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diff --git a/old/60631-0.txt b/old/60631-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ba496b5..0000000 --- a/old/60631-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9147 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Modern Zoroastrian, by S. Laing - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Modern Zoroastrian - -Author: S. Laing - -Release Date: November 4, 2019 [EBook #60631] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MODERN ZOROASTRIAN *** - - - - -Produced by Louise Davies, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned -images of public domain material from the Google Books -project.) - - - - - - - - - - -A MODERN ZOROASTRIAN. - - - - -A MODERN ZOROASTRIAN. - - - _1000 copies printed, February, 1888._ - _1000 ” ” March, 1889._ - _1000 ” ” March, 1890._ - _1000 ” ” June, 1890._ - _1000 ” ” March, 1891._ - _1000 ” ” June, 1892._ - _1000 ” ” February, 1893._ - _1000 ” ” November, 1893._ - - - - - A MODERN ZOROASTRIAN - - BY - S. LAING, - - AUTHOR OF - “MODERN SCIENCE AND MODERN THOUGHT,” “PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE,” - “HUMAN ORIGINS.” - - Eighth Thousand. - - LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, LD. - 1893. - - CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, - CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. - - - - -PREFACE TO NEW EDITION. - - -From some of the criticisms on the First Edition of this work I fear -that the distinction I endeavoured to draw between the use of the term -“polarity” in the inorganic and in the spiritual worlds has not been -made sufficiently clear. I stated in the Introduction “That while the -principle of polarity pervades both worlds, I am far from assuming that -the laws under which it acts are identical; and that virtue and vice, -pain and pleasure, are products of the same mathematical laws as regulate -the attractions and repulsions of molecules and atoms.” But this warning -has been apparently overlooked by some readers who have assumed that -instead of analogy I meant identity, and that it was a mistake to use the -same word “polarity” for phenomena so essentially distinct as those of -the material and the spiritual worlds. - -Thus my “guide, philosopher, and friend,” Professor Huxley, for whose -authority I have the highest respect, observed in a recent article, that -he had long ago acquired a habit, if he came across the word polarity -applied to anything but magnetism and electricity, of throwing down -the book and reading no farther. I must confess that I felt a little -disconcerted when I read this passage; but I was soon consoled, for, in a -month or two afterwards, I came across another passage in the same Review -which said, “However revolting may be the accumulation of misery at the -negative pole of Society, in contrast with that of monstrous wealth at -the positive pole, this state of things must abide and grow continuously -worse, as long as Istar (the dual Goddess of the Babylonians) holds her -way unchecked.” - -Surely, I thought, here is a case in which the Professor must have thrown -down the Review when he came to these words: but when I came to the -end, I found that it was not the Review, but the pen, which must have -been thrown down, for the article is signed “T. Huxley.” Can there be -a more conclusive proof that there are a vast variety of facts outside -of magnetism and electricity, connected by an underlying idea, which -inevitably suggests analogy to them, and which can be most conveniently -expressed by the word “polarity”? Words after all are only coins to -facilitate the interchange of ideas, and the best word is that which -serves the purpose most clearly and concisely. Thus instead of using -a waggon load of copper, or the verbiage of a conveyancer’s deed, to -express the ideas comprised in such words as “theism,” “pantheism,” or -“agnosticism,” we coin them for general use, as Huxley did the word -“agnosticism,” in order to convey our meaning. - -Polarity is such a word. It sums up what Emerson says in his Essay on -Compensation: “Polarity, or action and reaction, we meet in every part of -Nature; in darkness and light; in the ebb and flow of waters; in male and -female; in the inspiration and expiration of plants and animals; in the -undulations of fluids and of sound; in the centripetal and centrifugal -gravity; in electricity, galvanism, and chemical affinity. Superinduce -Magnetism at one end of a needle, the opposite Magnetism takes place at -the other end. If the South attracts, the North repels. An inevitable -dualism besets nature, so that each thing is a half, and suggests another -to make it whole: as spirit, matter; man, woman; odd, even; subjective, -objective; in, out; upper, under; motion, rest; yea, nay.” - -These, by whatever name we like to call them, are facts and not fancies, -and facts which enter largely into all questions, whether of science, -philosophy, religion, or practical policy. Every one who wishes to keep -at all abreast with modern culture, ought to have some general knowledge -of the ideas and principles which underlie them and which are embraced -in the comprehensive word “polarity.” My object in this book has been -to assist the reader, who is not a specialist, in arriving at some -general understanding of the subjects treated of, and I may hope, in -awakening such an interest in them as may induce him to prosecute further -researches. If I succeed in this, my object will have been attained. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The reception given to my former work, on ‘Modern Science and Modern -Thought,’ has induced me to write this further one. I refer not so much -to the reviews of professional critics, though as a rule nothing could be -more courteous and candid, but rather to the letters I have received from -readers of various age, sex, and condition, saying that I had assisted -them in understanding much interesting matter which had previously been a -sealed book to them. - -If I am good for anything, it is for a certain faculty of lucid -condensation, and I have thought that I might apply this to some of the -less-known branches of modern science, such as the new chemistry and -physiology, as well as, in my first work, to the more familiar subjects -of astronomy and geology; while at the same time I might extend it to -some of the more obvious problems of religion, morals, metaphysics, and -practical life, which force themselves, more and more every day, on the -attention of intelligent thinkers. - -As in the former work the scientific speculations were linked together by -the leading idea of the universality of law, so, in this, unity is given -to them by the all-pervading principle of polarity, which manifests -itself everywhere as the fundamental condition of the material and -spiritual universe. - -For the scientific portion of the work I am indebted to the most -approved authorities, such as Darwin, Huxley, Haeckel, and Professor -Cooke’s volume on the New Chemistry in the International Scientific -Series. For the religious and philosophical speculations I am myself -responsible; for, although I have derived the greatest possible pleasure -and profit from Herbert Spencer’s writings, I had arrived at my principal -conclusions independently before I had read any of his works. I can -only hope that I may have succeeded in presenting a good many abstruse -questions in a popular form, intelligible to the average mind of ordinary -readers, and calculated, if it teaches nothing else, to teach them a -practical philosophy which inculcates tolerance and charity, and assists -them in finding - - Sermons in stones and good in everything. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - - PAGE - - CHAPTER I. - - INTRODUCTORY. - - Experiment with magnet—Principle of polarity—Applies - universally—Analogies in spiritual world—Zoroastrian - religion—Changes in modern environment—Require corresponding - changes in religions and philosophies 1 - - CHAPTER II. - - POLARITY IN MATTER—MOLECULES AND ATOMS. - - Matter consists of molecules—Nature of molecules—Laws of - their action in gases—Law of Avogadro—Molecules composed - of atoms—Proved by composition of water—Combinations of - atoms—Elementary substances—Qualities of matter depend on - atoms—Dimensions and velocities of molecules and atoms—These - are ascertained _facts_, not theories 9 - - CHAPTER III. - - ETHER. - - Ether proved by light—Light-waves—Elasticity of ether—Its - universal diffusion—Influences molecules and atoms—Is - influenced by them—Successive orders of the infinitely - small—Illustrated by the differential and integral - calculus—Explanation of this calculus—Theory of vortex rings 21 - - CHAPTER IV. - - ENERGY. - - Energy of motion and of position—Energy can be - transformed, not created or destroyed—Not created by - free-will—Conservation of mechanical power—Convertibility - of heat and work—Nature of heat—The steam-engine—Different - forms of energy—Gravity—Molecular energy—Chemical - energy—Dynamite—Chemical affinities—Electricity—Produced - by friction—By the voltaic battery—Electric currents—Arc - light—Induction—Magnetism—The magnetic needle—The electric - telegraph—The telephone—Dynamo-electric engine—Accumulator 36 - - CHAPTER V. - - POLARITY IN MATTER. - - Ultimate elements of universe—Built up by polarity—Experiment - with magnet—Chemical affinity—Atomic poles—Alkalies - and acids—Quantivalence—Atomicity—Isomerism—Chemical - stability—Thermochemistry—Definition of atoms—All matter built - up by polar forces 65 - - CHAPTER VI. - - POLARITY IN LIFE. - - Contrast of living and dead—Eating and - being eaten—Trace matter upwards and life - downwards—Colloids—Cells—Protoplasm—Monera—Composition - of protoplasm—Essential qualities of life—Nutrition and - sensation—Motion—Reproduction—Spontaneous generation—Organic - compounds—Polar conditions of life 76 - - CHAPTER VII. - - PRIMITIVE POLARITIES—PLANT AND ANIMAL. - - Contrast in developed life—Plants producers, animals - consumers—Differences disappear in simple forms—Zoophytes— - Protista—Nummulites—Corals—Fungi—Lichens—Insectivorous - plants—Geological succession—Primary period, Algæ and - Ferns—Secondary period, Gymnosperms—Tertiary and recent, - Angiosperms—Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons—Parallel evolution - of animal life—Primary, protista, mollusca, and fish—Secondary, - reptiles—Tertiary and recent, mammals 92 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - PRIMITIVE POLARITIES—POLARITY OF SEX. - - Sexual generation—Base of ancient cosmogonies—Propagation - non-sexual in simpler forms—Amœba and cells—Germs and - buds—Anemones—Worms—Spores—Origin of sex—Ovary and male - organ—Hermaphrodites—Parthenogenesis—Bees and insects—Man and - woman—Characters of each sex—Woman’s position—Improved by - civilisation—Christianity the feminine pole—Monogamy the law - of nature—Tone respecting women test of character—Women in - literature—In society—Attraction and repulsion of sexes—Like - attracts unlike—Ideal marriage—Woman’s rights and modern - legislation 102 - - CHAPTER IX. - - PRIMITIVE POLARITIES—HEREDITY AND VARIATION. - - Heredity in simple forms of life—In more complex - organisms—Pangenesis—Varieties how produced—Fixed by law of - survival of the fittest—Dr. Temple’s view—Examples: triton, - axolotl—Variations in individuals and species—Lizards into - birds—Ringed snakes—Echidna 117 - - CHAPTER X. - - THE KNOWABLE AND UNKNOWABLE—BRAIN AND THOUGHT. - - Basis of knowledge—Perception—Constitution of - brain—White and grey matter—Average size and weight - of brains—European, negro, and ape—Mechanism of - perception—Sensory and motor nerves—Separate areas of - brain—Sensory and motor centres—Abnormal states of - brain—Hypnotism—Somnambulism—Trance—Thought-reading— - Spiritualism—Reflex action—Ideas how formed—Number - and space—Creation unknowable—Conceptions based on - perceptions—Metaphysics—Descartes, Kant, - Berkeley—Anthropomorphism—Laws of nature 125 - - CHAPTER XI. - - RELIGIONS AND PHILOSOPHIES. - - Religions, ‘working hypotheses’—Newman’s illative sense—Origins - of religions—Ghosts and spirits—Fetishes—Nature-worship—Solar - myths—Planets—Evolution of nature-worship—Polytheism, - pantheism, and theism—Evolution of monotheism in the - Old Testament—Evolution of morality—Natural law and - miracle—Evidence for miracles—Insufficiency of evidence—Absence - of intelligent design—Agnosticism—Origin of evil—Can only - be explained by polarity—Optimism and pessimism—Jesus, the - Christian Ormuzd—Christianity without miracles 146 - - CHAPTER XII. - - CHRISTIANITY AND MORALS. - - Christianity based on morals—Origin of morality—Traced - in Judaism—Originates in evolution—Instance of - murder—Freedom of will—Will suspended in certain states of - brain—Hypnotism—Mechanical theory—Pre-established harmony—Human - and animal conscience—Analysis of will—Explained by - polarity—Practical conclusion 184 - - CHAPTER XIII. - - ZOROASTRIANISM. - - Zoroaster an historical person—The Parsees—Iranian branch - of Aryan family—Zoroaster a religious reformer—Scene at - Balkh—Conversion of Gushtasp—Doctrines of the ‘excellent - religion’—Monotheism—Polarity—Dr. Haug’s description—Ormuzd - and Ahriman—Anquetil du Perron—Approximation - to modern thought—Absence of miracles—Code of - morals—Its comprehensiveness—And liberality—Special - rites—Fire-worship—Disposal of dead—Practical results—The - Parsees of Bombay—Their probity, enterprise, respect - for women—Zeal for education—Philanthropy and public - spirit—Statistics—Death and birth rates 197 - - CHAPTER XIV. - - FORMS OF WORSHIP. - - Byron’s lines—Carnegie’s description—Parsee - nature-worship—English Sunday—The sermon—Appeals to reason - misplaced—Music better than words—The Mass—Zoroastrianism - brings religion into daily life—Sanitation—Zoroastrian - prayer—Religion of the future—Sermons in stones and good in - everything 219 - - CHAPTER XV. - - PRACTICAL POLARITIES. - - Fable of the shield—Progress and conservatism—English and - French colonisation—Law-abidingness—Irish land question—True - conservative legislation—Ultra-conservatism—Law and - education—Patriotism—Jingoism and parochialism—True - statesmanship—Free trade and protection—Capital - and labour—Egoism and altruism—Socialism and - _laissez faire_—Contracts—Rights and duties of - landlords—George’s theory—State interference—Railways—Post - Office—Telegraphs—National defence—Concluding remarks 227 - - - - -A MODERN ZOROASTRIAN. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTORY. - - Experiment with magnet—Principle of polarity—Applies - universally—Analogies in spiritual world—Zoroastrian - religion—Changes in modern environment—Require - corresponding changes in religions and philosophies. - - -Scatter a heap of iron filings on a plate of glass; bring near it a -magnet, and tap the glass gently, and you will see the filings arrange -themselves in regular forms. - -If one pole only of the magnet is brought near the glass the filings -arrange themselves in lines radiating from that pole. - -Next lay the bar-magnet on the glass so that the filings are influenced -by both poles; they will arrange themselves into a series of regular -curves. - -In other words, the Chaos of a confused heap of inert matter has become a -Cosmos of harmonious arrangement assuming definite form in obedience to -law. - -As the old saying has it, that ‘every road leads to Rome,’ so this -simple experiment leads up to a principle which underlies all existence -knowable to human faculty—that of Polarity. Why do the iron filings -arrange themselves in regular curves? Because they are magnetised by -the influence of the larger magnet, and each little particle of iron is -converted into a little magnet with two opposite poles attracting and -repelling. - -[Illustration] - -What is a magnet? It is a special manifestation of the more general -principle of polarity, by which energy, when it passes from the passive -or neutralised into the active state, does so under the condition of -developing opposite and conflicting energies: no action without reaction, -no positive without a negative, and, as we see it in the simplest form in -our magnets, no North Pole without a South Pole—like ever repelling like -and attracting unlike. The magnet, again, may be considered as a special -form of electricity, for if we send an electric current through a coil of -copper wire encircling a bar of soft iron, the bar is at once converted -into a magnet; so that a magnet may be considered as the summing up, -at two opposite extremities or poles, of the attractive and repulsive -effects of electric currents circulating round it. But this electricity -is itself subject to the law of polarity, whether developed by chemical -action in the form of a current or electricity in motion, or by friction -in the form of statical electricity of small quantity but high tension. -In all cases a positive implies a negative; in all, like repels like and -attracts unlike. Conversely, as polarity produces definite structure, so -definite structure everywhere implies polarity. - -The same principle prevails not only throughout the inorganic or world -of matter, but throughout the organic or world of life, and specially -throughout its highest manifestations in human life and character, and -in the highest products of its evolution, in societies, religions, and -philosophies. To show this by some familiar and striking examples is the -main object of this book. - -But here let me interpose a word of caution. I must avoid the error -which vitiates Professor Drummond’s interesting work on ‘Natural Law in -the Spiritual World,’ of confounding analogy and identity. Because the -principle of polarity pervades alike the natural and spiritual worlds, -I am far from assuming that the laws under which it acts are identical; -and that virtue and vice, pain and pleasure, ugliness and beauty, are -products of the same mathematical changes of sign and inverse squares -or cubes of distances, as regulate the attractions and repulsions of -molecules and atoms. All I say is, that the same pervading principle may -be traced wherever human thought and human knowledge extend; that it is -apparently, for some reason unknown to us, the essential condition of all -existence within the sphere of that thought and that knowledge; and that -what lies beyond it is the great unknown, behind the impenetrable veil -which it is not given to mortals to uplift. In like manner, if I call -myself ‘a modern Zoroastrian,’ it is not that I wish or expect to teach -a new religion or revive an old one, to see Christian churches dedicated -to Ormuzd, or right reverend bishops exchanging the apron and shovel-hat -for the mitre and flowing robes of the ancient Magi; but simply this. -All religions I take to be ‘working hypotheses,’ by which successive -ages and races of men try to satisfy the aspirations and harmonise the -knowledge which in the course of evolution have come to be, for the -time, their spiritual equipment. The best proof of any religion is, that -it exists—i.e. that it is part of the same evolution, and that on the -whole it works well, i.e. is in tolerable harmony with its environment. -When that environment changes, when loftier views of morality prevail, -when knowledge is increased and the domain of science everywhere extends -its frontier, religions must change with it if they are to remain good -working, and not become unworkable and unbelievable hypotheses. - -Now of all the religious hypotheses which remain workable in the present -state of human knowledge, that seems to me the best which frankly -recognises the existence of this dual law, or law of polarity, as the -fundamental condition of the universe, and, personifying the good -principle under the name of Ormuzd, and the evil one under that of -Ahriman, looks with earnest but silent and unspoken reverence on the -great unknown beyond, which may, in some way incomprehensible to mortals, -reconcile the two opposites, and give the final victory to the good. - - Oh! yet we hope that somehow good - Will be the final goal of ill. - -So sings the poet of the nineteenth century: so, if we understand his -doctrine rightly, taught the Bactrian sage, Zoroaster, some forty -centuries earlier. - -This, and this alone, seems to me to afford a working hypothesis -which is based on fact, can be brought into harmony with the existing -environment, and embraces, in a wider synthesis, all that is good in -other philosophies and religions. - -When I talk of our new environment, it requires one who, like the author, -has lived more than the Scriptural threescore and ten years, and has, so -to speak, one foot on the past and one on the present, to realise how -enormous is the change which a single generation has made in the whole -spiritual surroundings of a civilised man of the nineteenth century. -When I was a student at Cambridge, little more than fifty years ago, -Astronomy was the only branch of natural science which could be said to -be definitely brought within the domain of natural law. And that only -as regards the law of gravity, and the motions of the heavenly bodies, -for little or nothing was known as to their constitution. Geology was -just beginning the series of conquests by which time and the order -and succession of life on the earth have been annexed by science as -completely as space by astronomy; and theories of cataclysms, universal -deluges, and special recent creations of animals and man, still held -their ground, and were quoted as proofs of a universe maintained by -constant supernatural interference. - -And when I say that space had been annexed to science by astronomy, it -was really only that half of space which extends from the standpoint of -the human senses in the direction of the infinitely great. The other -equally important half which extends downwards to the infinitely small -was unknown, or the subject only of the vaguest conjectures. - -Chemistry was, to a great extent, an empirical science, and molecules and -atoms were at best guesses at truth, or rather convenient mathematical -abstractions with no more actual reality than the symbols of the -differential calculus. The real causes and laws of heat, light, and -electricity, were as little known as those of molecular action and of -chemical affinity. The great laws of the indestructibility of matter, the -correlation of forces, and the conservation of energy, were unknown, or -only just beginning to be foreshadowed. As regards life, protoplasm was -a word unheard of; scientific biology, zoology, and botany were in their -infancy; and the gradual building up of all living matter from a speck of -protoplasm, through a primitive cell, was not even suspected. Above all, -the works of Darwin had not been published, and evolution had not become -the general law of modern thought; nor had the discovery of the antiquity -of man, and of his slow development upwards from the rudest origins, -shattered into fragments established beliefs as to his recent miraculous -creation. - -Science and miracle have been fighting out their battle during the last -fifty years along the whole line, and science has been at every point -victorious. Miracle, in the sense in which our fathers believed in it, -has been not only repulsed, but annihilated so completely, that really -little remains but to bury the dead. - -The result of these discoveries has been to make a greater change in the -spiritual environment of a single generation than would be made in their -physical environment if the glacial period suddenly returned and buried -Northern Europe under polar ice. The change is certainly greater in the -last fifty years than it had been in the previous five hundred, and in -many respects greater than in the previous five thousand. - -It may be sufficient to glance shortly at the equally great -corresponding changes which this period has witnessed in the practical -conditions of life and of society. If astronomy and geology have extended -the dominion of the mind over space and time, steamers, railways, and -the electric telegraph have gained the mastery over them for practical -purposes. Commerce and emigration have assumed international proportions, -and India, Australia, and America are nearer to us, and connected with -us by closer ties, than Scotland was to England in my schoolboy days. -Education and a cheap press have even in a greater degree revolutionised -society, and knowledge, reaching the masses, has carried with it power, -so that democracy and free-thought are, whether for good or evil, -everywhere in the ascendant, and old privileges and traditions are -everywhere decaying. - -With such a great change of environment it is evident that many of the -old creeds, institutions, and other organisms, adapted to old conditions, -must have become as obsolete as a schoolboy’s jacket would be as the -comfortable habiliment of a grown-up man. But as a lobster which has cast -its shell does not feel at ease until it has grown a new one, so thinking -men of the present day are driven to devise, to a great extent each -for themselves, some larger theory which may serve them as a ‘working -hypothesis’ with which to go through life, and bring the ineradicable -aspirations and emotions of their nature into some tolerable harmony with -existing facts. - -To me, as one of those thinking units, this theory, of what for want -of a better name I call ‘Zoroastrianism,’ has approved itself as a -good working theory, which reconciles more intellectual and moral -difficulties, and affords a better guide in conduct and practical life -than any other; and, in a word, enables me to reduce my own individual -Chaos into some sort of an intelligible and ordered Cosmos. I feel moved, -therefore, to preach through the press my little sermon upon it, for the -benefit of those whom it may concern, feeling assured that the process of -evolution, by which - - The old order changes, giving place to new, - -can best be assisted by the honest and unbiassed expression of the -results of individual thought and experience on the part of any one of -those units whose aggregates form the complicated organisms of religions -and philosophies, of societies and of humanity. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -POLARITY IN MATTER—MOLECULES AND ATOMS. - - Matter consists of molecules—Nature of molecules—Laws of - their action in gases—Law of Avogadro—Molecules composed - of atoms—Proved by composition of water—Combinations of - atoms—Elementary substances—Qualities of matter depend on - atoms—Dimensions and velocities of molecules and atoms—These - are ascertained _facts_, not theories. - - -If in building a house that is to stand when the rains fall and the winds -blow, it is requisite to go down to the solid rock for a foundation, so -much the more is it necessary in building up a theory to begin at the -beginning and give it a solid groundwork. Nine-tenths of the fallacies -current in the world arise from the haste with which people rush to -conclusions on insufficient premises. Take, for instance, any of the -political questions of the day, such as the Irish question: how many -of those who express confident opinions, and get angry and excited on -one side or the other, could answer any of the preliminary questions -which are the indispensable conditions of any rational judgment? How -many marks would they get for an examination paper which asked what -was the population of Ireland; what proportion of that population was -agricultural; what proportion of that agricultural population consisted -of holders of small tenements; what was the scale of rents compared with -that for small holdings in other countries; how much of that rent was -levied on them for their own improvements; and other similar questions -which lie at the root of the matter? In how many cases would it be found -that the whole superstructure of their confident and passionate theories -about the Irish difficulty was based on no more solid foundation than -their like or dislike of a particular statesman or of a particular party? - -I propose therefore to begin at the beginning, and, taking the simplest -case, that of dead or inorganic matter, show how the material universe is -built up by the operation of the all-pervading law of polarity. What does -matter consist of? Of molecules, and molecules are made up of atoms, and -these are held together or parted, and built up into the various forms of -the material universe, primarily by polar forces. - -Let me endeavour to make this intelligible to the intelligent but -unscientific reader. Suppose the Pyramid of Cheops shown for the first -time to a giant whose eye was on such a scale that he could just -discern it as a separate object. He might make all sorts of ingenious -conjectures as to its nature, but if microscopes had been invented in -Giant-land and he looked through one, he would find that it was built -up, layer by layer, on a regular plan and in determinate lines and -angles, by molecules, or what seemed to him almost infinitely small -masses, of squared stone. For pyramid write crystal, and we may see by -the human sense, aided by human instruments and human reason, a similar -structure built up in the same way by minute particles. Or again, divide -and subdivide our iron filings until we reach the limit of possible -mechanical division discernible by the microscope; each one remains -essentially a bar of iron, as capable of being magnetised, and showing -the same qualities and behaviour under chemical tests as the original -bar of iron from which the filings were taken. This carries us a long -way down towards the infinitely small, for mechanical division and -microscopic visibility can be carried down to magnitudes which are of the -order of 1/100000th of an inch. - -But this is only the first step; to understand our molecules we must -ascertain whether they are infinitely divisible, and whether they are -continuous, expanding by being spread out thinner and thinner like -gold-beater’s skin: or are they separate bodies with intervals between -them, like little planets forming one solar system and revolving in -space by fixed laws. Ancient science guessed at the former solution and -embodied it in the maxim ‘that nature abhors a vacuum’: modern science -proves the latter. - -In the first place bodies combine only in fixed proportions, which is a -necessary consequence if they consist of definite indivisible particles, -but inconceivable if the substance of each is indefinitely divisible. -Thus water is formed in one way and one only: by uniting one volume or -molecule of oxygen with two of hydrogen, and any excess of one or the -other is left out and remains uncombined. But if the molecules could be -divided into halves, quarters, and so on indefinitely, there can be no -reason why their union should take place always in this one proportion -and this only. - -A still more conclusive proof is furnished by the behaviour of substances -which exist in the form of gases. If a jar is filled with one gas, a -second and third gas can be poured into it as readily as into a vacuum, -the result being that the pressure on the sides of the jar is exactly -equal to the sum of the separate pressures of each separate gas. This -evidently means that the first gas does not occupy the whole space, but -that its particles are like a battalion of soldiers in loose skirmishing -order, with such intervals between each unit that a second and third -battalion can be marched in and placed on the same ground, without -disturbing the formation, and with the result only of increasing the -intensity of the fire. - -Now gas is matter as much as solids or liquids, and in the familiar -instance of water we see that it is merely a question of more or less -heat whether the same matter exists as ice, water, or steam. The number -and nature of the molecules is not changed, only in the one case they are -close to one another and solidly linked together; in the other, further -removed and free to move about one another, though still held together -as a mass by their mutual attractions; and in the third, still further -apart, so that their mutual attraction is lost and they dart about, each -with its own proper motion, bombarding the surface which contains them, -and by the resultant of their impacts producing pressure. - -In this latter and simpler form of gas the following laws are found to -prevail universally for all substances. Under like conditions volumes -vary directly as the temperature and inversely as the pressure. That -is to say, the pressure which contains them remaining the same, equal -volumes of air, steam, or any other substance in the state of gas, expand -into twice the volume if the temperature is doubled, three times if it -is tripled, and so on; contracting in the same way if the temperature -is lowered. If on the other hand the temperature remains constant, the -volume is reduced to one half or one third, if the pressure is doubled -or tripled. From these laws the further grand generalisation has been -arrived at, that all substances existing in the form of gas contain the -same number of molecules in the same volume. - -This, which is known as the Law of Avogadro, from the Italian chemist by -whom it was first discovered, is the fundamental law of modern chemistry, -and the key to all certain and scientific knowledge of the constitution -of matter and of the domain of the infinitely small, just as much as the -law of gravity is to action of matter in the mass, and the resulting -conditions and motions of mechanics and astronomy. - -This conclusion obviously follows from it, that difference of weight -in different substances arises not from one having more molecules in -the same volume than another, but from the molecules themselves being -heavier. If we weigh a gallon or litre of hydrogen gas, which is the -lightest known substance, and then weighing an equal volume of oxygen -gas find that it is sixteen times heavier, we know for certain that the -molecule or ultimate particle of oxygen is sixteen times heavier than -that of hydrogen. - -It is evident that in this way the molecules of all simple substances -which can exist in the form of pure gas can be weighed, and their weight -expressed in terms of the unit which is generally adopted, that of the -molecule of the lightest known substance, hydrogen. But science, not -content with this achievement, wants to know not the relative weight -only, but the absolute dimensions, qualities, and motions of these -little bodies; and whether, although they cannot be divided further by -mechanical means, and while retaining the qualities of the substances -they build up, they are really ultimate and indivisible particles or -themselves composites. - -Chemistry and electricity give a ready answer to this latter question. -Molecules are composites of still smaller bodies, and to get back to -the ultimate particle we must go to atoms. All chemical changes resolve -themselves into the breaking up of molecules and rearrangement of their -constituent atoms. If the opposite poles of a voltaic battery are -inserted in a vessel containing water, molecules of water are broken up, -bubbles of gas rise at each pole, and if these are collected, the gas at -the positive pole is found to be oxygen, and that at the negative pole -hydrogen. Nothing has been added or taken away, for the weight of the two -gases evolved exactly equals that of the water which has disappeared. But -the molecules of the water have been broken up, and their constituents -reappear in totally different forms, for nothing can well be more unlike -water than each of the two gases of which it is composed. That it is -composed of them can be verified by the reverse experiment of mixing the -two gases together in the same proportion of two volumes of hydrogen to -one of oxygen as was produced by the decomposition of water, passing an -electric spark through the vessel containing the mixture, when with a -loud explosion the gases reunite, and water is formed in precisely the -same quantity as produced the volumes of gas by its decomposition. Can -the ultimate particles of these gases be further subdivided; can they, -like those of water, be broken up and reappear in new forms? No; there -is no known process by which an atom of oxygen can be made anything but -oxygen, or an atom of hydrogen anything but hydrogen. - -The only thing which is compound in the composition of oxygen is that -its molecules consist of two atoms linked together. This appears from -the fact that while the weight of oxygen, and therefore that of its -molecules, is sixteen times greater than that of an equal volume of -hydrogen, and therefore of hydrogen molecules, it combines with it in -the proportion not of sixteen, but of eight to one. If, therefore, the -molecule were identical with the atom of oxygen, we must admit that the -atom could be halved, which is contrary to its definition as the ultimate -indivisible particle of the substance oxygen. But if the oxygen molecule -consists of two linked atoms, O—O, and the hydrogen molecule equally -of two, H—H, as can be proved by other considerations, everything is -explained by assuming that the molecule of water consists of two atoms of -hydrogen linked to one of oxygen, or H₂O, and that when this molecule is -broken up by electricity, its constituents resolve themselves into atoms, -which recombine so as to form twice as many molecules of hydrogen, H—H, -as of oxygen, O,—i.e. into two volumes of hydrogen gas to one of oxygen. - -Taking the single hydrogen atom as the unit of weight as being the -lightest known ponderable body, and calling this weight a microcrith, -or standard of the smallest of this order of excessively small weights, -this is equivalent to saying that the weight of an oxygen atom is equal -to 16 microcriths, and as water is composed of one such atom plus two of -hydrogen, the weight of its molecule ought to be 16 + 2 = 18, which is in -fact the exact ratio in which the weight of a volume of steam, or water -in the form of gas, is heavier than an equal volume of hydrogen. - -This key unlocks the whole secret of the chemical changes and -combinations by which matter assumes all the various forms known to us in -the universe. - -Thus oxygen enters into a great variety of combinations forming different -substances, but always in the proportion which is either 16, or some -multiple of 16, such as 32, 48, 64. That is, either 1, 2, 3, or 4 atoms -of oxygen unite with other atoms to form the molecules from which these -other substances are made. - -One atom of oxygen weighing 16 microcriths combines, as we have seen, -with two atoms of hydrogen weighing 2, to form a molecule of water -weighing 18 mc. In like manner one atom of oxygen, 16 mc., combines with -one of carbon, which weighs 12 mc., to form a molecule of carbonic oxide -weighing 28 mc.; and two of oxygen, 32 mc., with one of carbon, 12 mc., -to form a molecule of carbonic dioxide weighing 44 mc. - -The same applies to all elementary substances. Thus hydrogen, two atoms -of which combine with one of oxygen to form water, combines one atom to -one with chlorine to form the molecule of hydrochloric acid, which weighs -36·5 mc., being the united weights of one atom of chlorine, 35·5 mc., -and one of hydrogen, 1 mc. These, with hundreds of similar instances, -are the results not of theories as to molecules and atoms, but of actual -facts, ascertained by innumerable experiments made independently by -careful observers over long periods of years, many of them dating back -to the labours of the alchemists of the middle ages in pursuit of gold. -The atomic theory is the child and not the parent of the facts, and is -indeed nothing but the summary of the vast variety of experiments which -led up to it, as Newton’s law of gravity is of the facts known to us -with regard to the attractions and motions of matter in the mass. But as -Newton’s law enables us to predict new facts, to calculate eclipses and -the return of comets beforehand, and to compile nautical almanacs; so the -new chemistry, based on the atomic theory, affords the same conclusive -proof of its truth by enabling us in many cases to predict phenomena -which are subsequently verified by experiment, and to infer beforehand -what combinations are possible, and what will be their nature. - -The actual existence, therefore, of molecules and atoms is as -well-ascertained a fact, as that of cwts. and lbs., or of planets and -stars, of solar systems and nebulæ. - -The researches of chemists have succeeded in discovering about 70 -substances, of which the same may be said as of the oxygen and hydrogen -into which water is decomposed, viz. that they cannot be decomposed -by any known process, and must therefore be considered as ultimate -and elementary. Their atoms differ widely in size and weight: that of -mercury, for instance, being 200 times heavier than that of hydrogen, and -the weights varying from 1 mc. for the hydrogen atom, up to 240 for that -of uranium. When we call them elementary substances, we merely mean that -we know no means of decomposing them. It is possible that all of them may -be compounds which we cannot take to pieces of some substratum of uniform -matter, and it is remarkable that the weight of nearly all of these -elementary atoms is some simple multiple of that of hydrogen, pointing to -their being all combinations of one common substratum of matter; but this -is merely conjecture, and in the present state of our knowledge we must -assume these 66 or 71 ultimate particles or atoms to be the indivisible -units out of which all the complicated puzzle of the material universe -is put together. They are not all equally important to us. Of the 71 -elementary substances enumerated in chemical treatises, 5 are doubtful, -and 30 to 35 of the remainder are either known only to chemists in minute -quantities, or exist in nature in small quantities, having no very -material bearing upon man’s relation to matter. The most important are -oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon. Oxygen diluted by nitrogen gives -us the air we breathe, combined with hydrogen the water we drink, and -with metals and other primitive bases the solid earth on which we tread. -Carbon again is the great basis of organised matter and life, to which it -leads up by a variety of complex combinations with oxygen, hydrogen, and -nitrogen. - -The qualities and relations of elementary atoms afford a subject of great -interest, but of such vast extent that those who wish to understand it -must be referred to professed works on modern chemistry. For the present -purpose it is sufficient to say that the following conclusions are firmly -established. - -All the various forms of matter are composed of combinations of primitive -atoms which form molecules, the molecules being neither more nor less -than very small pieces of ordinary matter. - -The qualities of this matter, or, what is the same thing, of its -molecules, depend partly on the qualities of the atoms, which are -something quite distinct from those of the molecules, and partly on their -mode of aggregation into molecules, affecting the form, size, stability, -and other attributes of the molecule. - -All matter, down to the smallest atom, has definite weight and is -indestructible. No man by taking thought can add the millionth of a -milligramme to the weight of any substance, or make it either more or -less than the sum of the weights of its component factors, any more than -he can add a cubit to his stature. When Shelley sang of the cloud, - - I change, but I cannot die, - -he enunciated a scientific axiom of the first importance. Creation, in -the sense of making something out of nothing, is a thing absolutely -unknown and unknowable to us. If we say we _make_ a ship or a -steam-engine, we simply mean that we transform existing matter and -existing energies into new combinations, which give results convenient -for our purpose. So if we talk of making a world, our idea really is -that if our powers and knowledge were indefinitely increased we might be -able, given the atoms and energies with their laws of existence, to put -them together so as to produce the desired results. But how the atoms and -their inherent laws got there is a question as to which knowledge, or -even conceivability, is impossible, for it altogether transcends human -experience. - -Before finally taking leave of atoms it may be well to state shortly -that science, not content with having proved their existence and weighed -them in terms of the lightest element, the hydrogen atom, has attempted, -not without success, to solve the more difficult problem of their real -dimensions, intervals, and velocities. This problem has been attacked by -Clausius, Sir W. Thomson, Clerk Maxwell, and others, from various sides: -from a comparison with the wave-lengths of light; with the tenuity of -the thinnest films of soap-bubbles just before they burst, and when -they are presumably reduced to a single layer of molecules; and from the -kinetic theory of gases, involving the dimensions, paths, and velocities -of elastic bodies, constantly colliding, and by their impacts producing -the resulting pressure on the confining surface. All these methods -involve such refined mathematical calculations that it is impossible to -explain them popularly, but they all lead to nearly identical results, -which involve figures so marvellous as to be almost incomprehensible. -For instance, a cubic centimetre of air is calculated to contain 21 -trillions of molecules—i.e. 21 times the cube of a million, or 21 -followed by 18 ciphers; the average distance between each molecule equals -95 millionths of a millimetre, which is about 25 times smaller than the -smallest magnitude visible under a microscope; the average velocity of -each molecule is 447 metres per second; and the average number of impacts -received by each molecule in a second is 4,700 millions. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ETHER. - - Ether proved by light—Light-waves—Elasticity of ether—Its - universal diffusion—Influences molecules and atoms—Is influenced - by them—Successive orders of the infinitely small—Illustrated - by the differential and integral calculus—Explanation of this - calculus—Theory of vortex rings. - - -Perhaps the best way to convey some idea of this order of magnitudes -to the ordinary reader is to quote Sir W. Thomson’s illustration, that -if we could suppose a cubic inch of water magnified to the size of the -earth—i.e. to a sphere 24,000 miles in circumference—the dimensions of -its ultimate particles, magnified on the same scale, or, as he expresses -it, its degree of coarse-grainedness, would be something between the size -of rifle-bullets and cricket-balls. - -Extraordinary as these dimensions are, they are not more so than those -at the opposite extremity of the scale, where the distance of stars -and nebulæ has to be measured by the number of thousand years their -light, travelling at the rate of 192,000 miles per second, takes to -reach us. Infinitely small, however, as those dimensions appear to our -original conceptions derived from our natural senses, they are certain -and ascertained facts, if not as to the precise figures, yet beyond all -doubt as to the orders of magnitude. In dealing with them also we are to -a great extent on familiar ground. Molecules are nothing more nor less -than small pieces of ordinary matter; and atoms are also matter, for they -obey the law of gravity, have definite weights, and build up molecules as -surely as molecules build up ordinary matter, and as squared stones build -up pyramids. - -But to understand the constitution of the material universe we must -go a step further, part from the familiar world of sense, and deal -with an all-pervading medium, which is at the same time matter and not -matter, which lies outside the laws of gravity, and yet obeys other laws -intelligible and calculable by us; of which it may be said we know it and -we know it not. We call it Ether. - -Ether is a medium assumed as a necessary consequence from the phenomena -of light, heat, and electricity—primarily from those of light. Respecting -light two facts are known to us with absolute certainty. - -1st. It traverses space at the rate of 192,000 miles per second. - -2nd. It is propagated not by particles actually travelling at this rate, -but, like sound through air, by the transmission of waves. - -The first fact is known from the difference of time at which eclipses of -Jupiter’s satellites are seen according as the earth is at the point of -its orbit nearest to or farthest from Jupiter—i.e. from the time light -takes to traverse the diameter of the earth’s orbit, which is about 180 -millions of miles; and this velocity of light is confirmed by direct -experiments, as by noting the difference of time between seeing the -flash and hearing the sound of a gun, which gives the velocity of light -compared with the known velocity of sound. - -The second fact is equally certain from the phenomena of what are called -interferences, when the crest of one wave just overtakes the hollow of -a preceding one, so that, if the two waves are of equal magnitude, the -oscillations exactly neutralise one another, and two lights produce -darkness. This is shown in a thousand different ways, and for all the -different colours depending on different waves into which white light -is analysed when passed through a prism. It is a certain result of -wave-motion, and of wave-motion only, and therefore we know without a -doubt that light is propagated by waves. - -But waves imply a medium through which waveforms are transmitted, for -waves are nothing but the rhythmic motion of something which rises and -falls, or oscillates symmetrically about a mean position of rest, slowly -or quickly according to the less or greater elasticity of the medium. -The waves which run along a large and slack wire are large and slow, -those along a small and tightly stretched wire are small and quick; and -from the data we possess as to light, its velocity of transmission, -its refraction when its waves pass from one medium into another of -different density, and from the distance between the waves as shown by -interference, it is easy to calculate the lengths and vibratory periods -of the waves, and the elasticity of the medium through which such waves -are transmitted. - -The figures at which we arrive are truly extraordinary. The dimensions -and rates of oscillations of the waves which produce the different -colours of visible light have been measured and calculated with the -greatest accuracy, and they are as follows: - -DIMENSIONS OF LIGHT-WAVES. - - +---------------+---------------+-----------------------+ - | Colours |No. of waves in|No. of oscillations in | - | | one inch | one second | - +---------------+---------------+-----------------------+ - |Red | 39,000 | 477,000,000,000,000 | - |Orange | 42,000 | 506,000,000,000,000 | - |Yellow | 44,000 | 535,000,000,000,000 | - |Green | 47,000 | 577,000,000,000,000 | - |Blue | 51,000 | 622,000,000,000,000 | - |Indigo | 54,000 | 658,000,000,000,000 | - |Violet | 57,000 | 699,000,000,000,000 | - +---------------+---------------+-----------------------+ - -The elasticity of this wonderful medium is even more extraordinary. - -The rapidity with which wave-motion is transmitted depends, other things -being equal, on the elasticity of the medium, which is proportional to -the square of the velocity with which a wave travels through it. As the -velocity of the sound-wave in air is about 1,100 feet in a second, and -that of the light-wave about 192,000 miles in the same time, it follows -that the velocity of the latter is about a million times greater than -that of the former, and if the density of ether were the same as that of -air, its elasticity must be about a million million times greater. But -the elasticity is the same thing as the power of resisting compression, -which in the case of air we know to be about 15 pounds to the square -inch; so that the ether, if equally dense, would balance a pressure of -15 million million pounds to the square inch—that is, it would require -a pressure of about 750 millions of tons to the square inch to condense -ether to the density of air. On the other hand, its density, if any, -must be so infinitesimally small that the earth moving through it in its -orbit with a velocity of 1,100 miles a minute suffers no perceptible -retardation. - -Consider what this means. Air blowing at the rate of 100 miles an hour -is a hurricane uprooting trees and levelling houses. If ether were as -dense as air the resistance to the earth in passing through it would -be 600 times that of going dead to windward in a tropical hurricane. -But in point of fact there is no sensible resistance, for the earth and -heavenly bodies move in their calculated paths according to the law of -gravity exactly as they would do if they were moving in a vacuum. Even -the comets, which consist of such excessively rare matter that when one -of them got entangled among the satellites of Jupiter it did not affect -their movements, are not retarded by the ether, or so slightly, that any -retardation in the case of one or two of them is suspected rather than -proved. But, if the ether has no weight, how can we call it material, -weight being, as we have seen, the invariable test and measure of all -matter down to the minutest atom? And yet how can we deny its existence -when it is demonstrably necessary to account for undoubted facts revealed -to us every day by the prism, the spectroscope, electricity, and chemical -action, and deductions from these facts based on the strict laws of -mathematical calculation? For the existence of the ether is not based -only on the phenomena of light: it is an equally necessary postulate to -explain those of heat, electricity, and chemical action. We must conceive -of our atoms and molecules as forming systems and performing their -movements, not in vacuo, but in an all-pervading medium of this ether, to -which they impart, and from which they receive, impulses. - -These impulses are excessively minute, and when they occur in irregular -order they produce no appreciable effect; but when the vibrations of -the ether keep time with those of the atoms, the multitude of small -effects becomes summed up into one considerable enough to produce great -changes. Just so a rhythmic succession of tiny ripples may set a heavy -buoy oscillating, and the footfalls of a regiment of soldiers marching -over a suspension-bridge may make it swing until it breaks down, while -a confused mob could traverse it in safety. The latter affords a good -illustration of the way in which molecular structures may be broken down, -and their atoms set free to enter into other combinations, by the action -of heat, light, or chemical rays beyond the visible end of the spectrum. - -Conversely the phenomena of the spectroscope all depend on the fact that -the vibrations of atoms and molecules can propagate waves through the -ether, as well as absorb ether-waves into their own motions, and thus -give spectra distinguished by bright or dark lines peculiar to each -substance, by which it can be identified. Whatever ether may be, this -much is certain about it: it pervades all space. That it extends to the -boundaries of the infinitely great we know from the fact that light -reaches us from the remotest stars and nebulæ, and that in this light -the spectroscope enables us to detect waves propagated and absorbed by -the very same vibrations of the same familiar atoms at these enormous -distances as at the earth’s surface. Glowing hydrogen, for instance, is a -principal ingredient of the sun’s atmosphere and of those distant suns we -call stars, and it affects the ether and is affected by it exactly in the -same manner as the hydrogen burning in an ordinary gas-lamp. - -In the direction also of the infinitely small, ether permeates the -apparently solid structure of crystals, whose molecules perform their -limited and rigidly definite movements in an atmosphere of it, as is -shown by the fact that in so many cases light and heat penetrate through -them. A whole series of remarkable phenomena arise from the manner in -which the vibrations of ether which cause light are affected by the -structure of the molecules of crystals through which they pass. In -certain cases they are what is called polarised, or so affected that -while they pass freely if the crystal is held in one direction, they -are stopped if it is turned round through an angle of 90° to its former -position, so that one and the same crystal may be alternately transparent -and non-transparent. It would seem as if its structure were like that -of wood, grained, and more easy to penetrate if cut with the grain -than against it, so that when a ray of light attempted to penetrate, -its vibrations were resolved into two, one with the grain which got -through, the other against it which was suppressed; so that the emerging -ray, which entered with a circular vibration, got out with only one -rectilinear vibration parallel to the diameter which coincided with the -grain. - -Other crystals of more complicated structure affect transmitted light in -a more complex way, developing a double polarity very similar to that -induced in the iron filings when brought under the influence of the -two poles of the magnet. With this polarised light the most beautiful -coloured rings can be produced from the waves of the different colours -into which the white light has been analysed in passing through the -crystal, which alternately flash out and disappear as the crystal is -turned round its axis, and which present a remarkable analogy to the -curves into which the iron filings form themselves under the single or -double poles of the magnet. - -The importance of this will appear afterwards, but for the present it -is sufficient to show that the waves of ether which cause light really -penetrate through the molecules of crystals, but in doing so may be -affected by them. - -[Illustration: RINGS OF POLARISED LIGHT, UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS. RINGS OF -POLARISED LIGHT, BIAXIAL CRYSTALS.] - -In dealing with these excessively small magnitudes it may assist the -reader who has some acquaintance with mathematics in forming some -conception of them, to refer to that refinement of calculation, the -differential and integral calculus. And even the non-mathematical reader -may find it worth while to give a little attention in order to gain -some idea of this celebrated calculus which was the key by which Newton -and his successors unlocked the mysteries of the heavens. The first -rough idea of it is gained by considering what would happen if, in a -calculation involving hundreds of miles, we neglected inches. Suppose we -had a block of land to measure, 300 miles long and 200 wide; as there -are, say, 5,000 feet in a mile, and the error from omitting inches could -not exceed a foot, the utmost error in the measurement of length could -not exceed 1/1500000th, and in width 1/1000000th part of the correct -amount. In the area of 300 × 200 = 60,000 square miles, the limit of -error would, by adding or omitting the rectangle formed by multiplying -together these two small errors, not exceed 1/1500000 × 1/1000000 = -1/1500000000000th part. It is evident that the first error is an -excessively small part of the true figure, and the second error a still -more excessively small part of the first error. But, as we are dealing -with abstract numbers, we can just as readily conceive our initial error -to be the 1/100th or 1/1000th of an inch, as one inch; and, in fact, -diminish it until it becomes an infinitesimally small or evanescent -quantity. In doing so, however, it is evident that we shall make the -second error such a still more infinitesimally small fraction of the -first that it may be considered as altogether disappearing. - -The first error is called a differential of the first order and denoted -by _d_, the second a differential of the second order denoted by d₂. -Thus if we call the base of our rectangle _x_ and its height _y_, the -area will be _xy_. Let us suppose _x_ to receive the addition of a very -small increment _dx_, and _y_ the corresponding increment _dy_, what -will be the corresponding increment of the area, or _d.xy_? Clearly -the difference between the old area _xy_ and the new area (_x_ + _dx_) -multiplied by (_y_ + _dy_). This multiplication gives - - _x_ + _dx_ - _y_ + _dy_ - ------------ - _xy_ + _ydx_ - _xdy_ + dx.dy - ------------------------------ - _xy_ + _xdy_ + _ydx_ + _dx.dy_ - -The difference between this and _xy_ is _xdy_ + _ydx_ + _dx.dy_. But -_dx.dy_ is, as we have seen, a differential of the second order and may -be neglected. Therefore _dxy_ = _xdy_ + _ydx_. In like manner _dx_² = -(_x_ + _dx_)²-_x_² = 2_xdx_ + _dx_², which last term may be neglected, -and _dx_² = 2_xdx_. In this way the differentials of all manner of -functions and equations of symbols representing dimensions and motions -may be found. Conversely the wholes may be considered as made up of an -infinite number of these infinitely small parts, and found from them by -summing up or integrating the differentials. Thus if we had the equation - - _xdy_ + _ydx_ = 2_zdz_ - -we know that the left-hand side is the differential of _xy_, and -therefore that by integrating it we shall get _xy_; while the right side -is the differential of _z_² which we shall get by integrating it. The -relation expressed therefore is that _xy_ = _z_², or, in other words, -that a rectangle whose sides are _x_ and _y_ exactly equals a square -whose side is _z_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.] - -The use of this device in assisting calculation will be apparent if we -take the case of an area bounded by a curved line. We cannot directly -calculate this area, but we can easily tell that of a rectangle. Now it -is evident that if we inscribe rectangles in this area ABC, the more -rectangles we inscribe the less will be the error in taking their sum -as equal to the curved area. This is apparent if we compare fig. 2 with -fig. 3. Suppose we take a point P on the curve, call BN = _x_ and PN = -_y_, and suppose N_n_ to be _dx_, the differentially small increment of -_x_, and _pq_ = _dy_ the corresponding small increment of _y_. The area -of the rectangle P_qn_N = PN × N_n_ = _ydx_, and differs from the true -curvilinear area P_pn_N by less than the little rectangle of P_q_ × _pq_ -or of _dx_._dy_. But, as we have seen, if we push our division to the -first infinitesimal order, or make N_n_ and _pq_ differentials of _x_ and -_y_, _dx_._dy_ may be neglected—i.e. multiply the number of rectangles -indefinitely, and the sum of their areas will differ from the true area -inclosed by the curve by an error which is evanescent. - -If then _x_ and _y_ are connected by some fixed law, as must be the case -if the extremity of _y_ traces out some regular curve, the relation -between them may be expressed by an equation, which will remain one -however often it may be differentiated or again integrated, and whatever -modifications or transformations it may receive by mathematical processes -which do not alter the essential equality of the two sides connected by -the symbol of equality =. Thus by differentiating and casting off as -evanescent all differentials of a lower order than that which we are -working with, we may arrive at forms of which we know the integrals, and -by integrating get back to the results in ordinary numbers, which we were -in search of but could not attain directly. - -The same thing will apply if our symbols are more numerous, and if -they express relations of motion as well as of space, or, in fact, any -relations which are governed by fixed laws expressible by equations. If -I have succeeded in conveying to the readers any idea of this celebrated -calculus, they will perceive what an analogy it presents to the idea -of modern physical and chemical science, that of molecules, atoms, and -ether, forming differentials of successive orders of the infinitely -small. It is certainly most remarkable that while the former was a -purely intellectual idea based on mathematical abstractions, and which -was invented and worked as an instrument for solving the most intricate -astronomical problems for nearly two centuries, without a suspicion -that it represented any objective reality: the latter idea, based on -actual experiment, seems to show that differentials and integrals have -their real counterpart in nature and represent fundamental facts in the -constitution of the universe. - -Those who are of a mystic or metaphysical turn of mind may discern in -this, arguments for matter and laws of matter being after all only -manifestations of one universal, all-pervading mind; but in following -such speculations we should be deserting the solid earth for cloudland, -and passing the limit of positive knowledge into the region where -reflections of our own hopes, fears, religious feelings, and poetical -sentiments form and dissolve themselves against the background of the -great unknown. For the present, therefore, I confine myself to pointing -out how these undoubted truths of mathematical science, which have -verified themselves in the practical form of enabling us to predict -eclipses and construct nautical almanacs, correspond with and throw light -upon the equally certain facts of this succession of infinitely small -quantities of successive orders in the constitution of matter. - -An attempt has recently been made, based on abstruse mathematical -calculations, to carry our knowledge of the constitution of matter one -step further back, and identify atoms with ether. This is attempted by -the vortex theory of Helmholz, Sir W. Thomson, and Professor Tait. It is -singular how some of the ultimate facts discovered by the refinements -of science correspond with some of the most trivial amusements. Thus -the blowing of soap-bubbles gives the best clue to the movement of waves -of light, and through them to the dimensions of molecules and atoms; -and the collision of billiard-balls, knocked about at random, to the -movements of those minute bodies, and the kinetic theory of gases. In the -case of the vortex theory the idea is given by the rings of smoke which -certain adroit smokers amuse themselves by puffing into the air. These -rings float for a considerable time, retaining their circular form, and -showing their elasticity by oscillating about it and returning to it if -their form is altered, and by rebounding and vibrating energetically, -just as two solid elastic bodies would do, if two rings come into -collision. If we try to cut them in two, they recede before the knife, or -bend round it, returning, when the external force is removed, to their -original form without the loss of a single particle, and preserving -their own individuality through every change of form and of velocity. -This persistence of form they owe to the fact that their particles are -revolving in small circles at right angles to the axis or circumference -of the larger circle which forms the ring; motion thus giving them -stability, very much as in the familiar instance of the bicycle. They -burst at last because they are formed and rotate in the air, which is a -resisting medium; but mathematical calculation shows that in a perfect -fluid free from all friction these vortex rings would be indivisible and -indestructible: in other words, they would be atoms. - -The vortex theory assumes, therefore, that the universe consists of one -uniform primary substance, a fluid which fills all space, and that what -we call matter consists of portions of this fluid which have become -animated with vortex motion. The innumerable atoms which form molecules, -and through molecules all the diversified forms of matter of the material -universe, are therefore simply so many vortex rings, each perfectly -limited, distinct, and indestructible, both as to its form, mass, and -mode of motion. They cannot change or disappear, nor can they be formed -spontaneously. Those of the same kind are constituted after the same -fashion, and therefore are endowed with the same properties. - -The theory is a plausible one, and the reputation of its authors must -command for it respectful consideration; but it is as yet a long way -from being an established theory which can be accepted as a true -representation of facts. In the first place it is based solely on -mathematical theory, and not, as in the case of atoms and light-waves, -upon actual facts of weight and measurement tested by experiment, and to -which mathematical reasoning affords only an aid and supplement. No one -has proved the existence of such a medium or of such vortex rings, much -less weighed or measured them. - -Moreover the theory is open to some very obvious objections. How can -aggregations of imponderable matter acquire weight, and become subject -to the law of gravity, which, as we have seen, is one of the essential -and permanent qualities of atoms? If a cubic millionth of a millimetre of -ether formed into a big vortex ring of, say, an atom of mercury, has a -weight equal to 200 times that of an atom of hydrogen, which itself has -a definite weight, why has it no weight in its original form? And if it -had weight, however small, how could the enormous mass of ether filling -all space produce no perceptible effect on bodies, even of attenuated -cometic vapour, revolving through it with immense velocities? Again, -how could these innumerable vortex rings be formed out of the ether -without disturbing the uniformity and continuity of the medium, which -are essential for the propagation of the light-waves through it? And how -could the motions requisite to form the vortex rings be impressed on them -_de novo_ consistently with the principle of the conservation of energy? -Energy can no more be created out of nothing than matter, by any process -known in nature or conceivable by the human intellect; and to assume it -is simply a more refined manner of falling back on the supernatural, -which is itself only a more refined manner of saying that we know nothing. - -For the present, therefore, we must be content with atoms and ether as -the ultimate terms of our knowledge of the material or quasi-material -components of the universe. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ENERGY. - - Energy of motion and of position—Energy can be - transformed, not created or destroyed—Not created by free - will—Conservation of mechanical power—Convertibility of - heat and work—Nature of heat—The steam-engine—Different - forms of energy—Gravity—Molecular energy—Chemical - energy—Dynamite—Chemical affinities—Electricity—Produced - by friction—By the voltaic battery—Electric currents—Arc - light—Induction—Magnetism—The magnetic needle—The electric - telegraph—The telephone—Dynamo-electric engine—Accumulator. - - -Those ultimate elements, however, atoms and ether, only give us what may -be called the dead half of the universe, which could not exist without -the constant presence of the animating principle of force or energy. -Energy is the term generally adopted in the language of science, for -force is apt to be associated with human effort and with actual motion -produced, while energy is a comprehensive term, embracing whatever -produces or is capable of producing motion. Thus, if we bend a cross-bow, -the force with which it is bent may either reappear at once in the flight -of the arrow, if we let go the string; or it may remain stored up, if we -fix the string in the notch, ready to reappear when we pull the trigger. -In the former case it is called energy of motion, in the latter energy of -position. It is important to realise this distinction clearly, for many -of the ordered and harmonious arrangements of the universe depend on the -polarity, or conflict with alternate victories and defeats, between those -two forms of energy. - -[Illustration] - -Thus if A B is a pendulum suspended at the point A, if we move it from -its position of rest A C to A B and hold it there, its whole energy -is that of position. If we let it go it swings backwards and forwards -between the positions _A B_ and _A D_, and but for the resistance of the -air and the friction at the point of suspension, it would so swing for -ever. But in thus swinging what happens? From A B to A C energy of motion -keeps gaining on energy of position, until when the pendulum reaches C, -it has annihilated it. Energy of position has entirely disappeared, and -the whole original force expended in raising the pendulum to A B exactly -reappears in the force or momentum of the pendulum at its lowest point. -But is this victory final? By no means; energy of position having touched -bottom, gathers, like Antæus, fresh vigour for the contest, and from the -position A C upwards it gains ground on its adversary until when the -pendulum reaches A D it is in its turn completely victorious. - -The same alternation between energy of motion and of position takes place -in all rhythmical movements such as waves, which, whether in water, air, -or ether, are propagated, as in the case of the pendulum, by particles -forced out of their position of rest and oscillating between the two -energies. - -[Illustration] - -Thus if waves run along an elastic wire A B, the particle P, which has -been forced into the position _p_, oscillates backwards and forwards -between _p_ and _q_, beginning with nothing but energy of position -at _p_, losing it all for energy of motion at P, and regaining it at -_q_. All wave-motions therefore—that is to say, all sound, light, and -heat—depend on this primitive polarity. - -If we have got this definition of the two forms of energy clearly -into our heads, we shall be the better prepared for this further -generalisation—the grandest, perhaps, in the whole range of modern -science—that energy, like matter, is indestructible, and can only be -transformed, but never created or annihilated. - -This is at first sight a more difficult proposition to establish in -the case of energy than in that of matter. In the latter case we have -nothing in our experience that can lead us to suppose that we have ever -created something out of nothing; but in the former, our first impression -undoubtedly is that we do create force. If I throw a stone at a bird I -have an instinctive impression that the force which projects the stone -is the creation of my own conscious will; that I had the choice either -to throw or not to throw; and that if I had decided not to throw, the -impelling force would never have existed. But, if we look more closely at -the matter, it is not really so. The chain of events is this: the first -impulse proceeds from the visual rays, which, concentrated by the lens of -the eye on the retina, give an image of the bird; this sends vibrations -along the optic nerve to the brain, setting in motion certain molecules -of that organ; these again send vibrations along other nerves to certain -muscles of the arm and hand, which contract, and by doing so give out the -energy of movement which throws the stone. All this process is strictly -mechanical; the eye acts precisely like a camera obscura in forming the -image; the nerve-vibrations, though not identical with those of the wires -of an electric telegraph, are of the same nature, their velocity can be -measured, and their presence detected by the galvanometer; the energy of -the muscle is stored there by the slow combustion of the food we have -eaten, in the oxygen of the air we have breathed. Take any of these -conditions away, and no effort of the will can produce the result. If -the nerve is paralysed, or the muscle, from prolonged starvation, has no -energy left, the stone will not be thrown, however much we may desire to -kill the bird. - -Again, precisely the same circle of events takes place in numerous -instances without any intervention of this additional factor of conscious -will. We breathe mechanically, the muscles of the chest causing it -to rise and fall like the waves of the ocean, without any deliberate -intention of taking air into the lungs and exhaling it. Nay more, there -are instances of what was at first accompanied by the sensation of -conscious will, ceasing to be so when the molecular movements had made -channels for themselves, as when a piano-player, who had learned his -notes with difficulty, ends by playing a complicated piece automatically. -The case of animals also raises another difficulty. Suppose a retriever -dog sees his master shoot at and miss a hare: shall he obey the -promptings of his animal instinct and give chase, or those of his higher -moral nature which tell him that it is wrong to do so without the word -of command? It is hard to see how this differs from the case of a man -resisting or yielding to temptation; and how, if we assign conscious will -to the man, we can deny it to the dog. - -Reasoning from these premises, some philosophers have come to the -conclusion that man and all animals are but mechanical automata, cleverly -constructed to work in a certain way fitting in with the equally -preordained course of outward phenomena; and that the sensation of will -is merely an illusion arising as a last refinement in the adjustment -of the machinery. But here comes in that principle of duality or -polarity, by which a proposition may be at once true and untrue, and -two contradictory opposites exist together. No amount of philosophical -reasoning can make us believe that we are altogether machines and not -free agents; it runs off us like water from a duck’s back, and leaves us -in presence of the intuitive conviction that to a great extent - - Man is man and master of his fate. - -If this be an illusion, why not everything—evidence of the senses, -experiment, natural law, science, as well as morality and religion? - -To pursue this farther would lead us far astray into the misty realm of -metaphysics, and I refer to it only as showing that the principle of the -conservation of energy, standing as it does in apparent contradiction to -our natural impressions, requires a fuller demonstration than the kindred -principle of the indestructibility of matter. - -[Illustration] - -In the case of ordinary mechanical power it had been long known that the -intervention of machinery did not create force, but only transformed it. -If a weight of 1 lb., A, just balances a weight of 2 lb., B, by aid of a -pulley, and by the addition of a minute fraction, such as a grain, raises -it 1 foot, it will be invariably found that A has descended 2 feet. In -other words, 1 lb. working through 2 feet does exactly the same work -as 2 lbs. working through 1 foot. And whatever may be the intervening -machinery the same thing holds good, and the work put in at one end comes -out, neither more nor less, at the other, except for a minute loss due -to friction and resistance of air. If a force equal to 1 lb. is made, by -multiplying the intermediate machinery, to raise a ton a foot from the -ground, exactly as much force must have been exerted as if the ton had -been divided into 2,240 parts of 1 lb. each, and each part separately -lifted. - -But although energy cannot be created, at first sight it seems as if it -might be destroyed, as when the ton falls to the ground and seems to have -lost all its energy, whether of motion or of position. But here science -steps in and shows us that it is not destroyed, but simply transformed -into another sort of motion, which we call heat. - -Some connection between mechanical work and heat had long been known, as -in the familiar experiment of rubbing our hands together to warm them; -and the practice known to most primitive races of obtaining fire by -twirling a stick rapidly in a hole drilled in a block of wood; a practice -described by the old Sanskrit word ‘pramantha,’ which means an instrument -for obtaining fire by pressure or friction, and which, translated into -Greek, has been immortalised by the legend of Prometheus. But it was -reserved for recent years, and for an English philosopher, Dr. Joule, -to give scientific precision and generality to this idea, by actually -measuring the amount of heat produced by a given amount of work, and -showing that they were in all cases convertible terms, so much heat for -so much work, and so much work for so much heat. He did this by measuring -accurately by a thermometer the heat added to a given amount of water by -the work done by a set of paddles revolving in it, set in rapid motion by -a known weight descending through a known space. The unit of work being -taken as that sufficient to raise 1 kilogramme through 1 metre, and that -of heat as that required to raise the temperature of one kilogramme of -water by 1° Centigrade, the relation between them, as found by a vast -number of careful experiments, is that of 424 to 1. That is, one unit of -heat is equal to 424 units of work. - -In this, and all cases requiring scientific precision, it is better to -use the units of the metrical system than our clumsy English standards; -but it may be sufficient for the ordinary reader to take the metre, -which is about 39·37 inches, as practically a yard, and the kilogramme, -which is 15,432 English grains, as practically equal to 2 lbs. This is -sufficient to show the much greater energy of the invisible forces which -act at minute distances, than that of gravity and other forces which do -appreciable mechanical work, the energy of a weight falling from a height -of more than 1,300 feet being only sufficient to heat its own weight by -1°. - -This proof of the convertibility of work into heat gives much greater -precision to our ideas respecting the real nature of heat and its kindred -molecular and atomic energies. Heat is clearly not a material substance, -for a body does not gain weight by becoming hotter. In the case of all -ponderable matter down to the atoms, which are only of the size of -cricket-balls compared to that of the earth, any combination which adds -matter adds weight, and the weight of the product exactly equals the -sum of the weights of the separate factors which have united to form -it. Thus, if iron is burnt in oxygen gas, the product, oxide of iron or -rust, weighs more than the original iron by just as much as the weight -of the oxygen which has been consumed. But heat, light, and electricity -add nothing to the weight of a body when they are added to it, and take -nothing away when they are subtracted. The inference is unavoidable that -heat, like light, is not ponderable matter, but an energy transmitted -by waves of the imponderable medium known as ether. This is confirmed -by finding that when a ray from the sun is analysed by passing through -a refracting prism, one part of the spectrum shows light of various -colours, while another gives heat. The hottest part of the spectrum lies -in the red and beyond it, showing that the heat-waves are longer, and -their oscillations slower, than those of light. Heat-waves also may be -made to interfere, and to become polarised, in a manner analogous to the -phenomena exhibited by those of light. - -There can be no doubt, therefore, that heat, like light, is an energy -or mode of motion, transmitted by waves of an imponderable ether, and -that it acts on the molecules and atoms of matter by the accumulated -successive impulses of those waves on the molecules and atoms which are -floating in it, or rather which are revolving in it, in definite groups -and fixed orbits, like miniature solar systems or starry universes. We -can now see how heat performs work, and why work can be transformed into -it. - -Heat performs work in two ways. First, it expands bodies—that is, it -draws their molecules farther apart against the force of cohesion which -binds them together or keeps them moving in definite orbits at definite -distances. It is as if it increased the velocity, and therefore the -centrifugal force of a system of planets, and so caused them to revolve -in wider orbits. The expansion of mercury in a thermometer affords a -familiar instance of this effect of heat and the readiest measure of its -amount. Secondly, it increases the energy of the molecular motions, so -that they dart about, collide, and vibrate with greater force. Thus, as -heat increases, evaporation increases, for molecules on the surface are -projected with so much force as to get beyond the sphere of the cohesive -attraction which binds them to the system, and they dart off like comets -into space. Finally, as heat increases, and more and more work is done, -against the centripetal force of cohesion, most substances, and doubtless -all if we could get heat enough, are converted from solids into fluids, -and ultimately into gases, in which latter state the molecules have got -altogether beyond the sphere of their mutual attraction, and tend to -dart off indefinitely in the direction of their own proper centrifugal -motions, unless confined, in which case they dart about, collide, -rebound, and exercise pressure on the containing surface. - -Conversely, if heat expands bodies, it is given out when they contract. -Thus the enormous quantity of heat poured out for millions of years by -the sun, is probably owing mainly to the mechanical force of contraction -of the original cosmic matter condensing about the solar nucleus. - -Again, when gases suddenly expand, their temperature falls, which is -the principle by which artificial ice is procured, and frozen beef and -mutton are brought from America and Australia, producing, such are the -complicated relations of modern society, agricultural depression, fall of -rents, and a serious aggravation of the Irish question. - -As an example of the converse proposition of the transformation of heat -into mechanical work, the steam-engine affords the aptest illustration. -The original power came from the sun millions of years ago, and did work -by enabling the leaves of plants to overcome the strong mutual affinity -of carbon and oxygen in the carbonic dioxide in the air, and store up the -carbon in the plant, where it remained since the coal era in the form of -energy of position. By lighting the coal, or in other words separating -its molecules more widely by heat, we enable them to exert once more -their natural affinity for oxygen, and burn, that is recombine into -carbonic dioxide. The heat thus produced turns water into steam, which -passes through a cylinder, either into a condenser if the steam is at low -pressure, or into the outer air if it has been superheated and brought -to a higher pressure than that of the atmosphere. The difference of the -pressure or elasticity of the steam in the boiler, and of the same steam -when it is condensed or liberated, is available for doing work, and, -being admitted and released alternately at the two ends of the cylinder, -drives a piston up and down, which, by means of cranks and shafts, -turns a wheel or does whatever work is required of it. In doing this, -heat disappears, being converted into work, and the amount of heat would -exactly equal that into which the work would be converted according to -Joule’s law, if it could all be utilised without the loss necessarily -incurred by friction, radiation, and the still more important absorption -of latent heat required to convert water at boiling-point into vapour -of the same temperature. This latter is not really an annihilation of -the heat, but its conversion into work done in separating the molecules -against the force of cohesion. The whole heat, therefore, is transformed -into work, mainly molecular work in tearing molecules asunder, and the -residue into mechanical work turning spindles and driving locomotives and -steamboats. - -The intermediate machinery here, including the water in the boiler, is -merely the means of applying the original energy in the particular way -we desire. The essential thing is the transformation of a certain amount -of heat into work by passing, in accordance with the laws of heat, from -a hotter to a colder body. The last condition is indispensable, for the -nature of heat is to seek an equilibrium by passing from hot to cold, and -no work can be got out of it in the reverse way. On the contrary, work -must be expended and turned into heat to restore the temperature which -has run down. The case is analogous to that of water, which, if raised by -evaporation or stored up in reservoirs at a level above the sea, can be -made to turn a wheel while it is running down; but when it has all run -down to the sea level, can do no more work, and can only be pumped up -again to a higher level by the expenditure of fresh work. Owing to this -tendency of heat we can see that, although matter and energy are to all -appearance indestructible, the present constitution of the universe is -not eternal. The animating energy of heat is always tending to obliterate -differences of temperature, and bring all energy down to one uniform dead -level of a common average, in which no further life, work, or motion are -possible. Fortunately this consummation is far off, and for many tens -or hundreds of millions of years the inhabitants of this tiny planet -may feel fairly secure, and need not, like the late Dr. Cumming, of -millenarian celebrity, introduce breaks in the leases of their houses to -provide against the contingency of the world coming to an end at an early -date. - -Dismissing, then, to the remote future any speculations as to the failure -of this essential element of active energy, let us rather consider the -various protean forms in which it shows itself. - -1. The energy of visible motion, which, as we have seen, may be -transformed into an equivalent amount of energy of position. - -2. Molecular energy, which causes the cohesive attraction, repulsion, and -other proper motions of these minute and invisible particles of matter. - -3. Energy of heat and light, which are transmitted by waves of the -assumed imponderable medium called ether. - -4. Energy of chemical action, by which the small ultimate particles of -ponderable matter, called atoms, separate and combine into the various -combinations of molecules constituting visible matter, in obedience to -certain affinities, or inherent attractions and repulsions. - -5. Electrical energy, which includes magnetism as a special instance. - -All these forms of energy may exist, as in the case of visible energy, -either as energies of motion or of position, and the actual constitution -of the universe is due in a great measure to the alternation of these -two energies. Thus all wave-motion, whether it be of the waves of the -sea grinding down a rocky coast, of the air transmitting sound, or of -ether transmitting light and heat, are instances of energies of motion -and of position, conflicting with one another and alternately gaining -the victory. So also a pound of gunpowder or dynamite has an immense -energy of position, which, when its atoms are let loose from their -mutual unstable connection by heat or percussion, manifests itself in an -enormous energy of motion, which is more or less destructive according to -the rapidity with which the atoms rush into new combinations. - -Let us consider these different energies a little more in detail. The -energy of visible motion is manifested principally by the law of gravity, -under which all matter attracts other matter directly as the mass and -inversely as the square of the distance. It is a universal and uniform -law of matter, and can be traced without change or variation from the -minutest atom up to the remotest double star. The energy of living force -might, at first sight, be considered as another of the commonest causes -of visible motion; but, when closely analysed, it will be found that what -appears as such is only the result of molecular energy of position stored -up in the living body by chemical changes during the slow combustion of -food, and that nothing has been added by any hypothetical vital force. -The conscious will seems to act in those cases simply as the signalman -who shows a white flag may act on a train which has been standing on the -line waiting for it. The energy which moves the train is due entirely -to the difference of heat, which has been developed by the combustion -of coal, between the steam in the boiler and the steam when allowed to -escape into the air; and this energy came originally from the sun, whose -rays enabled the leaves of growing plants to decompose carbonic dioxide -and store up the carbon in the coal. Of this force of gravity causing -visible motion we may say that it is comparatively a very weak force, -which acts uniformly over all distances great or small. - -Molecular energies, on the other hand, act with vastly greater force, but -at very small distances, and appear sometimes as attractive and sometimes -as repulsive forces. Thus solid bodies are held together by a force of -cohesion which is very powerful, but acts only at very small distances, -as we may see if we break a piece of glass and try to mend it by pressing -the broken edges together. We cannot bring them near enough to bring the -molecular attraction again into play and make the broken glass solid. -But the same glass acts with repellent energy if another solid tries -to penetrate it, so that we can walk on a glass floor without sinking -into it. Heat also, by increasing the distance between the molecules, -first weakens the cohesive force so that the solid becomes fluid, and -finally overcomes it altogether, so that it passes into the state of gas -in which the centripetal attraction of the molecules is extinguished, -and they tend to recede further and further from each other under the -centrifugal force of their own proper velocities. The great energy of -molecular forces will be apparent from the fact that a bar of iron, in -cooling 10° Centigrade, contracts with a force equal to a ton for each -square inch of section, as exemplified in the tubular bridge across the -Menai Straits, where space has to be allowed for the free contraction and -expansion of the iron under changes of temperature. - -Chemical energy, or the mutual attractions and repulsions of atoms, is -even more powerful than that of molecules. It displays itself in their -elective affinities, or what may be called the likes and dislikes, -or loves and hatreds, of these ultimate particles. Perhaps the best -illustration will be afforded by that ‘latest resource of civilisation,’ -dynamite. This substance, or to give it its scientific name, -nitro-glycerine, is composed of molecules each of which is a complex -combination of nine atoms of oxygen, five of hydrogen, three of nitrogen, -and three of carbon. Of these, oxygen and hydrogen have a strong affinity -for one another, as is seen by their rushing together whenever they get -the chance, and by their union forming the very stable compound, water. -Oxygen and carbon have also a very strong affinity, and readily form -the stable product carbonic dioxide gas. Nitrogen, on the other hand, -is a very inert substance; its molecule consists of two atoms of itself -which are bound together by a strong affinity, and can only be coaxed -with difficulty into combinations with other elements, forming compounds -which are, as it were, artificial structures, and very unstable. We -see this in the air, which consists mainly of oxygen and nitrogen, but -not in chemical combination, the oxygen being simply diluted by the -nitrogen, as whisky is with water, with the same object of diluting the -too powerful oxygen or too potent alcohol, and enabling the air-breather -or whisky-drinker to take them into the system without burning up the -tissues too rapidly. If nitrogen had more affinity for oxygen it would -combine chemically with it, and we should live in an atmosphere of -nitrous oxide, or laughing gas. - -The molecule, therefore, of nitro-glycerine resembles a house of cards, -so nicely balanced that it will just stand, but will fall to pieces at -the slightest touch. When this is supplied by a slight percussion the -molecule falls to pieces and is resolved into its constituent atoms, -which rush together in accordance with their natural affinities, forming -an immense volume of gas, partly of water in the form of steam where -oxygen has combined with hydrogen, and partly of carbonic dioxide where -it has combined with carbon, leaving the nitrogen atoms to pair off, and -revert to their original form of two-atom molecules of nitrogen gas. -It is as if ill-assorted couples, who had been united by matrimonial -bonds tied by the manœuvres of Belgravian mothers, found themselves -suddenly freed by a decree of divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_, and rushed -impetuously into each other’s arms, according to the laws of their -respective affinities. So striking is the similitude that one of Goethe’s -best-known novels, the ‘Wahlverwandschaften,’ takes its title from the -human play of these chemical reactions. The enormous energy developed -when these atomic forces are let loose and a vast volume of gas almost -instantaneously created, is attested by the destructive force by which -the hardest rocks are shattered to pieces and the strongest buildings -overthrown. - -These loves and hatreds, or, as they are termed, chemical affinities and -repulsions of the atoms, are the principal means by which the material -structure of the universe is built up from the original elements. -The earth, or solid crust of the planet we inhabit, consists mainly -of oxidised bases, and is due to the affinity of oxygen for silicon, -calcium, aluminium, iron, and other primary elements of what are called -metals. This affinity enables them to make stable compounds, which, under -the existing conditions of temperature and otherwise, hold together and -are not readily decomposed. Water in like manner, in all its forms of -waves, seas, lakes, rivers, clouds, and invisible vapour, is due to the -affinity between oxygen and hydrogen forming a stable compound. Salt -again is owing to the affinity of chlorine for sodium, and so for nearly -all the various products with which we are familiar, oxygen and nitrogen -in the air we breathe being almost the only elements which exist in their -primary and uncombined state in any considerable quantities, and form -an essential part of the conditions which render our planet a habitable -abode for man and other forms of life. - -We shall see presently something more of the nature of these affinities, -and the laws by which they act; but before entering on this branch -of the subject we must consider the remaining form in which the one -indestructible energy of the universe manifests itself, viz. that of -electricity. - -Electricity is the most subtle and the least understood of these forms. -In its simplest form it appears as the result of friction between -dissimilar substances. Thus if we rub a glass rod with a piece of silk, -taking care that both are warm and dry, we find that the glass has -acquired the property of attracting light bodies, such as little bits -of paper, or balls of elder-pith. Other substances, such as sealing-wax -and amber, have the same property. Pursuing our research further we find -that this influence is not, like that of gravity, uniform and always -acting in the same direction, but of two kinds, equal and opposite. If we -touch the pith-ball by the excited glass rod, it will after contact be -repelled; but if we bring the ball which has been excited by contact with -the glass within the influence of a stick of sealing-wax which has been -excited by rubbing it with warm dry flannel, the ball instead of being -repelled is attracted. - -Conversely, if the pith-ball has been first touched by excited -sealing-wax, it will afterwards be repelled by excited sealing-wax -and attracted by excited glass. It is clear, therefore, that there -are two opposite electricities, and that bodies charged with similar -electricities repel, and with unlike electricities attract, one another. -For convenience, one of these electricities, that developed in glass, -is called positive, and the other negative; and it has been clearly -proved that one cannot exist without the other, and that whenever -one electricity is produced, just as much is produced of an opposite -description. If positive electricity is produced in glass by rubbing it -with silk, just as much negative electricity is produced upon the silk. - -Another primary fact is that some substances are able to carry away -and diffuse or neutralise this peculiar influence called electricity, -while others are unable to do so and retain it. The former are called -conductors, the latter non-conductors. Thus, glass is an insulator or -non-conductor, while metal is a conductor of electricity; and the reason -why the substances rubbed together, as glass and silk, must be dry is -that water, in all its forms, is a conductor which carries away the -electricity as fast as it is produced. - -These facts have given rise to a theory—which is after all not so -much an explanation as a convenient mode of expressing the facts—of -the existence of two opposite electric fluids, which, in the ordinary -or unexcited body, are combined and neutralise one another, but are -separated by friction, and flow in opposite directions, accumulating at -opposite poles, or, it may be, one being accumulated at one pole, while -the other is diffused through some conducting medium and lost sight of. -The active electricity, be it positive or negative, thus accumulated at -one pole, and retained there by the substance in contact with it being a -non-conductor, disturbs by its influence the electrical equilibrium of -any body brought near to it, separates its two fluids, and attracts the -one opposite to itself. This attraction draws the light body towards it -until contact ensues, when the electric fluid of the excited body flows -into the smaller one, so that its opposite electricity is expelled, and -it is in the same condition as its exciter, and therefore liable to be -repelled by a similar exciter, or attracted by an opposite one which -formerly repelled it. - -It is evident, without going further, that there is a great analogy -between electrical energy and those of heat and of chemical affinity. -The same mechanical work—viz. friction—which generates heat, generates -electricity. The chief difference seems to be that friction may be -transformed into heat when the same substances are rubbed together, as -in the case of obtaining fire by the friction of wood; but electricity -can only be obtained by friction between dissimilar substances. Thus -no electricity is obtained by rubbing glass upon glass, or silk upon -silk, or upon glass covered with silk, though a slight difference of -texture is sometimes sufficient to separate the electric fluids. Thus -if two pieces of the same silk ribbon are rubbed together, lengthways, -no electricity is produced, but if crossways, one is positively, and the -other negatively, electrified. In this respect the analogy is evident to -chemical affinity, which, in like manner, only acts between dissimilar -bodies. - -In order, however, to carry the proof of the identity of these forms of -energy beyond the sphere of vague analogy, we must follow up electricity -far beyond the simple manifestations of the glass rod and sealing-wax, -and pursue it to its origin, in the transformations of chemical action -and mechanical work, in the voltaic battery, the electric telegraph, the -telephone, and the dynamo. - -The voltaic battery, in its simplest form, is a trough containing an acid -liquid in which pairs of plates of different metals are immersed. It is -evident that if the action of the acid on each metal were precisely the -same, equal quantities of each would be dissolved in the acid, and the -equilibrium of chemical energies would not be affected. But, the action -being different, this equilibrium is disturbed, and if the sum of these -disturbances for a number of separate pairs of plates can be accumulated, -it will become considerable. This is done by connecting the plates of the -same metal in each cell by a metallic wire covered by some non-conducting -substance. There are, therefore, two wires, one to the right hand, the -other to the left, the loose extremities of which are called the poles -of the battery. If we test these poles as we did the glass rod and stick -of sealing-wax, we find that one pole is charged with positive and the -other with negative electricity. In other words, the chemical energy, -whose equilibrium was disturbed by the unequal action of the acid on the -plates of different metals, has been transformed into electrical energy -manifesting itself, as it always does, under the condition of two equal -and opposite polarities. If we connect these two poles with one another -the two electricities rush together and unite, and there is established -what is called an electrical current circulating round the battery. -As the chemical action of the acid on the metals is not momentary but -continuous, the acid taking up molecule after molecule of the metal, -so also the current is continuous. When we call it a current, the term -is used for the sake of convenience, for as the current, as we shall -presently see, will flow along the wire or other conducting substance -for immense distances, as across the Atlantic, with a velocity of many -thousands of miles per second, we can, no more than in the case of light, -figure it to ourselves as an actual transfer of material particles swept -along as by a river running with this enormous velocity, but necessarily -as a transmission of some form of motion travelling by waves or tremors -through the all-pervading ether in which the atoms of the conducting -wire are floating. Be this as it may, the effect of these electric -currents is very varied and very energetic. It can produce intense heat, -for if, instead of uniting the two poles, we connect them by a thin -platinum wire, it will, in a few seconds, become heated to redness. If -the connecting wire is thicker, heat will equally be generated but less -intense, thus maintaining the analogy to the current which rushes with -more impetuosity through a narrow than through a wide channel. If the -poles are tipped with a solid substance like carbon, whose particles -remain solid under great heat, when they are brought nearly together -intense light is produced and the carbon slowly burns away. This produces -what is called the arc light, which gives such a strong illuminating -power and is coming into general use for lighting up large spaces. - -Another transformation is back again into chemical energy, which is shown -by the power of the electric current to decompose compound substances. -If, for instance, the poles of a battery are plunged into a vessel -containing water, the molecules of the water will be decomposed and -bubbles of oxygen gas will rise from the positive, and of hydrogen from -the negative, pole. - -Another effect of electrical currents is that of attraction and repulsion -on one another. If two parallel wires, free to move, carry currents -flowing in the same direction as from positive to negative, or _vice -versâ_, they will attract one another; if in opposite directions, they -will repel. Electrical currents also work by way of induction, that is, -they disturb the electrical equilibrium of bodies brought within their -influence and induce currents in them. Thus, if we have two circular -coils of insulated wire placed near each other, one on the right hand, -the other on the left, and connect the extremities of the right-hand coil -with the poles of a battery, when the connection is first made and the -current begins to flow, a momentary current in the opposite direction -will pass through the left-hand coil. This will cease, and as long as -the current continues to flow through the right-hand coil there will be -no current through the other; but if we break the contact between the -right-hand coil and the battery, there will be again a momentary current -through the left-hand coil, but this time in the same direction as the -other. The same effect will be produced if, instead of making and -breaking contact in the right-hand coil, we keep the current constantly -flowing through it, and make the right-hand coil alternately approach -and recede from the other coil. In this case, when the right-hand coil -approaches, it induces an opposite current in the left-hand one; and when -it recedes, one in the same direction as that of the primary. - -These phenomena of induction prepare us to understand the nature of -magnets, and the magnetic effects produced by electrical currents. If -an insulated wire is wrapped round a cylinder of soft or unmagnetic -iron, and a current passed through the wire, the cylinder is converted -into a magnet and becomes able to sustain weights. If the current -ceases, the cylinder is no longer a magnet, and drops the weight. A -magnet is therefore evidently a substance in which electric currents are -circulating at right angles to its axis, and a permanent magnet is one in -which such currents permanently circulate from the constitution of the -body without being supplied from without. The earth is such a magnet, and -also iron and other substances, under certain conditions. - -This being established, it is easy to see why an electrical current -deflects the magnetic needle. If such a needle is suspended freely near -a wire parallel with it, on a current being passed through the wire it -must attract if similar, or repel if dissimilar, the currents which are -circulating at right angles to the axis of the needle, and thus tend to -make the needle swing into a position at right angles with the wire so -that its currents may be parallel to that of the needle. This is the -reason why the needle in its ordinary condition points to the north -and south, or rather to the magnetic poles of the earth, because its -currents are influenced by the earth currents which circulate parallel to -the magnetic equator. The deviation of the needle from this direction, -caused by any other current, like that passed along the wire, will depend -on the strength of the current, which may be measured by the amount of -deflection of the needle. The direction in which the needle deflects, -viz. whether the north pole swings to the right or to the left, will -depend on the direction of the current through the wire. The direction -of the circular currents which form a magnet is such that if you look -towards the north pole of a freely suspended cylindrical magnet—i.e. if -you stand on the north of it and look southwards—the positive current -will ascend on your right hand, or on the west side, and descend on the -east. It follows that unlike poles must necessarily attract, and like -poles repel one another, for in the former case the circular currents -which face each other are going in the same, and in the latter in -opposite directions. - -The reader is now in a position to understand the principle of the -electric telegraph, that wonderful invention which has revolutionised -human intercourse and, to a great extent, annihilated space and time. It -originated in the discovery made by Oersted, a Danish _savant_, that the -effect of an electric current was to make a magnet swing round, in the -endeavour to place itself at right angles to it. The conducting power of -insulated copper wire is such that it practically makes no difference -whether one of the wires connected with the pole of a battery is two -feet or 2,000 miles in length, and the earth, being a conducting medium, -supplies an equal extension from the other pole, so that a closed -electric circuit may be established across the Atlantic as easily as -within the walls of a laboratory. - -If, therefore, a magnetic needle is suspended at the American end, it -will respond to every electrical current, and to any interruption, -renewal, or reversal of that current established in England. The needle -may thus be made to swing to the right or left, by forming or reversing a -current through the wire; and it will return to its position whenever the -current is interrupted, and repeat its movement whenever the current is -renewed. In fact it may be made to move like the arm of the old-fashioned -telegraph, or of a railway signal. It only remains to have a machine by -which the operator can form and interrupt currents rapidly, and a code by -which certain movements of the needle stand for certain letters of the -alphabet, and you have the electric telegraph. - -There are many ingenious applications of the machinery, but in principle -they all resolve themselves into transformations of energy. Chemical -energy is transformed into electric energy, and that again into -mechanical work in moving the needle. - -The telephone is another instance of similar transformations. Here spoken -words create vibrations of the air, which cause corresponding vibrations -in a thin plate or disc of metal at one end, which are conveyed by -intermediate machinery to a similar disc at the other end, whose -vibrations cause similar vibrations in the air, reproducing the spoken -words at a distance which may be a great many miles from the speaker. - -The great inventions of modern science which have so revolutionised -society are all instances of the laws of the conservation of energy. Man -makes the powers of nature available for his purposes by transforming -them backwards and forwards, now into one, now into another form of -energy, as required for the result he wishes to attain. He wants -mechanical power to pump water or drive a locomotive or steamboat: he -gets it from the steam-engine, by transforming the energy of heat in -coal, which came ages ago from the energy of chemical action produced -by the sun’s rays in the green leaves of growing plants. He wants to -send messages in a few seconds across the Atlantic: he does it by -transforming chemical energy into electricity in a voltaic battery, -sending its vibrations along a conducting wire, and converting it at -the far end into mechanical power, making a magnetic needle turn on its -axis and give signals. If, instead of sending a message, he wants to -hold a conversation at a distance, he invents the telephone, by which -sound-vibrations of air are transformed into vibrations of a disc, then -into electric currents, then into vibrations of a distant disc, and -finally back again to spoken words. Or, if he wants light, he turns -electricity into it by tipping the poles of his battery with carbon and -bringing them close together. - -The latest inventions of electrical science—the dynamo and the -accumulator—afford remarkable instances of this convertibility of one -primitive energy into different forms. In the instance just quoted of -obtaining light from electricity by the voltaic battery, the cost has -hitherto proved an obstacle to its adoption. The electrical energy is -all obtained from the transformation of the heat produced in the cells -by the chemical action on the metal used, which is commonly zinc. Now, -the heat of combination of zinc with oxygen is only about one-sixth of -that of coal, while the cost of zinc is about twenty times as great. -Theoretically, therefore, energy got by burning zinc costs 120 times -as much as that got by burning coal. Practically the difference is not -nearly so great, for there is very little loss of energy in the battery -by the process of conversion, while the best steam-engine cannot convert -into work as much as twenty per cent, of the heat energy in the coal -consumed. Still, after making every allowance, the cost of energy from -zinc remains some twenty times as great as from coal, so that unless some -process is found for obtaining back the zinc as a residual product, there -is no prospect of this form of electricity being generally available for -light or for mechanical power. - -The dynamo is an instrument invented for the mechanical generation of -electricity by taking advantage of the principle that electrical energy -is produced by moving magnets near coils of wire, or coils of wire near -magnets. A current is thus started by induction, and, once started, -the mechanical power exerted in making the magnet or coils revolve is -continually converted into electricity until the accumulated electrical -energy becomes very powerful. The original energy comes of course from -the coal burned in the steam-engine which makes the magnet or coils -revolve. - -The principle of the conservation of energy is well illustrated by the -fact that as the dynamo generates an electric current if made to revolve, -conversely it may be made to revolve itself if an electric current is -sent through it from an exterior source. It is, therefore, available not -only as a source of light in the former case, but as a direct source of -mechanical power in the latter. It is on this principle that electric -engines are constructed and electric railways are worked. Here also it -is a question of cost and convenience, for you can only get electricity -enough either to light a street or to drive an engine, by an original -steam-engine or other motive power to work the dynamo, and a system of -conducting wires to convey the electricity to the place where the light -or power is wanted. Where the motive power is supplied by nature, as in -the case of tidal or river currents or waterfalls, it is quite possible -that power may be obtained in this way to compete with that obtained -directly from the steam-engine; but there are as yet considerable -practical difficulties to be overcome in the transmission of any large -amount of energy for long distances. - -To overcome some of these difficulties the accumulator has been invented, -which affords yet another remarkable instance of the transformation of -energy. It consists of two lead plates immersed in acidulated water. When -a strong electrical current is sent through the water, it decomposes it, -the oxygen going to one lead plate and the hydrogen to the other. The -oxygen attacks the lead plate to which it goes, forming peroxide of lead; -while the hydrogen reduces any oxide in the other plate, producing pure -lead, and leaving a film of surplus hydrogen on the surface. The charging -current is then reversed, so that the latter plate is now attacked and -the former one reduced, when the current is again reversed. By continuing -this process the surfaces of both lead plates become porous, so that they -present a large surface, and can therefore hold a great deal of peroxide -of lead. The charging current being now broken, the oxygen which has been -forcibly separated from the liquid seeks to recombine with hydrogen; -and if the two lead plates are joined by a wire, this effort of the -oxygen generates an electrical current in the opposite direction to the -original one, which is the current utilised. Electricity is thus stored -up in a portable box, where it can be kept till wanted, when it is drawn -out by connecting the plates, and as a large amount of energy has been -accumulated the current which is produced lasts for a considerable time. - -Unfortunately accumulators are bulky, heavy, and expensive, and nearly -half the energy of the original charging current is lost in obtaining the -reversed or working current. They are therefore not as yet adapted for -general use, though perfectly capable of supplying either light or motive -power, for both which purposes they have been successfully applied in -special cases. The future both of electric power and electric lighting -is now reduced entirely to a question of cost; and though it is hard to -beat gas and the steam-engine, with cheap coal, and air and water for -nothing, it is possible that by using natural sources of power to move -dynamos, and by obtaining zinc back as a residual product in batteries, -electricity may in certain cases carry the day. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -POLARITY IN MATTER. - - Ultimate elements of universe—Built up by polarity—Experiment - with magnet—Chemical affinity—Atomic poles—Alkalies - and acids—Quantivalence—Atomicity—Isomerism—Chemical - stability—Thermochemistry—Definition of atoms—All matter built - up by polar forces. - - -I almost fear that by this time some of my readers may think that I have -seduced them under false pretences to read long chapters of dry science, -when they had been led from the introduction to anticipate discussions -on the more immediately interesting topics of morals, religions, and -philosophies. My excuse must be that these scientific subjects are really -of extreme interest in themselves and indispensable as a solid basis for -the superstructure to be raised on them. How can I attempt to show that -the law of polarity extends to the more complex problems of human thought -and life, if I fail in establishing its application to the simpler case -of inorganic force and matter? It must be recollected also that among -the primitive polarities is that of author and reader. It is my part to -endeavour to present the leading facts and laws of the material universe -in such plain and popular language that the ordinary reader who has -neither time nor faculty for special studies may apprehend them clearly -without excessive effort, or extraordinary intelligence. But it is the -reader’s part to supply a fair average amount of attention, and above -all to feel an interest in interesting matters. Cleverness and curiosity -are very much convertible terms, and the clearest exposition is thrown -away on the torpid mind which views the marvellous universe in which he -has the privilege to live, with the stupid apathy of the savage, taking -things as they come without caring to know anything about them. - -For the reader’s part of the work I am not responsible; but for my own -I am, and I proceed therefore to give in my own way, and with the best -faculty that is in me, a clear summary of such of the fundamental facts -and laws of nature as seem necessary for the work I have undertaken. - -From the preceding chapters we are now able to realise what are the -ultimate elements of the material universe, and it remains to show how -they are put together. The elements are ether, energy, and matter. - -First, ether: a universal, all-pervading medium, imponderable or -infinitely light, and almost infinitely elastic, in which all matter, -from suns and planets down to molecules and atoms, float as in a -boundless ocean, and whose tremors or vibrations, propagated as waves, -transport the different forms of energy, light, heat, and electricity, -across space. - -Secondly, energy: a primitive, indestructible something, which causes -motion and manifests itself under its many diversified forms, such -as gravity, mechanical work, molecular and atomic forces, light, -heat, electricity, and magnetism, all of which are merely Protean -transformations of the one fundamental energy, and convertible into each -other. - -Thirdly, matter: the ultimate elements of this are atoms, which -combined form molecules, or little pieces of ordinary matter with all -its qualities, which are the bricks used in building all the varied -structures of the organic and inorganic worlds. Of these atoms some -seventy have never yet been divided, and therefore, although we may -suspect that they are merely combinations or transformations of one -original matter, we must be content for the present to consider them -as elementary. In like manner we may suspect that matter is in reality -only another form of energy, and that the impression of solidity is -given by the action of a repellent force which is very energetic at -short distances. If this were established we might look forward to the -generalisation that energy was the one reality of nature; but for the -present it is a mere speculation, and we must be content with over -seventy elementary atoms as ultimate facts. In any case this much is -certain, that matter, like energy, is indestructible. We have absolutely -no experience of either of them being created or annihilated. Nay, more, -we have no faculties to enable us even to conceive how something can -be made out of nothing, and all we know, or can ever know, about these -primitive constituents of the universe is of their laws of existence, -their evolutions and their transformations. - -Minute as the atoms and molecules are, we must conceive of them not as -stationary and indissolubly connected, but rather as little solar systems -in which revolving atoms form the molecule, and revolving molecules form -the matter, held together as separate systems by their proper energies -and motions, until some superior force intruding breaks up the system and -sets its components free to form new combinations. - -What is the principle which thus forms, un-forms, and re-forms the -various combinations of atomic and molecular systems by which the world -is built up from its constituent elements? It is polarity. - -As I began with the illustration of the magnet introducing order and -harmony into the confused mass of iron filings, let me take this other -illustration from the same source. If we place an iron bar in contact -with the pole of a magnet, the bar becomes itself a magnet with opposite -poles to the original one, so that as opposite poles attract, the iron -bar adheres to it. Bring a lump of nickel in contact with the further end -or free pole of the iron bar, and the nickel also will be magnetised and -adhere. Let the lump of nickel be as large as the pole of the iron bar -is able to support, and now bring a lump of soft iron near this pole. It -will drop the nickel and take the iron. This is exactly similar to those -cases of chemical affinity in which a molecule drops one of its factors -and takes on another to which its attraction is stronger. If iron rusts -in water it is because the oxygen atom drops hydrogen to take iron just -as the magnet dropped nickel. - -The polarity of chemical elements is attested by the fact that when -compounds are decomposed by the electric current, the different -elementary substances appear at different poles of the battery. Thus, -oxygen, chlorine, and non-metallic substances appear at the positive -pole; while hydrogen, potassium, and metals generally, appear at the -negative one. The inference is irresistible that the atoms had in each -case an opposite polarity to that of the poles to which they were -attracted. This is confirmed by the fact that the radicals, i.e. the -elementary atoms or groups of atoms which have opposite polarities, -combine readily; while those which have the same polarity, as two -metals, have but slight affinity for each other. Like therefore attracts -unlike, as in all cases of polarity, and the greater the degree of -unlikeness the stronger is the attraction. Thus, the radicals of all -alkalies are electro-positive, and appear at the negative pole of a -battery; while those of acids are all electro-negative, and the higher -each stands in its respective scale of polarity the more strongly does it -show the peculiar qualities of acid or alkali and the more eagerly does -it combine with its opposite. - -Acids and alkalies are, in fact, all members of the same class of -compounds called _hydrates_, because a single atom of hydrogen is a -common feature in their composition. This atom is coupled with a single -atom of oxygen, which may be conceived of as the central magnet holding -the hydrogen atom at one pole, while at the other it holds either a -single atom of some metallic element, such as potassium or sodium, or a -group consisting of such an element together with atoms of oxygen, so -constituted as to present a single pole to the attraction of the central -oxygen atom. Thus, if K stands for kali or potassium, N for nitrogen, O -for oxygen, and H for hydrogen, we may have the compounds - - H—O—K - -and - - { O} - { / } - H—O—{N }. - { \ } - { O} - -The former is the molecule of potassic hydrate, which is the most -caustic or strongest of alkalies; the latter, that of nitric acid, the -most corrosive or powerful of acids. These are the extremes of the -series, of which there are many intermediate members, all being more -or less alkaline, that is caustic and turning litmus-paper blue, when -the third element is a simple metallic atom; and acid, corrosive, and -turning litmus-paper red, when it is a compound radical of a group of -metallic and oxygen atoms. This shows to what an extent whole classes of -substances may have a general resemblance in their constitution, and yet -differ most widely in their qualities by the substitution of one element -for another. - -These special qualities may be made to diminish and finally disappear by -mixing the two opposite substances, or, as it is called, neutralising an -acid by an alkali or an alkali by an acid. Thus, if hydrochloric acid, -HCl, be poured into a solution of sodic-hydrate, Na—O—H, the alkaline -qualities of the latter diminish and finally disappear, the result of the -neutral solution being water, H—O—H, and sodic-chloride, or common salt, -Na—Cl. It is evident that this result has been produced by the hydrogen -atom in H—Cl and the sodium atom in Na—O—H changing places, the former -preferring to unite with oxygen to form water, while the displaced sodium -atom finds a refuge with chlorine. The oxygen atom has dropped sodium and -taken hydrogen, just as the magnet dropped nickel and took iron. - -This polarity of chemical elements manifests itself in different ways. -In some cases it appears like that of a magnet, in which there are -two opposite poles, and two only, one at each end. Thus oxygen (O) is -bipolar, and its atom holds together two atoms of hydrogen (H) in forming -the molecule of water, which may be represented as H+-O+-H, which is -equivalent to [Illustration]. Others again, like hydrogen and chlorine, -seem to have only a single pole, as in the case of electricity in an -excited glass rod, and have to create for themselves the opposite pole, -which is the indispensable condition of all polarity, by induction in -another body. Thus, muriatic or hydrochloric acid is formed by the union -of a single atom of chlorine, which is strongly negative, with a single -atom of hydrogen, in which it appears to have induced a positive pole: -though the combination is not a very stable one, for if an element with -a stronger positive pole of its own is presented to the chlorine, it -drops the hydrogen, just as the magnet drops the nickel. Other atoms are -multipolar, and seem as if made up of more than one magnet, or rather as -if the atom had regular shape like a triangle, square, or pentagon, and -each angle was a pole, thus enabling it to unite with three, four, five, -or more atoms of other substances. Thus, one atom of nitrogen unites with -three of hydrogen, one of carbon with four of hydrogen, and so on. Every -substance has, therefore, what is called its ‘quantivalence,’ or power of -uniting with it a greater or less quantity of other atoms, and conversely -that of replacing in combinations other atoms, or groups of atoms, the -sum of whose quantivalence equals its own. Thus, one atom of carbon, -which has four poles, combines with four atoms of hydrogen or chlorine, -which is unipolar, but with only two of oxygen, which are bipolar; while -the oxygen atom combines with two of hydrogen, and that of chlorine with -one atom only of hydrogen. The analogy between the single atomic and -electrical poles on the one hand, and the dual and magnetic poles on -the other, will be evident if we consider what occurs if a pith-ball, -electrified positively, is brought near a similar ball electrified -negatively. They attract each other, and the one becomes the pole of -the other; but if separated, each carries with it its own electrical -charge. But the separate balls or poles, though no longer influencing -each other, are not isolated, for each draws by induction an electrical -charge opposite to its own to the extremity of the nearest conductor, and -thus creates for itself a new or second pole. Polarity, in fact, involves -opposition of relations, or two poles, and electrical only differs from -magnetic polarity in the fact that in the latter the two poles are in the -same body, while in the former they are in separate bodies. - -For pith-balls read atoms, and we have an explanation of the univalent -atoms like those of chlorine and sodium which act as single poles; and -this is confirmed by the fact that such atoms are never found isolated, -but are always associated in a molecule with at least one other atom -which forms the opposite pole of the molecular system. Bivalent or -magnetic atoms, on the other hand, which have two poles, like those of -mercury and zinc, may constitute a complete polar system and be found -isolated, and form the class of molecules which consist of single atoms. - -This conception of the polarity of atoms enables us to understand the way -in which the almost infinite variety of substances existing in the world -is built up from a comparatively few simple elements. Atoms and radicals, -which are multipolar, can attract and form molecules with as many other -atoms or radicals as they have poles. This is called their degree of -atomicity, which is the same as their quantivalence; and each of these -atoms or radicals may be replaced by some other atom or radical, which -presents to any pole a more powerful polarity. Thus, compounds may be -built up of great and varied complexity, for the quality of any compound -may be greatly altered by any one of the substitutions at any one of -the poles. And the molecules, or small specimens of matter, may be thus -built up into very complex aggregations of atoms, some single molecules -containing more than a hundred atoms. Thus, carbon has four poles, or -is quadrivalent, and its atoms possess the power of combining among -themselves to an almost indefinite extent and forming groups of great -stability. Thus, carbon radicals may be formed in very great number, each -affording a nucleus upon which compound radicals may be built up, so -that carbon has been aptly called the skeleton of almost all the varied -compounds of the more complex forms of inorganic matter as well as the -principal foundation of organic life. - -Nor is this all, for the qualities of substances depend not only on -the qualities of their constituent elements, but also on the manner in -which these elements are grouped. Two substances may have exactly the -same chemical composition and yet be very different. We may suppose that -the same elements affect us differently according as they are grouped. -Thus, the same bricks may be built up either into a cube or pyramid, -which forms are extremely stable and can only be taken in pieces brick -by brick; or into a Gothic arch, which all tumbles to pieces if a -single brick forming the keystone is displaced. As an instance of this, -butyric acid, which gives the offensive odour to rancid butter, has -exactly the same composition as acetic ether, which gives the flavour -to a ripe apple. They consist of the same number of atoms of the same -elements—carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—united in the same proportions. -This applies to a number of substances, and is called Isomerism, or -formation of different wholes from the same parts. - -The principle of polarity, therefore, aided by the subsidiary conditions -of quantivalence, atomicity, and isomerism, gives the clue to the -construction of the inorganic world out of some seventy elementary -substances. Of the substances thus formed, whether of molecules or -of combinations of molecules, some are stable and some unstable. As -a rule the simpler combinations are the most stable, and instability -increases with complexity. Thus the diamond, which is merely a crystal -of pure carbon, is very hard and indestructible; while dynamite, or -nitro-glycerine, which is a very complex compound, explodes at a touch. - -The stability of a substance depends partly on the stable structure of -its component elements, and partly on their mutual affinity being strong -enough to keep them together in presence of the attractions of other -outside elements, which, in the case of most natural substances at the -surface of the earth, consist principally of air and water. Thus, the -rocks, earths, metallic oxides, water, carbonic dioxide, and nitrogen -are extremely stable, and resist decomposition, or chemical union with -other substances, with great energy. With regard to all substances this -law holds good, that the tendency is to fall back from a less stable to -a more stable condition, and that such a falling back is always attended -with an evolution of heat; while, on the other hand, heat is always -absorbed and disappears whenever the elements of a more stable substance -are made to enter into a less stable condition. Thus, when wood burns, -there is a falling back from a substance unstable, on account of its -affinity for the oxygen in the air, into the stable products, carbonic -dioxide and water, and the heat evolved is the effect of this fall. - -As the tendency of all changes is towards stability we arrive at the -following law, which is one of the most recent generalisations of modern -chemistry: In all cases of chemical change the tendency is to those -products whose formation will determine the greatest evolution of heat. - -This, however, does not imply that the tendency may not be overcome and -unstable products formed, for just as a weight may be lifted against -the force of gravity, so may the chemical tendency be overcome by a -sufficient energy acting against it. Heat is the principal means of -supplying this energy, and by increasing it sufficiently not only -are molecules drawn apart and most solids converted into fluids and -finally into gases, but there is reason to believe that at extremely -high temperatures, such as may prevail in the sun, all matter would be -resolved into isolated or dissociated atoms. Thus, water at a temperature -of 1,200° is resolved into a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen atoms no -longer chemically united into water-molecules; and iodine-vapour, which -below 700° degrees consists of molecules of two atoms, above that -temperature consists of single atoms only. - -The subject might be pursued further, but enough has been said for the -present purpose to show that the universe consists of atoms which are -endowed with polarity, and that as diminished temperature allows these -atoms to come closer together and form compounds, matter in all its forms -is built up by the action of polar forces. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -POLARITY IN LIFE. - - Contrast of living and dead—Eating and - being eaten—Trace matter upwards and life - downwards—Colloids—Cells—Protoplasm—Monera—Composition - of protoplasm—Essential qualities of life—Nutrition and - sensation—Motion—Reproduction—Spontaneous generation—Organic - compounds—Polar conditions of life. - - -Polarity having been established as the universal law of the inorganic -world, we have now to pass to the organic, or world of life. At first -sight there seems to be a great gulf fixed between the living and the -dead which no bridge can span. But first impressions are very apt to -deceive us, and when things are traced up to their origins we often -find them getting nearer and nearer until it is difficult to say where -one begins and the other ends. Take for instance such an antithesis as -‘eating or being eaten.’ If a hunter meets a grizzly bear in the Rocky -Mountains, one would say that no distinction can be sharper than whether -the bear eats the man, or the man the bear. In the one case there is -a man, and in the other a bear, less in the world. But look through a -microscope at a glass of water, and you may see two specks of jelly-like -substance swimming in it. They are living creatures, for they eat and -grow, and thrust out and retract processes of their formless mass, which -serve as temporary legs and arms for seizing food and for voluntary -motion. In short, they are each what may be called strictly individual -amœbæ, forming separate units of the animated creation as much as the man -and the bear. But if the two happen to come in contact, what happens? -The two slimy masses involve one another and coalesce, and the resulting -amœba swims away merrily as two gentlemen rolled into one. - -Now in his case what became of their individualities: did amœba A eat -amœba B, or _vice versâ_, and is the resulting amœba a survival of A or -of B, or of both or neither of them? And what becomes of the antithesis -of ‘eating or being eaten’ which was so clear and distinct in the highly -specialised forms of life, and is so evanescent in the simpler forms? -This illustration may serve to teach us how necessary it is to trace -things up to their origins, before expressing too trenchant and confident -opinions as to their nature and relations. - -In the case of the organic and inorganic worlds the proper course -obviously is, not to draw conclusions from extreme and highly specialised -instances, but to follow life downwards to its simplest and most -primitive form, and matter upwards to the form which approaches most -nearly to this form of life. Following matter upwards, we find a regular -progression from the simple to the complex. Take the diamond, which is -one of the simplest of substances, being merely the crystallised form of -a single ultimate element, carbon. It is extremely hard and extremely -stable. Ascending to compounds of two, three, or more elements, we -get substances which are more complex and less stable; and at last we -arrive at combinations which involve many elements and are extremely -complex. Among these latter substances are some, called colloids, which -are neither solid, like crystals, nor fluid, like liquids, but in an -intermediate state, like jelly or the white of an egg, in which the -molecules have great mobility and are at a considerable distance apart, -so that water can penetrate their mass. These colloids are for the most -part very complicated compounds of various elements based on a nucleus -of carbon, which, from its atom having four poles with strong mutual -attractions, is eminently qualified for forming what may be called -the inner skeleton of these complex combinations. Colloids of this -description form the last stage of the ascending line from inorganic -matter to organic life. - -Next let us trace life downwards towards matter. There is a constant -succession from the more to the less complex and differentiated: from -man, through mammals, reptiles, fishes, and a long chain of more simple -forms, until at its end we come to the two last links, which are the same -for all animals, all plants, and all forms of animated existence. The -last link but one is the cell, the last of all is protoplasm. - -Protoplasm, or, as Huxley calls it, ‘the physical basis of life,’ is a -colourless jelly-like substance, absolutely homogeneous, without parts or -structure, in fact a mere microscopic speck of jelly. - -The cell is the first step in the specialisation of protoplasm, the -outer layer of which, in contact with the surrounding environment, -becoming hardened so as to form an enclosing cell-wall, while a portion -of the enclosed protoplasm condenses into a nucleus, in which a further -condensation makes what is called the nucleolus or second smaller -nucleus. This constitutes the nucleated cell, whose repeated subdivision -into other similar cells in geometrical progression furnishes the raw -material out of which all the varied structures of the world of life -are built up. Plants and animals, bones, muscles, and organs of sense, -are all composed of modified cells, hardened, flattened, or otherwise -altered, as the case may require. If we trace life up to its origin in -the individual instead of in the species, we arrive at the same result. -All plants and animals, whether of the lowest or highest forms, fish, -reptile, bird, mammal, man, begin their individual existence as a speck -of protoplasm, passing into a nucleated cell, which contains in it the -whole principle of its subsequent evolution into the mature and completed -form. - -Protoplasm is, therefore, evidently the nearest approach of life -to matter; and if life ever originated from atomic and molecular -combinations, it was in this form. To suppose that any more complex form -of life, however humble, could originate from chemical combinations, -would be a violation of the law of evolution, which shows a uniform -development from the simple to the complex, and never a sudden jump -passing at a bound over intermediate grades. To understand life, -therefore, we must understand protoplasm; for protoplasm, closely as it -approximates to colloid matter, is thoroughly alive. A whole family, -the Monera, consist simply of a living globule of jelly, which has not -even begun to be differentiated. Every molecule, as in a crystal, is -of homogeneous chemical composition and an epitome of the whole mass. -There are no special parts, no organs told off for particular functions, -and yet all life-functions—nutrition, reproduction, sensation, and -movement—are performed, but each by the whole body. The jelly-speck -becomes a mouth to swallow, and turning inside out, a stomach to digest. -It shoots out tongues of jelly to move and feel with, and presently -withdraws them. - -With these attributes it is impossible to deny to protoplasm the full -attributes of life, or to doubt that, like the atom in the material -world, it is the primary element of organic or living existence. Given -the atom, we can trace up, step by step, the whole evolution of matter; -so given the protoplasm, we can trace up the evolution of life by -progressive stages to its highest development—man. To understand life, -therefore, we must begin by trying to understand protoplasm. - -What is protoplasm? In its substance it is a nitrogenous carbon compound, -differing only from other similar compounds of the albuminous family of -colloid by the extremely complex composition of its atoms. It consists -of five elements, and its average composition is said by chemists to be -52·55 per cent. carbon, 21·23 oxygen, 15·17 nitrogen, 6·7 hydrogen, 1·2 -sulphur. Its peculiar qualities, therefore, including life, are not the -result of any new and peculiar atom added to the known chemical compounds -of the same family, but of the manner of grouping and motions of these -well-known material elements. It has in a remarkable degree the faculty -of absorbing water, so that its molecules seem to float in it in a -condition of semi-fluid aggregation, which seems to be necessary for the -complex molecular movements which are the cause or accompaniment of life. -Thus, many seeds and animalculæ, if perfectly dry, may remain apparently -as dead and as unchanging as crystals, for years, or even, as in the case -of the mummy wheat, for centuries, to revive into life when moistened. - -But in addition to those material qualities in which protoplasm seems -to differ only from a whole group of similar compounds of the type of -glycerine, by the greater complexity and mobility of its molecules, it -has developed the new and peculiar element which is called life. Life -in its essence is manifested by the faculties of nutrition, sensation, -movement, and reproduction. - -As regards nutrition there is this essential difference between living -and non-living matter. The latter, if it feeds and grows at all, does -so only by taking on fresh molecules of its own substance on its outer -surface, as in the case of a small nucleus-crystal of ice in freezing -water. If it feeds on foreign matter and throughout its mass, it does -so only in the way of chemical combination, forming a new product. -Living matter, on the other hand, feeds internally, and works up -foreign substances, by the process we call digestion, into molecules -like its own, which it assimilates, rejecting as waste any surplus or -foreign matter which it cannot incorporate. It thus grows and decays -as assimilation or waste preponderates, remaining always itself. The -distinction will be clear if we consider what happens when water rusts -iron. In a certain sense the iron may be said to eat the oxygen, reject -the hydrogen, and grow, or increase in weight by what it feeds on; but -the result is not a bigger piece of iron, but a new substance, rust, -or oxide of iron. That living matter should feed internally is not -so wonderful, for its semi-fluid condition may well enable foreign -molecules to penetrate its mass and come in contact with its own interior -molecules; but it is an experience different from anything known in -the inorganic world that it should be able to manufacture molecules -of protoplasm like its own out of these foreign molecules, and thus -grow by assimilation. For instance, when amœbæ, bacteria, and other -low organisms live and multiply in chemical solutions which contain no -protoplasm, but only inorganic compounds containing the requisite atoms -for making protoplasm, or when a plant not only chemically decomposes -carbonic dioxide, exhaling the oxygen and depositing the carbon in its -stem and leaves, but also from this and other elements drawn from the -soil or air manufactures the living protoplasm which courses through its -channels, the result is that life has manufactured life out of non-living -materials. - -If we take sensation, this, in its last analysis, is change, or molecular -motion, induced in a body by the action of its environment. Here there -is a certain analogy between living and non-living matter, for the -latter does respond to changes in the surrounding environment, as in -the case of heat, electricity, and otherwise; but living matter is far -more sensitive, the changes are far more frequent and complex, and in -certain cases they are accompanied by a sensation of what is called -consciousness, which in the higher organisms rises into a perception -of voluntary effort or free-will as a factor in the transformation of -energies. Thus it happens that in the case of dead matter the changes -produced by a change of conditions follow fixed laws and can be predicted -and calculated, while those of living matter are apparently uncertain -and capricious. We can tell how much an iron bar will expand with heat; -but we cannot say whether, if a particle of food is brought within reach -of an amœba, it will or will not shoot out a finger to seize it. If the -amœba is hungry it probably will; if it is enjoying a siesta after a full -meal, it probably will not. - -The case of sensation includes that of motion, which is after all only -sensation applied in the liberation of energy of position which has by -some chemical process become stored up, either in the living mass, or -in some special organ of it, such as muscle. Iron, for instance, moves -when it expands by heat or is attracted by a magnet; but it moves, like -the planets, by fixed and calculable laws: while living matter moves, -as might be expected from the variable character of its sensation, in -a manner which often cannot be calculated. There are cases, however, -of reflex or involuntary motion, where, even in the highest living -organisms, sensation and motion seem to follow change of environment, in -a fixed and invariable sequence, as in shrinking from pain, touching or -galvanising a nerve; and it may be that the apparent spontaneousness and -variability of living motion is only the result of the almost infinitely -greater complexity and mobility of the elements of living matter. - -Reproduction remains, which is the faculty most characteristic of life, -and which distinguishes most sharply the organic from the inorganic -world. In the inorganic there is no known process by which dead matter -reproduces itself, as the cell does when it contracts in the middle -and splits up into two cells, which in their turn propagate an endless -number of similar cells, increasing in geometrical progression until -they supply the raw material from which all the countless varieties of -living organisms are built up, which, in their turn, repeat the process -and reproduce themselves in offspring. This is the real mystery of life; -we can partly see or suspect how its other faculties might arise from an -extension of the known qualities and laws of matter and of energy; but -we can discern no analogy between the non-reproductive nitrogenous carbon -compound, which makes so near an approach to protoplasm in its chemical -composition, and the reproductive protoplasm, which is fertile, increases -and multiplies, and replenishes the earth. Can the gap be bridged over: -can protoplasm be manufactured out of chemical elements? It is done every -day by plants which make protoplasm out of inorganic elements, and by -the lowest forms of life which live and multiply in chemical solutions. -It is done also in the life-history of all individuals whose primitive -cell or ovum makes thousands or millions of other cells, each containing -within its enclosing membrane as much protoplasm as there was in the unit -from which they started. But in all these instances there was the living -principle to start with, existing in the primitive speck of protoplasm, -from which the rest were developed. Can this primitive speck be created; -or, in other words, can protoplasm be artificially manufactured by -chemical processes? - -The answer must be, No; not by any process now known. The similarity of -chemical composition, and the increasing conviction of the universality -of natural law and of evolution, have led to a very general belief that -such a spontaneous generation of life must be possible, and numerous -experiments have been made to produce it. For a time the balance -seemed to be very evenly held between the supporters and opponents of -spontaneous generation. In fact, starting from the assumption, which at -first was common to both sides, that heat equal to the boiling point -of water destroyed all life organisms, spontaneous generation had the -best of it: for it was clearly proved that living organisms did appear -in infusions contained in vessels which had been hermetically sealed, -after being subjected to this, or even a higher degree of heat. But -subsequent and more careful experiments have shown that the germs or -spores of bacteria and other animalculæ, which are generally floating -in the air, can, when dry, withstand a greater degree of heat, and that -when the experiments are made in optically pure air no life ever appears -and the infusions never putrefy. On questions of this sort all who are -not themselves expert experimentalists must be guided by authority, and -we may be content to accept the dictum of Huxley that biogenesis, or all -life from previous life, was ‘victorious along the whole line.’ But in -doing so we must accept Huxley’s caution, ‘that with organic chemistry, -molecular physics, and physiology yet in their infancy, and every day -making prodigious strides, it would be the height of presumption for any -man to say that the conditions under which matter assumes the qualities -called vital, may not some day be artificially brought together.’ - -And further, ‘that as a matter not of proof but of probability, if it -were given me to look beyond the abyss of geologically recorded time, to -the still more remote period when the earth was passing through chemical -and physical conditions which it can never see again, I should expect -to be a witness of the evolution of living protoplasms from non-living -matter.’ Such is the cautious candour with which scientific men approach -problems upon which theologians dogmatise with the unerring intrepidity -of ignorance. - -In the meantime what may be said as to Huxley’s reservations is this: -A considerable step has been made in the direction indicated, by the -success of recent chemistry in forming artificially what are called -organic compounds, that is, substances which were previously known only -as products of animal or vegetable secretions. Urea, for instance, the -base of uric acid, with which so many are unfortunately familiar in the -form of gout; indigotine, the principle of the blue colouring matter of -the indigo plant; and alizarine, that of madder; are all now produced -artificially, and have even become important articles of commerce. If -chemists can make the indigotine, which the growing plant elaborates at -the same time as it elaborates protoplasm, may we not hope some day to -make the latter as well as the former product? Now organic compounds -of this class are being formed artificially every day, and it is said -that chemists have already succeeded in producing several hundreds. -But even if this expectation is never fulfilled, we may fall back on -Huxley’s second reservation of the enormous difference of chemical and -physical conditions in the early stages of the earth’s life from anything -now known. It has been calculated that the earth’s temperature when -it first started on its career as an independent planet was something -like 3,000,000° Fahrenheit. At this heat probably all atoms would be -dissociated; but as the temperature diminished they would come closer -together, but still with a great deal of motion, and making wide -excursions, which might bring many different atoms together in complex -though unstable combinations. Moreover, carbon, which is the basis of all -such combinations of the class of protoplasm, was far more abundant in -those early days in the form of carbonic dioxide gas, before the enormous -amount of vegetable matter in the form of coal and otherwise, had been -subtracted from it. In any case the first protoplasm must be extremely -ancient, for the remains of sea-weeds are found in the oldest strata, -and vegetation of any sort implies the manufacture of protoplasm from -inorganic matter. - -The passage from the organic into the inorganic world is best traced by -following the line of Pasteur’s researches on ferments. How does the -world escape being choked up by the accumulation of dead organic matter -throughout innumerable ages? By what are called ferments, inducing -processes of fermentation and putrefaction, by which the course of life -is reversed, and the organic elements are taken to pieces and restored -to the inorganic world. Pasteur proved, in opposition to the theories -of Liebig and other older chemists, that this was not done directly by -the oxygen of the air, but through the intermediate agency of living -microbes, whose spores, floating in the air, took up their abode and -multiplied wherever they found an appropriate habitation. Given an air -purified from germs, or a temperature low enough to prevent them from -germinating, and putrescible substances would keep sweet for ever. The -practical realisation of this is seen in the enormous commerce in canned -meats and fruits, and in the imports of frozen beef and mutton, causing a -fall of rents and much lamentation among British landlords and farmers. - -But then the question was asked, How are your microscopic organisms -disposed of? What are the ferments of your ferments? For even microscopic -bacteria and vibrios would, in time, choke up the world by their residue -if not got rid of. Pasteur answered that the ferments are destroyed by -a new series of organisms—aerobes—living in the air, and these by other -aerobes in succession until the ultimate products are oxidised. ‘Thus, -in the destruction of what has lived, all is reduced to the simultaneous -action of the three great natural phenomena—fermentation, putrefaction, -and slow combustion. A living being, animal or vegetable, or the _débris_ -of either, having just died, is exposed to the air. The life that has -abandoned it is succeeded by life under other forms. In the superficial -parts, accessible to the air, the germs of the infinitely little aerobes -flourish and multiply. The carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen of the organic -matter are transformed by the oxygen of the air, and under the vital -activity of the aerobes, into carbonic acid, the vapour of water, and -ammonia. The combustion continues as long as organic matter and air are -present together. At the same time the superficial combustion is going -on, fermentation and putrefaction are performing their work in the midst -of the mass by means of the developed germs of the original microbes, -which, note, do not need oxygen to live, but which oxygen causes to -perish. Gradually the phenomena of destruction are at last accomplished -through the work of latent fermentation and slow combustion.’ - -This seems a complete demonstration of the passage of the organic into -the inorganic world in the way of analysis, or taking the puzzle to -pieces. In the opposite way of synthesis, or putting it together, the -nearest approach yet made has been in the manufacture of those organic -compounds already referred to, such as urea, alizarine, indigotine and -other products which had hitherto only been known as products of animal -or vegetable life. Of these a vast number have been already formed from -inorganic elements by chemical processes, and almost every day announces -some fresh discovery. - -Under these circumstances it is unsafe to affirm either, on the one -hand, that the problem has been solved and that life has ever been made -in a laboratory; or, on the other hand, that there is any such great gulf -fixed between the organic and the inorganic, that we can assume a break -requiring secondary supernatural interference to surmount it, and ignore -the good old maxim that ‘Natura nihil facit per saltum.’ Positive proof -is wanting, but the probabilities point here, as they do everywhere else -throughout the universe, to the truth of the theory of ‘original impress’ -as opposed to that of ‘secondary interference.’ - -It remains to show how the fundamental law of polarity affects the more -complex relations of life and of its various combinations. And here -it is important to bear in mind that as the factors of the problem -become more intricate and complex, so also do the laws which regulate -their existence and action. Polarity is no longer a simple question of -attraction and repulsion at the two ends of a magnet or at the opposite -poles of an atom. It appears rather as a general law under which as the -simple and absolute becomes differentiated by evolution into the complex -and manifold, it does so under the condition of developing contrasts. -For every _plus_ there is a _minus_, for every like an unlike; one -cannot exist without the other; and, although apparently antagonistic, -harmonious order is only possible by their co-existence and mutual -balance. - -This is so important that it may be well to make the idea clearer by an -illustration. The earth revolves round the sun in its annual orbit under -the influence of two forces: the centripetal, or force of gravity tending -to draw it towards the sun; and the centrifugal, tending to make it dart -away into infinite space. During half the orbit the centripetal seems to -be gaining ground on the centrifugal, and the earth is approaching nearer -to the sun. If this continued it would revolve ever nearer and soon fall -into it; but the centrifugal force is gradually recruiting its strength -from the increased velocity of the earth, until it first equals the -centripetal, and finally outstrips it, and for the remaining half of the -orbit it is constantly gaining ground. If this went on, the earth would -fly off into the chilly regions of outer space; but the centripetal force -in its turn regains the ascendency; and thus by the balance of the two -forces our planet describes the beautiful ellipse, its harmonious orbit -as a habitable globe; while comets in which one or the other force unduly -preponderates for long periods are alternately drawn into fiery proximity -to the sun, and sent careering through regions void of heat. - -Compare this passage from Herbert Spencer: ‘As from antagonist physical -forces, as from antagonist emotions in each man, so from the antagonist -social tendencies man’s emotions create, there always results not a -medium state, but a rhythm between opposite states. The one force or -tendency is not continuously counterbalanced by the other force or -tendency; but now the one greatly preponderates, and presently by -reaction there comes a preponderance of the other.’ - -And again: ‘There is nowhere a balanced judgment and a balanced action, -but always a cancelling of one another by opposite errors. Men pair off -in insane parties, as Emerson puts it.’ - -The reader will now begin to understand the sense in which polarity -applies to these complex conditions of an advanced evolution. - -To return, however, from this digression to the point at which it began, -viz. the origin of life, we have to show how the law of polarity prevails -in the organic as well as in the inorganic world. In the first place the -material to which all life is attached, from the speck of protoplasm to -the brain of man, is strictly a chemical product of atoms and molecules -bound together by the same polar laws as those of inorganic matter. - -In like manner all the essential processes by which life lives, moves, -and has its being, are equally mechanical and chemical. If the brain, -receiving a telegram from without through the optic nerve, sends a reply -along another nerve which liberates energy stored up in a muscle and -produces motion, the messages are received and transmitted like those -sent by a voltaic battery along the wires of a telegraph, and the energy -is stored up by the slow combustion of food in oxygen, just as that of -the steam-engine is produced by the combustion of coal. All this is -mechanical, inorganic, and therefore polar. - -But when we come to the conditions of life proper, we find the influence -of polarity mainly in this: that as it develops from simpler into more -complex forms, it does so under the law of developing contrasts or -opposite polarities, which are necessary complements of each other’s -existence. Thus, as we ascend in the scale of life, we find two primitive -polarities developed: that of plant and animal, and that of male and -female. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -PRIMITIVE POLARITIES—PLANT AND ANIMAL. - - Contrast in developed life—Plants producers, - animals consumers—Differences disappear in simple - forms—Zoophytes—Protista—Nummulites—Corals—Fungi—Lichens—Insectivorous - plants—Geological succession—Primary period, Algæ and - Ferns—Secondary period, Gymnosperms—Tertiary and recent, - Angiosperms—Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons—Parallel evolution - of animal life—Primary, protista, mollusca, and fish—Secondary, - reptiles—Tertiary and recent, mammals. - - -Animals or plants? Judging by first impressions, nothing can be more -distinct. No one, whether scientific or unscientific, could mistake -an oak tree for an ox. To the unscientific observer the tree differs -in having no power of free movement, and apparently no sensation or -consciousness; in fact, hardly any of the attributes of life. The -scientific observer sees still more fundamental differences, in the -fact that the plant feeds on inorganic ingredients, out of which it -manufactures living matter, or protoplasm; while the animal can only -provide itself with protoplasm from that already manufactured by the -plant. The ox, who lives on grass, could not live on what the grass -thrives on, viz. carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. The contrast is -so striking that the vegetable world has been called the producer, and -the animal world the consumer, of nature. - -Again, the plant derives the material framework of its structure from -the air, by breathing in through its leaves the carbonic dioxide present -in the atmosphere, decomposing it, fixing the carbon in its roots, stem, -and branches, and exhaling the oxygen. The animal exactly reverses the -process, inhaling the oxygen of the air, combining it with the carbon -of its food, and exhaling carbonic dioxide. Thus, a complete polarity -is established, as we see in the aquarium, where plant and animal -life balance each other, and the opposites live and thrive, where the -existence of either would be impossible without the other. - -Sharp, however, as the contrast appears to be in the more specialised and -developed specimens of the two worlds, we have here another instance of -the difficulty of trusting to first impressions, and have to modify our -conceptions greatly, if we trace animal and vegetable life up to their -simplest forms and earliest origins. In the first place, each individual -vegetable or animal begins its existence from a simple piece of pure -protoplasm. This develops in the same way into a nucleated cell, by whose -repeated subdivision the raw material is provided for both structures -alike. The chief difference at this early stage is that the animal cells -remain soft and naked, while those of vegetables secrete a comparatively -solid cell-wall, which makes them less mobile and plastic. This gives -greater rigidity to the frame and tissues of the plant, and prevents the -development of the finer organs of sensation and other vital processes, -which characterise the animal. But this is a difference of development -only, and the origination of the future life from the speck of protoplasm -is the same in both worlds. - -If, instead of looking at the origin of individuals, we trace back the -various forms of animal and vegetable life from the more complex to the -simpler forms, we find the distinctions between the two disappearing, -until at last we arrive at a vanishing point where it is impossible to -say whether the organism is an animal or a plant. - -A whole family, comprising sponges, corals, and jelly-fish, are called -Zoophytes, or plant-animals, from the difficulty of assigning them to one -kingdom or the other. On the whole they rather more resemble animals, -and are generally classed with them, though they lack many of their -most essential qualities, and in form often bear a close resemblance to -plants. But when we descend a step lower in the scale of existence we -come to a large family—the Protista—of which it is impossible to say -that they are either plants or animals. In fact, scientific observers -have classed them sometimes as belonging to one and sometimes to the -other kingdom; and it was an organism of this class, looking at which -through a microscope Huxley pronounced it to be probably a plant, while -Tyndall exclaimed that he would as soon call a sheep a vegetable. They -are mostly microscopic, and are the first step in organised development -from the Monera, which are mere specks of homogeneous protoplasm. Small -as they are they have played an important part in the formation of the -earth’s crust, for the little slimy mass of aggregated cells has in -many instances the power of secreting a solid skeleton, or a minute and -delicate envelope or shell, the petrified remains of which form entire -mountains. Thus the nummulitic limestone, which forms high ranges on the -Alps and Himalayas, and of which the Pyramids are built, consists of -the petrified skeletons of a species of Radiolaria, or many-chambered -shells, forming the complicated and elegant mansion with many rooms -and passages, of the formless, slimy mass which constitutes the living -organism. Chalk also, and the chalk-like formation which is accumulating -at the bottom of deep oceans, are the results of the long-continued fall -of the microscopic snowdrift of shells of the Globigenera and other -protistic forms swimming in the sea; and in a higher stage of development -the skeletons of corals, one of the family of Zoophytes or plant-animals, -form the coral reefs and islands so numerous in the Pacific and Indian -Oceans, and are the basis of the vast masses of coralline limestone -deposited in the coal era and other past geological periods. - -As development proceeds the distinction between plants and animals -becomes more apparent, though even here the simplest and earliest -forms often show signs of a common origin by interchanging some of the -fundamental attributes of the two kingdoms. Thus, the essential condition -of plant existence is to live on inorganic food, which they manufacture -into protoplasm, by working up simple combinations into others more -complicated. Their diet consists of water, carbonic dioxide, and ammonia; -they take in carbonic dioxide and give out oxygen, while animals do -exactly the reverse. But the fungi live, like animals, upon organic food -consisting of complicated combinations of carbon, which they assimilate; -and, like animals, they inhale oxygen and give out carbonic dioxide. - -Lichens afford a very curious instance of the association of vegetable -and animal functions in the same plant. They are really formed of two -distinct organisms: a body which is a low form of Alga or sea-weed, -and a parasitic form of fungus, which lives upon it. The former has a -plant life, living on inorganic matter and forming the green cells, or -chlorophyll, which are the essential property of plants, enabling them -under the action of the sun’s rays to decompose carbonic dioxide; while -the parasite lives like an animal on the formed protoplasm of the parent -stem, forming threads of colourless cells which envelop and interlace -with the original lichen of which they constitute the principal mass, as -in a tree overgrown with ivy. - -Even in existing and highly developed plants we find some curious -instances of reversion towards animal life. Certain plants, for instance, -like the Dionæa or Venus’ fly-trap, finding it difficult to obtain the -requisite supply of nitrogenous food in a fluid state from the arid or -marshy soil in which they grow, have acquired a habit of supplying the -deficiency by taking to an animal diet and eating flies. Conjoined with -this is a more highly developed sensitiveness, and power of what appears -to be voluntary motion, and a faculty of secreting a sort of gastric -juice in which the flies are digested. The fundamental property also -of decomposing carbonic dioxide and exhaling oxygen depends on light -stimulating a peculiar chemical action of the chlorophyll, and at night -leaves breathe like lungs, exhaling not oxygen, but the carbonic dioxide. - -The records of geology, imperfect as they are, show a continued -progression from these simple and neutral organisms to higher and more -differentiated forms, both in the animal and vegetable worlds. These -records are imperfect because the soft bodies of the simpler and for the -most part microscopic forms of protoplasm and cell life are not capable -of being preserved in petrifactions, and it is only when they happen to -have secreted shells or skeletons that we have a chance of identifying -them. Still we have a sufficient number of remains in the different -geological strata to enable us to trace development. Thus, in the -vegetable world, in the earliest strata, the Laurentian, Cambrian, and -Silurian, forming the primordial period, which forms a thickness of some -70,000 feet of the earth’s crust—or more than that of the whole of the -subsequent strata, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary, taken -together—we find only vegetable remains of the lowest group of plants, -that of the Tangles or Algæ, which live in water. Forests of these -sea-weeds, like those of the Aleutian Islands, in some of which single -tangles stream to the length of sixty feet, and floating masses, like -those of the Sargasso Sea, appear to have constituted the sole vegetation -of these primæval periods. - -The Primary epoch, which comes next, comprises the Devonian or Old Red -Sandstone, the Carboniferous or Coal system, and the Permian, the average -thickness of the three together amounting to about 42,000 feet. In these -the family of Ferns predominates, the remains of which constitute the -bulk of the large strata of coal, forming in modern times our great -resource for obtaining the energy which, in a transformed shape, does so -much of our work. Pines begin to appear, though sparingly, in this epoch. - -The Secondary epoch comprises the Triassic, the Jurassic, and the -Cretaceous or Chalk formation, the average thickness of the three -amounting to about 15,000 feet. In this era a higher species of -vegetation predominates, that of the Gymnosperms, or plants having naked -seeds, of which the pines, or Coniferæ, and the palm-ferns, or Cycadeæ, -are the two principal classes. As in the case of the former epoch, traces -of the approaching higher organisation in the form of leaf-bearing trees -began to appear towards its close. - -The Tertiary period extends from the end of the Chalk to the commencement -of the Quaternary or modern period. It is divided into the Eocene or -older, the Miocene or middle, and the Pliocene or newest Tertiary system; -though the division is somewhat arbitrary, depending on the number of -existing species, mostly of shellfish, which have been found in each. -The average thickness of the three together is about 3,000 feet. In this -formation a still higher class of vegetation of the same order as that -now existing, which made its first appearance in the Chalk period, has -become predominant. It is that of Angiosperms, or plants with covered -seeds, forming leafy forests of true trees. This group is divided -into the two classes of monocotyledons or single-seed-lobed plants, -and dicotyledons or plants with double seed-lobes. The monocotyledons -spring from a single germ leaf, and are of simpler organisation than the -other class. They comprise the grasses, rushes, lilies, irids, orchids, -sea-grasses, and a number of aquatic plants, and in their highest form -develop into the tree-like families of the palms and bananas. - -The dicotyledons include all forms of leaf-bearing forest trees, almost -all fruits and flowers, in fact by far the greater part of the vegetable -world familiar to man, as coming into immediate relation with it, except -in the case of the cultivated plants, which are developments of the -monocotyledon grasses. - -We see, therefore, in the geological record a confirmation of the -evolution over immense periods of time of the more complex and perfect -from the simple and primitive. - -If we turn to the same geological record to trace the development of -animal life, we find it running a parallel course with that of plants. -The earliest known fossil, the Eozoon Canadiense, from the Lower -Laurentian, is that of the chambered shell of a protista of the class -of Rhizopods, whose soft body consists of mere protoplasm which has not -yet differentiated into cells. As we ascend the scale of the primordial -era, traces of marine life of the lower organisms begin to appear, until -in the Silurian they become very abundant, consisting however mainly -of mollusca and crustacea, and in the Upper Silurian we find the first -traces of fishes. - -In the Primary era the Devonian and Permian formations are characterised -by a great abundance of fishes, of the antique type, which has no true -bony skeleton, but is clothed in an armour of enamelled scales, and whose -tail, instead of being bi-lobed or forked, has one lobe only—a type of -which the sturgeon and garpike are the nearest surviving representatives. -In the Coal formation are found the first remains of land animals in the -form of insects and a scorpion, and a few traces of vertebrate amphibious -animals and reptiles; while higher up in the Permian are found a few more -highly developed reptiles, some of which approximate to the existing -crocodile. Still fishes greatly predominate, so that the whole Primary -period may be called the age of fishes, as truly as, looking at its -flora, it may be called the age of ferns. - -In the Secondary period reptiles predominate, and are developed into a -great variety of strange and colossal forms. The first birds appear, -being obviously developed from some of the forms of flying lizards, and -having many reptilian characters. Mammals also put in a first feeble -appearance, in the form of small, marsupial, insectivorous creatures. - -In the Tertiary period the class of mammals greatly predominates over -all other vertebrate animals, and we can see the principal types slowly -developing and differentiating into those at present existing. The -human type appears plainly in the middle Miocene, in the form of a -large anthropoid ape, the Dryopithecus, and undoubted human remains are -found in the beginning of the Quaternary, if not, as many distinguished -geologists believe, in the Pliocene and even in the Miocene ages. - -So far, therefore, there seems to be a complete parallelism between the -evolution of animal and vegetable life from the earliest to the latest, -and from the simplest to the most complex forms. These facts point -strongly to a process of evolution by which the animal and vegetable -worlds, starting from a common origin in protoplasm, the lowest and -simplest form of living matter, have gradually advanced step by step, -along diverging lines, until we have at last arrived at the sharp -antithesis of the ox and the oak tree. It is clear, however, that this -evolution has gone on under what I have called the generalised law of -polarity, by which contrasts are produced of apparently opposite and -antagonistic qualities, which however are indispensable for each other’s -existence. Thus animals could not exist without plants to work up the -crude inorganic materials into the complex and mobile molecules of -protoplasm, which are alone suited for assimilation by the more delicate -and complex organisation of animal life. Plants, on the other hand, -could not exist without a supply of the carbonic dioxide, which is their -principal food, and which animals are continually pouring into the air -from the combustion of their carbonised food in oxygen, which supplies -them with heat and energy. Thus nature is one huge aquarium, in which -animal and vegetable life balance each other by their contrasted and -supplemental action, and, as in the inorganic world, harmonious existence -becomes possible by this due balance of opposing factors. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -PRIMITIVE POLARITIES—POLARITY OF SEX. - - Sexual generation—Base of ancient cosmogonies—Propagation - non-sexual in simpler forms—Amœba and cells—Germs and - buds—Anemones—Worms—Spores—Origin of sex—Ovary and male - organ—Hermaphrodites—Parthenogenesis—Bees and insects—Man and - woman—Characters of each sex—Woman’s position—Improved by - civilisation—Christianity the feminine pole—Monogamy the law - of nature—Tone respecting women test of character—Women in - literature—In society—Attraction and repulsion of sexes—Like - attracts unlike—Ideal marriage—Woman’s rights and modern - legislation. - - -‘Male and female created He them.’ At first sight this distinction of sex -appears as fundamental as that of plant and animal. Mankind, and all the -higher forms of life with which mankind has relations, can only propagate -their species in one way: by the co-operation of two individuals of the -species, who are essentially like and yet unlike, possessing attributes -which are complementary of one another, and whose union is requisite to -originate a new living unit—in other words, by sexual propagation. So -certain does this appear that all ancient religions and philosophies -begin by assuming a male and female principle for their gods, or first -guesses at the unknown first causes of the phenomena of nature. Thus -Ouranos and Gaia, Heaven and Earth; Phœbus and Artemis, the Sun and -Moon: are all figured by the primitive imagination as male and female; -and the Spirit of God brooding over Chaos and producing the world, is -only a later edition, revised according to monotheistic ideas, of the -far older Chaldean legend which describes the creation of Cosmos out of -Chaos by the co-operation of great gods, male and female. Even in later -and more advanced religions, traces of this ineradicable tendency to -assume difference of sex as the indispensable condition of the creation -of new existence are found to linger and crop up in cases where they -are altogether inapplicable. Thus, in the orthodox Christian creed we -are taught to repeat ‘begotten, not made,’ a phrase which is absolute -nonsense, or _non-sense_—that is, an instance of using words like -counterfeit notes, which have no solid value of an idea behind them. For -‘begotten’ is a very definite term, which implies the conjunction of -two opposite sexes to produce a new individual. Unless two deities are -assumed of different sexes the statement has no possible meaning. It is a -curious instance of atavism, or the way in which the qualities and ideas -of remote ancestors sometimes crop up in their posterity. - -Science, however, makes sad havoc with this impression of sexual -generation being the original and only mode of reproduction, and the -microscope and dissecting knife of the naturalist introduce us to new -and altogether unsuspected worlds of life. By far the larger proportion -of living forms, in number at any rate, if not in size, have come into -existence without the aid of sexual propagation. When we begin at the -beginning, or with those Monera which are simple specks of homogeneous -protoplasm, we find them multiplying by self-division. Amœba A, when it -outgrows its natural size, contracts in the middle and splits into two -Amœbæ, B and C, which are exactly like one another and like the original -A. In fact B contains one half of its parent A, and C the other half. -They each grow to the size of the original A, and then repeat the process -of splitting and duplicating themselves. - -The next earliest stage in the evolution of living matter, the nucleated -cell, does exactly the same thing. The nucleus splits into two, each of -which becomes a new nucleus for the protoplasmic matter of the original -cell, and either multiply within it, or burst the old cell-wall and -become two new cells resembling the first. - -The next stage in advance is that of propagation by germs or buds, in -which the organism does not divide into two equal parts, but a small -portion of it swells out at its surface, and finally parts company and -starts on a separate existence which grows to the size of the parent by -its inherent faculty of manufacturing fresh protoplasm from surrounding -inorganic materials. This process may be witnessed any day in an aquarium -containing specimens of the sea-anemone, where the minute new anemones -may be seen in every form, both before and after they have parted from -the parent body. It remains one of the principal modes of propagation of -the vegetable world, where plants are multiplied from buds even after -they have developed the higher mode of sexual propagation by seeds. -In some of the lowest animals, such as worms, the buds are reduced -to a small aggregation of cells, which form themselves into distinct -individuals inside the body of the parent, and separate from it when they -have attained a certain stage of development. - -Advancing still further on the road towards sexual reproduction, we find -these germ-buds reduced to spores, or single cells, which are emitted -from the parent, and afterwards multiply by division until they form a -many-celled organism, which has the hereditary qualities of the original -one. This is the general form of propagation of the lower plants, such -as algæ, mosses, and ferns, and also of a number of the lower forms -of animal-like microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, whose spores, -floating in the air in enormous quantities, and multiplying when they -find a fit soil with astonishing rapidity, in a few days devastate -the potato crop of a whole district or bring about an epidemic of -scarlet-fever or cholera. They have their use however in creation, and -their action is beneficent as well as the reverse, for they are the -principal cause of putrefaction, the process by which the dead organic -matter, which, if not removed, would choke up the world, is resolved into -the inorganic elements from which it sprang, and rendered available for -fresh combinations. - -We are now at the threshold of that system of sexual propagation which -has become the rule in all the higher families of animals and in many -plants. It may be conceived as originating in the amalgamation of some -germ-cell or spore with the original cell which was about to develop into -a germ-bud within the body of some individual, and by the union of the -two producing a new and more vigorous originating cell which modified the -course of development of the germ-bud and of its resulting organism. This -organism, having advantages in the struggle for life, established itself -permanently with ever new developments in the same direction, which would -be fixed and extended in its descendants by heredity, and special organs -developed to meet the altered conditions. Thus at length the distinction -would be firmly established of a female organ or ovary containing the -egg or primitive cell from which the new being was to be developed, and a -male organ supplying the fertilising spore or cell, which was necessary -to start the egg in the evolutionary process by which it developed into -the germ of an offspring combining qualities of the two parents. This is -confirmed by a study of embryology, which shows that in the human and -higher animal species the distinction of sex is not developed until a -considerable progress has been made in the growth of the embryo. It is -only however in the higher and more specialised families that we find -this mode of propagation by two distinct individuals of different sexes -firmly established. In the great majority of plants, and in some of the -lower families of animals—for instance, snails and earth-worms—the male -and female organs are developed within the same being, and they are what -is called hermaphrodites. Thus, in most of the flowering plants the same -blossom contains both the stamens and anther, which are the male organ, -and the style and germ, which are the female. - -Another transition form is Parthenogenesis, or virginal reproduction, -in which germ-cells, apparently similar in all respects to egg-cells, -develop themselves into new individuals without any fructifying element. -This is found to be the case with many species of insects, and with this -curious result, that those same germ-cells are often capable of being -fructified, and in that case produce very different individuals. Thus, -among the common bees, male bees or drones arise from the non-fructified -eggs of the queen bee, while females are produced if the egg has been -fructified. - -In the higher families however of animal life the distinction of sex in -different individuals has become the universal rule, and it produces a -polarity or contrast which becomes ever more conspicuous as we rise in -the scale of creation, until it attains its highest development in the -highest stage hitherto reached, that of civilised man and woman. Both -physical and mental characteristics depend mainly on the fact that the -ovary or egg-producing organ is developed in the female, and thus the -whole work of reproduction is thrown on her. To perform this a large -portion of the vital energy is required, which in the male is available -for larger and more prolonged growth of organs, such as the brain, -stature, and limbs, by which a more powerful grasp is attained of the -outward environment. In other words, the female comes sooner to maturity -and is weaker than the male. She is also animated by a much stronger -love for the offspring, which is part of her own body, during the period -of infancy; and thus, in addition to the physical attributes, such as -lacteal glands and larger breasts, she inherits qualities of softness, -amiability, and devotion, which fit her for the office of nurse. Her -physical weakness, again, has made her, for untold ages, and even now -in all the less advanced communities, and too often even in the most -advanced, the slave of the stronger male. She has thus inherited many of -the mental qualities which are essential to such a state: the desire to -propitiate by pleasing and making herself attractive; the gentleness and -submissiveness which shrink from a contest of brute force in which she -is sure to be defeated; the clinging to a stronger nature for support, -which in extreme cases leads to blind admiration of power and the -spaniel-like attachment to a master whether deserving of it or not. As -civilisation however advances, and as intellectual and moral qualities -gain ascendency over brute strength and animal instincts, the condition -of woman improves, and it comes more and more to be recognised that she -is not made to be man’s slave or plaything, but has her own personality -and character, which, if in some respects inferior, are in others better -than those of the male half of creation. Tennyson, the great poet of -modern thought, who sums up so many of the ideas and tendencies of the -age in concise and vigorous verse, writes:— - - For woman is not undeveloped man, - Nor yet man’s opposite. - -Not opposite, yet different, so that the one supplements what is wanting -to the other, and the harmonious union of the two makes ideal perfection. -It is the glory of European civilisation to have done so much to develop -this idea of the equality of the sexes, and to have gone so far towards -emancipating the weaker half of the human species from the tyranny of the -stronger half. - -It would be unfair to omit mention of the great part which Christianity -has had in this good work; not only by direct precept and recognition of -religious equality, but even more by the embodiment, as its ideal, of the -feminine virtues of gentleness, humility, resignation, self-devotion, -and charity. Ideal Christianity is, in fact, what may be called the -feminine pole of conduct and morality, as opposed to the masculine one of -courage, hardihood, energy, and self-reliance. Many of the precepts of -Christianity are unworkable, and have to be silently dropped in practice. -It would not answer either for individuals or nations ‘when smitten -on one cheek to turn the other.’ When an appeal is made to _fact_ to -decide whether it is a right rule to live as the sparrows do, taking no -thought for the morrow, the verdict of _fact_ is in favour of foresight -and frugality. Herbert Spencer has stated this polarity very strongly as -that of the religion of amity and the religion of enmity; but I think he -states the case too adversely for the latter, for the qualities which -make men and nations good fighters and victorious in the struggle for -existence, are in their way just as essential as the gentler virtues, and -both alike become defects when pushed to the ‘falsehood of extremes.’ -Christianity, therefore, whatever may become of its dogmas, ought always -to be regarded with affection and respect for the humanising effect it -has produced, especially in improving the condition of the female half of -creation. - -This improvement in the condition of women has brought about a -corresponding improvement in the male sex, for the polarity between the -two has come to be the most intimate and far-reaching influence of modern -life. Take the literature of the novel and play, which aim at holding up -the mirror to human nature and contemporary manners, and you will find -that they nearly all turn upon love. The word ‘immorality’ has come to -signify the one particular breach of the laws of morality which arises -from the relations of the sexes. - -In providing for the birth of nearly equal numbers of each sex, nature -clearly establishes monogamy, or union of single pairs, as the condition -of things most in accordance with natural laws. The family also, the -first germ of civilisation, is impossible, or can only exist in a very -imperfect and half-developed state, without this permanent union of a -single husband and wife. Violations of this law lead to such disastrous -consequences to individuals, and are so deteriorating to nations, that -they are properly considered as the ‘immorality’ _par excellence_, and -condemned by all right-minded opinion. And yet to observe this law is a -constant lesson in self-control for a great part of the life: a lesson of -the utmost value, for it is a virtue which is at the root of all other -virtues. And it is formed and becomes habitual and easy by practice, -for just as the muscles of the ballet-dancer’s leg or blacksmith’s arm -acquire strength and elasticity by use, so do the finer fibres of the -brain improve by exercise and become soft and flabby by disuse, so that -effort in the former case is a pleasure and in the latter a pain. For -this reason chaste nations are generally strong and conquering nations; -dissolute Imperial Rome went down before the Goths and Germans, and -polygamous Turkey perishes of dry rot in the midst of the progress of -the nineteenth century. Indeed, there is no better test of the position -which either an individual, a class, or a nation hold in the scale of -civilisation, than the tone which prevails among the men with regard to -women. Wherever Turkish ideas prevail, we may be sure that whatever may -be the outward varnish of manner there is essential snobbishness. - - Up and down - Along the scale of life, through all, - To him who wears the golden ball, - By birth a king, at heart a clown - -On the other hand, wherever women are regarded with a chivalrous respect -and reverence, the heart of a true gentleman beats, though it be under -the rough exterior of one of Bret Harte’s cow-boys or Californian miners. - -Nothing in fact gives one more hope in the progress of human society than -to find that in the freest countries, and those farthest advanced towards -modern ideas and democratic institutions, the tone with regard to women -shows the greatest improvement. There is a regular _crescendo_ scale of -progress from Turkey to America. I do not refer so much to the fact that -in the newer colonies and countries women can travel unprotected without -fear of insult or injury, as to the almost instinctive recognition of -their equal rights as intelligent and moral beings who have a personality -and character of their own, which places them on the same platform as men -though on opposite sides of it. - -To understand rightly the real spirit of an age or country, it is not -enough to study dry statistics or history in the form of records of -wars and political changes. We must study the works of the best poets, -novelists, and dramatists, who seek to embody types and to hold up the -mirror to contemporary ideas and manners. A careful perusal of such works -as those of Dickens, Thackeray, Trollope, and George Eliot at home, and -of Bret Harte, Howells, James, and Mrs. Burnett in the United States, -will give a truer insight into the inner life of the country and period -than any number of blue-books or consular returns. They show what the -writers of the greatest genius, that is, of the greatest insight, see as -types of the actual ideas and characters surrounding them; and the fact -of their works being popular shows that the types are recognised as true. -Now it is certain that the English literature of fiction and its latest -development, that of the American novelists, show an ever-increasing -recognition of the female individual as an equal unit with the male in -the constitution of modern society. Those dear ‘school marms’ of Bret -Harte’s and Wendell Holmes’, who career so joyously through mining camps, -receiving courtesy and radiating civilising influences among the rough -inhabitants; or touch the hearts and throw a mellow light over the autumn -days of middle-aged professors and philosophers, are far removed from -the slaves of prehistoric savages or the inmates of a Turkish harem. So -also in the more complex relations of a more crowded civilisation, in the -circles of Washington, New York, and Boston, the ideal American woman is -always depicted as bright, intelligent, and independent, with a character -and personality of her own, and the suspicion never seems to enter the -author’s head that she is in any respect inferior to the male characters -with whom she is associated. - -The same may be said to a great extent of English literature from the -time of Shakespeare downwards. No better portrait than Portia was ever -drawn of the - - Perfect woman, nobly planned - To soothe, to comfort, and command; - And yet a spirit still, and bright - With something of an angel light. - -And in the long gallery of good and loveable women, from Rosalind and -Imogene down to Lucy Roberts and Laura Pendennis, we have not one who is -a mere non-entity or child of passionate impulse. Nor is the recognition -of woman’s equality less marked in the bad characters. Lady Macbeth is -of a stronger nature than Macbeth; Becky Sharp more clever and full of -resources than the men with whom she plays like puppets; Maggie Tulliver, -with all her wild struggles with herself and her surroundings, has far -more in her than her brother Tom. Compare these characters with those -of the school of modern French novels, which turn mainly on adultery -and seduction, committed for the most part not in any whirlwind of -irresistible passion, but to gratify some passing caprice or vanity, and -it is easy to see how wide is the gulf which separates the ideals and -moral atmosphere of the two countries. - -It is not therefore from any wish to indulge in what Herbert Spencer -calls the ‘unpatriotic bias,’ and depreciate my own country, that I am -disposed to think that the younger English-speaking communities are -somewhat in advance of ourselves in this matter of the relations of -the sexes, but simply because I think that the feeling is there more -widespread and universal. We have in English society two strata in which -women are still considered as inferior beings to men: a lower one, where -better ideas have not yet permeated the dense mass of ignorance and -brutality; and a higher one, where among a certain portion, let us hope -a small one, of the gilded youth and upper ten, luxury and idleness have -blunted the finer susceptibilities, and created what may be most aptly -called a Turkish tone about women. There are many of this class, and -unfortunately often in high places, where their example does widespread -mischief, whose ideal might be summed up in the words of the Irish -ballad:— - - I am one of the ould sort of Bradies, - My turn does not lie to hard work; - But I’m fond of my pipe and the ladies, - And I’d make a most illigant Turk. - -And most ‘illigant Turks’ they make, though far worse than real -Turks who are born and brought up in the ideas and surroundings of a -lower civilisation; while the tone of our English Turks is far more -nauseous and disgusting, as denoting innate selfishness, sensuality, -and vulgarity. Of these two classes there seem to be fewer in the newer -English communities; and if they exist, they are in such a small minority -that they conceal their existence, and pay the homage of vice to virtue -which is called hypocrisy. - -To return, however, to the more scientific aspects of the question, the -polarity of sex displays itself as conspicuously as that of the magnet in -the fundamental law of repulsion of like for like, and attraction of like -for unlike. In each case there must be an identity of essence developing -itself in opposite directions. Thus, atoms attract or repel atoms, but -not molecules; for if they seem to do so, it is only in cases in which -the molecule contains some atom whose atomicity or polar power has not -been fully satisfied. So currents of air or water do not affect electric -currents. But given the identity of substance, its differentiation takes -place under an ever-increasing progression of polarity of affinities and -repulsions. - -A German naturalist, Brahm, discussing the question why birds sing, says, -‘the male finds in the female those desirable and attractive qualities -which are wanting in himself. He seeks the opposite to himself with -the force of a chemical element.’ This is equally true of the male and -female of the human species. A masculine woman and effeminate man are -equally unattractive, and if the qualities are pushed to an extreme -extent, the individuals become monstrosities, and, instead of attracting, -excite vehement disgust and repulsion. This, which is true physically, -is equally true of moral and intellectual characteristics. Each seeks, -in the happy marriage or perfect ideal union, the qualities which are -most deficient in themselves: the woman, strength, active courage, and -the harder qualities; the man, gentleness, amiability, and the softer -virtues. In each individual, as in each union of individuals, harmony -and perfection depend on the due balance of the opposite qualities, and -the ‘falsehood of extremes’ leads up to chaos and insanity. The man in -whom strength and hardihood are not tempered by gentleness and affection -becomes brutal and tyrannical; while the woman who has no strength of -character becomes silly and frivolous. Marriage, however, involves the -highest ideal, for the well-assorted union of the two in one gives a more -complete harmony and reconciliation of opposites than can be attained -by the single individual, who must always remain more or less within -the sphere of the polarity of his or her respective sex. But here also -the same law of polarity operates, for as happy marriage affords the -highest ideal, so do unhappy and ill-assorted unions involve the greatest -misery and most complete shipwreck of life. Especially to the woman, for -the man has other pursuits and occupations, and can to a great extent -withdraw himself from domestic troubles; while the woman has no defence -against the coarseness, selfishness, and vulgarity of the partner to -whom she is tied, and who may make her life a perpetual purgatory, and -drag all her finer intellectual and moral nature down to a lower level. -Fortunately extreme cases are rare, and, though the ideal of a perfect -union may seldom be attained to, the great majority of married couples -manage to jog on together, and bring up families in comparative comfort -and respectability. Evidently, however, in many cases the weaker party -does not get fair play, and the laws which are the result of centuries of -male legislation are often too oblivious of the maxim that what is ‘sauce -for goose is sauce for gander.’ Improvement, however, is coming from the -growth of the more healthy public opinion which stigmatises any invasion -of woman’s real rights, and any attempt on the part of her natural -protector to bully and tyrannise, as utterly disgraceful; and the waves -of this public opinion are slowly but surely sapping the cliffs of legal -conservatism, and forcing the intrenchments of stolid injustice behind -ermine robes, horsehair wigs, and obsolete Acts of Parliament. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -PRIMITIVE POLARITIES—HEREDITY AND VARIATION. - - Heredity in simple forms of life—In more complex - organisms—Pangenesis—Varieties how produced—Fixed by law of - survival of the fittest—Dr. Temple’s view—Examples: triton, - axolotl—Variations in individuals and species—Lizards into - birds—Ringed snakes—Echidna. - - -As the earth is kept in an orbit, which makes life possible by the -balance of the antagonist centripetal and centrifugal forces, so is -that life evolved and maintained by the balance of the two conflicting -forces of heredity and variation. Heredity, or the principle which makes -offsprings resemble their parental organisms, may be considered as the -centripetal force which gives stability to species; while variation is -like the centrifugal force which tends to make them develop into new -forms, and prevents organic matter from remaining ever consolidated into -one uniform mass. - -As regards heredity, the considerations which have been advanced in the -last chapter, on the origin of sex, will enable the reader to understand -the principles on which it is based. When a moneron, or living piece -of pure protoplasm, or its successor the nucleated cell, propagates -itself by simple division into two equal parts, it is obvious that each -half must, in its atomic constitution and motions, exactly resemble the -original. If amœba A divides into amœbæ B and C, both B and C are exact -facsimiles of A and of one another, and so are the progeny of B and C -through any number of generations. They must remain identical repetitions -of the parent form, unless some of them should happen to be modified by -different actions of their surrounding environment, powerful enough to -affect the original organisation. - -In propagation by germs or buds, the same thing must hold true, only, as -the offspring carries with it not the half, but only a small portion of -the parental organism, its impress will be less powerful, and the new -organism will more readily be affected by external influences. When we -come to propagation by spores or single cells, and still more to sexual -propagation by the union of single cells of two progenitors, it becomes -more difficult to see how the type of the two parents, and of a long line -of preceding ancestors, can be maintained so perfectly. - -Of the fact that it is maintained there can be no doubt. Not only do -species breed true and remain substantially the same for immense periods, -but the characters of individual parents and their ancestors repeat -themselves, to a great extent, in their offspring. Thus the cross between -the white and black varieties of the human species perpetuates itself -to such an extent, that a single cross of black blood leaves traces for -a number of generations. In the Spanish American States and the West -Indies, where the distinction is closely observed, the term ‘octoroon’ -is well known, as applied to Creoles who have seven-eighths of white -to one-eighth of black blood in their composition. In the case of what -is called ‘atavism,’ this recurrence to the characters of ancestors -is carried to a much further extent. In breeding animals, it is not -uncommon to find the peculiar features of generations of ancestors -long since extinct cropping up occasionally in individuals. Thus, -stripes like those of the ass along the back and down the shoulders, -occasionally appear on horses whose immediate ancestors for many -generations back showed nothing of the sort; and even stripes across -the legs like those of the zebra occur quite unexpectedly, and testify -to the common descent of the various species of the horse tribe from a -striped ancestor. How these ancestral peculiarities can be transmitted -through many generations, each individual of which originated from a -single microscopic cell which had been fructified by another cell, is -one of the greatest mysteries of nature. It may assist us in forming -some idea of the possibility of a solution to remember what has been -proved as to the dimensions of atoms. Their order of magnitude is that -of a cricket-ball to the earth. In a single microscopic cell, therefore, -there may be myriads of such atoms circling round one another and forming -infinitesimal solar systems, of infinite complexity and variety. Darwin’s -theory of ‘Pangenesis’ supposes that some of the actual identical atoms -which formed part of ancestral bodies are thus transmitted through their -descendants for generation after generation, so that we are literally -‘flesh of the flesh’ of the primæval creature who was developed into man -in the later tertiary or early glacial period. Haeckel, more plausibly, -suggests that not the identical atoms, but their peculiar motions and -mode of aggregation have been thus transmitted: a mode of transmission -which, with his prevailing tendency to invent long and learned names -for everything, he calls the ‘Perigenesis of plastids.’ In any case, -however, these must be taken not as solutions of the problem, but as -guesses at the truth which show that its solution is not impossible. - -The opposite principle to heredity, that of variation, is equally -important and universal. It is apparent in the fact, that although -every individual of every species reproduces qualities of parents and -ancestors, no two individuals do so in precisely the same manner; no two -are exactly alike. This difference, or individuality, becomes more marked -as the organism is higher. Thus, sheep and hounds differ from one another -by slight differences which require the practised eye of the shepherd -or huntsman to detect; while human beings are so unlike, that of the -many millions existing in each generation no two exactly resemble one -another. The reason of this is apparent if we consider that the higher -the organism the more complex does it become, and the less the chance of -the whole complicated relations of parent and ancestral organisms being -transmitted by single cells so solidly and completely as to overpower -and remain uninfluenced by external influences. Variation evidently -depends mainly on the varying influences of environment. If the exterior -layer of molecules of a lump of protoplasm become differentiated from -the interior ones and form a cell-wall, it is because they are in more -immediate contact with the air or other surrounding medium. Internal -changes depend on conditions such as temperature and nutrition. In the -case of cultivated plants and domestic animals we can see most clearly -how varieties are produced by adaptation to changes of environment. These -variations, however, would not proceed very far, were it not for the -interaction of the opposing forces of variation and heredity, by which -latter the variations appearing in individuals are fixed and accumulated -in descendants, until they become wide and permanent divergencies. -This is done in the case of cultivated plants and domestic animals by -man’s artificial selection in pairing individuals who show the same -variations; and in nature by the struggle for existence, giving victory -and survival to those forms, and in the long run to those forms only, -whose variations, slight as they may be in each generation, tend to bring -individuals into better adaptation to their environment. - -It is the great glory of Darwin to have established this firmly by an -immense number of interesting and exhaustive instances, and thus placed -evolution, or a scientific explanation of the development and laws of -life, on a solid basis. Every day fresh discoveries and experiments -confirm this great principle, and it has almost passed into the same -phase as Newton’s law of gravity, as a fundamental law accepted as -axiomatic by all men of science, and as the basis of modern thought, to -which all religions and philosophies have to conform, accepted by nearly -all modern thinkers. I may here quote a passage from an eminent Anglican -divine, Dr. Temple, for the double purpose of showing how universal -has become the acceptance of this Darwinian view of evolution among -intelligent men; and how little terrible are its consequences, even to -those who look at the facts of the universe through a theological medium -and retain their belief in accepted creeds. - -‘It seems in itself something more majestic, more befitting of Him to -whom a thousand years are as one day, and one day as a thousand years, -thus to impress His will once for all on this creation, and provide for -all its countless varieties by this one original impress, than by special -acts of creation to be perpetually modifying what He had previously -made.’[1] - - [1] Dr. Temple, _Religion and Science_. - -Scientific men would be content to accept this statement of Dr. Temple’s -almost in his own words, except that they might consider his definition -of the Great First Cause as somewhat too absolute and confident. Having -had to deal so much with actual facts and accurate knowledge, they -are apt to be more modest in assertion than even the most enlightened -theologian, whose studies have lain rather in the direction of phrases -and ideas, which, from their very nature, are more vague and indefinite, -and perhaps rather guesses and aspirations after truth, than proofs of -it. In any case there is the authority of a learned and liberal-minded -bishop for the position that the scientific way of looking at the -universe is not necessarily profane or irreligious. - -To return to variation: the instances of the operation of this principle, -alone or in conjunction with that of heredity, in working out the -evolution of species, are exceedingly numerous and interesting. Those who -wish to understand the subject thoroughly must study the works of Darwin, -Haeckel, Huxley, and other modern writers; but for my present purpose it -will be sufficient to refer to a few of the most marked instances which -may assist the reader in comprehending how the gradual evolution of life -and creation of new species may have been brought about. - -There is an amphibious animal, called the triton or water-salamander, -akin to the frog, whose normal course is to begin life living in the -water and breathing by gills, and end it on land with gills metamorphosed -into lungs. If they are shut up in water and kept in a tank they -never lose their gills, but continue through life in the lower stage -of development, and reproduce themselves in other tritons with gills. -Conversely the axolotl, a peculiar gilled salamander from the Lake of -Mexico, has its normal course to live, die, and propagate its species in -water, breathing by gills; but if an axolotl happens to stray from the -water and take to living on dry land, the gills are modified into lungs -and the animal gains a place in the class in the school of development. -This fits in remarkably with the fact that the embryo of all vertebrate -mammals, including man, passes through the gilled stage before arriving -at the development of lungs, which assists us in understanding two facts -of primary importance in the history of evolution. - -First, how terrestrial life may have arisen from aquatic life by -adaptation to altered conditions. - -Secondly, how the evolution of the embryo sums up in the individual, in -the period of a few days or months, the various stages of evolutions -which it has taken millions of years to accomplish in the species. - -As a parallel to the transformation of gills into lungs, and of an -aquatic into a land animal, if we turn to the geological records of the -Secondary period we may trace the transformation of a water into an air -population, of sea-lizards into flying-lizards, and of flying-lizards -into birds. The ‘Hesperornis’ is an actual specimen of the transition, -being a feathered lizard, or rather winged and feathered creature which -is half lizard and half bird. - -A remarkable instance of the great change of functions which may be -produced by a change of outward conditions is afforded by the common -ringed snake, which in its natural state lays eggs which take three -weeks to hatch; but if confined in a cage in which no sand is strewed -it hatches the eggs within its own body, and from oviparous becomes -viviparous. This may help us to understand how the lowest order of -mammals, which, like the Australian echidna or duck-billed mole, lay -eggs, may have developed, first into marsupial, and finally into -placental mammals. - -These examples may assist the reader in understanding how the infinite -diversities of living species may have been developed in the course of -evolution from simple origins, just as the inorganic world was from -atoms, by the action and reaction of primitive polar forces between the -organism and its environment, and between heredity and variation. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE KNOWABLE AND UNKNOWABLE—BRAIN AND THOUGHT. - - Basis of knowledge—Perception—Constitution of brain—White and - grey matter—Average size and weight of brains—European, negro, - and ape—Mechanism of perception—Sensory and motor nerves—Separate - areas of brain—Sensory and motor centres—Abnormal states of - brain—Hypnotism—Somnambulism—Trance—Thought-reading—Spiritualism—Reflex - action—Ideas how formed—Number and space—Creation - unknowable—Conceptions based on perceptions—Metaphysics—Descartes, - Kant, Berkeley—Anthropomorphism—Laws of nature. - - -Before entering on the higher subjects of religions and philosophies, -it is well to arrive at some precise idea of the limits of human -knowledge, and of the boundary line which separates the knowable from the -unknowable. The ultimate basis of all knowledge is perception. Without -an environment to create impressions, and an organ to receive them, -we should know absolutely nothing. What is the environment and what -the organ of human knowledge? The environment is the whole surrounding -universe, or, in the last analysis, the motions, or changes of motion, -by which the objects in that universe make impressions on the recipient -organ. The organ is the grey matter of that large nervous agglomeration, -the brain. But here I must at the outset make two reservations. In the -first place I do not define how these impressions are made. In all -ordinary cases they are made through the channels of the senses; but it -is possible that in certain exceptional cases vibrations in the brain, -causing perceptions, may be conveyed to it through the nerves in other -ways. In somnambulism, for instance, it seems to be an ascertained fact -that a somnambulist with closed eyes securely bandaged can walk in the -dark and avoid obstacles as well as if guided by the sight in full -daylight. There is a great deal of evidence also that in artificial -somnambulism, otherwise called mesmerism or hypnotism, and also in what -is called thought-reading, perceptions may be conveyed from one brain to -another otherwise than by the usual methods of speech or writing. But -these phenomena, however far they may be extended, do not affect the -position that impressions on the brain are the essential condition of -thought. If the grey matter of the brain is deficient or diseased the -mind is affected, and beyond a certain point becomes extinct. - -The second and more important reservation is, that although mind and -all its qualities are thus indissolubly connected with matter, it by -no means follows that they are matter or mere qualities of it. In the -case of the atoms and energies, we know absolutely nothing of their real -essence, and cannot form even a conception of what they are, how they -came there, or what will become of them. It is the same with mind, soul, -or self: we feel an instinctive certainty of their existence, as we do of -that of matter; and we can trace their laws and manifestations under the -conditions in which they are known to us, viz. those of association with -matter and motion in the brain. But of their real essence or existence we -know nothing, and it is as unscientific to affirm as to deny. Directly -we pass beyond the boundary of such knowledge as really can be known -by human faculty, and stand face to face with the mystery of the Great -Unknown, we can only bow our heads with reverence and say with the poet, - - Behold, I know not anything. - -I hope thus to steer safely between Scylla and Charybdis—between the -arid rocks of materialism and the whirling eddies of spiritualism. -Materialist and spiritualist seem to me very like two men disputing as to -the existence of life in the sun. ‘No,’ argues the former; ‘for the known -conditions there are totally inconsistent with any life we can conceive.’ -‘Yes,’ says the other; ‘for the belief fits in with many things which -I earnestly wish to believe respecting a Supreme Being and a future -existence.’ To the first I say, ignorance is not evidence; to the second, -wishes are not proofs. For myself, while not quarrelling with those more -favoured mortals who have, or fancy they have, superior knowledge, I -can only say that I really know nothing; and this being the case, I see -no use in saying that I know, and think it both more truthful and more -modest to confess the limitation of my faculties. - -With this caution I return to the field of positive knowledge. The brain, -spinal marrow, and nerves consist of two substances: one white, which -constitutes the great mass consisting of tubes or fibres; the other grey, -which is an aggregation of minute cells, so minute that it has been -computed that there are several millions of them in a space no larger -than a sixpence. The bulk of this grey nerve-tissue is found in the -higher animals, and especially in man, in the outside rind which covers -the brain, and its amount is greatly increased by the convolutions of -that organ giving a greater extent of covering surface. In fact the -convolutions of the average human brain give as much grey matter in a -head of average size, as would be given by a head of four times the size -if the brain were a plane surface. The extent of the convolutions is, -therefore, a sure sign of the extent of intellect. They are more numerous -and deeper in the European than in the negro; in the negro than in the -chimpanzee; in the anthropoid ape than in the monkey or lemur. This grey -nerve-tissue is the organ by which impressions from without are turned -into perceptions, volitions, and evolutions of nerve force. The white -matter is simply the medium of transmission, or we may say the telegraph -wires by which the impressions are conveyed to the head office and the -answers sent. The cell-tissue of the grey matter is thus emphatically -the organ of the mind. In fact, if it did not sound too materialistic, -we might call thought a secretion of the grey matter, only in saying -so we must bear in mind that it is only a mode of expressing the fact -that the two invariably go together; and that if we say with the German -philosopher ‘Ohne Phosphor kein Gedank,’ it does not mean that thought -and phosphorus are identical, but simply that the condition on which -thought depends is that of the existence of a material organ of which -phosphorus is an ingredient. - -That this grey nerve-tissue is really the organ of thought has been -firmly established by numerous experiments both in man and the lower -animals. Injuries to it, or diseases in it, invariably affect what is -called the mind; while considerable portions of the white matter may be -removed without affecting the thinking and perceptive powers. A certain -amount of it is indispensable for the existence of intellect; the more -there is of it as the brain increases in size and the convolutions become -deeper, the greater is the intellect; when these fall below certain -dimensions intellect is extinguished and we have idiocy. The average -brain of the male white European weighs 49½ ounces, of the negro a -little under 47. The maximum brains which have been accurately weighed -and measured, are those of Cuvier and Daniel Webster, the weight of -the former being 64⅓ ounces, and the capacity of the latter being 122 -cubic inches; while the average capacity of the Teutonic race, including -English, Germans, and Americans, is 92 inches, of the negro 83, and of -the Australian and Hottentot 75. The brain of the idiot seldom weighs -over 23 ounces, and the minimum weight consistent with a fair degree of -intelligence is about 34 ounces. - -The mechanism by which correspondence is kept up between the living -individual and the surrounding universe is very simple—in reality, as -simple as that of any ordinary electric circuit. In the most complex -case, that of man, there are a number of nerve-endings, or small lumps -of protoplasm, embedded in the tissues all over the body, or highly -specialised and grouped together in separate organs such as the eye -and ear, from which a nerve-fibre leads direct to the brain, or to the -spinal cord and so up to the brain. These nerve-endings receive the -different vibrations by which outward energy presents itself, which -propagate a current or succession of vibrations of nerve-energy along the -nerve-fibre. This nerve-fibre is a round thread of protoplasm covered -by a white sheath of fatty matter which insulates it like the wire of -a submarine telegraph coated with gutta-percha. This nerve-wire leads -up to a nerve-centre, consisting of two corpuscles of protoplasm: the -first or sensory, a smaller one, which is connected by branches with the -second, a much larger one, called the motor, from which a much larger -nerve-fibre or wire proceeds, which terminates in a mass of protoplasm -firmly attached to a muscle. Thus, a sensation is propagated along the -sensory nerve to the sensory nerve-centre, whence it is transmitted to -the motor-centre, which acts as an accumulator of stored-up energy, -a large flow of which is sent through the large conductor of the -motor-nerve to the muscle, which it causes to contract and thus produces -motion. It is thus that the simpler involuntary actions are produced -by a process which is purely mechanical. In the more complex cases, in -which consciousness and will are involved, the process is essentially -the same, though more complicated. The message is transmitted to the -brain, where it is received by a cluster of small sensory cells or -nerve-centres, which are connected with another cluster of fewer and -larger motor-centres, often at some distance from them, by a network -of interlacing fibres. But it is always a case of a single circuit of -wires, batteries, and accumulators, adapted for receiving, recording, -and transmitting one sort of vibrations caused by and producing one sort -of energy, and one only. The brain does not act as a whole, receiving -indiscriminately impressions of light, sound, and heat; but by separate -organs for each, located in separate parts of it. It is like a great -central office, in one room of which you have a printing instrument -reading off and recording messages sent through an electric telegraph; in -another a telephone; in a third a self-registering thermometer, and so -on. And the same for the motor-centres and nerves. One set is told off to -move the muscles of the face, another those of the arms, others for the -legs and body, and so forth. This is further complicated by the fact that -the brain like the rest of the body has two sides, a right and left, and -that in some cases the motor-apparatus is doubled, each working only on -one side, while in others the same battery and wires serve for both. As a -rule the right hemisphere of the brain works the muscles of the left side -of the body, and _vice versâ_, so that an injury to one side of the brain -may paralyse the voluntary motion of the limbs on the opposite side, -leaving in a perfect condition those on its own side. - -In the case of the higher functions involving thought, the upper part of -the brain, which performs these functions, seems to be a sort of duplex -machine, so that we have two brains capable of thinking, just as we -have two eyes capable of seeing. It is a remarkable fact that the areas -of the brain which are appropriated to the lowest and most instinctive -functions, which appear first, lie lowest, and as the functions rise the -position of their nerve-centres rises with them. Thus, at the very base -of the frontal convolutions at the lowest end of the fissure of Rolando, -we find the motor areas for the lower part of the face, by which the -lowest animals and the new-born infant perform their solitary function -of sucking and swallowing. Higher up are the centres in the right and -left brains for moving the upper limbs, that is, for seizing food and -conveying it to the mouth, which is the next function in the ascending -scale. Next above these are the centres for moving the lower limbs -and for co-ordinating the motions of the arms and legs, marking the -progression of an organism which can pursue and catch as well as eat its -food. And still higher are the centres which regulate the motions of the -trunk and body in correspondence with those of the limbs; while highest -of all, at the front and hind ends of the enveloping cortex of the brain, -come the organs of the intellectual faculties. - -It is easy to see that this corresponds with the progression of the -individual, for the infant sucks and cries for food from the first day, -soon learns to extend its hand and grasp objects, but takes some time -to learn to walk, and still longer to perform exercises like dancing or -riding, in which the motions of the whole body have to be co-ordinated -with those of the limbs. And as the development of the individual is an -epitome of the evolution of life from protoplasm, we may well suppose -that the brain was developed in this order from its first origin in -a swelling at the end of the spinal cord as we find it in the lowest -vertebrates. - -It is a singular fact that the particular motor area which gives the -faculty of articulate speech lies in a small patch of about one and a -half square inches on the left side of the lower portion of the first -brain. If this is injured, the disease called aphasia is produced, in -which the patient loses the power of expressing ideas by connected words. -The corresponding area on the right side cannot talk; but in left-handed -persons this state of things is reversed, and the right side, which is -generally aphasial, can be taught to speak in young people, though not in -the aged. - -Higher up in the cortex, or convoluted envelope of the brain, come the -areas for hearing and seeing, the latter being the more extensive. These -areas are filled mainly by a great number of sensory nerve-centres or -cells, connected with one another in a very complicated network. These -seem to be connected with the multitude of ideas which are excited in the -brain by perceptions derived from the higher senses, especially that of -sight. The simple movements are produced by a few large motor-centres, -which have only one idea and do only one thing, whether it be to move the -leg or the arm. But a sensation from sight often calls up a multitude of -ideas. Suppose you see the face of one with whom some fifty years ago you -may have had some youthful love passages, but your lives drifted apart, -and you now meet for the first time after these long years, how many -ideas will crowd on the mind, how many nerve-cells will be set vibrating, -and how many nerve-currents set coursing along intricate paths! No wonder -that the nerve-corpuscles are numerous and minute, and the nerve-channels -many and complicated. - -When we come to the seats of the intellectual faculties the question -becomes still more obscure. They are probably situated in the hinder and -front parts of the surface of the brain, and depend on the grey matter -consisting of an immense number of minute sensory cells. It has been -computed that there are millions in the area of a square inch, and they -are all in a state of the most delicate equilibrium, vibrating with the -slightest breath of nervous impression. They depend for their activity -entirely on the sensory perceptive centres, for there is no consciousness -in the absence of sensory stimulation, as in dreamless sleep. Perception, -however caused, whether by outward stimulation of real objects, or by -former perceptions revived by memory, sends a stream of energy through -the sense-area, which expands, like a river divided into numerous -channels, fertilising the intellectual area, where it is stored up by -memory, giving us the idea of continual individual existence, and by some -mysterious and unknown process becoming transformed into consciousness -and deliberate thought. And conversely the process is reversed when what -we call will is excited, and the small currents of the intellectual area -are concentrated by an effort of attention and sent along the proper -nerve-channels to the motor-centres, whose function it is to produce -the desired movement. This mechanical explanation, it will be observed, -leaves entirely untouched the question of the real essence and origin of -these intellectual faculties, as to which we know nothing more than we do -of the real essence and origin of life, of matter, and of energy. - -A very curious light however is thrown on them by phenomena which -occur in abnormal states of the brain, as in trance, somnambulism, and -hypnotism. In the latter, by straining the attention on a given object or -idea, such as a coin held in the hand or a black wafer on a white wall, -the normal action of the brain is, in the case of many persons—perhaps -one out of every three or four—thrown out of gear, and a state induced -in which the will seems to be annihilated, and the thoughts and actions -brought into subjection to the will of another person. In this state -also a cataleptic condition of the muscles is often induced, in which -they acquire enormous strength and rigidity. In somnambulism outward -consciousness is in a great measure suspended, and the somnambulist -lives for the time in a walking dream which he acts and mistakes for -reality. In this state old perceptions, scarcely felt at the time, seem -to revive, as in dreams, with such wonderful vividness and accuracy that -the somnambulist in acting the dream does things altogether impossible in -the waking state. Thus an ignorant Scotch servant-maid is said to have -recited half a chapter of the Hebrew version of the Old Testament: the -explanation being that she had been in the service of a Scotch minister, -who was studying Hebrew, and who used to walk about his room reciting -this identical passage. It would seem as if the brain were like a very -delicate photograph plate, which takes accurate impressions of all -perceptions, whether we notice them or not, and stores them up ready to -be reproduced whenever stronger impressions are dormant and memory by -some strange caprice breathes on the plate. - -Most wonderful, however, are some of the phenomena of trance. In this -case it really seems as if two distinct individuals might inhabit the -same body. Jones falls into a trance and dreams that he is Smith. While -the trance lasts he acts and talks as Smith, he really is Smith, and -even addresses his former self Jones as a stranger. When he wakes from -the trance he has no recollection of it, and takes up the thread of -his own life, just as if he had dozed for a minute instead of being -in a trance for hours. But if he falls into a second trance, days or -weeks afterwards, he takes up his trance life exactly where he dropped -it, absolutely forgetting his intermediate real life. And so he may go -on alternating between two lives, with two separate personalities and -consciousnesses, being to all intents and purposes now Jones and now -Smith. If he died during a trance, which would he be, Jones or Smith? The -question is more easily asked than answered; but it certainly appears -as if with one mode of motion in the same brain you might have one mind -and personal identity associated with it, and with another mode of motion -different ones. - -It would take me too far, and the facts are too doubtful, to investigate -the large class of cases included under the terms thought-reading, -telepathy, psychism, and spiritualism. It may suffice to say that there -is a good deal of evidence for the reality of very curious phenomena, -but none of any real weight for their being caused by any spiritualistic -or supernatural agency. They all seem to resolve themselves into the -assertion that under special conditions the perceptions of one brain can -be reproduced in another otherwise than by the ordinary medium of the -senses, and that in such conditions a special sort of cataleptic energy -or psychic force may be developed. The amount of negative evidence is -of course enormous, for it is certain that in millions upon millions -of cases thought cannot be read, things are not seen beyond the range -of vision, and coincidences do not occur between deaths and dreams or -visions. Neither can tables be turned, nor heavy bodies lifted, without -some known form of energy and a fulcrum at which to apply it. - -This borderland of knowledge is, therefore, best left to time, which is -the best test of truth. That which is real will survive, and be gradually -brought within the domain of science and made to fit in with other facts -and laws of nature. That which is unreal will pass away, as ghosts -and goblins have done, and be forgotten as the fickle fashion changes -of superstitious fancy. In the meantime we shall do better to confine -ourselves to ascertained facts and normal conditions. - -It is pretty certain that although the brain greatly preponderates as -an organ of mind in man and the higher animals, the grey tissue in the -spinal marrow and nervous ganglia exercises a limited amount of the -same functions proportionate to its smaller quantity. The reflex or -automatic actions, such as breathing, are carried on without reference -to the brain, and the messages are received and transmitted through the -local offices without going to the head office. This is the case with -many complicated motions which originated in the brain, but have become -habitual and automatic, as in walking, where thought and conscious -effort only intervene when something unusual occurs which requires a -reference to the head office; and in the still more complex case of the -piano-player, who fingers difficult passages correctly while thinking of -something else or even talking to a bystander. - -Indeed, in extreme cases, where experiments on the brain have been -tried on lower animals, it is found that it can be entirely removed -without destroying life, or affecting many of the actions which require -perception and volition. Thus, when the brain has been entirely removed -from a pigeon, it smoothes its feathers with its bill when they have been -ruffled, and places its head under its wing when it sleeps; and a frog -under the same conditions, if held by one foot endeavours to draw it -away, and if unsuccessful, places the other foot against an obstacle in -order to get more purchase in the effort to liberate itself. - -So much for the organ of mind; the other factor, that of outward -stimulus, is still more obvious. If thought cannot exist without grey -nerve-tissue, neither can it without impressions to stimulate that -tissue. A perfect brain, if cut off from all communication with the -external universe, could no more think and have perceptions, than -impressions from without could generate them without the appropriate -nerve-tissue. Once generated, the mind can store them up by memory, -control them by reason, and gradually evolve from them ever higher and -higher ideas and trains of reasoning, both in the individual and the -species:—in the individual passing from infancy to manhood, partly by -heredity from ancestors, and partly by education—using the word in the -large sense of influences of all sorts from the surrounding environment; -in the species, by a similar but much slower development from savagery to -civilisation. - -Thus the whole fabric of arithmetic, algebra, and the higher calculi -are built up from the primitive perception of number. The earliest -palæolithic savage must have been conscious of a difference between -encountering one or two cave-bears or mammoths; and some existing races -of savages have hardly got beyond this primitive perception. Some -Australian tribes, it is said, have not got beyond three numerals, one, -two, and a great number. But by degrees the perceptions of number have -become more extensive and accurate, and the number of fingers on each -hand has been used as a standard of comparison. Thus ten, or two-hand, -the number of fingers on the two hands has gradually become the basis -of arithmetical numeration, and from this up to Sir W. Hamilton’s -‘Quaternions’ the progression is regular and intelligible. But Newton -could never have invented the differential calculus and solved the -problem of the heavens, if thousands of centuries before some primitive -human mind had not received the perception that two apples or two bears -were different from one. - -In like manner geometry, as its name indicates, arises from primitive -perceptions of space, applied to the practical necessity of -land-measuring in alluvial valleys like those of the Nile and Euphrates, -where annual inundations obliterated to a great extent the dividing -lines between adjoining properties. The first perceptions of space would -take the form of the rectangle, or so many feet or paces, or cubits or -arm-lengths, forwards, and so many sideways, to give the proper area; -but as areas were irregular, it would be discovered that the triangle -was necessary for more accurate measurement. Hence the science of the -triangle, circle, and other regular forms, as we see it developed in -Euclid and later treatises on geometry, until we see it in its latest -development in speculations as to space of four dimensions. - -But in all these cases we see the same fundamental principle as prevails -throughout the universe under the name of the ‘conservation of energy’; -always something out of something, never something out of nothing. - -This, therefore, defines the limit of human knowledge, or boundary line -between the knowable and the unknowable. Whatever is _transformation_ -according to existing laws is, whether known or unknown, at any rate, -knowable—whatever is _creation_ is unknowable. We have absolutely no -faculties to enable us to form the remotest conception of what the -essence of these primary atoms and energies really is, how they came -there, and how the laws, or invariable sequences, under which they act, -came to be impressed on them. We have no faculties, because we have -never had any perceptions upon which the mind can work. Reason and -imagination can no more work without antecedent perceptions than a bird -can fly in a vacuum. - -Thus, for instance, the imagination can invent dragons, centaurs, and any -number of fabulous monsters, by piecing together fragments of perceptions -in new combinations; but ask it to invent a monster whose head shall -be that of an inhabitant of Saturn and its body that of a denizen of -Jupiter, and where is it? Of necessity all attempts to define or describe -things of which we have never had perceptions, must be made in terms of -things of which we have had perceptions, or, in other words, must be -anthropomorphic. - -So far as science gives any positive knowledge as to the relations of -mind to matter, it amounts to this: That all we call mind is indissolubly -connected with matter through the grey cells of the brain and other -nervous ganglia. This is positive. If the skull could be removed without -injury to the living organism, a skilful physiologist could play with his -finger on the human brain, as on that of a dog, pigeon, or other animal, -and by pressure on different notes, as on the keys of a piano, annihilate -successively voluntary motion, speech, hearing, sight, and finally will, -consciousness, reasoning power, and memory. But beyond this physical -science cannot go. It cannot explain how molecular motions of cells of -nerve-centres can be transformed into, or can create, the phenomena of -mind, any more than it can explain how the atoms and energies to which it -has traced up the material universe were themselves created or what they -really are. - -All attempts to further fathom the depths of the unknown follow a -different line, that of metaphysics, or, in other words, introspection of -mind by mind, and endeavour to explain thought by thinking. On entering -into this region we at once find that the solid earth is giving way -under our feet, and that we are attempting to fly in an extremely rare -atmosphere, if, indeed, we are not idly flapping our wings in an absolute -vacuum. Instead of ascertained facts which all recognise, and experiments -which conducted under the same conditions always give the same results, -we have a dissolving view of theories and intuitions, accepted by some, -denied by others, and changing with the changing conditions of the age, -and with individual varieties of characters, emotions, and wishes. Thus, -mind and soul are with some philosophers identical, with others mind -is a product of soul; with some soul is a subtle essence, with others -absolutely immaterial; with some it has an individual, with others a -universal, existence; by some it is limited to man, by others conceded to -the lower animals; by some located in the brain, by others in the heart, -blood, pineal gland, or dura mater; with some it is pre-existent and -immortal, with others created specially for its own individual organism; -and so on _ad infinitum_. The greatest philosophers come mostly to the -conclusion that we really know nothing about it. Thus Descartes, after -having built up an elaborate metaphysical theory as to a spiritual, -indivisible substance independent of the brain and cognisable by -self-consciousness alone, ends by honestly confessing ‘that by natural -reason we can make many conjectures about the soul, and have flattering -hopes, but no assurance.’ Kant also, greatest of metaphysicians in -demolishing the fallacies of former theories, when he comes to define his -‘noumenon,’ has to use the vaguest of phrases, such as ‘an indescribable -something, safely located out of space and time, as such not subject -to the mutabilities of those phenomenal spheres, ... and of whose -ontological existence we are made aware by its phenomenal projections, -or effects in consciousness.’ The sentence takes our breath away, and -makes us sympathise with Bishop Berkeley when he says, ‘We metaphysicians -have first raised a dust, and then complain we cannot see.’ It prepares -us also for Kant’s final admission that nothing can really be proved by -metaphysics concerning the attributes, or even the existence, of the -soul; though, on the other hand, as it cannot be disproved, its reality -may for moral purposes be assumed. - -It appears, therefore, that the efforts of the sublimest -transcendentalists do not carry us one step farther than the conclusions -of the commonest common-sense, viz. that there are certain fundamental -conditions of thought, such as space, time, consciousness, personal -identity, and freedom of will, which we cannot explain, but cannot get -rid of. The sublimest speculations of a Plato and a Kant bring us back -to the homely conclusions of the old woman in the nursery ballad, in -whose mind grave questions as to her personal identity were raised by the -felonious abstraction of the lower portion of her petticoat. - - If I be I, as I think I be, - I’ve a little dog at home, and he’ll know me. - -It is a safe ‘working hypothesis’ that when I go home in the afternoon, -my wife, children, and little dog will recognise me as being ‘I myself -I;’ but why or how I am I, whether I was I before I was born, or shall -be so after I am dead, I really know no more than the little dog who wags -his tail and yelps for joy when he recognises my personal identity as -something distinct from his own, when he sees me coming up the walk. - -Our conceptions, therefore, are necessarily based on our perceptions, -and are what is called anthropomorphic. The term has almost come to -be one of reproach, because it has so often been applied to religious -conceptions of a Deity with human, though often not very humane, -attributes; but, if considered rightly, it is an inevitable necessity -of any attempt to define such a being or beings. We can only conceive -of such as of a magnified man, indefinitely magnified no doubt, but -still with a will, intelligence, and faculties corresponding to our own. -The whole supernatural or miraculous theory of the universe rests on -the supposition that its phenomena are, in a great many cases, brought -about, not by uniform law, but by the intervention of some Power, which, -by the exercise of will guided by intelligent design, alters the course -of events and brings about special effects. As long as the theory is -confined to knowable transformations of existing things, like those -which are seen to be affected by human will, it is not necessarily -inconceivable or irrational. Inferring like effects from like causes, -the hypothesis was by no means unreasonable that thunder and lightning, -for instance, were caused by some angry invisible power in the clouds. -On the contrary, the first savage who drew the deduction was a natural -philosopher who reasoned quite justly from his assumed premises. Whether -the premises were true or not was a question which could only be -determined centuries later by the advance of accurate knowledge. - -When do we say we know a thing? Not when we know its essence and primary -origin, for of these the wisest philosopher is as ignorant as the rudest -savage; but when we know its place in the universe, its relation to other -things, and can fit it in to that harmonious sequence of events which is -summed up in what are called Laws of Nature. The highest knowledge is -when we can trace it up to its earliest origin from existing matter and -energy, and follow it downwards so as to be able to predict its results. -The force of gravity affords a good illustration of this knowledge, both -where it comes up to, and where it falls short of, perfection. - -Newton’s law leaves nothing to be desired as regards its universal -application and power of prediction; but we do not yet fully understand -its mode of action or its relation to other forms of energy. It is -probable that some day we may be able to understand how the force of -gravity appears to act instantaneously at a distance, and how all the -transformable forces, gravity, light, heat, electricity, and molecular or -atomic forces, are but different manifestations of one common energy. But -in the meantime we know this for certain, that the law of gravity is not -a local or special phenomenon, but prevails universally from the fixed -stars to the atoms, from the infinitely great to the infinitely small. -This is a _fact_ to which all other phenomena, which are true facts and -not illusions, must conform. - -In like manner, if we find in caves or river-gravels, under circumstances -implying enormous antiquity, and associated with remains of extinct -animals, rude implements so exactly resembling those in use among -existing savages, that if the collection in the Colonial Exhibition -of stone celts and arrow-heads used by the Bushmen of South Africa -were placed side by side with one from the British Museum of similar -objects from Kent’s Cavern or the caves of the Dordogne, no one but an -expert could distinguish between them, the conclusion is inevitable -that Devonshire and Southern France were inhabited at some remote -period by a race of men not more advanced than the Bushmen. Any theory -of man’s origin and evolution which is to hold water must take account -of this fact and square with it. And so of a vast variety of facts -which have been reduced to law and become certainly known during the -last half-century. A great deal of ground remains unexplored or only -partially explored; but sufficient has been discovered to enable us -to say that what we know we know thoroughly, and that certain leading -facts and principles undoubtedly prevail throughout the knowable -universe, including not only that which is known, but that which is as -yet partially or wholly unknown. For instance, the law of gravity, the -conservation of energy, the indestructibility of matter, and the law of -evolution, or development from the simple to the complex. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -RELIGIONS AND PHILOSOPHIES - - Religions, ‘working hypotheses’—Newman’s illative sense—Origins - of religions—Ghosts and spirits—Fetishes—Nature-worship—Solar - myths—Planets—Evolution of nature-worship—Polytheism, - pantheism, and theism—Evolution of monotheism in the Old - Testament—Evolution of morality—Natural law and miracle—Evidence - for miracles—Insufficiency of evidence—Absence of intelligent - design—Agnosticism—Origin of evil—Can only be explained - by polarity—Optimism and pessimism—Jesus, the Christian - Ormuzd—Christianity without miracles. - - -Having thus, I may hope, given the reader some precise ideas of what -are the boundaries and conditions of human knowledge, we may proceed -to consider their application to the highest subjects, religions and -philosophies. - -In the introductory chapter of this work I have said that all religions -are in effect ‘working hypotheses,’ by which men seek to reconcile the -highest aspirations of their nature with the facts of the universe, and -bring the whole into some harmonious concordance. I said so for the -following reasons. In a discussion at the Metaphysical Society on the -uniformity of laws of nature, recorded in the ‘Nineteenth Century,’ -Huxley is represented as saying that he considered this uniformity, not -as an axiomatic truth like the first postulates of geometry, but as a -‘working hypothesis’; adding, however, that it was an hypothesis which -had never been known to fail. To this some distinguished advocates of -Catholic theology replied, that their conviction was of a higher nature, -for their belief in God was a final truth which was the basis of their -whole intellectual and moral nature, and which it was irrational to -question. This is in effect Cardinal Newman’s celebrated argument of an -‘illative sense,’ based on a complete assent of all the faculties, and -which was therefore a higher authority than any conclusions of science. -The answer is obvious, that complete assent, so far from being a test -of truth, is, on the contrary, almost always a proof that truth has not -been attained, owing either to erroneous assumptions as to the premises, -or to the omission of important factors in the solution of the problem. -To give an instance, I suppose there could not be a stronger case of -complete assent than that of the Inquisitors who condemned the theories -of Galileo. They had in support of the proposition that the sun revolved -round the earth the testimony of the senses, the universal belief of -mankind in all ages, the direct statement of inspired Scripture, the -authority of the infallible Church. Was all this to be set aside because -some ‘sophist vainly mad with dubious lore’ told them, on grounds of -some new-fangled so-called science, that the earth revolved round its -axis and round the sun? ‘No; let us stamp out a heresy so contrary to -our “illative sense,” and so fatal to all the most certain and cherished -beliefs of the Christian world, to the inspiration of the Word of God, -and to the authority of His Church.’ ‘E pur si muove,’ and yet the earth -really did move; and the verdict of _fact_ was that Galileo and science -were right, and the Church and the illative sense wrong. - -In truth the distinction between the conclusions of science and those -of religious creeds might be more properly expressed by saying that -the former are ‘working hypotheses’ which never fail, while the latter -are ‘working hypotheses’ which frequently fail. Thus, the fundamental -hypothesis of Cardinal Newman and his school of a one infinite and -eternal personal Deity, who regulates the course of events by frequent -miraculous interpositions, so far from being a necessary and axiomatic -truth, has never appeared so to the immense majority of the human race: -and even at the present day, in civilised and so-called Christian -countries, its principal advocates complain that ninety-nine out of every -hundred practically ignore it. It is not so with the uniformity of the -laws of nature. No palæolithic savage ever hesitated about putting one -foot after another in chase of a mammoth from a fear that his working -hypothesis of uniform law might fail, the support of the solid earth give -way, and with his next step he might find himself toppling over into the -abyss of an infinite vacuum. In like manner Greeks and Romans, Indians -and Chinese, monotheists, polytheists, pantheists, Jews and Buddhists, -Christians and Mahometans, all use standard weights in their daily -transactions without any misgivings that the law of gravity may turn out -not to be uniform. But religions theories vary from time to time and from -place to place, and we can in a great many cases trace their origins and -developments like those of other political and social organisms. - -To trace their origins we must, as in the case of social institutions, -look first at the ideas prevailing among those savage and barbarous races -who are the best representatives of our early progenitors; and secondly -at historical records. In the first case we find the earliest rudiments -of religious ideas in the universal belief in ghosts and spirits. Every -man is conceived of as being a double of himself, and as having a sort of -shadowy self, which comes and goes in sleep or trance, and finally takes -leave of the body, at death, to continue its existence as a ghost. The -air is thus peopled with an immense number of ghosts who continue very -much their ordinary existence, haunt their accustomed abodes, and retain -their living powers and attributes, which are exerted generally with a -malevolent desire to injure and annoy. Hence among savage races, and by -survival even among primitive nations of the present day, we find the -most curious devices to cheat or frighten away the ghost, so that he may -not return to the house in which he died. Thus, the corpse is carried -out, not by the door, but by a hole made for the purpose in the wall, -which is afterwards built up, a custom which prevails with a number of -widely separated races—Greenlanders, Hottentots, Algonquins, and Fijians; -and the practice even survives among more civilised nations, such as the -Chinese, Siamese, and Thibetans; nor is it wholly extinct in some of the -primitive parts of Europe. - -This idea obviously led to the practice of constructing tents or houses -for the ghosts to live in, and of depositing with them articles of -food and weapons to be used in their ghostly existence. In the case -of great chiefs, not only their arms and ornaments are deposited, but -their horses, slaves, and wives were sacrificed and buried with them, -so that they might enter spirit-land with an appropriate retinue. The -early Egyptian tombs were as nearly as possible facsimiles of the house -in which the deceased had lived, with pictures of his geese, oxen, and -other possessions painted on the walls, evidently under the idea that the -ghosts of these objects would minister to the wants and please the fancy -of the human ghost whose eternal dwelling was in the tomb where his mummy -was deposited. - -Another development of the belief in spirits is that of fetish-worship, -in which superstitious reverence is paid to some stock or stone, tree -or animal, in which a mysterious influence is supposed to reside, -probably owing to its being the chosen abode of some powerful spirit. -This is common among the negro races, and it takes a curious development -among many races of American Indians, where the tribe is distinguished -by the totem, or badge of some particular animal, such as the bear, -the tortoise, or the hare, which is in some way supposed to be the -patron spirit of the clan, and often the progenitor from whom they are -descended. This idea is so rooted that intermarriage between men and -women who have the same totem is prohibited as a sort of incest, and -the daughter of a bear-mother must seek for a husband among the sons of -the deer or fox. Possibly a vestige of the survival of this idea may be -traced in the coat-of-arms of the Sutherland family, and the wild cat may -have been the totem of the Clan Chattan, while the oak tree was that of -the Clan Quoich, with whom they fought on the Inch of Perth. Be this as -it may, it is clearly a most ancient and widespread idea, and prevails -from Greenland to Australia; while it evidently formed the oldest element -of the prehistoric religion of Egypt, where each separate province had -its peculiar sacred animal, worshipped by the populace in one nome, and -detested in the neighbouring one. - -By far the earliest traces of anything resembling religious ideas are -those found in burying-places of the neolithic period. It is evident that -at this remote period ideas prevailed respecting ghost or spirit life and -a future existence very similar to those of modern savages. They placed -weapons and implements in the graves of the dead, and not infrequently -sacrificed human victims, and held cannibal feasts. Whether this was -done in the far more remote palæolithic era is uncertain, for very few -undoubted burials of this period have been discovered, and those few -have frequently been used again for later interments. We can only draw -a negative inference from the absence of idols which are so abundant -in the prehistoric abodes explored by Professor Schliemann, among the -very numerous carvings and drawings found in the caves of the reindeer -period in France and Germany, that the religion of the palæolithic men, -if they had any, had not reached the stage when spirits or deities were -represented by images. - -For the first traces therefore of anything like what is now understood -by the term religion, we must look beyond the vague superstitions of -savages, at the historical records of civilised nations. As civilisation -advanced population multiplied, and rude tribes of hunters were -amalgamated into agricultural communities and powerful empires, in which -a leisured and cultured class arose, to whom the old superstitions were -no longer sufficient. They had to enlarge their ‘working hypothesis’ -from the worship of stocks and stones and fear of ghosts, to take in a -multitude of new facts and ideas, and specially those relating to natural -phenomena which had roused their curiosity, or become important to them -as matters of practical utility. The establishment of an hereditary -caste of priests accelerated this evolution of religious ideas, and from -time to time recorded its progress. The oldest of such records are those -of Egypt and Chaldæa, where the fertility of alluvial valleys watered by -great rivers had led to the earliest development of a high civilisation. -The records also of the Chinese, Hindoos, Persians, and other nations -take us a long way back towards the origins of religions. - -In all cases we find them identical with the first origins of science, -and taking the form of attempted explanations of natural phenomena, by -the theory of deified objects and powers of nature. In the Vedas we see -this in the simplest form, where the gods are simply personifications of -the heavens, earth, sun, moon, dawn, and so forth; and where we should -say the red glow of morning announces the rising of the sun, they express -it that Aurora blushes at the approach of her lover the mighty Sun-god. -It is very interesting to observe how the old Chaldæan legend of the -creation of the world has been modified in the far later Jewish edition -of it in Genesis, to adapt it to monotheistic ideas. The Chaldæan legend -begins, like that of Genesis, with an ‘earth without form and void,’ and -darkness on the chaotic deep. In each legend the Spirit of God, called -Absu in the Chaldæan, moves on the face of the waters, and they are -gathered together and separated from the land. But here a difference -begins: in the original Chaldæan legend ‘the great gods were then made; -the gods Lakman and Lakmana caused themselves to come forth; the gods -Assur and Kesar were made; the gods Anu, Bel, and Hea were born.’ - -The appearance of the gods Lakman and Lakmana was the primitive mode of -expressing the same idea as that which is expressed in Genesis by saying -that God created the firmament separating the heaven above from the earth -beneath; Assur and Kesar mean the same thing as the hosts of heaven and -the earth; the god Bel is the sun, and so forth. It is evident that the -first attempts to explain the phenomena of nature originated in the idea -that motion and power implied life, personality, and conscious will; and -therefore that the earth, sky, sun, moon, and other grand and striking -phenomena, must be regarded as separate gods. - -As culture advanced astronomy became more and more prominent in these -early religions, and solar myths became a principal part of their -mythologies, while astrology, or the influence of planets and stars on -human affairs, became an important part of practical life. The Chaldæan -legend referred to contains a mass of astronomical knowledge, which in -the Genesis edition is reduced to ‘He made the stars also.’ It describes -how the constellations were assigned their forms and names, the twelve -signs of the zodiac established, the year divided into twelve months, -the equinoxes determined, and the seasons set their bounds. Also how the -moon was made to regulate the months by its disc, ‘horns shining forth to -lighten the heavens, which on the seventh day approaches a circle.’ - -In the still older Egyptian pyramids we find proof of the long previous -existence of great astronomical knowledge and refined methods of -observation, for these buildings, which are at once the largest and the -oldest in the world, are laid down so exactly in a meridian line, and -with such a close approximation to the true latitude, as would have -otherwise been impossible. In fact there is every reason to believe that -while they were constructed as tombs for kings, they were at the same -time intended for national observatories, for the arrangement of the -internal passages as such is to make the Great Pyramid serve the purpose -of a telescope, equatorially mounted, and showing the transits of stars -and planets over the meridian, by reference to a reflected image of what -was then the polar star, a knowledge of which was essential for accurate -calculation of the calendar and seasons, for fixing the proper date of -religious ceremonies, and very probably for astrological purposes. - -The prevalence of these solar and astronomical myths among a number -of different nations separated by wide intervals of space and time is -very remarkable. Egyptians, Indians, Babylonians, Chinese, Mexicans, -and Peruvians had myths which were strangely similar, indeed almost -identical, based on the sun’s annual passage through the constellations -of the zodiac. His apparent decline and death as he approached the -winter solstice, and his return to life when he had passed it, gave -rise to myths of the murder of the Sun-god by some fierce wild boar, -or treacherous enemy, and of his triumphant resurrection in renewed -glory. Hence, also, the passage of the winter solstice was a season of -general rejoicing and festivity, traces of which survive when the sirloin -and turkey smoke upon the hospitable tables of modern Christmas. One -remarkable myth had a very universal acceptance, that of the birth of -the infant Sun-god from a virgin mother. It appears to have originated -from the period, some 6,450 years ago, when the sun, which now rises at -the winter solstice in the constellation of Sagittarius, rose in that -of Pisces, with the constellation of the Virgin, with upraised arms -marked by five stars, setting in the north-west. Anyhow, this myth of -an infant god born of a virgin mother holds a prominent place in the -religions of Egypt, India, China, Chaldæa, Greece, Rome, Siam, Mexico, -Peru, and other nations. The resemblances are often so close that the -first Jesuit missionaries to China found that their account of the -miraculous conception of Christ had been anticipated by that of Fuh-ke, -born 3468 B.C.; and if an ancient priest of Thebes or Heliopolis could -be restored to life and taken to the Gallery of Dresden, he would see -in Raffaelle’s Madonna di San Sisto what he would consider to be an -admirable representation of Horus in the arms of Isis. - -The planets also, still more mysterious in their movements than the sun, -and therefore still more endowed with human-like faculties of life, -power, and purpose, were from an early period believed to exercise an -influence on human affairs. Of the universality of this belief we find -traces in the names of the days of the week, which are so generally taken -from the sun, moon, and five visible planets—Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, -Venus, and Saturn—to whom special days were dedicated. If every seventh -day is a day of rest, it was originally so because it was thought unlucky -to undertake any work on the Sabbath, Saturday, or day of the gloomy and -malignant Saturn. - -As time rolled on and civilisation advanced, this simple nature-worship -and deification of astronomical phenomena developed into larger and more -complex conceptions. Following different lines of evolution, polytheism, -pantheism and monotheism began to emerge as religious systems with -definite creeds, rituals, and sacred books. These lines seem to have been -determined a good deal by the genius of the race in which the religious -development took place. The impressions made on the human mind by the -surrounding universe are very various. Suppose ourselves looking up at -the heavens on a clear starry night, what will be the impression? To -one, that of awe and reverence, and he will feel crushed, as it were, -into nothingness, in the presence of such a sublime manifestation of -majesty and glory. Another, of more æsthetic nature, will be charmed by -the beauty of the spectacle, and tempted to assign life to it, and to -personify and dramatise its incidents. A third, of a scientific turn, -will above all things wish to understand it. - -Thus we find the impression of awe preponderating among the Semitic races -generally; and as in their political relations, so in their religious -conceptions, we find them prone to prostrate themselves before despotic -power. With the Greeks again the æsthetic idea almost swallowed up -the others, and the old astronomical myths blossomed into a perfect -flower-bed of poetical and fanciful legends. The Chinese never got beyond -a simple pantheism, which looked upon the universe as being alive, and -saw nothing behind it; while the more metaphysical and physically feebler -races of Hindoos and Buddhists refined their pantheism into a system of -illusion, in which their own existence and the surrounding universe were -literally - - such stuff - As dreams are made on, - -and to be ‘rounded with a sleep’ was the final consummation devoutly to -be desired. - -Monotheism developed itself later, partly from the feeling of the -unity of nature forcing itself on the more philosophical minds; partly -from that feeling of reverence and awe in presence of the Unknown which -swallowed up other conceptions; and partly, in the earlier stages, from -the feeling which exalted the local god of the tribe or nation, first -into a supremacy over other gods, and finally into sole supremacy, -degrading all other gods into the category of dumb idols made by human -hands. In the Old Testament we can trace the development of this latter -idea in its successive stages. Until the later days of the Jewish -monarchy it is evident that the Jews never doubted the existence of other -gods; and their allegiance oscillated between Jehovah and the heathen -deities symbolised by the golden calf, worshipped in high places, and -contending for the mastership in the rival sacrifices of Elijah and the -priests of Baal. But the prophetic element gradually introduced higher -ideas, and in the reigns of Hezekiah and Josiah the worship of Jehovah -as the sole God became the religion of the State; and old legends and -documents were re-edited in this sense in the sacred book, which was -discovered and published for the first time in the reign of the latter -king. The subsequent misfortunes of the nation, their captivity and -contact with other religions in Babylonia, strengthened this monotheism -into an ardent, passionate national faith, as it has continued to be -with this remarkable people up to the present day. Christianity and -Mahometanism, children of Judaism, have spread this form of faith over -a great part of the civilised world; and of the three theories of -polytheism, pantheism, and monotheism, it may be said that only the two -latter survive. - -Polytheism was bound to perish first, for slow as the advance of science -was, the uniformity of most of the phenomena, which had been attributed -to so many separate gods, could not fail to make an impression; and as -ideas of morality came slowly and tardily to be evolved as an element -of religion, the cruel rites and scandalous fables which so generally -accompanied polytheistic religions became shocking to an awakening -conscience. - -It is worthy of remark that this element of morality, which has now -gone so far towards swallowing up the others, was the latest to appear. -Even in the Jewish conception Jehovah was for a long time just as often -cruel, jealous, and capricious, as just and merciful; and St. Paul’s -doctrine that because God had the power to do as He liked, He was -warranted in creating a large portion of the human race as ‘vessels of -wrath,’ predestined to eternal punishment, is as revolting to the modern -conscience as any sacrifice to Beelzebub or Moloch. If we wish to see how -little necessary connection there is between morality and monotheism, we -have only to look at Mahometanism, which, in its extremer forms, may be -called monotheism run mad. - -The Wahabite reformer, we are told by Palgrave, preached that there were -only two deadly sins: paying divine honours to any creature of Allah’s, -and smoking tobacco; and that murder, adultery, and such like trivial -matters, were minor offences which a merciful Allah would condone. He -held also that of the whole inhabitants of the world all would surely -be damned, except one out of the seventy-two sects of Mahometans, who -held the true faith and dwelt in the district of Riad. This illustrates -the insane extremes into which all human speculations run, if a single -idea—in this case that of awe, reverence, and abject submission in -presence of an almighty power—is allowed to run its course without check -and obtain undue preponderance. - -Apart from these extreme instances we may say that the two religious -theories which have survived to the present day in the struggle for -existence, are monotheism and pantheism. Pantheism is, in the main, the -creed of half the human race—of the teeming millions of India, China, -Japan, Ceylon, Thibet, Siam, and Burmah. How deeply it is rooted in -their conceptions was very forcibly impressed on me in a conversation I -had on board one of the P. and O. steamers with an English missionary -returning from China. He told me how he had dined one evening with an -intelligent Chinese merchant, and after dinner they walked in the garden -discussing religious subjects, and he tried to impress on his host the -first principles of the Christian religion. It was a starlight night, -and for sole reply the Chinese gentleman stretched his hand to the -heavens and said, ‘Do you mean to tell me all that is dead—do you take -me for a fool?’ The Chinese ‘illative sense’ was as absolute in its -conclusions for pantheism, as that of Cardinal Newman for theism. In fact -pantheism, though not the whole truth, and almost as inconsistent as -polytheism with the real facts of the universe as disclosed by science, -has a certain poetical truth in it, to which chords of human emotion -vibrate responsively, and is perhaps not so widely in error as some of -the extreme theories which treat matter as something base and brutal. -Wordsworth’s noble lines— - - A sense sublime - Of something far more deeply interfused, - Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, - And the round ocean and the living air, - And the blue sky, and in the mind of man; - A motion, and a spirit that impels - All thinking things, all objects of all thoughts, - And rolls through all things— - -are pure pantheism, and yet we cannot but feel ourselves to a great -extent in sympathy with them. - -So also the well-known lines of a greater than Wordsworth, Shakespeare, -are pure Buddhism: - - The cloud-capp’d towers, the gorgeous palaces, - The solemn temples, the great globe itself, - Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve - And, like this insubstantial pageant faded, - Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff - As dreams are made on, and our little life - Is rounded with a sleep. - -No one can read these lines without feeling that the Buddhist conception -is as far as possible from being a trivial or vulgar one, and that the -triviality and vulgarity are rather with those who cannot, up to a -certain point, understand and sympathise with it. - -The religions of the East are very philosophical, and have kept very -clearly in view this fundamental distinction between the knowable and -the unknowable. In the ‘Century Magazine’ of July 1886, there is an -interesting account of a conversation between an American missionary -and the Bozu or chief priest of the great temple of the Shin Sect of -Buddhists at Kioto in Japan. The priest was an intelligent and highly -educated gentleman who spoke English, and was well versed in the -speculations of modern philosophy. The conversation turned on theological -questions, and when pressed by the argument for a Divine Creator, from -design shown in the universe implying intelligence, he replied:— - -‘No; God cannot _make_ matter. Only artificial things show design, only -things which can be made. What do you mean by saying a thing shows -design? You only mean that by trying a man could make it.’ - -And he proceeded to illustrate it thus:— - -‘You show me a gold ring; the ring shows design, but not the gold; gold -is an ultimate element, which can neither be made nor destroyed. When men -can make a world, then they can prove that this one shows design, for the -only way they know of design is by what they make.’ - -He went on to argue for the immortality of the soul, and as a consequence -for its pre-existence and the transmigration of souls, from the -conservation of energy; and concluded his argument against the creation -and government of the world by a comprehensible, anthropomorphic Creator, -by adducing the existence of evil. - -‘There is a sickness,’ he said, ‘called fever and ague; what do you call -the medicine to cure that?’ - -‘Quinine.’ - -‘Yes; now we have not found that long; a good God would not have let so -many people suffer if He could have given them that. A man found it by -chance. The sickness and suffering in this life are for wrong done in -another life.’ - -We may not accept this unproved theory of the cause of sickness and -suffering, but it is very interesting to find that candid and intelligent -minds, brought up in a society and religious beliefs so widely different -from our own, have arrived practically at the same conclusions as John -Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, and other leaders of advanced thought in -modern Europe, and drawn almost identically the same line between that -which is knowable and that which is unknowable by the human mind. - -But, however large-minded we may become in seeing the good in other -forms of creed, we English of the nineteenth century are not going to -turn either pantheists or Buddhists, and practically the contest of the -present day is between the supernatural or miraculous, and the natural or -scientific, hypotheses. - -According to the former the operations of the universe are carried on to -a considerable extent by what may be called secondary interferences of a -supernatural being, who with will, intelligence, and design, like human -though vastly superior, frequently interposes to alter the course of -events and bring about something which natural law would not have brought -about. The other hypothesis cannot be stated better than in Bishop -Temple’s words, that the Great First Cause created things so perfect -from the first, that no such secondary interferences have ever been -necessary, and everything has been and is evolved from the primary atoms -and energies in a necessary and invariable succession. The supernatural -and the natural theories of the universe are thus brought into direct -antagonism. - -For the supernatural theory it must be conceded that it is quite -conceivable, as is proved by the fact that it has been the almost -universal conception of mankind for ages, and remains so still for the -greater number. It is, as I have said, the inevitable first conception -when men began to reflect on the phenomena of the universe, and to reason -from effects to causes. I have always thought that Hume went too far in -condemning miracles as absolutely incredible _a priori_. It is a question -of evidence. _A priori_, I can conceive that the true explanation of the -universe might have been natural law, as the general rule, supplemented -by miracles; just as readily as that it is law always, and miracle never. -The verdict must be decided by the weight of evidence. The two theories -must be called, face to face, before the tribunal of _fact_, and its -decision must be respected. This is exactly what has been going on for -the last two centuries, and specially for the last half century, and the -record of decisions is now a very ample one. In every single instance law -has carried the day against miracle. - -Instance after instance has occurred in which phenomena which in former -ages were attributed without hesitation to supernatural agencies have -been conclusively proved to be due to natural laws. Take the obvious -instance of thunder. When Horace wrote:— - - Jam satis terris nivis, atque diræ - Grandinis misit Pater, et rubente - Dextera sacras jaculatus arces - Terruit urbem, - -he wrote to a public to whom it was an undoubted article of faith that -thunder and lightning, hail and snowstorms, came direct from the Father -of the gods in the sky. Even to a late period this was the general -faith, and the prayers in our rubric for rain or fine weather remain -as a survival of the belief that these things, when unusual or in -excess, are supernatural manifestations. But Benjamin Franklin said, -‘No, there is nothing supernatural about lightning. I will bring it -down from the clouds and manufacture it by turning a wheel.’ Appeal -being made to _fact_, the verdict is that Franklin was right, and that -lightning-conductors protect ships and houses better than prayers or -incantations. Again, when Galileo and the Church joined issue as to -whether the earth was round or flat, inspiration and authority were -cited in vain for the received theory; _fact_ said it was round, and -it was proved to be so by men sailing round it. The law of gravity was -considered a very dangerous heresy, and for a long time pious divines -held out against its conclusions, and contended that it was no better -than atheism to doubt that comets were signs of God’s anger sent to warn -a sinful world. But Halley calculated the time of his comet’s return -according to the laws of gravity, and appeal being made to fact, the -comet returned true to time. - -This has occurred so often that few are left who doubt the universal -prevalence of law in the material universe, where former generations saw -miracles at every turn. Nor is the defeat of miracle less conspicuous -in the spiritual world. Where former ages and rude races saw, and still -see, possession by evil spirits, modern doctors see fevers, epilepsies, -or insanity. Once more appeal being made to _fact_, the old medicine-men -administered incantations, the new ones quinine—which cure the most -patients? - -In like manner demonology and witchcraft, with all their train of -cruelties and horrors, once universally believed even by men like Justice -Hale, have passed into oblivion as completely as the Lamiæ, Phorkyads, -and other fantastic figures of the classical Walpurgisnight. Is the -world the better or the worse for this triumph of natural law over -supernaturalism? - -The triumph has been so complete in innumerable instances, without -a single one to the contrary, that belief in the permanence and -universality of natural law has become almost an instinct in all educated -minds, and even those who cling to old beliefs must admit that the most -cogent and irresistible evidence is requisite to establish the fact of a -real supernatural interference. It may be taken as an axiom that wherever -a natural explanation is possible, a miraculous one is impossible. - -Now this is just the point on which, as knowledge has increased, the -evidence for miracles has become weaker, almost in the exact ratio in -which the necessity for evidence has become stronger. - -Take, for instance, the following case recorded by Dr. Braid of Glasgow. -Miss R. had suffered from ophthalmia and was totally blind. She could -not discern a single letter of the title-page of a book placed close -to her, though some of the letters were a quarter of an inch long. Dr. -Braid placed the patient in a condition of hypnotism or artificial -somnambulism, and directed the nervous force, or sustained attention of -the mind, to the eyes by wafting over them. After a first sitting of -about ten minutes she was able to read a great part of the title-page, -and after four more sittings she was able to read the smallest-sized -print in a newspaper, and was quite cured for the rest of her life. In -another case, that of Mrs. S., blindness of the left eye had occurred -owing to an attack of rheumatic fever, the structure of the eye, both -external and internal, being considerably injured, and more than half the -cornea covered by an opaque film. After a few sittings the cornea became -transparent, and the patient was cured. - -In both these cases the blind were made to see by processes which were -purely mechanical, for hypnotism was induced by the simple means of -making the patient strain her attention on some fixed idea or object, -commonly on a black wafer stuck on a white wall, and the stimulation -of the optic nerve to greater activity did the rest. And if the blind -could be made to see, _a fortiori_ the deaf were made to hear, and the -lame and halt to walk, by the same mechanical process. Here there is an -explanation of nine-tenths of all recorded miracles by purely natural -causes. - -Again, take the well-known case of the Berlin bookseller, Nicolai, who, -having fallen into ill-health, for a whole year saw, when awake, visions -so real and palpable that he may be said to have lived in the company of -disembodied spirits, undistinguishable from actual men and women. This is -a common phenomenon in vivid dreams, but the Berlin case takes us a step -farther, and shows us how subjective impressions may assume the form of -objective realities, even in the case of a man wide awake, of a sceptical -turn of mind, and in full possession of his reasoning faculties. Why -then should we be driven to the alternative of miracle or imposture, to -account for similar dreams or visions being taken for objective realities -by enthusiastic minds, living in an atmosphere of religious excitement, -in an uncritical age, when supernatural occurrences were considered to -be matters of course? And history is full of instances which show how -any supernatural germ, planted in such a medium, propagates itself and -extends to millions, almost as rapidly as the bacillus germ does in an -epidemic of small-pox. St. Vitus’s dance, or the dancing mania, ran the -round of Europe like the potato disease, and even yet survives in the -hysterical affections of the sect of Shakers. The gift of tongues spread -like wildfire through Irving’s congregation, and only died out because it -had fallen on the uncongenial soil of the nineteenth century; even the -story of the tail of the lion over the gateway of the old Northumberland -House being seen by many passers-by to wag because one had asserted it, -illustrates the contagiousness of nervous sympathy, and the tricks which -‘strong imagination’ can play with the senses. - -Another great blow has been dealt against the miraculous theory by what -can only be called the singular want of intelligence displayed in the -exercise of miraculous power as commonly recorded. The _raison d’être_, -or effect desired to be produced by miracles, is to convert mankind from -sin, or to attest a divine mission by convincing proofs. Even ordinary -human intelligence—and how much more so that of a superior Being—must see -that to attain this end the means must be to make the proof convincing. -There is no reason in itself why it should not be so. The fact that a man -who was alive and signed a will is now dead, is attested as regards the -latter proposition by a proper medical certificate, and as regards the -former by two credible witnesses, who are prepared to come into court, -give their names and addresses, depose on oath to the signature, and -stand cross-examination. If this testimony is required to establish a -fact so antecedently probable as that one particular man has undergone -the common fate of millions of millions of other men, that is to say, -that he has died after being alive, how much more must it be requisite -to establish the fact so antecedently improbable, as that one man -among those many millions after having died came back to life. And yet -where is the recorded miracle for which even this _minimum_ amount of -testimony is forthcoming? Why are miracles so constantly performed in -holes and corners, in obscure localities, among little knots of ignorant -and enthusiastic adherents, attested by the vaguest hearsay evidence -of unknown or incompetent witnesses, and apparently under circumstances -inevitably calculated to defeat their object and engender doubts in -the minds of reasonable and conscientious men. Take, for instance, the -miracles now said to be wrought at Lourdes. The object must be taken to -be to convert infidel France to the Catholic faith. But obviously this -object would be far better attained by a single undoubted miracle wrought -at Paris before a commission headed by a man like Pasteur, than by any -number of miracles scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from those of Dr. -Braid, alleged to occur at an obscure village in the presence of peasants -and pilgrims. Or, take a higher instance, that of the demand made by the -Pharisees to Jesus for a sign to attest his Messiahship. Consider the -circumstances of the case, and see if it is at all possible that if he -had possessed the power of working miracles he should have replied, ‘Why -doth this generation seek after a sign? verily I say unto you, there -shall no sign be given unto this generation’ (St. Mark ix. 12). In the -first place the statement throws discredit upon all the miracles said to -have been wrought, by the positive and explicit declaration that none -should be wrought. But beyond this, the very essence of the mission of -Jesus was contained in the words, ‘Repent ye, for the kingdom of heaven -is at hand.’ He had a firm conviction that the kingdom of heaven, or a -millennium of peace and goodwill, was close at hand, and its advent only -retarded by the sinfulness and want of faith of his chosen people. He -thought it his bounden duty to do all he could to remove the obstacle and -expedite the coming of the kingdom. With this conviction, though fully -seeing the risk and counting the cost, when he found that he was making -no decided headway by preaching in a remote province, he determined to go -to Jerusalem and make there one great effort to accomplish his object. -Can it be doubted that he would use every means in his power to carry -his mission to a successful conclusion? If, having the power to do so by -working a miracle, he had refused, he would from his point of view have -been guilty of a great sin—that of preventing the coming of the kingdom -of heaven. - -Again, who were the Pharisees? No doubt there were formalists and -hypocrites among them, but the position of the sect in the Jewish nation -was almost exactly similar to that of the English Puritans in the reign -of Charles. They were the embodiment of the patriotic and religious -spirit of the race, the sons of the heroic fathers who fought under Judas -Maccabeus against Antiochus, the fathers of the equally heroic sons who -made the last desperate stand against the legions of Titus. It was their -duty, when a claim to Messiahship was advanced, before departing from -the traditions of their ancestors, to require evidence. The universally -expected evidence of a temporal deliverer being wanting, there remained -only the evidence of miracles, which, moreover, were assigned as the test -of a Messiah by all their prophets. To refuse them a sign, if a sign were -possible, was to do injustice to many sincere and conscientious men. -Nay, more, it was an act of cruelty if leaving them in their old faith -entailed eternal punishment. The same thing applies to all records of -miracles. They are never wrought under circumstances where they would be -the most effective means for attaining proposed ends. They are never -wrought under circumstances which leave them clear of the suspicion -of being subjective illusions or misinterpretations of effects due to -natural causes. They never convince any but those who are more than half -convinced already. - -It would be easy to multiply instances showing the inadequacy of the -evidence adduced to establish such an exceptional and extraordinary fact -as the occurrence of a real miracle. But it is unnecessary to do so, -as all thinking minds have come, or are fast coming, to the conclusion -of Dr. Temple, that ‘all the countless varieties of the universe were -provided for by one original impress, and not by special acts of creation -modifying what had previously been made.’ - -It is only when we look behind the phenomena of the universe at this -Great First Cause, that I see anything to object to in the definition -of Dr. Temple, and of Christian philosophers generally. They assume it -to be a personal Deity, who is to a great extent known or knowable, and -therefore must have attributes conformable to human perceptions which -are the basis of all human knowledge. In other words, however much we -may purify and enlarge these attributes, He must be essentially an -anthropomorphic God or magnified man. To this theory there seems to me -to be this fatal objection, that it gives no account of the origin of -evil, or rather that it makes the Divine Creator directly responsible -for it. The existence of evil in the world is as palpable a fact as the -existence of good. There are many things which to our human perceptions -appear to be base, cruel, foul, and ugly, just as clearly as other things -appear to be noble, merciful, pure, and beautiful. Whence come they? -If the existence of good proves a good Creator, how can we escape the -inference that the existence of evil proves an evil one? This is never -so forcibly impressed on me as when I read the arguments of those who -insist most strongly on the conception of a one, anthropomorphic God. -When Carlyle says, ‘All that is good, generous, wise, right—whatever I -deliberately and for ever love in others and myself—who or what could -by any possibility have given it to me but One who first had it to -give? This is not logic, but axiom.’ I cannot but picture to myself the -sledgehammer force with which, if he had approached the question without -prepossessions, he would have come down on the cant, the insincerity, the -treason to the eternal veracities, which refused to look facts in the -face, and apply the same reasoning to the evil. Or if Arnold defines the -Deity as the ‘Something not ourselves which makes for righteousness,’ how -of the Something not ourselves which makes for unrighteousness? The only -escape I can find from this dilemma is to accept existing facts and not -evade them. It is a fact that polarity is the law of existence. Why we -know not, any more than we know the real essence and origin of the atoms -and energies which are our other ultimate facts. But we accept atoms and -energies, and accept the law of gravity and other laws; why not accept -also the law of polarity, and admit that it is part of the ‘original -impress’: one of the fundamental conditions under which the evolution of -Creation from its ultimate elements is necessitated to proceed. This the -human mind can understand; beyond it is the great unknown or unknowable, -in presence of which we can only feel emotions of reverence and of awe, -and ‘faintly trust the larger hope’ that duality may somehow ultimately -be merged in unity, evil in good, and ‘every winter turn to spring.’ - -As nations advanced in civilisation there has always been a tendency -among the higher and purer minds to relegate the Great First Cause -further and further back into the unknown, and to divest it of -anthropomorphic attributes. When Socrates said, ‘that divinely revealed -wisdom of which you speak, I deny not, inasmuch as I do not know it; -I can only understand human reason,’ he spoke the identical language -of Darwin, Spencer, Huxley, and those leaders of modern thought whom -theologians call agnostics. Even in religions based on the idea of a -single anthropomorphic Deity the same tendency often appears among the -highest thinkers. Thus Emmanuel Deutsch, in his learned work on the -Talmud, tells us, ‘Its first chapter treats of the Deity as conceived -by Jewish philosophy. The existence of God is, of course, presupposed. -But what of His attributes? Has He any? Scripture literally taken seems -to affirm this. Yet taken in a higher sense, as understood by the -Alexandrines, the Talmud, and the Targum, it denies it.’ - -The great Jewish doctors, Ibn Ezra, Jehuda Hilmi, and Maimonides, take -this view of a divine origin shrouded in ineffable mystery. Maimonides -says, ‘If you give attributes to a thing, you define this thing, and -defining a thing means to bring it under some head, to compare it with -something like it. God is sole of His kind. Determine Him, circumscribe -Him, and you bring Him down to the modes and categories of created -things.’ Even St. Paul says, ‘O the depths of God. How unsearchable are -His judgments, and how inscrutable His ways’; and the Creed of our own -Church, in the midst of a string of definitions all implying that God is -comprehensible, has the words ‘the Father incomprehensible.’ - -It is evident that the reasons why these anticipations of the prevailing -tendency of modern thought only appeared by glimpses, and among a -very limited number of philosophic minds, arose from the fact that -the miraculous theory of the universe everywhere prevailed. Every -unusual occurrence was supposed to be owing to the direct supernatural -interference of a Being acting in the main with human attributes, and -therefore to be a direct refutation of the theory which denied the -possibility of defining His attributes, and relegated Him to the dim -distance of an incomprehensible Creator. With the utter breakdown of the -miraculous theory, and the certainty that all the countless varieties -of the universe arise, not from special interferences, but from one -original impress, this theory of a reverent and devout agnosticism -becomes impregnable and holds the field against all rivals. It, and it -alone, is consistent with the facts of science, the deductions of reason, -the axioms of morality, while at the same time it denies nothing, and -leaves an ample background on which to paint the visions of faith, and to -reflect back to us spectral images of our hopes and fears, our longings -and aspirations. - -Some seek for a solution of the mystery, and try to reconcile the -existence of evil with that of an almighty and beneficent Creator, by -assuming that in the long run everything will come right. Evolution, they -say, has led constantly to higher and better things, and when carried far -enough will lead to a state of society in which wars will cease, evil -passions die out, and universal love and charity prevail—in other words, -to a millennium. - -Even if this were true, what of the untold millions of the human race who -have perished in their sins while evolution was slowly working out this -tardy millennium? Are they the _chair à canons_, whom a Napoleon-like -Deity sacrifices with cynical indifference, in the calculated moves of -the game of Creation? Is this their idea of an all-wise and all-merciful -Father who is in heaven? - -And again, is it true that evolution works constantly for good and -promises to bring about such a millennium? It is doubtless true that -evolution means progress, and the ever-increasing development of the -more and more complex and differentiated from the simple and uniform. -But is this all for good, or all for happiness; and is not evolution, -like everything else, subject to the primary and all-pervading law of -polarity? We have only to ask the question to answer it. In the case -of the individual, which is the epitome of the history of the species, -is development from the engaging innocence of childhood always in the -direction of goodness and happiness? - -So far is this from being the case that, as individuals and societies -advance, and become higher and more complex in the scale of organisation, -the law of polarity asserts itself with ever-increasing force, and -contrasts become sharper. The good become better, the bad worse; and as -we become less - - Like the beasts with lower pleasures, - Like the beasts with lower pains, - -if our happiness becomes more intense, so does our misery become more -intolerable. I refer not merely to physical conditions, though here the -contrast is most apparent. An intelligent traveller who recently circled -the world, surveying mankind with a keen and impartial eye ‘from China to -Peru,’ says, as the result of his experience, ‘The traveller will not see -in all his wanderings so much abject repulsive misery among human beings -in the most heathen lands, as that which startles him in his civilised -Christian home, for nowhere are the extremes of wealth and poverty so -painfully presented.’ This is perfectly true; but it would be a rash -conclusion to infer that civilised and Christian countries are worse than -heathen lands, or that those who march in the van of progress and succeed -in the struggle for life, have a larger dose of original sin than the -laggards and those who fail. - -Accumulations of population and accumulations of capital are alike causes -and effects of progress in an industrial age. But you can no more have a -north without a south pole, than you can have this progress without its -counterpart of suffering. When an educated gentleman was, like the good -vicar, - - Passing rich with forty pounds a year, - -how many struggles and how many heart-aches were avoided. When ‘merry -England’ dwelt in rural hamlets and villages, the ‘bitter cry’ of East -London could scarcely have been written. Turn it as you like, increase of -population means increase of poverty. Say that only five per cent. fail -in the battle of life, from their own or inherited faults; from bad luck, -ill-health, weakness of mind, adverse surroundings; five per cent. on -thirty millions is a larger figure than five per cent. on ten millions. -And the lot of those who fail is aggravated by the success of those who -succeed. The scale of living rises, and the cost of living increases, -while competition becomes keener. Increase of population in a limited -area means increased difficulty of finding employment; and the complex -relations of international commerce send panics and crises vibrating -throughout the world, which throw millions out of work, or reduce them -to starvation wages. In simple forms of society every one accepts the -condition in which he finds himself as a matter of course, while in a -more complex civilisation the fiend Envy steps in, and teaches the baser -natures who are failures, to regard every success as an insult and every -successful man as an enemy. Hence Labour rises in mad revolt against -Capital; Socialists attack society with dynamite; and Utopian theorists -preach a millennium to be attained by abolishing private property and -individual liberty. - -If we turn to the moral aspects of the question, it is still more -clear that evolution does not tend solely to the side of virtue. -There is doubtless less ferocious savagery, less rude and unconscious -or half-conscious crime, in civilised societies, but there is far -more deliberate and diabolical wickedness. The very temptations and -opportunities which, if resisted, lead to higher virtues, if succumbed -to, lead to greater vice. Even the intellectual advance, if perverted, -becomes the instrument of greater crimes. A chemist discovers -nitro-glycerine, and dynamite becomes a resource of civilisation. There -is a saying that there is ‘no blackguard so bad as a Scotch blackguard,’ -which, as a patriotic Scotchman, I take to be a tribute to the generally -high intellectual and moral character of my countrymen. A powerful -polarity is powerful, as the case may be, either for good or evil. Why -then should we believe that evolution, which, carried thus far, has -developed more strongly the contrast between good and evil, will, if -carried a little farther, extinguish it by annihilating the evil? - -In fact, the good and evil resulting from the higher evolution of society -are so equally balanced that it depends very much on place, time, and -temperament whether we are optimists or pessimists. If my liver acts -properly I am an optimist; if it is out of order, a pessimist. Personally -I incline to optimism—that is, I think that this world, if not exactly -‘the best of all possible worlds,’ is yet on the whole a very tolerable -world, and that life to the majority, and on the average, is worth -living. I think also that progress is certainly towards higher, and very -probably towards happier, conditions. It seems to me that in the most -advanced English-speaking communities, the condition of at least one -half—viz. the female half—of the population is distinctly better, and -that the working class, who form the majority of the male half, though -many are worse off than formerly, are, on the whole, better fed, better -clothed, better educated, and better behaved. - -This, however, is perhaps very much a matter of temperament. Greater -minds than mine have seen things differently and inclined to pessimism. -Buddhism, and almost all Oriental religions and philosophies, are based -upon it, and look to Nirvana or annihilation of personal identity as the -supreme bliss. Pauline Christianity assumes that all mankind, except a -few chosen vessels, are so hopelessly bad as to be predestined to eternal -damnation. And even more remarkable, Shakespeare, the universal genius, -who one would say had as happy a temperament and led as successful a -life as any man, had his moods of despondency in which he could say:— - - When in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes, - I all alone bemoan my outcast state; - Wearying deaf heaven with my fruitless cries, - And look upon myself, and _curse my fate_. - -Or declare with Hamlet that no one would bear the ills of life if - - He himself could his quietus make - With a bare bodkin. - -With instances like these, and the disgust of life manifested in so -many modern societies by the increase of suicides, and the spread of -pessimistic theories like those of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, who can -deny that the great magnet of modern civilisation has a south as well as -a north pole, and that progress is not all towards perfection? - -The attempts of theologians to reconcile the existence of evil with the -goodness of an almighty Creator, by relegating the adjustment to a future -life, only make the fact of this fundamental polarity more apparent, for -their conceptions of a heaven and a hell obviously do not reconcile, but -only intensify, the opposite polarities. The good are better, the bad -worse, the happy happier, and the wretched more miserable, in all these -attempts to define the undefinable and to reconcile divine justice with -divine mercy. All that remains really clear to each individual is that -by his efforts in this life he can do something to keep the balance of -polarities somewhat more on the side of good, both in his own individual -existence, and in that of the aggregate of units, of which he is one, -which is called society or humanity. - -The great advantage of this form of religious hypothesis, which for want -of a better name I call Zoroastrianism, is that, in the first place, it -gets rid of the antagonism between religion and science, for there is no -possible discovery of science which is irreconcilable with the fact that -there is a necessary and inevitable polarity of good and evil, and in the -background a great unknown, which may be regarded with those feelings -and aspirations which are inseparable from human nature. And secondly, -there is the still greater advantage that we can devote ourselves with -a whole heart and sincere mind to the worship of the good principle, -without paltering with our moral nature by professing to love and adore a -Being who is the author of all the evil and misery in the world as well -as of the good. If it were really true that there were such a Being as -theologians describe, who created the immense majority of the human race -vessels of wrath doomed to eternal punishment, either from pure caprice -or to avenge the slight offered to Him by the disobedience of a remote -ancestor, what would be the attitude of every healthy human soul towards -such a Being? Rather that of Prometheus or Satan, than of Gabriel or -Michael; of heroic defiance than of abject submission. We may gloss this -over in words, but the fact remains, and it is difficult to overestimate -the amount of evil which has resulted in the world from this confusion of -moral sentiments which has made good men do devil’s work in the belief -that it had divine sanction. - -The horrors of demonology and witchcraft had their origin in texts of -the Old Testament; religious wars and persecutions arose out of the -fundamental error that intellectual acceptance of doubtful dogmas was the -one thing necessary for salvation; and ruthless cruelty was justified -by an appeal to God’s anger with Saul for refusing to hew in pieces the -captive Amalekites. A follower of Zoroaster would see at once that these -were works of Ahriman and not of Ormuzd, and that in taking part in them -he was deserting the standard under which he had enlisted, and doing -deeds of darkness while pretending to serve the Prince of Light. This -idea of being a soldier enlisted in the army of light seems to me to -afford one of the strongest practical inducements to hate what is evil -and cleave to what is good. A bad deed or foul thought is felt to be not -only wrong but dishonourable: a disloyal going over to the enemy and -abandonment of the chief under whom we had enlisted, and of the comrades -with whom we had served. This is a very strong motive, and even in the -humble ranks of the Salvation Army we can see how powerfully it operates -to make men true to their banner. - -Indeed a great deal of what is best in genuine Christianity seems to me -to resolve itself very much into the worship of Jesus as the Ormuzd or -personification of the good principle, and determination to try to follow -his example and do his work. It happens to me to receive a good many -circulars from the devoted men and women who are doing so much charitable -work to assist the poor and fallen, and I observe that the appeals are -almost constantly made in the name of Jesus. When the Salvation Army -made an appeal the other day to its members for funds to prosecute -their campaign, it was touching to read the replies and see men parting -with an overcoat or giving up their beer, and women going without a new -bonnet or cup of tea, to contribute their mite. But always for the -‘love of Jesus,’ for the ‘Saviour’s sake,’ as an offering to the ‘dear -Redeemer.’ Theological Christianity says that the one thing needful is -to believe in the Catholic Faith as defined by the Athanasian Creed, -without which we shall ‘without doubt perish everlastingly.’ Practical -Christianity has completely dropped the Holy Ghost as a sort of fifth -wheel to the coach, and relegated the Father into ever vaguer and greater -distance; while it has fastened more and more on the figure of Jesus of -Nazareth as the practical living embodiment of the good principle of the -universe. In a word, Christianity, as it has become more reasonable, more -charitable, more pure, and more elevated, has approximated more and more -to Zoroastrianism, and for practical purposes modern Christians are, to a -great extent, without knowing it, worshippers of Ormuzd, with Christ for -their Ormuzd. - -To this I see no sort of objection. The tendency to personify abstract -principles in something which is warmer, dearer, nearer to ourselves, -is ineradicable in human nature; and especially among the great masses -of mankind who cannot rise to the height of philosophical speculations. -It is impossible in the present age to invent new personifications, -or to revive old ones. Jesus has the immense advantage of being in -possession of the field, with all the accumulated love and reverence -of nineteen centuries of followers. It would be difficult to invent a -better ideal or a more perfect example. No doubt the ideal, like all -human conceptions, is not absolutely perfect; it is subject to the law of -polarity, and its excellences, if pushed to the ‘falsehood of extremes,’ -in many cases become faults. It would not do in practice if smitten -on one cheek to turn the other, or to take no thought for the morrow -and live like the sparrows. The opposition between the flesh and the -spirit is also stated so absolutely, that it is apt to lead to a barren -and ignoble asceticism. But those are elements which, practically, are -not likely to be pushed to excess, and which serve rather to mitigate -the tendencies of modern civilisation to an undue preponderance of the -opposite polarities of selfishness, worldliness, and sensuality. Courage, -hardihood, self-reliance, foresight, a love of progress, and a desire to -attain independence, will always remain prominent virtues, especially -of the stronger races, and the gentler teachings of Christianity will -long be wanted as an influence to soften, to elevate, and to purify. -By all means, therefore, let Christians remain Christians, and see in -Christ their Ormuzd, or personification of the good principle. Only let -them remember that there are two sides to every question, and cease to -entertain hard and bitter thoughts towards those who follow the truth -after a different fashion. Let them delight rather to discover unity in -the spirit than differences in the letter, and instead of anathematising -with Athanasius those who dissent by one hair’s breadth from the Catholic -faith, strive with St. Paul after that charity which ‘suffereth long and -is kind: beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, -endureth all things.’ - -This will be easier if they recollect that love and reverence for Jesus, -as the personification of the good principle, is in no way connected -with the supernatural dogmas and legends which have come down from -superstitious ages, and which are seen every day, more and more clearly, -to stand in direct contradiction to the real facts and real laws of the -universe. He is the bright example of the highest ideal of human virtue, -not on account of miracles, but in spite of them; not because he was a -transcendental abstraction with attributes altogether outside of human -experience or conception; but because he was a man whom other men can -love and other men can strive to imitate. The dogmas and miracles may -quietly fade out of sight, as so many articles of the Athanasian Creed -have already done, like mists before the rising rays of larger knowledge -and purer morality, and yet the essence of Christianity will remain, as a -worship of the good and beautiful, personified in the brightest example -which has been afforded—that of Jesus, the son of the carpenter of -Nazareth. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -CHRISTIANITY AND MORALS. - - Christianity based on morals—Origin of morality—Traced - in Judaism—Originates in evolution—Instance of - murder—Freedom of will—Will suspended in certain states of - brain—Hypnotism—Mechanical theory—Pre-established harmony—Human - and animal conscience—Analysis of will—Explained by - polarity—Practical conclusion. - - -The great advantage which Christianity possesses over most other -religions is that it is based to a much greater extent on the solid -foundation of an elevated morality. The creeds of ancient Egypt, of -Buddhism, and of Confucianism contain many excellent moral precepts; -and the injunctions to ‘do unto others as you would be done by,’ and -to ‘love your neighbour as yourself,’ are to be found long before the -Sermon on the Mount. But these religions in the main followed other lines -of development, and branched off either into metaphysical conceptions -or into formal rites and ceremonies. With the exception of Judaism, of -which Christianity is the lineal descendant, no religion has ever to the -same extent become to the great mass of its adherents a rule of conduct -and an incentive, strengthened by divine sanction, to lead pure and -upright lives. This is the sense in which Christianity has always been -understood by the vast majority of Christians, and its corruptions have -come much more from above than from below; from theologians, priests, -and politicians, than from the instincts of the millions; and this it -is which enables it to retain such a wonderful vitality even in modern -times, when faith in dogmas and miracles has been so greatly weakened. -In order to appreciate the solidity of this basis it is necessary to -understand the origin of morals, and to see that the fundamental precepts -of moral law are not mere chance inventions of a few exceptional minds, -or the teachings of doubtful revelations, but are the necessary growth -and products of human nature, in the course of the evolution of society -from rude beginnings to a high civilisation. This gives them a certainty -and sanction which could be derived from no other source, and makes them -what in fact they have become—almost primary instincts of the natural and -normal mind in civilised communities. I proceed, therefore, to endeavour -to trace shortly the process by which moral laws have originated and -grown up to their present certainty and cogency in the course of -evolution. - -As I have already said, the element of morality is one of the latest to -be developed in religious conceptions. The first impressions of savage -races reflect the feelings of vague superstitious terror with which -they regard unknown phenomena and powers. They are afraid of ghosts and -afraid of thunder, long before they rise to a belief in a future state -of rewards and punishments, or to the notion of an almighty Being acting -by natural laws. In a higher state of development they personify natural -powers in gods, who have no more idea of morality than if they were so -many parallels of latitude or degrees of longitude; and they invent -tribal gods, who are simply great chiefs, bound by no laws, but granting -favours when appeased and inflicting injuries when angry. By slow -degrees, as civilisation advances, moral ideas are evolved, and the more -enlightened minds begin to attribute moral attributes to their deities. -Earnest men, prophets, and reformers take up these ideas and preach them -to the world, and, if circumstances are favourable and the soil prepared, -they take root and become popular convictions, surviving in the struggle -for life, and becoming stronger from generation to generation. - -This evolution of moral ideas is most clearly traced in the religious -history of the Jews. In their earlier conceptions Jehovah is represented -with all the traits of a jealous and capricious Oriental sultan. The one -virtue in his eyes is implicit obedience; the one unpardonable crime, -anything that looks like disrespect. David is the man after God’s own -heart, though he commits crimes of the foulest description, and treats -as nullities the moral commandments against adultery and murder. But -when he takes a census of his people Jehovah is offended, and, with -a total disregard of justice, visits his anger, not on the offender, -but on the innocent people whom he decimates by a pestilence. In like -manner, Abraham is favoured because he is ready to obey the inhuman -command to sacrifice his son; while Saul loses Jehovah’s favour because -he hesitates to massacre his captives in cold blood. The first ideas -of a higher moral sense appear with the prophets in the troubled times -of the later kings—when poor little Palestine was being ground between -the upper millstone of Assyria and the nether one of Egypt. Sufferings -and persecutions, anxieties and tribulations, wrought a ferment in the -Jewish mind from which new ideas were generated. Sacrifices had been duly -offered, and yet the enemies of Jehovah waxed and his chosen people -waned. It must be that He was offended with them because He required -something better than the blood of bulls—justice and mercy. So taught -the popular preachers of the day—men like Isaiah and Amos—and by degrees -their words found acceptance. It was not, however, until the Captivity -that these ideas of morality were wrought into the Jewish nation so as -to become, so to speak, flesh of their flesh and blood of their blood, -as they have remained ever since. Whether it was contact with the more -advanced moral ideas of religions like those of Buddha and Zoroaster, or, -more probably, their sufferings from the cruelty and injustice of their -conquerors, the Captivity certainly made them a new nation, attached -ardently to morality and monotheism—thus effecting in a few years, and -by purely human agencies, what, according to received beliefs, centuries -of miraculous dispensation had failed to accomplish. How speedily and -how effectually the work was done appears from that most interesting -narrative of the domestic life of a middle-class Jew of Nineveh, the -Book of Tobit. The simple piety and homely household virtues are almost -identically the same as those of many a Jewish family living to-day in -London or Frankfort. From that time forward Jewish morality maintains -a high level, and in the age immediately preceding Christianity it had -attained great purity and spirituality in the school of the early doctors -of the Talmud, and of the Jewish colony of Alexandria. The Sermon on -the Mount, beautiful as it is, is but an admirable _résumé_ of maxims -which are to be found in the works of Philo and other Jewish teachers, -and which were current in the synagogues of the day. Hillel, who was -president of the Sanhedrin when Christ was born, when asked what was the -law, replied, ‘Do not unto another what thou wouldst not have another -do unto thee. This is the whole Law, the rest is mere commentary.’ And -again, ‘Do not judge thy neighbour until thou hast stood in his place.’ - -The Talmud anticipates in a wonderful degree not only the moral precepts -of the Gospel, but to a great extent its phraseology and technical -terms. ‘Redemption,’ ‘grace,’ ‘faith,’ ‘salvation,’ ‘Son of man,’ ‘Son -of God,’ ‘kingdom of heaven,’ were all, as Deutsch shows, not invented -by Christianity, but were household words of contemporary Judaism. In -one respect only Christianity shows a higher evolution of morality than -Judaism—viz. its universality. Pure Judaism hardly rises above the idea -of ‘neighbour,’ or those who were of the same race or common faith; while -Christianity, as enlarged by St. Paul, embraces all mankind, and may -truly say: ‘Humani nihil a me alienum puto.’ - -The idea that morality and religion are products of a slowly developing -evolution is denounced by many as degrading and materialistic. In many -the instinct of the ‘good’ is so strong that it seems to them sacrilege -to attempt to explain it. They insist that it is either a universal -instinct implanted from the first in all mankind, or else that it has -been so implanted by a divine revelation. They forget that, to use the -vigorous phraseology of Carlyle, ‘It matters not whether you call a thing -pan-theism or pot-theism; what really concerns us is to know whether it -is _true_.’ Now it admits of no question that, whether we like it or not, -the evolutionist theory of morality is the true one. Take an extreme -instance, that of murder. We feel an instinctive horror at the idea, -and even a brutal ruffian like Bill Sikes becomes an accursed thing to -himself and his companions when he has transgressed the commandment ‘Thou -shalt do no murder.’ But is it so everywhere, and was it so always? By -no means; the Fiji islander kills and eats a stranger or enemy without -scruple; the Red Indian and the Dyak are not accounted men until they -have murdered some one and brought home his scalp or his head as a -trophy. Even at a late period among ourselves murder was considered to be -rather as a civil injury, to be met by compensation, than as a crime; and -a regular tariff was established of the amount to be paid according as -the victim was a slave or a freeman. - -The origin and progress of the idea that murder is a crime can almost -be traced step by step. The wife of a rude savage does something which -offends him; a violent perception of anger flashes from the visual organ -to the perceptive area of the brain, and a reflex action flashes from it -along the motor nerve to the muscles of the arm. He strikes and kills -her, almost as unconsciously and instinctively as he walks or breathes. -But other perceptions follow on the act. He finds next day that he has -no one to cook his food; the image of her dying face photographed on his -brain is an unpleasant one; and thus by degrees a series of secondary -perceptions get attached to the primary one of striking when he feels -angry. If he gets another wife who again provokes him, the primary -perception calls up the secondary ones, and the nerve-centres of his -brain, instead of being solicited only in one direction, are acted on -in opposite ways by conflicting impressions. He hesitates, and, as -the primary impulse of passion is probably the more evanescent, the -restraining impulses prevail, and every time they prevail they acquire -more strength. Gradually they extend to a conviction that it is both -inconvenient and disagreeable to kill any one with whom he is closely -related either by family or tribal ties, and that, in a word, murder -does not pay, and is wrong, unless practised on an enemy. This idea -accumulates by heredity, and evidently those tribes or races in whom it -is strongest will have an advantage in the struggle for life and be most -likely to survive. - -From this point the idea may be traced historically, deepening and -widening from generation to generation as civilisation advances, until -in the higher races it assumes the form of an instinctive abhorrence of -murder in the abstract, as we find it at the present day. - -It is a mistake to suppose that the foundations of morality are in any -way weakened by thus tracing them up to their first origins. On the -contrary, if we consider the matter rightly, they are placed on a much -more solid and unassailable basis. If we say that moral laws depend on -a universal instinct implanted in all mankind, faith in them is shaken -whenever we read in history, or hear from the report of travellers, of -whole nations, constituting from first to last the immense majority -of the human race, who had none of those ideas which we now consider -fundamental. If, again, we base them on divine precepts miraculously -conveyed, every discovery of science and development of thought which -weakens faith in miracles impairs the basis of morals. And on this -theory, hopeless contradictions arise within the sphere of those very -moral laws which we seek to establish; as in reconciling the justice and -mercy of the Creator in revealing this inspired code only to limited -portions of the human race, and under conditions which leave large scope -for legitimate doubt, and which, in point of fact, failed to ensure -recognition for its moral precepts among His own chosen people for a long -period after its promulgation. - -But on the scientific theory of the evolution of morality by natural laws -it stands on an impregnable footing. No one can deny that, as a matter -of fact, such instincts do prevail, and have become part of the nature -of all the best men and best races, and that each successive generation -tends to fix them more firmly. Mathematical laws are not the less certain -because they can be traced back to counting on the fingers, and moral -laws will continue to have a certainty and cogency, scarcely inferior to -the axioms of mathematics, although we can trace them back to origins as -rude as the attempts of the Australian savage to extend his perceptions -of number beyond ‘one, two, and a great many.’ - -The real difficulty is not in tracing the origin of these instincts -of morality, but in that fundamental difficulty which underlies all -theories of reconciling the consciousness of free-will with the material -attributes with which it is indissolubly associated. Without freedom -of will there can be no conscience, no right or wrong in acting in -accordance or otherwise with the instincts of moral law, however those -instincts may have been derived. Now it is certain that the will, like -life, memory, consciousness, and other mental functions, is, so far as -human knowledge extends, indissolubly connected with matter and natural -laws, in the form of certain motions of the cells which form the grey -substance of the nerves and of the nervous ganglia of which the cortex -of the brain is the most considerable. This is conclusively proved by -experiment. We know that, by removing certain portions of the brain of a -dog or of a pigeon, we can destroy the power of motion while preserving -the will, and by removing certain other portions we can destroy the will -while preserving the powers of motion. Take away a certain portion of the -brain of a pigeon, and although it retains the power of taking food, it -has so totally lost the will to exercise this power that it will starve -in the midst of abundance, though it can be kept alive by placing the -food in its mouth. In like manner, in the human brain there are certain -portions which, if destroyed by injury or disease, will paralyse the -power of giving effect to the will by muscular movements, while the -destruction of other portions will paralyse the will which originates -such movements. Numerous cases are recorded in medical treatises in -which the will is completely paralysed for the performance of certain -functions, and in such cases the anatomist can lay his finger on the spot -where the brain is affected, and when the brain is dissected after the -death of the patient, it will be found that his prediction is verified, -and that this region of the brain really was diseased. In sleep also, -and in abnormal states of the brain such as somnambulism, and mesmerism -or hypnotism, the action of the will is suspended. Hypnotism affords the -most remarkable instances, for here the will seems to be transferred from -the Ego or individuality of the patient to that of the operator, and the -currents of nervous energy which induce motion in A are set going by -impulses in the mind of A, not caused by his own will, but by that of B, -conveyed by words, gestures, or other subtle indications. A ludicrous -instance of this is recorded by Dr. Braid, in which an old lady, who had -a true puritanical abhorrence of dancing as sinful, being hypnotised, -began capering about the room when a waltz tune was struck up, on being -told to do so by the operators. - -There are some other curious effects produced by hypnotism, in the way of -inducing a sort of double consciousness and memory, which makes people in -this condition totally forget things which they remember when awake, and -remember things which were totally forgotten in the waking state. - -These and a variety of other instances point to the conclusion that -man is only a conscious machine. In other words, that the original -impress, to use Dr. Temple’s words, was so perfect that it provided a -pre-established harmony not only for the innumerable phenomena of the -material universe as unfolded by evolution, but for the still more -innumerable phenomena of life in all its manifestations and all its -complex relations to outward environment. I say of _life_, for we clearly -cannot confine the theory to human life. A dog, who with the two courses -before him of doing wrong and chasing a rabbit, or doing right and -remaining at his master’s heel, chooses one of them, is in exactly the -same position as Hercules between the rival attractions of virtue and -pleasure. If Hercules acted as a machine, yielding to the pre-established -preponderance of the stronger attraction, so did the dog; but if Hercules -exerted free-will and felt the approval or blame of conscience, so did -the retriever. There is no fundamental distinction, but merely a question -of degree, between human conscience and the shame which a dog feels when -it knows that it has done wrong, and the pleasure which it manifests -when conscious that it has behaved properly. - -Shall we thus conclude, as Leibnitz and other great philosophers have -done, in favour of the mechanical theory? But if we do, how are we to -account for the instinctive ineradicable feeling, which comes home to -every one with a conviction even stronger than the evidence of the -senses, that we really have a choice between opposite courses, and can -decide on our own actions—a conviction which is obviously the foundation -of all conscience and of all morality? - -Let us try to analyse more closely what Will really means, and under what -conditions it is manifested. The circuit which connects any one single -perception with action, through sensory nerve, sensory centre, motor -centre, motor nerve and muscle, is as purely mechanical as that of an -electric circuit. Reflex motions such as breathing, and even more complex -motions which by repetition have become reflex or instinctive, are also -mechanical and involve no exercise of will. But when perceptions become -complex, and one primary evokes a number of secondary perceptions—in -other words, when the cells of the corresponding portions of grey matter -in the cortex of the brain are set vibrating by a variety of complex -and conflicting molecular motions, the feeling of free-will inevitably -arises. We feel the conviction that there is a something which we call -soul, mind, or in the last analysis, ‘I myself I,’ which sits, as Von -Moltke might do, in a cabinet receiving conflicting telegraphic messages -from different generals, and deciding then and there what order to flash -out in reply. - -What can we say to this? That it is like space and time, one of the -categories of thought, or primary moulds in which thought is cast. We do -not know what space and time really are in their essence, or why they are -the necessary conditions of thought, any more than we do in the case of -will. They may be illusions, but we accept them, and of necessity accept -them, as facts. For all practical purposes it is the same to us, as if -we understood their essence and knew them to be realities. A man can no -more doubt that he is an individual being, with a will which, in a great -many cases, enables him to decide which of a variety of impulses shall -prevail, than he can hesitate, if he is furnishing a room, to regulate -his purchase of carpeting and paper by space of three dimensions, without -regard to possible speculations as to quaternions. - -Perhaps the principle of polarity may assist us in understanding that -both theories may be true; or rather that matter and spirit, necessity -and free-will, may be opposite poles of one fundamental truth which is -beyond our comprehension. We cannot shake off this principle of polarity, -and arrive at any knowledge, or even conception, of the absolute truth -in regard to the atoms, energies, and natural laws, which make up the -universe of matter and of all the ordinary and material functions of -life; why should we expect to do so in the higher manifestations of the -same life, which have been arrived at in the later stages of one unbroken -course of evolution from monad to man? - -This, at any rate, is the theory which best satisfies my own mind and -enables me to reduce my own individual chaos into some sort of a cosmos. -I draw from it the following conclusions:— - -For all practical purposes assume that ‘right is right,’ and that the -moral instincts, however they have been formed, are imperative laws. -Assume also that - - Man is man and master of his fate, - -and that we have, to a great extent, the power of deciding what to do and -what not to do. But in doing so, keep the mind open to all conclusions -of science, and admit freely that these assumptions are indissolubly -connected with natural laws and with material organs, and that man -is to a very great extent dependent on his environment and his place -in evolution, both for his moral code and for the force of will and -conscience which enable him to conform to it. Learn therefore the lesson -of a large toleration and of charity in thought and deed, towards those -who, from inherited constitution or unfortunate conditions of education -and outward circumstances, fall under the sway of the principle of evil, -and lead bad, useless, and unlovely lives. Had you and I, reader, been in -their place, should we have done better? - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -ZOROASTRIANISM. - - Zoroaster an historical person—The Parsees—Iranian branch - of Aryan family—Zoroaster a religious reformer—Scene at - Balkh—Conversion of Gushtasp—Doctrines of the ‘excellent - religion’—Monotheism—Polarity—Dr. Haug’s description—Ormuzd and - Ahriman—Anquetil du Perron—Approximation to modern thought—Absence - of miracles—Code of morals—Its comprehensiveness—And - liberality—Special rites—Fire-worship—Disposal of dead—Practical - results—The Parsees of Bombay—Their probity, enterprise, - respect for women—Zeal for education—Philanthropy and public - spirit—Statistics—Death and birth rates. - - -Zoroastrianism is commonly supposed to derive its name from its founder -Zoroaster, a Bactrian sage or prophet, who lived in the reign of King -Gushtasp the First. Zoroaster’s name has come down to us from antiquity -in much the same relation to this form of religion as that of Moses -to Judaism, or of Sakya-Mouni to Buddhism. As in those cases, certain -learned commentators have endeavoured to show that the alleged founder -was purely mythical and had no real historical existence, basing their -argument mainly on the fact that a number of supernatural attributes, -and embodiments of metaphysical and theological ideas, became attached -to the name, just as a whole cycle of solar myths became associated -with the name of Hercules. But this seems to be carrying scepticism too -far. Experience shows that religions have generally originated in the -crystallisation of ideas floating in solution at certain periods of the -evolution of societies, about the nucleus of some powerful personality. -Nearly all the great religions of the world, such as Buddhism, -Confucianism, Christianity, and Mahometanism, clearly had historical -founders, and it would be hypercritical to deny that such a man as Jesus -of Nazareth really lived because many of his sayings and doings may be -traced to applications, more or less erroneous, of ancient prophecies, -or because his human nature became transfigured into the Logos and other -metaphysical conceptions of the Alexandrian philosophy. - -In the case of Zoroaster, the argument for his historical existence -seems even stronger, for his name is connected with historical reigns -and places, and his genuine early history contains nothing supernatural -or improbable. He is represented as simply a deep thinker and powerful -preacher, like Luther, who gave new form and expression to the vague -religious and philosophical ideas of his age and nation, reformed -its superstitions and abuses, and converted the leading minds of his -day, including the monarch, by the earnestness and eloquence of his -discourses. At any rate, for my purpose I shall assume his personality, -for my object is not to write a critical essay on the origin and -development of the Zoroastrian religion, but to show that in its -fundamental ideas and essential spirit it approximates wonderfully to -those of the most advanced modern thought, and gives the outline of a -creed which goes further than any other to meet the practical wants -of the present day, and to reconcile the conflict between faith and -science. This will be most clearly and vividly shown by assuming the -commonly accepted historical existence of Zoroaster to be true, and -by confining myself to the broad, leading principles of his religion, -without dwelling on its varying phases, or on the mythical legends and -ritualistic observances which, as in the case of all other old religions, -have crystallised about the primitive idea and the primitive founder. - -Zara-thustra, or, as he is commonly called, Zoroaster, and the religion -which goes by his name, are known to us mainly from the sacred books -which have been preserved by the modern Parsees. The Parsees, a small -remnant of the Persians who under Cyrus founded one of the mightiest -empires of the ancient world, flying from their native country to escape -from persecution after the Mahometan conquest, formed a colony in India, -and are now settled at Bombay. They form a small but highly intelligent -community, who have preserved their ancient religion, and, fortunately, -some considerable fragments of their sacred scriptures. The oldest of -these are written in the Gata dialect of the Avesta or Zend language, -which is contemporary with Sanskrit, and bears much the same relation to -it as Latin does to Greek. The primitive Aryan family at some very remote -period became divided into two branches, and radiated from their Central -Asian home in two directions. The Hindoo branch migrated to the south -into the Punjaub and Hindostan; the Iranian westwards, into Bactria and -Persia; while other successive waves of Aryan migration in prehistoric -times rolled still further westwards over Europe, obliterating all but a -few traces of the aboriginal population. - -The period of this separation of the Iranian and Hindoo races must be -very remote, for the Rig-Veda is probably at least 4,000 years old, and -the divergence between its form of Sanskrit and the Gata dialect of the -Zend is already as great as that between two kindred European languages -such as Greek and Latin. The divergence of religious ideas is also -evidently of very early date. In the Hindoo, and all other races of the -primitive Aryan stock, the word used for gods and good spirits is taken -from the root ‘div,’ to shine. Thus, Daeva in Sanskrit, Zeus and Theos in -Greek, Deus in Latin, Tius in German, Diews in Lutheranism, Dia in Irish, -Dew in Kymric, all mean the bright or shining one represented by the -vault of heaven. But in Iranian the word has an opposite sense, and the -‘deevs’ correspond to our ‘devils.’ - -The primitive Aryan religions were evidently all derived from a -contemplation of the powers and phenomena of nature. The sky, with its -flood of light and vault of ethereal blue, was considered to be the -highest manifestation of a Supreme Power; while the sun and moon, the -stars and planets, the winds and clouds, the earth and waters, were -personified, either as symbols of the Deity or as subordinate gods. -The original simple faith was thus apt to degenerate into a system of -polytheism, and, as the gods came to be represented by visible forms, -into idolatry. - -Zoroaster appears to us, like Mahomet at a later age and among a ruder -people, as a prophet or reformer who abolished these abuses and restored -the ancient faith in a loftier and more intellectual form, adapted to the -use of an advanced and civilised society. The records of his life and -teaching have fortunately been preserved in so authentic a form, that -distant as he is from us we can form a singularly accurate idea of who he -was and what he taught. - -Some 3,200 years ago a sight might have been seen in the ancient city of -Balkh—the famous capital of Bactria, the ‘Mother of Cities’—very like -that witnessed some fourteen centuries later at our own Canterbury. -The king and his chief nobles and courtiers were assembled to hear the -discourse of a preacher who proposed to teach them a better religion. -Gushtasp listened to Zoroaster, as Ethelbert listened to Augustine, and -in each case reason and eloquence carried conviction, and the nation -became converts to the new doctrine. - -This conversion was effected without miracles, for it is expressly stated -in the celebrated speech of the prophet, preserved in the 30th chapter of -the Yasna, that he relied solely on persuasion and argument. Ferdousi, -the Persian Homer, thus describes the first interview between Zoroaster -and Gushtasp: ‘Learn,’ he said, ‘the rites and doctrines of the religion -of excellence. For without religion there cannot be any worth in a king. -When the mighty monarch heard him speak of the excellent religion, he -accepted from him the excellent rites and doctrines.’ - -The doctrines of this ‘excellent religion’ are extremely simple. The -leading idea is that of monotheism, but the one God has far fewer -anthropomorphic attributes, and is relegated much farther back into the -vague and infinite, than the god of any other monotheistic religion. -Ahura-Mazda, of which the more familiar appellation Ormuzd is an -abbreviation, means the ‘All-knowing Lord;’ he is said sometimes to -dwell in the infinite luminous space, and sometimes to be identical with -it. He is, in fact, not unlike the inscrutable First Cause, whom we may -regard with awe and reverence, with love and hope, but whom we cannot -pretend to define or to understand. But the radical difference between -Zoroastrianism and other religions is that it does not conceive of this -one God as an omnipotent Creator, who might make the universe as he -chose, and therefore was directly responsible for all the evil in it; but -as a Being acting by certain fixed laws, one of which was, for reasons -totally inscrutable to us, that existence implied polarity, and therefore -that there could be no good without corresponding evil. - -Dr. Haug, who is the greatest authority on all questions connected with -the Zend scriptures, says: ‘Having arrived at the grand idea of the unity -and indivisibility of the Supreme Being, Zoroaster undertook to solve -the great problem which has engaged the attention of so many wise men -of antiquity and even in modern times, viz. how are the imperfections -discernible in the world, the various kind of evils, wickedness, and -baseness, compatible with the goodness, holiness, and justness of God? -This great thinker of remote antiquity solved this difficult question -philosophically, by the supposition of two primæval causes, which, though -different, were united, and produced the world of material things as -well as that of spirit. These two primæval principles are the two moving -causes in the universe, united from the beginning, and therefore called -twins. They are present everywhere—in the Ahura Mazda, or Supreme Deity, -as well as in man.’ - -They are called in the Vendidad Spento Mainyush, or the ‘beneficent -spirit,’ and Angro Mainyush, or the ‘hurtful spirit.’ The latter is -generally known as Ahriman, the Prince of Darkness; and the former as -Ormuzd, is identified with Ahura Mazda, the good God, though, strictly -speaking, Ahura Mazda is the great unknown First Cause, who comprehends -within himself both principles as a necessary law of existence, and in -whom believers may hope that evil and good will ultimately be reconciled. - -Anquetil du Perron, the first translator of the Zendavesta, in his -‘Critical View of the Theological and Ceremonial System of Zar-thurst,’ -thus sums up the Parsee creed: ‘The first point in the theological -system of Zoroaster is to recognise and adore the Master of all that is -good, the Principle of all righteousness, Ormuzd, according to the form -of worship prescribed by him, and with purity of thought, of word, and -of action, a purity which is marked and preserved by purity of body. -Next, to have a respect, accompanied by gratitude, for the intelligence -to which Ormuzd has committed the care of nature (i.e. to the laws of -nature), to take in our actions their attributes for models, to copy -in our conduct the harmony which reigns in the different parts of the -universe, and generally to honour Ormuzd in all that he has produced. -The second part of their religion consists in detesting the author of -all evil, moral and physical, Ahriman—his productions, and his works; -and to contribute, as far as in us lies, to exalt the glory of Ormuzd by -enfeebling the tyranny which the Evil Principle exercises over the world.’ - -It is evident that this simple and sublime religion is one to which, -by whatever name we may call it, the best modern thought is fast -approximating. Men of science like Huxley, philosophers like Herbert -Spencer, poets like Tennyson, might all subscribe to it; and even -enlightened Christian divines, like Dr. Temple, are not very far from -it when they admit the idea of a Creator behind the atoms and energies, -whose original impress, given in the form of laws of nature, was so -perfect as to require no secondary interference. Admit that Christ is the -best personification of the Spenta Mainyush, or good principle in the -inscrutable Divine polarity of existence, and a man may be at the same -time a Christian and a Zoroastrian. - -The religion of Zoroaster has, however, this great advantage in the -existing conditions of modern thought, that it is not dragged down by -such a dead weight of traditional dogmas and miracles as still hangs upon -the skirts of Christianity. Its dogmas are comprised in the statement -that there is one supreme, unknown, First Cause, who manifests himself in -the universe under fixed laws which involve the principle of polarity. -This is hardly so much a dogma as a statement of fact, or of the ultimate -and absolute truth at which it is possible for human faculty to arrive. -No progress of science or philosophy conflicts with it, but rather they -confirm it, by showing more and more clearly with every discovery that -this is in very fact and deed the literal truth. Religion, or the feeling -of reverence and love for the Great Unknown which lies beyond the sphere -of human sense and reason, shines more brightly through this pure medium -than through the fogs of misty metaphysics; and we can worship God in -spirit and in truth without puzzling our brains as to the precise nature -of the Logos, or exercising them on the insoluble problem how one can be -equal to three, and at the same time three equal to one. - -As regards miracles, which are another millstone about the neck of -Catholic Christianity, the religion of Zoroaster is entirely free from -them. There are, it is true, a few miraculous myths about him in some -of the later writings in the Pehlvi language, as of his conception -by his mother drinking a cup of the sacred Homa, but these are of no -authority and form no part of the religion. On the contrary, the original -scriptures which profess to record his exact words and precepts disclaim -all pretension to divine nature or miraculous power, and base the -claims of the ‘excellent religion’ purely on reason. This is an immense -advantage in the ‘struggle for life,’ when every day is making it more -impossible for educated men to believe that real miracles ever actually -occurred, and when the evidence on which they were accepted is crumbling -to pieces under the light of critical enquiry. The Parsee has no reason -to tremble for his faith if a Galileo invents the telescope or a Newton -discovers the law of gravity. He has no occasion to argue for Noah’s -deluge, or for the order of Creation described in Genesis. Nay even, he -may remain undisturbed by that latest and most fatal discovery that man -has existed on the earth for untold ages, and, instead of falling from a -high estate, has risen continuously by slow and painful progress from the -rudest origins. How many orthodox Christians can say the same, or deny -that their faith in their sacred books and venerable traditions has been -rudely shaken? - -The code of morality enjoined by the Zoroastrian religion is as pure as -its theory is perfect. Dr. Haug enumerates the following sins denounced -by its code, and considered as such by the present Parsees: Murder, -infanticide, poisoning, adultery on the part of men as well as women, -sorcery, sodomy, cheating in weight and measure, breach of promise -whether made to a Zoroastrian or non-Zoroastrian, telling lies and -deceiving, false covenants, slander and calumny, perjury, dishonest -appropriation of wealth, taking bribes, keeping back the wages of -labourers, misappropriation of religious property, removal of a boundary -stone, turning people out of their property, maladministration and -defrauding, apostasy, heresy, rebellion. These are positive injunctions. -The following are condemnable from a religious point of view: Abandoning -the husband; not acknowledging one’s children on the part of the father; -cruelty towards subjects on the part of a ruler; avarice, laziness, -illiberality and egotism, envy. In addition there are a number of special -precepts adapted to the peculiar rites of the Zoroastrian religion -which aim principally at the enforcement of sanitary rules, kindness to -animals, hospitality to strangers and travellers, respect to superiors, -and help to the poor and needy. - -It is evident that this is the most complete and comprehensive code of -morals to be found in any system of religion. It comprises all that -is best in the codes of Buddhism, Judaism, and Christianity, with a -much more ample definition of many vices and virtues which, even in -the Christian religion, are left to be drawn as inferences rather than -inculcated as precepts. Thus, laziness, cheating, selfishness, and envy -are distinctly defined as crimes, and their opposites as virtues, and -not merely left to be inferred from the general maxims of ‘loving your -neighbour as yourself,’ and ‘doing unto others as you would be done by.’ -The comprehensiveness and liberal spirit of the code is also remarkable, -for we are repeatedly told that these rules of morality apply to -non-Zoroastrians as well as to Zoroastrians. The application of religious -precepts to practical life is another distinguishing feature. Thus -kindness to animals is specially enjoined, and it is considered a sin to -ill-treat animals of the good creation, such as cattle, sheep, horses, -or dogs, by starving, beating, or unnecessarily killing them. With true -practical wisdom, however, the ‘falsehood of extremes’ is avoided, and -this precept is not, as in the case of Brahminism and Buddhism, carried -so far as to prohibit altogether the taking of animal life, which is -expressly sanctioned when necessary. This sober practical wisdom, or what -Matthew Arnold calls ‘sweet reasonableness,’ is a very characteristic -feature of Zoroaster’s religion, and very remarkable as having been -taught at so early a period in the history of civilisation. - -Another precept, which might well have been made by an English board of -health in the nineteenth century, is not to pollute water by throwing -impure matter into it. - -The only special Parsee rites which would be unsuited for modern European -society, are the worship of the sacred fire and the disposal of the -dead. It is true that the former is distinctly understood to be merely -a symbol of the Deity, and used exactly as water is in baptism, or as -the ascending flame of candles and smoke from swinging incense are in -the Catholic ritual, to bring more vividly before the minds of the -worshippers the idea of the spirit soaring upwards towards heaven. Still, -in modern society fire is too well understood as merely a particular form -of chemical combination, and is too familiar as the strong slave and -household drudge of man, to acquire a leading place in a religious ritual -where it has not been hallowed by the usage of a long line of ancestors -and the traditions of a venerable antiquity. All that can be said is, -that if religious rites and ceremonies are to be maintained in an age -when science has become the prevailing mode of thought, appropriate -symbolism, especially that of music, must more and more take the place of -appeals to the intellect on metaphysical questions, and of repetitions of -traditional formulæ which have lost all living significance. - -Another Parsee rite, which is even less adapted for general usage, is -that of disposing of the dead on towers of silence, where the body -moulders away or is devoured by birds of prey. It originates in a -poetical motive of not defiling the pure elements, fire, earth, or -water, by corruption; but it is obviously unsuited for the conditions of -civilisation and climate which prevail in crowded cities under a humid -sky. - -There is little prospect therefore of any general conversion to the sect -of Zoroastrians; but what seems probable is the gradual transformation of -existing modes both of religious and secular thought into something which -is, in principle, very closely akin to the ‘excellent religion’ taught by -the Bactrian prophet. - -The miraculous theory of the universe being virtually dead, the only -theory that can reconcile facts with feelings, and the ineradicable -emotions and aspirations of the human mind with the incontrovertible -conclusions of science, is that of a remote and more or less unknown -and incomprehensible First Cause, which has given the original atoms -and energies so perfect an impress from the first, that all phenomena -are evolved from them by fixed laws, one of the principal of such laws -being that of polarity, which develops the ever-increasing complexities -and contrasts of the inorganic and organic worlds, of moralities, -philosophies, religions, and human societies. True religion consists in -a recognition of this truth, a feeling of reverence in presence of the -unknown, and, above all, a feeling of love and admiration for the good -principle in whatever form it is manifested, in the beauties of nature -and of art, in moral and physical purity and perfection, and all else -that falls within the domain of the Prince of Light, in whose service, -whether we conceive of him as an abstract principle, or accept some -personification of him as a living figure, we enlist as loyal soldiers, -doing our best to fight in his ranks against the powers of evil. - -The application of the all-pervading principle of polarity is exemplified -in the realm of art. The glorious Greek drama turned mainly on the -conflict between resistless fate and heroic free-will, and is typified -in its highest form by Æschylus, when he depicts Prometheus chained to -the rock hurling defiance at the tyrant of heaven. Our own Milton, in -like manner, gives us the spectacle of the fallen archangel opposing -his indomitable will and fertile resources to the extremity of adverse -circumstance and to Almighty power. - -The greatest of modern dramas, Goethe’s ‘Faust,’ turns so entirely on -the opposition between the human soul striving after the infinite, and -the spirit _der verneint_, who combats ideal aspirations with a cynical -sneer, that it might well be called a Zoroastrian drama. It is a picture -of the conflict between the two opposite principles of good and evil, of -affirmation and negation, of the beautiful and the ugly, personified in -Faust and Mephistopheles, and it is painted on a background of the great -mysterious unknown. ‘Wer darf ihn nennen?’ - - Who dares to name Him, - Who to say of Him, ‘I believe’? - Who is there ever with a heart to dare - To utter, ‘I believe Him not’? - -So in poetry, Tennyson, the poet of modern thought, touches the deepest -chords when he asks— - - Are God and Nature, then, at strife? - -and paints in the sharpest contrast on the background of the unknown, the -conflict between the faith that - - God is love indeed, - And love creation’s final law, - -and the harsh realities of nature, which - - Red in tooth and claw - With ravine shrieks against the creed; - -or again in his later work, ‘The Ancient Sage,’ he says— - - Thou canst not prove the Nameless, O my son! - For nothing worthy proving can be proven, - Nor yet disproven. - -In like manner in the works of art which embrace a wider range, and hold -up the mirror to human nature, as in Shakespeare’s plays, and the novels -of Walter Scott and other great authors, the interest arises mainly from -the polarity of the various characters. We care little for the goody-good -heroes or vulgar villains, but we recognise a touch of that nature which -makes all the world akin in a Macbeth drawn by metaphysical suggestion -to wade through a sea of blood; in Othello’s noble nature caught like a -lion in the toils by the net of circumstances woven by a wily hunter; in -Falstaff, a rogue, a liar, and a glutton, yet made almost likeable by his -ready wit, imperturbable good-humour, and fertile resources. Shakespeare -is, in fact, the greatest of artists, because he is the most multipolar. -He has poles of sympathy in him which, as the poles of carbon attract -so many elements and form so many combinations, enable him to take into -his own nature, assimilate, and reproduce every varied shade of character -from a Miranda to a Caliban, from an Imogen to a Lady Macbeth, from a -Falstaff to an Othello. Sir Walter Scott and all our great novelists -have the same faculty, though in a less degree, and are great in exact -proportion as they have many poles in their nature, and as those are -poles of powerful polarity. The characters and incidents which affect -us strongly and dwell in the memory are those in which the clash and -conflict of opposites are most vividly represented. We feel infinite pity -for a Maggie Tulliver dashing her young life, like a prisoned wild bird, -against the bars of trivial and prosaic environment which hem her in; or -for a Colonel Newcome opposing the patience of a gentle nature to the -buffets of such a fate as meets us in the everyday world of modern life, -the failure of his bank and the naggings of the Old Campaigner. On a -higher level of art we sympathise with a Lancelot and a Guinevere because -they are types of what we may meet in many a London drawing-room, noble -natures drawn by some fatal fairy fascination into ignoble acts, but -still retaining something of their original nobility, and while - - Their honour rooted in dishonour stands, - -appearing to ordinary mortals little less than ‘archangels ruined.’ Or -even if we descend to the lowest level of the penny dreadful or suburban -drama, we find that the polarity between vice and virtue, however -coarsely delineated, is that which mostly fascinates the uncultured mind. - -The affinity between Zoroastrianism and art is easily explained when -we consider that in one respect it has a manifest advantage over most -Christian forms of religion. Christianity in its early origins received -a taint of Oriental asceticism which it never shook off, and which in -the declining centuries of the Roman empire, and in the barbarism and -superstition of the Middle Ages, developed into what may be almost called -a devil-worship of the ugly and repulsive. The antithesis between the -flesh and the spirit was carried to such an extreme and false extent, -that everything that was pleasant and beautiful came to be regarded as -sinful, and the odour of sanctity was an odour which the passer-by would -do well to keep on the windward side of. This leaven of asceticism is -the rock upon which Puritanism, monasticism, and many of the highest -forms of Christian life have invariably split. It is contrary to human -nature, and directly opposed to the spirit of the life and doctrines of -the Founder of the religion. Jesus, who was ‘a Jew living among Jews -and speaking to Jews,’ adopted the true Jewish point of view of making -religion amiable and attractive, and denouncing, as all the best Jewish -doctors of the Talmud did, the pharisaical strictness which insisted on -ritualistic observances and arbitrary restrictions. In no passages of -his life does the ‘sweet reasonableness’ of his character appear more -conspicuous than where we find him strolling through the fields with his -disciples and plucking ears of corn on the Sabbath, and replying to the -formalists who were scandalised, ‘The Sabbath was made for man, not man -for the Sabbath.’ The ascetic bias subsequently introduced may have been -a necessary element in counteracting the corruption of Rome; but the -pendulum in its reaction swung much too far, and when organised in the -celibacy of the clergy and monastic institutions asceticism became the -source of great evils. Even at a late period we can see in the reaction -of the reign of Charles II. how antagonistic the puritanical creed, -even of men like Cromwell and Milton, proved to the healthy natural -instinct of the great mass of the English nation. And at the present day -it remains one of the main causes of the indifference or hostility to -religion which is so widely spreading among the mass of the population. -Children are brought up to consider Sunday as a day of penance, and -church-going as a disagreeable necessity; while grown-up men, especially -those of the working classes, resent being told that a walk in the -country, a cricket-match, or a visit to a library or museum on their only -holiday, is sinful. - -In view of the approximation between the Zoroastrian religion and -the forms of modern thought it is interesting to note how the former -works among its adherents in actual practice. For, after all, the -practical side of a religion is more important than its speculative -or philosophical theories. Thus, for instance, the Quakers have a -faith which is about the most reasonable of any of the numerous sects -of Christianity and nearest to the spirit of its Founder, and yet -Quakerism remains a narrow sect which is far from being victorious in the -‘struggle for life,’ Mahometanism, again, while dying out among civilised -nations, shows itself superior to Christianity in the work of raising -the barbarous, fetish-worshipping negroes of Africa to a higher level. -And Mormonism, based on the most obvious imposture and absurdity, is -the only new religion which, in recent times, has taken root and to a -certain extent flourished. - -Tried by this test, Zoroastrianism has made good its claim to be called -the ‘excellent religion.’ Its followers, the limited community of Parsees -in India, are honourably distinguished for probity, intelligence, -enterprise, public spirit, benevolence, tolerance, and other good -qualities. By virtue of these qualities they have raised themselves -to a prominent position in our Indian empire, and take a leading part -in its commerce and industrial enterprise. The chief shipbuilder at -Bombay, the first great native railway contractor, the founder of cotton -factories, are all Parsees, and they are found as merchants, traders, and -shopkeepers in all the chief towns of British India, and distant places -such as Aden and Zanzibar. Their commercial probity is proverbial, and, -as in England, they have few written agreements, the word of a Parsee, -like that of an Englishman, being considered as good as his bond. Their -high character and practical aptitude for business are attested by the -fact that the first mayor, or chairman of the Corporation of Bombay, was -a Parsee who was elected by the unanimous vote both of Europeans and -natives. - -The position of women affords perhaps the best test of the real -civilisation and intrinsic worth of any community. Where men consider -women as inferior creatures it is a sure proof that they themselves are -so. They are totally wanting in that delicacy and refinement of nature -which distinguishes the true gentleman from the snob or the savage, and -are coarse, vulgar brutes, however disguised under a veneer of outward -polish. On the other hand, respect for women implies self-respect, -nobility of nature, capability of rising to high ideals above the sordid -level of animal appetite and the selfish supremacy of brute force. - -The Parsees in this respect stand high, far higher than any other -Oriental people, and on a level with the best European civilisation. -The equality of the sexes is distinctly laid down in the Zoroastrian -scriptures. Women are always mentioned as a necessary part of the -religious community. They have the same religious rites as the men. The -spirits of deceased women are invoked as well as those of men. Long -contact with the other races of India, and the necessity for some outward -conformity to the practices of Hindoo and Mahometan rulers, did something -to impair the position of females as regards public appearances, though -the Parsee wife and mother always remained a principal figure in the -Parsee household; and latterly, under the security of English rule, -Parsee ladies may be seen everywhere in public, enjoying just as much -liberty as the ladies of Europe or America. Nor are they at all behind -their Western sisters in education, accomplishments, and, it may be -added, in daintiness of fashionable attire. In fact, an eager desire for -education has become a prominent feature among all classes of the Parsee -community, and they are quite on a par with the Scotch, German, and other -European races in their efforts to establish schools, and in the numbers -who attend, and especially of those who obtain distinguished places in -the higher schools and colleges, such as the Elphinstone Institute and -the Bombay University. Female education is also actively promoted, and no -prejudices stand in the way of attendance at the numerous girls’ schools -which have been established, or even of studying in medical colleges, -where Parsee women attend lectures on all branches of medical science -along with male students. Those who know the position of inferiority and -seclusion in which women are kept among all other Oriental nations can -best appreciate the largeness and liberality of spirit of a religion -which, in spite of all surrounding influences, has rendered such a thing -possible in such a country as India. - -Another prominent trait of the Parsee character is that of philanthropy -and public spirit. In proportion to their numbers and means they raise -more money for charitable objects than any other religious sect. And they -raise it in a way which does the greatest credit to their tolerance and -liberality. For instance, the Parsees were the principal subscribers to -a fund raised in Bombay in aid of the ‘Scottish Corporation,’ and quite -recently a Parsee gentleman gave 16,000_l._ towards the establishment of -a female hospital under the care of lady doctors, although the benefit of -such an institution would be confined principally to Mahometan and Hindoo -women, Parsee women having no prejudice against employing male doctors. - -The public spirit shown by acts like this is the trait by which the -Parsee community is most honourably distinguished, and in respect of -which it must be candidly confessed it far surpasses not only other -Oriental races, but most European nations, including our own. Whatever -the reason may be, the fact is certain that in England, while a great -deal of money is spent in charity, lamentably little is spent from the -enormous surplus wealth of the country on what may be called public -objects. There is neither religious influence nor social opinion brought -to bear on the numerous class who have incomes far beyond any possible -want, to teach them that it should be both a pleasure and a pride to -associate their names with some act of noble liberality. A better spirit -we may hope is springing up, and there have been occasional instances -of large sums applied to public purposes, such as parks and colleges, -by private individuals, principally of the trading and manufacturing -classes, such as the Salts, Crossleys, Baxters, and Holloways; but on the -whole the amount contributed is miserably small. It is probably part of -the price we pay for aristocratic institutions that those who inherit or -accumulate great fortunes consider it their primary object to perpetuate -or to found great families. Be this as it may, a totally different spirit -prevails among the Parsees of Bombay, where it has been truly stated -that hardly a year passes without some wealthy Parsee coming forward -to perform a work of public generosity. The instance of Sir Jamsedjee -Jijibhoy, who attained a European reputation for his noble benevolence, -is only one conspicuous instance out of a thousand of this ‘public -spirit’ which has become almost an instinctive element in Parsee society. - -How far the large and liberal religion may be the cause of the large -and liberal practice, it is impossible to say. Other influences have -doubtless been at work. The Parsees are a commercial people, and commerce -is always more liberal with its money than land. They are the descendants -of a persecuted race, and as a rule it is better to be persecuted than to -persecute. Still, after making all allowances, it remains that the tree -cannot be bad which bears such fruits; the religion must be a good one -which produces good men and women and good deeds. - -Statistical facts testify quite as strongly to the high standard of the -Parsee race, and the practical results which follow from the observance -of the Zoroastrian ritual. A small death-rate and a large proportion -of children prove the vigorous vitality of a race. The Parsees have -the lowest death-rate of any of the many races who inhabit Bombay. The -average for the two years 1881 and 1882 per thousand was for Hindoos -26·11; for Mussulmans 30·46; for Europeans 20·18; for Parsees 19·26. -The percentage of children under two years old to women between fifteen -and forty-five was 30·27 for Parsees, as against Hindoos 22·24, and -Mussulmans 24·9, showing incontestably greater vitality and greater care -for human life. - -Of 6,618 male and 2,966 female mendicants in the city of Bombay, only -five male and one female were Parsees. - -These figures speak for themselves. It is evident that a religion in -which such results are possible cannot be unfavourable to the development -of the ‘mens sana in corpore sano;’ and that, although we may not turn -Zoroastrians, we may envy some of the results of a creed which inculcates -worship of the good, the pure, and the beautiful in the concerns of daily -life, as well as in the abstract regions of theological and philosophical -speculation. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -FORMS OF WORSHIP. - - Byron’s lines—Carnegie’s description—Parsee nature-worship—English - Sunday—The sermon—Appeals to reason misplaced—Music better - than words—The Mass—Zoroastrianism brings religion into daily - life—Sanitation—Zoroastrian prayer—Religion of the future—Sermons - in stones and good in everything. - - - Not vainly did the early Persian make - His altar the high places and the peak - Of earth-o’ergazing mountains, and thus take - A fit and unwall’d temple, where to seek - The spirit, in whose honour shrines are weak, - Uprear’d of human hands. Come, and compare - Columns and idol-dwellings, Goth or Greek, - With nature’s realms of worship, earth and air, - Nor fix on fond abodes to circumscribe thy prayer! - - _Childe Harold_, iii. 91. - -A shrewd Scotch-American ironmaster—Andrew Carnegie—in an interesting -and instructive record of experiences during a voyage round the world, -gives the following description of the worship of the modern Parsees, as -actually witnessed by him at Bombay:— - -‘This evening we were surprised to see, as we strolled along the beach, -more Parsees than ever before, and more Parsee ladies richly dressed, all -wending their way towards the sea. It was the first of the new moon, a -period sacred to these worshippers of the elements; and here on the shore -of the ocean, as the sun was sinking in the sea, and the slender silver -thread of the crescent moon was faintly shining on the horizon, they -congregated to perform their religious rites. - -‘Fire was there in its grandest form, the setting sun, and water in the -vast expanse of the Indian Ocean outstretched before them. The earth was -under their feet, and wafted across the sea the air came laden with the -perfumes of “Araby the blest.” Surely no time or place could be more -fitly chosen than this for lifting up the soul to the realms beyond -sense. I could not but participate with these worshippers in what was so -grandly beautiful. There was no music save the solemn moan of the waves -as they broke into foam on the beach. But where shall we find so mighty -an organ, or so grand an anthem? - -‘How inexpressibly sublime the scene appeared to me, and how -insignificant and unworthy of the unknown seemed even our cathedrals -“made with human hands,” when compared with this looking up through -nature unto nature’s God! I stood and drank in the serene happiness which -seemed to fill the air. I have seen many modes and forms of worship—some -disgusting, others saddening, a few elevating when the organ pealed forth -its tones, but all poor in comparison with this. Nor do I ever expect -in all my life to witness a religious ceremony which will so powerfully -affect me as that of the Parsees on the beach at Bombay.’ - -I say Amen with all my heart to Mr. Carnegie. Here is an ideal religious -ceremony combining all that is most true, most touching, and most -sublime, in the attitude of man towards the Great Unknown. Compare it -with the routine of an ordinary English Sunday, and how poor and prosaic -does the latter appear! There is nothing which seems to me to have fallen -more completely out of harmony with its existing environment than our -traditional form of church service. The sermon has been killed by the -press and has become an anachronism. There was a time when sermons like -those of Latimer and John Knox were living realities; they dealt with all -the burning political and personal questions of the day, and to a great -extent did the work now done by platform speeches and leading articles. -If there are national dangers to be denounced, national shortcomings to -be pointed out, iniquity in high places to be rebuked, we look to our -daily newspaper, and not to our weekly sermon. The sermon has in a great -majority of cases become a sort of schoolboy theme, in which traditional -assumptions and conventional phrases are ground out, with as little soul -or idea behind them as in the Thibetan praying-mill. In the course of a -long life I have gained innumerable ideas and experienced innumerable -influences, from contact with the world, with fellow-men, and with books; -but although I have heard a good many sermons, I cannot honestly say that -I ever got an idea or an influence from one of them which made me wiser -or better, or different in any respect from what I should have been if I -had slept through them. And this from no fault of the preachers. I have -heard many who gave me the impression that they were good men, and a -few who impressed me as being able and liberal-minded men—nor do I know -that, under the conditions in which they are placed, I could have done -any better myself. But they were dancing in fetters, and so tied down by -conventionalities that it was simply impossible for them to depart from -the paths of a decorous routine. - -The fact is that the whole point of view of our religious services, -especially in Protestant countries, has become a mistaken one. It is -far too much an appeal to the intellect and to abstract dogmas, and too -little, one to the realities of actual life and to the vague emotions and -aspirations which constitute the proper field of religion. In the great -reaction of the Reformation it was perhaps inevitable that an appeal -should be made to reason against the abuses of an infallible Church; and -as long as the literal inspiration of the Bible and other theological -premises were held to be undoubted axioms by the whole Christian world, -there might be a certain interest in hearing them repeated over and over -again in becoming language, and in listening to sermons which explained -shortly conclusions which might be drawn from these admitted axioms. But -this is no longer the case. It is impossible to touch the merest fringe -of the questions now raised by the intellectual side of religion in -discourses of half an hour’s length; even if the preacher were perfectly -free, and not hampered by the fear of scandalising simple, pious souls -by plain language. Spoken words have to a great extent ceased to be -the appropriate vehicle for appealing either to religious reason or -to religious emotion—books for the former, music for the latter, are -infinitely more effective. Music especially seems made to be the language -of religion. Not only its beauty and harmony, but its vagueness, and its -power of exciting the imagination and stirring the feelings, without -anything definite which has to be proved and can be contradicted, fit -it to be the interpreter of those emotions and aspirations which fill -the human soul in presence of the universe and of the Great Unknown. -Demonstrate, with St. Thomas Aquinas or Duns Scotus, how many angels can -stand on the point of a needle, and I remain unaffected; but let me hear -Rossini’s ‘Cujus Animam,’ or Mozart’s ‘Agnus Dei,’ and I say, ‘Thus the -angels sing.’ - -In this respect the Roman Catholic Church has retained a great advantage -over reformed churches. Whatever we may think of its tenets and -principles, its forms of worship are more impressive and more attractive. -The Mass, apart from all dogma and miracle, is a mysterious and beautiful -religious drama, in which appropriate symbolism, vocal and instrumental -music, all the highest efforts of human art, are united to produce -feelings of joy and of devoutness. The vestment of the priest, his -gestures and genuflexions, the Latin words chanted in stately recitative, -the flame of the candles pointing heavenwards, the burning incense -slowly soaring upwards, the music of great masters, not like our dreary -and monotonous psalmody, but in fullest harmony and richest melody—all -combine to attune the mind to that state of feeling which is the soul of -religion. - -In this respect, however, what I have called the Zoroastrian theory -of religion affords great advantages. It connects religion directly -with all that is good and beautiful, not only in the higher realms of -speculation and of emotion, but in the ordinary affairs of daily life. -To feel the truth of what is true, the beauty of what is beautiful, is -of itself a silent prayer or act of worship to the Spirit of Light; to -make an honest, earnest, effort to attain this feeling, is an offering -or act of homage. Cleanliness of mind and body, order and propriety in -conduct, civility in intercourse, and all the homely virtues of everyday -life, thus acquire a higher significance, and any wilful and persistent -disregard of them becomes an act of mutiny against the Power whom we have -elected to serve. Such moral perversion becomes impossible as that which -in the Middle Ages associated filth with holiness, and adduced as a title -to canonisation that the saint had worn the same woollen shirt until it -fell to pieces under the attacks of vermin. We laugh at this in more -enlightened days, but we often imitate it by setting up false religious -standards, and thinking we can make men better by penning them up on -Sundays in the foul air and corrupting influences of densely peopled -cities. - -The identification of moral and physical evil, which is one of the most -essential and peculiar tenets of the Zoroastrian creed, is fast becoming -a leading idea in modern civilisation. Our most earnest philanthropists -and zealous workers in the fields of sin and misery in crowded cities are -coming, more and more every day, to the conviction that an improvement -in the physical conditions of life is the first indispensable condition -of moral and religious progress. More air, more light, better lodging, -better food, more innocent and healthy recreation, are what are wanted -to make any real impression on the masses who have either been born and -bred in an evil environment, or have fallen out of the ranks and are -the waifs and stragglers left behind in the rapid progress and intense -competition of modern society. Hence we see that the devoted individuals -and charitable institutions who take the lead in works of practical -benevolence direct their attention more and more to the rescue of -children from bad surroundings; to sending them to new and happier homes -in the colonies, to country retreats for the sickly, and excursions for -the healthy; and to providing clubs and reading-rooms as substitutes for -the gin-palace and public-house. The latest development of this idea, -that of the ‘People’s Palace’ in the East End of London, is a noble -offering to the ‘Spirit of Light,’ by whatever name we choose to call -him, in opposition to the ‘Spirit of Darkness.’ - -To the Zoroastrian, prayer assumes the form of a recognition of all that -is pure, sublime, and beautiful in the surrounding universe. He can never -want opportunities of paying homage to the Good Spirit and of looking -into the abysses of the unknown with reverence and wonder. The light of -setting suns, the dome of loving blue, the clouds in the might of the -tempest or resting still as brooding doves, the mountains, the - - Waste - And solitary places where we taste - The pleasure of believing what we see, - Is boundless, as we wish our souls to be; - -the ocean lashed by storm, or where it - - All down the sand - Lies breathing in its sleep, - Heard by the land— - -these are a Zoroastrian’s prayers. - -And even if, ‘in populous cities pent,’ he is cut off from close -communion with nature, opportunities are not wanting to him of letting -his soul soar aloft with purifying aspirations. A glimpse of the starry -sky, even if seen from a London street, may bear in on him the awful yet -lovely mystery of the Infinite. Good books, good music, true works of -art, may all strengthen his love of the good and beautiful. A dense fog, -or drizzling rain may obscure the outward view, but with the inner eye -he may stand listening to the lark or under the vernal sky, and while his - - Heart looks down and up, - Serene, secure; - Warm as the crocus-cup, - As snowdrops pure, - -thank the Good Spirit that it has been given to man to write, and to -him to read, verses of such exquisite perfection as Shelley’s ‘Ode to a -Skylark’ and Tennyson’s ‘Early Spring.’ Above all, where men congregate -in masses, in the great centres of politics, of commerce, of literature, -science, and art, he can hear best - - The still sad music of humanity, - Not harsh nor grating, but of ample power - To chasten and subdue, - -and associate himself with movements in which his little individual -effort is exerted towards making the world a little better rather than a -little worse than he found it. - -This, rather than wrangling with his fellow-mortals about creeds and -attempts to name the unnameable, believe the unbelievable, and define the -undefineable, seems to me to be the religion of the future. Call it by -what name you like, I quarrel with no one as long as he can find - - Sermons in stones and good in everything. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -PRACTICAL POLARITIES. - - Fable of the shield—Progress and conservatism—English and - French colonisation—Law-abidingness—Irish land question—True - conservative legislation—Ultra-conservatism—Law and - education—Patriotism—Jingoism and parochialism—True - statesmanship—Free trade and protection—Capital - and labour—Egoism and altruism—Socialism and - _laissez faire_—Contracts—Rights and duties of - landlords—George’s theory—State interference—Railways—Post - Office—Telegraphs—National defence—Concluding remarks. - - -A well-known fable tells how in the olden time two knights were riding -in opposite directions along a green road overarched by the trees of -an ancient forest. It was a bright morning in early summer, with the -green leaves freshly bursting in contrasted foliage; the sun had just -risen over the tops of the trees in clouds of golden and crimson glory; -dewdrops were glittering like diamonds on every twig and blade of grass; -and the joyous birds carolling their loudest song to greet the opening -day. - -Everything was fresh and cheerful as of a new-born earth, and so were the -spirits of the two youthful knights, who were pricking forth in search of -adventures. He whose face was turned towards the West, where the rising -sun had last set, wore a primrose scarf over his cuirass, and had on his -shield a quaint device, which, on closer inspection, might be seen to be -a tombstone with the inscription, - - ‘I was well, would be better, and here I am.’ - -He rode along musing on the heroic legends of the past, and wishing -that he had been a knight of Arthur’s round table to ride out with the -blameless king against invading heathen. - -The second knight, whose face was turned towards the rising sun, bore an -azure shield with a different device. On it was depicted the good Sir -James Douglass charging the serried Paynim army, and, as he charged, -flinging before him into the hostile ranks the casket containing the -heart of Robert Bruce, and shouting for battle-cry— - - Go thou aye forward, as was thy wont. - -As he rode his fancy wrought the fairy web of a day-dream, in which he -saw himself delivering the fair princess Liberty from the fiery dragon -Prejudice and the stolid giant Obstruction. - -The knights met just where an ancient oak of mighty bulk stretched -overhead a huge branch across the path, as some aged athlete might -stretch out an arm rigid with gnarled and knotted muscles, to show -younger generations how Olympian laurels were won when Pollux or Hercules -plied the cestus. From this branch a shield hung suspended. - -‘Good morrow, fair knight,’ said he of the primrose scarf; ‘prithee tell -me if thou knowest what means this golden shield suspended here.’ - -‘I marvel at it myself, good Sir Knight,’ responded the other; ‘but you -mistake in calling the shield golden; it is of silver.’ - -‘Your eyes must be of the dullest,’ said the first knight, ‘if you -mistake gold for silver.’ - -‘Not so dull as yours,’ retorted the other, ‘if you mistake silver for -gold.’ - -The argument waxed hot, and, as usual in such cases, as tempers grew weak -adjectives grew strong. Soon, like the old Homeric heroes when Greek met -Trojan - - Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy, - -winged words of fire and fury darted from each mouth, and epithets were -exchanged, of which ‘stupid old Tory’ and ‘low, vulgar Radical’ were -among the least unparliamentary. At length the fatal words ‘You lie’ -escaped simultaneously from both, and on the instant spears were couched, -steeds spurred, and, red with rage, they encountered each other in full -career. Such was the momentum that both men and horses rolled over, even -as the Templar went down before the spear of Ivanhoe within the lists of -Ashby-de-la-Zouch. But, like the redoubted knight Brian de Bois-Guilbert, -each sprang to his feet and drew his sword, eager to redeem the fortune -of war in deadly combat. Like two surly boars with bristling backs and -foaming tusks quarrelling for the right of way in Indian jungle, or tawny -lions in Numidian desert tearing one another to pieces for the smiles -of a leonine Helen, the heroes clashed together, cutting, slashing, -parrying, foyning, and traversing, until at length, bleeding and -breathless, they paused for a moment, leaning on their swords to recover -second wind. - -Just then an aged hermit appeared on the scene, drawn thither by the -sound of the combat. - -‘Pause, my sons,’ he said, ‘and tell me what is the cause of this furious -encounter.’ - -‘Yonder false villain protests,’ said the one, ‘that the shield which -hangs there is of gold.’ - -‘And that lying varlet persists that it is of silver,’ said the other. - -The hermit smiled, and said, ‘Hold your hands, good sirs, for a single -moment, and use your remaining strength to exchange places and look at -the opposite side of the shield.’ - -They obeyed his words, and found to their confusion that they had been -fighting in a quarrel in which each was right and each wrong. - -‘Father,’ they said, ‘we are fools. Grant us thy pardon for our folly and -absolution for our sin.’ - -‘Absolution,’ said the hermit, ‘is soon granted for faults which arise -from the innate tendency of poor human nature. Wiser and older men than -you are prone to see only their own side of a question. Come, then, with -me to my humble hermitage; there will I dress your wounds and offer you -my frugal fare; happy if from this lesson you may learn for the rest of -your lives, before indulging in vehement assertions and proceeding to -violent extremities, to “look at the other side of the shield.”’ - -The application of this fable to the polarity of politics will be obvious -to every intelligent reader. As the earth is kept in its orbit by the -due balance of centripetal and centrifugal forces, so is every civilised -society held together by the opposite influences of conservative and -progressive tendencies. The conservative tendency may be likened to the -centripetal force which binds the mass together, while the progressive -one resembles that centrifugal force which prevents it from being -concentrated in a rigid and inert central body without life or motion. -As Herbert Spencer truly says, ‘from antagonistic social tendencies -there always results not a medium state, but a rhythm between opposite -states. Now the one greatly preponderates, and presently, by reaction, -there comes a preponderance of the other.’ So it is with the antagonism -of conservative and liberal tendencies. In the societies of the ancient -world, and to the present day in the East, the conservative tendency -unduly preponderates, and they crystallise into inert masses in the -form of despotisms, and of sacerdotal or administrative hierarchies. At -times the pent-up forces which make for change accumulate, and, as in -the French Revolution, explode with destructive violence, shattering the -old and bringing in new eras. But unless the balance between liberty and -order is tolerably preserved in the individual citizens whose aggregate -forms the society, after a period more or less prolonged of violent -oscillations they crystallise anew into fresh forms, in which another -military dynasty, or it may be administrative centralisation under the -name of a republic, again asserts the preponderance of the centripetal -force. - -The happiest nations are those in which the individual character of -individual citizens supplies the requisite balance. An ideal society is -one in which every citizen is at the same time liberal and conservative; -law-abiding, and yet with a strong instinct for liberty of thought and -action, for progress and for individual independence. It is among the -Teutonic races, especially when they are placed in favourable conditions -as in new countries, or in old countries where for ages - - Freedom has widened slowly down, - From precedent to precedent, - -that this happy ideal is most nearly realised. Hence it is that these -races are more and more coming to the front and surviving in the struggle -for existence. - -The contrast of English and French colonisation affords a striking -instance of this difference of races. A century and a half ago France -stood as well as England in the race for colonial supremacy. She had -the start of us in Canada, and her pioneers had explored the Great -Lakes, the Mississippi, and a large part of the continent of North -America west of the Rocky Mountains. To-day there are sixty millions -of an English-speaking population in that continent, while French is -scarcely spoken beyond the single province of Quebec. Political events -had doubtless something to do with this result; but it has been mainly -owing to the innate qualities of the two races, for even the genius of -Chatham might have failed to establish our supremacy if it had not been -backed by the superior intelligence, energy, and staying power of the -English colonists. The ultimate cause of the triumph of the English over -the French element in America and India is doubtless to be found in -the stronger individualism of the former. The character of the French -is eminently social, they like to live in societies, and shrink from -encountering the hardships and still more the isolation of the life -of early settlers. They like to be administered, and shrink from the -responsibility of hewing out, each for themselves, their own path in the -relations of civil life or in the depths of primæval forests. - -It is so to the present day, and they fail conspicuously in creating a -large French population even at their own doors in Algeria; while in -their more distant colonies they conquer and annex, but to see their -commerce fall into the hands of English, Germans, and Chinese, as in -Cochin China, or to stagnate as in New Caledonia. As a witty French -writer puts it, the trade of a remote French colony may be summed up -as—imports, absinthe and cigars; exports, stamped paper and red-tape. -Individualism in this case has been fairly pitted against Socialism, and -has beaten it out of the field by the verdict of Fact, which is more -conclusive than any amount of abstract argument. - -To return, however, to the field of politics. Where the essential quality -of being law-abiding is wanting in individuals, it is hopeless to look -for real liberty. The centripetal force in societies, as in planets, -must be supplied somehow, or they would fly into dissolution; and if not -by the integration of the tendencies of the individual units, then by -external restrictions. Socialists may be allowed to make inflammatory -harangues in a non-explosive atmosphere, but hardly to let off their -fireworks in a powder-magazine. In order, however, that a nation shall be -law-abiding, it is essential that the great majority should feel that, -on the whole, the law is their friend. It is not in human nature to love -that which injures, or to respect that which is felt to be unjust. The -volcanic explosion of the French Revolution was due to the feeling of -the French nation, with the exception of a few courtiers, nobles, and -priests, that the existing order of things was their enemy, and law a -tool in the hands of their oppressors. Even among English-speaking races -we find, in the unfortunate instance of Ireland, that under specially -unfavourable circumstances the same effects may be produced by the same -causes. What has English law practically meant for centuries to an -average peasant of Kerry or Connemara? It has meant an irresistible -malevolent power, which comes down on him with writs of eviction to -compel him to pay a high rent on his own improvements. More than half the -population of Ireland consists of tenants and their families occupying -small holdings, paying less than 10_l._ a year of rent. Of an immense -majority of these small holdings two things may be safely asserted: -first, that the total gross value of the produce is insufficient, after -paying the rent, to leave a decent subsistence for the cultivator. -Secondly, that this rent is levied to a great extent on the improvements -of the tenant or his predecessors. Throughout the poorer parts of Ireland -the greater part of the soil, in its natural state of bog or mountain, -is not worth a rent of a shilling an acre; but some poor peasant, urged -by the earth-hunger which results from the absence of other sources of -employment, squats upon it, builds a wretched cottage, delves, drains, -fences, and reclaims a few acres of land so as to bear a scanty crop of -oats and potatoes. When he has done so the landlord or landlord’s agent -comes to him and says, ‘This land is worth ten or fifteen shillings an -acre, according to the standard of rents in the district, and you must -pay it or turn out;’ and the law backs him in saying so by writs of -eviction and police. Put yourself in poor Pat’s place, and say if you -would love the law and be law-abiding. - -It would take me too far from the scope of this volume into the field of -contemporary politics if I attempted to point out who is to blame for -this state of things, or what are the remedies. It is enough to say that -this is the real Irish problem, and to point to it as an instance of the -calamitous effects which inevitably follow when the instincts of a whole -population are brought by an unfavourable combination of circumstances -into necessary and natural antagonism with the laws which they are bound -to obey. - -Conservative legislation, by whatever party it is introduced, really -means making the law correspond with the common sense and common -morality of all except the criminal and crotchety classes, so that the -majority may feel it to be their friend. For instance, the most truly -conservative measure of recent times was probably that which legalised -trades’ unions and gave working-men full liberty to combine for an -increase of wages. The old legal maxim, that such combinations were -illegal as being in restraint of trade, was so obviously an invention of -the members of the upper caste who wore horsehair wigs, to give their -fellows of the same caste who employed labour an unfair advantage, that -it could not fail to cause feelings of discontent and exasperation -among the masses of working-men. By its repeal the sting has been taken -out of Socialism, and the British working-man has come to be, in the -main, a reasonable citizen, on whom incitements to violence in order to -inaugurate Utopias, fall as lightly as the howlings of the barren east -wind on the chimney-tops. It has led also to reasonable and peaceful -adjustment of disputes between employers and labourers by arbitration -and sliding-scales instead of by strikes and lock-outs. In the United -States of America the law-abiding instinct is even stronger. We find that -strikes attended with violence are almost always confined mainly to the -foreign element of recently imported immigrants, and that the native-born -American citizen considers the laws as his own laws, and is determined -to have them respected. - -The balance between the conservative and progressive tendencies is, -however, at the best, always imperfect, and inclines too much sometimes -in one and sometimes in the other direction. In England the conservative -tendency has had on the whole too much preponderance. I do not speak -of political institutions, for in these of late years the balance has -been pretty equally preserved; but in practical matters there is still a -good deal of old-fashioned stolid obstruction. This is most apparent in -law and in education. The common or judge-made law, though on the whole -well-intentioned and upright, is fettered by so many technicalities and -musty precedents, that it fails in a great many instances to be, what -civil law ought to be, a cheap, speedy, and intelligible instrument -for enforcing honest dealings between man and man. One of our greatest -railway contractors once said to me, ‘If I want to make an agreement -which shall be absolutely binding, I make it myself on a sheet of -note-paper; if I want to have a loophole, I send it to my lawyer to have -it drawn up in legal language and engrossed on sheets of parchment.’ -Another man of large experience in commercial and financial matters laid -down this axiom: ‘If you want to know what is the law in a doubtful case, -reason out what is the common-sense view of it, and assume that the -direct opposite is probably the law.’ These may be extreme instances, -as all such epigrammatic sentences generally are, but it is undeniable -that they have a considerable basis of substantial truth; and that law, -with its dilatory processes, its enormous expense, and its uncertain -conclusions, may be, and often is, not an instrument of justice, but a -weapon in the hands of an unscrupulous adventurer or of a dishonest rich -man, to extort blackmail or to defeat just claims. - -Again, what nation but England would tolerate so long a system of land -law, so bristling with antiquated technicalities, so tedious, and so -expensive, as almost to amount to a prohibition of the transfer of land -in small quantities; or could let the private interests of a mere handful -of professional lawyers stand in the way of a codification of laws and a -registration of titles? - -Education is another subject which shows how difficult it is to move -the sluggish ultra-conservative instincts of the English mind in the -direction of progress, when not stimulated by political conflict. What -is education? The word tells its own story; it is to _draw out_, not to -_cram in_; to unfold the capacities of the growing mind, strengthen the -reasoning faculty, create an interest in the surrounding universe; in a -word, to excite a love of knowledge and impart the means of acquiring it. -For the mass of the population, education is necessarily confined in a -great measure to the latter object. The three R’s—reading, writing, and -arithmetic—are indispensable requisites, and the acquirement of these, -with perhaps a few elements of history and geography, absorbs nearly all -the time and opportunity that can be afforded for attendance at school. -For any culture beyond this the great majority must depend on themselves -in after life. But there are a large number of parents of the upper and -middle classes who can and do keep their children at school for eight or -ten years, and spend a large sum of money in giving them what is called -a higher education. What is there to show for this time and money, even -in the case of the highest schools, which ought to give the highest -education? On the credit side, a little Latin and less Greek, plenty of -cricket and athletics, good physical training, and, best of all, on the -whole a manly, honourable, and gentlemanlike spirit. But on the debit -side, absolute ignorance, except in the case of a few unusually clever -and ambitious boys, of all that a cultivated man of the nineteenth -century ought to know. No French, no German, and, what is worse, no -English. The average boy can neither write his own language legibly nor -grammatically, and, if he goes straight from a public school into a -competitive examination, stands an excellent chance of being plucked for -spelling. And, what is worst of all, he not only knows nothing, but cares -to know nothing; his reasoning faculty has never been cultivated, and his -interest in interesting things has never been awakened. What is the first -lesson he has had to learn? ‘Propria quæ maribus dicantur mascula dicas,’ -that is, words appropriated to males are called masculine—a lesson which -elicits as much reasoning faculty, and creates as much interest, as -if he had been made to commit to memory that things made of gold are -called golden. Suppose instead of this that the lesson had been that two -volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to form water. -The exercise to the memory is the same, but how different is the amount -of thought and interest evoked, especially if the experiment is made -before the class and each boy has to repeat it for himself! How many new -subjects of interest would this open up in the mind of any lad of average -intelligence! How strange that there should be airs other than the air -we breathe, which can be weighed and measured, and that two of them by -combining shall produce their exact weight of a substance so unlike them -as water! Or if the exercise of a class were to look through a microscope -at the leaf of a plant or wing of an insect, and try who could best draw -what they had seen and write a description of it in a legible hand and in -good English, how many faculties would this call into play compared with -the dull routine of parsing a Latin sentence or writing a halting copy of -Greek iambics! Even grammar, the one thing which is supposed to be taught -thoroughly, is taught so unintelligently that it awakens no interest -beyond that of a parrot learning by rote. From ‘propria quæ maribus’ -the scholar passes to ‘as in præsenti perfectum format in avi,’ without -an attempt to explain what language really means, how it originates -from root-words, and how these inflections of ‘as’ and ‘avi’ are part -of the devices which certain families of mankind, including our own, -have invented as a mechanism for attaching shades of meaning, such as -present and past, to the primitive root. Even the alphabet intelligently -taught opens up wide fields of interesting matter as to the history of -ancient nations, and their successive attempts to analyse the component -sounds of their spoken words, and to pass from primitive picture-writing -to phonetic symbols. But the instructors of the budding manhood of the -_élite_ of the nation, like Gallio, ‘care for none of these things,’ -and the organisation of our higher schools seems to be stereotyped on -the principle that they are made for teachers rather than for scholars, -and that their chief _raison d’être_ is to enable a limited number of -highly respectable gentlemen from the Universities to realise comfortable -incomes with a maximum of holidays and a minimum of trouble. And the -parents support the system because so many of them really reverence rank -more than knowledge, and are willing to compound for their sons growing -up ignorant, idle, and extravagant, if by any chance they can count a -lord or two among their acquaintance. - -Mr. Francis Galton, in the course of his interesting inquiries as to the -effect of heredity and education on character and attainments, took the -very practical course of addressing a set of questions to some hundred -and eighty of our most distinguished men as to the hereditary qualities -of their ancestors, and the various influences which they considered had -done most to promote or to retard their success in life. Of course he -received a variety of answers, ‘quot homines tot sententiæ,’ but upon one -point there was a striking unanimity. ‘They almost all expressed a hatred -of grammar and the classics, and an utter distaste for the old-fashioned -system of education. There were none who had passed through this old high -and dry education who were satisfied with it. Those who came from the -greater schools usually did nothing there, and have abused the system -heartily.’ - -And yet the system goes on, and the Eton Latin grammar will probably be -taught, and hexameters written, for another generation. Surely the needle -swings here too strongly towards the negative or obstructive pole. - -The instances are so numerous in social and practical life in which it is -necessary to look at both sides of the shield that the difficulty is in -selection. Take the case of patriotism. Patriotism is beyond all doubt -a great virtue—in fact, the fertile mother of many of the higher and -heroic virtues. Who does not sympathise with the legends of Wallace and -William Tell, and scorn with Walter Scott - - the man with soul so dead - Who never to himself has said, - This is my own, my native land? - -And yet how thin a line of partition separates it from narrow-minded -arrogance and insolent ignorance! Reflected in the latter form from -Paris, in hysterical shouts now of ‘À Berlin, À Berlin!’ and now ‘À -bas perfide Albion!’ we call it ‘Chauvinism,’ and recognise it as an -unlovely exhibition. But call it ‘Jingoism,’ and let it take the form -of the bellowings of some stupid bull, as the red flag, now of a French -and now of a Russian scare, crosses his line of vision, and we are -blind to its deformity. Still there is another side to the shield, for -even ‘Jingoism,’ which is only another word for patriotism run mad, -is more respectable than the opposite extreme of a sordid and narrow -minded parochialism, which shrinks behind the ‘silver streak,’ measures -everything by the standard of pounds, shillings, and pence, and, with -what Tennyson calls - - The craven fear of being great, - -groans over the responsibilities of extended empire. The growth of such -a spirit among prominent politicians of the advanced Liberal school -seems to me one of the most alarming symptoms of the day; but I take -comfort when I reflect that the most democratic community in the world, -that of the United States, is precisely the one which has shown most -determination to maintain its national greatness, if necessary by the -sword, and has made the greatest sacrifices for that object. If the -‘copperheads’ were a miserable minority in America, why should we be -afraid of our ‘English copperheads’ ever becoming a majority in Old -England? - -In this, as in all similar cases, it is evident that true statesmanship -consists in hitting the happy mean, and doing the right thing at the -right time; and that true strength stands firm in the middle between -the two opposite poles, while weakness is drawn by one or other of the -conflicting attractions into - - The falsehood of extremes. - -When Sir Robert Peel some forty years ago announced his conversion by the -unadorned eloquence of Richard Cobden, and free trade was inaugurated, -with results which were attended with the most brilliant success, every -one expected that the conversion of the rest of the civilised world was -only a question of time, and that a short time. Few would have been found -bold enough to predict that forty years later England would stand almost -alone in the world in adherence to free-trade principles, and that the -protectionist heresy would not only be strengthened and confirmed among -Continental nations such as France and Germany, but actually adopted by -large and increasing majorities in the United States, Canada, Australia, -and other English-speaking communities. Yet such is the actual fact at -the present day. In spite of the Cobden Club and of arguments which -to the average English mind appear irresistible, free trade has been -steadily losing ground for the last twenty years, and nation after -nation, colony after colony, sees its protectionist majority increasing -and its free-trade minority dwindling. - -It is evident there must be some real cause for such a universal -phenomenon. In countries like France and Russia we may attribute it to -economical ignorance and the influence of cliques of manufacturers and -selfish interests; but the people of Germany, and still more of the -United States, Canada, and Australia, are as intelligent as ourselves, -and quite as shrewd in seeing where those interests really lie. They are -fettered by no traditional prejudices, and their political instincts -rather lie towards freedom and against the creation of anything like -an aristocracy of wealthy manufacturers. And yet, after years of -free discussion, they have become more and more hardened in their -protectionist heresies. - -What does this prove? That there are two sides to the shield, and not, as -we fancied in our English insularity, only one. - -Free trade is undoubtedly the best, or rather the only possible, policy -for a country like England, with thirty millions of inhabitants, -producing food for less than half the number, and depending on foreign -trade for the supplies necessary to keep the other half alive. It is the -best policy also for a country which, owing to its mineral resources, -its accessibility by sea to markets, its accumulated capital, and the -inherited qualities, physical and moral, of its working population, has -unrivalled advantages for cheap production. Nor can any dispassionate -observer dispute that in England, which is such a country, free trade -has worked well. It has not worked miracles, it has not introduced an -industrial millennium, the poor are still with us, and it has not saved -us from our share of commercial depressions. But, on the whole, national -wealth has greatly increased, and, what is more important, national -well-being has increased with it, the mass of the population, and -especially the working classes, get better wages, work shorter hours, and -are better fed, better clothed, and better educated than they were forty -years ago. - -This is one side of the shield, and it is really a golden and not an -illusory one. But look at the other side. Take the case of a country -where totally opposite conditions prevail: where there is no surplus -population, unlimited land, limited capital, labour scarce and dear, and -no possibility of competing in the foreign or even in the home market -with the manufactures which, with free trade, would be poured in by -countries like England, in prior possession of all the elements of cheap -production. It is by no means so clear that protection, to enable native -industries to take root and grow, may not in such cases be the wisest -policy. - -Take as a simple illustration the case of an Australian colony imposing -an import duty on foreign boots and shoes. There is not a doubt that -this is practically taxing the immense majority of colonists who wear -and do not make these articles. But, on the other hand, it makes the -colony a possible field for emigration for all the shoemakers of Europe, -and shoemaking a trade to which any Australian with a large family can -bring up one of his sons. Looking at it from the strict point of view of -the most rigid political economist, the maximum production of wealth, -which is the better policy? The production of wealth, we must recollect, -depends on labour, and productive labour depends on the labourer finding -his tools—that is, employment at which he can work. A labourer who cannot -find work at living wages is worse than a zero: he is a negative quantity -as far as the accumulation of wealth is concerned. On the other hand, -every workman who finds work, even if it may not be of the ideally best -description, is a wealth-producing machine. What he spends on himself and -his family gives employment to other workmen, and the work must be poor -indeed if the produce of a year’s labour is not more than the cost of a -year’s subsistence. The surplus adds to the national capital, and thus -capital and population go on increasing in geometrical progression. The -first problem, therefore, for a new or a backward country is to find ‘a -fair day’s wages for a fair day’s work,’ for as many hands as possible. -The problem of making that employment the most productive possible is -a secondary one, which will solve itself in each case rather by actual -practice than by abstract theory. - -This much, however, is pretty clear, that in order to secure the maximum -of employment it must be varied. All are not fit for agricultural work, -and, even if they were, if the conditions of soil and climate favour -large estates and sheep or cattle runs rather than small farms, a large -amount of capital may provide work for only a small number of labourers. -On social and moral grounds, also, apart from dry considerations of -political economy, progress intelligence and a higher standard of -life are more likely to be found with large cities, manufactures, and -a variety of industrial occupations than with a dead level of a few -millionaires and a few shepherds, or of a few landlords and a dense -population of poor peasants. If protection is the price which must be -paid to render such a larger life possible, it may be sound policy to -pay it, and the result seems to show that neither it nor free trade is -inconsistent with rapid progress, while, on the other hand, neither of -them affords an absolute immunity from the evils that dog the footsteps -of progress, and from the periods of reaction and depression which -accompany vicissitudes of trade. - -Here, as in other cases, there are two sides of the shield, and true -statesmanship consists in seeing both, and doing the right thing, at the -right place, and at the right time. If free trade is, as we believe, -ultimately to prevail, it will be an affair of time. The real trial of -protection comes when it has stimulated production to a point which gluts -the home market and leaves a surplus which must be exported. Exports of -articles the cost of which has been artificially raised by protection, -cannot compete in the world’s market with the cheaper products of -free-trade countries. Vicissitudes therefore of prosperity and depression -must tend to become more frequent and more severe, and, if production -goes on, a point must be reached where, at whatever cost, it must either -be arrested or made capable of competing in the wider market. The United -States are probably not far from such a point, and it would have been -already reached but for the immense and unexhausted resources of that -vast continent. In France the point has apparently been reached, and we -find that, with a lower scale of wages than in England, it is becoming -more and more difficult every day to maintain that lower scale, and the -export trade of its manufactured goods to foreign markets. - -Protection, leading to higher wages and profits than can be permanently -maintained, and artificially enhancing the cost of living to the working -classes, threatens, more and more every day, to introduce strained -relations between capital and labour in most countries of Europe. - -The relation between capital and labour affords a good instance of the -inevitable error of applying hard and fast logical conclusions to the -complex and ever-varying problems of actual life. Ricardo and other -distinguished writers on political economy have assumed that the two -constitute a fundamental antagonistic polarity. Wealth, they say, is the -joint product of capital and labour, and, as in the case of a cake which -has to be divided between C and L, the more C gets the less is left for -L, and _vice versâ_. The theory sounds plausible: but what says fact? In -the most unmistakable manner it pronounces, as the outcome of practical -experience, that the profits of capital and the wages of labour rise -and fall together. High profits mean high wages, rising profits rising -wages, falling profits falling wages. It has been proved so in a thousand -instances, and not one can be quoted where the one factor has varied in -an inverse, and not in a direct, ratio with the other. It is obvious that -there must be some fallacy in Ricardo’s argument. The fallacy is this: he -assumes the cake to be of fixed dimensions, whereas in point of fact it -varies, sometimes diminishing to zero, or even to a negative quantity, -at others expanding to many times its original size. A new gold-field is -discovered in a remote country, and forthwith profits rise to cent. per -cent., and wages to a pound a day; a bad season and depression of trade -overtake an old country, and the gross value of the produce of many a -farm is insufficient to cover expenses and depreciation, even if the -labourers worked for nothing. The polarity is therefore confined to the -limited and temporary case of the division of the profit, where there -is a profit, in particular trades and in individual instances. And this -is regulated mainly by the accustomed scale of wages and standard of -living of the workmen, and their opportunities of finding employment -elsewhere if dissatisfied with the terms offered to them. On the whole, -it may be said that capital has the best of it on a rising, and wages on -a falling, market. A manufacturer or mine-owner’s profit may rise from -five to twenty per cent. without quadrupling the rate of wages; but, on -the other hand, it may fall from twenty per cent. to five, or even for a -time below zero, without a proportionate diminution in the price paid for -labour. Capital is, in fact, the great insurer of labour, the flywheel -which regulates the motion of the industrial machine. This will be best -illustrated by a practical instance. The Brighton Railway Company for -several consecutive years paid no dividend, or only a trifling amount, -on the shareholders’ capital, but during the whole of this time it gave -steady employment at good wages to upwards of ten thousand workmen. -The Blaenavon Coal and Iron Company in South Wales was for many years -a losing concern, and successive capitalists lost the best part of a -million pounds in it, until at length it was reorganised with a small -capital and became a fairly prosperous concern. During the whole of this -time it gave employment at fair wages to several thousand workmen. Which -had the best of it in these two cases, capital or labour, and where -would the workmen have been on any communistic or co-operative system? -In fact it will be apparent to any one who will study dispassionately -the statistics of any line of inquiry, such as the scale of wages, the -price of provisions, the accumulations of savings banks and provident -societies, &c., for the last twenty years, that the working classes have -had the lion’s share of the vast increase which has taken place in the -wealth and income of the nation. I am glad that it is so, for it is -better, both morally and politically, that the condition of the masses -should be improved, and their standard of living raised, than that -capital should accumulate too exclusively in large masses. - -Still there is a good deal to be said for such large accumulations. -Let us go to the United States of America for an illustration, where -everything is on a large scale, and colossal fortunes have been made in -a few years. The _modus operandi_ by which most of these fortunes have -been made may be described according to the way we look at it, either -as railway jobbing or as pioneering the way in useful enterprise. The -construction of the first railway across the continent to California -is a typical instance. A clique or syndicate of wealthy speculators -make surveys and estimates of a line across deserts and over mountain -ranges, and ascertain pretty accurately what it will cost. They form -a company with a capital of double that cost, and by subventions from -the Government, grants of land, and sale of mortgage bonds, raise the -half really required, and hold the other half in shares as profit in -paper. The line is made, and if the traffic turns out well, and there -is a period of speculation in the money market, the paper is turned -into dollars, and, if the line really costs, say, 10,000,000_l._ or -20,000,000_l._, the promoters realise an equal amount as profit. - -This has two sides to it: it is doubtless bad for the public to have -to pay rates which give a return on twice the actual cost, and the -possession of a close monopoly in the hands of a few millionaires may -be abused to the detriment of individual traders. But, on the other -hand, the railway could not have been made in any other way. If it had -been necessary to wait until the slow growth of population insured such -a traffic as would induce the ordinary public to subscribe for shares -at par, you might have waited for twenty years before a single mile of -railway was made west of the Mississippi. Nor is this all: the enormous -profit realised in the first of these enterprises led to a rush of rich -speculators into the lottery of pushing railways ahead of traffic, in -which there were such magnificent prizes. The continent was covered by -new railways built to create new traffic rather than to provide for -that which already existed. And the traffic was created, though, as -the lottery contained blanks as well as prizes, many of the original -promoters were ruined. The second great line spanning the continent—the -Northern Pacific—ruined two successive sets of promoters, and is only now -beginning to be moderately successful. - -But the final result has been that while British India, which went on -what may be called the respectable system of getting a pound’s worth of -work for every pound raised, has only 12,000 miles of railway, the United -States, under the speculative system, has got 120,000 miles. I cannot -doubt that the national wealth of America is greater at the present day -than if there had been no Jay Goulds or Vanderbilts, and the construction -of her railways had been delayed on the average for twenty years. - -The contrast between labour and capital or free trade and protection is -only a particular case of the larger polarity between what is called in -scientific language egoism and altruism, or, in more popular phraseology, -individualism and socialism. According to one theory, the best result -is obtained by leaving individuals as free as possible to act on -their own suggestions of their duties and interests, and confining the -intervention of the State to enforcing laws for the protection of life -and property, and such measures as are obviously necessary for the safety -of society. According to the other theory, the State ought to interfere -wherever the results of individual liberty lead to abuses, and should -endeavour to create a society as near to ideal perfection as possible, -by administering and regulating the public and private affairs of its -citizens. It is obvious that the question has two sides, that extreme -conclusions in either direction are, as is always the case, invariably -false. Individualism carried too far would disintegrate society. It would -be impossible to leave it to the short-sighted selfishness of every -citizen to say whether an army and navy should be maintained for national -defence, and taxes should be levied for their support. - -Individualism also easily passes over into a hard and cruel selfishness, -which recognises no obligation beyond the letter of the law, and acts -practically on the principle of ‘Every one for himself, and the devil -take the hindmost.’ It is this phase of individualism which makes -enthusiasts and men of strong moral and religious sympathies declaim so -vehemently against _laissez faire_, and cry aloud, like Carlyle, for a -hero or benevolent despot who is to scourge humanity into the practice of -all the virtues. - -On the other hand, Socialism, if not confined within rigid limits -of experience and common sense, is even more destructive in its -consequences. Civilised society is based on the security of private -property and the observance of contracts. If these are liable, not -merely to be regulated in extreme and exceptional cases, but to be -absolutely condemned in principle, as by Socialists of the Proudhon -school, who declare, ‘La propriété c’est le vol;’ or overruled and set -aside whenever they are thought to conflict with humanitarian scruples or -sentimental aspirations, society would be dissolved into its elements, -to crystallise anew about some military dictator or other strong form -of repressive government, who could restore it to a state of stable -equilibrium in accordance with these fundamental laws. - -No society based on the community of goods has ever existed, except on a -very limited scale and for a very short time, under some strong temporary -influence such as religious excitement. In the early Christian Church it -only existed as long as its members were a handful of humble individuals -who were impressed with the idea that the end of the world was close at -hand, and that sacrifices made on earth would be repaid at an early day -with compound interest in heaven. They acted on what was almost as much a -principle of enlightened selfishness as if they had placed their money on -the best possible security at the highest possible interest. - -The only existing society, as far as I am aware, which has everything -in common, is a small sect of Shakers in the United States, which owes -its limited success to two conditions—first, that there is no marrying -or giving in marriage; secondly, that a member invented a patent -rat-trap—conditions which are hardly likely to survive in the struggle -for life and become a type for general adoption. - -The nearest approach to Communism in practical operation on a large -scale is that of the village communities of Russia and parts of India, -which certainly show no signs of being progressive types destined to -gain ground. On the contrary, they fail to fulfil what is the first -condition of an agricultural community, that of obtaining a fair average -produce from the soil, and the more enterprising and intelligent moujiks -or ryots invariably seek to obtain something which they can call their -own and are not obliged to share with the idle and improvident. A -conclusive objection to all schemes of Socialism or Communism is, that -they not only crush out all individual initiative and enterprise in -material life, but that they also destroy all incentives to individual -charity and benevolence. Why make sacrifices to help others, if they -are already helped at your expense by the State? This is no theoretical -objection, but has been proved practically by the history of the poor -laws. What scope for individual charity was there in a parish like that -in Buckinghamshire, where under the old poor law the rate had risen -to twenty shillings in the pound, and the cultivation of the soil was -abandoned? Or even in less extreme cases, any one who is acquainted with -remote rural parishes inhabited by cotters and small farmers must be -aware that the poor law operates strongly to destroy the feeling of manly -independence and family affection which induced the poor to support their -own aged and infirm relatives. - -In many parts of Scotland with which I am personally acquainted men who -a generation ago would have thought it a disgrace to ask for help to -support an aged father or mother, now think it only fair play, after -having contributed for years to the poor rate, to try and get something -out of it in return. - -Altruism, as Herbert Spencer well puts it, if carried to excess, defeats -itself, for in annihilating egoistic vices it annihilates egoistic -virtues, and the result is zero—a result which, as ‘nature abhors a -vacuum,’ can happily never be attained, and the precepts of the Sermon on -the Mount must always remain maxims of private morality, rather than of -State regulation. - -It is of little use, however, to deal with such generalities; as long as -we confine ourselves to extreme instances on either side, it is as easy -as it is idle to refute them. Profitable discussion only begins when -we enter on the wide intermediate space which lies between the extreme -frontier provinces, and, instead of arguing for absolute conclusions, -endeavour to discover the happy mean in doubtful cases, where there -really are limitations of time and circumstance, and a good deal which -may be reasonably said on each side of the question. - -Take for instance the case of contract, which has been so much discussed -with reference to the Irish question. Nothing can be clearer than -that the enforcement of contracts is one of the principal duties of a -government. The principle of _caveat emptor_ may occasionally lead to -results not altogether consistent with strict morality; but there will -always be fools in the world, and it is better they should pay for their -folly than that the State should be perpetually interfering in the vain -attempt to protect them. The bargain may be a bad one, but it is far -better that men should be held to their bargains than that every loser -should have a loophole provided to escape by appealing to some legal -quibble or State-provided tribunal of arbitration. - -But there are limits to this salutary principle. The contract must be -a free one, freely entered into by parties who meet on equal terms. If -it is a compulsory one, which the weaker party has practically no option -of refusing, the case is altered. Thus, in the case of children, it is -absurd to say that they are free agents in contracting for the disposal -of their labour, and the State properly interferes by Factory Acts to -limit the number of hours for which they are to work. So in the relations -between landlord and tenant, whenever they meet on equal terms, and -the tenant has an option of either taking or refusing to take a farm -at the rent asked, both sides must be held to their bargain, however -disadvantageous it may turn out for either of them. But if the landlord -is practically omnipotent, and the tenant has no alternative but to -promise to pay an impossible rent or to be turned out on the roadside -and die of starvation, it is by no means so clear that the State should -enforce the bargain unless the landlord submits to equitable terms. Or -again, if the rent is not due to the intrinsic value of the land, but -is a confiscation of the tenant’s improvements, it is far from being -self-evident that the law should look only at landlords’ rights and -forget all about landlords’ duties. - -It is a question rather of fact than of argument or assertion, whether -such a state of things does or does not prevail at any particular time -in any particular country. If the contracts were fair bargains entered -into by free agents, they ought to be enforced whether prices have risen -or fallen, leaving it to the humanity and self-interest of landlords to -make reasonable reductions. But if they were no more equal bargains than -those of slaves or factory-children, the State might fairly interfere to -attach equitable conditions to the enforcement of inequitable contracts. - -The antithesis between the rights and duties of property, especially in -the case of land, is one which raises many nice and difficult questions. -Some theorists, like Henry George, are for solving it by ignoring the -rights altogether. According to them, private property in land is the -source of all the evils that afflict modern society; poverty, depressions -of trade, low profits, and low wages are caused by the constant drift -towards high rents, due to the possession by a small section of the -community of a monopoly in that which is as much a necessity of existence -as air or water. Abolish private property in land, and straightway you -will have the millennium. - -In this extreme form the fallacy of the argument is obvious. You cannot -stop at land, but must have the courage of your opinion, and go the full -length, with Proudhon, of denouncing all property as robbery. For if the -right of individual property is the first condition of civilised society, -you can hardly exclude that form of it which, in all ages and all -countries, has been practically the most powerful incentive to progress -and civilisation. - -Compare the United States of America under their homestead laws, with -Russia under a system of village communes; or the California of to-day -with that of fifty years ago under the Jesuit padres; and you will see -that the desire to acquire property in land has been what may be called -the high-pressure steam supplying the motive power to reclaim continents -and multiply population. - -Nor in principle is there any argument for the confiscation of land -which would not equally apply to the confiscation of any other sort -of property, when theorists, philanthropic at other people’s expense, -thought that the owner had more than was good for him, or had acquired -it as an unearned increment, without working for it. Suppose two men, A -and B, employed as engine-drivers on an American railway, have each saved -a hundred dollars. The railway has been a failure: intended to reach a -distant terminus, it has stopped halfway in a desert, for want of funds, -and for years has paid no dividend. The hundred-dollar shares are only -worth ten, and the land at the distant terminus is only worth ten dollars -an acre. But A and B are sharp fellows, and see that if speculation -ever revives the line will probably be completed, and both shares and -land will become valuable. A buys ten shares with his hundred dollars, -and B ten acres of land. The boom comes, the capital is found, the line -completed, and the shares rise to par, and the land to a hundred dollars -an acre. A and B have each realised nine hundred dollars by what may be -described, as you like to put it, either as an unearned increment or as -providence and foresight. On what principle can you confiscate B’s nine -hundred dollars because it is in land, and leave A’s untouched because it -is in shares? - -On the other hand, there is no doubt that when we come to more complex -cases, in which land is held in large masses, fenced in, not by the -natural right of a man to the produce of his own exertions, but by -artificial legal systems of inheritance and settlement, we are on -neutral ground, where fair discussion is possible as to the limitations -and conditions under which the State may afford its protection. Landed -property is more the creature of law, and runs greater risks in case of -revolution or communistic legislation, than personal property, which is -more easily concealed or transferred. It is not unreasonable, therefore, -that it should pay a higher insurance in the form of taxation, and -especially when it passes by inheritance or settlement, when the new -owner’s title is to a great extent artificial and the creation of the -law. No one can dispute the abstract justice of a succession duty on -all property, landed or personal, in proportion to its amount, passing -by operation of law: the only question can be as to the amount, and -the expediency of confining it within limits that shall not trench on -confiscation or impair the desire to accumulate capital. And in the case -of land, there is no doubt that there are a good many instances in which -the question of the ‘unearned increment’ is raised more forcibly than in -the case of ordinary property. Take a practical instance within my own -knowledge, for an illustration is often better than an argument. There -was a mountain property in Wales which, as a sheep or cattle farm, might -be worth at the outside 800_l._ a year. Coal and iron were discovered -under it, capitalists sank pits and erected works, two or three sets -lost their money; but the works were carried on, a large amount of -labour was employed, and in course of time a town of some eight or nine -thousand inhabitants, sprang up. The proprietor’s 800_l._ a year grew -into 8,000_l._ from fixed rents and royalties, which he has enjoyed for -the last thirty years, through good times and bad, without being called -on to contribute a penny towards schools, churches, roads, sewers, water, -or any of the local objects necessary for the civilised existence of the -population of eight thousand whose labour has added to his wealth. I do -not blame him: the law told him to do what he liked with his own, and -it probably never occurred to him that he was under any moral obligation -to go beyond the law. But I do think that the law would have been more -just, and better for the interests of the community, if it had made -some portion of this unearned increment of 7,000_l._ a year liable for -a contribution towards the sanitary and other objects essential for the -decent existence of the town which had grown up on this property and -given it this increased value. I cannot help thinking that centuries of -landlord legislation, and of a public opinion based mainly on that of the -wealthy and specially of the landed classes, have made our laws in many -respects too favourable to the predominant interests, and that the swing -of the pendulum now is, and properly is, in the direction of recognising -the duties as well as the rights of property. - -We must take care, however, not to let it swing too far in this -direction, for of the two evils it is better to put up with occasional -cases of hardship and oppression on the part of bad landlords than to -endanger the security of property by reforms pushed to extremes at the -dictation of impulsive masses, designing demagogues, or sentimental -philanthropists. - -Herbert Spencer, in his works on Sociology, often dwells with great -force on the evils which arise from State interference. There can be no -doubt that it is very undesirable that the State should become a sort -of Jack-of-all-trades, and undertake branches of business which can be -conducted by private enterprise. It is undesirable for two reasons: -first, because the work is certain to cost more and be worse done; -secondly, for the still more important reason that it tends to extinguish -individual enterprise, strangle progress with red-tape, and teach a -nation to look, like children to outside guidance, rather than, like -men to their own. Still the question has two sides. Whatever individual -enterprise can do should be left to it; but there are, in the complex -conditions of modern society, a number of things which cannot be done by -individuals, and which must either be left undone or done by the State, -or by some local authority, joint-stock company, or other quasi-monopoly -sanctioned by the State. Thus, if it were a question of bringing coals -from Newcastle by sea, no one would suggest that the State should -interfere with the private enterprise of individual shipowners. But to -bring them by land requires railways, and railways can only be built by -capitals beyond the reach of private individuals. If the State had not -delegated a portion of its powers to joint-stock companies, not a ton of -coal would ever have been brought by land to London. - -And if the State may thus occasionally delegate its powers with advantage -to the community, there are cases in which it may, with equal advantage, -undertake itself branches of the nation’s business. For instance, the -Postal Service. The advantages of a cheap and uniform system for the -collection and delivery of letters throughout the whole kingdom are -so great that they far outweigh any theoretical objections to State -interference. Possibly some of the larger towns might have been as well -or better served by private enterprise, but no non-paying district would -have had a post-office, and the enormous commercial and educational -benefits of the penny post would have been in a great measure lost to the -community. - -The case of telegraphs is not so clear. Probably, on the whole, the -advantages of a uniform State management preponderate, but there are -drawbacks which make it doubtful. Even at a sixpenny rate a great deal -of the telegraphic communication of the large towns and active centres -of business is taxed to make up for the deficiency of the rest of the -kingdom. And invention and improvement in telegraphy are no doubt checked -to a considerable extent by creating a State monopoly whose first duty it -is to try to satisfy its masters at the Treasury by making the system pay. - -When we come to railways we are on debateable ground, and it is fairly -arguable that they should be worked by the State for the public good. -But the objections here outweigh the advantages. Every one who has any -practical experience of the working of railways must be aware that -the simplicity and uniformity of the penny postal system are totally -inapplicable, and that the traffic of the country requires, above all -things, great freedom and elasticity in meeting, day by day, the varying -contingencies which arise. Here is an illustration: In a certain town -in France, on a railway worked by the State, it was determined to have -a _fête_ in order to raise funds for a hospital, and, as an attraction, -to bring down from Paris a small troop of actors and have a play in the -evening. The question turned on the railway consenting to give them a -reduced fare for the return journey. The manager of the railway was -quite willing, but said that he had no power to alter the tariff without -permission from the Minister of Public Works. The permission was applied -for, and the result was that it arrived exactly on the day twelve months -after the _fête_ had been held. - -Contrast this with the case of the general manager of the London and -North Western Railway sitting in his office at Euston and receiving half -a dozen telegrams asking him to quote special rates, one perhaps for beef -from Chicago to London, another for emigrants from Hamburg to New York -_via_ Liverpool, and all requiring telegraphic answers then and there, if -the business is to be done at all. - -Again, if railways had been in the hands of the State, I do not suppose -that we should have had half our present mileage; for the Treasury would -never have sanctioned the outlay of public money on lines which could -not show the prospect of a fair return on the capital, and it would -have vetoed any multiplication of trains or reduction of rates which -threatened loss to the exchequer. I can speak with some authority on this -point, for I have been both Chairman of a railway company and Secretary -of the Treasury, and I am certain that, in the former capacity, I have -introduced important innovations, such as excursion trains and cheap -periodical tickets, by which the public have greatly benefited, which I -should have vetoed in the latter capacity. - -Still there may be exceptional cases, as that of Ireland, where an -unreasonable number of poor companies, in a poor country, wrangling among -themselves, and giving a bad service at an excessive cost, intensify -social and political evils, where the arguments in favour of a State -purchase may outweigh the objections; and the extent and nature of -State control over British railways is always a question fairly open to -discussion. - -In other departments, the supply of articles such as water and gas, and -the enforcement of sanitary conditions, are probably best left to local -authorities: in the latter case, under some central supervision to see -that the duty is not evaded. Wherever neglect involves danger to others, -as in the case of small-pox and other contagious epidemics, it is clear -that the decision cannot be left to individuals, and the State is bound -to interfere to enforce rational precautions. - -So also the State is bound to undertake trades which are essential for -the protection of the nation against foreign enemies. Our dockyards -and arsenals may, and doubtless do, often make mistakes and turn out -expensive work; but we could not safely leave the building of ironclads -and supply of cannon solely to private enterprise, for there is no such -large and steady demand for such articles as would induce a number of -private firms to erect works and keep up establishments adequate to -supply the wants which might arise in an emergency. In all such matters, -therefore, of national defence we must put up with a certain amount -of drawbacks incidental to State management, and confine ourselves -to endeavouring to reduce them to a minimum. And this is to a great -extent within the power of the nation and its Parliament, by applying -common-sense principles of business to national expenditure, and seeing -that while on the one hand we get as nearly as possible a pound’s -worth of work for every pound spent, on the other hand we do not spend -nineteen shillings uselessly, because some Chancellor of the Exchequer -wants to gain momentary popularity by the ‘penny wise and pound foolish’ -economy of docking the extra shilling off the necessary estimates. In -private life a man gets on by knowing when to spend as well as when not -to spend, and true economy has no greater foe than spasmodic parsimony -alternating almost certainly with spasmodic extravagance. It would be -easy to multiply instances, for there are few phases of political and -practical life to which the principle of polarity does not apply, where -extremes are not false, and where there is not a good deal to be said on -both sides of the question. But the very obviousness of the principle -makes it difficult to deal with it generally without degenerating into -commonplace, while to trace its application exhaustively in any one -instance would require a volume. Those who wish to pursue the subject -further will do well to study the works of Herbert Spencer, where they -will find the application of general principles to all the problems of -sociology treated with a depth of philosophic insight and an abundance -and aptness of illustration which I cannot pretend to equal. My ambition -is of a humbler nature. I do not expect to set the Thames on fire, -or to produce a revolution in modern thought; but I do hope that the -views which I have endeavoured to express may do somewhat to make some -readers more tolerant and charitable in their judgments, less bitter and -one-sided in controversy; and that whatever truth there may be in my -ideas will contribute to form a small part, neither more nor less than -it deserves, of the great body of truth which is handed down from the -present to succeeding generations, and which becomes, long after I am -there to witness it, the inheritance of the human race in the course of -its evolution. - -And now, before I take my final leave of the reader, let me for a few -moments throw the reins on the neck of fancy, and suppose myself standing -with that group of Parsees by the shore of the Indian Ocean, listening to -its murmured rhythm, inhaling the balmy air, watching the silver crescent -of the new moon, and musing on the wise sayings of the ancient sage; -the sum of the reflections which I have tried to embody in the preceding -pages would take form and crystallise in the following sonnet:— - - Hail! gracious Ormuzd, author of all good, - Spirit of beauty, purity, and light; - Teach me like thee to hate dark deeds of night, - And battle ever with the hellish brood - Of Ahriman, dread prince of evil mood— - Father of lies, uncleanness, envious spite, - Thefts, murders, sensual sins that shun the light, - Unreason, ugliness, and fancies lewd— - Grant me, bright Ormuzd, in thy ranks to stand, - A valiant soldier faithful to the end; - So when I leave this life’s familiar strand, - Bound for the great Unknown, shall I commend - My soul, if soul survive, into thy hand— - Fearless of fate if thou thine aid will lend. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abraham, 186. - - Accumulator, the electric, 63, 64. - - Acetic ether, 73, 74. - - Acids, 69, 70. - - Aerobes, 87, 88. - - Affinities, chemical, 51, 52, 55, 68; - of Zoroastrianism and art, 212. - - Agriculture, 245. - - Ahriman, 4, 180, 202, 203, 265. - - Air, a cubic centimetre of, 20; - pressure of, 24, 25. - - Aleutian Islands, 97. - - Alga, 95, 105; - forests of the, 97. - - Algonquins, funeral custom, 149. - - Alizarine manufactured, 86. - - Alkalies, 69, 70. - - America, woman in, 111, 112; - respect for law in, 235. - - Amœba, 76, 77, 82; - propagation of the, 103, 104, 117. - - Amos, 187. - - Anemone, sea, 104. - - Angiosperms, 98. - - Animal life, 92, 93; - Zoroaster enjoins kindness to, 207. - - Aquarium, 93; - nature one huge, 101. - - Arnold, Matthew, 207; - definition of the Deity by, 171. - - Aryan race, divisions of the, 199; - religion of the, 200; - language, 200. - - Assur, 153. - - Astronomy, 5; - in early religions, 153. - - Athanasian Creed, 181-183. - - Atlantic cable, 60, 61. - - Atoms, 5, 10, 14; - weight of, 15-17; - theory of, 16; - elementary, 18; - and their laws, 19, 22, 25; - vibrations of, 26; - and ether, 32; - and the vortex theory, 33, 34, 36; - action of heat on, 43; - and chemical energy, 50; - affinities and repulsions of, 51; - the primary element of matter, 66, 67; - polarity of, 68; - in hydrates, 69; - of hydrogen in acids, 69, 70; - of oxygen, 70; - multipolar, 71; - magnetic, 72; - dimensions of, 119. - - Augustin, 201. - - Australia, free trade in, 242, 245. - - Authorities to whom the author is indebted, x. - - Atavism, 103, 118. - - Avogadro, law of, 13. - - Axolotl, 123. - - - Bacteria, 85, 105. - - Balkh, Zoroaster at, 201. - - Bees, reproduction of, 106. - - Bel, 152, 153. - - Berkeley, Bishop, 142. - - Berlin, spirit-seeing in, 166. - - Blindness cured by hypnotism, 165. - - Bombay, death rate in, 1881, 1882, 218. - - Books, the best mirrors of an age, 111, 112; - modern French novels, 113. - - Bozu, Buddhist priest upon the Divine Creator, 160, 161. - - Brahm, 114. - - Brahminism, 207. - - Braid, Dr., cures by hypnotism, 165, 168, 193. - - Brain, the, 125, 126; - tissue of the, 127; - average weight of the human, 129; - organs of the, 130, 131; - areas of speech, hearing, and sight in the, 132; - intellectual faculties in the, 133; - abnormal state of the, 134, 135; - action of the grey tissue of the, 137; - of the higher animals, 137, 138; - cells of the, 140; - action in a murder, 189; - organ of will in the, 191, 192; - effect of injuries to the, 192; - effect of will on the, 194. - - Bret Harte, 110, 112. - - Bruce, legend of the heart of, 228. - - Buddha, 187. - - Buddhism, 156; - in Shakespeare, 160; - the Divine Creator in, 160, 161; - morality of, 160, 184; - based upon pessimism, 177, 197, 198, 206, 207. - - Burial of the dead, 149; - prehistoric, 151; - Parsee avoidance of, 208. - - Butyric acid, 73, 74. - - Byron on the Parsees, 219. - - - Calculus, the differential, 6, 28-32, 138. - - California, 256. - - Canterbury, Augustin at, 201. - - Capital and labour, 176, 246-248. - - Carbon, 16, 18, 71; - in dynamite, 50; - radicals of, 73, 74, 77; - in the protoplasm, 80; - early abundance of, 86; - in a dead body, 88; - plant life and, 93. - - Carbonic dioxide, 16, 51, 82, 83, 92, 95, 96; - in plant life, 101. - - Carlyle, 171, 188, 251. - - Carnegie, Andrew, on modern worship, 219. - - Catholic theology, 147. - - Cause, the Great First, 122, 162; - Dr. Temple’s definition of, 170; - evolution of the idea of, 172, 201, 203; - Zoroaster and, 204; - the only reasonable theory, 208. - - Cell, the first step in organisms, 78, 79; - the nucleated multiplication of the, 104. - - Centrifugal force, 89, 90, 117. - - Centripetal force, 89, 90, 117; - in societies, 233. - - Chaldean legends, 152, 153; - of the Creation, 193. - - Chalk, formation of, 95. - - Chemical energy in electricity, 60. - - Chemistry, 5, 14, 25; - elementary substances in, 17, 18, 74; - energy in, 47; - a modern law of change, 75; - and the protoplasm, 84. - - Chinese funeral custom, 149; - religion, origin of the, 152; - religion, 156, 159; - myths, 164; - faith in a virgin mother, 155. - - Chlorine, 16, 70, 71. - - Christianity, 157, 198; - the position of women influenced by, 108, 109; - Pauline, 177; - the creed of, 180, 181; - impractical, 182; - morality of, 184, 185, 188; - influenced by Oriental asceticism, 212. - - Clausius, 19. - - Cleanliness and religion, 223, 224. - - Clerk Maxwell, 19. - - Coal, 45, 49, 97; - heat in burning, 61, 62; - land animals found in, 99. - - Cobden, Richard, 242. - - Colloids, 77, 78, 80. - - Comets, 25; - supernatural dread of, 164. - - Communism, 252, 253. - - Conceptions, our, 143. - - Confucianism, 184, 198. - - Conservative legislation, 230; - in England, 235. - - Contract, law of, 254, 255. - - Creation, unknown, 19; - early myths of the, 152, 153. - - Cromwell, 213. - - Crystals, 10, 26-28. - - Cumming, Dr., 47. - - - Darwin, 6, 122, 172; - his theory of Pangenesis, 119; - his theory of evolution, 121. - - David, 186. - - Descartes, 141. - - Deus, derivation of the word, 200. - - Deutsch, Emmanuel, on the Talmud, 172, 188. - - Diamond, the, 74, 77. - - Dionæa, 96. - - Dog, will in a, 39, 40; - sense of right and wrong in a, 193. - - Drummond, Professor, 3. - - Dryopithecus, 100. - - Dynamite, 48, 50, 74, 176. - - Dynamo, the, 61-63. - - - Earth, structure of the, 51, 52; - first temperature of the, 86; - orbit of the, 22, 89, 117. - - Echidna, the, 124. - - Education, 237-240. - - Egypt, ancient tombs in, 149, 150; - animal worship in, 150; - priests in, 152; - astronomy in, 153, 154; - a virgin mother worshipped in, 155; - religious morality in, 184. - - Electric energy, 47; - light currents, effects of, 57-59; - telegraph, 59, 60; - accumulator, 61; - light, 56, 57, 61; - engines, 62, 63. - - Electricity, 2, 14; - ether in, 25; - nature of, 52-55; - in pith balls, 52, 53, 71, 72; - velocity of the current in, 56; - and magnets, 58, 59; - storage of, 64. - - Embryology, 106. - - Emerson, vii. - - Energy, 2; - nature of, 35, 36, 38, 66, 67; - of motion and position, 37, 48; - transformation of, 41, 42; - in heat and light, 43, 44, 47; - variations of, 47, 48; - molecular, 49; - chemical, 50; - in electricity, 54-57; - cost of, obtained from zinc, 61, 62; - conservation of, 62, 63, 139. - - England, conservatism in, 236, 237; - education in, 237-239; - free trade in, 243. - - English literature, 111; - woman in, 112, 113; - colonisation, 232. - - Eozoon Canadiense, 99. - - Ethelbert, 201. - - Ether, 22, 36; - density of, 24, 25; - waves, 26, 43; - vibrations of, 27; - attempt to identify, with atoms, 32, 35; - nature of, 66. - - Evil, origin of, 170, 173; - attempts to reconcile it with good, 178; - consistent with theory of God, 173, 202; - modern treatment of, 224. - - Evolution, 6, 8, 121; - of religion, 4, 155, 156, 185, 186; - of matter, 80; - of life, 100; - important facts in the history of, 123; - does not tend to virtue, 173, 176; - of moral ideas, 186, 191; - of the horror of murder, 189, 190. - - - Fable of the shield, 227-230; - applied to politics, 230; - to commerce, 243, 244. - - “Faust” a Zoroastrian drama, 209. - - Ferdousi, 201. - - Fermentation, 87, 88. - - Ferns in the primary epoch, 97. - - Fetish worship, 150. - - Fiji, 149, 189. - - Fire, primitive means of obtaining, 41; - worship, 207, 220. - - Fish shells in the Tertiary epoch, 98; - in the Silurian epoch, 99. - - Fungi, 95. - - France, protection in, 246; - state railways in, 261. - - Franklin, Benjamin, 163. - - French Revolution, 231, 233; - colonisation, 232; - trade in a colony, 233. - - Frog with the brain removed, 137. - - - Galileo, 147, 164, 205. - - Gallio, 239. - - Gas in dynamite, 51. - - Gases, law of, 11-13; - in water, 14; - kinetic theory of, 14, 33; - substances reduced to, 44; - expansion of, 45. - - Galton, Mr. F., 240. - - Genesis, the Creation in, 152, 153. - - Geology, 5; - records of, 96; - earliest strata of, 97; - vegetable records in, 96-98; - animal records in, 99, 100. - - Geometry, 139. - - George, Henry, 256. - - Ghosts, universal belief in, 149-151. - - Glass, 49, 53. - - Globigerena, 95. - - God, Buddhist idea of, 161; - a magnified man, 170, 171; - Carlyle on, 171; - Arnold’s definition of, 171; - Jewish doctors on, 172; - prevalent idea of miraculous intervention by, 173; - the author of good and evil, 179; - primitive Aryan word for, 200. - - Grammar, 239, 240. - - Gravity, the law of, 5, 16, 48, 49, 121, 144; - atoms subject to the, 34; - universal confidence in the, 148; - a dangerous heresy, 164. - - Greeks, religion amongst the, 155, 156. - - Gushtasp, 201. - - Gymnosperms, 97, 98. - - - Haeckel, 119, 122. - - Hale, Justice, 164. - - Halley, 164. - - Haug, Dr., 202, 205. - - Heat, produced by work, 41, 42; - nature of, 43; - performs work, 44, 47; - and electricity, 54, 61; - and the stability of substances, 74; - in chemistry, 75. - - Helmholz, 32. - - Hercules, 193, 197. - - Heredity, the principle of, 117-121; - in education, 240. - - Hesperornis, 123. - - Hillel, morality of, 188. - - Hindoo religion, 152, 156; - migration, 199. - - Horace, 163. - - Horse, 119. - - Human remains in Tertiary period, 100; - implements, prehistoric, 144, 145. - - Hume, 162. - - Huxley, Professor, v., vi., 78, 86, 122, 172, 203; - on spontaneous generation, 85; - on the protista, 94; - on the uniformity of law in Nature, 146. - - Hydrates, 69. - - Hydrochloric acid, 16, 70, 71. - - Hydrogen, 11, 13, 16-18, 70, 71, 74, 75; - composition of, 15; - in the sun, 26; - in dynamite, 50; - in water, 52, 68, 238; - in the accumulator, 63; - in acids, 69; - in the protoplasm, 80; - in a dead body, 88. - - Hypnotism, 134, 192; - blindness cured by, 165, 166; - an old lady dancing through, 193. - - - Ibn Ezra, 172. - - India, British railways in, 250. - - Indians, North American, totem of the, 150; - murder amongst the, 189. - - Indigotine, 86. - - Induction, phenomena of, 58. - - Intellectual faculties, the seat of the, 133, 134. - - Iodine vapour, 75. - - Iranian migration, 199; - language, 200. - - Ireland, popular ignorance of the land question in, 9; - rents in, 233, 234; - contracts in, 254; - railways in, 262. - - Iron, filings and a magnet, 1, 10, 11, 27; - contraction of, 49, 50; - bar and a magnet, 68; - rust, 68, 81; - motion of, 83. - - Irving, Edward, 166. - - Isaiah, 187. - - Isomerism, 74. - - Istar, vi. - - - Jehovah, gradual conception of, 157, 158, 186. - - Jehuda Hilmi, 172. - - Jesus, on miracles, 168, 169; - the personification of Ormuzd, 180-183, 204; - an historical personage, 198; - adopted a Jewish view of religion, 212. - - Jewish doctors on God, 172; - gradual development of the, religion, 157; - morality in the, religion, 186, 187. - - Jijibhoy, Jamsedjee, Sir, 217. - - “Jingoism,” 241. - - Joule, Dr., 42, 46. - - Jupiter, the planet, 22, 25. - - - Kant, 141, 142. - - Kesar, 152, 153. - - Knowledge, limits of our, 125-127, 136, 139-141. - - Knox, John, 221. - - - Lakman and Lakmana, 152. - - Latimer, 221. - - Law in Nature, 6, 144, 145, 164, 171; - common, 236. - - Lead, 63. - - Leibnitz, 194. - - Lichens, 95, 96. - - Light, waves, 19, 23, 24, 26-28, 43; - velocity of, 21, 22; - energy in, 47; - electric, 56, 57, 61. - - Lightning conductors, 163. - - Lourdes, miracles at, 168. - - Luther, 198 - - - Magnet, the, 1, 2, 27, 68, 70, 71; - nature of, 58. - - Magnetism, vii. - - Mahometanism, 157, 158, 198, 213. - - Maimonides on God, 172. - - Manuals in geology, 100. - - Manufacturers, generous, 217. - - Marriage, 115. - - Mass, the, 223. - - Matter, 10; - nature of, 66, 67. - - Meat, frozen, 45, 87. - - Mechanical action in life, 39, 40, 91; - power, 41; - process in nerve action, 129, 130. - - Menai Bridge, 50. - - Mercury, 17, 44. - - Metrical system, the, 42. - - Mexican myths, 154, 155. - - Microcrith, 15. - - Microscope, 11, 239. - - Mill, John Stuart, 161. - - Milton, 209, 213. - - Miracles, 6; - a question of evidence, 162, 163; - early belief in, 164; - uselessness of ordinary, 167, 170; - not found in Zoroastrianism, 204. - - Molecules, 5, 10, 12, 22, 25; - weight of, 13; - in chemistry, 14; - of oxygen and hydrogen, 15; - composition of, 18; - in a cubic centimetre of air, 20; - vibrations of, 26; - the vortex theory of, 33, 34; - action of heat on, 43-46; - of nitrogen, 50; - nature of, 67; - complex, 73; - of monera, 79; - of the protoplasm, 80, 81. - - Molecular energies, 47, 49. - - Monera, 79, 94; - reproduction of the, 103, 117. - - Monogamy, 109. - - Monotheism, 156. - - Moon, worship of the, 102, 153; - Parsee worship of the, 219. - - Morality, in religions, 108, 184-188; - in nations, 110; - origin of, 190, 191. - - Mormonism, 213. - - Motion, of living beings, 83; - independent of will in the brain, 137, 192. - - Music in religion, 222. - - Murder, 189, 190. - - - Nerves, 129, 130; - divisions of the, 131; - channels of the, 133. - - Newcome, Colonel, 211. - - Newman, Cardinal, 147, 148, 159. - - Newton, 16, 17, 28, 121, 138, 144, 205. - - Nickel, a magnet, 68. - - Nicolai, visions seen by, 166. - - Nitric acid, 69. - - Nitrogen, 18, 69, 88; - in dynamite, 50, 51; - in the protoplasm, 80. - - Nitro-glycerine (dynamite), 50, 51. - - Nitrous oxide, 51. - - Northumberland House, lion on, 167. - - Novelists, English, 111. - - Nummulitic limestone, 94, 95. - - Nursery rhymes, 142. - - Nutrition, 81. - - - Octoroon, 118. - - Oersted, 59. - - Optimism, 176. - - Ormuzd, 3, 4; - Jesus the modern, 180-182; - a definition of, 201, 202; - homage due to, 203; - sonnet to, 265. - - Oxide of iron, 43, 81. - - Oxygen, 11, 13, 14, 18, 57, 238; - composition of, 15; - is universal, 16; - weight of an atom of, 16; - and iron, 43; - in dynamite, 50; - affinities of, 52; - in the accumulator, 63; - in water, 68, 75; - bipolar, 70; - in the protoplasm, 80; - in contact with dead bodies, 88; - and animal life, 93, 96; - in plant life, 101. - - - Palgrave, 158. - - Pangenesis, 119. - - Pantheism, in China, 156; - prevalence of, 159, 160. - - Paris, 241. - - Parsees, the, 199; - creed of the, 205; - rites of the, 207, 208; - the distinguishing characteristics of the, 214-216; - women amongst, 215, 216; - a commercial people, 217; - death rate amongst the, 218; - Byron on the, 219; - modern worship of the, 219, 264. - - Parthenogenesis, 106. - - Pasteur, 87. - - Patriotism, 240, 241. - - Peel, Sir Robert, 242. - - Pendulum, 37. - - Perceptions, the basis of knowledge, 125, 140. - - Permian formation, 97; - reptiles in the, 99. - - Perron, Anquetil du, 203. - - Peruvian myths, 154, 155. - - Pessimism, 177, 178. - - Pharisees, 168, 169. - - Philo, 187. - - Philosophy, and the unknown, 141; - in Eastern religion, 160. - - Physical conditions and religious progress, 224. - - Pigeon with the brain removed, 137, 192. - - Pith-balls, electricity in, 52, 53, 71, 72. - - Planet worship, 155. - - Plant life, 82, 92, 93; - reproduction of, 84, 105; - food, 95; - fly-eating, 96; - gradual appearance in geology of, 97; - in the chalk, 98. - - Plato, 142. - - Polarity, law of, v., vii., 1-4, 10, 65; - in crystals, 27, 28; - in wave motion, 38; - in will, 40, 195; - of chemical elements, 68, 70; - electrical differs from magnetic, 72; - is the clue to the construction of the world, 74; - in life, 76, 89, 93; - in the organic world, 91; - in evolution, 100; - in sex, 107, 109, 114, 115; - a law of existence, 171; - asserts itself in society, 174; - in moral life, 178; - in art and fiction, 209-211; - in politics, 230, 231; - in political economy, 247-250. - - Polytheism, 157. - - Poor laws, the, 253. - - Population, effects of the accumulation of, 175, 176. - - Postal service, 260. - - Potassic hydrates, 69. - - Pramantha, 41, 42. - - Prayer, Zoroastrian, 223, 225. - - Prehistoric faith in spirits, 151. - - Priesthood, first records of a, 52. - - Primary period, the, 97; - fish in the, 99. - - Principles, Zoroaster’s two great, 202. - - Progress, modern, 7. - - Prometheus, 42, 209. - - Propagation of life by germs, 104, 118; - of the lower plants, 105. - - Property in land, 255, 256. - - Protection, 244-246. - - Protista, 94. - - Protoplasm, the, 78, 79, 81, 84; - nature of the, 80; - the first, 87; - the origin of all life, 93; - in nerve-endings, 129. - - Proudhon, 256. - - Putrefaction, 87, 88. - - Pyramids, the, 10; - astronomical value of the, 153, 154. - - - Quakers, the, 213. - - Quantivalence of substances, 71, 72. - - - Radiolaria, 95. - - Railway, companies, 248; - profits of companies, 249, 250; - working of a State, 261, 262. - - Religion, 4; - nature of, 146; - origin of, 148, 149, 151; - early, 152; - universal faith in a virgin mother, 154, 155; - planet worship, 155; - gradual evolution of, 155, 156; - philosophical in the East, 160; - nature in, 163; - wars of, 179; - amongst savages, 185; - Jewish, 186; - and morality, 188; - Aryan, 200; - of Zoroaster, 201, 208, 223; - probable form of modern, 203, 209; - music the language of, 222, 223. - - Roman Church, the, 223. - - Reproduction of species, 83; - of worms, 104; - sexual, 105, 106, 118. - - Reptiles, 99. - - Ricardo, 247. - - Russia, 243; - communism in, 253. - - - Sabbath, the, 212; - origin of the, 155; - in England, 212, 220. - - Saint Paul, his doctrine of predestination, 158; - on God, 172; - Christianity of, 177, 188; - on charity, 182. - - —— Vitus’s dance, 166. - - Salt, 52, 70. - - Salvation Army, the, 180. - - Sanskrit, 199, 200. - - Sargasso Sea, 97. - - Saul, 180, 186. - - Savages, and numbers, 138, 191; - religion amongst, 149-151, 185; - murder amongst, 189, 190. - - Schliemann, Professor, 151. - - Scotland, virtue in, 176; - the poor rate in, 253. - - Scott, Sir Walter, 210, 211, 241. - - Secondary epoch, the, 97; - reptiles and birds in the, 99; - transformation of a water into an air population, 123. - - Semitic races, religion amongst the, 156. - - Sermons, 220-222; - on the mount, 184, 187, 254. - - Sex in ancient creeds, 102, 103. - - Shakers, the, 166, 252. - - Shakespeare, on women, 112; - Buddhism in, 160; - despondency of, 178; - polarity of character in, 210, 211. - - Shelley, 19, 226. - - Snakes, changes from oviparous to viviparous, 124. - - Soap bubbles, 19; - a clue to the dimensions of light, 33. - - Socialism, 251, 252. - - Society, 231. - - Sociology, H. Spencer on, 259. - - Socrates on religion, 172. - - Sodium, 52, 70. - - Solar myths, 152-154; - system worshipped by the Aryans, 200. - - Somnambulism, 126, 134, 135, 192. - - Sonnet to Ormuzd, 265. - - Soul, the, 194. - - Sound waves, velocity of, 24. - - Species, 118, 119. - - Spectroscope, 25, 26. - - Spectrum of sun-rays, 43. - - Spencer, Herbert, x., 113, 161, 203; - on antagonistic forces, 90; - on polarity in religion, 109, 172; - on politics, 231; - on altruism, 254; - on sociology, 259; - works of, 264. - - Spiritualism, 136. - - Spontaneous generation, 84, 89. - - State interference, 253, 255, 257; - railways, 261, 262; - trade for national defence, 263. - - Steam, action of, 45, 49; - engine, 45, 61. - - Stone-throwing, brain action in, 38, 39. - - Substances, quality and grouping of, 73; - stability of, 74, 75. - - Succession duty, 258. - - Sun, 26; - heat of the, 45. - - Sutherland family, crest of the, 150. - - - Tait, Professor, 32. - - Talmud, the, 172, 212; - morality in the, 187, 188. - - Telephone, the, 60. - - Temple, Dr., 162; - on evolution, 121; - on a Creator, 170, 203; - on man, 193. - - Tennyson, 203, 210, 226, 241. - - Tertiary epoch, 98; - mammals in the, 100. - - Thomson, Sir W., 19, 21, 32. - - Tobit, the Book of, 187. - - Trade, free, 242-245. - - Trance, phenomena of, 135. - - Traveller, a, on misery in Christian lands, 175. - - Triton, the, 122. - - Tulliver, Maggie, 112, 211. - - Turkey, 110, 111; - woman in, 112. - - Turks, English, 113, 114. - - Tyndall, 94. - - - United States, the, 241, 242; - protection in the, 242, 243, 246; - homestead laws in the, 256, 257. - - Unknown, the Great, 126, 127. - - Urea, 86. - - - Variations of species, principle of, 120. - - Vedas, the Hindoo, 152; - antiquity of the, 199. - - Vendidad, the, 202. - - Virgin mother, prevalence of faith in a, 154, 155. - - Voltaic battery, the, 14, 55, 61. - - Volume, variations of, 12. - - Vortex theory, 33, 34. - - - Wales, coal in, 258. - - Wahabite reformer, 158. - - Water, formation of, 11, 12, 14, 15, 52; - and electricity, 14, 53; - a cubic inch of, magnified, 21; - becomes vapour, 45, 46, 75; - freezing, 81. - - Waves, motion, 23, 24, 48; - light, 19-24, 26-28, 43; - sound, 24. - - Wheat, mummy, 80. - - Will, free, 191; - nature of the, 194. - - Witchcraft, 164, 179. - - Woman, natural office of the, 107, 108; - position of, a test of civilisation, 110, 111; - in modern books, 111, 112; - rights of, 116; - amongst the Parsees, 214-216. - - Wood, burning, 75. - - Wordsworth, pantheism in, 159, 160. - - Worms, reproduction of, 104. - - - Zend, dialect, 199, 200; - scriptures, 201, 202; - Avesta, 203. - - Zinc, in electricity, 61. - - Zodiac, the, 153. - - Zoophytes, 94, 95. - - Zoroaster, 4, 187; - theory of, 7, 179, 197, 202, 203, 223; - history of, 197, 198; - known by his book, 199; - a reformer, 200; - at Balkh, 201; - his creed not weighted by tradition, 204; - miraculous conception of, 205. - - Zoroastrian, a modern, 3; - creed of a, 180; - morality, 205, 206. - - Zoroastrianism and art, 212; - and modern thought, 213. - - -THE END. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Modern Zoroastrian, by S. 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