regulate their motions -according to those of the land army. Wherever he came, he found -provisions and refreshments prepared beforehand, pursuant to the orders -he had sent; and every city he arrived at gave him a magnificent entertainment, -which cost immense sums of money. The vast expense of -those treats gave occasion to a witty saying of a certain citizen of Abdera -in Thrace, who, when the king was gone, said, they ought to thank the -gods, that he ate but one meal a-day.</p> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>In the same country of Thrace, there was a prince who showed an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> -extraordinary greatness of soul on this occasion: it was the king of the -Bisaltes. Whilst all the other princes ran into servitude, and basely -submitted to Xerxes, he bravely refused to receive his yoke, or to obey -him. Not being in a condition to resist him with open force, he retired -to the top of the mountain Rhodope, into an inaccessible place, and -forbade all his sons, who were six in number, to carry arms against -Greece. But they, either out of fear of Xerxes, or out of a curiosity to -see so important a war, followed the Persians, in contradiction to their -father’s injunction. On their return home, their father, to punish so -direct a disobedience, condemned all his sons to have their eyes put -out. Xerxes continued his march through Thrace, Macedonia, and -Thessaly, every thing giving way before him till he came to the Strait of -Thermopylæ.</p> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>One cannot see, without the utmost astonishment, with what an -handful of troops the Grecians opposed the innumerable army of Xerxes. -We find a particular account of their number in Pausanias. All their -forces joined together, amounted only to 11,200 men, of which number -4000 only were employed at Thermopylæ to defend the pass. But these -soldiers, adds the historian, were all determined to a man either to -conquer or die. And what is it that an army of such resolution is not -able to effect?</p> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>When Xerxes advanced near the Straits of Thermopylæ, he was -strangely surprised to find that they were prepared to dispute his passage. -He had always flattered himself, that on the first hearing of his arrival, -the Grecians would betake themselves to flight: nor could he ever be -persuaded to believe, what Demaratus had told him from the beginning -of his project, that at the first pass he came to, he would find his whole -army stopped by an handful of men. He sent out a spy before him to -take a view of the enemy. The spy brought him word, that he found -the Lacedæmonians out of their intrenchments, and that they were -diverting themselves with military exercises, and combing their hair: -this was the Spartan manner of preparing themselves for battle.</p> - -<p>Xerxes, still entertaining some hopes of their flight, waited four days -on purpose to give them time to retreat;<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> and in this interval of time -he used his utmost endeavours to gain Leonidas, by making him magnificent -promises, and assuring him, that he would make him master of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> -all Greece if he would come over to his party. Leonidas rejected his -proposal with scorn and indignation. Xerxes, having afterwards written -to him to deliver up his arms, Leonidas, in a style and spirit truly -laconical, answered him in these words,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> “Come and take them.” -Nothing remained but to prepare themselves to engage the Lacedæmonians. -Xerxes first commanded his Median forces to march against -them, with orders to take them all alive, and bring them to him. These -Medes were not able to stand the charge of the Grecians; and being -shamefully put to flight, they showed, says Herodotus,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> that Xerxes -had a great many men, and but few soldiers. The next that were sent -to face the Spartans, were those Persians called the Immortal Band, -which consisted of 10,000 men, and were the best troops in the whole -army. But these had no better success than the former.</p> - -<p>Xerxes, out of all hopes of being able to force his way through troops -so determined to conquer or die, was extremely perplexed, and could not -tell what resolution to take, when an inhabitant of the country came to -him, and discovered a secret<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> path to the top of an eminence, which -overlooked and commanded the Spartan forces. He quickly dispatched -a detachment thither; which, marching all night, arrived there at the -break of day, and possessed themselves of that advantageous post.</p> - -<p>The Greeks were soon apprized of this misfortune; and Leonidas, seeing -that it was now impossible to repulse the enemy, obliged the rest of -the allies to retire, but staid himself with his 300 Lacedæmonians, all -resolved to die with their leader; who being told by the oracle, that either -Lacedæmon or her king must necessarily perish, determined, without the -least difficulty or hesitation, to sacrifice himself for his country. The -Spartans lost all hopes either of conquering or escaping, and looked upon -Thermopylæ as their burying-place. The king, exhorting his men to -take some nourishment, and telling them at the same time, that they -should sup together with Pluto, they set up a shout of joy as if they had -been invited to a banquet, and full of ardour advanced with their king -to battle. The shock was exceedingly violent and bloody. Leonidas -himself was one of the first that fell. The endeavours of the Lacedæmonians -to defend his dead body were incredible. At length, not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> -vanquished, but oppressed by numbers, they all fell except one man, who -escaped to Sparta, where he was treated as a coward and traitor to his -country, and nobody would keep company or converse with him. But -soon afterwards he made a glorious amend for his fault at the battle of -Platæa, where he distinguished himself in an extraordinary manner. -Xerxes, enraged to the last degree against Leonidas for daring to make -head against him, caused his dead body to be hung up on a gallows, and -made his intended dishonour of his enemy his own immortal shame.”</p> - - -<p>THRASYMENE, BATTLE OF.—Fought, <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 217.—On a -circular range of hills, near the lake, Hannibal disposed his army, and -Flaminius, the Roman General, took his station in the valley beneath. -A mist rising from the lake completely concealed the Carthaginians from -the Romans, while it left the view of the former unimpeded. The fortune -of the day was such as might have been expected—15,000 soldiers fell -with Flaminius in the valley, and 6000 more were obliged to surrender -themselves prisoners of war. The following is from Rollin’s Ancient -History:</p> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>“Hannibal being thus got, almost unexpectedly, out of this dangerous -place, refreshed his troops, and then marched and pitched his camp between -Arretium and Fesulæ, in the richest and most fruitful part of -Tuscany. His first endeavours were to discover the genius and character -of Flaminius, in order that he might take advantage of his foible, which, -according to Polybius, ought to be the chief study of a general. He -was told that Flaminius was greatly conceited of his own merit, bold, -enterprising, rash, and fond of glory. To plunge him the deeper into -these excesses, to which he was naturally prone,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> he inflamed his impetuous -spirit, by laying waste and burning the whole country, in his sight.</p> - -<p>Flaminius was not of a temper to continue inactive in his camp, though -Hannibal should have lain still. But when he saw the territories of his -allies laid waste before his eyes, he thought it would reflect dishonour -upon him, should he suffer Hannibal to ransack Italy without control, -and even advance to the very walls of Rome, without meeting any resistance.</p> - -<p>He rejected with scorn the prudent counsels of those who advised him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> -to wait the arrival of his colleague, and to be satisfied for the present with -putting a stop to the devastation of the enemy.</p> - -<p>In the meantime, Hannibal was still advancing towards Rome, having -Cortona on the left hand, and the lake Thrasymene on the right. When -he saw that the consul followed close after him, with the design to give -him battle, by stopping him in his march; having observed that the -ground was convenient for that purpose, he also began to prepare himself -for the battle. The lake Thrasymene and the mountains of Cortona -form a very narrow defile, which leads into a large valley, lined on both -sides, with hills of a considerable height, and closed at the outlet by a -steep hill of difficult access. On this hill, Hannibal, after having crossed -the valley, came and encamped with the main body of his army; posting -his light-armed infantry in ambuscade upon the hills on the right, and -part of his cavalry behind those on the left, as far almost as the entrance -of the defile, through which Flaminius was obliged to pass. Accordingly, -this general, who followed him very eagerly, with the resolution to fight -him, being come to the defile near the lake, was forced to halt, because -night was coming on; but he entered it the next morning at day-break.</p> - -<p>Hannibal having permitted him to advance, with all his forces, above -half way through the valley, and seeing the Roman vanguard pretty -near him, he sounded the charge, and commanded the troops to come out -of their ambuscade, in order that he might attack the enemy, at the same -time, from all quarters. The reader may guess at the consternation with -which the Romans were seized.</p> - -<p>They were not yet drawn up in order of battle, neither had they got -their arms in readiness, when they found themselves attacked in front, in -rear, and in flank. In a moment all the ranks were put into disorder. -Flaminius, alone undaunted in so universal a surprise, animates his -soldiers both with his hand and voice; and exhorts them to cut themselves -a passage with their swords through the midst of the enemy. But -the tumult which reigned everywhere, the dreadful shouts of the enemy, -and a fog that was risen, prevented his being seen or heard. However, -when the Romans saw themselves surrounded on all sides, either by the -enemy or the lake, and the impossibility of saving their lives by flight, it -roused their courage, and both parties began the fight with astonishing -animosity. Their fury was so great, that not a soldier in either army -perceived an earthquake, which happened in that country, and buried -whole cities in ruins. In this confusion, Flaminius being slain by one of -the Insubrian Gauls, the Romans began to give ground, and at last quite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> -ran away. Great numbers, to save themselves, leaped into the lake, whilst -others, climbing over the mountains, fell into the enemy’s hands whom -they strove to avoid. Six thousand only cut their way through the conquerors, -and retreated to a place of safety; but the next day they were -taken prisoners. In this battle 15,000 Romans were killed, and about -10,000 escaped to Rome, by different roads. Hannibal sent back the -Latins, who were allies of the Romans, into their own country, without -demanding the least ransom. He commanded search to be made for the -body of Flaminius, in order to give it burial, but it could not be found. -He afterwards put his troops into quarters of refreshment, and solemnized -the funerals of 30 of his chief officers, who were killed in the battle. He -lost in all but 1500 men, most of whom were Gauls.</p> - -<p>Immediately after, Hannibal dispatched a courier to Carthage, with -the news of his good success in Italy. This caused the greatest joy for -the present, raised the most promising hopes with regard to the future, -and revived the courage of all the citizens. They now prepared with -incredible ardour to send into Italy and Spain all necessary succours.</p> - -<p>Rome, on the contrary, was filled with universal grief and alarm, as -soon as the prætor had pronounced from the rostra the following words, -“we have lost a great battle.” The senate, studious of nothing but the -public welfare, thought that in so great a calamity and so imminent a -danger recourse must be had to extraordinary remedies. They therefore -appointed Quintus Fabius, dictator, a person as conspicuous for his wisdom -as his birth. It was the custom at Rome that the moment a dictator -was nominated, all authority ceased, that of the tribunes of the people -excepted. M. Minucius was appointed his general of horse.”</p> - - -<p>TILSIT, PEACE OF.—Between France and Russia, when Napoleon -restored to the Russian Monarch one-half his dominions, and Russia -recognized the confederation of the Rhine and the elevation of his three -brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome to the thrones of Naples, Holland, -and Westphalia. Signed, July 7th, 1807.</p> - - -<p>TINCHEBRAY, BATTLE, OF.—Fought, 1106, between Henry I -of England, and Robert, Duke of Normandy. The two brothers met at -this place, and Robert was defeated, and all Normandy was taken by -Henry,—Robert himself being thrown into a dungeon, and kept for more -than twenty-five years a prisoner.</p> - - -<p>TOPLITZ, BATTLES OF.—The first was fought between the -Austrians and Prussians, the latter defeated, in 1762. Another battle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> -August 30th, 1813. Treaty of ditto, September 9th, 1813. Second -treaty of ditto, October 3rd, 1813.</p> - - -<p>TORGAN, BATTLE OF.—Between Frederick II of Prussia and -the Austrians, in which the former obtained a complete victory. The -Austrian General, Count Daun, was wounded, November 11th, 1760.</p> - - -<p>TOULON, NAVAL BATTLES OF.—A memorable battle off this -port between the English, French and Spanish fleets, February 10th, -1744. The English lost the victory through a misunderstanding of their -Admirals. Another battle fought here, when Lord Hood took six ships of -the French fleet, and sunk one of very large force, and several others, -June 4th, 1794. While the two fleets were engaged, a large fleet of -Indiamen got safely into Brest harbour. As on this fleet depended the -means of the French carrying on the war, they claim the victory, notwithstanding -their loss in ships and men.</p> - - -<p>TOULOUSE, BATTLE OF.—This was the final battle of the -Peninsular war—one of the most bloody that was fought between the -French and English. The French were commanded by Soult, and the -English by Wellington. Wellington forced the French to retreat after -twelve hours of hard fighting, the battle raging from seven in the morning -till seven at night. The English lost between 4000 and 5000 men, -that of the French exceeded 10,000. Fought, April 10th, 1814.</p> - - -<p>TOURNAMENTS, <span class="fs70">OR</span> TILTS.—Every one has read of these -ancient modes of duelling. If not, let them read Sir Walter Scott’s -“Ivanhoe,” &c. The Arabs are very expert in their management of -horses at these tilts. The following will describe the whole:—</p> - -<p>“The tournament field is oblong, and bordered by rows of spectators, -sitting cross-legged round the open space. The best riders of the tribe, -mounted on the most active horses, are then introduced into the arena, -the men being clothed with as much splendour as their means will permit -them, while the chargers are covered with large silk housings of -different colours, reaching to the ground, and resembling those of ancient -knights, as represented in Froissart. Some of the Arabs then commence -making their horses dance to the sound of drums and trumpets, whilst -men on foot occasionally rush forward and discharge their muskets -close to the horses’ ears. Others dash forward at full speed along the -line of seated spectators, as close to their feet as they possibly can, without -actually trampling upon them: and every now and then suddenly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> -throwing their horses on their haunches, spin them round on their hind -legs, and resume in the opposite direction their wild career. It is a -nervous sight to behold; for you momentarily expect to see some person -or child crushed beneath the horses’ hoofs; but no accident ever happens, -and men, women, and children, maintain their seats with the -greatest calmness and feeling of security, saluting any well-executed point -of horsemanship with loud and exulting shouts of approbation, whilst -the women accompany them with the usual but indescribable cries of the -quick-repeated lu-lu-lu-lu; in return for which they are covered with -clouds of sand and dust, which the impetuous coursers throw up behind -them. Three or four others dashing their sharp stirrups into the flanks -of their impatient steeds, rush madly along the length of the arena, -shouting forth their <em>tekbir</em>, or war-cries, and whirling round their heads -the long and silver-adorned Arab guns, which they discharge at the -spectators when they have reached the farthest extremity of the lists. -Others engage with swords soldiers on foot, galloping round their adversaries -in incredibly small circles, twisting their horses suddenly round, -and then circling to the other hand; and I know not which most to -admire, the activity and suppleness of the rider or of his horse. Others, -whilst at full speed, will lean over, and without in the least reducing -their pace, pick up from the ground a piastre or any other equally small -object, thrown down for the purpose. These sports form, on the whole, -one of the gayest and most animating scenes I ever beheld, increased as -it is by the waving of many silken sanjaks of the brightest colours, by -the music, the report of fire-arms, the war-cries of the performers, and -the shouts of the numerous spectators.”</p> - - -<p>TOURNAY.—Taken by the Allies in 1709; taken again by the -French, November 11th, 1792. A battle was fought here by the Anglo-Austrian -army, against the French, in which they were defeated, May -8th, 1793. Another battle was fought between the English and French, -when the French were repulsed, losing 200 men and three field pieces. -Fought, May 6th, 1794.</p> - - -<p>TOURS, BATTLE OF.—One of the glorious victories of Charles -Martel, and that which most established his fame; gained over the -Saracens, near Tours, and from which he acquired the name of Martel -or the Hammer. Some historians declare that but for this victory, all -Europe, us well as Asia and Africa, would otherwise have become -Mahommedan. Fought, October 10th, 732.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span></p> - - -<p>TOWTON, BATTLE OF.—This great battle is supposed to be -the most fierce and bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. -Fought, March 29th, 1461, between the houses of York and Lancaster, -to the latter of which it proved fatal; more than 37,000 men of the -Lancastrians fell. Edward IV of York issued orders to give no quarter, -and a merciless massacre ensued.</p> - - -<p>TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF.—The most glorious and splendid -naval engagement ever achieved by the British navy. The French had -18 and the Spaniards 15 ships of the line; the British had 27 ships. -Several of the enemies’ Admirals were taken prisoners. The following -is Southey’s fine description of the death of England’s greatest naval -hero. He says:—</p> - -<p>“Nelson having despatched his business at Portsmouth, endeavoured -to elude the populace by taking a by-way to the beach, but a crowd -collected in his train, pressing forward to obtain a sight of his face: many -were in tears, and many knelt down before him, and blessed him as he -passed. England has had many heroes, but never one who so entirely -possessed the love of his fellow-countrymen as Nelson. All men knew -that his heart was as humane as it was fearless; that there was not in -his nature the slightest alloy of selfishness or cupidity; but that, with -perfect and entire devotion, he served his country with all his heart, and -with all his soul, and with all his strength; and therefore they loved -him as truly and as fervently as he loved England. They pressed upon -the parapet to gaze after him when his barge pushed off, and he returned -their cheers by waving his hat. The sentinels who endeavoured to prevent -them from trespassing upon this ground, were wedged among the -crowd; and an officer who, not very prudently upon such an occasion, -ordered them to drive the people down with their bayonets, was compelled -speedily to retreat; for the people would not be debarred from -gazing till the last moment upon the hero—the darling hero of England!</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="noindent">It had been part of Nelson’s prayer, that the British fleet might be -distinguished by humanity in the victory which he expected. Setting -an example himself, he twice give orders to cease firing on the Redoubtable, -supposing that she had struck, because her guns was silent; for, -as she carried no flag, there was no means of instantly ascertaining the -fact. From this ship, which he had thus twice spared, he received his -death. A ball fired from her mizen-top, which, in the then situation of -the two vessels, was not more than 15 yards from that part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> -deck where he was standing, struck the epaulette on his left shoulder, -about a quarter after one, just in the heat of action. He fell upon his -face, on the spot which was covered with his poor secretary’s blood. -Hardy, who was a few steps from him, turning round, saw three men -raising him up. “They have done for me at last, Hardy,” said he. -“I hope not,” cried Hardy. “Yes” he replied, “my back-bone is -shot through.” Yet even now, not for a moment losing his presence of -mind, he observed, as they were carrying him down the ladder, that the -tiller ropes, which had been shot away, were not yet replaced, and -ordered that new ones should be rove immediately: then, that he might -not be seen by the crew, he took out his handkerchief, and covered his -face and his stars. Had he but concealed these badges of honour from -the enemy, England, perhaps, would not have had cause to receive with -sorrow the news of the battle of Trafalgar. The cockpit was crowded -with wounded and dying men, over whose bodies he was with some difficulty -conveyed, and laid upon a pallet in the midshipmen’s berth. It -was soon perceived, upon examination, that the wound was mortal. -This, however, was concealed from all except Captain Hardy, the -Chaplain, and the medical attendants. He himself being certain, -from the sensation in his back, and the gush of blood he felt momently -within his breast, that no human care could avail him, insisted that the -surgeon should leave him, and attend to those to whom he might be -useful; “for,” said he, “you can do nothing for me.” All that could -be done was to fan him with paper, and frequently to give him lemonade -to alleviate his intense thirst. He was in great pain, and expressed -much anxiety for the event of the action, which now began to declare -itself. As often as a ship struck, the crew of the Victory hurrahed, and -at every hurrah, visible expression of joy gleamed in the eyes, and -marked the countenance of the dying hero. But he became impatient -to see Hardy; and as that officer, though often sent for, could not leave -the deck, Nelson feared that some fatal cause prevented him, and -repeatedly cried, “Will no one bring Hardy to me? he must be killed! -he is surely dead!” An hour and ten minutes elapsed from the time -when Nelson received his wound, before Hardy could come to him. -They shook hands in silence, Hardy in vain struggling to suppress the -feelings of that most painful and yet sublime moment. “Well, Hardy,” -said Nelson, “how goes the day with us?” “Very well,” replied -Hardy; “ten ships have struck, but five of the van have tacked, and -show an intention to bear down upon the Victory. I have called two -or three of our fresh ships round, and have no doubt of giving them a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> -drubbing.” “I hope,” said Nelson, “none of our ships have struck.” -Hardy answered, “there was no fear of that.” Then, and not till then, -Nelson spoke of himself. “I am a dead man, Hardy,” said he; “I -am going fast; it will be all over with me soon. Come nearer to me. -Let my dear Lady Hamilton have my hair, and all other things belonging -to me.” Hardy observed, that he hoped Mr. Beatty could yet hold -out some prospect of life. “Oh! no,” he replied; “it is impossible. -My back is shot through. Beatty will tell you so.” Hardy then once -more shook hands with him, and with a heart almost bursting, hastened -upon deck.</p> - -<p>By this time all feeling below the breast was gone, and Nelson, having -made the surgeon ascertain this, said to him: “You know I am gone. -I know it. I feel something rising in my breast,” putting his hand on -his left side, “which tells me so.” And upon Beatty’s inquiring -whether his pain was very great, he replied, “so great that he wished -he was dead. Yet,” said he, in a lower voice, “one would like to live -a little longer too!” And after a few minutes, in the same undertone, -he added: “What would become of poor Lady Hamilton if she knew -my situation!” Next to his country she occupied his thoughts. Captain -Hardy, some fifty minutes after he had left the cockpit, returned, and -again taking the hand of his dying friend and commander, congratulated -him on having gained a complete victory. How many of the enemy -were taken he did not know, as it was impossible to perceive them -distinctly, but 14 or 15 at least. “That’s well,” cried Nelson, but -“I bargained for 20.” And then, in a stronger voice, he said: -“Anchor, Hardy, anchor.” Hardy, upon this, hinted that Admiral -Collingwood would take upon himself the direction of affairs. “Not -while I live, Hardy,” said the dying Nelson, ineffectually endeavouring -to raise himself from the bed: “do you anchor.” His previous orders -for preparing to anchor had shown how clearly he foresaw the necessity -of this. Presently calling Hardy back, he said to him in a low voice, -“Don’t throw me overboard;” and he desired that he might be buried -by his parents, unless it should please the King to order otherwise. -Then reverting to private feelings: “Take care of my dear Lady -Hamilton, Hardy; take care of poor Lady Hamilton. Kiss me, -Hardy,” said he. Hardy knelt down and kissed his cheek; and -Nelson said, “Now I am satisfied. Thank God I have done my duty!” -Hardy stood over him in silence for a moment or two, then knelt again -and kissed his forehead “Who is that?” said Nelson; and being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> -informed, he replied, “God bless you, Hardy.” And Hardy then left -him for ever. Nelson now desired to be turned upon his right side, and -said, “I wish I had not left the deck; for I shall soon be gone.” -Death was, indeed, rapidly approaching. He said to the Chaplain, -“Doctor, I have <em>not</em> been a <em>great</em> sinner;” and after a short pause, -“Remember that I leave Lady Hamilton and my daughter Horatia as -a legacy to my country.” His articulation now became difficult; but -he was distinctly heard to say, “Thank God, I have done my duty!” -These words he repeatedly pronounced, and they were the last words -which he uttered. He expired at thirty minutes after four, three hours -and a quarter after he had received his wound.”</p> - - -<p>TRAKTIR BRIDGE, BATTLE OF.—Fought during the Crimean -campaign, between the French and Sardinian forces, and the Russians—</p> - -<p>“The garrison of Sebastopol having failed, on the 2nd of August, in a -desperate attempt to forces the Allied lines by the Woronzoff Road, -remained inactive only in appearance. They were ready for a new -Balaclava and a new Inkerman all in one, so far as the strategic movement -is concerned. In August the Tchernaya is fordable at many points, -well known, of course, to the enemy. On the 16th of that month they -debouched from the Tchouliou Heights, and descended to the Tchernaya, -in the neighbourhood of Traktir-bridge. Behind this bridge rise, at a -little distance, the Fediukine hills, on which rested the rear of the French -army, which now faced about. To their right were the Sardinians,—to -theirs the Turks. Beyond the river, and under Tchouliou hills is a -valley, along which swarmed the Russian masses, driving the outposts of -the Sardinian Bersaglieri, or sharp-shooters. About 1500 Zouaves and -Chasseurs guarded the bridge: they were attacked by 10,000 Russians, -under General Read. For an hour the 1500 held the 10,000 beneath the -storm of artillery which pound upon their dense columns from one -English battery and from the Sardinian and French artillery. At last, -the Russians swarmed over the fords, forced the bridge, and slowly pushed -the brave Zouaves up the hill; but executed this movement painfully, -out of breath, in disorder, and rent by ordnance. At the hill’s brow the -main body of the French received in their openings comrades worthy of -Leonidas, who, turning, and now backed by strong columns, charged -bayonets down the declivity. Twice the enemy rallied, but in vain. -The Sardinians and French made a final rush, and drove them with -carnage upon their supports, who were thus disarrayed. The artillery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> -reopened, and the battle was won. General Scarlett’s dragoons came up -at this moment, but General Pelissier deemed pursuit unwise. The -enemy retired on Mackenzie’s Farm. He left on the field a quantity of -fascines, planks, beams, ladders, and sappers’ tools, destined to destroy the -works of the besiegers. He left also 2500 dead; and 1620 of his -wounded were that night in the ambulances of the French, who took, in -addition, 500 prisoners. They themselves lost 180 killed, and 810 -wounded—chiefly on and near the bridge. This great battle occurred -the day succeeding the First Napoleon’s natal anniversary, and the fête-day -of the French Empire. It was on that very morning that the Queen -of England set out to pay the first Royal visit ever made by English -Monarch to a Sovereign of that warlike dynasty. It seemed as if events -both in the East and in the West were conspiring to raise to the highest -point the glory of the Napoleon destinies at one and the same hour.”</p> - - -<p>TREBIA, BATTLE OF.—Fought between Hannibal and the -Romans. Hannibal taking advantage of the well known impetuosity -of the Romans, sent over at first a detachment of 1000 horse. These -pretending defeat, hastily recrossed the river, followed by the main body -of the Romans. By this means the defeat of the Romans was insured. -Benumbed with wading up to their armpits in water, they became an -easy prey to their enemies; 26,000 were either slain, or drowned in -attempting to cross the river.</p> - - -<p>TRINCOMALEE.—Taken from the Dutch by the English in -1782. Retaken by the French same year; restored to the Dutch in -1783. Surrendered to the British, under Colonel Stewart, August 26th, -1795, and was confirmed by the peace of Amiens in 1802. Of a series -of actions fought off Trincomalee, between Sir Edward Hughes and the -French Admiral Suffrein, one was fought February 18th, 1782, the -enemy having 11 ships and the British 9. On April 12th following, -they had 18 to 11 ships, and on July 6th, same year, they had 15 to 12 -ships. Yet, in every one of these battles, the French suffered severe -defeats.</p> - - -<p>TRIPLE ALLIANCE.—This celebrated party alliance between -the States General and England against France, was for the protection -of the Netherlands (Holland and Belgium). Sweden afterwards joined -the alliance, January 28th, 1668.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span></p> - - -<p>TRIUMPH.—On the day appointed, the General, crowned with -laurels, pronounced an oration to the soldiers and surrounding multitude, -relating his military achievements; then the march began with a long -procession, in which were carried inscriptions, containing the names of -the nations, provinces, or cities, he had conquered; the priests assisted, -leading the beasts used for sacrifice. The conqueror, in an ivory car, -richly ornamented, closed the procession. He was surrounded by his -friends and relations, bearing branches of laurel; the procession stopped -at the Capitol, where they sacrificed to Jupiter, and deposited part of -the spoils. The lustre of the Roman conquests was often tarnished by -their inhumanity to the conquered; their prisoners, if of high rank, -were only reserved to suffer superior mortifications; the captive Monarchs -and Generals were bound in chains, their heads closely shaven (a mark -of peculiar degradation), and they were thus presented a sad spectacle to -the gazing multitude.</p> - - -<p>TROYES.—Celebrated for the treaty, May 24th, 1420. The French -were driven from Troyes by the Allied armies, February 7th, 1814. -Retaken by Napoleon, February 28th, and finally occupied by the Allies, -March 4th, same year.</p> - - -<p>TYRE.—A celebrated city in Asia Minor. Besieged by Nebuchadnezzar, -<span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 572, and the city demolished a year after its rebuilding. -Taken by Alexander the Great, who spent seven months in the siege, -August 20th, 332 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> Thousands of the inhabitants were crucified by -Alexander, along the shore, for the bravery with which they had -defended their city.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="U" id="U"></a>U.</h3> - - -<p>ULM, BATTLE OF.—A fierce and bloody engagement between the -French and Austrians, the latter commanded by General Mack, and the -French by Marshal Ney. The French gained a complete victory, the -Austrians losing 36,000 men as prisoners, the flower of their army, and -an immense number of killed and wounded. Fought, October 17th, -and 19th, 1805.</p> - - -<p>UNIFORMS.—First used in France by Louis XIV in 1668, -adopted in England not long after.</p> - - -<p>USHANT, NAVAL BATTLE OF.—Between the British and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> -French fleets, when after an indecisive action of three hours, under cover of -the night, the latter withdrew in a deceptive manner to the harbour of -Brest. Keppel commanded the English fleet and the Count d’Ovillier the -French. A dispute occurring between the English Admiral and the -second in command caused the victory to be not so complete as it would -otherwise have been. Fought, July 27th, 1778.</p> - - -<p>UTRECHT, TREATY OF.—The Union of the seven Provinces -began here <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1579. Celebrated treaty, April 11th, 1713. Surrendered -to the Prussians, May 9th, 1787. Possessed by the French, January -17th, 1795.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="V" id="V"></a>V.</h3> - - -<p>VALENCIA, BATTLE OF.—Taken by the Earl of Peterborough -in 1705, and soon again lost. Resisted the attempts of many, but was -taken from the Spaniards by the French, under Suchet, January 9th, -1812; all the garrison, 16,000 men, and immense stores, surrendered.</p> - - -<div><a name="VAL" id="VAL"></a></div> -<p>VALENCIENNES, SIEGE OF.—Besieged from May 23rd to July -14th, when the French garrison surrendered to the Duke of York, 1793. -Retaken by the French, on capitulation; the garrison and 1100 emigrants -made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. 200 cannon, 1,000,000 pounds -of gunpowder, 8,000,000 florins in specie, 6,000,000 of livres, 1000 head -of cattle, &c., on August 30th, 1794.</p> - - -<p>VALUE OF PRINCES.—£400,000 was the price paid to the Scots -for delivering up to the English Charles I.</p> - -<p>Margaret of Anjou was ransomed for £12,500.</p> - -<p>£1,000 offered by Parliament for the head of Charles II.</p> - -<p>£30,000 for that of the Pretender.</p> - -<p>Richard I was ransomed for the large sum of £100,000 or 150,000 -marks; he had before been sold by the Duke Leopold of Austria, to -the Emperor Henry IV, for £60,000.</p> - -<p>King John, of France, was to be redeemed by his subjects for the -enormous sum of 3,000,000 crowns, but they could not raise the amount.</p> - - -<p>VARNA, BATTLE OF.—The Emperor Nicholas of Russia arrived -before Varna, the head-quarters of his army, then besieging the place, -August 5th, 1828. The Turks made a vigorous attack on the besiegers -August 7th; another on the 21st, but they were repulsed; surrendered to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> -the Russians, October 1st, 1828. Famous as the point of <em>rendezvous</em> of the -Allied army, preparatory to the Crimean war. The cholera made dreadful -devastation in both the English and French armies; then a great fire -nearly destroyed the town, but purified the air; and the news of the -Crimean invasion expedition dispelled the gloom and melancholy which -pervaded, to a very great degree, our troops.</p> - - -<p>VIENNA.—Besieged by the Turks, under Solyman the Magnificent, -with an army of 300,000 men, but forced to raise the siege having lost -70,000 soldiers. Again besieged in 1683, and the siege raised by the -celebrated John Sobieski, King of Poland, who totally routed the Turkish -army of 100,000 men. Taken by the French, November 14th, 1805, -and afterwards retaken and taken for some time.</p> - - -<p>VILLA FRANCA, BATTLE OF.—Engagement here between the -British cavalry, under Cotton, and the French cavalry, under Soult. The -French were defeated, April 10th, 1812. When Napoleon heard of the -result he reproached Soult the first time in his life.</p> - - -<p>VIMEIRA, BATTLE OF.—Between the British, under Wellington, -and the whole of the French and Spanish forces, in Portugal, under -Marshal Guinot, whom the British signally defeated, August 21st, 1808. -The enemy’s force were 14,000 men, of whom 1600 were cavalry. They -attacked the English at Vimeira early in the morning. The principal -assault was on the English centre and left, with the view, according to a -favourite French expression of “driving the English into the sea,” which -was close in their rear. The attack was made with great bravery but as -bravely repulsed. It was repeated by Kellerman, at the head of the French -reserve, which was also signally repulsed, and the French being charged -with the British bayonet, withdrew on all sides in confusion, leaving many -prisoners, a General Officer, and 14 cannon, with ammunition, in the -hands of the British. French loss, killed and wounded, 1800. English -720; only one-half of the British force was actually engaged.</p> - - -<p>VINEGAR HILL, BATTLE OF.—Between the British troops and -the Irish insurgents, in 1798. The rebels suffered a severe defeat, and -much blood shed on both sides. June 12th, 1798.</p> - - -<p>VITTORIA, BATTLE OF.—Fought, June 21st, 1813, between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> -the French and English. The following is a graphic account of this great -victory:</p> - -<p>“The splendid achievements of the campaign of 1812 produced their -natural results. Even the torpid obstinacy of Castilian pride was at -last overcome, and by a decree of the Cortes of September 22nd, 1812, -the great English General was invested with the supreme command of -the Spanish armies. He repaired to Cadiz on the 24th of December, -and on the 30th he was received by the Cortes in full assembly. The -news of Napoleon’s overthrow in Russia had just arrived, and all hearts -seemed to expand with hope of the speedy expulsion of his troops from -Spain.</p> - -<p>England herself also now began to put forth efforts commensurate with -the crisis. At the opening of the year 1813 her land forces consisted of -228,000 men, besides 28,000 in India, 95,000 militia at home, and -32,000 foreign troops in the British service. And, besides these, she -had 200,000 native troops in India, a local militia of 300,000, and a -yeomanry cavalry of 68,000, forming a grand total of 949,000 men in -arms; and her expenditure in the year amounted to £118,000,000 sterling.</p> - -<p>Thus supported, her great Commander, of whom it may be questioned -if his equal <em>in all respects</em> ever stood upon a field of battle, looked forward -with reasonable expectation to a coming harvest; to a campaign in which, -after four years’ toils and sufferings, the grand object of the final expulsion -of the French from Spain might be anticipated. And assuredly the -means he took to gain this end in the simplest and completest manner, -were marked by the most consummate skill and wisdom.</p> - -<p>To be nearer to his supplies, and to relieve the wasted provinces of -Spain, Wellington had withdrawn his army into cantonments on the -Coa and the Agueda, that is, in Leon and in Beira, or Northern Portugal. -All the Lusitanian kingdom had long been free from the French, and -the campaign of 1812 had compelled them to abandon all Andalusia -Murcia, Granada, Asturias and Estramadura. The French army now -occupied only central and eastern Spain, the bulk of the troops being -quartered in New and Old Castile.</p> - -<p>Wellington’s chief attention was naturally devoted, during the winter, -to the task of reorganizing his forces for the final struggle of the opening -year. His own English army was the only force he had which was at -all in a condition to march against the enemy. Of the Spanish troops -he found it necessary to give the Spanish Minister of War, in March -1813, the following description:—“There is not a single battalion or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> -squadron in the Spanish armies in a condition to take the field; there -is not in the whole kingdom of Spain a depôt of provisions for the support -of a single battalion for one day; there is not a shilling of money in any -military chest. To move them forward at any point now, against even -inconsiderable bodies of the enemy, would be to insure their certain -destruction.”</p> - -<p>But by unceasing exertions these evils were, in a measure, overcome: -and Wellington found himself, in the month of May, 1813, for the first -time in a state approaching to an equality with the French. Their force, -which in former years had often amounted to nearly 400,000 men, was -now reduced to 239,000 of which about 197,000 were present with the -eagles. Meanwhile Wellington’s nominal force now amounted to 200,000, -and although only about one-half of this number were fit to take the field, -the remainder was still of use in maintaining the communications, guarding -convoys, and cutting off the foraging parties of the enemy. His -principal army of English and Portuguese mustered about 75,000 men, -of whom about 44,000 were English. The efficiency of the Portuguese -troops was advanced in a surprising manner; reinforcements, especially of -cavalry, had arrived from England; and the Anglo-Portuguese troops, -conscious of an improved organization, were more confident than ever; -while the French, hearing of the calamities of their brethren in Russia, were -proportionably depressed. Even the Spaniards had, in some numbers, -been brought into better condition:—Wellington had kept them fed and -clothed during the winter, and had now several efficient corps of native -troops, ready to act in conjunction with his own army. Hence, on the -22nd of May the great English General began his march, and when he -crossed the stream which divides Portugal from Spain, he rose in his -stirrups, and waving his hand, exclaimed, “Good bye to Portugal!”</p> - -<p>The military skill and talent of a commander is never more conspicuously -seen than in those manœuvres by which an enemy is defeated -<em>without a battle</em>. Such manœuvres often resemble the skill and power -with which an able and fearless horseman, even while on the ground, -will control a powerful courser, forcing him backwards by a small leverage -upon his mouth. In the present instance the French still had a considerable -army and able Generals, and they occupied the centre of Spain, -defending the capital, and ready to fight, if needful, a succession of -battles before they would relinquish their prey. But their more able -antagonist forced them to retreat, step by step, without fighting, until -their last and only stand was made at Vittoria, almost in sight of France;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> -and then delivering his attack, he utterly routed them, and chased them -over the Pyrenees. On the 22nd of May, as we have said, the English -army marched out of Portugal; on the 21st of June it fought and gained -the battle of Vittoria; and before the 1st of July the shattered remains -of the French army, with their King Joseph at their head, had fled over -the Pyrenees. Little more than a single month had sufficed to destroy, -uproot, and utterly abolish the French dominion in Spain, and that at a -time, too, when there were still 197,000 French soldiers in the field, -under many able Commanders.</p> - -<p>A brave general of the ordinary kind would have marched in quest of -the French, lying in front of Madrid; would have defeated them, and -taken the capital. All the smaller bodies of French in Spain would then -have been called round the King; and in July a second battle would -have been fought in Arragon, or in front of Burgos. One more victory,—a -third, supposing the English to have been always victorious, might -have sent the French out of Spain; but any mistake or mishap might -have prevented this. But Wellington, by masterly tactics, always threatening -to turn the enemy’s right wing and to get upon his communications, -backed his foe as a man backs a horse, till he could bring the opposing -army into a position fit for his purpose; and then, delivering at once a -knock-down blow, he drove the whole mass, king and army, in four-and-twenty -hours, out of Spain.</p> - -<p>King Joseph had reckoned, in the spring, upon a direct attack by the -great road of Madrid; but when it would come, or where it would fall, -he could not divine, for Wellington kept him constantly in doubt, by a -variety of feigned movements.</p> - -<p>At last, towards the end of May, he found that Wellington, sending -40,000 men under Graham through the difficult passes of the -Tras-os-Montes, and moving himself a week after on the Esla, had -carried his whole army, by the 4th of June, over the Douro, and was now -in full march for Valladolid. If he should gain that place, Joseph well -knew that his communications would be cut off, and his whole army -taken, to use Napoleon’s phrase, “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flagrante delicto</i>.” Hastily, therefore, -Madrid was abandoned, the whole army put in retreat; and now Joseph -would make his stand at Burgos.</p> - -<p>Thus 100 miles of Spanish ground had been cleared of the -French without firing a shot. And now, Joseph would fight for his -kingdom in this, his second position. But his Generals examined the -country, and disliked the prospect. Meanwhile Wellington pushed on,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> -conducting his operations continually on the same principle,—pushing -forwards his left wing, and out-flanking and turning the French right. -Again perplexed, Joseph now abandoned his second purpose, as he had -abandoned his first. Burgos must be given up, and the retreat must be -continued on Vittoria. Into Vittoria there was poured, therefore, the -artillery depôts of Madrid, of Valladolid, and of Burgos, and the baggage -and stores of several armies; with the King’s valuables, the archives, and -papers of the State and of the army, and a large amount of treasure.</p> - -<p>Vittoria is only 26 miles from Irun, on the French frontier. Here, -therefore, had been driven together, like a flock of sheep, the intruders -and plunderers of Spain, and one vigorous assault only was needed to -rid the land of them altogether. It was not long delayed.</p> - -<p>It was about the 15th of June when King Joseph found his army -assembled round Vittoria, reckoning, Napier tells us, from 60,000 -to 70,000 men. Wellington had left his sixth division at Medina -de Pomar, and therefore had 60,000 English and Portuguese, besides -some Spanish troops. In the number and calibre of their guns the -French had the advantage.</p> - -<p>From the mountain-region through which the British army was -marching, the way to Vittoria lay over many a rugged steep, and through -many dangerous defiles; but no difficulty was allowed to stop their -march. “Six days they toiled unceasingly; but on the seventh, swelled -by a Spanish reinforcement, they burst like raging streams from every -defile, and went foaming into the basin of Vittoria.”</p> - -<p>The French army was drawn up round this basin, which is a small -plain about 10 miles in length, by 8 in breadth, through which runs -the river Zadora. As this battle-field was approached by various mountain-passes, -Wellington resolved to enter it from three sides at once, -forming three distinct combats. General Graham, with a corps of about -20,000 men, was to attack from the British left, and to pass the -Zadora at Ariaga, near the city of Vittoria. Hill was to attack from -the right with an equal force. Wellington stationed himself in the -centre, with a rather larger force, which was to descend from the mountain -ridges, to cross the Zadora by various roads, and to march straight -upon Vittoria. In fact, the whole battle was merely an attack on a -strong army hemmed in, by an army equally strong, and marching to -the attack on three sides at the same moment.</p> - -<p>At daybreak the English began to move; but the distance to Vittoria -was several miles, and every step was to be contended for. Hill reached<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> -the village of Puebla about ten in the morning; pushed on, fighting hard, -till he gained the village of Subijana de Alava, and so placed himself in -communication with the English centre. Graham had to make a march -of several miles to reach Ariaga, near Vittoria; but about one o’clock his -attack began to tell. This was a serious one for the French; for, if -successful, it would cut them off from the great road to Bayonne. King -Joseph, finding both his flanks thus threatened, sent an order to the -centre to retire. But the troops were fiercely engaged, and retreat was -difficult. Meanwhile, however, three attacks of the English, right, left, -and centre, were all succeeding; and step by step, the French were being -pushed back upon Vittoria.</p> - -<p>“At six o’clock,” says Napier, “the French reached the last defensible -height in front of Vittoria. Behind them was the plain in which the -city stood, and beyond the city were thousands of carriages and animals, -and of men, women, and children, crowded together in all the madness of -terror; and as the English shot went booming overhead, the vast crowd -started and swerved with a convulsive movement, while a dull and horrid -cry of distress arose; but there was no hope, no stay for army or multitude, -it was the wreck of a nation!” Still the courage of the French -soldiers was unquelled. Their artillery for a time kept the Allies in -check, but suddenly the fourth English division, rushing forward, carried -a hill on the left, and the heights were at once abandoned. Joseph -finding the main road so completely blocked up by carriages that the -artillery could not pass, indicated the road of Salvatierra as the line of -retreat, and the army went off in a confused and yet compact body on -that side, leaving Vittoria on its left. The British infantry followed -hard, and the light cavalry galloped through the town to intercept the -new line of retreat. All became disorder and confusion, the guns were -left, while the artillerymen fled with the horses. Vehemently and closely -did the British pursue, and nothing could stop their victorious career -until night and the disappearance of the flying masses had ended the -struggle. The French lost all their artillery, all their baggage, all their -equipages, all their stores, treasures, and papers, “so that no man,” says a -French writer, “could prove even how much pay was due to him. -Generals and subordinate officers were alike reduced to the clothes on -their backs, and many of them were barefooted.”</p> - -<p>“Never was victory more complete. The trophies were innumerable. -Marshal Jourdan’s baton of command was brought to Lord Wellington, -who sent it to the Prince Regent, from whom he quickly received one of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> -an English marshal in return. The loss of the French was never ascertained; -that of the Allies was 3,567 English, 1,059 Portuguese, and 550 -Spanish. The spoil taken was enormous. “The soldiers of the army,” -wrote Lord Wellington, “have got among them about 1,000,000 sterling -in money, with the exception of about 100,000 dollars found in the -military chest. Rich vestures of all sorts, gold and silver plate, -pictures, jewels, parrots, monkeys, and children, lay scattered about the -field amidst weeping mothers and wailing children. Joseph himself -narrowly escaped; a squadron of dragoons pursued his carriage and fired -into it.”</p> - -<p>All the remaining bodies of the French in Spain fell in the fall of -Vittoria. They escaped out of the kingdom by various roads as quickly -as possible. “Joseph’s reign was over, the crown had fallen from his -head, and after years of toil and combats, which had rather been admired -than understood, the great English leader, emerging from the chaos of -the Peninsular struggle, stood on the summit of the Pyrenees a recognized -conqueror. From those lofty pinnacles the clangour of his -trumpets pealed clear and loud, and the splendour of his genius appeared -as a flaming beacon to warring nations.”<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> - -<p>Thus, in some five or six weeks, had a great kingdom been cleared of -its invaders and oppressors—not by the power of superior numbers, but -by the natural ascendency of a consummate military genius. “Here,” -remarks Napier, “was a noble army driven like sheep before prowling -wolves, although in every action the officers had been prompt and skilful, -and the soldiers brave, firm, and obedient. The French troops were -excellent and numerous, and the country strong and favourable for -defence; but the soul of a great Commander was wanting; and hence, -the Esla, the Tormes, the Douro, the Pisuerga, seemed to be all dried up, -the mountains to be levelled; and 60,000 veteran soldiers, willing to -fight at every step, were hurried with all the tumult and confusion -of defeat across the Ebro.”</p> - -<p>The deliverance of the Peninsula, by a force so far inferior to that of -the French, must always remain one of Wellington’s greatest glories. -The same French writer, whom we have already quoted, Jules Maurel, -remarks this surprising fact. He says: “The truth is, that from 1808 -to 1813, Wellington never had 30,000 English under his orders, even -at a period when the Imperial armies deluged the Peninsula with no -fewer than 370,000 men.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span></p> - -<p>Nor were the results of this great day confined to the Spanish peninsula. -Like its predecessor, the victory of Salamanca, the battle of Vittoria shook -the whole continent of Europe. Napoleon himself, holding his ground at -Dresden, had, up to this moment, succeeded in withholding Austria from -any actual participation in the confederacy against him. He had even -succeeded, on the 30th of June, in obtaining a convention for the restoration -of peace between himself, Russia and Prussia. But the very next -day the news of the expulsion of the French from Spain reached Dresden, -filling Napoleon and his ministers with consternation, and giving new life -and vigour to the Russian and Prussian councils. The Allies regretted -that any cessation of arms had been agreed to, and they began to long for -its termination. The very moment it expired by lapse of time, Austria -joined the Allies; war was actively resumed, and the autumn had not ended -before Napoleon had been driven across the Rhine, and Germany freed -from the presence of the French armies.</p> - -<p>The French writer from whom we have just quoted, Jules Maurel, -thus notices this remarkable passage in modern history:</p> - -<p>“Scarcely had the armistice been signed when intelligence arrived that -the French had lost everything in Spain. In 40 days Wellington had -turned, one after another, all the positions occupied by the French armies -of the centre, of the south and of the north, and had crossed the Tormes, -the Douro, the Esla, the Carrion, and the Ebro. He had reached Vittoria; -he had gained a decisive battle; he had expelled King Joseph from -the Peninsula, and had planted his army on the Pyrenees. In the beginning -of May he was in Portugal; on the 23rd of June he was on the -frontiers of France. The defeat of Vittoria entirely neutralized the victories -of Lutzen and Bautzen, and at once restored the coalition.”</p> - - -<p>VOUGLE, BATTLE OF.—Fought between Alaric II and Clovis -of France. Alaric was entirely overthrown, and the whole country -subdued. Clovis afterwards made Paris the capital, and became the -founder of the French Monarchy.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="W" id="W"></a>W.</h3> - - -<p>WAGRAM, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 5th, 1809, between the -Austrians and French, in which the former were completely overthrown; -20,000 were taken by the French. The slaughter on both sides was -dreadful. The defeated army retreated into Moravia.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span></p> - - -<p>WAKEFIELD, BATTLE OF.—Fought, December 31st, 1460, -between Queen Margaret, the wife of Henry VI, and the Duke of York, -in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists fell in the field. This -was one of the bloodiest battles between the houses of York and Lancaster.</p> - - -<p>WALCHEREN EXPEDITION.—This important expedition consisted -of thirty-five ships of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, and -40,000 troops, under the command of the Earl of Chatham. The fleet -was commanded by Sir Richard Strachan. A large number of the forces -died, and the whole expedition came to nothing, December 28th, 1809.</p> - - -<p>WARSAW, BATTLES OF.—The Poles suffered a great defeat here -from the Russians, October 10th and 12th, 1794. Suwarrow, the Russian -General, after the siege of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, -November 8th, 1794. The battle preceding the surrender of Warsaw -was fearfully bloody; of 26,000 men, more than 10,000 were killed; -nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and only 2000 escaped the merciless -fury of the Russian butcher. Another battle fought here, and the Poles -again defeated, September 7th and 8th, 1831.</p> - - -<p>WASHINGTON.—Taken, August 24th, 1814, in the war between -Great Britain and the United States, by General Ross, when all the -superb national structures were consumed, in a general conflagration—the -troops not sparing the national library.</p> - - -<p>WATERLOO, BATTLE OF.—The greatest of all British engagements, -fought June 18th, 1815, between the Duke of Wellington and -Napoleon. The carnage on both sides was immense. The account of this -great battle is taken from the “Twelve Great Battles of England.” The -following is a fine account of the visit of Scott to the field of Waterloo -after the battle, and also Alison on the defeat of the Old Guard:</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">WATERLOO AT NOON ON THE DAY AFTER THE BATTLE.</p> - -<p>“On a surface of two square miles, it was ascertained that 50,000 men -and horses were lying! The luxurious crop of ripe grain which had -covered the field of battle was reduced to litter, and beaten into the earth; -and the surface, trodden down by the cavalry, and furrowed deeply by the -cannon wheels, was strewn with many a relic of the fight. Helmets -and cuirasses, shattered fire-arms and broken swords; all the variety of -military ornaments; Lancer caps and Highland bonnets; uniforms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> -every colour, plume, and pennon; musical instruments, the apparatus of -artillery, drums, bugles; but, good God! why dwell on the harrowing -picture of a foughten field? Each and every ruinous display bore mute -testimony to the misery of such a battle. * * * Could the melancholy -appearance of this scene of death be heightened, it would be by witnessing -the researches of the living midst its desolation for the objects of -their love. Mothers, and wives, and children, for days were occupied -in that mournful duty; and the confusion of the corpses, friend and foe -intermingled as they were, often rendered the attempt at recognising -individuals difficult, and in some cases impossible. * * * In many -places the dead lay four deep upon each other, marking the spot some -British square had occupied, when exposed for hours to the murderous -fire of a French battery. Outside, lancer and cuirassier were scattered -thickly on the earth. Madly attempting to force the serried bayonets of -the British, they had fallen, in the bootless essay, by the musketry of -the inner files. Farther on, you traced the spot where the cavalry of -France and England had encountered. Chasseur and hussar were intermingled; -and the heavy Norman horse of the Imperial Guard were -interspersed with the grey chargers which had carried Albion’s chivalry. -Here the Highlander and tirailleur lay, side by side, together; and the -heavy dragoon, with Green Erin’s badge upon his helmet, was grappling -in death with the Polish lancer. * * * On the summit of the ridge, -where the ground was covered with death, and trodden fetlock-deep in -mud and gore, by the frequent rush of rival cavalry, the thick-strewn -corpses of the Imperial Guard pointed out the spot where Napoleon had -been defeated. Here, in column, that favoured corps, on whom his last -chance rested, had been annihilated; and the advance and repulse of the -Guard was traceable by a mass of fallen Frenchmen. In the hollow -below, the last struggle of France had been vainly made; for the Old -Guard, when the middle battalion had been forced back, attempted to -meet the British, and afford time for their disorganised companions to -rally. Here the British left, which had converged upon the French -centre, had come up; and here the bayonet closed the contest.”</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">DEFEAT OF THE OLD GUARD AT WATERLOO.</p> - -<p>“The Imperial Guard was divided into two columns, which, advancing -from different parts of the field, were to converge to the decisive point on -the British right centre, about midway between La Haye Sainte and the -nearest enclosures of Hougoumont. Reille commanded the first column,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> -which was supported by all the infantry and cavalry which remained of -his corps on either flank, and advanced up the hill in a slanting direction, -beside the orchard of Hougoumont. The second was headed by Ney in -person, and moving down the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chaussée</i> of Charleroi to the bottom of the -slope, it then inclined to the left, and leaving La Haye Sainte to the -right, mounted the slope, also in a slanting direction, converging towards -the same point whither the other column was directing its steps. Napoleon -went with this column as far as the place where it left the hollow of -the high road, and spoke a few words—the last he ever addressed to his -soldiers—to each battalion in passing. The men moved on with shouts -of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vive l’Empereur!</i> so loud as to be heard along the whole British line, -above the roar of artillery, and it was universally thought the Emperor -himself was heading the attack. But, meanwhile, Wellington had not -been idle. Sir Frederick Adam’s brigade, consisting of the 52nd, 71st, -and 95th, and General Maitland’s brigade of Guards, which had been -drawn from Hougoumont, with Chasse’s Dutch troops, yet fresh, were -ordered to bring up their right shoulders, and wheel inward, with their -guns in front, towards the edge of the ridge; and the whole batteries in -that quarter inclined to the left, so as to expose the advancing columns -coming up to a concentric fire on either flank: the central point, where -the attack seemed likely to fall, was strengthened by nine heavy guns; -the troops at that point were drawn up four deep, in the form of an -interior angle: the Guards forming one side, the 73rd and 30th the -other;—while the light cavalry of Vivian and Vandeleur was brought -up behind the line, at the back of La Haye Sainte, and stationed close -in the rear, so as to be ready to make the most of any advantage which -might occur.</p> - -<p>It was a quarter past seven when the first column of the Old -Guard, under Reille, advanced to the attack; but the effect of the -artillery on its flank was such, that the cavalry were quickly dispersed: -and the French battalions uncovered, showed their long flank to Adam’s -guns, which opened on them a fire so terrible, that the head of the -column, constantly pushed on by the mass in the rear, never advanced, -but melted away as it came into the scene of carnage. Shortly after, -Ney’s column approached with an intrepid step; the veterans of Wagram -and Austerlitz were there; no force on earth seemed capable of resisting -them; they had decided every former battle. Drouot was beside the -Marshal, who repeatedly said to him they were about to gain a glorious -victory. General Friant was killed by Ney’s side: the Marshal’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> -own horse was shot under him; but bravely advancing on foot, with his -drawn sabre in his hand, he sought death from the enemy’s volleys. -The impulse of this massy column was at first irresistible; the guns -were forced back, and the Imperial Guard came up to within forty paces -of the English Foot Guards, and the 73rd and 30th regiments. These -men were lying down, four deep, in a small ditch behind the rough road, -which there goes along the summit of the ridge. “Up Guards, and at -them!” cried the Duke, who had repaired to the spot; and the whole, -on both sides of the angle into which the French were advancing, -springing up, moved forward a few paces, and poured in a volley so close -and well directed, that nearly the whole first two ranks of the French -fell at once. Gradually advancing, they now pushed the immense column, -yet bravely combatting, down the slope; and Wellington, at that decisive -instant, ordered Vivian’s brigade to charge the retiring body on one -flank, while Adam’s foot advanced against it on the other. The effect -of this triple attack, at once in front and on both flanks, was decisive: -the 52nd and 71st, swiftly converging inward, threw in so terrible a -volley on their left flank, that the Imperial Guard swerved in disorder -to the right; and at that very instant the 10th, 18th, and 21st dragoons, -under Vivian, bore down with irresistible fury, and piercing right -through the body, threw it into irrevocable confusion. The cry, “Tout -est perdu—la Garde recule!” arose in the French ranks, and the enormous -mass, driven headlong down the hill, overwhelmed everything -which came in its way, and spread disorder through the whole French -centre.”</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">DESCRIPTION OF WATERLOO FROM THE TWELVE BATTLES.</p> - -<p>“We have seen the three several stages by which the Duke of Wellington -had conducted the British army to that elevated position in which the peace -of 1814 left it. We have seen how it had, first, on the broad fields of -Castile, boldly encountered a French army of twice its strength, and had -sent it back in defeat. Next, at Salamanca, meeting an army of equal -force, it had scattered it by an assault of a single hour, annihilating at a -blow one-half of its strength. And lastly, falling upon the intrusive King -himself in his final position of retreat and defence at Vittoria, it had -driven his entire array, like a flock of frightened sheep, over the Pyrenees. -After those triumphs, by which a whole realm of great extent had been -delivered from its invaders, there seemed scarcely any way by which the -fame and honour of the British army and its illustrious Commander -could be enhanced, except by an event not to be anticipated—an encounter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> -with the great conqueror of modern times, now an exile at Elba; and a -triumph over him.</p> - -<p>This event, however unlikely it might seem, was reserved for England’s -soldiers and her General; and it occurred in less than a year after -the apparent restoration of peace. Napoleon suddenly left his island-home, -reappeared in France, gathered his soldiers round him, and re-entered -Paris as once more its Emperor. Naturally enough, the Sovereigns -who had compelled his retirement, scarcely nine months before, -resolved to maintain their position; and they covenanted with each -other to place armies amounting to 600,000 men on the soil of France -in the course of July, 1815. The British portion of this force was -collecting together in the months of May and June, under the Duke’s -command; when Napoleon determined not to wait for the attack, -but to carry the war into the allied territories; and, accordingly, -in the second week in June he entered Belgium. Before he had proceeded -twenty miles he encountered both the English and the Prussian -armies, and on the fourth day, at a distance of about thirty miles from -the French frontier, was fought the great and decisive battle of -Waterloo.</p> - -<p>This momentous contest will require of us a more lengthened description -than we have given of any of the great battles; both because it -was an event of the highest possible importance to the fate of -England, of Europe, and of the world; and also because it was, so to -speak, a succession of battles fought on one field, and on the same day. -In a former case we have seen “an army of forty thousand men defeated -in forty minutes;” but here the deadly strife occupied nearly ten hours. -The French opened the attack at eleven in the morning, and at nine -o’clock at night the last of their battalions had not yet quitted the -field. In the course of these ten hours four or five desperate and prolonged -contests had taken place; each of which might have been justly -called a battle. It will be impossible, therefore, to give any fair or complete -idea of this long continued struggle, without occupying much -greater space than is required for an ordinary battle.</p> - -<p>It is also a history which is thickly strewn with controversies. The -defeated General himself was the first to open this wordy strife. The -loss of the fight of Waterloo was a fact to which he never could -be reconciled. That battle hurled him, finally, from the throne on -which he had for the second time seated himself, and sent him to wear -out the few remaining years of his life on the rock of St. Helena. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> -that retirement he occupied himself, for the most part, in a series of -efforts to resuscitate his extinguished “glory.”<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> In these attempts he -was hampered by no moral scruples; for, as Emerson has remarked, -“this, the highest-placed individual in the world, had not the merit of -common truth and honesty; he would steal, slander, assassinate, as his -interest indicated.” Any reasonable man, therefore, will read his “Historical -Memoir,” book ix, written at St. Helena, and published in London -in 1820, with that caution which is so plainly called for when a -document is confessedly an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exparte</i> statement, and written by one who is -known to be of unscrupulous character.</p> - -<p>Yet that document has been received in many quarters with a credulity -which is somewhat surprising. It is true that this credulity may be -accounted for in the case of the French historians—who, obliged to confess -that their defeat at Waterloo was “horrible”—a “massacre”—a “deluge -of blood”—are glad to have supplied to them, under Napoleon’s own -hand, the apology that he was overmatched and greatly outnumbered; -and that yet, after all, he would have proved victorious if one of his -Generals had not disobeyed his commands.</p> - -<p>The latter of these two pleas has been generally rejected by English -writers—utterly denied as its truth has been by the party so accused. -But, strangely enough, although there was every probability that Napoleon’s -account of his own strength, and of that of his opponent, would be -wholly untrustworthy—several of our best English writers have given -entire credence of his statement of the real amount of his army; even -while those statements are clearly refuted by abundant testimonies of -many Frenchmen. And this point is not an immaterial one. For if we -could admit the truth of Napoleon’s final conclusion, that “On that day -69,000 French beat 120,000 men, and the victory was only torn from -them between eight and nine o’clock at night by the increase of the allies -to 150,000 men”<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>—what merit could we assign to the British soldiers, -or to their great commander, for such a victory? But, in sober verity, -of all the falsehoods deliberately put forth by Napoleon in the course of -his life, this, probably, is nearly the greatest.</p> - -<p>Let us, however, now endeavour to arrange our narrative in its proper -order. The army which was assembling in Belgium under the Duke’s -command, had reached, in the beginning of June, the respectable amount<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> -of almost 100,000 men. It contained, however, far more Belgians, Hanoverians, -Brunswickers, and Dutchmen, than British troops, and far more -new levies, landwehr, and militia, than of experienced soldiers. The English -regiments which had followed the Duke through all the fields of -Spain had been sent to America, and were now on the Atlantic, on their -return home. He had some of the Guards, and a few other regiments of -some standing; but the largest portion of the British troops which had -yet reached Belgium were second battalions—new recruits drafted from -the militia—and the same observation would apply to the Hanoverians -and other auxiliaries.</p> - -<p>It was a knowledge of this intrinsic weakness of the Duke’s army, and -of the fact that 10,000 or 15,000 of his old Peninsular troops would soon -join him, that decided Napoleon, as is frankly confessed,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> to make a -sudden attack on the British and Prussian forces before they were fully -prepared to meet him. Silently, therefore, but with his usual skill and -rapidity, Napoleon brought together a powerful army, and on the -morning of the 15th of June he moved forward and entered Belgium.</p> - -<p>And here we are met by the most current of all the fictions which are -connected with this history. A variety of writers have repeated, one after -another—Napoleon himself setting them the example—the story that the -Duke never heard of the approach of the French until eleven o’clock in -the evening of that day, while at a ball at Brussels. The facts, however, -which are beyond dispute, are these—that the French did not enter -Charleroi, the first Belgian town, until eleven or twelve o’clock on June -the 15th—that tidings of their movement reached the Duke at Brussels -by three o’clock, and that between four and five o’clock that same afternoon -orders went out to every corps of the British army to move to the -front, many of them beginning their march that same evening. There -was no surprise, then, nor was there the loss of a single day. The French -had not marched thirty miles—had not entered any place of the least -importance, when, on the third day, they found the British army drawn -up across their path, and had to fight the battle of Waterloo.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span></p> - -<p>They had, indeed, found their progress arrested still earlier. Entering -Belgium on the 15th, they were stopped the very next day at Ligny by -the Prussians, at Quatre Bras by a part of the English army. Marshal -Blucher being defeated, and retiring a few miles, the Duke fell back also, -and thus was enabled to draw up his army at Waterloo—a position which -he had before observed to be an advantageous one, and which was in all -respects well suited to the defence of Brussels.</p> - -<p>It was on the afternoon of the 17th June that the Duke’s army found -itself assembled on this spot. The French army, led by Napoleon himself, -soon approached, but the day was too far advanced to afford time for -a general engagement. The two armies, therefore, took position, the -English on a rising ground called Mont St. Jean, about half a mile in -advance of the village of Waterloo, and nine miles on the French side of -Brussels; the French on a series of heights facing Mont St. Jean, having -the village of Planchenoit on the right, and looking down upon a small -valley which separated the two hosts.</p> - -<p>And now we are naturally brought to a consideration of the question, -what was the respective strength of these two armies? This is a point -upon which Napoleon has bestowed great pains in his “Historical -Memoir, Book ix,” and on which he has succeeded in deluding many -English writers.</p> - -<p>As to the strength of the British army, there can be no kind of doubt -upon that point, for the actual numbers present in each battalion and -squadron was carefully recorded; and these records were needed to -establish the respective rights of all present to honours and rewards. We -have spoken of a gross amount of nearly 100,000 men. But of these, -several thousands were required to garrison Antwerp, Ostend, Nieuport, -Ypres, Tournai, and Mons,—the loss at Quatre Bras had been 3000 or -4000, and a post of observation at Hal, consisted of nearly 6000. When -these deductions were made, not quite 70,000 men remained, to meet -Napoleon’s attack at Waterloo.</p> - -<p>The British infantry in the field were 15,181, and the German Legion -infantry were 3301. The British and German cavalry were 7840, and -their artillery was 3493. Thus the whole reliable force of the Duke—the -force to which he must look to stand the French attack—was not -quite 30,000 men. All this was well known to Napoleon, who, in his -“Book ix,” says, “Victory appeared to be <em>certain</em>,” for the French army -consisted of “good troops, while, in the enemy’s army, the English only, -amounting to 40,000 <em>at most</em>, could be reckoned upon as such.”<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span></p> - -<p>The “Allied troops,” who made up the Duke’s array, consisted of -10,755 Hanoverians, many of whom were mere landwehr or militia, and -nearly 25,000 Belgians, Dutch, and men of Brunswick and Nassau. -Some of these fought gallantly, but others retreated whenever the French -approached,—some actually flying from the field. Hence Napoleon justly -says, “one Englishman might be counted for one Frenchman:—two -Dutchmen, Prussians, or soldiers of the Confederation, for one Frenchman.”</p> - -<p>Adopting, therefore, Napoleon’s own method of calculation, we may -say, that the Duke had an army nominally amounting to about 68,000 -men, really equal to something less than 50,000.</p> - -<p>And now we turn to the other side of the account. Here we must, to -be safe, accept only French testimony. If we draw together all the -credible statements of this class that we can find, we shall probably be -able to arrive at a just conclusion.</p> - -<p>There was published at Paris, in 1815, a volume by an officer attached -to the staff, which may be considered to be “the French account,” at -the time and in detail, of this battle. In this volume, the whole army -which entered Belgium is stated to have been “150,000 effective men of -whom about 30,000 were cavalry.” It seems improbable that a staff-officer -should have greatly erred, or that a Frenchman should have exaggerated -the strength of the beaten army. Reckoning, therefore, the gross -number to have been 150,000; and deducting 15,000 for losses at Ligny, -and at Quatre Bras, we may estimate the force detached under Grouchy -on the 17th, at about 38 or 40,000 men, and the strength of the French -army at Waterloo at something more than 90,000.</p> - -<p>And this estimate precisely agrees with Napoleon’s own statement, -written at Paris three days after the battle. In this bulletin he says, -“We estimated the force of the English army at 80,000 men. We -<em>supposed</em> that a Prussian corps which <em>might be</em> in line toward the right -might be 15,000 men. The enemy’s force, then, was upwards of 90,000 -men; ours less numerous.”</p> - -<p>He is here speaking of the morning. But there was not a Prussian -soldier in the field until five o’clock in the afternoon; and this Napoleon -well knew. Why, then, does he here introduce a “supposed” Prussian -corps? Clearly, in order to bring up the allied force to 95,000 men, so -that he might be able to add, “Ours, <em>less numerous</em>.” He had every -possible motive, as a beaten General, striving to make the best of his case,—for -saying, <em>if he had dared</em>,—“The enemy was more than 90,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> -strong, but we had not quite 70,000.” But he could not venture, in the -face of abundant evidence then existing, to say that his army was less -than 80,000, the force he assigns to the English. He therefore, by an -“ingenious device,” augments the allied force to 95,000; and then he -can venture to assert that his own army was inferior in numbers. There -is clearly implied in this statement an admission that his own force was -not greatly below 95,000.</p> - -<p>Yet when Ney and others were dead, and the records, in all probability, -scattered or destroyed, the same man who wrote this bulletin, concocted -at St. Helena, four or five years after, a widely-different account. In his -“Book ix,” p. 128, he puts forth an elaborate table, purporting to show, -that the whole force of the French army at Waterloo was only 68,650 -men! And such has been the imposing effect of this table, that many -English writers, while they could detect the falsehood of other statements -in that same volume, still accepted, as an undeniable fact, the conclusion, -that Napoleon’s army at Waterloo consisted of only 68,650 men! Yet -only common prudence, and the use of a little careful scrutiny, was needed, -to prove that these same elaborate tables in “Book ix” were nothing -more than what is usually called, in railway language, “a cooked account.”</p> - -<p>The proof of this shall be given from French writers alone. And, -first, let “Book ix” refute itself, by its own self contradictions. At -page 71, it gives the second corps, 19,800 infantry; while at p. 95-97, -it states the same infantry, at the same moment, at 21,000. At page -128 it gives the first corps 16,500 infantry, and at table F it calls the -same infantry, 17,600. At page 128 the cavalry of the Guard and the -third and fourth corps of cavalry are stated at 10,000; while at pp. 158 -and 173 they are twice called 12,000. At p. 35 we are told that “the -regiments generally had but two battalions; each battalion consisting of -600 men, <em>present and under arms</em>.” Yet in the principal table, F, the -regiments are always estimated at either 1000 or 1100 men, the battalions -at 500 or 550. Thus it is abundantly clear, even from the pages of -“Book ix” itself, that its writer is one who “plays at fast and loose -with figures.”</p> - -<p>But other refutations, from purely French sources, are abundant. We -have seen that Napoleon states, in “Book ix,” p. 35, that his battalions -had 600 men; but that he quietly puts them down in table F, as being -only 500 or 550.</p> - -<p>Now in his portfolio, captured at Charleroi, and published at Brussels, -there was one report, made by an officer named De Launoy, and dated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> -“Montalimert, June 4th,” which said, “The first battalion, 720 strong, -marched on the 1st of June.” And, in the <cite>Moniteur</cite> of May 28th, published -at Paris under Napoleon’s own authority, there was given a letter -dated “Lille, May 26th,” which says, “Our garrison is entirely composed -of battalions of select troops, which successively arrive: the 20th -arrived yesterday; almost all consist of 720 men; we are expecting two -battalions of veterans.” Now these troops formed part of the first corps, -as stated in “Book ix,” p. 31; and in table F they are all set down as -having in each battalion, 550 men!</p> - -<p>It was of this first corps that Marshal Ney spoke in his letter of June -26th, 1815, in which he complained of having it taken away from him -on the 16th. He describes it as having consisted of “between 25,000 -and 30,000 men.” He must have had the actual returns in his pocket -when he wrote this. Now if the battalions generally consisted of 720 -men, as the <cite>Moniteur</cite> of May 28th had told us, then its thirty-two battalions -would have contained 23,040; which added to 1400 cavalry, and -1564 artillery men, would be accurately described as “between 25,000 -and 30,000 men.” But Napoleon, in his statement of the force at Waterloo, -sets down the infantry of this corps as only 16,500; thus contradicting -at once the statement of the <cite>Moniteur</cite>, the report found in his own -portfolio, and the declaration of the Marshal who commanded that corps!</p> - -<p>In the same spirit, in the table of the troops at Waterloo, (Book ix, p. -128,) we find the infantry of the Guard set down as being 11,500. -Yet Gourgaud, Napoleon’s Aide-de-Camp, and Fleury de Chaboulon, his -secretary, both concur in stating this infantry to have been 14,000.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> - -<p>Of the heavy cavalry we have already seen, that while Napoleon, in his -table, at p. 128, sets it down at 4000, 3000, and 3000, or 10,000 in all, -he afterwards twice describes it, at p. 158 and at p. 173, as “these -12,000 select horse.”</p> - -<p>Once more, in “Book ix,” p. 129, he states the force detached under -Grouchy to have been 34,300. His own companion at St. Helena, -General Montholon, in his history, (vol. i, p. 14,) calls this force 42,000.</p> - -<p>All this evidence, then, drawn from several quarters, but wholly French, -points to one conclusion,—namely, that Napoleon, in forming his tables -for “Book ix,” deliberately reduced his real strength at Waterloo by -about one-fourth or one-fifth; and that his first statement, in his bulletin -issued at the time, was the true one; namely, that his army was only -somewhat “less numerous than 95,000.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span></p> - -<p>And to this conclusion a remarkable support is found, in the behaviour -of the two Generals on the day preceding the action. Wellington had -beaten nearly every one of Napoleon’s Marshals;<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>—and could not but -feel a degree of exultation at the thought of meeting the master of them -all. Napoleon, on his part, had to encounter a General who had never -been conquered. Supposing, then, the armies to have been nearly equal -in strength, what might have been anticipated, but a degree of eager -anticipation on Wellington’s side, and of seriousness on Napoleon’s? Instead -of which, what do we hear? The Duke writes to Marshal Blucher, -that he will accept battle, <em>if</em> the Marshal will assist him with one corps of -his army. Meanwhile, Napoleon’s only anxiety is lest the English should -escape him. “He was surprised,” writes his secretary, Fleury, “when -daylight discovered to him that the English army had not quitted its -positions, but appeared disposed to accept battle.” “He returned to his -head-quarters (Book ix, p. 125) full of satisfaction at the great fault committed -by the enemy’s General.” “He held this,” says Brialmont, “to -be rashness, and a fault, exclaiming, ‘At last, then, I have them,—these -English!’” Do not these views and anticipations, on the part of both of -the Generals, make it quite evident that each of them was fully aware of -the great superiority of the French army; and of the temerity of which -the Duke would be guilty if, without any assurance of support, he ventured -on an engagement in the face of such odds?</p> - -<p>It is worth remark, too, that while several of the best English writers -have accepted with the most good-natured simplicity, Napoleon’s own account -of the force with which he fought this battle—French historians, -even when admirers of Napoleon, show much less faith in his assertions. -Thus, Lamartine, having Napoleon’s ixth Book before him, in which -the number, “sixty-eight thousand, six hundred and fifty men,” is strenuously -insisted on—quietly disregards the fiction, and repeatedly speaks of -the French force as being “eighty thousand men.”<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - -<p>But Napoleon’s “<em>certainty</em> of success,” of which he speaks at p. 127 -of his Book ix, rested more upon the superior <em>quality</em> of his troops than -on their superior <em>numbers</em>. He was thoroughly well aware, both of the -slight value of the Belgian and Hanoverian auxiliaries, and of the -excellence of his own troops. And the Duke, also, knew full well both of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span> -these facts. On the 8th of May he had written to Lord Stewart, “I -have got an infamous army; very weak and ill-equipped; and a very -inexperienced staff.” And seven days after the battle, he repeated to -Lord Bathurst, that he had got “not only the worst troops, but the -worst-equipped army, with the worst staff, that ever was brought -together.”<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - -<p>On the other hand, Napoleon’s army was, for its amount, the finest -that he had ever led into the field. Thus his secretary, Fleury, says, -“The whole army was superb, and full of ardour.” Lamartine speaks -of it as “his grand army of chosen men; every battalion of which had a -soul equal to the utmost extremity.” Napoleon himself, in “Book ix,” -says: “The spectacle was really magnificent: the earth seemed proud of -being trod by such intrepid combatants.” And at St. Helena he told -O’Meara: “My troops were so good, that I esteemed them sufficient to -beat a hundred and twenty thousand.”<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> - -<p>Thus, as Brialmont remarks, whatever might be the numerical proportion -of the two armies, “when we come to look at the respective qualities -of the troops, the inferiority of the Anglo-Belgian army <em>was enormous</em>. -Not only was it composed of heterogeneous elements, but it consisted -almost entirely of young soldiers, a large proportion of whom had never -been under fire. The Hanoverian contingent was made up of militia; -and many regiments were fit only for garrison duty.”<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - -<p>The evening which preceded the memorable 18th of June was dark -and cloudy; the rain fell in torrents, and the men were often ankle-deep -in water. But, however deplorable might be their outward condition, the -interest of this eventful moment rendered the combatants on either side, -almost insensible to physical sufferings. Every man in both armies knew -that a great and decisive battle was to be fought on the following day. -With the opening morning, then, would begin what might prove the final -contest,—ending a strife of nations which had lasted more than twenty -years. The two greatest Generals of the age were for the first time to be -brought into collision: the conqueror of Europe was to measure swords -with the deliverer of Spain. No two such leaders, it has been well -observed, had confronted each other, since Hannibal and Scipio met -at Zama.</p> - -<p>Doubtless, and very naturally, the greatest degree of confidence was -felt in the camp of the invaders. The French soldiers relied with reason<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> -on the extraordinary talents of their great leader, victorious in fifty contests, -foiled in scarcely any. The men who stood by his side, too, were -the veterans who had marched triumphantly over many victorious fields, -and who now felt defeat, under such a Captain, to be scarcely possible. -They were confident, too, in their numbers. All of them had heard that -the Emperor had carried over the frontier a picked army of 150,000 -men. They saw on the heights around them the first and second corps, -amounting together to nearly 50,000 men, with the sixth, less numerous, -in reserve. The Imperial Guard was there, from 18,000 to 20,000 -strong,—the finest troops that France had ever possessed, and the -cuirassiers, nearly 6,000 in number. What could a mixed force of a few -English, joined with Belgians, Hanoverians, and Dutchmen, do against -such a power?</p> - -<p>Very naturally, therefore, we learn from Gourgaud, that “the French -troops were full of enthusiasm. Such were the acclamations of joy, that -they prevented the orders from being heard.”<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> From Napoleon to his -Generals, from the Generals to the troops, the feeling had spread and -become universal. “Ah! we have them, then,—these English!”</p> - -<p>The British troops had not the same ground of confidence. They knew -well that their own numbers did not amount to one-third of the strength -of Napoleon’s army, and that the Hanoverian and Belgian landwehr, by -whom their line was to be filled up, were of very uncertain value. Many -of the battalions, both English and foreign, had never been in action -before. Still, they had a great and well-founded trust in their Commander; -and with a spirit like his own, they meant to <em>do their duty</em>, -and while they lived, to stand their ground.</p> - -<p>The field of Waterloo, or the heights of Mont St. Jean, as the English -and the French respectively call this spot, is a piece of slightly-elevated -ground lying, as we have already said, about 1000 yards in advance of -the village of Waterloo. Brussels, in which Napoleon intended to sleep -that night, was about nine miles in the rear of the English army. The -main road from Charleroi to Brussels passed through the French position, -descended into the valley, and then ascended Mont St. Jean, cutting -the English position at right angles near a farm-house called La Haye -Sainte. The English line lay about 200 yards behind this farm-house. -Here was the centre and left centre. In advance of the right wing of -the English army, and between it and the left wing of the French, stood -a larger house, surrounded by walled gardens and orchards, and called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> -Hougoumont. As this place would have afforded great advantages to -the French in preparing attacking columns, the Duke placed in it some -companies of the Foot-Guards, with some Nassau and Hanoverian troops, -and enjoined its resolute defence. Well were his orders obeyed, for the -utmost efforts of a whole army corps of the French were ineffectual to -carry this position. The French lost 6 or 8000 men in the attempt, but -up to the very close of the day the English Foot-Guards maintained -their possession.</p> - -<p>The position of Waterloo was deliberately chosen by the Duke, and -the choice is commended by all unprejudiced critics. Yet Napoleon, -ungenerous throughout, strives to depreciate his antagonist’s judgment -in this particular. He says, in “Book ix:”—“The English General -had in his rear the defiles of the forest of Soignes, so that if beaten, -retreat was impossible” (p. 125). Upon which M. Lamartine observes: -“In fighting on the borders of a forest fortified in all its approaches, as -well as by its own impenetrability, the Duke had every pledge of victory, -if victory was possible; and of a secure retreat if defeat were unavoidable. -Waterloo was an admirable field of battle, and it is to be regretted that -Napoleon has not acknowledged this, but has obstinately striven to prove -that his conqueror was unworthy of him. These are the littlenesses of -glory. The choice of Waterloo on Wellington’s part was a further mark -of that genius, at once resolute, powerful, and prudent, which has characterized -all the campaigns of this General.”</p> - -<p>It should be added, that the Duke, during five years of constant warfare -with the French armies, had never once been beaten by them in a -pitched battle. Nor had he any thought of retreating upon the present -occasion, or any desire to make a special provision for such an emergency. -In after years he dropped the remark: “I knew that they could never -so beat us, but that we could have made good the forest against them.”</p> - -<p>And now the several divisions of the two armies were placed in the -positions which to the two commanders seemed suitable. On the left of -Napoleon’s line he placed his second corps, which he himself states to -have consisted of 17,000 men, and which undoubtedly was nearer -20,000. This corps, to which his brother Jerome was attached, was -ordered to seize upon Hougoumont, and then to attack the right of the -British army. Napoleon’s right wing was formed of his first corps, -under Ney’s command. This corps had not yet been in action, and was -complete. Napoleon sets down its strength us 17,900 men; but Ney, -who commanded it, describes it as “from twenty-five to thirty thousand.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> -In the second line stood the sixth corps, consisting of 7 or 8000 men; -the heavy cavalry, of about 7000; and in a third line stood the Imperial -Guard, which, of cavalry and infantry, had at least 18,000. The artillery -numbered more than 6000 men, with 240 cannon. The entire force -was probably described with truth in Napoleon’s bulletin of the battle, -in which he calls it “less than 95,000.”</p> - -<p>Against these the Duke had to place in position, on the opposite heights, -his 15,181 British infantry, his 3,300 infantry of the German Legion, -and about 28,000 Belgians, Hanoverians, and Brunswickers. Many of -these showed themselves, in the battle, unable to stand a French attack. -In the second line he had 7,840 English and German cavalry, and about -4,500 Belgians, Hanoverians, and Brunswickers. His artillery (English, -Belgian, &c.,) were 5,600 and his guns, 156. At Hal and Enghien, on -the road from Mons to Brussels, the Duke placed a detachment of 5,819 -men to guard against any possible device in that quarter. These could -take no part in the battle, being fixed by their orders at a distance -of several miles from it.</p> - -<p>The Duke had slept for a few hours at his headquarters in the village -of Waterloo, and then rising before dawn on the morning of the 18th he -wrote several letters, in which he expressed his confidence that all would -go well, but still gave specific orders for all that was to be done in Brussels, -Antwerp, &c., in the event of the success of the French attack. He -then saw to the distribution of the reserves of artillery, which had been -packed in the village, so that supplies should be readily forwarded to -every point where they might be needed. He also personally inspected -the arrangements made for the reception of the wounded. Then mounting -his horse Copenhagen, he rode to Hougoumont, and thence down a -lane leading through the wood beyond it. Halting on the eastern slant -of the thicket, he narrowly surveyed all of the enemy’s arrangements that -could be seen. Then giving some final orders at Hougoumont, he galloped -back to the high ground in the right centre of his position, where -he began to chat with the members of his staff with as much liveliness as -if they were about to take part in an ordinary review.</p> - -<p>There was now a pause of considerable duration. This was one of the -chief mistakes committed by Napoleon. He had before him, as he well -know, an army exceedingly inferior to his own; so inferior, in short, -that it was a matter of joyful surprise to him that the Duke had not -decamped in the night. But on his right he knew that there was Grouchy -with less than 40,000 men, opposed to Blucher, who had 80,000 or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> -90,000. It was obvious to every one that the Prussian general might, -and probably would, engage Grouchy with one or two corps, and -carry the rest of his army to the succour of the English. It was, then, a -great error not to use the present opportunity with decision and rapidity. -He accounts for the delay by the state of the ground; but -when Grouchy justified his inertness at Wavre by the same plea, Napoleon -exclaims, in “Book ix,” p. 153, “The dreadful state of the weather, -ridiculous motive!”</p> - -<p>The village clock was striking eleven when the first gun was fired from -the French centre, and this great battle began, which only ended with the -darkness of night. There has never been a battle which was so distinctly -divided, like a drama, into four or five acts. These were: 1. The attack -on Hougoumont and the English right; 2. The attack on La Haye Sainte -and the English centre and left; 3. The irruption of the French heavy -cavalry upon the centre of the English position; 4. The Prussian diversion; -5. The charge of the Imperial Guard, and final defeat of the French army. -These several acts or stages in this great contest usually followed each other -at intervals of about two hours, <em>i.e.</em> at 11, at 1, at 3, at 5, and at 7 o’clock. -There cannot, therefore, be a better way of obtaining a clear idea of the progress -of this tremendous struggle, than by passing in review these five acts -or stages, just us they occurred, and distinctly from each other.</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">ELEVEN O’CLOCK.</p> - -<p>Precisely at this hour the French artillery opened fire upon the orchards -of Hougoumont, and Jerome, with his division, moved forward to the -attack. As we have seen, Napoleon himself assigns to his second corps, to -whom this duty was assigned, a strength of 17,900 men; and, reasoning -upon his uniform practice of diminishing his real numbers, we may -safely estimate its real force at 20,000. This corps was to storm and -take Hougoumont, and then, from this position, to annoy and perhaps to -attack with success, the Duke’s right. But it never succeeded even in -its first object. The whole power of these 18,000 or 20,000 men -failed to carry a post which was never garrisoned by so many us -2,800. Thus, Gourgaud tells us that at noon “Prince Jerome with -his division took possession of the wood: he was driven out, but -a new attack once more rendered him master of it. The enemy, -however, kept possession of the largo house in the centre.” Again, at -half-past four, he says, “General Reille supported the attack of Jerome’s -division by Foy’s division. (Each being 5,000 or 6,000 strong.)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> -Howitzers had set fire to the house and nearly destroyed it; three-fourths -of the wood was in our possession; the fields were strewed with the English -guards, the flower of the enemy’s army.” But beyond this partial -success the French never attained. They never carried the chateau -itself, but in the attempt they lost from 6,000 to 8,000 men, while -the killed and wounded of the defenders amounted to a few hundreds only. -This portion of the battle lasted from noon until night, and all that -the French could boast of, was, that with five or seven times the -number of the British, they obtained possession of “three-fourths of -the wood.”<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Napoleon says, in “Book ix,” “The wood remained -in the possession of the French; but the chateau, in which some hundreds -of intrepid English troops defended themselves, opposed an -invincible resistance.”<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">ONE O’CLOCK.</p> - -<p>But now, having commenced the battle by this vehement assault on -Hougoumont by his left wing, Napoleon prepared what he admits to -be his main attack, on the Duke’s centre and left, by Count d’Erlon’s -whole corps, led by Marshal Ney. This was the corps which had not -been engaged at either Ligny or Quatre Bras. Napoleon states its -strength at 17,900; but Ney more frankly describes it us between -“twenty-five and thirty thousand.” This force was directed against -the centre of the English position. Throughout the day Napoleon seemed -to rely on <em>mere strength</em>. He knew that he was superior on every point, -in each branch of the service, and in every particular, and he had never -experienced the obstinate endurance of the English infantry. Thus, as -the Duke afterwards said, “He did not manœuvre at all. He just moved -forward, in the old style, in columns, and was driven off in the old style.”</p> - -<p>Great were the expectations based on this attack. Napoleon himself -said to Ney: “This is a day and an action worthy of you: I give you -the command of the centre; and it is you who are to gain the battle.”<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> -But while all the French accounts admit the vast importance which was -attached to this, the main attack, they entirely forget to say <em>what was the -result of it</em>. Thus Gourgaud writes: “The Emperor directed Marshal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> -Ney to commence the attack, and to take possession of La Haye Sainte;” -“Our infantry advanced;” “The enemy’s line, however, made no -manœuvre; it maintained its immobility. His cavalry made several successful -charges on the flank of one of the columns of the first corps, and -about 15 of our pieces of artillery, which were advancing, were driven -back into a hollow road. One of Milhaud’s brigades of Cuirassiers advanced -against this cavalry, and the field of battle was soon covered with -their slain. When the Emperor perceived that some disorder prevailed -on our right, he proceeded at full gallop.”<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - -<p>Napoleon says, in “Book ix,” “Many charges of infantry and cavalry -followed it; the detail of them belong more to the history of each regiment, -than to the general history of the battle; it is enough to say, that -after three hours’ fighting, the farm of La Haye Sainte was occupied by -the French infantry; while the end which the Emperor had in view was -obtained.”<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<p>Thus, from the French accounts, we gain no intelligible information as -to the actual result of this attack of 25,000 men on the English centre; -except, indeed, that Gourgaud’s single phrase, “the enemy’s line maintained -its immobility,” tacitly implies that the attack failed. We turn, -then, to the English narrators, and learn from them what actually -occurred.</p> - -<p>“Seventy-four guns” (“Book ix,” says eighty) were ordered forward -to a little elevation, so as to bring their fire to bear upon the English line -at a range of about 700 yards. Soon after, as two o’clock approached, the -columns of attack, under Ney’s command, were seen descending from -their elevated ground, crossing the valley, and ascending the northern -slope. The British artillery gave them a warm reception; but still the -columns pressed on, until they approached the Duke’s line, near the -centre and left centre. Here were placed the brigade of Sir Thomas -Picton, about 3000 strong; and a Belgic-Dutch brigade under Bylandt. -As the French columns drew near, with shouts of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vive l’Empereur!</span>” -the courage of the Belgians gave way, and the whole brigade, amidst the -groans and hooting of the British soldiers, begun a hasty movement to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span> -the rear, from which they could not be induced to advance during the -whole remainder of the day.</p> - -<p>Left thus to himself, to sustain the whole attack of twice or three -times his numbers, the gallant Picton never hesitated. Forming his -little band two deep, he waited till the French column came within -charging distance. It then halted, and endeavoured to deploy into line. -Saluting it, at this moment, with a volley from his whole brigade, Picton -gave the word “Charge!” and his men sprang forward with the bayonet. -In an instant the whole French column was in confusion; and before -they had time to recover themselves, Ponsonby’s brigade of heavy cavalry, -the Royals, the Scots Greys, and the Enniskilleners, broke in upon them, -and in a few moments the whole side of the hill was covered with fugitives. -The heroic leader of “the fighting division,” however, the gallant -Picton, fell, shot through the brain in the moment of triumph. Another -fierce encounter was at hand. Milhaud’s Cuirassiers were close behind the -French columns, and they essayed to retrieve the fight. But the Household -Brigade met them, and after a desperate encounter—of the best horsemen -in England and the best in France—the whole mass of the French, horse -and foot, were driven back in confusion, leaving behind them the eagles -of the 45th and 105th regiments, and nearly 3000 prisoners. The grand -attack of Ney on the British centre had failed; and the first corps of the -French army was so seriously cut up and disorganized, as to be in no condition -to renew the attack. We now understand Gourgaud’s confessions, -“The enemy’s cavalry made several successful charges on the flank of one -of the columns of the first corps;” and, “when the Emperor perceived -that some disorder prevailed on our right, he proceeded thither at full -gallop.”</p> - -<p>It was now considerably past two o’clock. The principal attack had -been repelled: the English position had not been forced, or even endangered. -“The enemy’s line,” says Gourgaud, “maintained its immobility.” -But Napoleon’s second corps had been beaten and much -damaged at Hougoumont; and now his first was crippled and nearly -disabled in front of La Haye Sainte. In this strait, either Ney or -Napoleon, or both of them, still confident in their superior strength, had -recourse to a desperate measure, which had, indeed, a probability of -success; but which, if it failed, would involve a serious danger.</p> - -<p>They had, still untouched, or nearly so, a reserve of what Napoleon -himself styles, “twelve thousand select horse,” the two corps of Cuirassiers, -the light cavalry of the Guard, and the horse grenadiers and dragoons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span> -of the Guard. There need be no dispute as to the strength of -this force, since Napoleon himself twice states it to have been 12,000.</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">THREE O’CLOCK.</p> - -<p>At this period of the battle, then, desperate at the two failures on the -left and on the right, either Ney or his master launched this enormous -mass of “select cavalry” against the centre of the British line. The -error, if it is one, is sought by Napoleon to be charged on somebody -else. In his bulletin, written at the time, he says:—</p> - -<p>“Our two divisions of cuirassiers being engaged, all our cavalry ran -at the same moment to support their comrades.”</p> - -<p>Gourgaud endeavours to cast the blame upon Ney, saying:—</p> - -<p>“Marshal Ney, borne away by excess of ardour, lost sight of the orders -he had received; he debouched on the level height, which was immediately -crowned by two divisions of Milhaud’s cuirassiers, and the light -cavalry of the Guard. The emperor observed to Marshal Soult, “This -is a premature movement, which may be attended with fatal consequences.”</p> - -<p>These accounts would represent Napoleon himself famous for his -rapidity and decision, to have had no command over his own troops. -They are, therefore, not credible.</p> - -<p>But remembering that Napoleon was himself at this moment in a -forward position, and that the heavy cavalry placed in the rear as a -reserve force must have defiled past him, we must at least believe -him to have permitted this movement. Gourgaud says that Ney -ordered forward Milhaud’s Cuirassiers, and that “the emperor ordered -Kellerman’s corps to support him.” Colonel Heymes, aide-de-camp -to Ney, says, “That movement took place under the eyes of the -emperor, who might have stopped it, but did not.” Still as he afterwards, -in private conversation, charged the fault on Ney,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> we must suppose -that the marshal, in his desperation, called for the reserve of cavalry, -and that Napoleon permitted him to employ them. However this might be, -it is certain that about three or four o’clock—the attack of the first corps -on the centre and left of the English having failed, the whole mass of the -“cavalry of reserve,” was brought forward and thrown upon the centre -of the Duke’s position. Such an assault has rarely been made upon any -other army in modern times. Deducting the troops in Hougoumont, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span> -the losses from four hours’ fighting, there could not have been at this -moment so many as 12,000 British infantry in the whole line. Yet -it is from Napoleon’s own narrative that we learn, that upon this weak -array there was launched a mass of 12,000 heavy horse, 6,000 of whom -wore armour, and who seemed, in their united strength, able positively to -ride down the insignificant force of resolute soldiers who still kept the -heights of Mont St. Jean.</p> - -<p>The British accounts generally divide this tremendous onset of the -cavalry into two attacks, the first, between three and four o’clock, when -forty squadrons, twenty-one of them being composed of cuirassiers, -ascended the heights behind La Haye Sainte; the second perhaps an -hour later, when the first assailants, having found it difficult to maintain -their ground were rallied behind thirty-seven fresh squadrons sent by -Napoleon to their succour. And this agrees with Gourgaud’s account -who tells us, first, that “Ney debouched upon the level height, with Milhaud’s -Cuirassiers and the light cavalry of the Guard,” and then adds, a -little after, that “the Emperor directed Kellerman’s Cuirassiers to -support the cavalry on the height lest it should be repulsed.” It is clear, -therefore, that the first onset of 5,000 or 6,000 men had failed, or -was in danger of failing, when Napoleon sent forward a second until, as -he himself says, the whole “twelve thousand select horse” were involved -in the struggle.</p> - -<p>How it was that this tremendous attack failed, it is not easy at this -distance of time to understand. The whole of the infantry in the British -line were quickly formed into squares; the front ranks kneeling and presenting -fixed bayonets, and the second and third lines keeping up a constant -fire of musketry. The artillery, also, saluted the intruders with -grape-shot; but many of the British guns were soon taken possession of by -the cuirassiers. The Duke, always prepared for every emergency, had -instructed the artillerymen that they should, on the approach of danger, -take off a wheel and retire with it into the nearest square of infantry. -Thus the cuirassiers, when they had seized a gun, found themselves -hampered with it, and while they were trying to carry it off, the musketry -of the British squares thinned their numbers.</p> - -<p>Wellington, in describing the battle in a letter to Marshal Beresford, -said, “I had the infantry for some time in squares, and the French -cavalry walking about us as if it had been our own.”</p> - -<p>There probably never was such a trial of “pluck” as this part of the -contest presented. It was a hand-to-hand struggle, <em>lasting two or three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> -hours</em>. Had a regiment of cuirassiers ever found courage enough to -throw themselves on the British bayonets, there can be little doubt that -some of the weaker squares might have been broken. But this never -once occurred. Gourgaud, indeed, says, “Our cavalry penetrated many -of the enemy’s squares, and took three standards,” but he must here be -speaking of the Belgian or Hanoverian troops, many of whom were -unsteady, and some of whom were scattered and cut up. There was, in -fact, no absolute reliance to be placed on any but the British troops, and -some of the best of the German. A whole Dutch-Belgian brigade, on -the approach of the cuirassiers, moved off without firing a shot. After -several charges of the British horse upon portions of the French cavalry, -Lord Uxbridge put himself at the head of Tripp’s brigade of Dutch-Belgian -carabineers, and ordered them to charge; and so they did, but -not until they had first turned their backs to the enemy! Somewhat -later, he ordered forward the Hanoverian regiment called the Cumberland -hussars; but the colonel “did not see what good was to be done” by -moving him from his snug position, which was out of reach of the firing. -He added, that he could not answer for his men, for that they rode their -own horses, and could not afford to lose them! Receiving from Lord -Uxbridge the vehement reproof which might have been expected, he and -his men moved off to Brussels, where they spread the report that the -allied army was destroyed, and that Napoleon was advancing at the head -of his Guards!</p> - -<p>Yet this tremendous attack failed, as the two preceding attacks -had done. And its failure was one chief cause of Napoleon’s -ruin. He had risked his cavalry reserve, and had lost it. For -it is a remarkable and wonderful fact, that, continuing this struggle -for two or three hours, this splendid body of “twelve thousand -select cavalry” was wholly destroyed. Individuals, and parties of fugitives, -doubtless escaped, and their number in the aggregate might be -considerable; but this arm of the service was utterly disabled. In his -Bulletin, Napoleon said, “For three hours numerous charges were made, -several squares penetrated, and six standards taken;—an advantage -bearing no proportion to the loss which our cavalry experienced by the -grape-shot and musket-firing.” Fleury de Chaboulon, his secretary, says, -“Our cavalry, exposed to the incessant firing of the enemy’s batteries and -infantry, sustained and executed numerous brilliant charges, took six -flags, and dismounted several batteries; but in this conflict we lost the -flower of our intrepid cuirassiers, and of the cavalry of the Guard.” He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span> -adds, that on reaching Paris, and describing the battle, the emperor -said, “Ney behaved like a madman!—he got my cavalry <em>massacred</em> for -me.” And it is the chief complaint of all the French accounts, that -when at the close of the day the English horse swept over the field, the -Emperor had not a single regiment of cavalry to oppose to them!<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The -“twelve thousand select cavalry” had broken into the English position; -but, except as scattered fugitives, they never returned!</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">FIVE O’CLOCK.</p> - -<p>But the battle had now lasted six hours, and Napoleon had allowed -his opportunity to pass away. Five o’clock brought the Prussians; and -after they had entered the field a decisive victory for Napoleon became -impossible.</p> - -<p>Bent on his object of proving that he had been not so much beaten as -overpowered by numbers, Napoleon in his “Book ix,” brings the Prussians -into the field at <em>noon-day</em>! In doing this he does not scruple to -employ the most direct and obvious falsehood. To give a single -instance,—Gourgaud, his <em>aide-de-camp</em>, in his account of the battle, -thus writes:</p> - -<p>“It was <em>half-past four o’clock</em>, and the most vigorous fire was still -kept up on every side. <em>At this moment</em> General Domont informed his -Majesty that he observed Bulow’s corps in movement, and that a division -of 8,000 or 10,000 Prussians was debouching from the woods of -Frischenois.”</p> - -<p>Yet in “Book ix” Napoleon does not hesitate to say: At <em>two o’clock</em> -in the afternoon General Domont had given notice that Bulow formed in -three columns; that the enemy appeared to him to be very numerous,—he -estimated the corps at 40,000 men.”</p> - -<p>But he does not even postpone their arrival until two o’clock:—two -pages earlier he insists upon it that he saw them, in the distance, at -<em>noon</em>.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> Now as it is absolutely certain that, with the greatest exertion, -the earliest of the Prussian brigades were unable to reach the field until<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> -half-past four, we may be sure that at twelve o’clock they must have -been eight or ten miles off! Hence this passage in “Book ix” must -either be a downright fiction; or else Napoleon must have discovered -on a distant hill a party of the Prussian staff who had ridden forward -to observe the position of affairs, and who must have been magnified by -his alarms into an army-corps!</p> - -<p>The real time of the arrival of the Prussians is one of the most -clearly-defined facts of the whole history. All the witnesses agree upon -it. We have just cited Gourgaud’s words, that “at half-past four General -Domont observed a division of 8,000 to 10,000 Prussians debouching -from the woods of Frischenois.”</p> - -<p>In strict agreement with which the Prussian official account says.</p> - -<p>“It was half-past four o’clock.... The difficulties of the road had -retarded the march of the Prussian columns; so that only two brigades -had arrived at the covered position which was assigned them. The generals -resolved to begin the attack with the troops which they had at -hand.”<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - -<p>And General Drouet, who was at Napoleon’s side during the action, -said, in his speech in the Chamber of Peers on the 24th of June, 1815,—“The -Prussians began to attack us at about half-past five in the afternoon.”</p> - -<p>It is quite clear, then, and beyond all dispute, that the Prussians first -began to enter the field of battle, and to be visible to the French at half-past -four in the afternoon; that the Prussian commanders immediately -proceeded to make arrangements for an attack;—and that their first -collision with the French troops took place about half-past five in the -afternoon.</p> - -<p>But Napoleon had been forewarned of their approach; for his flying -parties had brought in, he tells us, two or three hours before, a Prussian -hussar who was bearing a letter to the Duke of Wellington, announcing -that General Bulow and his corps were on their march. Hence Napoleon -had already set apart his sixth corps, under Count Lobau, to receive the -Prussians whenever they should make their appearance.</p> - -<p>He introduces at this period many complaints of Marshal Grouchy, -who, he pretends, ought to have followed Bulow’s corps, and have taken -part in the battle of Waterloo. This is the very height of injustice and -absurdity; since he had employed Grouchy distinctly to follow and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> -occupy the attention of the main body of the Prussian army; and in -obedience to this command the marshal was at that moment engaged with -the Prussian third corps at Wavre. But, on looking at Napoleon’s first -bulletin of the battle, we see that this aspersion of Grouchy is an afterthought,—a -mere device to lessen his own defeat. Writing at the time, -and giving to France a full account of the battle, in that bulletin <em>not one -word</em> of any default of Grouchy’s appears.</p> - -<p>This, of itself, is enough to show the hollowness of the excuse for the -loss of the battle. Grouchy himself, when the “ixth Book” made its -appearance, instantly wrote and published an indignant denial of its -statements; and Brialmont remarks, that “Napoleon has so expressed -himself to make it clear that he was anxious to diminish the amount of his -own responsibility by sacrificing the reputation of his subordinates. Thus -he pretends that he received on the night of the 17th a letter from Grouchy, -which letter <em>never could have existed</em>.”</p> - -<p>But Gourgaud himself, Napoleon’s own aide-de-camp, is the best witness -in exculpation of Grouchy. He tells us, that in the afternoon, hearing the -cannonade of Waterloo, General Excelmans urged upon Grouchy to leave -following the Prussians and to march towards the cannonade. But -Grouchy, “though he burnt with desire to take part in the great battle, -<em>showed Excelmans his instructions</em>, which were to march upon Wavre, -and said, that he could not take such a responsibility on himself.”<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> It -is clear therefore, that up to the afternoon of the 18th Grouchy had no -other orders than those which bade him follow the Prussians who were -in position at Wavre.</p> - -<p>Grouchy then, was not at Waterloo, simply because Napoleon had sent -him to Wavre, a town some twelve miles distant; and because he was -there engaged in a struggle with the third Prussian corps. But the -fourth Prussian corps was at Waterloo at five o’clock, because Blucher -had promised to send it there, and because Wellington expected it; and -gave battle with inferior forces, relying on this assistance. Napoleon -ought to have foreseen the probability of all this,—and, foreseeing it, he -ought to have delivered his blows more rapidly so as to break the English -line, if that were possible, before the Prussians could enter the field. -But now that he had allowed his opportunity to pass, and now that -Bulow was actually beginning to take part in the battle,—what was the -respective strength ranged on either side? This question must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span> -answered; for Napoleon says, “The enemy’s army had just been augmented -by 30,000 men, already ranged on the held of battle; thus -placing 120,000 men against 69,000, or two to one.” (p. 148.) And -then he immediately afterwards, adds “It was <em>noon</em>.”</p> - -<p>This statement, however, like most of Napoleon’s other statements, is -untrue. The Duke’s army had never amounted to 70,000 men, of -whom some 10 or 15,000 were merely nominal combatants, whom it was -impossible to persuade to fight. And Napoleon wilfully overlooks the -plain averment of the Prussian official account, that when their commanders -began the attack,—not at <em>noon</em>, but some time after half-past four, -<em>only two brigades</em>, had arrived on the field. Captain Siborne, who took -the greatest pains to ascertain every fact of the case, states that at half-past -four o’clock the Prussian force which had come up, amounted to -16,000 men; which, added to the Duke’s army of 68,000, made a joint -force of about 84,000; but, if the non-fighting part of the Duke’s army -were deducted,—of scarcely 70,000. Thus, even with the addition of -the newly-arrived Prussians, the allied force was still numerically weaker -than Napoleon’s army.</p> - -<p>This diversion, however, which was caused so opportunely by -Bulow’s arrival, naturally brought great relief to the British line. It -drew off Count Lobau’s corps, the sixth, of 7000 men, which might -otherwise have been sent forward to attack the British centre. The -remark, however, which is sometimes made, that “the English were -saved by arrival of the Prussians,” is singularly absurd. Bulow’s arrival -was not an unexpected thing; or a lucky chance;—it was a part of the -Duke’s plan. He had demanded this aid of Blucher, and had obtained -the promise of it, and without this aid, his acceptance of battle would -have been an act of great temerity. The arrival of the Prussians, so far -from being unexpected, had been calculated on three hours earlier; Blucher -having promised that they should be in the field by two o’clock.</p> - -<p>And sorely had they been needed. The “thin red line” of the British -infantry had scarcely ever found it so difficult to maintain its ground. -At this moment, as we have already remarked, there could not have -been so many as 12,000 of this branch of the Duke’s army left in position. -And yet upon them rested the whole burden of the battle. Some -of the German troops behaved gallantly; but of the mixed mass of -25,000 Belgians, Hanoverians, Dutchmen, &c., a large proportion were -unable to stand the French attacks. So soon as one of Napoleon’s columns -approached them, they became unsteady, and often went to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> -rear. Meanwhile there still stood in front of the Duke’s right wing, the -second corps; and in front of his left wing, the first corps; and all that -were left of Napoleon’s “12,000 select cavalry” were riding about the -British position, as if they were masters of it. This hour, then, or two -hours, from five o’clock till seven, must have been a most anxious one -for the British General and his troops. The commander of one brigade -sent to the Duke to beg for some relief or reinforcement; and the answer -he received was, “Tell him, that what he wishes is impossible. He, and -I, and every man here, must fight till we die on the spot where we -stand.” Some one asked for a general instruction, as to what plan should -be followed if the Duke himself should fall. “My only plan,” said the -Duke, “is to stand my ground here to the last man.” Long after the -battle, he remarked, of this period of the day, “I looked oftener at my -watch than at anything else. I knew that if my troops could keep their -position till night, I must be joined by Blucher before morning; and we -should not have left Bonaparte an army next day. But I was glad, as -one hour of day-light slipped away after another, and our position was -still maintained.” It is scarcely possible for words to imply more distinctly, -that the Duke felt that he was standing his ground with an -inferior force; relying on Blucher’s aid, to enable him to strike a blow -in return.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, as he was constantly calm, so he was ever hopeful and -high-minded. An Italian officer in the French service, being taken prisoner -afterwards described the dismay he felt, on observing the quietness -of the Duke’s demeanour, and the calmness of his countenance; which -forced him to think that he must have some concealed reserve, of which -the French generals knew nothing. His brief remarks, too, were always -cheerful and reassuring. A young Piedmontese officer made himself -useful, in carrying orders. “Were you ever in a battle before?” asked -the Duke. “No, my lord.” “Then you are a lucky fellow, for you -will never see such another!” was the rejoinder. At another time, encouraging -the 95th regiment, expecting a charge of cavalry, he said, “Stand -fast! 95th, we musn’t be beat; what would they say in England!” -Shortly after, when the French cavalry came on with threatening aspect, -he said, “Never mind, we’ll win this battle yet!” To a regiment exposed -to a brisk cannonade, he remarked, “Hard pounding this! let’s see -who’ll pound longest!” Often he was evidently the object of the enemy’s -aim, and a tree under which he sometimes took his stand, was repeatedly -struck. “That’s good practice,” said the Duke; “I think they fire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> -better than in Spain.” But, as we have said, he was ever high-minded; -and when an officer of artillery came to the Duke to tell him, that he -had a clear view of Napoleon, and had several guns pointed in that direction, -the Duke exclaimed, “No! I’ll not allow it. It is not the business -of commanders to be firing upon one another!”</p> - -<p>At half-past five, according to Count Drouet, the Prussians first -came into collision with the sixth corps, which, with Domont’s cavalry, -had been placed on Napoleon’s right wing, specially to give these new -comers a warm reception. The contest soon became an earnest one on -this side; Planchenoit, in the rear of Napoleon’s right centre, was taken, -and retaken, and he felt obliged to send some battalions of the Young -Guard to strengthen Count Lobau. In this new struggle an hour or -more passed, and seven o’clock, the last hour of the day drew on.</p> - -<p>Here Gourgaud stops to claim a triumph. He says, “65 to 68,000 -French troops <em>had beaten</em> 115,000 English, Prussians, &c.” But then -he adds, “The Emperor was of opinion that this was the moment for -making a decisive attack, and <em>determining the fate of the day</em>.” So that, -although the English and Prussians are assumed to be beaten, the “fate -of the day” remains “to be determined.”</p> - -<p>In fact, not one single step in retreat had the English army yet taken. -About six o’clock, indeed, the farm-house of La Haye Sainte was abandoned -by its English defenders, simply because their ammunition was -expended, and without ammunition they could not defend the place. -This was the one solitary advantage gained by the French in the whole -day; and even this was not wrested by them from the English; the post -was evacuated by the latter for the reason we have stated. And La -Haye Sainte, it should be remembered, was about 200 yards <em>in advance</em> -of the British line. It was an outpost, and not a part of the main line. -Its capture at an earlier period might have seriously endangered the -Duke’s centre; but at this late hour Napoleon had but one card left to -play, and in playing it the possession of La Haye Sainte did not greatly -aid him.</p> - -<p>Up to seven o’clock, then, this one poor outpost was the only foot of -ground gained by the French, in compensation for what Ney calls “the -most frightful carnage that I have ever witnessed.” He is not here -speaking of the defeat of the Imperial Guard, but of what preceded it. -He had led, at one o’clock, the attack by D’Erlon’s corps on the centre -and left of the English position, and at three o’clock he had sent the -heavy cavalry in among the British battalions. It is of these two attacks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span> -that Ney is speaking, and of the manner in which they were repulsed; -and this veteran soldier, after witnessing Borodino, Leipsic, and twenty -other fields of slaughter, describes the defeat of the first corps, and the -destruction of the cavalry, as a “carnage” the like of which he had never -before beheld.</p> - -<p>“The Emperor,” says Gourgaud, “was now of opinion that the -moment was come for making a decisive attack, and determining the fate -of the day.” Yes, the moment was come; for, if the matter had been -left as it stood, Napoleon’s overthrow on the following morning would -have been made certain. “I knew,” said the Duke, long after, “that -if my troops could keep their position till night, I must be joined by -Blucher before morning, and we should not have left Bonaparte an army -next day.” To keep the English and Prussian armies apart had been -Napoleon’s chief endeavour, but the sagacity and military talent of the -two Generals had defeated this purpose. The French army had only -crossed the frontier on the 15th, and here, on the 18th, were the two -allied armies already uniting on the same battle-field. When, therefore, -Gourgaud tells us, in lofty and decorous language, that “the Emperor -was of opinion that this was the moment for making a decisive attack, -and determining the fate of the day,” the real meaning of these dignified -phrases is, that Napoleon saw that one chance only remained to him, -and that he must break the British line by the whole force of the -Imperial Guard, or retire from the field a discomfited commander; to -sustain in his turn an attack from the united armies the very next day. -His strongest army-corps, the first and second, had both been cut up and -crippled; his splendid cavalry were at that moment being “massacred” -by the English grapeshot and musket-firing; and the only weapon of -power that remained to him was this noble body of men, who had -triumphed in fifty battles—his invincible phalanx, the Imperial Guard. -At seven o’clock, therefore, or about that hour, he turned to this, his -last resource, and ordered to the front this chosen and favourite arm, -the right employment of which had given him so many victories.</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs70">SEVEN O’CLOCK.</p> - -<p>It is not easy, amidst the various and contradictory accounts of the -different French historians, to ascertain with exactness the real force -employed in this attack. The Young Guard, under General Duhesme, -had been partly employed in the defence of Planchenoit. The Old Guard,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> -and the Middle Guard, had not up to this period of the battle drawn a -trigger. Their strength is stated by Gourgaud to have been on this day -4400 and 4200, or, united, 8600 men.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> This force far exceeded any -strength which the Duke could bring to bear upon any given point. In -fact the two brigades of General Maitland and General Adam had to -sustain this attack. The first, consisting of two battalions of Foot-guards, -had marched forth two days before 1997 strong. On the evening of -Waterloo it numbered only 1027; and doubtless, when this attack of the -Imperial Guard came, it had not more than 1100 or 1150 bayonets. -The other, General Adam’s brigade, consisting of the 52nd, 71st, and -95th regiments, had been 2621 strong, but it was now reduced to about -2000. Such was the force on either side which was now to engage in -the last terrible encounter of this great contest.</p> - -<p>But, while he was preparing for what he hoped would be the decisive -blow, Napoleon sent orders to both his wings to prepare for a renewed -attack, simultaneously, on Hougoumont and on the British left and -centre. The chateau defended itself bravely and successfully, as it had -done throughout the day. But the possession of La Haye Sainte gave -the first corps of the French army great advantages, and the pressure on -the British line at this point became fearfully severe. A German battalion -was cut up by a charge of French cuirassiers: a body of Brunswick -infantry, which the Duke had moved up to strengthen the line, gave -way, and retired about 100 paces, and it required all the Duke’s personal -exertions to bring them to reform and stand their ground. The Prince -of Orange had been wounded, and the Nassau troops under his command -were with great difficulty induced to keep their ground. The British -line had never been in so much danger of being broken as at this moment. -But scarcely an hour of the day now remained, and the contest which -was just taking place on the right centre was to be decisive of the fate of -the day.</p> - -<p>The grand attack of the Imperial Guard, to which Napoleon looked to -decide the fate of his empire, was now beginning. Captain Siborne states -the two columns of attack to have consisted of ten battalions, besides two -battalions left as a reserve. If these battalions consisted of 600 men -each, they would amount to 6000; but if of 720 men each, they would -amount, on the whole, to 7200 men, and these were unquestionably the -first soldiers in France.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span></p> - -<p>These columns were formed in front of La Belle Alliance, and began -their advance with that kind of mismanagement which had marked many -of the movements of the French leaders throughout the day; they did -not advance simultaneously, but the first column preceded the second, -although the two took different courses. Neither did they assail that -part of the Duke’s line which was the weakest, but threw themselves -upon two brigades of the British infantry.</p> - -<p>Of the two columns,—one of which skirted the enclosures of Hougoumont, -and aimed at the right of the British line, while the other made -its onset nearer to the centre,—the latter gained the precedence. As it -descended into the valley, and allowed the French artillery on the heights -behind an opportunity for action, the whole of these guns opened fire -with a rapidity and weight which had not been experienced before -throughout the day. Wherever a regiment was visible in the British -line, there the round-shot and howitzer shells rained death upon it. But -by degrees the attacking columns passed through the hollow ground, and -began to ascend the opposite heights. Now they became visible to the -British artillery, and the cannon-shot plunged into their masses with -tremendous effect. The horse of Marshal Ney was killed; General -Friant was wounded, and General Michel was killed. On the fall of the -latter, a battalion of grenadiers came to a halt; but another General succeeded -in inspiring it with new courage. The column moved forward, -sorely shaken by its losses; but at last it crowned the height, and to its -astonishment saw nothing before it but a small battery of field-pieces, -and a few mounted officers in the rear. But one of these was the Duke, -and the next moment the word of command was heard, “Up, Guards, -and at them!” The British Guards, who had been ordered to lie down, -sprang to their feet, in a compact line of four deep, and in a few seconds, -a volley was heard, and then another, and a third; and in the first -minute 300 of the attacking column fell. The French officers rushed to -the front, and called upon the men to deploy into line. Lord Saltoun -exclaimed to the English Guards, “Now’s your time, my boys!”—and -the Duke exclaimed, “Charge!” The brigade sprang forward, with a -cheer, to the charge. All was disorder in the French ranks. Many -flung down their arms and knapsacks and dispersed; the mass, in dire -confusion, rushed down the slope, with the English Guards in full pursuit.</p> - -<p>But the English were instantly called back, for now appeared in sight -the second column, which, shrinking from the fire of the batteries which -had so crushed the first, diverged to the right, and by this mistaken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> -move, presented its flank to General Adam’s brigade. The brigade of -Guards was formed in its front, while the 52nd and 71st regiments were -on its flank. The three regiments poured such a fire into the mass, that -it melted like snow in the sunshine. Soon was repeated the order, -“Charge!” and the two brigades assailing the devoted column at once -in its front and on its flank, swept it from the field. In a few moments -the hollow ground was crowded with fugitives; Napoleon’s last stake was -lost; the battle of Waterloo was, practically, ended.</p> - -<p>Of this terrible conflict, Lamartine rapidly sketches the progress, in a -few glowing lines,—a summary of various French narratives:</p> - -<p>“These 6000 grenadiers advanced with shouldered arms, amidst cries -of ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vive l’Empereur!</span>’ Wellington awaited them with forty pieces of -cannon, with the matches lighted. As they ascended and approached, -the battery fired a volley point-blank into the advancing mass, which, as -the smoke arose, was seen to waver for a moment; then to close up and -advance as compact as ever. On a second discharge the same oscillation -took place, the same closing up. On the third discharge the English saw -the column reduced to a block of men, decimated by grape-shot:—two of -the battalions had been struck down, the other two hesitated, and recoiled -to seek another means of access to these impregnable heights. Napoleon -turned pale, and at length doubted of victory.”</p> - -<p>This may be said to be the language of a florid writer, depicting the -event long after its occurrence. But Count Drouet, who witnessed the -whole scene, thus described it in the Chamber of Peers, just six days -after the battle:—</p> - -<p>“The (first) four battalions of the Guard, when they arrived on the -plateau, were received by the most terrible fire of musquetry and grape. -The <em>great number of wounded men</em> who separate from the column, cause -it to be believed that the Guard is routed. A panic terror communicates -itself to the neighbouring (or second) column, which precipitately takes -flight.”</p> - -<p>Count Drouet, witnessing the repulse of both the columns, from the -height behind, might suppose that the dispersal of the second arose from -panic; but in so thinking, he did injustice to his countrymen. The -second column came into action as gallantly us the first; but, although -it was the stronger of the two, it had to contend with two English brigades -instead of one; and its chance of success was therefore proportionally -smaller. Clearly, it was bad generalship to send the two columns, -one after the other, to be beaten separately. Had they reached the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span> -British position at the same moment, they would have brought against -the two British brigades a force outnumbering them by two to one. -Gourgaud thus describes the fate of this second column: “The eight -battalions of the Guard which were in the centre, after having withstood -for a long time all the attacks of the enemy, and contended for every foot -of ground, were at last completely disorganized by the mass of the fugitives, -and overwhelmed by the numbers of the enemy.”</p> - -<p>With the failure of this, his last attack, Napoleon’s hopes, and his -empire, ended. His fall, when it came at last, proved a crash which -left nothing for destruction to do. At the moment when the Imperial -Guards were sent back in confusion, the Prussians under Marshal Blucher -had come into action. His cavalry had supported the English left, -and two brigades of English cavalry, which guarded the extreme left of -the Duke’s position, had been released from this duty, and had moved to -the support of the British centre. And now, the Prussian infantry of -the first corps, commanded by General Zieten, rushed upon the villages -of La Haye and Smohain, and instantly carried them at the bayonet’s -point. A third column renewed the attack on Planchenoit, which was -almost in the centre of the French position. The moment was come for -a general advance, and the Duke, with that wonderful perception which -distinguished his whole career, instantly seized it. He himself describes -this critical moment, in the account written the very next day. He -says:—</p> - -<p>“Having observed that the troops (Imperial Guard) retired from this -attack in great confusion, and that the march of the Prussians on Planchenoit -had begun to take effect, I determined to attack the enemy, -and immediately advanced the whole line of infantry, supported by the -cavalry and artillery.”</p> - -<p>An eye-witness thus described the scene at the time, “The Duke, who -had been attentively observing what was passing in the French and -Prussian armies, suddenly shut up his telescope, and exclaimed to the -officers near him, ‘Now, every man must advance!’”</p> - -<p>Long had this order been eagerly expected. The British troops had -stood for more than eight hours under a terrible fire. They had seen -more than one-fourth of their numbers struck down by cannon-shot, and -they longed for one final struggle, which should end the whole contest. -The order flew to the right and to the left, and loud were the shouts -with which it was received. Everywhere the lines of infantry were -formed, the cavalry mounted and rode on, and a scene of triumph and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> -exultation commenced, of which none who witnessed it could ever lose the -memory.</p> - -<p>We have observed, a few sentences back, that only half an hour before, -two brigades of light cavalry, Vivian’s and Vandeleur’s, had been moved -from the extreme left of the English line, and brought nearer to the -centre. These six regiments, numbering about 2000 sabres, were now -of the greatest possible service, in driving before them the broken and -scattered French. They charged and dispersed various bodies of cavalry -which attempted to form and make a stand, and continued pressing upon -the fugitives of the infantry till the whole mass of Napoleon’s army -melted into a chaotic crowd. And now were seen, on all sides, “unfurled -colours raised aloft, bands striking up, the soldiers cheering tumultuously, -as, with one simultaneous movement, they quitted the height on which -they had so long stood, and descended joyfully into the plain, over which -the French, on all sides, were now retreating in disorder.”</p> - -<p>Their great commander himself was naturally among the foremost in -this magnificent advance. Napier says, “The Duke, who was stationed -on the left of the guns and the right of the Guards, gave the order to -advance, and like lightning rode to the rear, and brought up the light -cavalry, cheering them on, with his hat off—his cheers most cordially -echoed by my brave fellows and myself.” He rode in front of Adam’s -brigade, cheering it forward, speaking joyously to the men, and receiving -their hearty shouts of congratulation. At last one of his staff ventured -to hint to him that they were getting into the enemy’s lines, and that -his life ought not to be thrown away. “Never mind,” was the reply, -“the battle’s won, and my life is of no consequence now.”</p> - -<p>Down the slope of their own heights, across the valley, up the face of -the enemy’s hill, marched the British line triumphantly. Here and there -a remnant of a French battalion or squadron offered a brief resistance; -but the cry of “<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Sauve qui peut!</i>” had been heard, and the French knew -that the battle was lost, and that the Prussians were already in their rear. -Hence Fleury de Chaboulon, Napoleon’s own secretary, thus describes the -close:—</p> - -<p>“Wellington did not allow our grenadiers time to recollect themselves. -He caused them to be attacked in flank by his cavalry, and compelled -them to retire in the greatest disorder. At the same moment the Prussians -carried the village of La Haye; and our cavalry, our infantry, -already staggered by the defeat of the Guard, were afraid of being cut -off, and precipitately retreated. The other troops of the right, seeing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> -some of our squadrons pell-mell, and some of the Guards running away, -thought all was lost, and quitted their position. This contagious movement -was communicated in an instant to the left, and the whole army -abandoned its strongest posts as eagerly as they had previously assailed -them. Soon the whole army was nothing but a confused crowd, which the -English and Prussians routed without effort, and massacred without pity.”<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> - -<p>“Napoleon,” says Lamartine, “saw that army which a few hours -before was his only hope, now returning in broken fragments, and -exclaimed, ‘All is lost!’ For a moment he contemplated the disastrous -scene, turned pale, stammered, and shed some tears, the first he had ever -shed upon a field of battle.”</p> - -<p>On marched the English, seized at every step the artillery which had -so long poured its iron hail upon them, and driving before them the -crowds of dismayed and disordered French. Up the heights on which -Napoleon and his army had stood, they now exultingly pressed, and here -the two Generals met, with mutual congratulations. Marshal Blucher -had well performed his part, though the state of the roads had hindered -his arrival until the very close of the battle. In less than an hour he -had driven in the whole right wing of the French army, and now reached -the very centre of Napoleon’s position, at the same moment when the -Duke had penetrated to the same point with his attack in front. After -a few moments of hearty rejoicing, the English commander gladly resigned -to the Prussian, the remaining duty of a vigorous pursuit. The British -troops, after a long day’s work, were physically unable to chase their -enemies far. The Prussian General, therefore, to quote their own accounts, -assembled his officers, and gave orders to send the last horse and -the last man in pursuit of the enemy.”</p> - -<p>Well and earnestly was this duty performed. All night long were the -wretched French pursued. Nine times did they attempt to halt for rest, -and nine times was the Prussian drum heard, and the flight was again -to be resumed. A French officer<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> thus describes the scene:—</p> - -<p>“Near one of the hedges of Hougoumont, without even a drummer -to beat the rappel, we succeeded in rallying 300 men; these were -nearly all that remained of our splendid division. Thither came also -a band of Generals. Here was Reille,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> D’Erlon, Bachelor, Foy, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span> -others. All were gloomy and sorrowful. They said, one to another, -‘Here is all that is left of my corps,—of my division,—of my brigade!—I -myself!’</p> - -<p>“The enemy’s horse approached, and we were obliged to retreat. The -movements of the English cavalry had demoralized our soldiers, who, -seeing all regular retreat cut off, strove each man to save himself. Infantry, -cavalry, artillery, all jammed together, were pressing along pell-mell. -Figure to yourself 40,000 men all struggling along a single causeway. -We could not take that way, so we struck across the fields. We were -humiliated, we were hopeless; we walked like a troop of mourners.</p> - -<p>“We passed through Thuin, and finding a little copse, we gladly -sought its shelter. While our horses grazed, we lay down and slept. We -rested in the little copse till noon, and sat watching the wrecks of our -army defile along the road. It was a soul-harrowing sight!</p> - -<p>“We drew near to Beaumont, when suddenly a regiment of horse was -seen debouching from a wood on our left. The column that we followed -cried out, ‘The Prussians! the Prussians!’ and hurried off in utter -disorder.</p> - -<p>“I was trying to return to General Foy, when another horde of fugitives -burst into Beaumont, swept me into the current of their flight, and -hurried me out of the town with them. I reached Landrecy, though I -know not how or when.”</p> - -<p>Such is the description given by one of the fugitives, and it exactly -corresponds with the official report of the Prussian General, Gneisenau, -who says, “The French army, pursued without intermission, was absolutely -disorganized. The highway presented the appearance of an immense -shipwreck; it was covered with an innumerable quantity of -cannon, caissons, baggage, arms, and goods of every kind. As soon as -the enemy heard the sound of our drums, they fled, while the moonlight -favoured the pursuit, for the whole march was a continued chase, whether -in the corn-fields or in the houses.”</p> - -<p>“At three o’clock Napoleon had despatched a courier to Paris with -the news that victory was certain: a few hours afterwards he had no -longer an army.”</p> - -<p>The French accounts, Gourgaud’s, Napoleon’s, &c., written long after, -endeavour to diminish the defeat by representing that within a week as -many us 60 or 65,000 men were re-assembled at Laon. Some one -attempted to make a representation of this sort in the French Chamber -of Peers, on the 24th of June; when Marshal Ney rose in his place, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span> -declared all such accounts to be deceptive. “It is a mere illusion to -suppose that 60,000 men can be collected. Marshal Grouchy,” said he, -“cannot have more than 20,000, or 25,000 at the most.”</p> - -<p>Fortunately, however, the question is set at rest by Fleury de Chaboulon, -Napoleon’s secretary, who describes very vividly what followed -immediately after the battle. He tells us, how, in his flight, on meeting -Maret, “the Emperor could not repress his emotion; a large tear, escaping -from his eyes, betrayed the efforts of his soul.” Again he says, -“The Emperor stopped beyond Rocroi to take some refreshment. We were -all in a pitiable state: our eyes swelled with tears, our countenances -haggard, our clothes covered with dust or blood.” And, on arriving at -Paris, when one of his ministers spoke of the army, Napoleon exclaimed, -“<em>I have no longer an army!</em> I have nothing but fugitives!”<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - -<p>It was this absolute destruction of the French army which made -Waterloo one of the greatest and most important of all victories. Thus, -Jules Maurel, a French historian, says:—</p> - -<p>“From a comparison of all the documents, it appears, that Bonaparte -was already beaten when the mass of the Prussian army appeared on the -field; but the arrival of Bulow had powerfully assisted the British, and -the arrival of Blucher changed the defeat into <em>an unparalleled disaster</em>.”</p> - -<p>Lamartine, another Frenchman, adds:—</p> - -<p>“This defeat left nothing undecided,—nothing for the future to do. -Victory had given judgment: the war began and ended in a single battle.”</p> - -<p>But let us return for a moment to the great victor of the day. At a -road-side house, near Rossomme, he left Blucher, who gladly undertook -the pursuit, and after twelve hours of constant exertion, he turned his -charger’s head once more towards Mont St. Jean and Waterloo. Darkness -now shrouded a thousand scenes of horror, over which it had been useless -to pause. At his quarters the Duke found assembled the survivors of -his staff, the representatives of the allied powers, and a few other friends. -All sorely needed rest and food, and the meal was ready. On leaving his -quarters in the morning, he had desired his domestics to have dinner -ready to place on the table “whenever it might be wanted” and his cook -excited amusement by the confidence with which he asserted, that “his -master had ordered dinner, and would certainly return to eat it.” But -the thoughts which would throng into the conqueror’s mind, at that -moment, must have been such as few men have ever experienced.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span></p> - -<p>The foremost considerations with the Duke of Wellington always were, -<em>his country, and his duty</em>. But besides these there was a personal question, -little spoken of by him, but which could not be excluded from his -thoughts.</p> - -<p>“I go to measure myself with Wellington,” exclaimed Napoleon, when -he flung himself into his carriage, only a few days before, to join his -army on the Belgian frontier. The Duke spoke not of such matters, but -he could not possibly forget that the muse of history was waiting all -that day, to know <em>which</em> of the two great names was to take the highest -place among the many able commanders of the nineteenth century. The -one had defeated, in turn, nearly every general in Europe, except Wellington. -The other had triumphed over almost all the Marshals of France, -but had not yet confronted Napoleon.</p> - -<p>Captain Moyle Sherer thus writes:—</p> - -<p>“Upon the night of that memorable battle, the words and emotions of -the conqueror will long be remembered by those who sat with him at -supper, after the anxious and awful day had closed. The fountain of a -great heart lies deep, and the self-government of a calm mind permits no -tears. But, this night, Wellington repeatedly leaned back in his chair, -and rubbing his hands convulsively, exclaimed, “Thank God! I have -met him: Thank God! I have met him.”<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> And, ever as he spoke, the -smile that lighted up his eye was dimmed by those few tears that gush -warm from a grateful heart.</p> - -<p>“His many and deep anxieties; his noble desire to defeat his country’s -implacable enemy; his rational doubts of success against so great a -general;—these and many other fears and hopes, undisclosed to any one, -all were now resolved and dissipated by a result more sudden, full, and -glorious than any expectation he could have formed, or any hope he could -have admitted. England was placed on the very pinnacle of glory; her -foe was prostrate, his legions fugitives, and her general might joyfully -look around and say, ‘This work was mine!’”</p> - -<p>But after necessary food, and the writing of despatches and letters, -came such rest as the excited mind and body could take. The Duke -threw himself, unwashed but exhausted, on his bed long after midnight. -He had desired Dr. Hume to bring him the report of the surgeons at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span> -seven in the morning. The doctor was punctual, but the claims of -nature were not satisfied, the Duke’s sleep was still sound. Knowing -that, with him, duty was paramount to all other considerations, the -doctor at once awakened him. The list was produced, and the doctor -began to read; but as name after name came forth—this one as dying, -that as dead—the voice failed, and Hume, looking up, perceived the -tears rapidly chasing each other down the victor’s blackened cheeks;—he -laid down the list and instantly left the apartment.</p> - -<p>The British loss was indeed great. Of the Duke’s staff twelve were -killed and forty-six wounded. The number of British officers killed and -wounded in these three days exceeded 700, and of privates it was more -than 10,000, so that about every third man in the British ranks had -been struck down in this terrible battle. The loss of Dutch, Hanoverians, -&c., had been 7,000; and that of the Prussians exceeded 6,000. -As to the French, their loss in killed and wounded never could be ascertained; -but it is certain that of 150,000 men who crossed the -frontiers, not 50,000 were ever re-assembled under their colours.</p> - -<p>The utter loss of his army sent Napoleon back to Paris. But the -news of his total defeat arrived along with him. His fame, his “glory,” -and his power perished together. The Chambers rose in rebellion against -him; and his abdication was demanded. The English and Prussian -armies, meanwhile, rapidly advanced; and on their arrival before Paris -the city capitulated; the King returned to his palace; and Napoleon gave -himself up to the Captain of an English ship of war. On the 15th of -June one of the finest armies that he had ever led into the field entered -Belgium to take advantage of the Duke of Wellington’s unprepared -state;—on the 3rd of July, just fifteen days after, <em>Paris itself capitulated</em>! -Such were the vast results of Waterloo.</p> - -<p>Napoleon, indeed, had been in some peril, for the Prussian general -showed a particular anxiety to get hold of him, in order that he might -hang him! The Duke had no fondness for him,—always designating -him in his despatches, merely as “Bonaparte;” but the old Prussian -field-marshal, remembering the cruel treatment of his country by the -French in 1807, felt, and constantly expressed, sentiments of positive -hatred. The Duke, however, with that loftiness of aim and of feeling -which had forbidden his officers to fire upon Napoleon during the action, -firmly resisted Blucher’s desires on this point. General Muffling, the -Prussian commissioner, tells us, that the Duke said to him, “I wish my -friend and colleague to see this matter in the light I do: such an act<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span> -would give our names to history stained with a crime; and posterity -would say of us, “They were not worthy to be his conquerors; the -more so, as such a deed would be useless, and can have no object.”</p> - -<p>In the same tone the Duke wrote to Sir Charles Stuart, telling him, -“I said, that as a private friend, I advised him to have nothing to do -with so foul a transaction; that he and I had acted too distinguished -parts in these transactions to become executioners; and that I was -determined that if the Sovereign put him to death, they should appoint -an executioner, <em>which should not be me</em>.”</p> - -<p>In a similar spirit, the Duke succeeded in preventing the Prussians -from executing other plans of vengeance, such us the blowing up the -bridge of Jena, pulling down the column of Austerlitz, and the like. In -fact, had the old marshal been alone in these transactions, he would gladly -have indulged his troops with the plunder of Paris.</p> - -<p>Indeed, such an utter overthrow as France had received, and that in -the course of a few days, was hardly to be paralleled in history. Sufficient -stress has seldom been laid upon that wonderful working of the Divine -Providence by which this great contest, expected by all men to be so -long, so desperate, and so sanguinary, was suddenly brought to a close -on the fourth day after its commencement. All the great powers of -Europe had agreed upon a united effort. They had pledged their faith -to one another to place 600,000 men on the soil of France in July, 1815.</p> - -<p>All at once, in the middle of June, while the bulk of these armies -were moving up from Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, and other distant lands, -they hear that the war is begun. And in four days after, they hear that -it is <em>finished</em>! Such is not the ordinary course of human history.</p> - -<p>All, however, is easily accounted for. Napoleon saw in England the -most resolute, consistent, and indomitable of his foes, and in England’s -Great General, the only Captain whom he could hold in no light esteem. -He said, and not unwisely, “If the Anglo-Belgian army had been -destroyed at Waterloo, what service could the Allies derive from the -number of armies which were preparing to cross the Rhine, the Alps, -and the Pyrenees?”<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> - -<p>And acting upon this sound view of the case, and knowing that one or -two more weeks would elapse before Wellington could have his veteran -battalions around him, he resolved to throw himself like an avalanche -upon the Duke’s army in its unreadiness; in the hope that a campaign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span> -beginning with a defeat of this his chief opponent would alarm England, -terrify the other powers, and so make peace, with his continued retention -of the throne of France, attainable.</p> - -<p>This plan was a sagacious as well as a bold one. It grappled at once -with the grand difficulty of the case. But the difficulty, when grappled -with, overmastered him. Still, the peculiar characteristics of this momentous -struggle deserves to be carefully remarked. A judicious writer has -well observed, that:—</p> - -<p>“Waterloo seemed to bear the features of a grand, immediate interposition -of Providence. Had human judgments been consulted, they -would have drawn a different plan. The Prussians would have joined -the English and have swept the enemy before them; or, the British -would have been in force enough to have beaten the French long before -the set of sun, &c., &c. But if the French had suffered a common defeat, -with consummate generals at their head they would have rallied; or, -retiring in force, would have called in all available aids, and have renewed -the struggle. So the conflict held on till the last moment, when they -could neither escape nor conquer. If they had retreated an hour before -nightfall they might have been saved; if they could have fought an hour -after it, darkness would have covered them. But the crash came on the -very edge of darkness. The Prussians came up unfatigued by battle and -fresh for pursuit. The night was to be a night of slaughter. ‘Thou, -moon, in the valley of Ajalon.’”</p> - -<p>Such was one of the grand events of modern history,—the victory -which gave all Europe peace for forty years. Ascribing, as we most -unreservedly do, the whole ordering of this momentous struggle to an -overruling Providence, it still seems a duty to add a few words on the -respective merits, or demerits, connected with this tremendous contest, of -the two great commanders, who for the first and last time met at -Waterloo. Let us first glance at the great deeds achieved, and the -great mistakes committed, by Napoleon in the course of these three -eventful days.</p> - -<p>He carried his magnificent army over the frontier, and threw it upon -the allied armies in a manner exhibiting the most consummate skill. -Twenty years spent in the practice of war had given him an expertness -in the handling of large bodies of troops which few generals have ever -possessed. He showed also on the 16th that he was a better general -than Blucher, and that his army was a better army than that of the -Prussians. But here our commendation must close; for a variety of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span> -faults and errors have been pointed out by military critics, of which we -shall only mention a few of the chief. Napoleon was guilty of two great -miscalculations, and of three important practical mistakes. These were:—</p> - -<p>1. He rashly and erroneously assumed that his appearance in Belgium -at the head of a fine army would force his opponents, Wellington and -Blucher, out of mere awe and terror, to fall back, to evacuate the country, -and so to give him a triumph at the opening of the campaign. In his -ixth Book he seriously argues that they <em>ought</em> to have done so: but this -was a strange miscalculation. When had either Wellington or Blucher -showed any alacrity in running away? And what right had he to -assume that a force amounting, when united, to nearly 200,000 men, -would act as if terror-stricken, on the mere appearance of a French -army of only 150,000? Yet he constantly tells us that they ought to -have retreated, and that his calculations always rested on the presumption -that they certainly would retreat.</p> - -<p>2. In like manner was he disappointed when he sent Grouchy with -35,000 or 40,000 men, to occupy and keep employed the whole Prussian -army. Again did he absurdly overlook the real character of Blucher, -who was not one to be easily duped. Napoleon might speculate, if he -pleased, on the chance of keeping Blucher at Wavre while he was -overpowering and crushing Wellington at Waterloo; but Blucher was -equally at liberty to despise all such devices, and to leave Napoleon’s -lieutenant in order to seek for Napoleon himself. This was what actually -took place, and hence we see that again Napoleon is exposed to the -imputation of having fatally miscalculated.</p> - -<p>3. But as in his plans there were these two errors, so in actual execution -we meet with three egregious faults. Having found Wellington -with his weak army apart from Blucher, why did he allow several hours -to elapse before he seized the opportunity for which he had been hoping? -He speaks of the softened state of the ground after several hours’ rain. -But, as we have seen, when Grouchy advances the same excuse for -inaction at Wavre, he styles it “ridiculous!” and who can say that the -movements which he actually made at eleven o’clock, <em>could not</em> have -been made at ten, or even at nine o’clock? Meanwhile, although -Napoleon was <em>waiting</em>, the Prussians were <em>marching</em>. They found the -task <em>difficult</em>, while he deemed it <em>impossible</em>. In earlier days he would -have replied that “there was no such word in his vocabulary.”</p> - -<p>4. Again, to what strange hallucination was it owing, that, all through -the day, attacks which might have been made simultaneously were only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span> -discharged in succession? Thus, at three or four o’clock, he sorely tried -the nerve and pluck of the English infantry by pouring in upon them -“twelve thousand select horse.” It took them three hours to kill or -drive away these formidable intruders. And <em>then</em>, when the French -cavalry had been destroyed, Napoleon next attacked the English line -with six or eight thousand of his Imperial Guard. But what prevented -his moving this formidable column up the heights of Mont St. Jean, -while the cuirassiers were already in possession of the plateau? They -had seized or silenced the English artillery; they had compelled the -infantry to throw themselves into squares. If a mass of the finest -infantry in France had then been thrown upon the British centre, how -fearful would have been the trial? But Napoleon still delayed. He -sent on his cavalry, unsupported by any infantry; and then, when the -cavalry had been “massacred,” he sent on a column of infantry, unsupported -by any cavalry. Will the greatest admirer of his genius hesitate -to admit that his practical generalship, his excellence as a leader in battle, -was not conspicuous at Waterloo? Yet, wherefore was he less vigorous, -less audacious at Waterloo, than at Austerlitz or Jena? He was still in -the very prime of life. Must we suppose that the toils and troubles and -disappointments of 1812–1814 had prematurely worn out his mind; -and that he was already, at only forty-six years of age, mentally decrepit?</p> - -<p>5. The most singular exhibition of defect in generalship, however, -and of blindness to that defect, is seen in this,—that he could not lose a -battle without utterly losing his army also!</p> - -<p>The general who can bear a defeat well, and can carry off his army -with only a moderate loss, is entitled to take a high rank amongst commanders. -He who cannot do this is only a fair-weather general.</p> - -<p>The Prussian commander was attacked on the 16th before his army -was all assembled. He placed his men badly,—so badly that Wellington -predicted their certain defeat. Yet, when that defeat fell upon him, he -rallied his army at a distance of a quarter of a league, and was ready -and eager to fight another battle on the second day after. It was this -unconquerability which made Blucher one of the most formidable antagonists -of his time.</p> - -<p>But let us turn to Napoleon. He invites us to do this, by the pertinacity -with which he assails Wellington on this very point. Again and -again he brings the charge vehemently against him, that at Waterloo he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span> -had made no provision for a retreat. Thus, in Book ix, p. 124, he -says:—</p> - -<p>“He had in his rear the defiles of the forest of Soignes, so that, if -beaten, retreat was impossible.”</p> - -<p>And again, at p. 158—</p> - -<p>“The enemy must have seen with affright how many difficulties the -field of battle he had chosen was about to throw in the way of his -retreat.”</p> - -<p>And again, at p. 207—</p> - -<p>“The position of Mont St. Jean was ill-chosen. The first requisite of -a field of battle, is, to have no defiles in its rear. The injudicious -choice of his field of battle, rendered all retreat impossible.”</p> - -<p>Thus Napoleon challenges our criticism on this very point. All military -authorities are agreed that he was wrong in his censure on Wellington. -It is conceded even by Frenchmen like Lamartine, that the forest of -Soignes, instead of being a source of peril, was an element of safety. -But he who assails his rival on this especial point, of a provision for -retreat, must expect to be asked, himself, “How his own retreat was -conducted?”</p> - -<p>There is no parallel to its disastrous character. An army of nearly -90,000 fine soldiers, not 40,000 of which could have been killed or -wounded, was nothing the next day but a vast horde of fugitives. We -notice, with contemptuous pity, how the Spanish generals, in 1809, managed -to incur such a disgraceful defeat at Ocana, that out of 50,000 -men, not 1,000 kept the field a week after. But here was one of the -finest armies that ever France sent forth, commanded too, by the conqueror, -of Europe; and even the very day after the battle, not a single thousand -men were to be found in the field! All were utterly scattered -and broken up. And yet their general has the assurance, in criticising -the general who has beaten him, to censure him, especially, because -“he had taken no precautions to secure his retreat!”</p> - -<p>But now of his great rival and conqueror:—The Duke of Wellington -had not the same opportunity for displaying his skill and talent in 1815, -which he had enjoyed in 1813. His proposed campaign was to open on -the 1st of July, and it had been the favourite object of Napoleon to take -the initiative, to open the campaign before the British troops from -America had arrived, and thus to lead the campaign himself without -waiting for the Duke to open it. Hence, during these three days, -Napoleon was always advancing, attacking, while Wellington, with his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span> -weak army was making the best defence he could. And, accordingly, at -Waterloo, the Duke knowing the disparity of his force, could only hope -to “keep his ground” till the Prussians should arrive. He was in the -position of a small man attacked by a giant. He could only parry his -blows and allow the assailant to exhaust his strength, in the hope that, -at last, by a well-aimed thrust he might lay his enemy prostrate. For -nine long hours, therefore, the Duke’s whole business was to meet and -repel the powerful attacks of Napoleon; and he had to do this with, -according to Napoleon’s own admission, “less than 40,000 good troops.” -In fact, his infantry, British and of the German Legion, were only -18,485, his British and German Legion cavalry 7,834, while Napoleon -had very nearly 70,000 excellent infantry, and more than 18,000 splendid -cavalry. Yet for these nine hours did the Duke meet and repel all his -assaults. This sort of soldiership is less showy than daring manœuvres, -but it is equally valuable; and in the present instance, when the materials -the Duke had to work with are considered, the merit of it is not at all inferior. -One of the best generals commanding under the Duke, when acknowledging -the thanks of the House of Commons, said, “An army hastily -drawn together, composed of the troops of various nations, and amongst -which were counted several brigades of inexperienced militia, was the -force which the Duke had to oppose to one of the most formidable and -best-appointed armies that France ever produced. No other man living -could have rendered the service which he performed, with an army so -composed.”</p> - -<p>The chief point, however, in the character of a great general is the -possession of that “eagle eye” which enables him, amid all the din and -turmoil of a horrible contest, to perceive exactly the right moment for -vigorous action, and the right place at which to aim an attack. It was -this, especially, which gave the Duke his first signal victory over the -French at Salamanca; and it was this which turned the repulse of the -French at Waterloo into a disastrous defeat.</p> - -<p>Narrative-writers, collecting, long after, the best available testimony -from all quarters, and carefully comparing and sifting the whole, are -able to arrive at probable conclusions as to the order and date of the -leading events. But this sort of calm investigation is wholly different -from the horrible din, the ceaseless clamour, and the almost impervious -smoke which obscures everything on the battle-field. We, for instance, -comparing the accounts of the French, the Prussians, and the Austrians, -are able to arrive at the conclusion, with absolute certainty that General<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span> -Bulow’s corps first showed itself on the right of the French line about -half-past four, and began to take part in the engagement about half-past -five. But it is quite certain that the Duke, fully occupied just then with -the French cavalry, who were riding round his squares, knew nothing of -the actual arrival of the long-expected succour until long after. It was -nearly two hours after this, when, by carefully examining every part of -the left of his line, the Duke was able to perceive the rising of smoke -over Planchenoit. This was not until seven o’clock; but it assured him -of this, that some part of the promised Prussian support had arrived, and -that more must be coming up. And this was sufficient to give him new -hopes of ultimate success, though he could be certain, as yet, of very little -more than that some aid was at hand.</p> - -<p>It was shortly after this, and about the time of the movement of the -Imperial Guard, when news reached him from Marshal Blucher himself -that he was then actually joining the extreme left of the British line. It -was this support which enabled the British light cavalry to move from -the left of the line, and to take a position nearer the centre. And hence, -when the English and the French Guards had tried each other’s mettle, -and the latter had retired in disorder, the Duke saw at one comprehensive -glance the arrival of that moment for which he had been longing,—the -defeat and confusion of Napoleon’s last reserve; the presence of the long-promised -Prussian succours, at that last moment of daylight, which just -allowed time for one daring movement and no more. And the decision -and boldness with which the Duke seized this golden opportunity are -among the finest traits in the whole history of great military deeds. A -brief hesitation, if only of a quarter of an hour, would have allowed the -French, although beaten, to retire at leisure. A renewal of the contest -might have followed after the lapse of a couple of days, but how different -would have been the whole history of such a campaign from that of -Waterloo! It was this clear perception of the right moment for an -attack, and the fearlessness with which fewer than 30,000 men were -led forward to assault at least twice their numbers, commanded by Napoleon, -Soult, and Ney,—it was this wonderful union of prudence, -decision, and the highest kind of valour, which made the Duke of Wellington -the first of all the generals of his day.</p> - -<p>And, united with those lofty endowments, there was the patient, -enduring, untiring discharge of every duty of a commander. In this, -as in every other of his battles, the Duke was constantly wherever his -presence was needed. There could not be a pressure felt at any portion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span> -of the line,—there could not be an anxious moment when even the bravest -might look around him and begin to think of the possibility of an -overthrow, but presently the well-known chestnut-horse would be seen, -and the whisper would run through the ranks, “Here’s the Duke! stand -fast!” This might seem to some to be merely a matter of course; but it -is the being always in the right place at the right time; it is the union of -the commonest duties with the highest which fills up the outline of a great -character, and leaves to posterity not only a brilliant name, but a really -bright example.”<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> - - -<p>WAWZ, BATTLE OF.—Fought, March 31st, 1831, between the -Poles and the Russians. After two days of hard labour in fighting, the -Poles carried the Russian works, who were obliged to retreat, with the -loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners. This triumph of the Poles was -shortly after followed by defeat and massacre.</p> - - -<p>WHITE PLAINS, BATTLE OF.—Between the revolted American -Provinces and the British, under Sir William Howe. Fought, -November 30th, 1776. This was the most serious of the early battles of -that unfortunate war, and terminated in the defeat of the Americans, -who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners.</p> - - -<p>WIGAN, BATTLE OF.—In the civil war of England, fought -between the King’s troops and the Parliamentary forces. The former -were defeated, 1643. Another battle, between the same parties, was -fought here, 1651.</p> - - -<p>WITEPSK, BATTLE OF.—Between the French and Russians. -The former commanded by Marshal Victor, and the latter by General -Wittgenstein. The French were defeated, after a desperate engagement, -having lost 3000 men. Fought, November 14th, 1812.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span></p> - - -<p>WORCESTER, BATTLE OF.—In the civil war fought between -the Royalist army and the forces of the Parliament, the latter commanded -by Cromwell, a large body of Scots having marched into England to -reinstate Charles II, Cromwell signally defeated them, and it afforded -to him what he called his <em>crowning mercy</em>; more than 2000 of the -Royalists were slain, and of 8000 prisoners, nearly all were sold as slaves -to the American Colonies. Fought, September 3rd, 1651. The following -is an account of the flight of the young King, after the disastrous -day of battle:—</p> - -<p>“Charles, in his progress towards Bristol, was pursued by a party of -the enemy to the new ferry over the Severn. He rode through Shire -Newton, and crossed the Severn at Chiswell Pit, on the Gloucestershire -side. The boat had scarcely returned, before a body of the republicans, -amounting to 60 men, followed him to the Black Rock, and threatening -them with instant death if they refused, compelled the ferrymen -to take them across. The boatmen were royalists, and left them on a -reef called English Stones, which is separated from the Gloucestershire -side by a lake, fordable at low water; but the tide, which had just -turned, flowed in with great rapidity, and they were all drowned in -attempting to cross. Cromwell, when informed of this disaster, abolished -the ferry, and it was not renewed until the year 1748. The renewal -occasioned a law-suit between the family of St. Pierre and the guardians -of the Duke of Beaufort. In the course of the suit, documents were -produced which tended to confirm this anecdote.”</p> - - -<p>WRECKS.—The most remarkable shipwrecks of British men of war -or transports, or of ships, connected with military events, are the following -which have happened within the last 85 years:</p> - -<p>A tremendous storm occurred in October, 1780, in the West Indies, -and the following vessels of war were all lost.</p> - -<p><i>Thunderer</i>, of 74 guns; <i>Stirling Castle</i>, of 64 guns; <i>Phœnix</i>, of 44 -guns; <i>La Blanche</i>, of 42 guns; <i>Laurel</i>, of 28 guns; <i>Andromeda</i>, of -28 guns; <i>Deal Castle</i>, of 24 guns; <i>Scarborough</i>, of 20 guns; <i>Barbadoes</i>, -of 14 guns; <i>Cameleon</i>, of 14 guns; <i>Endeavour</i>, of 14 guns; and -the <i>Victor</i>, of 10 guns.</p> - -<p><i>The Royal George</i>—June 28th, 1782,—1000 persons and brave Admiral -Kenpenfeldt perished by the sinking, or rather oversetting of this 100<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span> -gun man-of-war. The guns on one side all rolled over to the other, and -with the extra weight immediately overset the ship riding at anchor at -Spithead.</p> - -<p><i>Ramilies</i>, of 74 guns, off Newfoundland, September 21st, 1782. 100 -souls perished.</p> - -<p><i>Pandora Frigate</i>, on a reef of rocks, August 28th, 1791. 100 souls -perished.</p> - -<p><i>Droits de l’Homme</i>—A British ship of the line, and the <i>Amazon</i>, a -frigate, lost off Hodierne Bay. Many hundreds perished, January 14th, -1797.</p> - -<p><i>Nassau</i>, of 64 guns, October 25th, 1799. 100 of the crew and marines -perished.</p> - -<p><i>Queen</i>, transport on Trefusis Point, January 14th, 1800. 369 souls -lost.</p> - -<p><i>Queen Charlotte</i>, of 110 guns, lost March 17th, 1800. This was the -flag ship of Lord Keith, commanding in the Mediterranean Sea, burnt -by accidental fire off the harbor of Leghorn. More than 700 perished. -The ship took fire just before day break. It was occasioned by a match -kept burning for the purpose of firing salutes, having communicated -itself to some hay, &c., and so rapidly did the fire rage, that nothing -could save the noble vessel. She burned rapidly to the water’s edge, and -then blew up.</p> - -<p><i>Invincible</i>, of 74 guns, March 20th, 1801. 400 souls perished.</p> - -<p><i>Apollo</i>, frigate, lost April 2nd, 1804, in a heavy gale off Capo Mondego. -61 of her crew and her commander, perished, and with her 40 -sail of the outward-bound West India fleet, lost.</p> - -<p><i>Venerable</i>, of 74 guns, Nov. 24th, 1804. Crew saved.</p> - -<p><i>Tartarus</i>, of 74 guns, December 20th, 1804. Crew saved.</p> - -<p><i>Æneas</i>, transport, off Newfoundland, lost October 23rd, 1805. 340 -perished.</p> - -<p><i>Aurora</i>, transport, lost on the Godwin Sands, December 21st, 1805. -300 perished.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Athenienne</i>, of 64 guns lost off Sardinia, October 20th, 1806. 347 -perished.</p> - -<p><i>Ajax</i>—Lost by fire off the Island of Tenedos, February 14th, 1807. -300 perished.</p> - -<p><i>Boreas</i>, man-of-war, lost upon the Hannois Rock in the Channel, -November 28th, 1807.</p> - -<p><i>Anson</i>, frigate, lost near Land’s End, December 29th, 1807. 125 -persons drowned.</p> - -<p><i>Magicienne</i>, frigate, August 16th, 1810. She ran aground at the -Mauritius, and was abandoned and burnt by her crew.</p> - -<p><i>Satellite</i>, sloop-of-war of 16 guns, December 14th, 1810. Upset and -all on board perished.</p> - -<p><i>Minotam</i>, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haak Bank, December 27th, -1810. Of 600 persons on board, about 480 were drowned.</p> - -<p><i>Amethyst</i>, frigate of 36 guns, lost in the Sound, February 15th, 1811.</p> - -<p><i>Barham</i>, of 74 guns. Foundered July 29th, 1811, on the coast of -Corsica.</p> - -<p><i>Saldanha</i>, frigate, lost on the Irish coast, December, 1811. 300 -souls perished.</p> - -<p><i>St. George</i>, of 98 guns, and the <i>Defence</i>, of 74 guns, stranded on the -coast of Jutland, and all souls perished, except 16 seamen, December -24th, 1811.</p> - -<p><i>Seahorse</i>, transport, near Tramore Bay, January 30th, 1816. 365 -souls, chiefly soldiers of the 59th Regiment, and most of the crew, lost.</p> - -<p><i>Lord Melville</i>, and <i>Boadicea</i>, two transports lost near Kinsale, Ireland, -when several hundred of the 82nd Regiment, and almost all the crew -perished, January 31st, 1816.</p> - -<p><i>Harpooner</i>, transport, off Newfoundland, November 10th, 1816. 100 -persons drowned.</p> - -<p><i>Kent</i>, shattered by a dreadful storm, February 28th 1825. Afterwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span> -she caught fire; but the passengers and crew were providentially -saved by the <i>Cambria</i>. There were on board 301 officers and men of -the 31st regiment, 66 women, 45 children, and 139 seamen.</p> - -<p>“The <i>Kent</i>, <i>Indiaman</i>, was making her way in the Bay of Biscay on -the morning of the 1st of March, 1825, across the heavy swell common -in that stormy entrance to the Atlantic, when her progress was arrested -by a fatal accident. An officer, who was sent into the hold to see whether -the rolling of the vessel had disturbed the stowage, perceiving that a cask -of spirits had burst from its lashings, gave the lamp he had in his hand -to a seaman to hold, while he should replace the cask. Unfortunately, -in the continued rolling of the vessel, the man let the lamp fall near the -spirits, to which it set fire in a moment. The flames spread; attempts -were made to smother them by wet blankets and hammocks, but all was -in vain, and they soon assumed an aspect so tremendous, as to show that -it would be impossible to subdue them.</p> - -<p>At this moment of despair, the man at the mast-head exclaimed that -a sail was in sight; guns were fired, and a signal of distress hoisted. -The gale, however, was so heavy, that it was for some time doubtful -whether the strange vessel perceived the signals, or was likely to turn -aside from her course; but this painful suspense was soon removed by -her approach. The boats of the <i>Kent</i> were now got out and placed, not -alongside, on account of the flames and the danger of staving the boats, -but a-head and a-stern. In the latter many got out from the cabin-windows, -but the chief part were let down from the bowsprit into the -boat a-head, and the men sliding down by a rope, while the soldiers’ wives -were lowered into the boat slung three together.</p> - -<p>The fire had burst out about ten o’clock, and about twelve the signal of -distress had been perceived by the strange sail, which proved to be the -<i>Cambria</i>, outward-bound to Mexico, with mining workmen and machinery, -shipped by the Anglo-Mexican company. It was two o’clock when the -<i>Cambria</i> received the first boat-load of passengers, consisting of ladies -and children, half clothed, and pale with fright and fatigue. The whole -afternoon was passed in exertions on board the one vessel in sending off -the sufferers, and in the other in receiving them. The <i>Cambria</i> had -amongst her passengers several stout workmen, who took their station at -the ship’s side, and were indefatigable in hoisting the poor sufferers on -board; so that, out of 642 persons in the <i>Kent</i>, no less than 547 were safe -in the <i>Cambria</i> before midnight. The remainder (95 in number) were -lost, chiefly in getting out and in of the boats, the swell of the sea being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span> -very great all the time. The captain of the <i>Kent</i> was the last man to -leave her. She blew up at a few minutes before two o’clock on Wednesday -morning.</p> - -<p>It may naturally be asked how the vessel could keep so long together -amid so destructive a conflagration? She could not have kept together -two hours, had not the officers, to avoid one danger, encountered another -by opening the ports and letting in the water, when she shipped such -heavy seas as to become water-logged, which of course prevented her -burning downwards.</p> - -<p>The <i>Cambria</i>, a vessel of little more than 200 tons, was previously -sufficiently filled, having goods in her hold, and about 50 persons in -passengers and ship’s company. How great then must have been the -pressure and confusion caused by the influx which carried the total on -board to more than 600! The progress of the fire in the <i>Kent</i> had been -so rapid, as to prevent the sufferers from saving any clothes, except what -was on their persons, and both officers and soldiers were thus ill prepared -to encounter the wet and cold of the deck. The cabin and the ’tween -decks (the space for the steerage passengers) were thus crowded beyond -measure, and most fortunate it was that the wind continued favourable -for the return of the <i>Cambria</i> to an English port. She reached Falmouth -in 48 hours after quitting the wreck, and landed her unfortunate inmates -on the 4th of March.”</p> - -<p><i>Lord William Bentinck</i>, lost off Bombay; 58 recruits, 20 officers, -and seven passengers perished. This lamentable occurrence happened -June 17th, 1840.</p> - -<p><i>Abercrombie Robinson</i>, and <i>Waterloo</i>, transports, in Table Bay, Cape -of Good Hope; of 330 persons on board the last named vessel, 189, principally -convicts, were drowned, August 28th, 1842.</p> - -<p><i>H.M.S. Fantome</i>, of 16 guns, lost off Montevideo, June 25th, 1843.</p> - -<p>The troop ship <i>Albert</i> from Halifax with the 64th Regiment on board -which was miraculously saved July 13th, 1843.</p> - -<p><i>H.M. Frigate Wilberforce</i>, lost on the coast of Africa, February 2nd, -1844.</p> - -<p><i>Birkenhead</i>, troopship, from Queenstown to the Cape of Good Hope, -with detachments of several regiments on board. She struck on a pointed -rock off Simon’s Bay, and 454 of the crew and soldiers were drowned; -184 only were saved by the ship’s boat.</p> - -<p>The <i>Trent</i>, and a great number of other ships of all capacity, wrecked -off the Crimea during the war. A tremendous tornado swept the Black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span> -Sea and literally dashed many of the brave ships of England and France -to pieces.</p> - - -<p>WURTZCHEN, BATTLE OF.—One of the most bloody and -fiercely contested battles of the campaign of 1813. Fought between the -allied Russian and Prussian armies, and the French, commanded by -Napoleon himself. The carnage was dreadful on each side, but the Allies -retreated from the field. Fought, May 21st, 1813.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="X_AND_Y" id="X_AND_Y">X <span class="fs70">AND</span> </a>Y.</h3> - - -<p>XIMERA, BATTLE OF.—Between the Spanish army, under the -command of General Ballasteros, and the French corps, commanded by -General Regnier. The Spaniards were defeated with great loss; the -French also lost very much. Fought, September 10th, 1811.</p> - - -<p>XERXES’ BRIDGE. See Bridge of Xerxes.</p> - - -<p>YEAVERNY, BATTLE OF.—Between the Scots and the Earl of -Westmoreland. Fought, 1415. In this memorable engagement, 430 -English discomfited 4000 Scots, and took 160 prisoners; also called the -battle of Geteringe.</p> - - -<p>YPRES, BATTLE OF.—Between Henry IV of France, and the -Generals of the Roman Catholic League, over whom he obtained a complete -victory.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h3><a name="Z" id="Z"></a>Z.</h3> - - -<p>ZAMA, BATTLE OF.—Between the two greatest Generals of the -age, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. The Romans lost 2000 in killed -and wounded, whilst the Carthaginians lost, in killed and prisoners, more -than 40,000. Fought <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 202.</p> - -<p>“These two generals, who were not only the most illustrious of their -own age, but worthy of being ranked with the most renowned princes and -warriors that had ever lived, meeting at the place appointed, continued -for some time in a deep silence, as though they were astonished, and -struck with a mutual admiration at the sight of each other. At last -Hannibal spoke; and, after having praised Scipio in the most artful and -delicate manner, he gave a very lively description of the ravages of the -war, and the calamities in which it had involved both the victors and the -vanquished. He conjured him not to suffer himself to be dazzled by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span> -splendor of his victories. He represented to him, that how successful -soever he might have hitherto been, he ought, however, to tremble at the -inconstancy of fortune: that without going far back for examples, he -himself who was then speaking to him, was a glaring proof of this: that -Scipio was at that time what himself, Hannibal, had been at Thrasymene -and Cannæ: that he ought to make a better use of opportunity than -himself had done, and consent to peace, now it was in his power to propose -the conditions of it. He concluded with declaring, that the Carthaginians -would willingly resign Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and all the islands -between Africa and Italy to the Romans. That they must be forced, -since such was the will of the gods, to confine themselves to Africa; whilst -they should see the Romans extending their conquests to the most remote -regions, and obliging all nations to pay obedience to their laws.</p> - -<p>Scipio answered in few words, but not with less dignity. He reproached -the Carthaginians for their perfidy, in plundering the Roman galleys -before the truce was expired. He imputed to them only, and to their -injustice, all the calamities with which the two wars had been attended. -After thanking Hannibal for the admonition he gave him, with regard to -the uncertainty of human events, he concluded with desiring him to prepare -for battle, unless he chose rather to accept of the conditions that had -been already proposed; to which he observed some others would be added, -in order to punish the Carthaginians for their having violated the truce.</p> - -<p>Hannibal could not prevail with himself to accept these conditions and -the generals left one another, with the resolution to decide the fate of Carthage -by a general battle. Each commander exhorted his troops to fight -valiantly. Hannibal enumerated the victories he had gained over the -Romans, the generals he had slain, the armies he had cut to pieces. Scipio -represented to his soldiers, the conquests of both the Spains, his successes -in Africa, and the tacit confession their enemies themselves made of -their weakness, by thus coming to sue for peace. All this he spoke with -the tone and air of a conqueror. Never were motives more prevalent to -prompt troops to behave gallantly. This day was to complete the glory -of the one or the other of the generals; and to decide whether Rome or -Carthage was to prescribe laws to all other nations.</p> - -<p>I shall not undertake to describe the order of the battle, nor the valour -of the forces on both sides. The reader will naturally suppose, that two -such experienced generals did not forget any circumstance which could -contribute to the victory. The Carthaginians, after a very obstinate fight, -were obliged to fly, leaving 20,000 men on the field of battle, and the like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> -number of prisoners were taken by the Romans. Hannibal escaped in the -tumult, and, entering Carthage, owned that he was irrecoverably overthrown, -and that the citizens had no other choice left, but to accept of peace -on any conditions. Scipio bestowed great eulogiums on Hannibal, chiefly -with regard to his capacity in taking advantages, his manner of drawing -up his army, and giving out his orders in the engagement; and he affirmed -that Hannibal had this day surpassed himself, although the success had -not answered his valour and conduct.</p> - -<p>With regard to himself, he well knew how to make a proper advantage -of the victory, and the consternation with which he had filled the enemy. -He commanded one of his lieutenants to march his land army to Carthage, -whilst himself prepared to sail the fleet thither.</p> - -<p>He was not far from the city, when he met a vessel covered with -streamers and olive branches, bringing ten of the most considerable persons -of the state, as ambassadors to implore his clemency. However, he dismissed -them without making any answer, and bid them come to him at -Tunis, where he should halt. The deputies of Carthage, being 30 in -number, came to him at the place appointed, and sued for peace in the -most submissive terms. He then called a council there, the majority of -which were for razing Carthage, and treating the inhabitants with the -utmost severity. But the consideration of the time which must necessarily -be employed before so strongly fortified a city could be taken, and -Scipio’s fear lest a successor might be appointed him whilst he should -be employed in the siege, made him incline to clemency.”</p> - - -<p>ZARAGOZA, SECOND SIEGE OF.—“The sufferings of the gallant -Zaragozans, during the former siege, had not subdued the spirit of -heroic devotion by which they had been animated. Another trial awaited -them, not less memorable and glorious, though less fortunate in its -result.</p> - -<p>After the defeat of Tudela, Palafox retired to Zaragoza, to make preparations -for a second siege. He was not present in the action. The -intelligence of its issue came upon him like a thunderbolt; and the refusal -of Castanos to throw his troops into Zaragoza, instead of retreating on -Madrid, put an end to those feelings of confidence and frankness which -had hitherto existed between the generals.</p> - -<p>The multiplied disasters of the Spanish armies, however, so far from -shaking the resolution of Palafox or the Zaragozans, appear only to have -stimulated them to redoubled exertions in the service of their country.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span> -Proclamations were issued, commanding all women, old men, and children, -to quit the city. Every inhabitant was imperatively called upon to -make sacrifice, if necessary, of his life and property, in the common cause; -and the whole population were required, by their personal exertions, to -contribute to the completion of the fortifications of the city.</p> - -<p>The approach of the enemy cut short the preparations for defence. -Neither women nor children left the place. Even these refused to seek -safety at a distance from their fathers and husbands, and preferred participating -in the danger and the glory which awaited them in Zaragoza, to -wandering unprotected through a troubled and a suffering country.</p> - -<p>During the former siege, the defenders had been embarrassed by the -presence of French residents in the city. These had been strictly guarded, -with the double object of preventing any intercourse between them and -the besiegers, and of protecting them against the fatal effects of popular -suspicion, to which, without such precaution, it is more than probable -they would have fallen victims. In order to prevent the repetition of -such danger and inconvenience, Palafox determined that these unfortunate -persons should be removed from the city to other places of confinement. -This was done, notwithstanding the hostility of the populace, -though not until Palafox had issued a proclamation appealing to Spanish -honour and humanity, and imploring the gallant Zaragozans not to stain -the sacred cause of liberty and justice by the foul murder of these defenceless -victims.</p> - -<p>The aid of superstition was not wanting to strengthen the confidence -of the Zaragozans. They relied on the miraculous protection of Our -Lady of the Pillar, who had made their favoured city the seat of her -peculiar worship. The successful termination of the former siege had -given strength to their belief in the beneficent regards of the patron -saint. Omens, too, had been observed in the sky. Approaching victory -had been prefigured by unwonted conformations of the clouds; and -celestial voices were heard in the elements, offering divine promise of glory -and protection.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, the Zaragozans were not induced, by their belief in these -flattering portents, to disregard any of the human means of safety in their -power. A continued line of exterior defensive works had been planned -and executed, as far as time and circumstances permitted. Yet this, -imperfect as it was, added little to the real strength of the city; and, in -forming a just estimate of the zeal and courage of the defenders, Zaragoza -should almost be considered as an unfortified town. The walls,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span> -originally built rather for the purpose of civic impost than defence, were -surmounted by 150 pieces of cannon. Large stores of provisions had been -formed. Arms and ammunition were in abundance; and the town contained -upwards of 20,000 regular troops, besides 15,000 armed peasants.</p> - -<p>All the houses within 700 toises of the place were demolished, and the -materials employed to strengthen the fortifications. The trees around -the city were cut down. The greatest activity reigned on all hands; the -women were employed in making clothes for the soldiers; the monks -made cartridges: and all those not employed in labouring at the works, -practised the use of arms.</p> - -<p>Measures were likewise taken for the defence of the city, in case the -enemy, which was scarcely to be doubted, should effect an entrance. -Traverses were cut across the streets. The doors and windows on the -ground-floor were strongly barricaded. Communications were made -between the houses; and parapets were constructed on the roofs. Every -householder had in his dwelling an ample store of provisions, to enable -him to continue his resistance when the enemy should gain possession of -the streets. Thus prepared, the Zaragozans awaited the approach of the -besiegers.</p> - -<p>In the meanwhile, the corps of Marshal Moncey, which had been -ordered to blockade the city, remained at Alagon, collecting materials, -and awaiting the arrival of his heavy artillery from Pamplona. On the -19th of December it was joined by the corps of Mortier, and on the 20th -the united army appeared before Zaragoza. It consisted of about 35,000 -infantry, and was accompanied by a battering train of sixty pieces. A -corps of cavalry was stationed at Fuentes, to keep the surrounding country -in a state of subjection.</p> - -<p>The city was approached on both sides of the Ebro. Gazan’s division, -having passed the river at Tauste, marched, by the road of Castejon, to -Cuera and Villa Nuevo. That of Suchet took post on the right of the -Ebro, near a convent, about a league distant from Zaragoza, after driving -in the Spanish outposts.</p> - -<p>During the night, the enemy erected a battery, which commanded the -Torrero, and, in the morning, opened fire on the fort. Unfortunately, a -quantity of ammunition was blown up, by the bursting of a shell, which -occasioned considerable disorder in the garrison. The French took -advantage of this. A column crossed the canal by an aqueduct, of which -on the evening before, they had become masters, and entering the fort by -the gorge, succeeded in maintaining the place against the efforts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span> -garrison. At the same time, a brigade of Morlot’s division advanced up -the ravine of the Huerba, and, passing the canal under the aqueduct on -which it crosses that river, gained possession of a work commanding the -sluices of the canal. Two guns were taken in this work. Three guns -and 100 prisoners in the fort. General St. Mark succeeded in withdrawing -the rest of the garrison.</p> - -<p>On the 22nd, General Gazan advanced against the suburb, on the left -of the river. He was encountered by about 4000 of the garrison, posted -in the woods and gardens, from which, after a warm contest, he succeeded -in dislodging them. Gazan then attempted to carry the suburb by a -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup-de-main</i>. In this he failed. Repulsed in all his efforts, after a long -and fruitless contention, he at length withdrew, pursued by the garrison, -and with the loss of near 1000 men. The chief loss of the besieged consisted -of a corps of Swiss, almost all of whom were killed or taken prisoners -in a large building considerably in advance of the suburb.</p> - -<p>For several days all was quiet. The enemy were now aware that it -was necessary to make a regular investment of the place; and the works -in all quarters, were pushed on with vigour. The besieged on their part -endeavoured, by incessant labour, to complete the works of defence; -batteries were constructed, to enfilade the principal approaches—the -magazines were rendered bomb-proof—every outlet was palisaded and -traversed; and, thus prepared, they waited with calm fortitude for the -approaching struggle.</p> - -<p>On the 30th, Marshal Moncey addressed a letter to Palafox, summoning -him to surrender the city, now entirely invested, and to spare the -effusion of blood which must necessarily follow any further attempt at -hopeless resistance. Moncey likewise informed him that Madrid had -fallen; and that Napoleon, at the head of a great army, was then in the -act of chasing the English to their ships.</p> - -<p>To this Palafox replied, that if Madrid had fallen, Madrid had been -<em>sold</em>. The works of Zaragoza were yet entire; but, were they levelled -with the ground, the people and the garrison would rather be buried in -the ruins of their city, than disgraced by surrender.</p> - -<p>In the meanwhile, General Gazan succeeded in effecting the blockade -of the suburb.</p> - -<p>On the 29th, the trenches were regularly opened against the Chateau -of the Inquisition on the left, the bridge of the Huerba in the centre, -and the convent of St. Joseph on the right. The last of these was the -principal object of the enemy, because the works in rear were destitute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span> -of a rampart, and it was intended to connect the attack with a simultaneous -attempt to gain possession of the suburb.</p> - -<p>The garrison, however, were not idle. The communication between -the convent and the city could not be interrupted; and the garrison of -the former, being daily relieved, made frequent sallies, by which the -progress of the besiegers was materially retarded. On the 31st, a general -sortie, supported by the whole guns of the place, was made against the -enemy’s line. Though gallantly supported, it was unattended by any -successful result. The repeated attacks of the garrison were repulsed; -and, baffled in their efforts, they again entered the city. The loss on -both sides was nearly equal.</p> - -<p>On the 2nd of January, Moncey was superseded by Marshal Junot in -the command of the besieging army. The latter was the bearer of an -order to Mortier, to move on Calatayud with Suchet’s division, in order -to keep open the communication with Madrid. This arrangement -occasioned a material diminution of the besieging force, but no cessation -of hostile operations. The works against the convent of St. Joseph still -went on, and between the 3rd and 6th of January the second parallel -was completed. Till the 10th no action took place; but on that day a -tremendous fire from thirty guns was opened on the convent. It was -soon rendered untenable. But, amid the ruins, the gunners covered by -bags of wool, still continued to exercise their vocation, and fired on the -enemy, till the walls were levelled with the ground. Even then the post -was not relinquished without a gallant effort. At midnight a sortie was -made against one of the batteries, in ignorance that two guns had been -planted for its protection. The intention of the brave assailants was -thus defeated; and, having suffered heavy loss from a murderous fire, -both in front and flank, they again retreated to the city.</p> - -<p>Even in the dilapidated condition of the convent, it was not till the -evening of the next day that the enemy attempted to carry it by assault. -At the same time a party, having turned the convent, succeeded, by -means of a wooden bridge which the besieged had omitted to destroy, -in effecting an entrance; and thus did the French at length become -masters of a heap of ruins, and of about 100 gallant men by whom they -were defended.</p> - -<p>No sooner were the enemy in possession of St. Joseph, than they -employed themselves in repairing the works, and completing the communication -between the second and third parallels, the latter of which they -established on the right and left of the convent. The garrison on that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span> -side were now compelled to remain within their walls; for the besiegers -were secured against their efforts by the double obstacle of a river and an -escarpment eight feet high.</p> - -<p>On the 15th a second parallel was opened against the town; and -batteries were commenced in it, to enfilade the defences of the Augustine -and Capuchin convents, and that of Sta. Engracia. Yet neither the loss -of their outworks, nor a tremendous bombardment, which the French -kept up for several days, had the effect of diminishing the ardour of the -inhabitants. The Zaragozans were not only actuated by that active and -living energy which stimulates to deeds of high enterprize, but they possessed, -likewise, that calm and passive fortitude, that buoyant upbearing -of the spirit, which suffering cannot depress, nor misfortune overthrow.</p> - -<p>But their cup was not yet full. The inhabitants of the part of the -city most injured by the bombardment, were driven into the other -quarters, where many of them took up their abode in cellars, which -afforded comparative security from the shells. The consequence was, -that these dark and miserable receptacles became the focus of infectious -fever. The disease spread rapidly among a crowded and redundant -population. Thus did death, on all hands, present itself to the unshrinking -Zaragozans; and the greater part preferred exposing themselves on -the ramparts, to breathing the infected air which pervaded the dark and -noisome retreats in which they had sought refuge from the shells.</p> - -<p>From the 17th to the 21st, the besiegers were occupied in the construction -of new batteries to overcome the defences of the garrison; and the -third parallel was extended to command two sides of the convent of Sta. -Engracia. In these circumstances, a sortie was made, in the hope of -spiking the enemy’s artillery. The fire of a battery of four mortars was -found peculiarly annoying: and eighty men, commanded by Don Mariano -Galindo, volunteered to attack it. They boldly precipitated themselves -on the guard of the third parallel, put them to the sword, and succeeded -in entering the battery. At the same moment the enemy’s reserve came -up. There was no retreat; all perished except the officers and a few -wounded soldiers, who were made prisoners.</p> - -<p>The movements of the numerous bodies of armed peasantry, in the -surrounding country, occasioned great inconvenience to the besiegers. -Bands were formed on all hands; which, though unable to resist the -attack of disciplined troops, yet were sufficiently formidable to require -perpetual vigilance, and numerous enough to narrow the supplies of the -besieging army, in a very considerable degree.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span></p> - -<p>About this time, Napoleon, dissatisfied with the slow progress of the -siege, sent Marshal Lannes to assume the command. This officer directed -Mortier, with his division, to leave Calatayud, and to act on the left of -the Ebro. Mortier attacked the force of Francisco Palafox, and succeeded -in dispersing it with very considerable loss. Lannes, in order to depress -the hopes of the garrison of external assistance, addressed a letter to Palafox, -communicating this circumstance, and all the other disasters which -had befallen the Spanish armies. But the mortifying intelligence thus -conveyed, did not shake the firmness of the undaunted leader. He -rejected all compromise, and continued, with undiminished vigour, to -oppose every possible obstacle to the progress of the enemy.</p> - -<p>All the outworks of the place had now fallen, except the castle of the -Inquisition, which had been subjected to no serious attack. The newly-raised -works of the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Enceinte</i> had been battered by fifty-five guns, and, on -the 27th January, three breaches were declared practicable. One was -near an oil-mill, which stood without the walls of the place, though but -little removed from them. The second was to the left of this, between -the convent of St. Joseph and the town. The third was in the convent -of Sta. Engracia. All these were attacked. At mid-day, a column -issued from the oil-mill, which had been occupied over-night, and, rapidly -clearing the short distance which divided it from the walls, entered the -breach, unbroken by the heavy fire to which they were exposed, and the -explosion of two <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fougasses</i>. Having reached the summit, the assailants -found an interior retrenchment armed with two guns, which the garrison -had unexpectedly erected to obstruct their progress. They attempted, -without success, to surmount this obstacle, under a shower of grape, -musketry and grenades. Forced to retire, the besiegers took advantage -of the cover afforded by the exploded <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fougasses</i> to effect a lodgment on -the breach.</p> - -<p>The breach in face of St. Joseph presented fewer obstacles to be overcome. -The column of attack having reached the summit, succeeded in -occupying the opposite house, which the artillery, in firing on the wall, -had laid open. The houses adjoining were then gained; and on the -right of the breach they found a gate which afforded another entrance -into the town. Here, however, their progress was arrested by a battery -of the enemy, commanding a court which it was necessary to pass. On -the left, a double <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">caponnier</i>, which the garrison had used to communicate -with St. Joseph’s, was repaired and lengthened to the breach.</p> - -<p>The attack on Sta. Engracia was yet more successful. After a severe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span> -struggle, the assailants gained the breach of the convent, but in attempting -to advance further, they met a spirited repulse. Another effort was -made, which terminated in their gaining possession of the building. The -curtain leading from Sta. Engracia to the bridge of the Huerba was then -enfiladed, and, taking the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tête-de-pont</i> in reverse, the enemy at once -became masters of that important post. Here they were joined by fresh -troops, and, pushing on within the curtain of the convent of Mount -Carmel, made an effort to gain possession of it, which met with a repulse.</p> - -<p>From thence they advanced rapidly to the Capuchin convent, putting -forty artillerymen, who constituted the whole of its garrison, to the sword, -The assailants then established themselves along the rampart, in order -to guard the posts they had been successful in acquiring.</p> - -<p>A dreadful fire was soon opened on the besiegers from the houses -commanding the rampart. From this they in vain sought shelter among -the ruins of the half-demolished walls. Retreat became necessary, and -the column was directed to retire on the Puerta del Carmen. The garrison, -by a bold attack, regained possession of the Capuchin convent; -but two battalions coming up to reinforce the assailants, it was again -taken, and maintained, though at a dear price, by the enemy.</p> - -<p>During the night, a strong but unsuccessful effort was made by the -besieged to regain possession of the convents of Sta. Engracia and the -Capuchins. The result of these operations were the loss to the besieged -of fifteen guns and 200 prisoners, and that the enemy gained footing -in the city at two different points. The loss in killed and wounded, -by the French accounts, was nearly equal on both sides. It amounted -to about 600.</p> - -<p>The misfortunes of the Zaragozans were hourly accumulating. The -fever demon stalked through the city like a destroying angel, conquering -and to conquer. The number of dead per day amounted to 350, without -including those who fell the more immediate victims of war. The -hospitals were too small to contain the host of patients, and the medicines -were exhausted. The burying grounds were choked with corpses; and -large pits were dug in the streets, into which the dead were tossed indiscriminately. -Heaps of bloated and putrescent bodies were piled before -the churches, which were often struck by the shells; and the maimed -and ghastly carcasses lay dispersed along the streets, a frightful spectacle -of horror. Even under such evils the courage of the Zaragozans did not -quail.</p> - -<p>The city was now open to the invaders, and the war, as formerly, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span> -carried on in the streets and houses. Not one inch of ground was yielded -by the besieged without a struggle; and when finally driven from a -building, they frequently, by a desperate offensive effort, recovered it; -and an equal resistance had again to be encountered by the assailants. -Traverses were cut around the portions of the city occupied by the -enemy; and at the sound of the tocsin, the garrison were ever ready to -rush to any quarter where hostilities had commenced.</p> - -<p>Palafox, however, did not limit his efforts to obstructing the progress -of the enemy; he made vigorous efforts to recover the ground already -lost, and drive the assailants from their stations. Two attempts were -made to regain the convent of the Capuchins. Both failed. A third -more powerful effort was made on the 31st. A breach was effected during -the day, and at night the assault took place. The besieged advanced -with signal resolution towards the breach, but owing to a ditch sunk by -the enemy, it was found impossible to mount it. They then threw -themselves on the floor of the church, and endeavoured to force it. In -spite of the fire from the windows, and the grenades showered from the -steeple, they maintained their ground, and forced the door; but an -epaulement within obstructed their progress; and fresh troops being -brought up by the enemy, the project was at length renounced.</p> - -<p>Priests and women bore part in these operations. The former carried -munitions, and gave ghostly succour to the dying, animating the soldiers -at once by their words and their example. The latter bore refreshments -to their sons, or husbands, or fathers; and sometimes, when one of those -dear relatives fell by their side, they seized his arms, determined to -revenge his death or perish in the same glorious cause. In truth, the -contest lay between skill and enthusiasm—mingled, indeed, with superstition, -yet active, firm, vigorous, and unshrinking; skill exerted in a -struggle as unjust and degrading, as any by which the pages of history -are contaminated and defaced.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the utmost efforts of the garrison, the French gained -ground. The 1st of February was marked by the capture of the convents -of St. Augustin and St. Monica. Having been repelled in assaulting the -breaches, the assailants sprung a mine, and by that means effected an -entrance, and took in reverse the works erected for their defence. A -deadly struggle took place in the church. Every chapel, every column, -every altar, became a point of defence—the pavement was strewed with -blood, and the aisles and nave of the church were covered with the dead. -During this terrific conflict, the roof, shattered by bombs, fell in. Those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span> -who escaped, renewed the contest on the bodies of the dead and dying. -The French were at last successful, and advancing on the Rua Quemada, -gained possession of several houses. From these, however, they were -eventually compelled to retreat, with a loss of above 100 men.</p> - -<p>At the same time, an attack was made on the houses near Sta. -Engracia. Two mines, one on the left, the other on the right, of the -convent, were sprung by the besiegers; after which two columns of -Polish infantry succeeded in gaining possession of the ruins caused by -the explosion. The loss of the besiegers was very considerable, and -General Lacoste, commandant of engineers, was killed. He was an -officer of great professional eminence, and untarnished character.</p> - -<p>During four days, the besiegers were employed in constructing three -galleries to cross the Rua Quemada. Two of these failed. By means of -the third they succeeded in establishing themselves in the ruins of a -house which formed an angle of the Cozo, and of the Rua del Medio. A -building, called the Escuelas Pias, commanded several traverses, made -for the defence of the Cozo. Aware of the importance of this post, the -assailants made several unsuccessful efforts to gain possession of it. They -then attempted the adjoining houses; but in this also they failed. The -system of blowing up the houses, now adopted, was favourable to the -besieged; for the enemy, who established themselves on the ruins, were -thus exposed to the fire of the surrounding buildings. In the meanwhile -the continual succession of formidable and unforeseen obstacles, which -presented themselves to the French soldiers, had damped their ardour; -while the spirits of the besieged, who had to contend against famine, -fever, and the French army, were yet unbroken.</p> - -<p>The inner town is encircled by the Cozo, which reaches at both extremities -to the river; and the French, in order to connect their operations -with those of Gazan, on the left of the Ebro, determined, at all risks, to -gain possession of it. The convent of St. Francisco, therefore, became -their immediate object. A mine was exploded, which brought down -part of the building; and a severe contest ensued, which lasted for two -days. The Spaniards were at length driven out by the bayonet—the -superiority of physical, as well as of numerical strength, being on the side -of the assailants.</p> - -<p>From the tower of this building, the French now commanded the -street, for a musket-shot on either side. There, however, their progress -was for a time arrested. The buildings in the Cozo were large and massive; -and from their construction with roofs of arched masonry, nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span> -incombustible. Experience had perfected the Zaragozans in their defensive -warfare; and the contest was continued with, if possible, augmented -pertinacity. Three days were the French sappers successfully opposed -in their endeavours to cross the Cozo. The university was partially -breached by the explosion of two small mines. The besiegers then endeavoured -to carry the building by assault; but they were met by a fire so -destructive as to compel them to retreat.</p> - -<p>Hitherto the suburb on the left of the Ebro had been exempted from -attack, since Gazan’s failure on the first night of the investment. That -officer, availing himself of some ambiguity in his orders, had declined to -re-engage in active operations; nor was it till Lannes arrived, with -authority to enforce his orders, that Gazan was induced to resume the -offensive.</p> - -<p>On the 7th, the convent of Jesus, on the left of the road to Lerida, was -attacked. Trenches were opened against it; and twenty battering pieces -having effected a breach, it was carried with little loss, the building not -being considered by the besieged as of material importance. The enemy -then succeeded in establishing a lodgment to the right and left.</p> - -<p>On the 18th, the suburb, after two unsuccessful efforts, was carried by -assault. A tremendous fire from fifty guns soon laid open the way to the -assailing columns. By mid-day a breach was effected in the convent of -St. Lazarus, commanding the bridge; and the defenders, after a strenuous -resistance, were driven from the building. All communication -between the suburb and the city was now cut off; and the French -advancing to the river, intercepted the retreat of about 1500 men, who, -enfeebled by disease and suffering, were made prisoners. The capture of -St. Lazarus necessarily involved that of the suburb, which was without -ammunition or provisions, yet many of its defenders continued to wage a -fierce but hopeless war in the streets. The loss of the besieged amounted -to about 2000. The brave Baron de Versage, who commanded on the -Ebro, was killed.</p> - -<p>The besiegers, imagining that the courage of the garrison had been -abated by this irreparable misfortune, continued their operations with -vigour. By means of mining, two enormous breaches were made in the -university—both of which were attacked and carried; and the traverses -of the Cozo were at length abandoned by the Spaniards. In the mean -time, Palafox had been smitten with the dreadful disease, whose ravages -had been more widely spread than even those of famine and the sword. -This admirable and heroic leader, who, for above a month, had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span> -unable to quit the vault where he lay stretched on a bed of suffering, at -length saw the necessity of resigning the command.</p> - -<p>On the 19th he transferred his authority to a junta, of which Don Pedro -Ric was appointed president. A council was immediately assembled, to -deliberate on the condition of the city, and the measures most proper to be -adopted. At this meeting it was stated, by the general of cavalry, that -only 62 horses remained, the rest having died of hunger. Of the infantry it -appeared there were little more than 2800 men fit for service. Ammunition -was nearly exhausted; and should a shell penetrate the Inquisition, -their only manufactory of powder would be destroyed. The fortifications -were stated, by the chief engineer, to have been almost utterly demolished. -There were neither men nor materials necessary for repairing them; and -bags of earth could no longer be formed from want of cloth.</p> - -<p>With regard to the measures to be adopted, the junta were divided in -opinion. Twenty-six voted for capitulation; eight against it. The -latter were averse to surrender, while even a possibility of succour -remained. With proud gallantry of spirit, the opinion of the minority -was adopted by the junta. A flag of truce was sent to the enemy, proposing -a suspension of hostilities, with the view of ascertaining the situation -of the Spanish armies; it being understood, that should no immediate -succour be at hand, the junta would then treat for a surrender. This proposal -was peremptorily declined by Marshal Lannes; and the bombardment -recommenced.</p> - -<p>On the 20th, the garrison made a last and unsuccessful effort to recover -two guns which the enemy had captured on the preceding day. Affairs -were now desperate. The fifty guns which had been employed in the -attack of the suburb, now opened fire on the city; and the streets of the -quay were laid in ruins.</p> - -<p>Thus situated the junta ordered measures to be taken to ascertain the -sentiments of the people with regard to the situation of their city. Two-thirds -of it were in ruins. Fire, famine, and slaughter, had done their -work; and from 300 to 400 persons were daily dying of the pestilence. -Under such circumstances, the junta declared that they had fulfilled -their oath of fidelity—and that <em>Zaragoza was destroyed</em>. A flag of -truce was dispatched to the French head-quarters, followed by a deputation -of the junta, to arrange the terms of capitulation. Marshal Lannes -was at first disposed to insist on unconditional surrender. The proposal -was indignantly rejected by the deputies; and Ric declared, that rather -than submit to it the Zaragozans would die beneath the ruins of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span> -city. “I, and my companions,” said this noble patriot, “will return -there, and defend what remains to us as best we may. We have yet -arms and ammunition, and if these fail we have daggers. Should the -Zaragozans be driven to despair, it yet remains to be proved who are to -be victorious.”</p> - -<p>In this temper of the garrison, Lannes did not think it prudent to -refuse granting terms. It was accordingly conceded that the troops -should march out with the honours of war: that the heroic Palafox should -be suffered to retire to any place where he might think proper to fix his -residence, and that all persons, not included in the garrison, should be -suffered to quit the city, to avoid the contagion.</p> - -<p>On the 21st of February, 1809, the city was delivered up to the French; -and thus terminated one of the most strenuous and extraordinary struggles -of which history bears record. The resistance continued for 52 days -with open trenches; 29 of these were consumed by the enemy in -effecting an entrance—23 in the war subsequently carried on in the -streets and houses. By their own account, the French threw above -17,000 bombs into the city, and expended above 160,000 pounds -weight of powder. More than 30,000 men and 500 officers perished -in the defence, exclusive of a vast number of women and children. The -amount of loss sustained by the besiegers was studiously concealed—that -it was very great, cannot be doubted; and the contemplated operations -on Lerida and Valencia, for which the army was destined, were in consequence -given up.</p> - -<p>When the garrison quitted the city, only 2400 men were capable of -bearing arms; the rest were in the hospitals.</p> - -<p>Among the prisoners, was Augustina Zaragoza, who had distinguished -herself in the former siege. At the commencement, she had resumed her -station at the Portillo gate. When Palafox visited the battery, she -pointed to the gun she had formerly served with so much effect, and -exclaimed, “See, general, I am again with my old friend.” Once, when -her wounded husband lay bleeding at her feet, she discharged the cannon -at the enemy, in order to avenge his fall. She frequently led the assaulting -parties, and with sword in hand mingled in the daily conflicts which -took place in the streets. Though exposed, during the whole siege to -the most imminent danger, Augustina escaped without a wound. On -the surrender of the city, she was too well known to escape notice, and -was made prisoner. But she had already caught the contagion; and -being taken to the hospital, she subsequently succeeded in effecting her -escape.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span></p> - -<p>The terms of capitulation were shamefully violated by Lannes. Palafox -was sent a prisoner into France; and the city became a scene of -pillage and atrocity. Nothing was to be heard but the drunken shouts -and cries of the French soldiery. Even the convents were not spared; -their gates were beaten in, the costly plate seized, and the decorations -torn down; while the monk, with uplifted hand and scowling brow, -listened to the drunken revelry and obscene jests of the heavy mailed -cuirassier.”</p> - - -<p>ZEALAND, NEW.—Discovered by Tasman in 1642. Captain -Cook planted several spots here in 1773. Great Britain’s right to this -island recognized at the general peace of 1814. Since then it has continued -slowly developing its inland resources. A rather disastrous war -was waged against the British forces by the New Zealanders not long -ago; but after some months of continual annoyance the Aborigines were -subdued and the island quieted, with every prospect of commercial -development.</p> - - -<p>ZELA, BATTLE OF.—In which Julius Cæsar defeated Pharnaces, -King of Pontus, and sent the Senate the well-known laconic letter of -three words: “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Veni, Vidi, Vici.</i>” Fought <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> 47.</p> - - -<p>ZELICHON, BATTLE OF.—Fought, April 6th, 1831, between the -Poles and Russians. The Russians were terribly defeated, with the loss -of 12,000 men, killed, wounded and prisoners, and Deibitsch, the Russian -General, narrowly escaped being taken prisoner in the rout.</p> - - -<p>ZEUTA, BATTLE OF.—Fought, between the Germans and Turks, -the former commanded by Prince Eugene; and it is memorable for the -tremendous slaughter of the enemy, <span class="fs70">A.D.</span> 1697.</p> - - -<p>ZORNDORFF, BATTLE OF.—Fought between the Prussian and -Russian armies: the Prussian commanded by their King. They gained a -great victory over the forces of the Czarina of Russia—21,529 men being -lost to the Russians, while the Prussians lost 11,000. Fought, August -25th and 26th, 1758.</p> - - -<p>ZOUAVE <span class="fs70">OR</span> ZOU-ZOU.—“The <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">gamins</i> of Paris, we believe, first -applied to the world-renowned Zouaves the pet name of <em>Zou-Zous</em>; and -France has confirmed the pleasant diminutive. We know well enough -that Zou-Zou has certain faults; but we also know that he possesses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span> -some estimable qualities. On the whole, we gaze at his scarred bronzed -face and long shaggy beard with respect, and do not shrink from cordially -clasping his horny brown hand, powder-begrimed though it be. We -read all about his valorous doings, and his somewhat ludicrous and not -unpardonable misdoings, during the late Italian campaign, as chronicled -daily by his own countrymen, and we shall now compile some -interesting examples of his exploits and racy peculiarities, which have -fallen under our notice.</p> - -<p>When the Zou-Zous embarked at Marseilles, they leapt on board the -vessels as though charging a column of Croats, crying to their comrades, -“Come, gentlemen, take your tickets for Austria!” Arrived at Genoa, -they received their fair share of flowers and kisses from the enraptured -signoras, and embracements and orations from their lords and fathers.</p> - -<p>M. Achard visited the camp of the famous 3rd Zouaves, and gives us -a graphic sketch of the fire-eaters reposing. We must premise that they -had only arrived four or five days from Algeria. “It was,” says he, -“like a little corner of a great war picture. The canvas town possessed -regularity, animated order, picturesque and lively movement, and one felt -the presence of discipline, and a pleasing sense of gaiety and fearlessness. -Behold the little, narrow, short tents reserved for the sub-officers; their -neighbours large, and similar to a squab coffee-pot, for the captains and -commandants; others ample and conical, each for five soldiers, ranged in -ranks; groups of Zouaves round a candle, in a low tone chatting about -their African campaigns; some silently smoking a pipe apart; two or -three lying on the ground in corners, reading letters and dreaming, their -comrades singing the chorus of songs; the evening dies away and sleep -succeeds. Here and there, under the canvas, a little lamp gives light to -an officer, who writes in haste a last letter. Little noise, great order; each -battalion has its place. As the darkness increases, we see red sparks in -the air along the tents. The cigar enlivens the promenade, then the sparks -disappear one by one; the bivouac fires are extinguished; the mules of -the regiment bite at each other, and endeavour to break their straps; -close by, the Arab horses of the officers, digging the earth with their -hoofs, snuffing the air, devoid of the warm odour of the desert, and shaking -their manes. * * * The next day, at seven o’clock in the morning, -the regiment, containing three battalions on a war strength—2700 men, -exclusive of officers—was reviewed by Prince Napoleon. They looked -models of hardy active soldiers. Their faces, which appeared cut out of -Florentine bronze, had the manly ardour and the confidence resulting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span> -from habitual acquaintance with danger. They were in marching order. -At eight o’clock they started, clarions at their head and tarbouch in front -for their first <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">étape de guerre</i>, twenty-seven kilometres, and in the evening -they encamped in the mountain, at Toreglia, very near the Austrians!”</p> - -<p>We may remark that one great reason for the very singular celerity -with which the Zouaves encamp, provide their food, etc., is the fact, that -each company, or portion of a company, or “tribe,” as it is called by the -men themselves, is subdivided for what we may term domestic duties, -each individual being charged with a distinct and special function; and -constant practice naturally renders them amazingly expert at doing whatever -they are called upon to daily and nightly perform.</p> - -<p>The Zou-Zous, and their African friends the Turcos, are said to have -an invincible preference for fighting at close quarters with the bayonet. -A certain quantity of cartouches were served out at the moment of departure, -but these cartridges were not forthcoming at Genoa. The officers -were angry, and required the production of the missing ammunition. -“Be not troubled,” said the Zou-Zous; “leave us alone, and we will -return you ten for one at the first battle.” A stubborn old sergeant -added, “We wish to see if the Austrians are like the Kabyles.” In fact, -their point of honour is to charge with the bayonet, and to charge at a -swift run. Their activity is incredible; and they have been aptly called -“foot cavalry,” which is hardly a paradoxical jest like our own time-honoured -sneer of “horse marines.”</p> - -<p>The Zou-Zous have a marvellous capacity for physical endurance. -Some black coffee, and a biscuit or piece of hard ammunition bread -steeped in it, generally formed their breakfast, and then they were able -and willing to march with their very heavy knapsacks a whole day in the -broiling sun before dining. A Zouave’s knapsack is full of a wonderful -variety of articles, and, when in marching order, he actually carries the -enormous weight of sixty pounds! But Zou-Zou is not an anchorite; he -does not voluntarily endure hunger when he can lawfully, or (as some -whisper) even unlawfully, obtain an appetizing addition to his rations. At -Palestro, the Zouaves drolly distinguished themselves, by marching with a -pleasing variety of edible prizes secured about their persons. They bore -quarters of lamb, immense pieces of raw meat, salad, cabbage, and all -kinds of vegetables; upon the shoulder of one was perched an old cock, -tied by the foot by way of precaution! All the world knows how omnivorous -Zouaves are; and, by way of illustration, we will only mention<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span> -the astounding fact, that at Solferino they daintily feasted on fillets cut -from the backs of the horses killed in that tremendous battle!</p> - -<p>The Austrians sent some daring spies into the Zouave camp, fully and -carefully dressed as Zou-Zous, speaking French, and affecting in all -respects the habits and language of the men among whom they treacherously -stole. But, as an old soldier observed, “the asses who wear lions’ -skins are recognized, not by the dress, but by the language.” So it was -with these Austrian spies. The touch-stone which infallibly detected -them was the Arab, or rather the Sabir tongue. The Sabir is a dialect -used by the Zouaves and the Turcos, and is a singular mixture of French, -Italian, Maltese, Spanish and Arabian. Let us see what the Sabir can do -with the wicked hawk who has stolen into the Zouave dovecot, disguised -in innocent plumage like their own.</p> - -<p>“A spy, dressed as a Zouave, holding his cap behind him, accosts other -Zouaves, (true ones these). They talk of war, ambuscades, battles; they -drink and sing. An old Zouave addresses the spy: ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Didou, camarade, -gib el touchran; j’ai laisse mon sipsi dans la gitoun.</span>’ This, in Sabir, -signifies, ‘Comrade, hand me some tobacco; I have forgotten my pipe in -the tent.’ The spy, surprised, does not reply. ‘Enta machache narl el -Arabi?’ (Dost thou not understand Arabian?) continues the Zouave. -The same silence. Suspicions are aroused: the pretended Zouave is -closely questioned. He is confused; he confounds Blidah with Orléansville: -finally he is seized, and duly shot.”</p> - -<p>No body of men attracted more notice, on first landing in Italy, than -the 3rd Zouaves. Nearly all the officers had risen from the ranks, or, at -any rate, all had been sub-officers, and had won their epaulettes and -crosses in Africa. The men could reckon a number of years’ service, -both in Africa and the Crimea. Their flag was in tatters, and tied -together with shoemaker’s thread.</p> - -<p>At Palestro, these 3rd Zouaves performed a brilliant feat of arms. A -wounded Zou-Zou subsequently described it most graphically. “We -were,” said he, “very tranquilly opposite a rivulet; we beheld five or six -horsemen upon an eminence; it was said that they must be enemy’s -hussars, watching us, and the word passed to prepare to have a chat with -them. But all in a moment, and without a note of warning, a parcel of -bullets, accompanied by a hail of cannon balls, saluted us. The rogues -had mounted cannon on the hills, and their tirailleurs skulked in the -corn, where one could not see them. Whilst we looked out, the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mitraille</i><a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span> -mingled in the conversation. The colonel saw whence it came by -the smoke. The officers turned towards us. ‘Eh Zouaves!’ cried -they, ‘to the cannon!’ We leapt in the stream. There was water up -to our elbows, and so our cartridge boxes took a bath; we were no longer -able to fire a single charge. From the stream to the batteries we had to -run about 300 metres. Ah, we already surpass the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pas gymnastique</i>!</p> - -<p>The <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mitraille</i> mowed the grass around our feet. In the twinkling of -an eye we carried the guns!”</p> - -<p>Among the wounded Austrians taken prisoners, was a young man of -twenty-two, who had previously studied at Paris five or six years. He -fought at Palestro, and when he saw the Zouaves running and leaping -with bayonets in advance, he cried, “Comrades! they are Zouaves! -We are lost!”</p> - -<p>An Austrian officer related that General Jellachich, struck with astonishment -at sight of the Zouaves in action, exclaimed, “They are not men, -they are tigers!” And then he muttered, “They told me so, but I did -not believe it.” A good many others of his countrymen had reason to -think and speak very much the same. Yet, even among the Zouaves -there are some who pre-eminently distinguish themselves by their surpassing -activity, daring, and successful valour.</p> - -<p>Zou-Zou has a humour of his own even in the heat of battle—grimmest -of all grim humours! Endless anecdotes are told of their strange -speeches and stranger deeds in the midst of the storm of battle. Many -of these would be painful to our readers, but the following give relief to -the stern cruelties of war. Would that the kindly or generous feelings -which they record could be displayed on more peaceful scenes!</p> - -<p>During a bayonet fight, a Zouave fought against an Austrian, and -broke his thigh with a violent butt-end blow; the Austrian, in falling, -broke the arm of the Zouave. There they lay side by side, their mutual -fury extinguished. The Zouave, who had a smattering of Italian, said -to the Austrian, “Thou art brave, and I will not leave thee to die like a -dog. I have yet an arm and a pair of good legs, and I will carry thee to -the ambulance.” He was as good as his word. When he arrived with -his burthen, he said to the surgeon-major. “You see, major, that we -are on a level; cure us quickly, that we may do our duty afresh.” We -will add, that the compassion and kindness manifested after a battle by -the erewhile fierce Zouaves towards their wounded enemies, is a fine trait -in their character. Like our own matchless seamen, the Zouaves, are -lions whilst the battle rages, and lambs after it is ended.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span></p> - -<p>Here is a touching incident. The day after the battle of Palestro, -the Zouaves buried their dead comrades in a great pit dug on a little -eminence. When the earth was levelled, they bid adieu, with emotion, -to their slain brothers-in-arms. “Comrades!” cried a sergeant, “may -God receive you! ’Tis your turn to-day—to morrow it may be ours!” -With these simple words the Zou-Zous left their dead brethren to repose -on the field of their victory.</p> - -<p>And the wounded Zou-Zous, how bear they the agony of musket ball, -or bayonet thrust, or sabre gash, when the excitement of the actual combat -is over? When Commandant de Bellefonds, of the Zouaves of the -Guard, was wounded at Magenta, his men wished to carry him to the -ambulance. “Remain in your place,” said he. “Leave me, my friends; -I forbid you to remove me: continue to fight.” After the Austrians were -repulsed, the Zou-Zous sought their brave officer and bore him away. -He eventually recovered.</p> - -<p>The Zouaves being by far the most popular and brilliant corps in the -army, it is considered, both by officers and privates, an absolute privilege -to wear their uniform, and both sub and superior officers have been -known to refuse to exchange into line regiments even with prospect of -higher rank.</p> - -<p>Some of the Zouaves were themselves taken prisoners and sent to -Vienna, where they attracted extraordinary notice. On their arrival -they were surrounded by Hungarian and Polish soldiers, who examined -their uniform and criticized their personal appearance with lively curiosity, -making each poor Zou-Zou exhibit himself and explain the use of every -portion of his equipments—which, it is said, he did with great good -humour. By way of contrast to the above, we present the following. A -number of Austrian prisoners arrived at Toulouse. A sub-officer of the -3rd Zouaves, whose family lived there, and who was himself <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en route</i> to -Paris, happened to be at the railway station when the prisoners arrived, -and he recognized three Austrians whom he had made prisoners at the -battle of Magenta, where he was wounded by one of them. He now shook -hands with his ex-captives, and having obtained permission to defer his -own departure, he took all three home with him, and treated them with -the utmost hospitality.”</p> - - -<p>ZURICH, BATTLES OF.—The French were defeated here, losing -4000 men, June 4th, 1799. The Imperialists were also defeated here -by the French, under Messina, and lost the great number of 20,000 men -in action. September 24th, 1799.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In the Register of the Convent of the Friars Minors in Poictiers, there -appear the names of the knights and great men buried there after this battle. -Among these we find, the Constable of France, the Bishop of Chalons, the -Viscount of Chauvigny, the Lords of Mailly, of Rademonde, of Rochecheruire, -of Chaumont, of Hes, of Corbon, and a great number of knights. In the church -of the Frères Prescheurs there were buried the Duke of Bourbon, the Marshal -de Clermont, the Viscount de Rochechouart, the Lord de la Fayette, the -Viscount d’Aumale, the Lord St. Gildart, and more than fifty knights.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The rocket consisted of an iron tube, about two foot long, and three inches -in diameter, attached to a bamboo cane of fifteen or twenty feet in length. The -tube is filled with combustible matter; and this dreadful missile entering the -head of a column, passes through a man’s body, and instantly resumes its -original force; thus destroying or wounding twenty men, independent of innumerable -lacerations caused by the serpentine motion of the long bamboo, which -in its irresistible progress, splinters to atoms, when the iron tube assumes a -rapid rotary motion, and buries itself in the earth.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> It is a curious and interesting literary fact, that Campbell wrote this in a -foreign land, viz., at Ratisbon, on hearing of war being declared against Denmark. -Some portion of it is said to have been previously roughly sketched -out, owing to his admiration of the music of “Ye Gentlemen of England.” -His splendid lyric, “The battle of the Baltic,” soon followed.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Herod. 1. vii. c. 175, 177.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Herod. 1. vii. c. 103, 132.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Ibid. 1. viii. c. 116.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Paus. 1. x. p. 645.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Herod. 1. vii c. 207-231. Diod. 1. xi. p. 5-10.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Plut. in Lacon. Apoph. p. 225.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Ἀντεγραψε, μολων λαβε.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Οτι πολλοι μεν ανθρωποι ειεν, ολιγοι δε ανδρες. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quod multi -homines essent, pauci autem viri.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> When the Gauls 200 years after this, came to invade Greece, they possessed -themselves of the Straits of Thermopylæ by means of the same by-path, which -the Grecians had still neglected to secure. Pausan. 1. i. p. 7. et 8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Polyb. 1. iii. p. 231-238.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Apparebat ferociter omnia ac præpropere acturum. Quoque pronior esset -in sua vitia, agitare eum atque irritare Pœnus parat.</span> Liv. 1. xxii. n. 3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Napier, vol. v. p. 132.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> A French writer tells us, that when he had dictated, at Paris, the bulletin of this battle, -he finished, by exclaiming with a groan, “It was lost, and <em>my glory</em> with it!”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Hist. Memoirs, book ix, p. 209.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> “Information which might be depended upon had made known the position -of the Allies in all particulars.—<cite>Fleury</cite>, vol. ii, p. 161. -</p> -<p> -“To anticipate the Allies, and to commence hostilities <em>before they were ready</em>, -it was necessary to take the field on the 15th June.”—<cite>Hist. Memoir</cite>, Book ix, -p. 59. -</p> -<p> -“The period of the arrival of the English army from America was known. -The Allied armies could not be in readiness to act simultaneously until July.”—<cite>Gourgaud’s -Campaign</cite>, p. 29.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Hist. Memoir, Book ix, p. 127.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Gourgaud, p. 38; Fleury, vol. ii, p. 167.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Junot, at Rolica and Vimiera; Victor at Talavera; Massena at Busaco; -Ney, after Torres Vedras; Marmont at Salamanca; Jourdan at Vittoria; and -Soult in the Pyrenees, Toulouse, &c. &c.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> History of the Restoration, vol. ii, p. 377, 388.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Despatches, vol. viii, p. 168.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> O’Meara, vol. i, p. 464.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Brialmont’s Wellington, vol. ii, p. 440.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Gourgaud’s Waterloo, p. 96.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The first French attack was repulsed about two o’clock: but Bonaparte -renewed it five or six times, until about seven o’clock in the evening.—<cite>Austrian -Account.</cite></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Hist. Memoir, book ix, p. 143.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Lamartine, b. xxv, § 34.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Gourgaud’s Campaign of Waterloo, p. 97.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <a href="#Page_151">Page 151</a>. This attack on the centre was made at one o’clock, and La -Haye Sainte was not evacuated by the English till six in the evening. Of what -occurred in the five hours which intervened the French accounts are ominously -silent.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Fleury, vol. ii, p. 217.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> At St. Helena, he told O’Meara, “When the English advanced, I had not a -single corps of cavalry in reserve to resist them. Hence the English attack -succeeded, and all was lost,”—<cite>O’Meara</cite>, vol. i, p. 465.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> “It was <em>noon</em>, the troops of General Bulow were stationary beyond the -extreme right: they appeared to form and wait for their artillery.”—<cite>Hist. -Mem.</cite> b. ix, p. 150.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> The Austrian account says “About five o’clock, the first cannon-shot of the -Prussian army was fired from the heights of Aguiers.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Gourgaud’s Campaign of 1815, p. 113.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> They are described, both in Count Drouet’s speech and in “Book ix,” as -“sixteen battalions.” If the battalions consisted of 600 men, this would give -a total of 9600.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Vol. ii, p. 192.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Colonel Lemonnier de Lafosse: Memoirs, p. 385.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Reille had commanded the second corps, D’Erlon the first—each of which -had consisted of about 20,000 men! Can there be a more striking proof of the -utter dissolution of the French army, than this fact, narrated by a French -officer?</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Fleury de Chaboulon, vol. ii, pp. 203, 206, 218.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> The modesty,—the singular abstinence from a boast or a vaunt,—which is -perceptible in this exclamation, is wonderfully characteristic of the man. The -same quietness of manner distinguished him through life; and it contrasts -strongly with the constant strut and proud assumption of Napoleon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Hist. Memoir, book ix, p. 203.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> I cannot conclude this article on Waterloo without inserting the following: -Many years ago a prize poem on the Duke of Wellington was announced at -one of the English Universities, I forget which. The gainer took for his subject -the life of Napoleon, and finished an elaborate description of that great -commander, in the following couplet, which gained him the prize:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verseq">“So great a man, the world scarce ever knew,</p> -<p class="verse0">Bent to <span class="smcap">thy Genius, Chief of Waterloo</span>.”</p> -<p class="verse16">J. D. B.</p> -</div></div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> “Mitraille,” grape shot, with scraps of metal, and all sorts of small missiles.</p> - -</div></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span></p> - -<h2 class="lsp">CHRONOLOGY.</h2> -<hr class="r10" /> - - -<div class="chron"> -<p>Chronology is the science of computing and adjusting the periods of time. -It ascertains when events occurred, and assigns to each its correct date. Thus -we learn from it that the world was created 4004 years before Christ, and that -the flood took place 1656 years after the creation; and so of all other known -and ascertained events, each one is placed in connection with its proper period -or year. Of the transactions between the Creation and the Flood, we know -nothing except from Scripture, and of many of those which occurred after the -flood, and before the time of Christ, we know nothing with certainty, except -from the same source; but about 800 or 900 years before our Saviour’s time, a -succession of profane historians arose, from whom, especially those of Greece -and Rome, numerous facts in Chronology have been obtained. Various Eras, -Epochs, or methods of Chronology, have been adopted by different nations. The -Greeks reckoned time by Olympiads of four years each, commencing from the -year 776 before Christ. In marking a date by this method, the year and Olympiad -were both given; for example, the year 1845 is the first of 656th Olympiad. -The Romans reckoned time from the founding of Rome, 753 years before Christ. -Dates reckoned from this Era are designated by the initials A. U. C. (ab urbe -condita; that is, from the building of the city). The year 1845 is the 2598th -year of the Roman Era. The Christian Era, now in use amongst all Christian -nations, was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very generally -adopted for some centuries after. This begins 4004 years after the creation of -the world, and four years after the birth of our Saviour. Dates reckoned backwards -are usually marked B.C., or before Christ, but those reckoned forward -are distinguished by the prefix A.D., signifying Anno Domini, or in the year of -our Lord. The Mahomedans reckon time from the Hegira, or flight of Mahomet -from Mecca to Medina, in the year 622 after Christ; but they use the lunar -year of 354 days; so that thirty-two of our years make thirty-three of theirs. -The year 1845 is the 1260th year of the Hegira. Many other epochs or eras -have been used in different countries, and at different periods. The Jews, -Egyptians, Tyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and other ancient nations, have each -had their eras. The Hindoos and Chinese of the present day have modes of -reckoning time which differ from each other, as well as from our method. In -the United States, public documents, proclamations, &c. have often, besides the -date in common use, the year of the national independence attached to them. -This is computed from July 4th, 1776, and hence may be reckoned a national -era or chronological period.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum pg-brk"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p4" /> -<h3>ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY</h3> - -<div class="fs70"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl fs80"> B.C.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the Creation</td><td class="tdl">4004 to the Deluge</td><td class="tdl nowrap">1656 yrs elapsed.—Antediluvian P.*</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the Deluge</td><td class="tdl">2348 to the Call of Abraham</td><td class="tdl"> 427 yrs elapsed.—Dispersion P.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the Call of Abraham</td><td class="tdl">1921 to the Exode from Egypt</td><td class="tdl"> 430 yrs elapsed.—Patriarchal P.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the Exode</td><td class="tdl">1491 to the Kingdom of Saul</td><td class="tdl"> 396 yrs elapsed.—Theocratic P.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From Saul</td><td class="tdl">1092 to the Captivity of Israel</td><td class="tdl"> 507 yrs elapsed.—Monarchical P.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the Captivity</td><td class="tdl"> 588 to Alexander the Great</td><td class="tdl"> 258 yrs elapsed.—Persian P.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From Alexander the Great</td><td class="tdl"> 330 to Subjugation of Greece</td><td class="tdl"> 184 yrs elapsed.—Grecian P.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From Subjugation of Greece</td><td class="tdl"> 146 to the birth of Christ</td><td class="tdl"> 146 yrs elapsed.—Roman P.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="pad4 fs70">* P = Period.</p> - -<hr class="r10" /> -<h3>MODERN CHRONOLOGY.</h3> - -<div class="fs70"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl fs80"> A.D.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the Birth of Christ</td><td class="tdl">to the Reign of Constantine the Great</td><td class="tdl"> 306 years elapsed</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the Extinction of the Western Empire</td><td class="tdl"> 476 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the flight of Mahomet</td><td class="tdl"> 622 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome</td><td class="tdl"> 800 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the Battle of Hastings</td><td class="tdl">1066 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the Founding of the Turkish Empire</td><td class="tdl">1299 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the Taking of Constantinople</td><td class="tdl">1453 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the Edict of Nantes</td><td class="tdl">1598 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the Death of Charles XII of Sweden</td><td class="tdl">1718 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the Battle of Waterloo</td><td class="tdl">1815 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> “ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">“</span></td><td class="tdl">to the Present time</td><td class="tdl">1866 “ <span class="pad3">“</span></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h2 class="no-brk lsp"><a name="CHRONOLOGICAL_TABLE" id="CHRONOLOGICAL_TABLE"></a>CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.</h2> -<hr class="r10" /> - - -<div class="blockquoty"> - -<p class="fs80"> B.C.</p> - -<p>4004 <span class="smcap">Creation of the World</span>.</p> - -<p>2944 Birth of Noah.</p> - -<p>2348 The <em>Flood</em> or <em>Deluge</em> covers the whole earth—lasts about a year.</p> - -<p>2347 Noah quits the Ark; offers sacrifices of thanksgiving; God appoints the -rainbow as a pledge that he will never again destroy the earth by the -waters of a flood. (Gen. ix. 11.)</p> - -<p>2300 The Tower of Babel built; confusion of languages; dispersion of mankind.</p> - -<p>2233 Babylon founded by Nimrod; Nineveh founded by Asshur; commencement -of the Assyrian monarchy.</p> - -<p>2188 The Egyptian monarchy founded by Mizraim; continues 1663 years.</p> - -<p>2059 Age of Ninus and Semiramis, Assyrian monarchs.</p> - -<p>2000 Sicyon founded—the earliest town in Greece; Sidon founded.</p> - -<p>1996 Birth of Abram, in Ur of the Chaldees; 1998 Noah dies.</p> - -<p>1921 <span class="smcap">Call of Abram</span>; he leaves Ur; comes to Haran, where his father, Terah, -dies, aged 205 years; emigrates to Canaan, with Sarai his wife, and -Lot his nephew, and dwells at Shechem.</p> - -<p>1920 Abram removes to Egypt; returns the same year.</p> - -<p>1912 Abram defeats Chedorlaomer and the confederate kings; rescues Lot.</p> - -<p>1910 Birth of Ishmael, the son of Abram and Hagar. (Gen. xvi. 16.)</p> - -<p>1897 Destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah, &c.; Lot retires to Zoar; Abram’s name -changed to Abraham; Sarai’s changed to Sarah.</p> - -<p>1896 Isaac born at Beersheba; 1871 Offered up as a sacrifice by his father.</p> - -<p>1836 Birth of Esau and Jacob; 1821 Abraham dies.</p> - -<p>1800 Argos founded by the Pelasgians, under Inachus.</p> - -<p>1759 Jacob retires to his uncle, Laban, in Padan Aram; 1745 Joseph born.</p> - -<p>1739 Jacob returns to Canaan; resides at Shechem.</p> - -<p>1728 Joseph sold by his brethren; 1716 Isaac dies.</p> - -<p>1706 Jacob removes to Egypt; 1689 his death.</p> - -<p>1705 Joseph raised to distinction in Egypt; 1635 Joseph dies.</p> - -<p>1600 Hyksos or shepherd kings conquer Egypt; they oppress the Israelites.</p> - -<p>1577 Age of Job; 1575, Birth of Aaron; 1571, Birth of Moses.</p> - -<p>1550 Athens founded by Cecrops; 1531 Moses leaves Egypt.</p> - -<p>1500 Tyre founded; Gades founded; 1493 Thebes founded by Cadmus.</p> - -<p>1491 Moses returns to Egypt; <em>Exodus</em> or <em>departure</em> of the Israelites from Egypt -cross the Red Sea; law given on Mount Sinai.</p> - -<p>1452 Death of Aaron, aged 123 years; buried on Mount Hor.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span></p> - -<p>1451 Sihon defeated at Jahaz; Death of Moses, aged 120 years; Og defeated -at Edrei; the Israelites cross Jordan; capture Jericho; sun and moon -stand still at the command of Joshua; 1445, 1444 the <em>Land of Canaan</em> -divided among the Twelve Tribes.</p> - -<p>1443 Death of Joshua, aged 110 years; 1423 Tribe of Benjamin destroyed.</p> - -<p>1406 Age of Minos, the Cretan lawgiver; 1405 Othniel first judge of Israel.</p> - -<p>1400 Troy founded; Pelasgians expelled from Greece by the Hellenes.</p> - -<p>1365 Age of Sesostris, king of Egypt; a great conqueror; built magnificent -cities in his dominions.</p> - -<p>1329 Amphictyonic council established.</p> - -<p>1300 Voyage of the Argonauts from Aphetæ, in Thessaly, to Colchis, under the -command of Jason; Hercules, Theseus, and his other companions were -called Argonauts.</p> - -<p>1290 Age of Mœris, king of Egypt; he causes lake Mœris to be dug, to receive -the surplus waters of the Nile.</p> - -<p>1285 Barak and Deborah defeat Jabin.</p> - -<p>1245 Age of Gideon; defeats the Midianites and Moabites.</p> - -<p>1187 Jephtha, the tenth judge of Israel, sacrifices his daughter.</p> - -<p>1184 Troy captured, after a siege of ten years; Age of Agamemnon, Achilles, -Diomedes, Nestor, Ulysses, Helen, Priam, Hector, Æneas, Andromache, -&c.; Æneas sails for Italy.</p> - -<p>1156 Age of Eli; 1155 Birth of Samuel; 1150 Utica, in Africa, founded.</p> - -<p>1124 Æolian colonies established in Asia Minor.</p> - -<p>1107 Age of Samson; judged Israel twenty years; betrayed to the Philistines -by Delilah; buries himself under the ruins of the temple of Dagon, -with a great number of his enemies.</p> - -<p>1100 Salamis founded by Teucer.</p> - -<p>1095 Saul first king of Israel; 1085 Birth of David; 1062 slays Goliath.</p> - -<p>1055 Death of Saul; succession of David; 1048 crowned king of all Israel; -1047 takes Jerusalem from the Jebusites.</p> - -<p>1044 Settlement of the Ionian colonies in Asia Minor; Age of Homer; the cities -of Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodes, Argos and Athens -afterwards contend for the honour of his birth.</p> - -<p>1037 The Moabites and Ammonites conquered by David.</p> - -<p>1035 Rabbath Ammon taken by Joab; Uriah killed at the siege.</p> - -<p>1033 Birth of Solomon; Age of Hiram king of Tyre.</p> - -<p>1014 Death of David; succeeded by Solomon; Most flourishing period of the -kingdom of Israel.</p> - -<p>1003 Temple at Jerusalem built and dedicated by Solomon.</p> - -<p>994 Dorians establish colonies in Asia Minor.</p> - -<p>975 <em>Death of Solomon</em>; Rehoboam succeeds him; his tyranny causes a division -of the realm into the kingdom of Judah and Israel; Jeroboam king -of Israel; Rehoboam king of Judah.</p> - -<p>971 Shishak, king of Egypt, plunders the temple at Jerusalem.</p> - -<p>907 Age of the poet Hesiod; 900 Pygmalion, brother of Dido.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span></p> - -<p>897 Ahab, king of Israel, slain; Ahaziah, king of Judah; Elisha taken up to -heaven; 884 Jehu king of Israel.</p> - -<p>880 Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver.</p> - -<p>878 Carthage founded by Dido, a Tyrian Princess.</p> - -<p>827 Ethiopians conquer Egypt; 825 Jonah visits Nineveh; the people repent.</p> - -<p>820 Death of Sardanapalus; First Assyrian empire destroyed; Median empire -founded; Kingdom of Macedonia founded.</p> - -<p>810 Uzziah, king of Judah, takes the cities of the Philistines.</p> - -<p>800 Persepolis built; 776 Era of the Olympiads begins.</p> - -<p>772 Pul invades Israel.</p> - -<p>753 Rome founded, April 20; 743 First Messenian war lasts 19 years.</p> - -<p>740 Damascus taken by Tiglath-pileser.</p> - -<p>732 Syracuse founded; 730 Tarentum founded.</p> - -<p>729 Samaria taken by Shalmanezer; End of the Kingdom of Israel; Captivity -of the Ten Tribes.</p> - -<p>713 Sennacherib threatens Hezekiah; his army miraculously destroyed.</p> - -<p>685 Second Messenian war; lasts fourteen years; Ira besieged eleven years; -its capture ends the war.</p> - -<p>657 Holofernes slain by Judith, near Bethulia.</p> - -<p>650 Naval battle between the Corcyreans and Corinthians—the first sea-fight -on record.</p> - -<p>641 Josiah king of Judah reforms abuses; restores the worship of God.</p> - -<p>630 Cyrene founded; 627 Nabopolazzar king of Babylon.</p> - -<p>616 Age of Pharaoh Necho; Tyrians in his service sail round Africa.</p> - -<p>607 Nineveh taken by the Medes and Babylonians.</p> - -<p>604 Age of Pittacus (general of Mitylene); Sappho (Greek poetess).</p> - -<p>594 Age of Ezekiel.</p> - -<p>591 Pythian Games begin; Age of Thales (philosopher); Æsop (fabulist).</p> - -<p>588 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem; End of the kingdom of Judah; Beginning -of the Babylonish captivity; 572 Nebuchadnezzar takes Tyre -after a siege of thirteen years.</p> - -<p>570 Voyage of Hanno along the west coast of Africa; about the same time -Himilco sails to Britain.</p> - -<p>560 Union of the Medes and Persians; Cyaxares king of the Medes.</p> - -<p>559 Persian empire founded by Cyrus; Age of Anaximander, inventor of -globes and charts.</p> - -<p>548 Cyrus defeats Crœsus at Thymbra; Takes Sardis; Conquers Lydia.</p> - -<p>539 Massilia founded; Age of Pythagoras (philosopher); Anacreon (poet).</p> - -<p>538 Cyrus takes Babylon; Age of Daniel; 525 Cambyses conquers Egypt.</p> - -<p>521 Age of Darius Hystaspes; 518 End of the Babylonish captivity.</p> - -<p>516 Age of Artaxerxes Longimanus or Ahasuerus; Queen Esther.</p> - -<p>515 The Temple of Jerusalem rebuilt; 510 Sybaris, in Italy, destroyed.</p> - -<p>509 Consular government established in Rome.</p> - -<p>504 Athenians burn Sardis; Age of Heraclitus (naturalist); Democedes (physician); -500 Milesians emigrate from Spain to Ireland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span></p> - -<p>500 First Persian war against Greece; 490 Battle of Marathon; the Greeks -commanded by Miltiades, defeat the Persians, under Dates and Artaphanes; -480 Xerxes crosses the Hellespont at Abydos; invades -Greece; Battle of Thermopylæ; Naval battles of Artemisium and -Salamis; Age of Themistocles (Athenian statesman); Anaxagoras -(philosopher); Pindar (poet); Æschylus (tragic writer); Corinna -(poetess).</p> - -<p>479 Battles of Platæa and Mycale on the same day.</p> - -<p>470 The Athenians, under Cimon defeat the Persians, on the Eurymedon -river, twice in one day, first on water and then on land.</p> - -<p>465 Third Messenian war; lasts ten years.</p> - -<p>457 Battle of Tanagra; Age of Pericles (Athenian statesman).</p> - -<p>445 Age of Herodotus (historian); Phidias (sculptor).</p> - -<p>431 First Peloponnesian war commences; continues twenty-seven years; Age -of Hippocrates (physician); Democrates (philosopher, &c.)</p> - -<p>424 Bœotians defeat the Athenians at Delium.</p> - -<p>406 Naval battle of Ægos Potamos; Athenian fleet defeated by the Spartans; -Age of Protagoras (philosopher); Parrhasius (painter).</p> - -<p>401 Battle of Cunaxa; Death of Cyrus the younger; Retreat of the ten thousand -under Xenophon.</p> - -<p>400 Death of Socrates; 396 Age of Zeuxis (painter); Aristippus (philosopher).</p> - -<p>395 Veii besieged by the Romans for ten years.</p> - -<p>394 Spartans defeat the Thebans at Coronæa; Falerii taken by Camillus; Age -of the Cyrenaic philosophers.</p> - -<p>389 Battle of the Allia; Gauls defeat the Romans; burn Rome; inhabitants -fly to Cære or Agylla; Gauls defeated near Cabii by Camillus.</p> - -<p>379 Age of Plato (philosopher); Conon (Athenian commander); Epaminondas -and Pelopidas (Theban generals); Diogenes (Stoic).</p> - -<p>371 Epaminondas defeats the Spartans at Leuctra; 370 builds Messene in -eighty-five days; Founds Megalopolis; Age of Eudoxius (astronomer).</p> - -<p>362 Battle at Mantinea; death of Epaminondas.</p> - -<p>360 Methone captured; Philip of Macedon loses his right eye.</p> - -<p>357 Phocian war begins; lasts ten years; 355 Alexander born.</p> - -<p>351 Capture of Sidon by Artaxerxes Ochus.</p> - -<p>343 Age of Aristotle (philosopher), Demosthenes (orator), Phocion (Athenian -general).</p> - -<p>338 Battle of Chæronea; Philip defeats the Athenians and their allies.</p> - -<p>336 Philip assassinated; Archidamus, King of Sparta, killed in battle at -Manduriæ.</p> - -<p>335 Alexander the Great destroys Thebes; 334 conquers Greece; begins his -Persian expedition; battle of the Granicus; 333 battle of Issus; siege -of Tyre; 332 conquers Egypt; founds the city of Alexandria; visits -the temple of Jupiter Ammon; 331 crosses the Euphrates at Thapsacus; -battle of Arbela; fall of the Persian Empire; death of Darius -Codomanus; 326 Defeat of Porus by Alexander; the latter afterwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span> -descends the Indus to the sea; his Admiral, Nearchus, navigates a -fleet from the Indus to the Tigris; Age of Apelles (painter); Antipater -(Macedonian General, &c.)</p> - -<p>323 Death of Alexander, May 21; his empire divided between Ptolemy, Cassander, -Lysimachus and Seleucus.</p> - -<p>320 Samnites defeat the Romans near Caudium; their army pass under the -Caudine Forks; Age of Praxiteles (sculptor); Demetrius (orator); -Phalerius Theopompus (historian); Apollodorus (poet.)</p> - -<p>312 Seleucus takes Babylon; dynasty of the Selucidæ begins.</p> - -<p>310 Pytheas, the navigator, sails from Gades to Thule.</p> - -<p>301 Battle of Ipsus, between Antigonus and Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus -and Cassander; Age of Zeno (philosopher).</p> - -<p>292 The Sabines conquered by Curius Dentatus; Age of Euclid (mathematician).</p> - -<p>284 The Pharos, or light-house of Alexandria, built.</p> - -<p>281 The Achæan League formed, by the chief cities of the Peloponnesus, for -mutual defence.</p> - -<p>280 The Romans defeated at Pandosia by Pyrrhus King of Epirus; Age of -Antiochus 1st, surnamed Soter, King of Syria.</p> - -<p>274 Romans defeat Pyrrhus; 272, conquer Samnium, after a seventy years’ -war.</p> - -<p>262 First Punic war begins; continues twenty-six years; 260 Duillius obtains -the first naval victory gained over the Carthaginians by the Romans; -256 Regulus defeated by Xantippus; Age of Diodatus.</p> - -<p>251 Age of Eratosthenes (mathematician); Callimachus (poet).</p> - -<p>249 Asdrubal defeated at Panormus, in Sicily, by Metellus.</p> - -<p>246 Arsaces founds the Parthian empire; Age of Hamilcar, a noted Carthaginian -General, and father of Hannibal.</p> - -<p>242 The Romans defeat the Carthaginians at sea, near the Ægades islands; -ends the first Punic war.</p> - -<p>231 The Romans take Corsica and Sardinia.</p> - -<p>224 The Spartan king Cleomenes III defeated by Antigonus Doson; Colossus, -at Rhodes, overthrown by an earthquake; Age of Apollonius (poet), -Philopæmen (Achæan General.)</p> - -<p>219 Hannibal takes Saguntum; originates the second Punic war, which lasts -seventeen years; 218 Crosses the Alps; defeats the Romans, first on -the river Ticinus, then on the Trebia; 217 Battle of Thrasimene—his -third victory; 216 Battle of Cannæ—his fourth victory; 50,000 Romans -slain; Capua declares in his favour.</p> - -<p>212 Marcellus takes Syracuse, after a three years’ siege; death of Archimedes, -the noted geometrician.</p> - -<p>206 Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, defeated and slain by the Romans; -Age of Syphax (Latin poet); Ennius (Latin poet); Masinissa, King -of Numidia.</p> - -<p>202 Sicily becomes a Roman province.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span></p> - -<p>201 Battle of Zama; Hannibal defeated by Scipio Africanus; End of the second -Punic war.</p> - -<p>200 Romans conquer Illyricum; 197, defeat the Macedonians at Cynoscephalæ; -196 Hannibal banished from Carthage.</p> - -<p>190 Antiochus defeated by the Consul Acilius at Thermopylæ; Age of Cato -the elder.</p> - -<p>187 Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus I at Magnesia and Sipylum.</p> - -<p>186 Scipio Africanus banished to Liturnum.</p> - -<p>183 Death of Hannibal in Bithynia, by poison, aged sixty-five.</p> - -<p>168 Insurrection of the Maccabees against Antiochus, King of Syria.</p> - -<p>168 Paulus Æmilius defeats Perseus at Pydna; Macedonia becomes a Roman -province; Age of Hipparchus (philosopher); Polybius (historian), &c.</p> - -<p>167 Epirus conquered by the Romans; 165 Age of Judas Maccabæus.</p> - -<p>149 Third Punic war begins; 146 Scipio destroys Carthage, Mummius destroys -Corinth; Agatharchides (Greek geographer).</p> - -<p>137 Demetrius Nicator defeated at Damascus by Alexander Zebina.</p> - -<p>133 Numantia destroyed by the inhabitants; Spain becomes a Roman province; -The kingdom of Pergamus bequeathed to the Romans by Attalus, its -last king.</p> - -<p>131 Tiberius Gracchus treacherously slain at Potentia.</p> - -<p>109 Jugurthine war begins; lasts five years; 106 Jugurtha betrayed by Bocchus -to the Romans; Armenia Major becomes a Roman province.</p> - -<p>105 Aristobulus crowned king of the Jews; 106 Pompey born at Rome.</p> - -<p>102 Marius defeats the Cimbri and Teutones at Aquæ Sextæ; 101 defeats the -Cimbri on the Raudian Plains.</p> - -<p>100 Birth of Julius Cæsar, July 12; this month was named after him.</p> - -<p>92 Bocchus sends Sylla a present of 100 lions from Africa.</p> - -<p>89 The Mithridatic war begins; lasts twenty-six years; 86 Sylla defeats the -consuls Carbo and Cinna; Metellus (consul); Sertorius (Roman -General); 78 death of Sylla; 76 Calaguris besieged by Pompey; the -inhabitants, reduced to extremity, feed on their wives and children.</p> - -<p>75 Bithynia bequeathed to the Romans by Nicomedes.</p> - -<p>73 Sertorius assassinated by Perpenna and others at Osca.</p> - -<p>73 Servile war begins; Roman slaves revolt against their masters, under -Spartacus; defeated, two years afterwards, by Pompey and Crassus.</p> - -<p>72 Lucullus defeats Mithridates the Great at Cabira; 69 defeats Tigranes; -captures Tigranocerta; 68 defeats Mithridates at Zela; 66 again at -Nicopolis.</p> - -<p>67 Pompey takes Coracesium; 65 dethrones Antiochus Asiaticus.</p> - -<p>64 Pontus annexed to Rome; Death of Mithridates the Great.</p> - -<p>63 Palestine conquered by Pompey; Cataline defeated and killed at Pistoria.</p> - -<p>60 First triumvirate of Cæsar, Pompey and Crassus; Age of Catullus (poet); -Cicero (orator); Sallust (historian); Roscius (actor), &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span></p> - -<p>57 Gaul becomes a Roman province; 55 Cæsar invades Britain.</p> - -<p>53 Crassus plunders the Temple of Venus at Hierapolis; his defeat and death, -by the Parthians, near Carrhæ.</p> - -<p>51 Siege and capture of Pindenissus by Cicero.</p> - -<p>50 Civil war between Cæsar and Pompey; 49 Cæsar crosses the Rubicon; -takes Ariminum; 48 defeats Pompey at Pharsalia, July 30th, death of -Pompey.</p> - -<p>47 Cæsar defeats Pharnaces at Zela; writes from thence his famous letter of -three words, “Veni, vidi, vici;” I came, I saw, I conquered; 46 Victorious -at Thapsus; Death of Cato; 45 Battle of Munda; the last in -which Cæsar commanded.</p> - -<p>44 Cæsar killed in the Senate-house, March 15th, by Brutus, Cassius, &c.</p> - -<p>43 Antony defeats the Consul Pansa, and is defeated the same day by Hirtius; -Cicero murdered by order of Antony; Age of Varro (historian and -philosopher); Diodorus Siculus and Pompeius (historians).</p> - -<p>42 Antony and Octavius defeat Brutus and Cassius at Philippi.</p> - -<p>37 Herod, an Idumean, placed on the Jewish throne.</p> - -<p>31 Naval battle at Actium; Octavius defeats Antony; <em>Ends the Commonwealth -of Rome</em>.</p> - -<p>30 Death of Antony and Cleopatra; Egypt becomes a Roman province.</p> - -<p>28 <em>Roman Empire begins</em>.</p> - -<p>27 Title of Augustus given to Octavius; Augustin age; Virgil, Livy, Ovid, -Propertius (poets); Horace (historian); Dionysius Halicarnassus -(antiquarian).</p> - -<p>20 Roman standards taken from Crassus restored to Augustus, by Phraates, -king of Parthia; death of Virgil.</p> - -<p>19 Noricum and Pannonia conquered by the Romans; Candace, queen of -Meroe, in Ethiopia, blind of an eye, invades Egypt, but is repelled.</p> - -<p>15 Rhætia and Vindelicia conquered by Drusus.</p> - -<p>6 Archelaus, surnamed Herod, banished to Vienna, in Gaul.</p> - -<p>4 <span class="smcap">Jesus Christ</span>, our <span class="smcap">Saviour</span>, born four years before the vulgar era, December -25th.</p> - -<p>2 Massacre of the Innocents at Bethlehem, by order of Herod; his death; -Archelaus succeeds him.</p> - - -<br /> -<p><em>A.D. First year of the Christian Era, 4004 years after the Creation.</em></p> - -<p>2 Silk first introduced into Rome.</p> - -<p>6 Procurators or governors appointed over Judea.</p> - -<p>8 Christ, at twelve years of age, is three days in the temple.</p> - -<p>9 Arminius or Herman, a German chief, destroys the army of Varus; this -defeat causes a great sensation at Rome; Ovid banished to Tomi.</p> - -<p>14 Augustus dies at Nola, after a reign of forty-five years; succeeded by -Tiberius; Age of Germanicus (Roman general).</p> - -<p>20 Jews expelled from Italy by Tiberius; 28 Age of Strabo (geographer).</p> - -<p>29 John the Baptist commences preaching: 30 Baptizes our Saviour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span></p> - -<p>31 Our Saviour delivers the Sermon on the Mount.</p> - -<p>32 Feeds the 5000: his transfiguration; John the Baptist beheaded.</p> - -<p>33 Our Saviour’s death; First Christian Church at Jerusalem.</p> - -<p>37 Conversion of St. Paul; Death of Tiberius; succeeded by Caligula; 40 -Caligula assassinated.</p> - -<p>41 Seneca banished to Corsica; is recalled eight years afterwards; Age of -Pomponius Mela (geographer).</p> - -<p>43 Expedition of Claudius into Britain; 51 Caractacus, British king, taken -as a prisoner to Rome.</p> - -<p>52 Paul visits Athens; 54 preaches the Gospel at Ephesus; Age of Persius -(satirist); Age of Lucan the poet.</p> - -<p>60 St. Paul arrested; 62 voyage to Rome; 63 arrives in that city.</p> - -<p>61 Boadicea defeated by Suetonius Paulinus at Camulodunum.</p> - -<p>68 Nero dies: Josephus (historian); Pliny (naturalist); Petronius (poet).</p> - -<p>69 Galba slain; Suicide of Otho; Vitellius slain.</p> - -<p>70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus, September 8th; Agricola’s -fleet sails around Britain; Agricola promotes useful arts among the -Britons.</p> - -<p>76 Agricola defeats Galgacus at the foot of the Grampian Hills.</p> - -<p>79 Herculaneum, Pompeii, and other cities, overwhelmed by an eruption of -Mount Vesuvius; Death of the elder Pliny.</p> - -<p>81 Titus dies, aged 40; Age of Martial (poet); Quintilian (rhetorician).</p> - -<p>96 Domitian slain; Age of Tacitus (historian); Juvenal (satirist).</p> - -<p>103 Dacia conquered by Trajan; 106 Age of Pliny the younger; Plutarch.</p> - -<p>117 Death of Trajan, at Selinus, in Cilicia; succeeded by Adrian.</p> - -<p>120 Wall built by Adrian across Britain.</p> - -<p>139 Death of Adrian, aged 71; Antoninus (emperor); Ptolemy (geographer).</p> - -<p>140 Wall built by Antoninus across Britain.</p> - -<p>169 Death of Polycarp the Martyr; Age of Galen (physician).</p> - -<p>180 Marcus Aurelius (emperor) dies at Sirmium.</p> - -<p>192 The Emperor Commodus slain; Pertinax succeeds him.</p> - -<p>194 Severus defeats Niger at Issus; becomes emperor.</p> - -<p>210 Wall built across Britain by Severus; 218 Heliogabalus emperor.</p> - -<p>226 Artaxerxes founds second Persian empire; Dynasty of the Sassanides -begins.</p> - -<p>238 Maximinus killed by his own soldiers before the walls of Aquileia. This -emperor was a monster of cruelty, and of gigantic size and strength, -being eight feet high.</p> - -<p>259 Sapor I captures the emperor Valerian, and flays him alive; Odenatus king -of Palmyra; Gallienus succeeds Valerian.</p> - -<p>267 Odenatus dies; Zenobia, his wife, assumes the title of Queen of the East.</p> - -<p>270 Death of Claudius; Aurelian succeeds; regards Zenobia as a usurper; 272 -defeats her at Antioch and Emesa; 273 captures Palmyra; takes Zenobia -prisoner; puts Longinus, her secretary to death.</p> - -<p>275 Emperor Tacitus; 282 Emperor Probus killed, near Sirmium.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span></p> - -<p>286 Age of the emperors Diocletian and Maximianus.</p> - -<p>305 Both resign their authority to enjoy private life; the first retires to Salona -in Illyricum, and the other to Lucania.</p> - -<p>306 Constantine the Great proclaimed emperor; 313 establishes Christianity -as the religion of the empire; 315 defeats Licinius at Cibalis; 324 -again at Adrianopolis; 328 removes the government from Rome to -Byzantium.</p> - -<p>338 Death of Constantine; succeeded by his sons Constantinus, Constantius -and Constans.</p> - -<p>348 Sapor defeats Constantius at Singara; 350 Constantius sole emperor; 351 -defeats Magnentius at Mursa; 353, again at Mons Seleucus.</p> - -<p>360 Julian the Apostate (emperor); 363 dies; next year Jovian dies.</p> - -<p>367 Age of Ausonius (poet); 375 Emporor Gratian.</p> - -<p>378 Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrianopolis. This was the most disastrous -defeat experienced by the Romans since the battle of Cannæ.</p> - -<p>380 Age of St. Augustine, one of the fathers of the Church.</p> - -<p>395 Theodosius, emperor, divides the Roman empire between his sons Arcadius -and Honorius, into Eastern and Western.</p> - -<p>403 Stilicho defeated by the Goths at Pollentia.</p> - -<p>407 The Alans, Vandals and Sueves invade Gaul and Spain.</p> - -<p>408 Alaric takes Rome first time; 409, second time; 410, third time; the city -given up to plunder for six days; Death of Alaric; Kingdom of -Burgundy founded.</p> - -<p>441 Age of St. Patrick; 448 Romans leave Britain; next year Angles and -Saxons land under Hengist and Horsa.</p> - -<p>451 Attila defeated at Durocatalaunum; 452 destroys Aquileia; 453 Dies.</p> - -<p>455 Rome captured by Genseric, king of the Vandals; Heptarchy established -in Britain.</p> - -<p>474 Romulus Augustulus, last emperor of the west.</p> - -<p>476 <em>End of the Roman Empire</em>.</p> - -<p>489 Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, becomes king of Italy; Ostrogoths invade -Italy and defeat Odoacer.</p> - -<p>496 Clovis the Great, king of France; Feudal system begins.</p> - -<p>529 Age of Justinian; Belisarius (Roman general).</p> - -<p>622 Mahomet, aged 53, flies from Mecca to Medina, which forms the first year -of the Hegira or Mahometan Era.</p> - -<p>632 Death of Mahomet; Abubeker, his successor or first Caliph.</p> - -<p>636 Saracens conquer Egypt; destroy the Alexandrian Library.</p> - -<p>712 The Moors invade Spain; 713 conquer the Visigoths.</p> - -<p>742 Charlemagne, son of Pepin the Short, born; 768 crowned king of the -Franks; 774 crowned king of Italy; 800 crowned emperor of the -West, by Pope Leo III; 814 Charlemagne dies. Charlemagne was -the most powerful Christian monarch of the middle ages; he was a -renowned warrior, he also encouraged learning and religion, and -collected around him the most noted scholars of his time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span></p> - -<p>827 The Heptarchy united under Egbert, king of England.</p> - -<p>843 Kenneth Macalpine first king of Scotland.</p> - -<p>849 Alfred, King of England, born; 872 ascends the throne; 901 dies. This -monarch rescued his country from the power of the Danes; encouraged -learning and religion; enacted wise laws, and laid the foundation of -the naval power of Britain.</p> - -<p>853 Tithes of all England granted to the church.</p> - -<p>856 The English crown first disposed of by will.</p> - -<p>862 Winchester burnt by the Danes.</p> - -<p>867 The monasteries ravaged by the Danes.</p> - -<p>886 Ships first built to secure the coasts. Learning restored at Oxford, by -Alfred the Great.</p> - -<p>890 Brick and stone first used in building. Time calculated by wax candles -marked.</p> - -<p>897 A plague happened which caused great desolation among the inhabitants.</p> - -<p>900 Athelstan created knight, and the first who enjoyed this title in England.</p> - -<p>937 A severe frost, which continued 120 days. The Bible translated into the -Saxon. Colebrand, the Danish giant, killed by Guy, Earl of Warwick.</p> - -<p>944 A storm blew down 1500 houses in London.</p> - -<p>945 The first tuneable bells in England were this year hung in Croyland -Abbey.</p> - -<p>946 Stealing first punished with death.</p> - -<p>955 Edred enjoyed the honor of being the first who was styled King of Great -Britain.</p> - -<p>960 Laws to prevent excessive drinking. Wolves’ heads made a tribute. Eight -princes rowed Edgar over the river Dee.</p> - -<p>979 Juries instituted.</p> - -<p>982 A fire destroyed the King’s palace and a great part of London.</p> - -<p>991 The land-tax first levied.</p> - -<p>999 Danegelt first levied, to bribe the Danes to leave the kingdom.</p> - -<p>1002 November 13, a general massacre of the Danes began at Welwin in Hertfordshire.</p> - -<p>1012 The priests first inhibited from marrying.</p> - -<p>1014 Selling English children and kindred to Ireland, prohibited.</p> - -<p>1017 Canute caused the assassins of Edmund, and the traitor Edric who by a -plot of regicide had advanced him to the throne, to be hanged.</p> - -<p>1040 Macbeth murders Duncan king of Scotland.</p> - -<p>1058 Edward the Confessor began to cure the King’s evil. Godiva relieved -Coventry from some heavy taxes by riding naked through the town.</p> - -<p>1060 The cross of Waltham erected.</p> - -<p>1065 The Saxon laws written in Latin.</p> - -<p>1066 William Fitzosborne created earl of Hereford, being the first Earl created -in this kingdom.</p> - -<p>1068 The tax of Danegelt was re-established; and the curfew-bell ordered to -be rung at eight every evening, when the people were obliged, on pain -of death, to extinguish their fire and candle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span></p> - -<p>1072 Surnames first used in England.</p> - -<p>1075 William was reconciled with his son Robert, who had rebelled against -him. Waltheof, earl of Northumberland, was beheaded for rebellion, -and was the first English nobleman thus executed.</p> - -<p>1076 William refused to pay homage to the see of Rome for the possession of -England, and forbade his bishops to attend the council that Gregory -had summoned. He however sent to Rome the tribute of Peter-pence. -A great earthquake in England, and a frost from November to the end -of April.</p> - -<p>1078 William laid the foundation of London.</p> - -<p>1079 The Norman laws and language introduced.</p> - -<p>1085 Thirty-six parishes, containing a circuit of sixty miles in Hampshire, were -depopulated and destroyed without any compensation to the inhabitants, -in order to make New-Forest for William’s diversion of hunting. -The tyrannical laws of the Forest were made.</p> - -<p>1087 A dreadful famine in England. William went to France and destroyed -the country with fire and sword. He died at Rouen by a fall from his -horse, and was buried at Caen, in Normandy, in the monastery he had -himself founded, but was denied interment by the proprietor till the -fees were paid.</p> - -<p>1088 An earthquake in London. A great scarcity this year, and corn not ripe -till the end of November. William II embarked for Normandy, and made -war against his brother Robert. William returned to England; and -Henry his brother, was forced to wander without a residence.</p> - -<p>1091 A tempest which destroyed 500 houses. Great part of London consumed -by fire.</p> - -<p>1092 Malcolm, king of Scotland, killed at Alnwick, by the Earl of Northumberland.</p> - -<p>1094 Man and beast destroyed by a great mortality.</p> - -<p>1095 Peter the hermit preached up a crusade to the Holy Land.</p> - -<p>1096 The Christian princes raised 700,000 men, and began the holy war. The -first single combat for deciding disputes between the nobility.</p> - -<p>1097 The Voyage for the Holy War, was first undertaken. Being a contrivance -of Pope Urban, to compose the divisions of the church, the whole -Christian world being then at discord among themselves. This war -lasted almost three hundred years.</p> - -<p>1098 Tower surrounded with a wall. Westminster Hall built. Its dimensions -are 224 feet by 74.</p> - -<p>1099 Jerusalem taken by storm, and forty thousand Saracens put to the sword.</p> - -<p>1100 Godwin-Sands, the property of Earl Godwin, first overflowed by the sea, -destroying four thousand acres of land. King Henry married the lady -Maud, daughter of Margaret, late queen of Scots, and niece to Edgar -Atheling, descended from Edmund Ironside. The use of fire and candle, -after eight o’clock at night restored to the English.</p> - -<p>1106 King Henry subdues Normandy, takes Robert prisoner, and orders his -eyes to be put out.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span></p> - -<p>1109 Three shillings levied on every hide of land, which tax produced £824,000.</p> - -<p>1110 Arts and sciences taught again at Cambridge.</p> - -<p>1112 A plague in London.</p> - -<p>1114 The Thames dry for three days.</p> - -<p>1116 A council called of the nobility, which is supposed by some to be the first -parliament.</p> - -<p>1122 The order of the Knights Templars founded.</p> - -<p>1123 The first park (Woodstock) made in England.</p> - -<p>1129 The revenue of the royal demesne altered from kind to specie.</p> - -<p>1132 London mostly destroyed by fire.</p> - -<p>1134 Duke Robert, having been imprisoned and blinded twenty-eight years, -ended his miserable existence. Wheat sufficient to subsist 100 men -one day, sold at one shilling—a sheep 4d.</p> - -<p>1136 The distance from Aldgate to St. Paul’s (included), destroyed by fire in -London.</p> - -<p>1136 The Empress Maud besieged in Oxford, and made her escape from thence -on foot, being disguised in white, on a snowy night, to Abingdon. -The tax of Danegelt entirely abolished. No less than fifteen hundred -strong castles in the kingdom.</p> - -<p>1139 The Empress Matilda lands at Arundel, and claims the crown. Makes -her natural brother, Robert, Earl of Gloucester, her general.</p> - -<p>1141 Stephen taken prisoner at the battle of Lincoln, and confined in chains -by Maud, in Gloucester gaol. Stephen released.</p> - -<p>1148 A new Crusade undertaken.</p> - -<p>1151 Gratian of Bologna, the monk, collects the canon laws after twenty-four -year’s labour.</p> - -<p>1153 Agreed, between Henry and Stephen, that eleven hundred of the castles, -erected by permission of the latter, should be abolished. Appeals -were first made to the Pope, and canon laws instituted. There was -no regular mode of taxation. Contending parties supported themselves -by plundering each other’s tenants. There were more abbeys -built, than in the hundred years preceding.</p> - -<p>1155 The castles demolished, agreeably to the treaty of 1153.</p> - -<p>1157 The Welsh, subdued, do homage, and swear allegiance. A sect, called -Publicans, rejecting baptism and marriage, came into England from -Germany. The bishops pronounced them heretics; they were branded -in the forehead and whipped.</p> - -<p>1174 Henry scourged for the supposed murder of Becket. The bishops and -abbots of Scotland swore fealty to England and its church. The -earls and barons of Scotland swore allegiance to Henry and his son.</p> - -<p>1176 London bridge begun by Peter Colmar, a priest. It was thirty-three -years in building.</p> - -<p>1177 Glass windows in private houses first used. Debasers of coin first severely -punished. A new coinage.</p> - -<p>1185 A total eclipse of the sun; and, at the same time, an earthquake, which -destroyed Lincoln and other churches.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span></p> - -<p>1186 Near Oxford in Suffolk, was a sort of wild-man caught in a fisherman’s -net. Trial by jury established, or the verdict of twelve men, to punish -offenders with the loss of a leg or banishment. Henry secreted his -concubine (Rosamond, daughter of Walter, lord Clifford) in a labyrinth -at his palace at Woodstock, who being discovered by his queen -Eleanor, was poisoned by her, and buried at Godstow nunnery near -Oxford.</p> - -<p>1189 The castles of Berwick and Roxburgh delivered up to William, king of -Scotland, who was, at the same time relieved from subjection to England. -Richard began, with Philip of France, his expedition to the -Holy Land. About this time were those famous robbers and outlaws, -Robin Hood, and Little John. Upon Richard’s coronation-day, (3rd -September,) was a great slaughter of the Jews in London, who coming -to offer their presents to the new king, were set upon by the mob, to -the loss of their lives and estates; and the example of London was -followed by other towns, as Norwich, St. Edmunds-Bury, Lincoln, -Stamford and Lynn.</p> - -<p>1190 King Richard marries the Lady Berengaria, daughter to the king of Navarre, -and goes to the Holy Land, having sold some of the crown -lands to raise the money for that expedition. In which voyage he -took the Island of Sicily and Cyprus.</p> - -<p>1191 Richard obtained a great victory over Saladin, at Jerusalem, September 3. -He soon after defeated a Turkish troop of 10,000, who were guarding -a caravan to Jerusalem. He took, on this occasion, 3,000 loaded -camels, 4,000 mules, and an inestimable booty which he gave to his -troops.</p> - -<p>1192 Multitudes destroyed by a raging fever, which lasted five months. Two -suns appeared on Whitsunday, so resembling each other, that astronomers -could scarcely distinguish which was the centre of our system, -according to Copernicus.</p> - -<p>1194 Richard having been absent four years, returned to England, March 20. -He made war with France, and having obtained a great victory over -the French at Gysors “Not we” says he, “but <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dieu et mon Droit</i>,” -i.e. God and my Right, has obtained this victory. Ever since, the -kings of England have made it their motto. The king of Scotland -carried the sword of state at the second coronation of Richard.</p> - -<p>1197 Robin Hood, being indisposed, and desiring to be blooded, was purposely -and treacherously bled to death. In this reign, companies and societies -were first established in London. Three lions passant first borne -in the king’s shield.</p> - -<p>1199 Surnames first used.</p> - -<p>1200 The king of Scotland performed public homage to John, at the parliament -held in Lincoln. Assize of bread first appointed.</p> - -<p>1204 The Inquisition established by Pope Innocent III. The most ancient -writ of parliament directed to the bishop of Salisbury. Five moons -seen at one time in Yorkshire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span></p> - -<p>1205 A fish resembling a man taken on the coast of Suffolk, and kept alive six -months.</p> - -<p>1207 The first annual mayor and common council of London chosen.</p> - -<p>1208 Divine service throughout the kingdom suspended by the Pope’s interdict.</p> - -<p>1209 John excommunicated.</p> - -<p>1210 Twenty Irish princes do homage to John at Dublin. The clergy taxed to -the amount of £100,000.</p> - -<p>1211 England absolved by the Pope from its allegiance to John.</p> - -<p>1212 Great part of London burnt down by a fire which began in Southwark in -Middlesex, and consumed the Church of St. Mary Overy, went on to -the bridge; and whilst some were quenching the flames, the houses at -the other end took fire, so that numbers were inclosed; many were -forced to leap into the Thames, whilst others, crowding into boats that -came to their relief, were the cause of nearly 3,000 people perishing, -partly by water, and partly by fire.</p> - -<p>1213 John resigned his dominions to the Pope, and was absolved. In this -reign, sterling money was first coined.</p> - -<p>1216 Wheat was sold for twelve-pence a quarter, and beans and oats for four-pence -a quarter.</p> - -<p>1222 The ward-ship of heirs and their lands was granted to king Henry.</p> - -<p>1226 The Pope demanded a sum annually from every cathedral church and -monastery in Christendom. This demand was refused. Thomas à -Becket’s bones were enshrined in gold and precious stones. Two -imposters executed, the one for pretending to be the Virgin Mary, the -other Mary Magdalen.</p> - -<p>1228 The Jews obliged to pay a third part of their property to the king.</p> - -<p>1236 Water first conveyed to London with utility. The Pope’s ambassador -going to Oxford, was set upon by the students, and his brother slain, -himself hardly escaping; whereupon the Pope excommunicated the -University, and made all the bishops who interceded in the University’s -behalf, and the students, go without their gowns, and barefooted -from St. Paul’s church to his house, being about a mile, before he -would revoke the sentence.</p> - -<p>1246 Titles first used.</p> - -<p>1251 Wales entirely subdued and subjected to English laws.</p> - -<p>1253 Fine linen first made in England.</p> - -<p>1255 All possessing £15 per annum, obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine. Tapestry -introduced by Eleanor, wife of prince Edward.</p> - -<p>1264 There were 700 Jews slain in London, because one of them would have -forced a Christian to have paid more than two-pence, for the use of -twenty shillings a week.</p> - -<p>1269 About this time, Roger Bacon, a divine of Merton College in Oxford, was -imprisoned by the Pope, for preaching against the Romish church.</p> - -<p>1273 The Scots swear fealty to Edward, June 12.</p> - -<p>1275 Jews obliged to wear a badge; usury restrained by the same act of -parliament, October 6.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span></p> - -<p>1279 The first statute of Mortmain. 280 Jews hung for clipping and coining.</p> - -<p>1282 The Rolls in Chancery-lane given to the Jews. Wales reduced, after -having preserved her liberties 800 years.</p> - -<p>1284 Edward II born at Caernarvon, and created first prince of Wales, April 25.</p> - -<p>1285 The abbey Church of Westminster finished, being sixty years in building.</p> - -<p>1286 The Jews seized, and £12,000 extorted from them by order of the king. -He likewise laid great fines upon his judges, and other ministers, for -their corruption; the sum imposed upon eleven of them was 236,000 -marks.</p> - -<p>1289 15,000 Jews banished.</p> - -<p>1291 Charing, Waltham, St. Albans, and Dunstable crosses erected, where the -corpse of queen Eleanor was rested on its way from Lincoln to Westminster -for interment.</p> - -<p>1295 The Scots confederate with the French against the English.</p> - -<p>1296 Baliol, king of Scotland, brought prisoner to London.</p> - -<p>1298 40,000 Scots killed by the English at the battle of Falkirk. Sir William -Wallace defeated at Falkirk. Baliol released. Spectacles invented.</p> - -<p>1301 Parliament declared Scotland subject to England.</p> - -<p>1302 The treasury robbed of property to the amount of £100,000. Magnetic -needle first used.</p> - -<p>1308 Crockery ware invented.</p> - -<p>1314 The king defeated at Bannockburn, in Scotland.</p> - -<p>1319 Dublin University founded.</p> - -<p>1322 Knights templar order abolished. Under the accusation of heresy and other -vices, all the knights templar were seized by order of the king, in one -day. The knights templar were an order instituted by Baldwin, king -of Jerusalem, for the defence of the Holy City, and of the pilgrims -that travelled thither, and were afterwards dispersed through all the -kingdoms in Christendom. They were so enriched by the superstitious -world, that they possessed no less than 14,000 lordships, besides -other valuable lands.</p> - -<p>1325 The queen and her adherents declared enemies to the kingdom.</p> - -<p>1326 The nobility renounce all fealty to Edward. The king resigns his crown -to his son Edward III.</p> - -<p>1327 The first general pardon granted at a coronation, which was afterwards -imitated by succeeding kings.</p> - -<p>1330 Gunpowder invented. The use of guns by Berthold Swartz of Cologne in -Germany, a monk, who being addicted to the study of Chemistry, -and making up a preparation of Nitre, and other things, a spark of -fire fell into it and caused a quick and violent explosion; whereupon -he made a composition of powder, and inclosing it in an instrument of -brass, found it answer his intention, and by this accident came the -invention of Guns.</p> - -<p>1331 The art of weaving cloth brought from Flanders.</p> - -<p>1340 Copper money first used in Scotland and Ireland. Thomas Blanket and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span> -some other inhabitants of Bristol, set up looms for weaving those woollen -cloths that yet bear that name.</p> - -<p>1341 Gold first coined in England.</p> - -<p>1346 Cannon first used by the English at Cressy.</p> - -<p>1347 So great a plague in England, that in one year there was buried in London -50,000; and there succeeded a famine and murrain. August 3rd, -king Edward took the City of Calais, which he filled with English -inhabitants; and it remained in the possession of the Crown of England -210 years after.</p> - -<p>1348 The Order of the Garter instituted by Edward the Black Prince, April 3. -The plague destroyed one-half of the people.</p> - -<p>1352 The largest silver coin in England was groats.</p> - -<p>1357 Coals first imported into London.</p> - -<p>1362 Council obliged to plead in English.</p> - -<p>1364 Four kings entertained at one time, by Sir Henry Picard, lord mayor of -London.</p> - -<p>1377 The first champion at coronation. Orders to arm the clergy.</p> - -<p>1378 The plague in the north of England. In this year Greenland was discovered.</p> - -<p>1379 Every person in the kingdom taxed, April 25.</p> - -<p>1381 Bills of Exchange first used. Wat Tyler’s rebellion begun May 3. 1506 -rebels hung, July 2.</p> - -<p>1385 The French land in Scotland, in order to invade England, whereupon -king Richard went to fight them, and put Edinburgh into flames, but -they refusing to fight, he returns.</p> - -<p>1386 Linen-weavers company first settled.</p> - -<p>1387 The first high-admiral of England appointed. William of Wickham, -bishop of Winchester, and lord treasurer, and chancellor of England, -laid the foundation of the college in Winchester, as a nursery for his -college in Oxford.</p> - -<p>1388 Bombs invented.</p> - -<p>1391 A great plague and famine. Cards invented for the King of France. -Charles VI.</p> - -<p>1392 Thirteen counties charged with treason, and obliged to purchase their -pardons. Provision seized, without payment, for the army. Duke of -Lancaster landed, and declared his pretensions to the crown, July 4. -Richard confined in the tower, August 20. Resigned his crown, September -29. In this reign piked shoes were worn tied with ribands -and chains of silver to the knees. Ladies began to ride on side -saddles, before which time they used to ride astride like men.</p> - -<p>1399 Geoffrey Chaucer, the poet, died. A conspiracy formed to restore Richard.</p> - -<p>1400 Richard II murdered in Pontefract Castle. Emperor of Constantinople -visited England.</p> - -<p>1403 The battle of Shrewsbury, July 22, gained by Henry and the valour of his -sons.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span></p> - -<p>1405 Great guns first used in England, at the siege of Berwick.</p> - -<p>1407 A plague destroyed 30,000 persons in London.</p> - -<p>1409 Wickliffe’s doctrine condemned.</p> - -<p>1414 King Henry sends his brother, the Duke of Bedford, &c., with 200 sail of -ships, who fell upon the French fleet, sunk 500 French vessels, and -took three great Carricks of Genoa; relieved Harfleur, and so forced -the French to raise the siege. In this action many thousands of the -French were killed.</p> - -<p>1415 The battle of Agincourt gained by Henry, with a loss of 10,000 men to -the French, killed, and 14,000 prisoners, October 25th. Henry sent -David Gam, a Welsh captain, to view the strength of the enemy, who -reported, “There were enough to be killed, enough to be taken prisoners, -and enough to run away.”</p> - -<p>1418 Sir John Oldcastle burnt for heresy in St. Giles’s fields.</p> - -<p>1419 Vines and sugar-cane first planted in Madeira.</p> - -<p>1420 Henry assumes the title of King of France, on a new coin, April 18th. -Kings of France and England make a magnificent entry into Paris.</p> - -<p>1421 The Duke of Clarence, making an inroad into Anjou, in an unhappy engagement -with the French, he and about 2,000 English were slain.</p> - -<p>1422 The two Courts of England and France held at Paris, on Whitsunday: -the two Kings and Queens dined together in public, May 21st. In -this reign it was enacted that knights, citizens, and burgesses, should -be resident in the place for which they were chosen. The crown and -jewels were pawned to raise money for maintaining the war with -France.</p> - -<p>1422 The French King enlisted 15,000 Scots.</p> - -<p>1424 The King of Scotland ransomed.</p> - -<p>1430 Every person possessed of £40 per annum, obliged to be knighted.</p> - -<p>1436 Paris taken by the English.</p> - -<p>1437 James, King of Scotland, murdered, February 19th. So great a dearth, -that bread was made of fern roots and ivy berries.</p> - -<p>1447 The Bodleian library at Oxford founded.</p> - -<p>1448 Duke of York asserts his title to the crown.</p> - -<p>1449 A rebellion in Ireland.</p> - -<p>1450 The King and his forces defeated at Seven-oaks, by Jack Cade, in May. -Cade killed, and his followers dispersed, in June.</p> - -<p>1453 The first Lord Mayor’s show. Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, encounters -the Queen’s army, near Wakefield in Yorkshire, in which he -was killed, and his army routed. Edward Plantagenet, Earl of March, -hearing of his father’s death, took upon him the title of Duke of York, -and in a battle, at Mortimer’s-cross, near Ludlow, overthrew the Earls -of Pembroke, Ormond, and Wiltshire, and beheaded Owen Tudor, the -King’s father-in-law. And in another battle with the Queen, he killed -the Earls of Northumberland, and Westmoreland; the Lords Dacres, -Wells, Clifford, Beaumont, and Grey. This was the bloodiest battle -that England ever knew, for there were killed that day 36,776 men.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span></p> - -<p>1454 The king defeated by the Duke of York, at Barnet.</p> - -<p>1459 Engravings and etchings invented.</p> - -<p>1460 The King taken prisoner at the battle of Northampton.</p> - -<p>1461 Edward, the Duke of York, proclaimed King. Richard Plantagenet, -brother to Edward IV, created Duke of Gloucester. Henry, Margaret, -their sons, and adherents, attained by parliament, November 6th.</p> - -<p>1463 Woollens, laces, ribands, and other English manufactures, prohibited exportation.</p> - -<p>1464 Henry, in disguise, taken prisoner, and conveyed to the Tower.</p> - -<p>1469 5,000 Welsh slain at the battle of Branbury.</p> - -<p>1470 Warwick, being offended at the marriage of Edward IV, landed September -13th, with 60,000 men from France. Edward IV flies to the Duke -of Burgundy, his brother-in-law, in Holland.</p> - -<p>1471 King Edward, endeavouring to re-obtain the crown, encounters King -Henry in a bloody battle, upon Gladmore heath, near Barnet, and -King Henry taken prisoner a second time. On both sides were slain -10,000 men. King Henry’s Queen, in a battle with King Edward, -was taken prisoner, 3,000 on her side were slain, and her son Edward -killed; and soon after, King Henry himself was murdered by the hand -of the crook-back’d Duke of Gloucester.</p> - -<p>1472 A plague in England destroyed more than preceding fifteen year’s war.</p> - -<p>1475 Margaret of Anjou, ransomed for £12,500.</p> - -<p>1481 James, King of Scotland, caused one of his brothers to be murdered. -Thomas Parr born this year, and lived 152 years. A remarkable act -was passed in this reign, which enacted what sort of dress each class -of men should wear. Another enacted that no peaked shoes should -be worn.</p> - -<p>1483 Gloucester conveyed the King to Northampton. Lords Hastings, Rivers, -and Grey beheaded. The Lord Mayor, &c., at the instigation of the -Duke of Buckingham, offered the crown to the Duke of Gloucester, -who, with affected hesitation, accepted it, June 17th. King Edward V, -and his brother, the Duke of York, murdered in the Tower. Jane -Shore, concubine to King Edward IV, and afterwards to Lord Hastings, -was obliged to do penance publicly in St. Paul’s. She was -afterwards starved to death, no person being allowed to relieve her, -and died in a ditch; to which circumstance, Shoreditch is said to owe -its name. Edward V was born in Westminster Abbey, November 4th, -1470; reigning two months and eighteen days, was murdered in the -Tower, and buried there privately. His remains were afterwards found -in 1674, and removed to Westminster. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, -(the English Nero,) proclaimed King of England. Post-horses and -stages established. Earl of Richmond landed at Pool in Dorsetshire. -Being nearly surprised by Richard, he embarked again, and returned -to Picardy.</p> - -<p>1484 Anne, the Queen of Richard, died March 16th. Richard treats with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span> -Laudais, the Duke of Bretagne’s prime minister, for surprising and -delivering up the Earl of Richmond. Richmond, escaping from Bretagne, -went to Angers, in Anjou.</p> - -<p>1485 Lord Stanley raises 5000 men, and his brother 2000, with whom they -joined Richmond. The sweating sickness, raged in London.</p> - -<p>1486 King Henry, to balance the power of the Lords, found a way to raise that -of the Commons, which ever since has carried a much greater sway -than formerly in the government.</p> - -<p>1487 Lambert Simnel, who personated the Duke of York, was made a scullion -in the King’s kitchen. The star chamber instituted.</p> - -<p>1488 The King of Scotland, James III, killed by his subjects. Cape of Good -Hope discovered.</p> - -<p>1489 Maps and sea charts first brought into England by Bartholomew Columbus.</p> - -<p>1491 The Greek language first introduced into England.</p> - -<p>1492 3rd August, Columbus set sail from Palos, a port of Spain, and on the -12th of October, to his unspeakable gratification, he made his first -discovery in the New World. This was one of the Bahama Islands, -called by the natives Guanahani, named by Columbus St. Salvador, -and afterwards, by some unpardonable caprice, called by the English -Cat Island. He landed the same day, took possession of it in the -name of the Spanish sovereigns, and assumed the titles of Admiral -and Viceroy, which had been awarded to him before he sailed from -Europe.</p> - -<p>1493 15th March. Columbus arrived in Spain after a stormy and dangerous -voyage, having taken not quite seven months and a-half to accomplish -this momentous enterprize.</p> - -<p>1494 Poyning’s law, which enacted that the statutes in England, respecting -the English, should be observed in Ireland likewise, first instituted by -Sir Edward Poyning.</p> - -<p>1495 Cicely, Duchess of York, mother to King Edward IV, died, being very old, -who had lived to see three Princes born of her body, crowned, and -four murdered.</p> - -<p>1497 Perkin Warbeck besieged Exeter. The passage to the Indies by the way -of the Cape of Good Hope discovered. 3rd July, John Cabot discovered -Newfoundland. He sailed from the Port of Bristol, in the -spring of 1497, and, on the 3rd of July, discovered the coast of Labrador. -The opposite Island, now called Newfoundland, they called St. -Johns, having landed there on St. John’s day. To the mainland they -gave the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Terra prima vista</i>—or Primavista (first seen). The -English navigators thus reached the continent of North America only -five years after Columbus had discovered the West Indies, and more -than a year before he had landed on the continent or main land.</p> - -<p>1499 Perkin Warbeck taken and hung at Tyburn, and the last Earl of the -Plantagenet line was beheaded on Tower-hill, November 28th.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span></p> - -<p>1500 A plague in London, which destroyed 30,000 of its inhabitants. A marriage -was concluded between James IV, King of Scotland, and Margaret, -the daughter of King Henry VII, which afterwards united England -and Scotland under one King.</p> - -<p>1505 Shillings first coined in England.</p> - -<p>1513 Earl of Surrey gained the battle of Flodden-field, over the Scots, whose -King, James IV, fell in the contest. King Henry invades France in -person, takes Terwin and Tournay, at the siege of which, the Emperor -Maximilian served under the King’s pay. At which siege likewise, -was fought that battle called the battle of Spurs, because the English -put some of the French troops to flight who made great use of their -spurs.</p> - -<p>1514 Enacted that surgeons should not sit on juries, nor be employed in parish -offices.</p> - -<p>1517 Oxford depopulated by stagnated waters. Martin Luther began the -reformation in Germany.</p> - -<p>1521 King Henry derived the title to him and his successors of Defender of the -Faith, from writing a book against Luther. Musquets first invented. -Mexico city yielded, after a prolonged siege, to Cortez, in August.</p> - -<p>1522 Magellan performed his voyage under the auspices of Charles V, of Spain. -He set sail from Seville, in Spain, in August, 1519. After spending -several months on the coast of South America, searching for a passage -to the Indies, he continued his voyage to the South, passed through -the strait that bears his name, and after sailing three months and -twenty-one days, through an unknown ocean, he discovered a cluster -of fertile islands, which he named the Ladrones, or the Islands of -Thieves, from the thievish disposition of the natives. The fair weather -and favourable winds which he experienced induced him to bestow on -this the name of the Pacific, which it still retains. Proceeding -from the Ladrones, he discovered the islands which were afterwards -called the Philippines in honour of Philip, King of Spain, who subjected -them forty years after the voyage of Magellan. Here, in a -contest with the natives, Magellan was killed, and the expedition was -prosecuted under other commanders. After taking in a cargo of -spices at the Moluccas, the only vessel of the squadron then fit for a -long voyage, sailed for Europe by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, -and arrived in Spain in September, 1522.</p> - -<p>1530 The palace of St. James built.</p> - -<p>1535 Brass cannon first cast in England by John Owen. Jacques Cartier discovered -the St. Lawrence on that Saint’s day. He explored the north-east -coast carefully, and, passing through the Strait of Belleisle, traversed -the great Gulf of the St. Lawrence, and arrived in the Bay of -Chaleurs in July. He was delighted with the peaceable and friendly -conduct of the natives, “who,” says Hakluyt, “with one of their -boats, came unto us, and brought us pieces of seals ready sodden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span> -putting them upon pieces of wood: then, retiring themselves, they -would make signs unto us, that they did give them to us.” From this -hospitable place, where the natives seem to have displayed some of -the politeness of modern society, Jacques Cartier proceeded to Gaspé -Bay, where he erected a cross thirty feet high, with a shield bearing -the three fleurs-de-lis of France, thus taking possession in the name of -Francis the First. He carried off two natives from Gaspé, who were -of great use to him on his succeeding voyage. It appears, however, -that it was with their own consent, as they allowed themselves to be -clothed in shirts, coloured coats and caps, and to have a copper chain -placed about their neck, “whereat they were greatly contented, and -gave their old clothes to their fellows that went back again.” Cartier -coasted along the northern shores of the Gulf, when, meeting with -boisterous weather, he made sail for France, and arrived at St. Malo -on the 5th of September. This celebrated navigator deserves especial -notice, inasmuch as he was the first who explored the shores of Canada -to any considerable extent, and was the very first European who -became acquainted with the existence of Hochelaga, and in 1535 -pushed his way through all obstacles till he discovered and entered -the village which occupied the very spot on which now stands the -city of Montreal.</p> - -<p>1536 376 monasteries suppressed.</p> - -<p>1539 Leaden pipes to convey water invented.</p> - -<p>1540 645 religious houses seized, and their property, amounting to £161,000, -given to the King. The number of monasteries suppressed in England -and Wales, were 313, Priories 290, Friaries 122, Nunneries 142, Colleges -152, and Hospitals 129; in all 1148.</p> - -<p>1541 1st voyage to India by an English ship.</p> - -<p>1543 Mortars and cannon first cast in iron.</p> - -<p>1544 Pistols first used.</p> - -<p>1545 William Foxley slept fourteen days, and lived forty-one days after.</p> - -<p>1547 The vows of celibacy before taken by priests, annulled, and the communion -ordered to be administered in both kinds. Evening prayers -began to be read in English in the King’s chapel, April 16th. The -Scots refusing to marry their young Queen to King Edward (according -to their promise in his father’s life-time), the protector enters -Scotland with an army of 12,000 foot, and 600 horse, and fights them -in Pinkey-field, near Musselburgh, and kills 14,000 Scots, and takes -1500 prisoners, having lost but sixty of his own men.</p> - -<p>1548 Some ceremonies were now abrogated, and an order of council against -the carrying of candles, on Candlemas-day, ashes on Ash-Wednesday, -and palms on Palm-Sunday.</p> - -<p>1549 Telescopes invented.</p> - -<p>1551 The sweating-sickness broke out this year In England with such contagion, -that 800 died in one week of it in London. Those that were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span> -taken with it were inclined much to sleep, and all that slept died; -but if they were kept awake a day, they got well. A college founded -in Galway in Ireland. Common-prayer books established by act of -parliament. Monks and nuns allowed inheritances. Sternhold and -Hopkins translated and put the Psalms into verse.</p> - -<p>1553 There was so great a plenty of malt and wheat, that a barrel of beer with -the cock sold for six-pence, and four great loaves for one penny. -The King founded St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, Bridewell, improved -the Hospital of Christchurch and St. Thomas’ Hospital, Southwark. -Judge Hales, in his circuit into Kent, required the justices to see to -the execution of King Edward’s laws: for which he was committed, -and removed from prison to prison, and threatened so, that he -attempted to cut his own throat, and at last drowned himself.</p> - -<p>1553 Spitzbergen, the White Sea, and Nova Zembla, discovered by the English.</p> - -<p>1554 The laws against Lollards and Heretics were revived, and the statutes of -Mortmain repealed. There was at this time a discovery in London of -the imposter of the Spirit of the Wall, who, by the help of a whistle, -uttered several things relating to religion, and the state, through a -hole in a wall. It was found to be Elizabeth Croses, and one Drake, -her accomplice, who were both made to do penance for it publicly at -St. Paul’s. Scory, bishop of Chichester, renounced his wife, and did -penance for his marriage. It is supposed there were 12,000 of the -clergy deprived for being married, and most of them were judged upon -common fame, without any process, but a citation.</p> - -<p>1555 The church lands, in the Queen’s possession, restored. Coaches first used -in England.</p> - -<p>1556 300 Protestants burnt for heresy.</p> - -<p>1557 This year began with a visitation of the Universities. Commissioners -were sent to Oxford, where they burnt all the English Bibles and -heretical books they could find; and took up the body of Peter -Martyr’s wife, who they said was a heretic, and buried it in a dunghill. -And at Cambridge, they dug up the bodies of Bucer and Fagius, -two heretics, and tied their coffins to stakes, and burnt them and their -heretical books together. Cardinal Pole died November 15th.</p> - -<p>1576–77–78 Three voyages by Frobisher in search of a North-west passage. -Greenland explored.</p> - -<p>1580 Drake, the first English circumnavigator.</p> - -<p>1584 Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh.</p> - -<p>1587 Davies’ Straits discovered by Davies, an English navigator. February -9th. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, at Fotheringay Castle.</p> - -<p>1588 Destruction of the Spanish Armada.</p> - -<p>1595 Falkland Islands, discovered by Hawkins.</p> - -<p>1596 The first trading expedition to the East Indies.</p> - -<p>1599 East India Company. Chauvin made two voyages to Tadousac.</p> - -<p>1603 Death of Queen Elizabeth on 24th March, and accession of James VI.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span></p> - -<p>1604 The present translation of the Bible made.</p> - -<p>1605 The gun-powder plot discovered. The channel for the New River allowed -to be cut. 97,304 person died in London, this year, whereof 68,596 -died of the plague.</p> - -<p>1608 Virginia planted by the English. Champlain returned to Canada, and -Quebec founded 3rd July.</p> - -<p>1609 East India company’s patent removed. Chelsea college founded. Alum -brought to perfection by Sir J. Bouchier. Silk-worms first brought -into England.</p> - -<p>1610 Thermometers invented. King Henry IV of France murdered at Paris, by -Ravillac, a Romish priest.</p> - -<p>1611 Bartholomew Legat was condemned by the convocation for an Arian -heretic. Legat was burnt at Smithfield for an Arian.</p> - -<p>1612 Edward Wightman of Burton, burnt at Lichfield for a heretic.</p> - -<p>1614 Sir Thomas Overbury poisoned in the Tower. The New River brought to -London. Champlain returned to France. An inundation of the sea -overflowed an extent of twelve miles in Norfolk and Lincolnshire.</p> - -<p>1618 Sir Walter Raleigh is executed for high treason, at the instigation of the -Spanish ambassador. The poet Shakspeare flourished during the beginning -of this and the latter part of the preceding reign. Synod of -Dort began: who generally agreed to condemn the doctrines of Arminius, -concerning election, reprobation, and the universality of Christ’s -death, and man’s redemption by it.</p> - -<p>1623 The fatal Vespers at Black-Friars.</p> - -<p>1625 A plague in London destroyed 35,417 of its people.</p> - -<p>1626 The king raised money by sale of the crown lands, loans, and ship-money.</p> - -<p>1628 Dr. Lamb murdered in the streets of London. The city fined for Dr. -Lamb’s death, £6,000.</p> - -<p>1629 Quebec surrendered to Sir David Kirkt.</p> - -<p>1635 Thomas Parr, reported to be aged 152 years, died November 15.</p> - -<p>1640 The fatal Long Parliament, began November 3. An act to abolish the -Star-chamber.</p> - -<p>1641 The princess Mary married to William of Nassau, prince of Orange, at -Whitehall. The earl of Strafford attained, May 8: executed May 12. -A bill passed for pressing soldiers.</p> - -<p>1642 Edge-Hill fight: the number of the slain amounted to above 5,000, -whereof two-thirds were conceived to be of those of the parliament -party, and a third part of the king’s. June 17th, Montreal founded by -Champlain. In the year 1640 the King ceded the whole Island of -Montreal to the St. Sulpicians and in the following year M. de Maisonneuve -brought out several families from France, and was appointed -governor of the island. On the 17th of June, 1642, the spot destined -for the city was consecrated by the Superior of the Jesuits, the -“Queen of Angels” was supplicated to take it under her protection, -and it was named after her “la Ville Marie.” On the evening of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span> -memorable day, Maisonneuve visited the mountain. Two old Indians -who accompanied him, having conducted him to the summit, told him -that they belonged to the nation which had formerly occupied the -whole of the country he beheld, but that they had been driven away, -and obliged to take refuge amongst the other tribes, except a few who, -with themselves, remained under their conquerors. The governor -kindly urged the old men to invite their brethren to return to their -hunting-grounds, assuring them they should want for nothing. They -promised to do so, but it does not appear that they were successful. -In the year 1644, the whole of this beautiful domain became the property -of the St. Sulpicians of Paris, and was by them afterwards conveyed -to the Seminary of the same order at Montreal, in whose possession -it still remains.</p> - -<p>1644 York relieved by Prince Rupert, after which happened the fight on Marston-Moor, -in which action about 7000 were slain, and 3000 of the -King’s party taken prisoners, with all their baggage.</p> - -<p>1645 The fatal battle of Naseby, in which 600 private soldiers were killed on -the King’s side, and 4500 were taken prisoners; 3000 horse, &c. -Montrose defeated the Scotch army at Ketsith, near Glasgow, in Scotland. -Cromwell made lieutenant-general.</p> - -<p>1646 The whole order of archbishops and bishops abolished, October 9th.</p> - -<p>1646–7 Charles delivered up by the Scotch to the English for the consideration -of £400,000, January 30th.</p> - -<p>1648–9 The King sentenced to be beheaded as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and -public enemy.</p> - -<p>1649 Oliver Cromwell made Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, August 13th.</p> - -<p>1650 The Marquis of Montrose defeated in Scotland, taken prisoner, sentenced, -and barbarously murdered.</p> - -<p>1651 Oliver Cromwell invaded Scotland, July 22nd. Charles II defeated at -Worcester by Oliver, September 3rd.</p> - -<p>1653 Oliver chosen protector of England, December 16th. The Rump parliament -turned out by the army, which had sat twelve years six months -and thirteen days. Scotland and Ireland united in one commonwealth -with England, April 12th. Jamaica taken by the English.</p> - -<p>1655 Cromwell dissolved the parliament.</p> - -<p>1656 Oliver would not suffer the French King to call himself the King of -France.</p> - -<p>1656–7 A plot to destroy Oliver discovered.</p> - -<p>1657 Doctor William Harvey, the first discoverer of the circulation of the blood, -died January 5th.</p> - -<p>1659 The House of Commons shut up, and entrance denied its members. The -Rump sat again, May 7th. The Rump parliament turned out again by -Lambert, October 18th. The Rump parliament re-admitted, December -26th.</p> - -<p>1660 Oliver Cromwell’s corpse hung at Tyburn, December 2nd. The Long<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span> -parliament dissolved, and another called, to be holden at Westminster, -April 25th.</p> - -<p>1661 The body of the noble Marquis of Montrose taken up, and interred in -great state.</p> - -<p>1662 152 slaves redeemed from Algiers.</p> - -<p>1663 Laird Warreston executed at Edinburgh, according to a sentence in parliament, -on a gibbet twenty-two feet high.</p> - -<p>1665 90,000 people destroyed by the plague in London.</p> - -<p>1666 Great fire in London, September 2nd, when 13,200 dwelling-houses were -destroyed. The Dutch and English fleets fight for four days, neither -party having the advantage. They engage again, and the English -obtain the victory.</p> - -<p>1669 Death of the poet Sir John Denham.</p> - -<p>1670 The church of Quebec constituted a bishopric.</p> - -<p>1671 The exchequer shut for want of money. Blood attempted to steal the -crown from the Tower.</p> - -<p>1674 King Charles received from France a pension of £100,000 per annum. -Milton, the poet, and the Earl of Clarendon died.</p> - -<p>1676 Carolina planted by English merchants.</p> - -<p>1678 Statue at Charing-Cross erected.</p> - -<p>1679 The meal-tub plot.</p> - -<p>1683 The charter of London taken away by Charles. The Rye-house plot. -Lord Russel beheaded on a charge of high treason. Algernon Sidney -beheaded, for writing a libel never published, November 21st.</p> - -<p>1684 The Buccaneers of America, about 100 in number, with the assistance of -some Indians, went into the South seas, and made a bold attack on -the Spaniards. Bombay, in the East-Indies, was surrendered to Sir -Thomas Grantham, for the use of the East-India company.</p> - -<p>1685 Duke of Monmouth proclaimed King at Taunton Dean, defeated at Sedgemore, -taken and beheaded.</p> - -<p>1685 Justice Jeffries and General Kirk exercise great cruelties on the adherents -of Monmouth.</p> - -<p>1686 The Newtonian philosophy published. Kirk, at Taunton, while at dinner -with his officers, ordered 30 condemned persons to be hanged, namely, -10 in a health to the King, 10 to the Queen, and 10 to Jeffries; but -one action the most cruel, was, a young girl throwing herself at his -feet to beg her father’s life, he made her prostitute herself to him, with -a promise of granting her request; but having satisfied his lustful -desire, was so inhuman as out of the window to show the poor unfortunate -girl her father hanging on a sign-post: the spectacle so affected -her, that she went distracted. The King encamped 15,000 men on -Hounslow heath.</p> - -<p>1688 Seven bishops committed to the Tower for not countenancing popery. -The city of London lent the Prince of Orange £20,000, January 10. The -parliament declared James’s abdication. James escorted to Rochester<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span> -by a Dutch guard, and sailed to France. James landed in Ireland -with an army, and assembled a parliament. Brass money coined by -James in Ireland. Bill of rights passed. Every hearth or chimney -paid two shillings per annum. King William and Queen Mary -crowned at Westminster, April 11. The Hanover succession first -proposed, May 31.</p> - -<p>1690 The battle of the Boyne in Ireland, where James was finally defeated by -William, and obliged to embark for France, July 1.</p> - -<p>1691 William III took his seat as Stadtholder in Holland. The Queen issues -out her royal proclamation for the more reverend observing the Sabbath -day, and against profane cursing and swearing. A terrible battle -between the Imperialists and Turks, near Salenkemen, in the principality -of Sclavonia: in which the Imperialists had about 7,000 killed -and wounded, and a great many good officers; but the Turks lost -18,000 men, and almost all their officers killed, wounded, or taken prisoners. -Five captains of Admiral Benbow’s squadron in the West-Indies, -were tried on board the Breda, at Port-Royal, in Jamaica, for -cowardice and breach of orders, in an engagement with Ducasse. The -Irish defeated at the battle of Aughrim, in Ireland.</p> - -<p>1692 The French fleet destroyed at La Hogue and other places by Admiral -Russell. A terrible earthquake in the island of Jamaica in the West-Indies, -which almost entirely ruined the town of Port-Royal, the best -of all the English plantations.</p> - -<p>1692 37 cities, towns, and large villages, and about 130,000 people destroyed -in the kingdom of Naples, by an earthquake, February 11. The massacre -of Glencoe, in Scotland.</p> - -<p>1692 James’s descent on England frustrated; the destruction of the French fleet, -May 19.</p> - -<p>1693 The English fleet defeated by Tourville.</p> - -<p>1694 Queen Mary died of the small-pox. The bank of England incorporated.</p> - -<p>1694–5 Discipline of the Church restored. Commissioners appointed to direct -the building and endowment of Greenwich hospital.</p> - -<p>1695 Duties imposed on births, marriages, burials, bachelors, and widowers.</p> - -<p>1695–6 Guineas went at the rate of thirty shillings. Six-pence per month -deducted out of every seaman’s wages, for the support of Greenwich -hospital.</p> - -<p>1696 Czar of Muscovy, Peter the Great, came into England, and remained incognito. -The window tax first levied.</p> - -<p>1700 The New-Style introduced by the Dutch and Protestants in Germany.</p> - -<p>1700–1 Earl John, of Marlborough, appointed General of the foot, June 1, and -Commander-in-Chief of His Majesty’s forces in Holland. King James -II died of a lethargy at St. Germain’s in France, in the sixty-eighth -year of his age, September 6.</p> - -<p>1702 King William died at Kensington in the fifty-second year of his age, and -the fourteenth of his reign, March 8.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span></p> - -<p>1702 Captain Kirby and Captain Wade were condemned to die, and being sent -to England, were shot on board a ship at Plymouth, not being suffered -to go on shore. Admiral Benbow, who had his leg shattered with a -great shot in the engagement with Ducasse, died of his wounds soon -after he had the Captains condemned.</p> - -<p>1703 The Earl of Marlborough chosen Captain General of Queen Anne’s army. -A dreadful tempest in England. The old and new East-India companies -united.</p> - -<p>1704 Gibraltar taken in three days, by Admiral Rook. The battle of Blenheim -gained by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. The French -fleet defeated at Malaga, by the English.</p> - -<p>1705 The colours and standards taken at Blenheim, hung in Westminster Hall. -The English take Barcelona from the Spanish.</p> - -<p>1706 The battle of Ramillies gained by Marlborough. The colours and standards -hung at Guildhall.</p> - -<p>1707 England and Scotland united. An interview between the Duke of Marlborough -and Charles XII. Sir Cloudesly Shovel shipwrecked on the -rocks of Sicily.</p> - -<p>1708 The battle of Malplaquet gained by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince -Eugene. The French defeated at Oudenarde by Marlborough and -Prince Eugene. The first parliament of Great Britain met April 24. -Dr. Sacheverel impeached by the Commons for high crimes and misdemeanors.</p> - -<p>1709 Charles XII defeated by the Russians at Pultowa.</p> - -<p>1712 Robert Walpole committed to the Tower for bribery. Richard Cromwell, -son of Oliver Cromwell, died, aged ninety.</p> - -<p>1714 Mr. Steele expelled the House of Commons for writing the Englishman -and the Critic. £5,000 offered to apprehend the Pretender.</p> - -<p>1714 George I arrived at Greenwich from Hanover.</p> - -<p>1715 The Pretender proclaimed as James VIII in Scotland, by the Earl of Mar, -who assembles forces.</p> - -<p>1716 The tide forced back by a strong westerly wind for one day and night, -and the Thames lay perfectly dry both above and below the bridge. A -dreadful fire happened in Thames street, near Bear-key, by the imprudence -of a boy who was making squibs and rockets, which consumed -upwards of 120 houses.</p> - -<p>1717 The Prince of Wales banished the court.</p> - -<p>1718 James Shepherd, a lad of eighteen, executed for conspiring the King’s -death. Charles XII of Sweden killed at the siege of Frederickshall.</p> - -<p>1719 The Pretender received at Madrid as King of Great Britain. The Mississippi -scheme at its height in France. The English and French invaded -Spain by land, and took the towns of Fontarabia, St. Sebastian, and -St. Antonio, and reduced the province of Gui Puocoa.</p> - -<p>1720 South-sea stock rose 400 per cent, and continued to rise until July, when -it rose to 1,000 per cent.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span></p> - -<p>1721 Several persons ruined by the South-sea stock falling to 150 per cent. -Several members of parliament expelled for being concerned in the -South-sea bubble, and their estates confiscated for the use of the sufferers.</p> - -<p>1725 The Lord Chancellor (Earl of Macclesfield) displaced, impeached, and -fined £30,000 for corruption. Jonathan Wild, a notorious thief-taker, -executed.</p> - -<p>1727 The Spaniards besiege Gibraltar. Sir Isaac Newton died, aged 85.</p> - -<p>1729 Deaths of Dr. S. Clarke, Sir Richard Steele, Congreve the poet, and the -noted John Law.</p> - -<p>1731 Deaths of Dr. Atterbury, and Defoe.</p> - -<p>1732 Death of Gay, the poet and fabulist.</p> - -<p>1737 A comet appeared. Death of Howe.</p> - -<p>1739 Admiral Vernon takes Porto Bello.</p> - -<p>1742 Sir Robert Walpole resigned, after holding his places twenty-one years.</p> - -<p>1743 King George defeated the French at Dettingen.</p> - -<p>1744 Admiral Anson returned with £1,500,000 which he had taken in the Acapulca -ship. Deaths of Pope the poet, and Roger Gale. Prague taken -by the King of Prussia.</p> - -<p>1745 The Duke of Cumberland defeated at Fontenoy. Battle of Preston-Pans. -Death of Dean Swift.</p> - -<p>1746 The rebels defeat the royal army at Falkirk. The Pretender totally -defeated by the Duke of Cumberland at Culloden. Several Lords and -others executed for rebellion.</p> - -<p>1747 The French fleet defeated by Admiral Hawke.</p> - -<p>1748 Death of Thompson, the poet.</p> - -<p>1752 The style altered.</p> - -<p>1755 General Braddock defeated.</p> - -<p>1757 Admiral Byng shot for cowardice.</p> - -<p>1758 100 French ships destroyed at St. Maloes, by the Duke of Marlborough, -called by his soldiers, <em>Corporal John</em>.</p> - -<p>1759 The French defeated at Minden. Quebec taken by General Wolfe, and -death of Wolfe on the Heights of Abraham. Boscawen defeats the -French off Gibraltar, (Gabel-el-Tarifa) hence Gibraltar, which is also -called the Babel of Nations, and the Key of the Mediterranean. Guadaloupe -surrendered to the English.</p> - -<p>1760 General Lally defeated in the East Indies. Canada surrendered to the -English.—Capitulation signed 8th September.</p> - -<p>1762 War declared against Spain. The Hermione, a Spanish ship taken, valued -at near £1,200,000. Manilla taken from the Spaniards. Havana taken -from the Spaniards. Preliminaries of peace between England and -France signed at Fontainbleau, November 3. Martinico and Guadaloupe -taken by the French.</p> - -<p>1763 Peace proclaimed between England, France, and Spain.</p> - -<p>1764 The longitude found at sea by means of Harrison’s time-piece. The massacre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span> -of Patna in the East Indies, where 4,000 of the garrison and -inhabitants were put to the sword.</p> - -<p>1765 Otaheite discovered by Captain Willis.</p> - -<p>1766 The American Stamp Act repealed. Gibraltar nearly destroyed by a storm.</p> - -<p>1769 New Zealand explored by Captain Cook. Electricity of the Aurora Borealis -discovered. Stratford Jubilee held in honour of Shakspeare.</p> - -<p>1771 Falkland islands seized by the Spaniards.</p> - -<p>1772 Negroes adjudged free, in England. Solway moss began to flow.</p> - -<p>1773 A large quantity of tea belonging to the East India Company, destroyed -at Boston by the citizens.</p> - -<p>1774 The port of Boston shut up by an act of parliament. Civil war commences -in America. A violent storm, by which 40 ships were lost near Yarmouth. -Humane Society for the recovery of drowned persons instituted.</p> - -<p>1775 Trade with America prohibited. The battles of Lexington and Bunker’s -hill. The Americans invade Canada and besiege Quebec.</p> - -<p>1776 America declared itself independent.</p> - -<p>1777 General Burgoyne and his army surrender to the Americans at Saratoga.</p> - -<p>1778 War declared against France. Pondicherry taken from the French. -Admiral Keppel fights the French fleet off Ushant. The Earl of Chatham -died, and interred in Westminster Abbey.</p> - -<p>1779 Ireland admitted to a free trade. The French make a fruitless attempt on -the island of Jersey. Their shipping destroyed in Concale Bay. An -American fleet totally destroyed off Penobscot. Pitch and tar made -from pit-coal at Bristol.</p> - -<p>1780 Admiral Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet near Cape St. Vincent, and takes -their Admiral Laugara prisoner. Dreadful riots in London. War with -Spain and Holland. Torture abolished in France. His Majesty’s ships -Andromeda, Laurel, Deal-Castle, Thunderer, Stirling-Castle, Cameleon, -and many others, lost in a dreadful hurricane in the West Indies.</p> - -<p>1781 Lord Cornwallis and his army surrender to the Americans and French at -York-Town. Sir Eyre Coote defeats Hyder Ally. Ceylon taken from -the Dutch. Florida conquered by the Spaniards. Engagement between -Admiral Parker and the Dutch fleet off Dogger Bank. St. Eustatius, -St. Martin, and other Dutch settlements, captured.</p> - -<p>1782 Batavia taken by the English. The memorable attack of Gibraltar by the -French and Spaniards;—their gun-boats totally destroyed, and the garrison -relieved by a squadron of 33 ships of the line, under Lord Howe, -in the face of the combined fleets of France and Spain, consisting of 47. -Admiral Rodney defeats the French fleet in the West Indies; takes -Admiral Count de Grasse and five ships of the line. The Ville de Paris -and other French prizes lost at sea.</p> - -<p>1783 Great Britain declares the United States of America independent. A new -planet discovered by Mr. Herschell, and called the Georgium Sidus. -A new island rose out of the ocean near Iceland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span></p> - -<p>1784 The great seal stolen. Mail coaches first established, by Mr. Raikes, of -Gloucester. Slave trade abolished in Pennsylvania, and in New -England.</p> - -<p>1785 Blanchard and Dr. Jefferies cross the English Channel, in a balloon, from -Dover, and land near Calais. M. Pilatre de Rosiere, and M. Romain, -ascend in a balloon, which takes fire and they are dashed to pieces.</p> - -<p>1786 Margaret Nicholson attempts to assassinate the King. Frederick the -Great, King of Prussia, died. Convicts first sent to Botany Bay, and -Sierra Leone. The young Lord Gormadston clandestinely carried -abroad, in order to force him to embrace the Romish persuasion.</p> - -<p>1787 Three American priests ordained bishops by the Archbishop of Canterbury, -The house of Peers commenced the trial of Warren Hastings, Esq., on -a charge of high crimes, &c., committed by him in the East Indies, of -which he was impeached.</p> - -<p>1789 The abolition of the Slave trade proposed in Parliament. Beginning of -the French Revolution.</p> - -<p>1790 War commenced in India with Tippoo Sultan.</p> - -<p>1791 Riots at Birmingham.</p> - -<p>1793 The Alien-bill passed in the British House of Commons. The English -evacuate Toulon.</p> - -<p>1794 The Habeas Corpus Act suspended. Lord Howe defeats the French fleet -off Ushant.</p> - -<p>1795 Mr. Hastings’ trial ended by his acquittal. The Cape of Good Hope taken -by the British forces. Ceylon taken by the British.</p> - -<p>1796 The East India Company votes an indemnification and recompense to Mr. -Hastings.</p> - -<p>1797 A mutiny of the British fleet at Portsmouth and the Nore suppressed. The -Dutch fleet beaten and captured by Lord Duncan.</p> - -<p>1798 Ireland in open rebellion. Lord Nelson totally defeated the French fleet -in the battle of the Nile. The French fleet defeated by Sir J. B. Warren.</p> - -<p>1799 Seringapatam taken by General Harris and Sir David Baird, and Tippoo -Sultan killed. The French under Bonaparte defeated by Sir Sidney -Smith at Acre. The expedition of the British against Holland. The -British troops evacuate Holland.</p> - -<p>1800 Vote of the Irish House of Commons agreeing to the Union of Great Britain -and Ireland.—Similar vote of the House of Lords. Malta taken by the -British forces.</p> - -<p>1801 Mr. Pitt resigns, after being minister 18 years. Battle of Alexandria,—the -French defeated and Sir Ralph Abercrombie killed. Battle of -Copenhagen, the Danish fleet taken and destroyed by Lord Nelson. -Taking of Cairo and Alexandria, by the British troops.</p> - -<p>1802 Definitive treaty with France signed at Amiens.</p> - -<p>1803 Execution of Col. Despard for high treason. Dissolution of the peace with -France, May. Insurrection in Dublin; Habeas Corpus suspended, and -Martial Law proclaimed. Defeat of Row Scinda and Berar Rajar at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span> -Ajunty, by General Arthur Wellesley. The British troops enter Delhi -and the Great Mogul puts himself under their protection.</p> - -<p>1804 Mr. Pitt resumes his situation as Prime Minister.</p> - -<p>1806 The Spaniards declare war against Great Britain. Lord Nelson defeats -the combined fleets of France and Spain at Trafalgar; takes twenty -sail of the line, and is killed in the engagement. Sir R. Strachan takes -four French ships of the line, off Cape Ortegal.</p> - -<p>1806 Death of William Pitt; his debts discharged at the public expense, and a -statue decreed to his memory. Admiral Duckworth captures and destroys -five French ships of the line. Sir John Stuart defeats the French -under Regnier at Maida in Calabria. Surrender of Buenos Ayres to -General Beresford and Sir Home Popham. French squadron of five -frigates captured by Sir Samuel Hood. Death of Charles James Fox. -Rupture of a negotiation for peace with France, and return of Earl -Lauderdale. Recapture of Buenos Ayres by the Spaniards. The slave -trade abolished by act of Parliament.</p> - -<p>1807 Copenhagen bombarded, and the Danish fleet surrendered to the British, -under Lord Cathcart and Admiral Gambier. South America evacuated -by the British. The British troops evacuate Egypt. The island of -Madeira surrendered to Great Britain in trust for Portugal.</p> - -<p>1808 The French prohibit all commerce with Great Britain. Battle of Vimiera -in Portugal; the French under Junot defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley.</p> - -<p>1809 The French defeated at the battle of Corunna; Sir John Moore killed. -The French fleet in Basque roads destroyed by Lord Cochrane. Senegal -surrendered to the British. The battle of Talavera; the French -defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley. The 50th anniversary of the King’s -reign celebrated as a jubilee. The French fleet in the Mediterranean -defeated by Lord Collingwood.</p> - -<p>1810 An attempt made to assassinate the Duke of Cumberland; Sellis, the -Duke’s valet, found with his throat cut. Murat’s army in Sicily defeated -by General J. Campbell. Battle of Busaco; the French defeated by -Lord Wellington. Capture of the Isle of France by the British. This -island has ever since remained in the hands of the British. Its other -name is Mauritius, famous for Peter Botte Mountain and its fine sugar.</p> - -<p>1811 The Prince of Wales appointed Regent. Battles of Barossa, Albuera, &c. -in which the French were beaten with great loss. Isle of Java capitulated -to the British arms.</p> - -<p>1812 Ciudad Rodrigo taken by storm, by Lord Wellington. Right Honorable -Spencer Percival, prime minister of Great Britain, assassinated by John -Bellingham. Battle of Salamanca, and defeat of the French.</p> - -<p>1813 Great battle of Vittoria in Spain, in which Lord Wellington totally defeats -the French under Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Jourdan. Defeat of -Marshal Soult, in Spain, with the loss of 15,000 men, by Lord Wellington.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span></p> - -<p>1814 A fair on the Thames, it being frozen over above the London bridges, -Feb. 2. Bourdeaux surrenders to Lord Wellington. Peace between -England and France. The allied Sovereigns visit London. City of -Washington taken by the British army under General Ross. Treaty -of peace between England and America, Dec. 24. Joanna Southcott -an impostor, died; and, with her, the hopes of the promised Shiloh, -and all her other prophecies.</p> - -<p>1815 Bonaparte sailed from Elba, and landed with 1,000 men at Cannes, in -France. Bonaparte enters Paris, March 21. An attempt made by -Margaret Moore to steal the Crown from the Tower. Memorable battle -of Waterloo, June 17, 18; Bonaparte fled; the Duke of Wellington’s -horse killed under him. Bonaparte sailed for St. Helena, August 7. -Submission of the island of Ceylon to Britain. Bonaparte landed at St. -Helena, October 16. The English repulsed at New Orleans, with the -loss of several thousand in killed and wounded, including several -generals. General Jackson commanded the Americans. General -Packenham was killed. A column of light appeared in the north-east, -so vivid as to alarm many persons. By the explosion of a coal-pit -near Newbattle, in the county of Durham, 70 persons perished. -Bonaparte resigns the government to a provisional council. In the -colliery above-mentioned at Newbattle, a steam engine burst, and 57 -persons were killed or wounded.</p> - -<p>1816 Princess Charlotte of Wales married, to Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg, -May 2. Sir Humphrey Davy invented a Safety Lamp to prevent the -accidents which happen in coal-mines from fire damp.</p> - -<p>1817 The Princess Charlotte died in child-birth, having been delivered of a -still-born child. Steamboats generally adopted for river navigation in -America and Europe. The magnetic needle, which had for many years -taken a western declination from the meridian, returned towards the -north.</p> - -<p>1818 The Queen of Great Britain, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, died Nov. -21. Two expeditions to penetrate the North-pole sailed, one to the -north-east, and the other to the north-west, but neither succeeded. -The kaleidoscope, a new optical instrument, invented by Dr. Brewster -of Edinburgh. Three systems of education in this year claimed public -attention: that of mutual instruction propagated by Dr. Bell and Mr. -Lancaster; the interrogative or intellectual system of questions without -answers; and that of Mr. Pestalozzi by oral questions. Belzoni transported -from Egypt to England the statue of Memnon. The Duke of -Clarence married to the Princess of Saxe Meiningen; and the Duke of -Kent to a Princess of Saxe Coburg. For two or three days the metropolis, -as well as the country round, were enveloped in a thick impenetrable -fog, which obstructed all travelling, and caused a number of -fatal accidents. The Duke of Richmond died in Canada, from the bite -of a rabid fox.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a></span></p> - -<p>1819 Messrs. Perkins and Co., of Philadelphia, introduced into London a mode -of engraving on soft steel, which, when hardened, will multiply fine -impressions indefinitely. Many distressed persons embarked, under -the sanction of government, to establish a new colony at the Cape of -Good Hope. Southwark bridge opened, making the sixth metropolitan -bridge over the Thames. Forty persons killed by the explosion of a -mine near Newcastle. A shoal of young whales appeared in Dungannan -Bay, forty taken by the fishermen. A whirlwind at Aldborough, -Suffolk, carried up a quantity of barley from a field to a great height. -Another expedition was fitted out to try a north-west passage to the -Pacific Ocean. Field Marshal Prince Blucher died.</p> - -<p>1820 Lieutenant Parry returned from his voyage to attempt the discovery of a -north-west passage: he reached the 10th degree of west longitude, -where he passed one winter in latitude 74, and returned for further -supplies. Lamented death of H.R.H. the Duke of Kent. Death, in -Windsor-castle, of George III, in the 82d year of his age, and 60th of -his reign. George IV held his first court in Carlton-house. Takes -oath to maintain the Church of England. Oaths of allegiance administered. -Cato-street conspirators arrested. Thistlewood and his associates -executed before Newgate. Regent’s canal from Paddington to -Limehouse opened. Extraordinary solar-eclipse; central and annular -in the interior of Europe. An <em>Estadfod</em>, or assembly of Welch bards, -in Wrexham, North Wales. Lieutenant Parry returns from his voyage -of discovery in the seas on the north of North America.</p> - -<p>1821 A Pedo-motive machine invented by Dr. Cartwright for travelling the -public roads without the aid of horses. A mammoth’s bones found by -Captain Vetch, on the west bank of the Medway, near Rochester. Mr. -Kent of Glasgow, invented a machine for walking on the surface of -the water, at the rate of three miles an hour. A penknife, containing -2,016 blades, was presented to the Queen, by a Sheffield manufacturer; -another was afterwards made containing 1,821 blades. Duel between -Mr. Scott, of the London Magazine, and Mr. Christie, of an Edinburgh -Magazine, in which the former was mortally wounded. News received -of a dreadful massacre in Manilla, arising from religious fanaticism. A -gambling-house, in London, entered by the police, and about 70 individuals -held to bail. The Discovery-ships sailed from Deptford, for -the American Arctic Seas. Sale of a collection of Pictures, by Sir -Joshua Reynolds, which produced £15,000. A bog burst forth from -Kilmalady, in Ireland, and in an hour covered 100 acres from 20 to 60 -feet deep; it proceeded to a great extent, 200 yards wide, and 80 feet -deep, at the rate of two yards per hour. Roads and bridges were covered, -communications cut off, and great damage done. Queen Caroline -died at Hammersmith, after an illness of eight days. Loss of the -Juliana, East-Indiaman, in the Margate-roads, in which 38, out of the -40 individuals on board, perished.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484]</a></span></p> - -<p>1822 The King surrendered £30,000 per annum of the civil list. A coroner’s -jury decided that publicans are legally bound to receive into their -houses all persons in extremity. Fifteen thousand Greeks massacred -in the island of Scio, by the Turks. A south-west gale so retarded the -flow of the tide in the Thames, that it was fordable at London bridge. -Subscriptions opened for the starving Irish peasantry, which amounted -to £300,000. Dreadful cases of misery and oppression published. -Upwards of 800 Greek virgins exposed in the slave markets, and 20,000 -Christians slaughtered in various villages. The Marquis of Londonderry, -cut his throat at his house, North Cray. Mr. Canning appointed -Secretary of State, in lieu of the Marquis of Londonderry. Grand eruption -of Mount Vesuvius, the most tremendous since 1794. Fonthill -abbey purchased by Mr. Farquhar, for £330,000. Sir William Herschell, -the celebrated Astronomer, died. Canova, the celebrated Sculptor, -died. Madame Lætitia Bonaparte, mother of the late Emperor of -France, died.</p> - -<p>1823 George IV presented to the nation the library of his late father, at Buckingham -House, consisting of 120,000 vols. An insurrection of the Negroes -at Martinique detected: several planters had died by poison. Two -hundred Negroes ordered for execution. Captain Parry arrived from -his exploratory voyage to the Polar regions; he had failed in the chief -object of the expedition. Three grand Musical Festivals held within a -month, at York, Birmingham, and Gloucester, produced the enormous -sum of £30,500. By the melancholy accident from fire damp, at the -William Pitt colliery near Whitehaven, 14 men, 16 boys, and two girls, -lost their lives; 17 horses were also killed. Dr. Jenner, discoverer of -Vaccination, died. Mrs. Radcliffe, authoress of the Mysteries of Udolpho, -&c., died. At Rochetts, Earl St. Vincent died. At Kincardine, -Admiral Lord Keith, died. At Rome, Pope Pius the Seventh, died.</p> - -<p>1824 A subterraneous forest of oak was discovered, on the shores of the Solway -Frith, beyond Brough, imbedded in a stiff blue clay; the trees were of -large dimensions, and the wood so perfect as to be scarce perceptible -from new timber, although it must have lain there many thousands of -years. Mr. Mantell discovered, in the iron sand-stone of Sussex, the -teeth of a herbivorous reptile of gigantic magnitude, being of the lizard -tribe; from a thigh bone found, it must have equalled the elephant in -height, and been more than 60 feet long. The pictures of J. J. Angerstein, -38 in number, purchased by Government for £57,000 to begin a -national gallery; Sir G. Beaumont liberally presented his collection to -the public for that purpose. The Hecla, discovery ship, with Captain -Parry left her moorings on a voyage of discovery to the Arctic region. -Mr. Harris, accompanied by Miss Stocks, ascended in a balloon, when the -former was killed by being thrown from the car. The remains of Lord -Byron were conveyed from London, amidst a concourse of people, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span> -Newstead Abbey. A copy of Columbus’ letter to the King of Spain, -on the discovery of America, sold for 34 guineas. Particulars were -received respecting the death of the celebrated traveller Belzoni, at -Gato on his journey to Timbuctoo. Mr. Sadler, jun., the aëronaut, -was killed on descending in his balloon, near Blackburn in Lancashire. -The enormous timber ship, called the Columbus, arrived at Blackwall, -from the river St. Lawrence, being 300 feet long, 50 broad, and 30 deep. -Patrick Grant died, aged 111; to this venerable Highlander, His Majesty -had granted a pension of a guinea a week.</p> - -<p>1825 In January, wool was exported from England to the United States of -America, being the first instance for two centuries. Organic remains of -antediluvian animals found in a cave near Chudleigh. Steam engines -in England, representing the power of 320,000 horses, equal to -1,920,000 men, managed by 36,000 only, now add to the power of our -population 1,884,000 men! A phenomenon observed on the coast of -Kent, being a cloud, resting part on the sea, extending as far as the -eye could reach, reflecting two distinct images of every vessel passing, -one inverted, the other in its proper position, apparently sailing in the -air. An earthquake happened in Algiers, when the town of Blida, was -totally destroyed, and, of a population of 15,000 persons, scarcely 300 -were left alive. £2,000 granted to Mr. M‘Adam for improvement of -the roads. The Tower of Fonthill-Abbey fell, and destroyed great part -of that elegant building.</p> - -<p>1826 London was visited by such a dense fog, in the forenoon, that candles were -burned in all the shops. The abduction of Miss Turner by E. G. Wakefield. -The death of the celebrated composer, Baron Von Weber, occurred, -being in his 40th year. Mr. Canning dined with the King of France, -and Sir Walter Scott with the King of England.</p> - -<p>1827 Canal Excavation by the plough in lieu of manual labour. It is remarkable, -that England, which usually sets the example to all Europe in -the application of machinery as a substitute for manual labour, should -have been anticipated by the small state of Wurtemberg; an extensive -line of canal having been projected, and sanctioned by the Government, -an eminent engineer constructed a set of ploughs of various forms -to suit the nature of the soil to be intersected, which, by the aid of -from eight to twelve horses, excavated the line of canal, at less than a -fourth of the price which would have been expended in manual labour. -His Royal Highness the Duke of York expired. Will of Mr. Rundel, -the silversmith, proved, whose personal property amounted to £1,200,000. -The steam vessel George the Fourth left Portsmouth for Africa. -Mr. Canning appointed chancellor of the Exchequer, April 24. Mr. -Canning expired, Aug. 8. Lord Goderich appointed Premier. Death -of Dr. Good, F.R.S., author of various works on Science, &c. Death -of Rebecca Fury, of Falmouth, Jamaica, aged 140. Clapperton’s second -voyage to Africa. Parry’s attempt to reach the North Pole over the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span> -ice without success. Lord Liverpool died, George Canning succeeded. -Intervention of England, France, and Russia in the affairs of Greece: -battle of Navarino. Premiership and death of Canning.</p> - -<p>1828 Duke of Wellington premier. Russian invasion of Turkey. Capo d’Istria -President of Greece: a French army in the Morea. Don Miguel usurps -the throne of Portugal.</p> - -<p>1829 The Russian Field-Marshal Diebitsch crosses the Balkan. Treaty of Adrianople. -Independence of Greece recognized by Turkey. Catholic -emancipation in England.</p> - -<p>1830 Accession of William IV. Algiers taken by the French. July 25th, -revolution at Paris: abdication of Charles X: Duke of Orleans called -to the throne, by the title of Louis Philippe, King of the French, -Belgian and Polish revolutions.</p> - -<p>1831 The cholera appears in Europe. Polish insurrection suppressed, and the -kingdom of Poland incorporated with the Russian empire. London -conferences: Leopold of Saxe-Coburg chosen King of Belgium.</p> - -<p>1832 Civil war in Portugal betwixt Pedro and Miguel. The French occupy -Ancona, and lay siege to Antwerp. Parliamentary reform in England.</p> - -<p>1833 Meeting of the first reformed Parliament. Abolition of slavery in the -British colonies, with a compensation of £20,000,000 to the slave-owners.</p> - -<p>1834 Don Miguel expelled from Portugal. Civil war in Spain. Formation of -the German Zollverein. Accession of Queen Victoria. Buckingham -Palace completed. Insurrection in Upper Canada. A meeting of the -Provincial Convention called at Toronto. Colonel Moodie killed. -McKenzie, Van Egmont and others invest Toronto. Rebels dispersed -and leaders flee to the United States.</p> - -<p>1838 Second Insurrection in 1838. In Lower Canada, Mr. and Mrs. Ellice of -Beauharnois, taken prisoners by the rebels at that place and given -over for keeping to the Curé. The Caughnawaga Indians take 64 -prisoners and, tying them with their sashes and garters, send -them to Montreal. Affairs at Napierville and Laprairie. Colonel -Prince did, what should have instantly been done to the Fenian prisoners -in the late raid, viz., condemned some of the insurgents by -drum head Court Martial, and executed them forthwith. Quiet -restored.</p> - -<p>1839 Treaty of peace betwixt Holland and Belgium. End of the civil war in -Spain.</p> - -<p>1840 Intervention of England and Austria in the Egyptian question. Thiers -minister of France: apprehensions of a general war: removed by the -overthrow of Thiers: Guizot minister. Union of the two Canadas.</p> - -<p>1841 Resignation of Melbourne ministry. Peel becomes premier. Death of -Lord Sydenham in Canada. Fortification of Paris. Bonaparte interred -in Paris, 15th December.</p> - -<p>1842 Affghan and Chinese wars: cession of Hong Kong to England: opening<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span> -of Chinese ports. Rising against the English at Cabul: murder of -Burnes and McNaughton: massacre at the Cabul Pass. General -Pollock forces the Khugher Pass, 5th April. Ashburton Treaty with -the United States, August 9th. Great fire at Hamburg.</p> - -<p>1843 Activity of the Anti-Corn Law League. John Bright returned for -Durham. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visit the King of the -French and the King of the Belgians. Repeal meetings in Ireland -stopped by royal proclamation, and Mr. O’Connell and other repealers -arrested and tried for conspiracy and sedition.</p> - -<p>1844 French hostilities with Morocco: Mogadore bombarded: King of the -French visits Queen Victoria at Windsor. Railway mania in England. -Campbell the Poet died, 15th June.</p> - -<p>1845 Continued activity of the Anti-Corn Law League. Great bazaar at -London, where the receipts amount to £25,000. Railway mania in -England attains its height: scrip issued to the nominal amount of -several hundred millions sterling. Annexation of Texas to the United -States. Steam established between Liverpool and New York. Sir -John Franklin set sail 22nd May.</p> - -<p>1846 The Spanish double marriages. Mexico annexed, 25th August. Coolness -betwixt the courts of St. James and the Tuilleries. Abolition of the -Corn Laws, followed by resignation of the Peel ministry. Austria, in -violation of the treaties of Vienna, seizes on Cracow, and incorporates -it with her own dominions. Louis Napoleon escapes from the Castle -of Ham, in Normandy. Gregory XVI dies, and is succeeded by Cardinal -Mastai Ferretti, who takes the title of Pius IX. Revolution of -Geneva, October 7th.</p> - -<p>1847 Pope Pius introduces some reforms into the Papal States: excitement in -the rest of Italy. Civil war in Switzerland: Sonderbund suppressed. -Abd-el-Kader taken prisoner. The Duchy of Lucca reverts to Tuscany. -Failure of the potato crop in Ireland.</p> - -<p>1848 Upper California and New Mexico ceded to the United States. February -revolution in Paris: flight of Louis Philippe, 24th February: France a -Republic: Cavaignac: Revolution at Vienna 6th October, and Berlin -12th November: Schleswig-Holstein insurrection. Arctic ships deserted, -22nd April. Peace Congress at Brussels, 20th September. Defeat of -Sikhs at Mooltan, 7th November. Napoleon III first elected President, -20th December. Smith O’Brien defeated in his attempt to raise -a resurrection in Ireland.</p> - -<p>1849 Death of Queen Adelaide. Punjaub war. Revolutions in Rome and -Tuscany: Mazzini: French invasion and occupation of Rome. Revolutionary -movements in Germany and Hungary. Kossuth. Revolution -in Baden suppressed by Prussia; in Hungary by Russia; and -Hungarians defeated by Hayman.</p> - -<p>1850 Battle of Idstedt and suppression of the Schleswig-Holstein insurrection. -Peace between Denmark and Prussia. Louis Philippe died 26th -August. Sir Robert Peel died.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488]</a></span></p> - -<p>1851 Great industrial exhibition in London in Crystal Palace. French <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup -d’état</span>: National assembly broken up, and Napoleon declared President -of the Republic for ten years. Discovery of gold fields in Australia.</p> - -<p>1852 The Earl of Derby forms a protectionist ministry, dissolves parliament, -but is soon forced to resign: Lord Aberdeen becomes Premier. On the -14th September, the illustrious Duke of Wellington, the Iron Duke, -died at Walmar Castle near Dover, aged 83. Louis Napoleon proclaimed -Emperor of the French, as Napoleon III. Amazon steamer -burnt at sea, and 100 persons perished, 4th January. The steamer -Birkenhead with troops on board for the Cape of Good Hope wrecked -26th February, and of 638 persons only 184 were saved; 454 of the -crew and soldiers of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 45th, -60th Rifles, 73rd, 74th and 91st Regiments perished by drowning or -swallowed by sharks which were seen swimming around.</p> - -<p>1853 Marriage of Napoleon III to Eugenie de Montejo in January. Fire which -broke out in Windsor Castle, extinguished March 19th. The Queen -of Portugal died November 15th. The Porte formerly declared war -against Russia, October 5th. Russia invades the Danubian principalities, -crossing the Pruth in July, destroys the Turkish fleet at Sinopé, -hence called the “Massacre of Sinopé.” Battle of Silistria. Death of -Captain Butler.</p> - -<p>1854 Great Britain and France declare war against Russia in March. The -Allies land at Varna. Dreadful attack of Cholera in both armies—then -the invasion of the Crimea. Battles of the Alma, Balaklava, and -Inkermann with all the minor sorties and engagements, and the scenes -of camp life, so graphically described by military and civil correspondents. -Bomarsund taken by the Baltic Expedition, August 16th.</p> - -<p>1855 Sardinia joins the Allies. South side of Sebastopol taken. Battle of -Tchernaya. Taking of Kertch and Kinburn. Battle of the Heights of -Kars. Fall of Sebastopol and Kars. Russia proposes peace. Napoleon -visited England, April 17th. Crimean medals distributed, May -18th. Sebastopol evacuated by the Russians, September 9th. Dreadful -storm in the Black Sea, during which the Prince, Resolute, &c., -foundered. Insurrection at Madrid. Flight of the Queen Mother -Christina and dismissal of her favourites.</p> - -<p>1856 Peace of Paris signed, March 31st. Victoria cross instituted, January -29th. Lord Dalhousie ceased to be Governor General of India, and -was succeeded by Viscount Canning. War in Persia, and capture by -the British of Bushire; Persian King, obliged thereafter to sue for -peace. Great Britain involved in a war with China. Commissioner -Yeh made prisoner. Lord Elgin made Ambassador to negotiate a -settlement of difficulties. Seizure of Lorch, October 8th. English -Cathedral, Montreal, burnt.</p> - -<p>1857 Shakspeare’s house bought. Kensington Museum opened. Victoria cross -distributed, and Victoria Asylum commenced. Indian Mutiny begun,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></span> -February 28th. Massacre of Cawnpore, July 16th. Relief of Lucknow, -November 17th.</p> - -<p>1858 Close of the Mutiny and re-organization of the country. Attempt on the -life of Napoleon III by Orsini and others. Orsini beheaded, March -13th. Princess Royal married to the Prince of Prussia.</p> - -<p>1859 Revolution in Tuscany. Victoria Bridge opened, 19th December. -Earthquake at Quito, 29th March. A Southern Convention at Vicksburg, -Miss., at which eight States are represented, passes resolutions -in favor of opening the slave trade. John Brown and fifteen white -men and five negroes seize the arsenal at Harper’s Ferry and kill four -of the inhabitants. The militia and Federal troops arrive at Harper’s -Ferry and besiege Brown and his men in the armory buildings. The -armory captured by Colonel Lee (now General). One marine and -twelve of Brown’s men killed, Brown and four men taken prisoners, -and two escape, but are re-captured. The people of Charlestown, Va., -excited by the rumors of an attempt to rescue John Brown; and -Governor Wise calms their fears by guarding the place with a -Richmond regiment. In the House of Representatives of South -Carolina a resolution is offered that “South Carolina is ready to enter, -together with other slave-holding States, or such as desire present -action, into the formation of a Southern Confederacy.” John Brown -and two negroes hung. The medical students from Southern States -in Philadelphia colleges resolve to secede and join colleges in their -own States.<br /> - - The following is a chronological table of the war in Italy. It is -taken from the Journal of Education and compiled by the esteemed -Superintendent of Education for Lower Canada, and will be found -valuable for History students.<br /> - - “First body of French troops leaves Toulon; Austrian ultimatum -dispatched from Vienna to Turin. It is received at Turin. The -limit fixed by the ultimatum (of three days) expires; Count -Cavour declines the Austrian conditions; statement of the war -question addressed to the Corps Legislatif by Count Walewski; -French troops first cross Mont Cenis. Revolution in Tuscany; -the Grand Duke retires: address of Victor Emmanuel to his -army. The Austrian declaration of war posted in Vienna; the Austrians, -under Count Gyulai, pass the Ticino; Marshal Canrobert and -General Niel reach Turin and assume command of their respective -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">corps d’armée</span>; General McMahon arrives at Genoa; death of General -Bouat; appeal of Victor Emmanuel to the Italian people. The Austrians -occupy Novara; the French ambassador quits Vienna; revolt of -Massa and Carrara. King Victor Emmanuel leaves Turin to take command -of his army; the Austrians occupy Mortara; their steamers seize -the Sardinian ports on Lake Maggiore; three Austrian vessels repulsed -on the lake; the Duchess of Parma withdraws from the Duchy. Manifesto<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490]</a></span> -of Napoleon III, addressed to the Corps Legislatif; the Austrians pass -the Po at Cambio; they are repulsed in an attempted crossing at Frassinetto; -they burn the bridge over the Scrivia at Piacenza; the Austrian -vanguard reaches Tronzano. The conflict at Frassinetto continues; -the Austrians, passing the Po at Vacarizza, advance to Sale; -a cannonade at Valenza. The Duchess of Parma returns to her -capital. General Cialdini, issuing from Casale, seizes a convoy of the -enemy. The Austrians repass the Po at Gerola. Imperial decree -establishing the Regency in France. The Emperor Napoleon III, and -the Prince Napoleon Jerome leave Paris for the seat of war; the Austrians -complete a retrograde movement to the left of the Sesia. The -Emperor embarks at Marseilles; the Austrians pause at Vercelli, and -return reconnoitering parties to the right bank of the river; they -occupy Rivergaro. The Emperor lands at Genoa; issues an order of -the day to the army. The English declaration of neutrality published. -The Austrians occupy Bobbio, and push their advanced post to Casteggio. -The French Emperor arrives at Alessandria. The French -squadron of Admiral Jurieu-Gravier anchors before Venice; the -Emperor visits the outposts at Valenza. The Austrians threaten the -bridge at Stella; the Emperor visits the head-quarters of the King at -Occimiano; the Austrians vainly attempt to take the bridge at -Valenza. The head-quarters of Count Gyulai transferred in retreat to -Gariasco. Speech of M. Kossuth on the war, delivered at London -Tavern; battle of Montebello; the Allies, numbering 6,300, under -General Forey, defeat 25,000 Austrians under General Count Stadion; -the Emperor visits Casale. The Piedmontese, under General Cialdini, -force the passage of the Sesia at Vercelli, routing the Austrians; -Garibaldi with his corps, leaves Biella, and marches for Northwestern -Lombardy; the blockade of Venice established. Death of the King -of Naples. Garibaldi, passing the Ticino at Sesto Calende, defeats the -enemy and captures Varese. Garibaldi, attacked by the Austrians, -beats them; Colonel Christoforis, with a portion of Garibaldi’s force, -beats the Austrians near Sesto Calende; the Emperor at Voghera. -The Emperor arrives at Vercelli; Garibaldi again beats the Austrians -at Malmate. Garibaldi marches upon Como; rapid movement of the -French army from the south to the north of the Po; Montebello and -Custeggio, evacuated by them, occupied by the Austrians. Garibaldi, -beating the Austrians at San Fermo, occupies Como, Camerlata, and -Lecco; Austrian vessels bombard Canobbio, on Lake Maggiore; the -Valtelline rises in insurrection. Battle of Palestro; the Allies, commanded -by Victor Emmanuel, attack the Austrians; the Emperor of -Austria, attended by Field-Marshal Baron Hess, arrive at Verona. The -Allies defeat the Austrians at Palestro; General Niel occupies Novara; -proclamation of the Emperor Francis Joseph to the Tyrolese. Garibaldi -retiring before a powerful body of the enemy, attacks Laveno<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span> -unsuccessfully; the Austrians attack the allied outposts at Robbio, but -speedily retreat; the advance of the Allies, under McMahon, enters -Lombardy by the bridge of Turbigo. The Austrians hastily evacuate -Sardinia; severe action at Buffalora; Garibaldi again marches upon -Varese, beats the Austrians, and re-occupies it. The conflict at Buffalora -concludes in a splendid victory of the Allies at Magenta. Milan -rises upon the Austrians; the garrison retires; Victor Emmanuel -proclaimed King; Lombardy annexed to Sardinia; Grand <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Te Deum</i> at -Paris for the victory at Magenta. The Emperor and King enter -Milan; the Austrian’s custom-houses on Lake Maggiore seized by -Garibaldi’s corps. Garibaldi pursues the Austrians, who retreat -towards Monza; proclamation of Napoleon III to the Italians. Marshal -Baraguay d’Hilliers attacks the Austrians at Malegnano, and after -a severe contest carries that post; on the same day the Austrian Count -d’Urban is beaten by Marshal Canrobert at Canonica; the Austrians -evacuate Laverno on Lago Maggiore. Garibaldi enters Bergamo; the -Austrians evacuate Pavia and Piacenza; the Duchess of Parma -arrives at Verona. The Austrians evacuate Lodi; they also evacuate -Bologna and Ancona; resignation of the Derby Ministry in England; -Lord Palmerston invited to form a cabinet; head-quarters of the -French advanced to Gorgouzola. The vanguard of the French army -passes the Adda at Cassano; the Sardinian army passes the Adda -at Vaprio; the Austrians complete the evacuation of the Papal territory, -and also withdraw from Modena; death of Prince Metternich. -The Austrians abandon Pizzigbettone; Garibaldi at Brescia; Cremona -and Brescia declare for the King of Sardinia; the Allied army passes -the Sesia; General d’Urban retires from Coccaglia. The Duke of -Modena arrives at Mantua; d’Urban occupies Cavriana, but evacuates -it the same night; revolt at Venice. Garibaldi repulsed -by an overwhelming force of the Austrians at Castenedolo; he -retreats towards Lonato. General Count Schlick takes command -of the second Austrian army, replacing Gyulai; the head quarters -of Napoleon III removed to Covo; the Austrian Emperor at -Travigliato. The Austrians occupy Montechiaro and Castiglione; -Kossuth leaves London for Italy. The Emperor and King enter -Brescia; the Austrians occupy the pass of the Stelvio; the Emperor -Francis Joseph reviews a portion of his army at Lonato; he assumes -supreme command of the army. The third division of the Adriatic -fleet sails from Toulon. The Austrians abandon Montechiaro, Castiglione, -and Lonato. The Emperor and King leave Brescia for the camp; -the Austrians re-occupy Montechiaro and Castiglione; Francis Joseph -Axes his head-quarters at Villafranca. The French pass the Chinese at -Montechiaro, and push a reconnaissance as far as Goito; the head-quarters -of Francis Joseph at Vallegio; Kossuth arrives at Genoa. -The French Emperor and the King urge a reconnaissance as far as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[492]</a></span> -Desenzano; the Austrians in full force repass the Mincio, and occupy -Pozzolengo, Solferino and Cavriana. Great battle of Solferino: -250,000 Austrians defeated by the Allies, numbering 150,000; the -Austrians repass the Mincio; the allied head-quarters at Cavriana. -Prussia proposes in the Diet the mobilization of the Federal army; -retreat of the French troops at Brescia. Kossuth arrives at Parma, -and after conferring with Prince Napoleon, proceeds to the Imperial -head-quarters. A portion of Garibaldi’s troops, under Major Medidi, -occupy the pass of Tonal, between Val Canonica and the Tyrol. The -Allies, crossing the Mincio, enter the Venitian States. The vanguard -of the Allies advances to Villafranca. The Imperial head-quarters -removed to Volta; the corps of Prince Napoleon joins the main body -of the allied army at Vallegio; the Sardinians commence the siege of -Peschiera; the new British ministry declares in Parliament its determination -to maintain an inviolable neutrality. The Emperor removes -his head-quarters from Volta, and, crossing the Mincio, fixes them at -Vallegio. Ten thousand French troops landed at Lussin-Piccolo, in -the Adriatic; Grand <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Te Deum</i> for the victory of Solferino at Notre-Dame. -The Austrians retire from Bormio, after a sharp action, in -which they are defeated by Garibaldi. Armistice concluded between -the two emperors at VillaFranca; Zara bombarded by the French -frigate <i>Impetueuse</i>. Interview between Napoleon III and Francis -Joseph; the war terminated by the peace of VillaFranca.” Militia -Volunteer Association of England established 17th November.</p> - -<p>1860 The principal events of this year are: General rising of the Sicilians, -March 16th. Annexation of Savoy and Nice to France, March 24th. -War in China and capture of Pekin. Insurrection at Palermo, April -4th. Great Eastern sailed for America, June 16th. Prince of Wales -at Quebec, August 18th. King of Naples, Francis II, retired to Gaeta, -September 6th. Garibaldi entered Naples, September 8th. Ancona -taken, September 30th. Battle of Volturno, October 2nd. Victor -Emmanuel at Naples, November 7th. Abraham Lincoln elected President -of the United States. A Secession Convention assembles in -Columbia, S.C., but adjourns to Charleston, in consequence of the -small pox. The Convention at Charleston passes the ordinance -carrying South Carolina out of the Union. Attempted removal of -ordnance from the Arsenal at Pittsburg, Pa., prevented by the citizens. -Fort Moultrie evacuated by Major Robert Anderson, who retires -with his troops to Fort Sumter. Seizure by the citizens of the Arsenal -at Charleston, S.C.</p> - -<p>1861 Duchess of Kent died, March 16th. Attack on Japanese Nussier, September -23rd. The fearful colliery explosion at Hartley took place on the -16th January of this year. King of Russia died, January 2nd. Taltian -gallery destroyed, February 5th. The principal events of the -Great Rebellion this year are given under in the order of occurrence:—The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[493]</a></span> -Postmaster at Charleston refuses to make returns to the United -States Government. The <i>Star of the West</i> chartered and sent to Fort -Sumter to reinforce Major Anderson. Mississippi secedes. The first -gun of the rebellion fired; the forts on Morris Island fire on the <i>Star -of the West</i>, and she puts to sea. Major Anderson leaves Fort Sumter -in the <i>Baltic</i>, after having formally surrendered the fort and -saluting his flag with the honors of war; several men killed by the -explosion of a gun while saluting; no lives lost in the bombardment. -The Army and Navy Appropriation Bills pass Congress. Battle at Rich -Mountain, Va., in which General McClellan defeats Pegram. The -rebels evacuate Laurel Hill, Va. General McClellan occupies Beverly, -Va.; Garnett defeated and killed at Carrick’s Ford, Va.; Pegram surrenders. -Battle of Bull Run, Va.; the Union army defeated, and falls -back on Washington in confusion; Union loss, 481 killed, 1011 -wounded, and 700 prisoners; Rebel lose, 269 killed, and 1483 wounded. -General Dix takes command in Baltimore. General Scott’s resignation -accepted by the President, who appoints General McClellan -to the chief command of the armies. General Dix issues an order -regulating the Maryland elections. Floyd defeated by Rosecrans at -Gauley Bridge. Battle at Belmont, Mo.; the rebels under Sidney A. -Johnston defeated by Grant. Naval engagement in Port Royal Harbour; -the rebel forts Beauregard and Walker captured. General -Buell assigned to the Department of Kentucky. James M. Mason and -John Slidell, rebel Ministers to England and France, seized on board -the <i>Trent</i>, by Commodore Wilkes, of the <i>San Jacinto</i>. Rebels defeated -at Piketon, Ky., by General Nelson. A general bombardment of Pensacola -and the navy-yard by Colonel Brown at Fort Pickens; the -town and navy-yard destroyed. The gunboat <i>Cœur de Lion</i> runs the -blockade of the Potomac, and arrives at Fortress Munro. The <i>Constitution</i> -leaves Hampton Roads with General Phelps, first part of the -Butler expedition to New Orleans. General Scott returns to New -York from Europe. Mr. Seward agrees to surrender Mason and Slidell.</p> - -<p>1862 French army in Mexico, January 7th. Mausoleum at Frogmore commenced, -March 15th. French Victories in Cochin-China, March 29th. -Garibaldi at Catania, August 20th. Battle of Aspromonte, August -29th. Mason and Slidell surrendered. Engagements at Port Royal -Ferry, S.C., and Pensacola, Fla. General Mitchell occupies Huntsville, -Ala. Fort Puluski surrenders. The siege of Fort Macon, N.C., -commenced. Pocahantos, Ark., occupied by General Curtis. New -Orleans surrenders to Commodore Farragut. Battle at Warwick Creek, -Va. General Banks evacuates Strasburg, Va., in consequence of the -advance of Jackson. Commodore Farragut shells Grand Gulf, Miss. -Battle at Lewisburg, Va. The President calls for 300,000 men. -Battle of Malvern Hills; end of the seven days’ fight. Battle of Catlett’s -Station, Va., and retreat of Pope. General McDowell evacuates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[494]</a></span> -Fredericksburg, Va. General W. T. Sherman commences a movement -upon Vicksburg in the rear of Haine’s Bluff. Stuart makes an unsuccessful -foray on Burnside’s army at Falmouth, Va.</p> - -<p>1863 Captain Speke discovered the source of the Nile, February 23rd. Prince -of Wales married, March 10th. The President issues his Emancipation -Proclamation. The rebels estimate their losses thus far at -20,898 killed, 59,615 wounded, and 21,169 prisoners. Total, 209,116. -Battles of Hunt’s Cross Roads, Tenn., and Galveston, Texas. -Naval engagement in Charleston Harbour; the rebel rams attack -the fleet. National fast observed by order of President Lincoln. -Porter’s squadron passes the batteries at Grand Gulf, Miss., -and General Grant fights the battle of Branlinsburg, and lands his -troops. Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., commenced. Stonewall -Jackson mortally wounded. The tracks diverging from Gordonsville -destroyed by General Buford. General Stoneman destroys the railroad -at Columbia, Va. Second day of the battle of Chancellorsville, -Va. Battle of Nansemond, Va.; Longstreet reinforces Lee. Fredericksburg, -Va., captured by General Sedgwick. Battle at Gettysburg, -Pa., commenced. General Rosecrans occupies Tullahoma, Tenn., and -Winchester the next day. Negotiations for the surrender of Vicksburg, -Miss., opened. Vicksburg surrenders to General Grant. Lee -defeated at Gettysburg, Pa. Battle at Helena, Ark. Chattanooga, -Tenn., evacuated by the rebels. Naval engagement in Charleston -Harbour; a naval attack on Fort Sumter repulsed. Union forces defeated -at Sabine Pass, Texas. Chattanooga occupied by General -Crittenden. Cumberland Gap surrendered to General Burnside—Union -forces defeated at Tipton, Tenn. Culpepper, Va., occupied by -General Meade’s advance. Engagements near Culpepper, Va., and at -Bird’s Gap, Ga. General Hooker’s “battle in the clouds” at Lookout -Mountain. Engagement at Wauhatchie, Ala. General Blair -occupies Tuscumbia, Ala. 181 Federal prisoners arrive at Fortress -Monroe from Libby Prison, in a starving condition. The exchange of -prisoners stopped. General Butler takes command of the Department -of Virginia at Fortress Monroe. A furious bombardment of Fort -Sumter. General Foster announces Longstreet in full retreat from -Tennessee, whereupon the President orders a Thanksgiving. General -Grant’s captures during the war announced as 472 cannon and 90,000 -prisoners.</p> - -<p>1864 Tercentenary of Shakspeare, April 10th. Great storm at Calcutta, -October 5th. General Sherman returns to Vicksburg from a successful -raiding expedition into Albania and Mississippi, having destroyed -over $2,000,000 worth of property, and captured 8000 negroes and -4000 prisoners. The rebels under General Forrest enter Paducah, -Ky.; the rebels were repulsed and driven from the city. Severe gale; -several vessels driven ashore along the coast. An expedition of Union<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[495]</a></span> -troops under Colonel Clayton to Mount Elba and Longview, Ark., -captured 320 prisoners, 300 horses, about 40 wagons laden with camp -and garrison equipments, beside 300 contrabands, and killing and -wounding about 200 rebels. United States steamer <i>Maple Leaf</i> blown -up in St. John’s River, Florida, by a rebel torpedo; four of the crew -killed. Fight between rebels and Union gunboats at New Falls City, -near Shreveport, La.; defeat of the rebels; from 500 to 600 of them -killed or wounded. Fight with rebels at Grand Ecore, La.; capture -of 2000 rebels and twenty cannon by Union troops. The rebels attempt -to blow up the United States frigate <i>Minnesota</i>, lying in Hampton -Roads, with a torpedo, but fail. Capture of Fort Pillow by the rebels -under General Forrest; all found in the garrison, except about 200, -massacred after they had surrendered—men, women, and children. -Steamer <i>Golden Gate</i>, laden with United States Government stores, -captured by rebels near Memphis. Maximilian invested with his new -honours as Emperor of Mexico at his Castle of Meramar. Battle at -Mine Run between the rebels, under General Lee, and the army of the -Potomac, under General Grant; the rebels defeated and driven back; -Brigadier General Jas. S. Wadsworth and Brigadier Alex. Hays among -the killed. Dalton, Ga., occupied by Union troops under General -Thomas. Severe battle between the Union army under General Grant -and the rebels under General Lee, near Spottsylvania Court-house; -Major General John Sedgwick killed. The gunboats of General Banks -and Admiral Porter’s expedition up Red River succeed in getting down -over the Falls near Alexandria, through the engineering skill of Lieutenant -Colonel Bailey. Fight between Union troops under General -Butler and the rebels under the General Hill near Petersburg, Va.; -the latter defeated. Another terrible battle near Spottsylvania -Court-house, between the Union and rebel armies. General Sheridan -completes a successful raid in the rear of Lee’s rebel army in Virginia, -recapturing 500 Union soldiers, and destroying eight miles of railroad, -two locomotives and three trains. Fight between General Butler’s -troops and those of General Beauregard, without definite results. The -rebel army in Georgia driven by General Sherman to Buzzard’s Roost -Mountain. Major General Hancock captures 7000 rebels and thirty -guns in a battle near Spottsylvania, Va. Union troops evacuate -Little Washington, N.C., when rebels enter and burn all the houses -in the place except about twenty; women robbed and turned adrift -without food or shelter. The outer line of works of Fort Darling -carried by Union troops under Generals Gillmore and Smith. General -Sheridan captures the outer line of fortifications in front of Richmond. -Dalton, Ga., evacuated by the rebels under General Joe Johnston -and occupied by Union troops under General Sherman. Bombardment -of Charleston and Fort Sumter, S.C., renewed with vigour. -Resaca, Ga., captured by General Sherman’s army, with 1200 prisoners,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[496]</a></span> -ten guns and six trains going South for supplies; Union loss -in killed and wounded 2700. General Sigel defeated at Rood’s Hill, in -the Shenandoah Valley. Successful advance of General Grant’s army -to Cold Harbour, Va. General Fitz Hugh Lee and 500 rebel cavalry -captured by General Butler’s troops near White House, Va. General -Hunter defeats the rebels at Staunton, Va.; captures 1500 prisoners, -3000 stand of arms and 3 cannon, beside a large amount of stores, -&c.; the rebel General W. E. Jones, killed. The rebels attack the -Union troops under General Burnside, and are repulsed. General -Kautz, with his Union cavalry troops, charges the rebel works in -front of Petersburg, Va., and enters the place, but not being supported -by General Gillmore, is compelled to retire. Fight between Union -cavalry under General Sheridan and the rebels under General J. E. B. -Stewart; defeat of the rebel troops and death of General Stewart; -General Hunter burns the Virginia Military institute, Governor Letcher’s -house, and captures 6 cannon and 600 horses, and a large -amount of stores. Maximilian makes a triumphant entry into the City -of Mexico; John Morgan, rebel General, captures Cynthiana, Ky., -and two Ohio regiments; General Burbridge, with Union troops, subsequently -arrives, defeats the rebels, captures 400 prisoners and 1000 -horses. Expedition of 8000 Union troops under General Sturgis defeated -by 10,000 rebels under Generals Forrest, Lee and Roddy; -wagon and ammunition trains lost. Desperate fight between rebel -and Union troops on the line of the Petersburg and Weldon Railroad; -the Union troops driven from their position, but afterward regain it; -a Union brigade gobbled up. Artillery fight in front of Petersburg, -Va.; the town set on fire by shells from Union guns. Frederick, Md., -evacuated by Union troops under General Wallace, and occupied by -rebels, who levy $200,000 on the citizens. Severe fight between the -armies of General Sherman and General Hood in front of Atlanta; -severe assaults of Hood successfully repulsed. Peace Conference at -Niagara Falls; Horace Greeley acts as President Lincoln’s agent, and -offers the rebel Commissioners a safe conduct to Washington and -back. A mine exploded under the rebel fortifications at Petersburg, -Va., which are blown up with the troops in them; a terrific battle -ensues; the Union storming column is repulsed with fearful slaughter; -Union loss, 6000. Severe fight between the rebels and Union troops -under General Warren; the rebels repulsed; Union loss 2800. -Martinsburg, Va., reoccupied by rebel troops. Another battle on the -line of the Weldon and Petersburg Road, between Union troops under -General Warren and the rebels; the latter repulsed, with fearful -slaughter; Union loss about 3000. Forrest, with three brigades of -cavalry, attacks Memphis, and endeavours to capture Generals Washburne -and Hurlbut; they fail in their object, and are driven out by -Union troops. Fight between rebel and Union troops near Charlestown,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[497]</a></span> -Va., without decisive results. The rebels make another desperate -effort to drive General Warren from the Petersburg and Weldon -Railroad, but are again repulsed, with heavy loss. General Kilpatrick -returns from a successful raiding expedition; tears up 14 miles of -railroad, captures 4 cannon and 200 prisoners. Atlanta, Ga., captured -by Union troops, under Major General Sherman; 27 guns and -1000 rebel prisoners taken. Fight in the Shenandoah valley, near -Berryville, Va.; defeat of the rebels; 20 wagons, 2 battle flags and -many prisoners captured. Fight with rebels at Greenville, Tenn.; -John Morgan, the notorious guerilla, killed, and his force dispersed. -Desperate fight with rebels at Opequan Creek, Shenandoah valley; -the Union troops, under General Sheridan, capture 3000 prisoners, -15 battle flags and 5 guns. Some rebels capture the steamers <i>Parsons</i> -and <i>Island Queen</i>, on Lake Erie, and convert them into pirates. The -British Government order that no vessel belonging to the Confederates -or United States shall enter British ports for the purpose of being -dismantled or sold. General Sheridan gains a great victory at Fisher’s -Hill, Shenandoah Valley; captures 20 guns, beside caissons, horses -and 1100 prisoners; Union General Russell killed. Great battle in -the Shenandoah Valley, between Union forces, under General Sheridan, -and the rebels, under General Early; defeat of the latter, and -capture of 43 guns, beside caissons, horses and prisoners. General -Blunt defeated by the rebels under General Price, at Lexington, Mo. -The rebel ram <i>Albemarle</i> blown up in Roanoke River by a United -States torpedo boat, under the command of Lieutenant Cushing. -Fight between General Pleasanton’s Union army and General Price’s -rebel army at Newton, Mo.; defeat of the latter; 2000 rebels and 7100 -stand of arms captured. Fight between the Union forces under General -Sherman and the rebels under General Hood; defeat of the latter. -Armed bands of rebels appear on the Lakes and occasion great -excitement and alarm along the Northern frontier. Rebel troops under -General Price attack Fayetteville, Ark., and are repulsed with a loss -of about 1000 in killed and wounded. The rebels under General -Breckinridge attack the Union troops under General Gillem at Bull -Gap, and capture 400 Union troops. Severe fight between rebel and -Union troops at Strawberry Plains, Tenn., without decisive results. -Forty-five Union scouts captured by the rebel General Mosby, near -Charlestown, Va. The Senate authorizes the construction of six -revenue cutters for the lakes. A bill authorizing the President to terminate -the Reciprocity Treaty, passes the House. The Canadian -Courts decide that they have no jurisdiction in the case of the St. -Albans and Lake Erie pirates, and release them. General Sherman -investing Savannah; Admiral Porter’s expedition leaves Fortress -Monroe for Wilmington. Re-arrest of one of the St. Albans’ raiders in -Canada; re-action of sentiment.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[498]</a></span></p> - -<p>1865 American Rebellion still continuing—Principal events in order of succession:—Columbia, -S.C., captured by General Sherman; Fort Anderson, -Cape Fear River, shelled by our forces; General Schofield advancing -from Smithfield, N.C. Rebel dollar estimated by the rebels -as worth two cents in specie. Charleston evacuated. Sheridan pursuing -Early and his body guard, all that is left of his army. General -Sherman leaves Fayetteville, N.C., destroys the arsenal, and moves -on Goldsboro. General Sheridan’s entire command arrives at White -House, Va. Johnston defeated at Bentonville, N.C. Goldsboro evacuated, -and the rebel forces fall back on Smithfield. General Steele -leaves Pensacola, Fla., to attack Mobile. Captain Kennedy, the spy -and incendiary, hung at Fort Lafayette. The rebels attack and carry -Fort Steadman, but the fort is retaken by a vigorous charge of the -Ninth Corps; the President witnesses the action. General Granger -commences a co-operating movement against Mobile. General Sherman -arrives at General Grant’s head-quarters. General Stoneham -captures Boone, N.C. General Wilson moves on Greenville, Ala. A -general advance made on Spanish Fort, Mobile Bay. The <i>Stonewall</i> -arrives at Lisbon, Portugal, having escaped from Ferrol, Spain, and -is ordered to leave the harbour. Battle of Five Forks, Va.; the rebel -right doubled up on the centre, and a portion of the wing cut off. -General Grant orders an attack on the whole line, and, after desperate -fighting, both wings are rested on the Appomattox; the South Side -Road is cut, and during the day and night Richmond and Petersburg -are evacuated, and Lee’s army is in full retreat for Danville; the rebel -General A. P. Hill killed. Selma, Ala., captured by General Wilson’s -cavalry, together with the greater portion of Forrest’s and Roddy’s -commands. General Sheridan attacks Lee, West of Burkesville and -routs him, capturing Ewell and a number of other generals. The news -of the capture of Richmond announced to Sherman’s army. General -Grant urges Lee to surrender to save the further effusion of blood; -Lee asks for terms. General Lee surrenders the Army of Northern -Virginia to General Grant. The President and Mrs. Lincoln return -to Washington. Mobile captured; 300 guns and 3000 prisoners. -General rejoicing all over the country. All the St. Albans raiders, -except Young, released. The President issues a proclamation closing -certain Southern ports. The President makes a speech in which he -defines the States of the rebellion and hints at plans for restoration. -He issues a proclamation respecting treatment of our national vessels -in foreign ports, and threatens retaliation for discourtesy. A -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Te Deum</i> chanted in Trinity Church. Lynchburg, Va., surrenders to -a Union scouting party, Practical end of the War:—General Grant -arrives in Washington and advises that the draft be stopped, that -recruiting cease, and that the military establishment be reduced. Lee -reported to have advised Johnston to surrender to Sherman. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[499]</a></span> -<i>Europa</i> arrives with the news that the American Minister at Lisbon -has demanded satisfaction for the outrage on the American flag. The -President assassinated in Ford’s Theatre, Washington, by J. Wilkes -Booth, who escapes; another assassin proceeds to Mr. Seward’s residence -and seriously stabs him in the throat, also assaulting Mr. Frederick -W. Seward. The President dies about half past seven o’clock; -Andrew Johnson becomes President of the United States.</p> - -<p>1866 Death of Lord Palmerston. The Fenian raid into Canada with the -affairs of Ridgeway and Pigeon Hill. The war in Europe, of which -the following is a complete table of principal events:—Federal execution -decreed by the Germanic Diet. Entry of the Prussians into -Leipsic, Gleasen and Cassel. Occupation of Loban. Entry of the -Prussian General Vogel into the Hanoverian capital. Occupation of -Marenthal, Ostritz and Lauban, in Bohemia, by two Prussian regiments, -and occupation of Bernstadt by Prussian cavalry. Occupation -of Dresden by the Prussians. Evacuation of Fort Wilhelm by the -Hanoverian troops. Prince William of Hanau made prisoner. Cavalry -encounter between the Austrians and Prussians upon the Rumburg -road. Nixdorf occupied by 7000 Prussians. Occupation of Rumburg -by the Prussians. Armistice between the Prussian and Hanoverian -troops. Action near Jungbunzlau between the Austrians and the -Prussians. The Prussian troops occupied Reichenberg, Trautenau -and Aicha (Bohemia). Engagement near Turnau. The army of the -Crown Prince of Prussia fought the battle of Nachod. Engagement -at Oswiecim. Fight between the Prussians and Hanoverians near -Langeusalza. General Steinmetz throws back the Austrian <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">corps -d’armée</span> (Ramming) upon Josephstadt. Engagement of the same -corps with the 6th and 8th Austrian corps under the Archduke -Leopold. Action near Trautenau. The troops of Prince Frederick -Charles engaged near Munchengratz. The Hanoverian army surrendered -at discretion. Capture of Gitschin by the Prussian army. -Actions at Kort, near Turnau, and at Chwalkowitz, between Kalitz -and Konigshof. An Austrian army corps under General Clam-Gallus -compelled to retire upon Koniggratz. Action at Gitschin. Arrival -of King William at Gitschin. Junction of the Crown Prince’s army -with that of Prince Frederick Charles. The battle of Sadowa. -The laying of the Atlantic Cable and the raising of the old one nearly -two years in water and successfully spliced and working, uniting the -two continents—the Old and New World—let it be hoped, in the -bonds of <em>eternal</em> fraternity.</p></div> - -<p class="p2 fs80"><span class="smcap">Glory to God on high, and in Earth PEACE.—Good will towards men.</span></p> - - -<p class="p3 pfs80">FINIS.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[500]</a></span></p> - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<h2 class="no-brk lsp"><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX.</h2> - - -<p class="pfs80">I.</p> - -<p class="pfs80"><span class="smcap">Effective Strength of the French Army at Waterloo.</span></p> - -<div class="fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Infantry of the Line:—</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">First Corps</td><td class="tdl">32 battalions</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">Second Corps (3 divisions)</td><td class="tdl">28 battalions </td><td class="tdl"><a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">Sixth Corps (2 divisions)</td><td class="tdl">12 battalions</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">—</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl nowrap"></td><td class="tdl">72 battalions.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Which, at 720 each, (according to the statements in the <cite>Moniteur</cite> and in the portfolio of Napoleon,) would amount to</td><td class="tdr">51,840</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Infantry of the Guard, stated by Gourgaud, p. 37, and Fleury, p. 167, at</td><td class="tdr">14,000</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cavalry of the Guard, according to Fleury, pp. 165 and 167</td><td class="tdr">4,500</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cavalry of 1st, 2nd, and 6th Corps, according to Fleury, p. 167 and Book ix</td><td class="tdr">4,200</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Reserve of Cavalry, 4 Corps, according to Book ix, p. 128</td><td class="tdr">7,400</td></tr> -<tr><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Artillery <span class="pad2">ditto</span> <span class="pad5">ditto</span></td><td class="tdr">6,500</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">88,440</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Losses sustained on the 16th, by these Corps, according to Book ix</td><td class="tdr">4,250</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">84,190</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p class="p2 pfs80">II.</p> - -<p class="pfs80"><span class="smcap">Effective Strength of the Anglo-Allied Army at Waterloo.</span></p> - -<div class="fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">British Infantry</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">15,181</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“ Cavalry</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">5,843</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“ Artillery</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2,967</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">King’s German Legion—Infantry</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3,301</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad4">“ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">Cavalry</span></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">1,997</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad4">“ <span class="pad3">“</span> <span class="pad3">Artillery</span></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">526</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Total British and German Legion</td><td class="tdr">29,815</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hanoverian, Brunswick, and Nassau Infantry</td><td class="tdr">17,724</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad4" colspan="2">“ <span class="pad4">“</span> <span class="pad5">“</span> <span class="pad1">Cavalry</span></td><td class="tdr">1,363</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad4" colspan="2">“ <span class="pad4">“</span> <span class="pad5">“</span> <span class="pad1">Artillery</span></td><td class="tdr">975</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Dutch-Belgian Infantry</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">13,402</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“ <span class="pad2">“</span> <span class="pad1">Cavalry</span></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3,205</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">“ <span class="pad2">“</span> <span class="pad1">Artillery</span></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">1,177</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Total</td><td class="tdr">67,661</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Deduct: Retreated—</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">Bylandt’s Belgian Brigade</td><td class="tdr">3,233 </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">Tripp’s Dutch-Belgian Carabiniers</td><td class="tdr">1,237 </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">Hanoverian Cumberland Hussars</td><td class="tdr">496 </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">D’Aubreme’s Dutch-Belgian Brigade</td><td class="tdr">3,181</td><td class="tdr">8,148</td><td class="tdl"><a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Actual Combatants</td><td class="tdr">59,513</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Book ix. tells us, in Table F, that four of the regiments in this Corps had three -battalions.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> There was probably the same backwardness in a few other cases; but <em>these</em> are -distinctly recorded.</p></div></div> - - -<div class="transnote pg-brk"> -<a name="TN" id="TN"></a> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources.</p> - -<p>The punctuation after the Battle Name heading (.—) has been made -consistent, eg ABOUKIR.— (some headings had ,— or only — ).</p> - -<p>The original Table on <a href="#Page_215">page 215</a> was very wide, and has been split -into two parts; the first column has been duplicated in the second part.</p> - -<p>The ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY Table on <a href="#Page_450">page 450</a> has an abbreviation P. This -has been marked with an asterisk and a note (not a footnote) placed -under the Table ‘* P = Period.’, in the same manner as the original -text.</p> - -<p>Two items in the CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE which starts on <a href="#Page_451">page 451</a> were -out of sequence and have been moved to the correct place; 1097 has -been moved above 1098, and 1207 has been moved above 1208.</p> - -<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, -and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained: for example, -hill-side, hill side, hillside; head-quarters, head quarters, -headquarters; daybreak, day-break; punctilios; Affghan; cimetars; -inclosed; rhetorician; debouching.</p> - -<p> -<a href="#Page_25">Pg 25:</a> ‘men vieing with’ replaced by ‘men vying with’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_39">Pg 39:</a> ‘28,000 prisioners’ replaced by ‘28,000 prisoners’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_40">Pg 40:</a> ‘The seige is one’ replaced by ‘The siege is one’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_47">Pg 47:</a> ‘saw Brigader-General’ replaced by ‘saw Brigadier-General’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_49">Pg 49:</a> ‘advance of Balakalava’ replaced by ‘advance of Balaklava’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_49">Pg 49:</a> ‘en enchelon’ replaced by ‘en échelon’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_52">Pg 52:</a> ‘a lance thurst’ replaced by ‘a lance thrust’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_55">Pg 55:</a> ‘gallont promptitude’ replaced by ‘gallant promptitude’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_59">Pg 59:</a> ‘and 20 canons’ replaced by ‘and 20 cannons’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_60">Pg 60:</a> ‘the kingdon, known’ replaced by ‘the kingdom, known’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_64">Pg 64:</a> ‘crashed though’ replaced by ‘crashed through’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_68">Pg 68:</a> ‘into thesalient’ replaced by ‘into the salient’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_70">Pg 70:</a> ‘Prince Bragration’ replaced by ‘Prince Bagration’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_72">Pg 72:</a> ‘Edward III beseiged’ replaced by ‘Edward III besieged’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_78">Pg 78:</a> ‘putrified on their’ replaced by ‘putrefied on their’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_80">Pg 80:</a> ‘them, and orcing’ replaced by ‘them, and forcing’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_81">Pg 81:</a> ‘extreme inclemeny’ replaced by ‘extreme inclemency of’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_84">Pg 84:</a> ‘was then siezed’ replaced by ‘was then seized’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_86">Pg 86:</a> ‘a dreaful fire’ replaced by ‘a dreadful fire’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_90">Pg 90:</a> ‘Gage, Jannuary’ replaced by ‘Gage, January’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_100">Pg 100:</a> ‘flag of true, and’ replaced by ‘flag of truce, and’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_100">Pg 100:</a> ‘of maze, they’ replaced by ‘of maize, they’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_101">Pg 101:</a> ‘tossed of from’ replaced by ‘tossed off from’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_104">Pg 104:</a> ‘a capita charge’ replaced by ‘a capital charge’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_114">Pg 114:</a> ‘he clapsed him’ replaced by ‘he clasped him’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_119">Pg 119:</a> ‘and gallopped off’ replaced by ‘and galloped off’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_123">Pg 123:</a> ‘CUSTOZZO, BATTLE OF’ replaced by ‘CUSTOZZA, BATTLE OF’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_123">Pg 123:</a> ‘afternoon, June 28th’ replaced by ‘afternoon, June 23rd’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_124">Pg 124:</a> ‘but tells us’ replaced by ‘but tell us’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_131">Pg 131:</a> ‘EDGEHLL, BATTLE OF’ replaced by ‘EDGEHILL, BATTLE OF’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_133">Pg 133:</a> ‘and Montford slain’ replaced by ‘and Montfort slain’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_136">Pg 136:</a> ‘Desparing of success’ replaced by ‘Despairing of success’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_137">Pg 137:</a> ‘pursuing hostilites’ replaced by ‘pursuing hostilities’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_138">Pg 138:</a> ‘in wasting upon’ replaced by ‘in waiting upon’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_142">Pg 142:</a> ‘Anstrians, February’ replaced by ‘Austrians, February’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_144">Pg 144:</a> ‘Napeleon in person’ replaced by ‘Napoleon in person’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_148">Pg 148:</a> ‘to show symptons’ replaced by ‘to show symptoms’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_149">Pg 149:</a> ‘to the route’ replaced by ‘to the rout’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_151">Pg 151:</a> ‘peaceful posssession’ replaced by ‘peaceful possession’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_151">Pg 151:</a> ‘the mottoe of the’ replaced by ‘the motto of the’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_160">Pg 160:</a> ‘their minie rifles’ replaced by ‘their Minié rifles’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_174">Pg 174:</a> ‘In a vew minutes’ replaced by ‘In a few minutes’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_182">Pg 182:</a> ‘seige of Olmutz’ replaced by ‘siege of Olmutz’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_184">Pg 184:</a> ‘Brigadier Churchhill’ replaced by ‘Brigadier Churchill’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_193">Pg 193:</a> ‘May 2th, 1813’ replaced by ‘May 2nd, 1813’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_194">Pg 194:</a> ‘Lewis XIV took’ replaced by ‘Louis XIV took’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_202">Pg 202:</a> ‘Canadian Volunters’ replaced by ‘Canadian Volunteers’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_208">Pg 208:</a> ‘as if valcanoes’ replaced by ‘as if volcanoes’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_211">Pg 211:</a> ‘of General Bettenfeld.’ replaced by ‘of General Bittenfeld.’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_219">Pg 219:</a> ‘ship, the _Conqérant_’ replaced by ‘ship, the _Conquérant_’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_225">Pg 225:</a> ‘Peninsular hereos’ replaced by ‘Peninsular heroes’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_239">Pg 239:</a> ‘Cardinal set of’ replaced by ‘Cardinal set off’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_244">Pg 244:</a> ‘the Jacobins, but’ replaced by ‘the Jacobites, but’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_254">Pg 254:</a> ‘Van Ransselaer. In’ replaced by ‘Van Rensselaer. In’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_257">Pg 257:</a> ‘of every Cananadian’ replaced by ‘of every Canadian’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_257">Pg 257:</a> ‘galantry and merit’ replaced by ‘gallantry and merit’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_259">Pg 259:</a> ‘It surrended to’ replaced by ‘It surrendered to’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_259">Pg 259:</a> ‘soon siezed with’ replaced by ‘soon seized with’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_276">Pg 276:</a> ‘be would not allow’ replaced by ‘he would not allow’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_287">Pg 287:</a> ‘Alles ist veloren’ replaced by ‘Alles ist verloren’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_301">Pg 301:</a> ‘a garrison 1700’ replaced by ‘a garrison of 1700’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_301">Pg 301:</a> ‘General Kutosoff’ replaced by ‘General Kutusoff’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_303">Pg 303:</a> ‘one his mistresses’ replaced by ‘one of his mistresses’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_311">Pg 311:</a> ‘that each man’ replaced by ‘than each man’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_313">Pg 313:</a> ‘and exhilirating scene’ replaced by ‘and exhilarating scene’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_315">Pg 315:</a> ‘à-ricohet’ replaced by ‘à-ricochet’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_320">Pg 320:</a> ‘flying ignominously’ replaced by ‘flying ignominiously’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_324">Pg 324:</a> ‘ariving in time’ replaced by ‘arriving in time’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_337">Pg 337:</a> ‘18th, August, 1593’ replaced by ‘18th, August, 1513’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_344">Pg 344:</a> ‘effect of the suprise’ replaced by ‘effect of the surprise’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_353">Pg 353</a> Footnotes <a href="#Footnote_10_10">[10] and [11]</a>: small errors in the Greek phrases have been corrected.<br /> -<a href="#Page_361">Pg 361:</a> ‘I feel someting’ replaced by ‘I feel something’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_361">Pg 361:</a> ‘garrison surrended’ replaced by ‘garrison surrendered’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_368">Pg 368:</a> ‘until there last’ replaced by ‘until their last’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_372">Pg 372:</a> ‘event at a period’ replaced by ‘even at a period’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_374">Pg 374:</a> ‘wife of Henry II’ replaced by ‘wife of Henry VI’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_375">Pg 375:</a> ‘In many place the’ replaced by ‘In many places the’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_386">Pg 386:</a> ‘which proceeded the’ replaced by ‘which preceded the’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_404">Pg 404</a> Footnote <a href="#Footnote_37_37">[37]</a>: ‘give total of’ replaced by ‘give a total of’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_419">Pg 419:</a> ‘own admision’ replaced by ‘own admission’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_439">Pg 439:</a> ‘without amunition’ replaced by ‘without ammunition’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_442">Pg 442:</a> ‘inland ressources’ replaced by ‘inland resources’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_447">Pg 447:</a> ‘personaal ppearance’ replaced by ‘personal appearance’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_449">Pg 449:</a> ‘by the initals’ replaced by ‘by the initials’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_451">Pg 451:</a> ‘3347 Noah quits’ replaced by ‘2347 Noah quits’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_452">Pg 452:</a> ‘a seige of ten’ replaced by ‘a siege of ten’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_452">Pg 452:</a> ‘Agamemnon, Achillies’ replaced by ‘Agamemnon, Achilles’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_453">Pg 453:</a> ‘727 Nabopolazzar’ replaced by ‘627 Nabopolazzar’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_454">Pg 454:</a> ‘Cyrenaic philosopers’ replaced by ‘Cyrenaic philosophers’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_458">Pg 458:</a> ‘Age Pomponius’ replaced by ‘Age of Pomponius’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_462">Pg 462:</a> ‘aad swear allegiance’ replaced by ‘and swear allegiance’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_463">Pg 463:</a> ‘Lady Berengera’ replaced by ‘Lady Berengaria’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_472">Pg 472:</a> ‘aad the statutes’ replaced by ‘and the statutes’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_476">Pg 476:</a> ‘Augbrim, in Ireland’ replaced by ‘Aughrim, in Ireland’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_478">Pg 478:</a> ‘Newton died, aged 35’ replaced by ‘Newton died, aged 85’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_488">Pg 488:</a> ‘Alma, Balaclava’ replaced by ‘Alma, Balaklava’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_490">Pg 490:</a> ‘evacuted by them’ replaced by ‘evacuated by them’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_493">Pg 493:</a> ‘Navy Apropriation’ replaced by ‘Navy Appropriation’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_494">Pg 494:</a> ‘Winchester the next next’ replaced by ‘Winchester the next day’.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Battles of the World, by J. 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